Dike Des Cons Guide July-2011 PDF

Dike Design and Construction Guide
Best Management Practices for

British Columbia
Flood Hazard Management Section

Environmental Protection Division
Province of British Columbia
Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection
July 2003
Ministry of
Water, Land & Air Protection
Dike Design and Construction Guide

Best Management Practices For
British Columbia
Flood Hazard Management Section

Environmental Protection Division
Province of British Columbia
Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection
July 2003
Prepared by: Golder Associates Ltd. and
Associated Engineering (B.C.) Ltd.
Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia
National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data.
Main entry under title:

Dike design and construction guide: Best Management Practices for British Columbia.
Running title: Dike Guideline: Best Management Practices for British Columbia.
Includes bibliographical references: p. ISBN 0-7726-4996-0.
1. Dikes (Engineering) - Design and construction.
2. Dikes (Engineering) - British Columbia - Management.
3. Flood damage prevention - British Columbia
I.
British Columbia. Flood Hazard Management Section.
II.
Golder Associates.
III.
Associated Engineering (B.C.) Ltd.
TC337.D54 2003
627.42'09711
C2003-960144-7
ii
DISCLAIMER
This document has been prepared under contract to the province of British Columbia and
Golder Associates Ltd./Associated Engineering (BC) Ltd. assume no responsibility or liability
as to the use or interpretation of the document. It is recommended that Qualified Professional
Engineers be engaged for the design and construction of diking works.
iii
DIKE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION GUIDE

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR BRITISH COLUMBIA
Many communities in British Columbia are subject to flood hazards. British Columbians
need well designed and reliable flood protection works for both safety and sustained
economic development. To support these objectives, this Guide consolidates and
summarizes best management practices for dike design and construction, specifically for
this province. It is hoped that the Guide will assist diking authorities, design
professionals and others in fulfilling dike design requirements as legislated under the
British Columbia Dike Maintenance Act.
Good dike design practice involves a variety of activities each aimed at ensuring that the
new, repaired, upgraded, or changed works are constructed to an appropriate standard.
To meet the standards, qualified professionals with suitable expertise must be involved.
This would typically include water resources engineers and geotechnical engineers with
demonstrated dike design experience. Structural design and hydraulic specialists,
biologists and other professionals should also be retained to design specific project
components and facilitate agency approvals.
The Guide presents design and construction standards in a generalized form only.
Application of this information for specific projects requires site specific design and
expert advice.
I would welcome receiving comments about the Guide and about any dike design,
construction and maintenance issues in the province. Please direct these to the office of
the Inspector of Dikes, or to the regional Deputy Inspectors of Dikes, Ministry of Water,
Land and Air Protection.
Neil Peters, P. Eng.

Inspector of Dikes
June, 2003
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................... 1-1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2.0
Purpose and Limitations of Document..................................................1-1

Definitions.............................................................................................1-2
Flooding in British Columbia.................................................................1-2
1.3.1 Flood Hazards ..........................................................................1-3
1.3.2 Tsunami ....................................................................................1-3
1.3.3 Debris Flood And Debris Flow Hazards....................................1-4
1.3.4 Erosion Hazards .......................................................................1-5
1.3.5 Ice Jams and Loading...............................................................1-5
1.3.6 Global Warming ........................................................................1-6
Legislation and Regulations .................................................................1-7
1.4.1 Legislation and Regulatory Controls .........................................1-7
1.4.2 Dike Maintenance Act...............................................................1-7
1.4.3 Water Act ..................................................................................1-7
1.4.4 Canada Fisheries Act ...............................................................1-7
1.4.5 Land Act....................................................................................1-8
1.4.6 Forest Act .................................................................................1-8
1.4.7 Canada Navigable Waters Protection Act ................................1-8
1.4.8 BC Environmental Assessment Act ..........................................1-8
1.4.9 Local Government Act ..............................................................1-8
1.4.10 Emergency Program Act...........................................................1-9
1.4.11 Other Legislation.......................................................................1-9
Requirements for Flood Protection Works............................................1-9
1.5.1 Historic Diking Standards .......................................................1-10
1.5.2 Limitations of Dike Design in BC ............................................1-11
1.5.3 Recent and Future Construction of Flood Protection Works in BC
................................................................................................1-13
Consultant Selection...........................................................................1-13
1.6.1 What Type of Engineer Should I Hire? ...................................1-13
1.6.2 How Do I Choose An Engineer Who Is Best For My Needs? .1-13
1.6.3 Further Considerations ...........................................................1-14
DESIGN.................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Pre-Design Study .................................................................................2-1

Field Investigations...............................................................................2-1
Consultation and Approvals..................................................................2-3
Design Report.......................................................................................2-4
Construction Plans ...............................................................................2-4
Construction Inspection ........................................................................2-4
Project Checklist...................................................................................2-5
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
Civil Design Issues ...............................................................................2-6

2.8.1 Alignment..................................................................................2-6
2.8.2 Radius of Curvature..................................................................2-9
2.8.3 Flow Impingement ....................................................................2-9
2.8.4 Encroachment.........................................................................2-10
2.8.5 Viewing Platform or Lookouts .................................................2-10
2.8.6 Powerlines ..............................................................................2-11
2.8.7 Setbacks to Existing Dikes .....................................................2-11
2.8.8 Upgrading Existing Dikes........................................................2-11
2.8.9 Crest Width and Running Surface ..........................................2-12
2.8.10 Dike Access ............................................................................2-13
2.8.11 Dredging Limits.......................................................................2-17
Design Criteria....................................................................................2-17
2.9.1 Seepage .................................................................................2-19
2.9.2 Fill Settlement .........................................................................2-27
2.9.3 Fill Slope Stability ...................................................................2-28
2.9.4 Dike Materials .........................................................................2-32
2.9.5 Earthquake Considerations ....................................................2-34
2.9.6 Erosion Protection ..................................................................2-34
2.9.7 Flood Levels River Dikes .....................................................2-37
2.9.8 Flood Levels Sea Dikes .......................................................2-37
2.9.9 Freeboard ...............................................................................2-38
2.9.10 Design Discharge Estimation..................................................2-38
Environmental Issues .........................................................................2-39
2.10.1 Mitigation requirements ..........................................................2-39
2.10.2 Fisheries Sensitive Zones.......................................................2-39
Structural Issues.................................................................................2-40
2.11.1 Buoyancy of Structures...........................................................2-40
2.11.2 Pump Stations ........................................................................2-41
2.11.3 Floodboxes .............................................................................2-43
2.11.4 Headwalls and Wingwalls .......................................................2-44
2.11.5 Floodgates ..............................................................................2-44
2.11.6 Guard Rails and Hand Rails ...................................................2-45
2.11.7 Dike Construction Adjacent to Structures ...............................2-45
2.11.8 Bridges and Stream Structures...............................................2-46
2.11.9 Floodwalls and Retaining Walls..............................................2-47
2.11.10 Marinas/Docks/Boat Ramps ..................................................2-48
2.11.11 Seepage Reduction Around Pipes and Culverts ...................2-49
2.11.12 Pipe Crossings and Pipe Joint Restraints .............................2-51
2.11.13 Gates and Fences .................................................................2-55
Design Aspects of Operations and Maintenance ...............................2-55
2.12.1 Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Manual ...........................2-56
vi
2.12.2
2.12.3
2.12.4
2.12.5
2.12.6
2.12.7
2.12.8
3.0
CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................... 3-1

3.1
3.2
3.3
4.0
Access Roads.........................................................................2-56
Management of Approved Vegetation ....................................2-56
Vandal Proofing ......................................................................2-57
Inspections..............................................................................2-57
High Water Inspections...........................................................2-58
Burrowing Animals..................................................................2-58
Bank Protection Works ...........................................................2-59
Site Preparation....................................................................................3-1
3.1.1 Access ......................................................................................3-1
3.1.2 Clearing, Grubbing and Stripping .............................................3-1
3.1.3 Dewatering................................................................................3-2
Construction .........................................................................................3-2
3.2.1 Excavation ................................................................................3-2
3.2.2 Excavation adjacent to or through existing works.....................3-3
3.2.3 Fill Placement/Compaction .......................................................3-5
3.2.4 Riprap and Filter Layer Placement ...........................................3-9
3.2.5 Final Grading ............................................................................3-9
3.2.6 Timing/Construction Staging...................................................3-10
Monitoring...........................................................................................3-10
3.3.1 Site Inspection Construction Monitoring ..............................3-10
3.3.2 Environmental Monitor............................................................3-11
REFERENCES......................................................................................... 4-1
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I
Appendix II
Glossary
Sample Designs
vii
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Proposals for construction of new flood

protection works, as well as activities on,
through or adjacent to existing flood
protection works, must be approved in
writing by the regional Ministry of Water,
Land and Air Protection (MWLAP) Deputy
Inspector of Dikes (DIOD) prior to
implementation (Dike Maintenance Act.
Section 2(5) ).
As part of the application and approval
process for new works, or repairs or
upgrades to existing works, the Inspector of
Dikes (IOD) is frequently asked for
information regarding basic design and/or
construction considerations. For projects
such as new construction and major repairs,
other than routine maintenance, the DIOD
will insist that the proponent procure the
services of a qualified engineer. However,
there is still a requirement that proponents,
developers, representatives of local
government and consulting professionals
have a clear understanding of the principles
and issues related to the design and
construction of new or upgraded diking
works. This document is intended to serve
as a reference which summarizes current
practice and illustrates design guidelines.
1.1
Purpose and Limitations of

Document
Numerous criteria and issues must be

considered in dike design. These may vary
from project to project, and no specific
step-by-step procedure covering details of a
particular project can be
established. However, logical steps

based on successful past projects can be
followed for dike design and can be used
as a base for developing more specific
procedures for any particular project.
This document has been developed to
present basic principles used in design
and construction of dikes and for the
general guidance of design engineers.
The
guidelines
convey
sound
engineering practices in a typical
situation and detail the issues or
problems which a design professional
may need to resolve. This document is
not intended to replace the judgment of
the design engineer.
The primary
responsibility for proper dike design lies
with the design engineer for the project.
In order for a dike to safely fulfill its
intended function, the dike must also be
constructed, operated and maintained
properly. Supervision of construction or
reconstruction of the dike by licensed
professional engineers is required to
ensure that the dike will be built
according to the approved plans.
Other guides issued by the BC
Government may assist in the proper
operation, maintenance, design, and
construction of dikes. To prepare an
operation and maintenance manual for a
dike, the Dike Operation and
Maintenance Manual Template (Water
Management Branch 2001) may be
referenced.
The Flood Protection
Works Inspection Guide (Water
Management Branch 2000), Guidelines
for Management of Flood Protection
Works in British Columbia (Water
1-1
Management Branch 1999), and Flood

Planning and Response Guide for British
Columbia (Water Management Branch
1999) provide additional information
related
to
the
development
and
management of flood protection works.
The Environmental Guidelines for
Vegetation
Management
on
Flood
Protection Works to Protect Public Safety
and the Environment (MELP and DFO
1999),
and
Riprap
Design
and
Construction Guide (Water Management
Branch 2000) may also assist in some
features of dike design.
It should be noted that the term dike as
used herein is defined as an embankment or
structure whose primary purpose is to
furnish flood protection from seasonal high
water and which is therefore subject to
water loading for periods of only a few
days or weeks a year. Embankments that
are subject to water loading for prolonged
periods longer than normal flood protection
requirements, or permanently, should be
designed in accordance with dam criteria
rather than the dike criteria given herein.
1.2
Definitions
The following list of definitions is taken

from the Dike Maintenance Act.
dike means an embankment, wall, fill,
piling, pump, gate, floodbox, pipe, sluice,
culvert, canal, ditch, drain or any other
thing that is constructed, assembled or
installed to prevent the flooding of land;
diking authority means:
the commissioners of a district to

which Part 2 of the Drainage, Ditch
and Dike Act applies;
a person owning or controlling a dike
other than a private dike;
a public authority designated by the
Minister as having any responsibility
for maintenance of a dike other than
a private dike; or
a regional district, a municipality or
an improvement district.
improvement district means an

improvement district within the meaning
of the Local Government Act (formerly
the Municipal Act);
inspector means the Inspector of
Dikes(IOD) and includes the Deputy
Inspector of Dikes(DIOD);
municipality means a municipality as
defined for the purposes of the Local
Government
Act
(formerly
the
Municipal Act);
order includes a decision or direction
of the inspector;
private dike means a dike built on
private property without public funds to
protect only the property of a person
owning the private dike.
1.3
Flooding in British Columbia
Flooding in British Columbia is caused

by a variety of natural conditions which
depend largely on the size and
geographic location of the water body.
The nature of flooding may also be
1-2
modified by natural and/or manmade

changes in the watershed, as well as the
presence of dams, diversions, bridges and
other structures. Flood management in the
province of BC falls under the jurisdiction
of
the
Ministry
of
Water,
Land and Air Protection
(wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wat/flood)
The Water Survey of Canada (WSC)
maintains records of water levels and/or
flows on major watercourses in the
province and the Canadian Hydrographic
Service (CHS) records sea level
measurements at various locations along
the coast. The appropriate records shall be
referred to and analysed to appraise local
conditions.
1.3.1
Flood Hazards
Freshet flooding refers to spring snowmelt

runoff which is influenced by annual winter
accumulation of snowpack, and specific
temperature/rainfall conditions in the spring
period. Snowpack accumulation/ depletion
and conditions are monitored and reported
on in Provincial Snow Survey Bulletins.
Freshet flooding is capable of affecting
large areas of the province. This was the
case in the springs of 1894 and 1948, when
widespread flooding occurred in Southern
B.C.
Flash flooding may occur on small to
moderately sized streams throughout the
province due to spring, summer, fall or
winter rainstorms. Coastal streams of all
sizes commonly rise rapidly to their
greatest annual peaks during intense fall
and winter rainstorms and rain on snow
events.
Flooding from the ocean is influenced by

tides and storm surge which raises sea
level due to barometric pressure effects
and wind.
A particularly sensitive
period occurs if a storm coincides with
spring tides. The annual tide cycle peaks
around the solstices in December and
June. Ocean flooding can also occur due
to wave overtopping.
1.3.2
Tsunami
The outer coast, including deep fjords, is

also infrequently affected by tsunamis
or seismically generated ocean waves.
Commonly referred to as tidal waves,
these are water level changes caused by
tectonic activity, and/or landsliding and
may occur at any time of year. Pacific
tsunami events are monitored by the
International Tsunami Warning System
which issues watches and warnings
as required.
In British Columbia,
response is guided through the
Provincial Emergency Program (PEP) by
the British Columbia Tsunami Warning
Plan. While several hours warning may
be available for remotely generated
tsunami, there may be little or no
warning of those locally generated.
Local effects will vary depending on
local aspect and conditions as well as
tide levels coinciding with arrival of a
series of tsunami waves.
In the deep ocean they travel at high
rates of speed and are difficult to
observe as they are of small height. As
they approach the continental shelf and
shallower near shore waters, they can
rapidly shoal and transform, resulting in
a potentially devastating series of waves.
1-3
The B.C. coast has been subject to several

tsunamis over the years, in particular the
1964 event, which was generated by a sea
bottom earthquake off the Aleutian Islands
of Alaska. Port Alberni was particularly
hard hit by the event, and the tsunami
generated high water levels in Prince
Rupert and Bella Coola. Hazards similar
to tsunamis include landslide generated
waves. They can occur in the sea, lakes
and reservoirs.
The majority of flood protection works in
British Columbia are designed to protect
against river and/or ocean flooding. There
are currently no flood protection works in
the province designed specifically to
protect against tsunami occurrence.
1.3.3
Debris Flood And Debris Flow

Hazards
The geography of British Columbia has

resulted in the formation of a large number
of alluvial fans, which are essentially fanshaped deposits of water-transported
material. They typically form at the base of
topographic features where there is a
marked break in slope. Consequently,
alluvial fans tend to be coarse-grained,
especially at their apex. At their edges,
however, they can be relatively finegrained. Fan type features can also be
predominantly debris flow or debris flood
produced, or related to seismic events.
Due to the terrain in the province,
development has frequently occurred on
fans, as they are often easier to build on
than the surrounding territory. Years can
go by without flooding or debris events,
which in some cases has resulted in a false
sense of security.
Flood events can
often convey water and debris, leading
to potentially devastating results.
Debris flows (Photograph 1) are
typically initiated during high intensity
and/or prolonged precipitation events or
rain-on-snow events, by various types of
channel sidewall and headwall failures
and, less frequently, by mobilization of
streambed deposits.
Estimating the
actual distance a debris flow can travel is
a complex process, dependant on factors
such as volume and velocity of the
event, the type of debris, the fan
topography and the development and
surface roughness of the fan area. Upon
reaching the fan, where the creek
channel typically loses confinement
and/or steepness, the debris flow will
start to deposit the transported material.
Slope angles required for debris
deposition to start on a fan range
between 10-20 degrees from horizontal
and, under some circumstances, such as
coarse debris allowing for rapid drainage
or large surface roughness of the fan,
even at higher slope angles.
Debris floods, similar to debris flows,
typically initiate during high intensity
and/or prolonged precipitation events or
rain-on-snow events.
The general
mechanism involves either the collapse
of a landslide dam in the creek channel,
or small landslides in the channel
sidewalls. Debris floods can occur on
their own or in association with a debris
flow, where they form a more fluid
component that can flow beyond the
depositional area of the debris flow. The
total amount and the size of debris
1-4
transported in a debris flood is smaller than

in the case of a debris flow and,
consequently, the impact forces against
structures tend to be lower. Debris flood
deposits are strongly controlled by
topographic details and follow preferred
courses such as channels, roadways and
ditches.
1.3.4
Erosion Hazards
Erosion can occur as a result of sudden

loss of land during a flood event, or as an
ongoing incremental loss of land over an
extended period of time.
1.3.5
Ice Jams and Loading
An ice jam is a stationary accumulation

of ice that restricts flow. Upon release
of the jam, constricted water can be
released suddenly downstream with the
potential for flooding and erosion. The
presence of ice blocks or pieces in the
water can exacerbate erosion due to ice
impact. There are two types of jams,
freezeup jams consisting of frazil ice
that occur in winter, and breakup jams,
made primarily of ice blocks or chunks
formed by the breakup of ice cover.
(Watt et al, 1989).
Photograph 1: Debris Flow, Chilliwack River Valley

Erosion can occur in the absence of
significant flood events, thus for design
purposes, it is necessary to consider effects
due to highly erosive events, such as a
design flood, as well as regular ongoing
effects, such as, for example, waves from
vessel traffic.
Ice loading on dikes may need to be

considered during design, depending
upon the climate at the proposed site.
Ice impact can result in dislodgement of
erosion protection due to the shear force
between the ice sheets and the surface of
the dike. Should the shear force be
1-5
enough to dislodge or damage the structure

prior to failure or breaking of the ice sheet,
loss of cover or structural damage to the
dike may occur.
Failure modes against dikes would
normally include bending, with crushing
also occurring directly at the contact
surface.
Techniques are available to
estimate the forces due to bending failure
against sloping structures, as well as the
shear forces due to ice impact (Ashton,
1986).
1.3.6
Global Warming
Global warming due to the greenhouse

effect has been the subject of broad study
by a number of researchers. The modeling
approaches generally adopt a broadly based
general circulation model (GCM), which
simulate atmospheric circulation and
predict changes in temperature and
precipitation due to alterations in carbon
dioxide concentrations. Global warming
may affect, for example, the spatial and
temporal distribution of precipitation with
elevation, cloud cover, glacier retreat,
vegetation distribution and production and
plant physiology.
Within British
Columbia, which has a wide variation in
topography, climate and geography, it is
expected that global warming may affect
different basins differently. Increases in
temperature related to global warming may,
for example, increase precipitation.
However, increases in biomass within the
watersheds may compensate for the higher
rainfall and attenuate affects on floods. In
particular, maximum annual daily flow
rates may actually decrease, however, mean
annual runoff may increase (Loukas et

al, 1996).
Consideration for design is difficult to
include on a specific basis, however,
discussions with the proponent with
regards to global warming shall not be
overlooked in the design and approval
process.
From the perspective of sea level in BC
coastal areas, variations in mean sea
level can arise due to seasonal changes
in estuary circulation and offshore
processes such as coastal upwelling, and
from ocean scale adjustment to large
scale weather patterns such as El Nino.
Other effects may include crustal tilting
and/or local subsidence. One challenge
for the engineer is the fact that long term
accurate records on the order of 50 to
100 years or more are required to enable
identification of discrepancies between
mean sea level, assuming that the tide
gauge itself is not moving. Of particular
note is the fact that the variation of sea
level due to tidal effects on the B.C.
coast is an order of magnitude greater
than existing evidence of mean sea level
rise.
Potential rates of sea level rise on the
Fraser delta have been estimated to
range between 140 and 280 mm (5.5 to
11 inches) over the next 50 years
(Church, 2002).
1-6
1.4
Legislation and Regulations
1.4.1
Legislation and Regulatory

Controls
Regulatory controls on construction of new

flood protection works, changes and work
within the existing dikes, and related
maintenance are fundamentally within the
purview of the BC Dike Maintenance Act.
Legislation relevant to the formation and
operation of diking authorities includes:
Drainage Ditch and Dike Act; and

Local Government Act.
Other pertinent
includes:
provincial
legislation
Emergency Management Act;

Water Act;
Land Act; and
the Environmental Assessment Act
Relevant federal legislation includes the

Canada Fisheries Act and the Navigable
Waters Protection Act.
Construction of works and maintenance
may also be subject to other municipal,
provincial, and federal legislation and
regulations, as well as local bylaws and
zoning.
1.4.2
Dike Maintenance Act
The principal legislation in BC pertinent to

flood protection works is the Dike
Maintenance Act. Section 2(5) of the Act
provides that work in and about flood
protection dikes shall be subject to written
approval by the IOD. This includes:
Alterations that may lower or

decrease the size and/or integrity of
the cross-section of a dike;
Installations of floodboxes, culverts,
pipes or any structure in a dike;
Construction of works over or on a
dike right of way; and
Alterations to the foreshore adjacent
to a dike and excavation in proximity
to the landside dike toe.
Any proposal for construction of new

flood protection works, as well as
activities on, through or adjacent to
existing flood control works must be
approved in writing by the regional
DIOD prior to implementation. An
application, including drawings and
written description of the proposal, must
be submitted for review well in advance
of proposed construction.
1.4.3
Water Act
All work in and about streams or other

watercourses is subject to approval or
regulation under Section 9 of the Water
Act. The Regional office of Land &
Water B.C. shall be consulted as to the
approval process for all projects which
necessitate activity within the natural
boundary of a watercourse. Fraser River
Estuary Management Program (FREMP)
approval for the works in the Fraser
River estuary are also subject to Section
9 approval.
1.4.4
Canada Fisheries Act
The Federal Department of Fisheries and

Oceans (DFO) is responsible, under the
Fisheries Act (R.S.C., 1985, c.F-14), to
1-7
protect fish and fish habitat in and about

waters frequented by fish. This includes
protection from any work in or near these
waters. Pacific salmon are a federallymanaged resource.
The MWLAP Environmental Stewardship
Branch is responsible for management of
steelhead, trout, char and other nonsalmonid freshwater species under the
Fisheries Act.
1.4.7
Canada Navigable Waters

Protection Act
Works within, above or under the wetted

perimeter of navigable waters will be
subject to review under the Navigable
Waters Protection Act.
1.4.8
BC Environmental
Assessment Act
All works or vegetation removal in or

adjacent to waters containing fish or fish
habitat, whether marine or freshwater,
require approval under the Fisheries Act.
This will involve DFO in salmonid bearing
streams and waters, and, in all
cases, MWLAP Environmental
Stewardship.
Major
projects
are
subject
to
environmental
review
under
the
Environmental
Assessment
Act.
Regulations have been developed that
require review for construction of new
dikes as well as raising the entire length,
dismantling, or abandonment of existing
structures, if protecting an area greater
than ten square kilometers.
1.4.5
1.4.9
Land Act
The BC Land Act affects the removal of

material from streambeds.
Where the
streambed is on Crown Land, Land &
Water BC is the lead agency in terms of
gravel removal, which may be subject to
royalty. There may also be privately
owned streambeds where the landowner
must be dealt with. Note that other
applicable legislation applies to both
publicly and privately owned streambeds.
1.4.6
Forest Act
In all cases the Ministry of Forests must be

consulted as to the approval process for
removing merchantable trees and wood
from streambeds and banks.
Local Government Act
The Local Government Act provides for

the formation of Improvement Districts
(Section 731 (2001)) for purposes
designated in their Letters Patent. While
there are 19 existing Improvement
Districts which are now involved in
diking, no new Improvement Districts
will be established.
The Local
Government Act provides the accepted
mechanisms for authorizing new diking
authorities whereby municipalities and
regional districts may, under local
bylaw, undertake or regulate diking and
drainage works within their jurisdiction.
1-8
1.4.10 Emergency Program Act
The Emergency Program Act regulates

emergency management in the province of
BC.
Section 6. (3) of the Act states that:

A local authority must establish and
maintain
emergency
management
organization to develop and implement
emergency plans and other preparedness,
response and recovery measures for
emergencies and disaster.
1.4.11 Other Legislation
The Drainage, Ditch and Dike Act, passed

in 1907 (consolidated 1990), provided the
authority to fund and construct works for
draining lands for mines, manufacturing
and for municipalities or districts to be
formed for that purpose. Part 1 of the Act
is no longer in use while Part 2 is the
regulatory basis for incorporation of five
diking districts: Fortune Creek DD, Surrey
DD, Colebrook DD, Barnston Island DD
and Coquitlam DD.
1.5
Requirements for Flood

Protection Works
Construction of new flood protection works

or reconstruction of existing works will
generally require inter-agency review and
approval to meet the various legislative
needs. The essential requirements for flood
protection works administered under the
Dike Maintenance Act are summarized as
follows:
Design and construction for efficient

and effective operation to contain the
design flood and associated forces;
Certification of works by a suitably
qualified professional Engineer;
Provision of permanent rights of
way, accesses and means of
operation and maintenance; and
Implementation by a diking authority
of a continually funded dike
management program including
inspection, patrolling, emergency
planning, operation, maintenance
and repairs in accordance with an
approved
Operation
and
Maintenance (O&M) manual.
The standard design flood in British

Columbia is the designated flood
which means a flood, which may occur
in any given year, of such magnitude as
to equal a flood having a 200 year
recurrence period interval, based on a
frequency analysis of unregulated
historic flood records or by regional
analysis where there is inadequate
streamflow data available. Where the
flow of a large watercourse is controlled
by a major dam, the designated flood
shall be set on a site specific basis.
(MELP, 1999)
The criteria was originally based on the
1894 flood event which affected a broad
area of southern British Columbia as the
largest flood recorded in modern times.
Estimates of the return period for this
flood vary depending on the gauge
analysed and period of record, but it falls
in the range of about 1 in 160 to 1 in 200
years.
1-9
The adopted standard for the Fraser River

Flood Control Program (FRFCP) was the
adjusted 1894 Fraser River profile.
Variations locally relate to 1948 high water
marks, and adjustment of the high water
profile by backwater calculation accounts
for the effects of overbank flow confined
by dikes. The design levels for the FRFCP
sea dikes were determined by statistical
analysis of coastal gauge records to
determine the water level pertaining to a
0.5 % probability of annual occurrence,
with addition of an allowance for waves
and runup.
Elsewhere in the province, consistent with

the BC Floodplain Development Control
Program, the standard design flood is the
designated flood being the flood with 0.5
% probability of annual occurrence. It
should be noted that other relevant
standards for older dikes and agricultural
land protection works include the use of a
flood of record and other criteria that
represent the standard of the day.
1.5.1
The design of flood protection dikes varies

according to design conditions/forces,
foundation conditions, and construction
materials. Design forces include height and
duration of high water, flow velocities,
debris, seepage, internal drainage, natural
processes, etc. This implies meeting a
number
of
technical
requirements,
including, but not limited to:
The profile of the design flood;

Freeboard for hydraulic and hydrologic
uncertainty;
Landside slope stability due to steady
seepage;
Waterside slope stability due to draw

down;
Surface erosion of slopes;
Stream erosion of the waterside
slopes;
Seepage, uplift, and piping through
or under the dike and structures;
Internal drainage;
Permanent access for inspection,
maintenance, and patrolling;
Practicality
and
economy
of
construction and dike maintenance,
and;
Structures in and through dikes.
Historic Diking Standards
After the 1948 flood, the last major

Fraser River flood in the Lower
Mainland, regional, provincial and
federal governments initiated a series of
studies which lead to the establishment
in 1968 of an agreement establishing the
FRFCP to undertake a program of
works for flood control. The design
standards for the program were
developed by the Dikes, Bank
protection, and Pump Work groups and
approved by the Joint Program
Committee. Some specific features of
the standard design minimums proposed,
and generally implemented, by the
FRFCP include the following:
150 mm thick graveled crest with a

minimum width of 3.66 m (12 feet);
3H:1V or flatter waterside sideslopes
for setback dikes;
2H:1V or flatter sideslopes for riprap
slopes ;
2.5H:1V or flatter landside slopes;
1-10
0.15 m (0.5 foot) thickness of topsoil to

promote turf layer;
Typical riprap 0.9 m (3 feet) thick over
0.3 m (1 foot) filter layer;
Underseepage and drainage treatment
as required for safety of the dike; and
Minimum 0.6 m (2 feet) freeboard over
the adjusted 1894 flood profile.
availability of material, existing old

dikes and upland usage.
In some cases, where an existing road with

a paved surface formed the dike, the
freeboard was reduced to 0.3 m, as the
possibility of rapid down cutting from
temporary overtopping was lessened
considerably (Fraser Basin Management
Program, 1994).
Some of the minimum standards for
agricultural dikes adopted by the FRFCP
include:
Despite adherence to standards, even

well engineered and constructed
structures have limitations due to the
nature of the design standard,
uncertainty in the determination of the
design conditions and forces, and
ongoing changes experienced in natural
systems. There are numerous limitations
on dike design that affect operation and
maintenance requirements, discussed as
follows:
100 mm thick graveled crest with a

minimum width 3.06 m (10 feet);
Maximum 2H:1V landside slopes; and
Minimum 0.3 m (1 foot) freeboard over
the adjusted 1894 flood profile.
Current standards are discussed in

Section 2.0.
1.5.2
In areas other than those under FRFCP

jurisdiction, the standard dike freeboard for
open water conditions is commonly a
minimum of the higher of 0.6 m above the
calculated 1 in 200 year peak mean daily
flow profile or 0.3 m above the calculated 1
in 200 year instantaneous peak flow profile.
Freeboard may be increased due to local
conditions.
As the program was implemented over the
following 25 plus years, a number of
variations on the standard were constructed,
due primarily to site specific issues, such as
Limitations of Dike Design in

BC
Flood protection engineering is an

inexact
science
that
cannot
completely eliminate the risk of
failure.
For instance, while
subsurface
investigation
is
commonly undertaken for new dikes,
there is an inherent variability in
natural deposits that means perfect
information is seldom, if ever,
available.
While the engineer
attempts to account for this in design
practice, it is important to note that
material behavior can vary along a
dike and anomalies can occur.
Similarly, dikes themselves are
constructed largely of natural
materials as engineered fills with
inherent limitations on quality
control.
There are also many older dikes that
have not benefited from modern
1-11
design techniques and technology

which demand extra attention because
of uncertainties in construction practice.
The standard design flood in BC is
similar to that used in the U.S., which
has adopted the 1 in 100 year event,
plus 0.9 m (3 ft). of freeboard, which
equates to roughly an annual
probability of 1/230 (National Research
Council, 2002). On the other hand, the
B.C. standard does not meet the much
more stringent 0.01 % probability of
annual occurrence standard for the
North Sea dikes in Holland or the 0.2 %
probability of annual occurrence used
in parts of Saskatchewan. Not-withstanding the level of protection, it must
be recognized that it is a virtual
certainty that larger than design events
will eventually occur.
Other than a few major pumping
facilities, dikes in BC are not designed
for earthquake forces.
This was
necessitated by economics of treatment,
although it was rationalized by the
FRFCP that the chance of occurrence of
a major flood peak simultaneously with
a large earthquake would be rare.
None-the-less, a large earthquake may
cause extensive failures of saturated
foundations. Resulting damage to flood
protection works would need to be
rapidly repaired prior to the subsequent
flood period.
Dike management contains an essential
continuing component of periodic
inspection, performance monitoring and
assessment, and maintenance aimed at
identification and correction of
problems both in advance of and during
large flow events. For this reason,
features are routinely incorporated in
dike design to facilitate the

practicality and economy of O&M.
For instance, dike crests are
constructed to function as roads for
patrol and maintenance, usually a
minimum graveled width of 3.6 m
with
turnouts
provided
for
maintenance vehicles. Also, in the
case of the FRFCP dikes, this
includes provision that grassed dike
slopes be no steeper than 2.5H:1V to
facilitate mowing.
An important underlying assumption
in dike design is that there is
continuing
post
construction
management including periodic
inspection, performance monitoring,
routine repairs and maintenance,
flood patrolling as well as
emergency contingency planning in
anticipation of failure or larger than
design events. Unfortunately, due to
general economics and personnel
limitations, this is not always the
case. For this purpose, an O & M
Manual must be prepared upon
completion to provide a standard for
the local authority.
At the present time, there is no
provincial standard for debris flow or
debris flood hazards. The 1 in 200
year standard is inappropriate for
these
types
of
events
and
consideration should be given to
more severe events, in the range
from 1 in 500 years to 1 in 2500
years.
1-12
1.5.3
Recent and Future Construction

of Flood Protection Works in BC
Environmental concerns have played a

significantly larger role in design of flood
protection works within the last 20 years or
so. For example, since the mid 1970s, the
FRFCP adopted a multi-disciplinary
approach to assess environmental impacts
of reconstructed works and incorporate
changes preserving and protecting sensitive
areas. Since that time, dike widening under
the FRFCP was generally directed to the
landside, rather than the streamside, to
preserve waterside vegetation.
1.6.1
It is essential to select someone with a

professional
engineer
(P.Eng.)
certification, with a background in civil
engineering, who is competent in the
field of dike safety. Important criteria to
evaluate in a prospective engineer
include the following:
Generally, flood protection of the most

troublesome areas of existing development
in the province is now in place, where
economic. Rehabilitation and expansion of
older systems can be expected in the future,
together with protection for new
developments. Where new development is
planned which needs flood protection, there
is an opportunity for environmental
concerns to be addressed at an advanced
planning stage.
1.6
Consultant Selection
One of the most important procedures for

ensuring proper design, construction,
quality assurance and quality control, and
maintenance of diking works is procuring
the services of a professional engineer. The
following information is designed to
answer the most commonly asked questions
about hiring an engineer.
Further
information can be obtained from the
website of the Consulting Engineers of BC
(www.cebc.org)
What Type of Engineer Should

I Hire?
A licensed professional engineer that

is a current member of the
Professional
Engineers
and
Geoscientists of British Columbia;
Experience in flood control design
and construction, relative to the
scope of the project;
A knowledge of the legislation, rules
and regulations governing dike
design, construction and associated
environmental issues in British
Columbia; and,
Specific experience in several
disciplines, such as hydrology, river
or stream hydraulics, structural or
geotechnical engineering.
1.6.2
How Do I Choose An Engineer

Who Is Best For My Needs?
There are three basic strategies for

selecting
engineering
consulting
services. These selection strategies are:
Qualification-Based
Fee-Based
Intermediate
QUALIFICATION BASED
Qualification Based selection means
that the knowledge, experience, and
1-13
ingenuity of the engineer are the

determining factors in making the selection.
This strategy is advantageous when the
proponent is uncertain about the exact
problem or the best solution to the problem.
When Qualification-Based selection is
used, several engineering firms are asked to
submit their technical qualifications,
experience with similar projects, reputation
with existing clients, and any other factors
pertaining to the specific project. The
proponent then selects short listed firms
(generally
three)
to
make
brief
presentations outlining a cost effective and
innovative approach to the problem. Based
upon these presentations, the proponent
chooses the most qualified engineer to
develop the scope of the work.
When agreement on the scope of work is
achieved, the engineer and the proponent
negotiate a price that is fair and reasonable
to both parties. If an agreement cannot be
reached, negotiations start with the secondranked engineering firm. In this selection
process, price is an important factor, but
only after the most qualified engineer has
been identified.
FEE BASED
Fee-Based selection means that the
engineers fee is the only determining
factor in making the selection. It is
advantageous when the proponent knows
exactly what is needed and can clearly
define the scope of the work before
meeting with an engineer. In this case, the
engineer is requested to prepare the designs
and
bid
documents
or
conduct
investigations as the proponent specifies.
This approach, while cost effective with
respect to engineering fees, usually

results in text book solutions, with little
or no flexibility for innovative concepts.
A strict FeeBased selection often
means that the engineer selected may not
be qualified to do the work, especially if
the bidding is open to anyone and/or the
scope of the work is poorly defined.
INTERMEDIATE
The Intermediate Option is a blended
approach which draws upon certain
considerations from the Qualification
Based selection and the Fee Based
selection processes. The Intermediate
Option requires that the proponent prequalify engineers, who are then asked to
submit a fee-based proposal.
This
process ensures a higher certainty that
the work will be of superior quality, but
requires the proponent to clearly define
the scope of work. Without a clearly
defined scope of work, the proponent
may receive a wide range of fee
proposals, depending on the engineers
interpretation of the project.
1.6.3
Further Considerations
Further considerations prior to selecting

an engineer would include, but not be
limited to:
Requesting and contacting references

from the engineer; and
Reviewing projects that have been
completed under the engineers
leadership.
It is important that the proponent

maintain open lines of communication
1-14
with regulatory agencies, particularly the

IOD. Careful evaluation of an engineers
recommended course of action shall be
undertaken to verify that regulatory
requirements will be satisfied.
The
proponent shall also educate themselves in
the basics of flood safety and be
knowledgeable regarding the laws and
conditions that must be met.
1-15
2.0
DESIGN
2.1
Pre-Design Study
Prior to undertaking a diking project, a

pre-design study shall be carried out and
include the following components:
Identify existing flood control works;

Characterize the floodplain;
Establish flood profile;
Develop conceptual dike alignments
and height;
Identify the benefiting area of the
project;
Assess the impact of the proposed
works on the environment;
Assess the impact on existing
agricultural, residential, commercial,
and industrial sections within the
boundaries of the flood prone area;
Assess the impact of the proposed
work on local drainage;
Locate suitable local sources of
construction materials;
Prepare a preliminary benefit/cost
assessment of the project, including
enhanced property values after the
project; and,
Evaluate the hazards associated with
the "do nothing" alternative.
An experienced engineer shall carry out

a preliminary survey, inspect and study
the area using available mapping, obtain
an inventory of the existing development
from the local authority, and determine
the feasibility of the project.
subsequent stages of design, and the

project is more likely to meet the
standards required by the approving
agencies.
2.2
Field Investigations
Once the dike project has been defined,

whether it consists of constructing a new
dike or upgrading or repairing an
existing dike structure, in most cases a
field investigation will be required to
collect relevant information. A field
investigation usually consists of an
office review of all available geological,
and other, pertinent information on the
area of interest, an on-site survey, and
subsurface investigation and testing.
Some key factors affecting the extent of
field investigations include:
Construction
and/or
design
experience in the area, particularly
with respect to dikes;
Consequences of failure involving
life, property, or damage to the
environment;
Proposed final dike height;
Expected foundation conditions
(weak and compressible, highly
variable along the alignment,
potential
underseepage
and/or
settlement problems);
Borrow materials available (quality,
water contents, variability); and,
Structures in dikes and/or utility
crossings.
This type of initial assessment may save

cost, time, and effort required during
2-1
Field investigation tasks

generally
Office study - collection and study of

topographic, soil, and geological
maps, aerial photographs, boring
logs and well data, information and
performance data on existing
engineering projects, etc.
Field survey reconnaissance of the
proposed alignment and proposed
borrow areas and note observations
and geology of area, documented by
written notes and photographs,
including such features as: riverbank
and coastal slopes, rock outcrops,
earth and rock cuts or fills, surface
materials, poorly drained areas,
evidences
of
instability
of
foundations and slopes, emerging
seepage and/or soft spots, natural and
man-made physiographic features,
etc.
Interview
locals
or
organizations with knowledge of the
foundation conditions in the area.
Subsurface investigation put down
test holes (auger, test pits, etc.),
classify
materials
encountered,
collect
samples,
water
table
observations, possible penetration
testing (DCPTs, SPTs, CPTs,
etc.), possible field vane testing,
possible geophysical surveys to
interpolate between widely spaced
test holes, etc.
Laboratory testing Moisture
determinations, possible Atterberg
limits,
Gradation
analyses,
Consolidation tests, etc.
The extent of test holes and possible

geophysical explorations is based on
information such as geologic maps,

airphotos, groundwater resources, prior
experience in the area, and the general
nature of the project.
Typical spacing of test holes usually
varies from 50 to 300 m along the
proposed/existing alignment, with closer
spacing in expected problem areas. Test
holes are normally laid out along the
dike centerline with occasional test holes
located near the toe of the proposed dike
to provide additional information. At
least one test hole shall be located at
every major structure. If the dike
investigation is carried out in phases, i.e.
preliminary and design, additional test
holes may be put down as required in the
design phase of the investigation.
The depth of test holes shall be sufficient
to locate and determine the extent and
properties of all soil and rock strata that
could affect the performance of the dike
or other structures. The depth of test
holes along the proposed alignment shall
be at least equal to the height of
proposed dike at its highest point but not
less than 3 m below the existing ground
surface. In the case of existing dikes,
test holes put down along the centreline
of the dike shall extend through the
existing dike materials in addition to the
above noted depths. For example, with a
3 m high existing dike, test holes put
down along the centreline of the dike
would extend a minimum of 6 m depth
and a minimum of 3 m depth for test
holes put down at the toe of the dike.
Test hole depths shall always be deep
enough to provide data for stability and
seepage analyses of the dike and
2-2
foundation. This is especially important

when the dike is located near the
riverbank.
Where pervious or soft
materials are encountered, at least some
of the test holes shall extend through the
permeable material to impervious
material or through the soft material to
firm material. Test holes at structure
locations shall extend well below invert
or foundation elevations and below the
zone of significant influence created by
the load. The test holes must be deep
enough to permit analysis of stability
and underseepage conditions at the
structure. In borrow areas, the depth of
exploration shall extend about a metre
below the practicable or allowable
borrow depth or to the groundwater
table. If borrow is to be obtained from
below the groundwater table by dredging
or other means, test holes shall be at
least 3 m below the base of the proposed
excavation.
Appropriate field and/or laboratory tests
shall be performed in order to aid in
evaluating the strength, compressibility,
permeability, and erosion resistance of
the foundation soils, and the existing
dike materials in the case of upgrading.
Also, appropriate laboratory tests shall
be performed on samples of the
proposed embankment materials in order
to ascertain their suitability for use in the
dike.
Geophysical exploration methods are a
fairly inexpensive means of exploration
and are very useful for correlating
information between test holes which,
for reasons of economy, are generally
spaced at fairly wide intervals.
Geophysical data must be interpreted in

conjunction with borings and by
qualified, experienced personnel. Since
there
have
been
significant
improvements
in
geophysical
instrumentation
and
interpretation
techniques in recent years, more
consideration should be given to their
use in future dike projects.
2.3
Consultation and Approvals
All proposals for the construction of

flood protection works, whether
upgrading existing works or constructing
new works, will be subject to municipal,
provincial, and federal legislation and
regulations. Project approvals and/or
consultation will be required from all
agencies who have an interest in the
proposed project.
Approvals are generally required from
the following agencies:
Provincial Ministry of Water, Land

and Air Protection - Inspector of
Dikes
and
Environmental
Stewardship;
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
Canada (DFO);
Navigable Waters Protection Act
(DFO);
Local Municipality ;
Land and Water BC ;
Local river or estuary management
programs; and,
Local diking districts.
Approvals and/or consultation may also

be required with:
2-3
Ministry of Transportation and

Highways;
Local
Public
Transportation
Agencies;
Pipelines, utilities and other linear
right of way (ROW) operators; and
First Nations.
It would be advisable to contact all

interested agencies at an early stage and
discuss the proposed works.
It is
generally less expensive to upgrade
existing dikes than to construct new
dikes.
aspects of the dike. The cover sheet

shall include a vicinity map showing the
location of the works. As-built plans of
the project are required upon completion
of construction.
The following conventions shall be
adopted for construction drawings:
Upgrading existing works can reduce the

negative impacts on the environment and
adjacent water courses. It requires less
additional right-of-way and less space to
upgrade the existing works to the design
standard, than to construct new works.
Upgrading the existing works also
requires less material than constructing
new dikes. The total dike settlement can
also be reduced.
2.4
Design Report
The design report shall include an

evaluation of the foundation conditions,
the hydrologic and hydraulic design and
structural stability of the proposed dike.
The report shall be sufficiently detailed
to accurately define the final design and
proposed work as represented on the
construction plans.
2.5
Construction Plans
Construction plans shall be sufficiently

detailed for evaluation of the safety
Historically, imperial stationing and

chainages used 0 + 00, metric are to
use 0 + 000;
Left and right banks are established
looking downstream;
Chainages start at the downstream
end and extend upstream;
For sea dikes, chainages start at the
north or west end and extend south
or east.
A quantity and cost estimate is also

required.
2.6
Construction Inspection
The dike's performance will largely be

controlled by the care and thoroughness
exercised during its construction.
Unexpected subsurface conditions may
be encountered which may materially
affect the design of the dike. To ensure a
safe design, the designer must be able to
confirm design assumptions and revise
the dike design if unanticipated
conditions
are
encountered.
Construction inspection is required in
order to ensure that the construction
work complies with the plans and
specifications and meets standards of
good
workmanship.
Therefore,
construction inspection of a dike is
required by a licensed professional
2-4
engineer or designate to monitor and

evaluate conditions as they are disclosed
and to observe material placement and
workmanship as construction progresses.
The engineer(s) involved in the
construction of the dike work will be
required to submit a periodic
construction report to the proponent
covering
the
critical
inspection
activities
for
the
dike's
construction/reconstruction.
.4 Confirm Design Criteria
2.7
The proponent of a diking project shall

consider the following checklist and
estimate the costs of design, construction
of works and the time frame required to
complete the project.
.1 Selection of a Consultant (see 1-6)
.6 Prepare Project Documents
Project Checklist
Hydrotechnical
Structural
Geotechnical
Environmental
.2 Complete Project Feasibility Study

.3 Obtain Background Data
Survey existing works or proposed

alignment
Obtain existing mapping and record
drawings, identify existing property
lines, rights of way
Inventory existing development in
the project area
Locate main drainage courses
Investigate access to site,
transportation corridors and services
crossing the dike
Design flood level (DFL)

Freeboard (FB)
Design dike crest (DFL + FB)
Flood construction elevations for
residential, commercial, and
industrial development
Flood zone boundaries
.5 Complete Field Investigations

Boreholes and test pits
Sample analyses
Foundation conditions
Settlement
Seepage control
Erosion protection
Environmentally sensitive areas
Design reports
Project drawings
Technical specifications
.7 Submit Project Documents to

Regulatory Agencies
Conduct preliminary discussions

Submit necessary environmental
mitigation measures and proposals
Allow sufficient time for document
review
Submit documents for authorization
.8 Address Pre-tender Issues
Investigate construction material

sources
Prepare cost estimates, allowing for
contractors overheads and profits
2-5
Allow for project inspection and

quality control, administrative costs
& permits
Prepare contract documents
Complete tender call
.9 Select Contractor
Review and compare all tenders

Check Contractors background and
past performance
Contact references
Check proposed sub-contractors
Check Contractors equipment
Review construction schedule and
completion date
2.8
Civil Design Issues
2.8.1
Alignment
The alignment of the dike shall be

selected with due regard to setback
requirements, available land base for
construction and site specific local
constraints such as sensitive habitats.
Space permitting, a setback dike has
numerous benefits when compared to a
waterside dike, as outlined below:
.10 Construction Supervision and

Monitoring
Review material quality

Observe construction to ensure
compliance with design,
specifications and best management
practices
Process progress payments
.11 Complete Record Documents
Prepare and certify as-built drawings

Prepare operations and maintenance
manual (see MELP, 2001 for
template)
Finalize dike right-of-way, and
prepare legal plans
Submit as constructed documents to
proponent and regulatory agencies
Include photographic records of
construction activities
Maintains natural wetland habitat

and is environmentally sustainable;
Provides a wider floodway with
increased flow capacity;
Reduces peak flood levels;
Reduces flow velocity and bank
erosion; and
Reduces long-term maintenance
costs due to less frequent flows
against the dike slope.
Construction of waterside dikes shall be

avoided unless there is an existing dike
in good condition, which can be
economically
upgraded
in
an
environmentally sensitive manner.
Figures 1 through 4 show various dike
sections relative to the watercourse as
follows:
Figure 1 Setback dike

Figure 2 Waterside dike
Figure 3 Overwidth dike
Figure 4 Overwidth dike with
natural levee
2-6
Figure 1 - Setback Dike
Figure 2 - Waterside Dike
2-7
Figure 3 - Overwidth Dike
Figure 4 - Overwidth Dike With Natural Levee
2-8
2.8.2
Radius of Curvature
The dike must be configured to enable

maintenance vehicles, such as trucks, a
reasonable radius of curvature for safe
movement, without the wheels riding
over the shoulder.
Therefore,
consideration shall be given at the
planning stage to provide manageable
curves for expected maintenance
vehicles.
The radius of a curve shall not be less
than 15 m to allow efficient access of
most heavy equipment. The speed at
2.8.3
Flow Impingement
The issue of flow impingement is of

prime importance when preparing the
initial alignment of the dike. To the
greatest degree practical, the dike shall
parallel the direction of flow. In this
manner, erosive stresses along the face
of the dike during flood conditions can
be minimized. By aligning the dike with
the direction of flow, erosion protection
requirements can be reduced.
Should the alignment of the dike be such
that flow impingement during a flood
Photograph 2: Overturned Construction Vehicle

which a vehicle can round a curve is
limited by the ability of the vehicle to
resist centrifugal force tending to move
the vehicle toward the outside of the
curve. For dikes, a maximum speed of
20 km/h is appropriate (Photograph 2).
event can not be avoided, erosion

protection must account for flow
impingement. As well, more intensive
monitoring subsequent to flood events
shall be undertaken. Generally, sharp
bends towards the river side of the dike
are not recommended.
2-9
2.8.4
Encroachment
Prior to the construction of the dike and

associated flood protection works, it is
essential to acquire the necessary land
base, not only to build the dike but to
provide additional setbacks required for
environmental protection, and adequate
space for inspection and maintenance of
the completed works.
Temporary rights of way (ROW) may be
required during the construction period
for access, storage, and transportation of
construction material and equipment.
For the permanent works, no
encroachment on private property or
environmentally sensitive areas shall be
permitted, without due discussion and
approval with all concerned parties. It
may be necessary to pay compensation
for the land base, which should be
considered as part of the construction
costs of the project.
A permanent ROW for maintenance
purposes and future alterations shall be
obtained on each side of the dike toe.
The minimum width of this ROW
extension shall be 7.5 m, from each dike
toe, or as directed by the DIOD.
Construction on the landside of a dike
shall not interfere with operation and
maintenance activities.
Generally,
neither buildings or other permanent
structures shall be allowed closer than
7.5 metres from the landside toe of a
dike or as otherwise required from flood
protection
structures.
Landside
construction shall not interfere with
internal drainage courses. Waterside

construction shall not interfere with
access for maintenance. For example,
floating homes shall be setback a
minimum of 7.5 m from the waterside
toe of the dike.
Where permitted, fill placed against the
landside slope of a dike shall be to the
same standards as dike fill. Possible
effects on seepage control measures
shall be examined. Monitoring and/or
other measures shall be provided if there
is a possibility of settlement due to
placement of fill.
Landscaping or recreational features,
such as ponds, should not be constructed
within 7.5 m of the landward side of the
dike, or as directed by the DIOD.
Excavation for ponds, ditches and other
features on the landward side of dikes is
discouraged, as these can be problematic
for access and future O & M. A ROW
of 7.5 m from the toe of the dike is
encouraged to control alterations and
unauthorized works.
2.8.5
Viewing Platform or Lookouts
Informative tablets or plaques erected in

weatherproof shelters, giving important
facts and brief information on the project
will be appreciated by the public,
especially on large projects where a
substantial amount of public funds are
spent.
These structures shall be
removable to allow maintenance to
proceed.
2-10
Information
on
environmentally
sensitive areas and fish spawning areas
can be included on these tablets. The
public may have access to some dikes
for walking, jogging and cycling.
Dikes can be locally widened, wherever
municipal or public land is available
adjacent to the dike, to provide space for
benches, picnic tables and other
facilities. Structures shall be located on
the landward side of the dike leaving the
full width of the original dike crest for
maintenance and emergency vehicles.
Formal walkways and landscaped works
on the dike crest can limit upgrade
options, thus these are discouraged.
2.8.6
Powerlines
time of dike/power line construction and

further growth curtailed.
2.8.7
Setbacks to Existing Dikes
Setbacks and ROWs for existing dikes

shall strive to achieve the requirements
set out for newly designed dikes.
2.8.8
Upgrading Existing Dikes
Investigations that shall be completed

during the assessment phase for
upgraded dikes include the following:
Performance
and
maintenance
history of existing dikes and/or flood
plains;
Flood and dike crest profiles;
Geotechnical data related to project
area; and
Availability
and
quality
of
construction materials.
Power poles, towers and guy wires shall

not be allowed on dikes.
Power lines shall be installed on the

landward side of the dike. The power
poles shall be offset a minimum of 600
mm from the landward dike toe. In this
way, the overhead clearance for the
lowest cable is not a concern. Power
lines shall not reduce dike crest width.
Where a power line crosses the dike, a
minimum clearance of 5.5 m shall be
provided for the lowest cable.
The engineer shall assess the safety and

adequacy of the existing dike to confirm
its suitability for achieving the required
upgraded profile, stability, and seepage.
Power poles shall not be constructed

where they would penetrate or adversely
impact seepage protection works for the
dike, such as toe drains.
If tall trees are present close to the power
line, such trees shall be removed at the
When the grade of the dike needs to be

raised the preferred dike enlargement
generally involves adding additional fill
materials to the crest and landside slope.
Other alternatives that have been used,
although uncommon in B.C., are raising
the dike by constructing a floodwall, I
type or inverted T type, on the dike
crown.
All low-growing vegetation and organic
topsoil shall be stripped from the surface
of the existing embankment before
2-11
placing new material within the area of

reconstruction. The topsoil shall be
stockpiled, and protected against
precipitation, for later reuse.
2.8.9
Prior to fill placement, the stripped

surfaces of the foundation and existing
dike shall be scarified. As well, the
existing slope shall be benched to
provide an interlock between the
existing and new embankment materials.
The new fills shall have at least the same
degree of compaction as the existing
dike fills on which it is constructed.
The FRFCP recommended standard dike

crest width was 3.66 m. However, the
current standard crest width of 4.0 m has
now been adopted. This provides easier
access for construction, inspection and
maintenance. In addition, if future flood
profiling or recent flooding indicate a
need to raise the dike, this slightly wider
crest allows a nominal amount of
additional material to be placed on the
dike crest, while still maintaining an
acceptable crest width for maintenance
and inspection equipment. As well, a
wider dike crest improves the support for
heavy equipment. When wheels ride
closer to the dike shoulders, the edges
may settle and fail since the outer edges
of the dike crest are unsupported.
All existing structures which are not to

be operative in the proposed design,
shall be removed or permanently sealed,
in order to prevent a seepage path
through the dike.
The raising of a dike by a small amount
can result in the installation of a sliver
fill on the landward side. This fill shall
be widened to a minimum of 1.0 m
horizontally
to
enable
suitable
compaction with a plate tamper or small
vibratory roller. The existing fills can
also be notched to enable a suitable
width for compacting. Alternatively, the
fill can be overbuilt and then trimmed
back to a suitable dimension.
Standard practice for the construction of
new dikes would include overbuilding
the dike cross-section and trimming back
to ensure adequate compaction.
Crest Width and Running

Surface
Crest Width
The crest of the dike shall be sloped or

cambered to promote drainage and
minimize surface ponding.
Running Surface
The running surface on the dike crest
will permit maintenance vehicles and
construction equipment access during
wet weather without causing detrimental
effects such as rutting, sloughing or
presenting safety hazards for inspection
and maintenance personnel. A clean,
well-graded, 19 mm minus sand and
gravel or road mulch will provide a
suitable running surface.
Other
alternatives
which
have
been
successfully used include 25 mm minus
2-12
crushed limestone rock and 19 mm clean

crushed gravel, which is ideal over
saturated dike fills.
The minimum
thickness of surfacing material is
typically 150 mm, however, a reduced
100 mm thickness has been utilized
along some dikes if the access will be
generally limited to lightly loaded
maintenance trucks. If the running
surface is to be utilized as a higher class
road, its structure is usually established
by the responsible agency.
water and be wide enough to allow two

lanes. A single lane with an adequate
number of turnouts is also acceptable.
2.8.10 Dike Access
Ramps may be located on both the

landside and the waterside of the dike.
The actual locations of the ramps shall
have the approval of the local dike
agency which owns and maintains the
dike.
Access points are essential for

emergency access to the dike during
high flow periods, for routine
inspections and for regular maintenance
of the dike (Photograph 3).
Access roads to the dikes shall be
provided at reasonably close intervals in
cooperation with regulatory agencies.
These roads shall be all-weather roads
that will allow access for the purpose of
inspection, maintenance, and floodfighting operations.
Wherever feasible, the dike shall be
connected to the local access road
system. Access ramps shall be provided
for approximately every two km length
of dike. Ramps shall be provided at
sufficient locations to permit vehicle
traffic access onto and from the dike.
Access to flood protection dikes and
associated structures shall not be
impeded.
Access roads shall be
maintained, not be susceptible to internal
drainage flooding during periods of high
Where the access road is connected to

the dike, the grade of the ramp shall not
be steeper than 10 percent. Minimum
width of the ramp shall be 4 m. The
ramp shall be progressively widened
toward the dike crest such that a tandem
dump truck can turn in either direction
of the dike.
Waterside access ramps may be required

where the riverbank erosion protection
works are constructed separately from
the main dike (setback dike). When
used on the waterside of the dike, they
shall be oriented to minimize turbulence
during high water.
Parallel approach ramps shall be
considered where possible, instead of
right angle approach ramps, because of
potential cost savings. The width of the
ramp will depend upon the intended
function. Some widening of the crown of
the dike at its juncture with the ramp
may be required to provide an adequate
turning radius. Side slopes on the ramp
shall not be less than 2.5H:1V to allow
grass-cutting equipment to operate. The
ramp shall be surfaced with suitable
gravel or crushed stone. It is important
to note that the dike section width shall
2-13
never be reduced to accommodate a

ramp.
Turnouts and Dimensions
Turnouts are locally widened dike crest
sections. These are essential during the
construction of the dike as well as for
regular maintenance and emergency
repairs (Photograph 4).
Turnouts shall be used to provide a
means for the passing of two vehicles on
a single lane access road on the dike.
These are especially important where
access ramps are infrequent. Turnouts
shall be provided within sight distance at
intervals of approximately 300 m to a
maximum of 500 m, provided there are
no access ramps within this interval. If
possible, all turnouts shall be constructed
on the landward side of the dike. The
exact locations of the turnouts will be
dependent upon various factors such as

sight distance, property lines, dike
alignment, local terrain conditions and
desires of local interests. An example
turnout for a dike with a 4 m dike crown
is shown in Figure 5 (top diagram).
Turnouts shall be evenly spaced between
access ramps. In the completed dike,
there will be turnout points for trucks at
approximately one kilometre intervals,
or less.
Minimum dimensions that have been
used successfully for typical turnouts are
as follows:
The turnout shall have an extra 6 m

width over and above the 4 m wide
dike crest.
The extra width shall extend for
approximately 20 m length, with
15 m taper sections on both sides,
Photograph 3: Access Roads For Dike Maintenance

2-14
resulting in a total length of the

turnout of 50 m.
A suitable running surface, similar to the
dike crest shall be placed on the turnout.
Turnarounds
Generally
dikes
are
terminated
connecting to existing high ground.
Road access does not normally exist at
these points, thus vehicle turnarounds
shall be constructed. Turnarounds are
also essential when the dike access is
cutoff by railway or highway
embankments that are higher than the
dike crest. The high ground can be cut
back to build the turnaround or fill can
be placed, preferably on the landside. A
suitable running surface shall be
installed on the turnarounds similar to
the dike crest.
Turnarounds shall be provided to allow

vehicles to reverse their direction on
dikes where:
dead-ends exist;
dike is longer than a kilometer; and
no access ramp exists in the vicinity
of the dead-end.
The turnaround shall also allow two

trucks to pass one another with one
parked on the turnaround, and the other
travelling on the normal crest width. An
example turnaround for a dike with a
4 m crest is shown in Figure 5 (bottom
diagram).
Photograph 4: Access Ramp and Turnout

2-15
Figure 5 - Turnouts and Turnarounds
2-16
2.8.11 Dredging Limits
Dredging of the channel fronting the

dike shall not take place in any location
that would tend to undermine or threaten
the stability of the dike or bank
protection.
Specifications for dredging adjacent to
dikes are site specific, however,
dredging shall not be undertaken within
10 metres of the toe of the riprap, nor
extend below a 3H:1V slope extending
from the riverward shoulder of the dike
crest.
2.9
Design Criteria
The site-specific details that shall be

considered in the design of dikes are:
foundation conditions;
dike stability with respect to shear
strength;
settlement, seepage, and erosion;
available dike materials;
available construction equipment;
and
available area for ROW.
In the case of the FRFCP program, dikes

were designed to be stable under
conditions of design water levels for
prolonged periods of time. The dike
slopes varied with each site depending
on the individual situation of soils, dike
height, and dike construction materials.
Generally the dike slopes were 3H:1V,
or flatter. In many cases, a landside toe
drain was required to control seepage
pressures.
In some cases, uplift
pressures on weak soil layers had to be
controlled by relief wells drilled through
the weak layer. These wells relieve the
pressure by allowing controlled flow.
Alternatively, uplift was controlled by
berms placed at the landside dike toe
which counteract the uplift force. Where
required, ditches previously excavated at
the landside toe as a source of dike
material, were filled to increase stability
and prevent piping.
Proposed cross-section designs shall be

analysed for stability as it is affected by
foundation and/or embankment shear
strength,
settlement
caused
by
compression of the foundation and/or the
embankment, external (surface) erosion,
and internal erosion (piping). The
methods described and referenced herein
contain procedures that have proven
satisfactory from past use.
2-17
Figure 6 - Potential Seepage Control Options for Design (Not All Required)
2-18
2.9.1
Seepage
Seepage is the movement of water

through soil under a differential
hydrostatic pressure and can result in
problems with dike stability. When
carrying out a new dike design or
upgrading an existing dike, the potential
for and expected problems related to
foundation underseepage and seepage
through the dike shall be seriously
considered. Issues related to seepage are
discussed herein with each of the
seepage methods depicted on Figure 6.
Foundation Underseepage
Without proper control, underseepage in
pervious foundations beneath dikes may
potentially
lead
to
sand
boils
(Photograph 5), piping beneath the dike,
and/or result in excessive hydrostatic
pressures beneath a relatively thin
impervious top stratum on the landside

of the dike. Underseepage problems are
common where a pervious substratum
underlies a dike and extends both
landward and waterward of the dike or
where a relatively thin impervious top
stratum exists on the landside of the
dike, underlain by pervious materials.
Underseepage problems shall be
assessed for both new dikes and
upgrades to existing dikes, many of
which have not been designed for
adequate underseepage control. The
most common seepage control measures
to reduce or eliminate foundation
underseepage include cutoff trenches,
waterside impervious layers, landside
seepage berms, pervious toe trenches,
and pressure relief wells. These methods
will be discussed in the following
sections.
Photograph 5: Sand Boils

2-19
Photograph 6: Cutoff Trench

Cutoff Trenches
A cutoff beneath a dike to reduce
seepage through pervious foundation
strata is typically the best means of
reducing
underseepage
problems.
Cutoffs are typically located at the
waterside toe of the dike and generally
consist of excavated trenches backfilled
with compacted impervious fill. Cutoff
trenches are generally only effective
when they penetrate through the
pervious strata, or at least 95 per cent
into it, and will rarely be economical
where they must penetrate more than a
few metres depth. However, if a dike is
less than 3 m in total height, some
reduction in underseepage can be
achieved with a cutoff trench which
extends to a minimum 1 m depth
(Photograph 6).
Open cut trenches can be excavated

above the groundwater table, but a
dewatering system will likely be
required if the trenches need to extend
below the groundwater table. This is
due to the likelihood of the sideslopes of
the trench sloughing below the
groundwater table. Dewatering dike
foundations for the purpose of
excavation and backfilling in the dry is
expensive if more than simple ditches
and sumps are required, and shall be
avoided if possible.
To avoid
dewatering, the sides of the open cut
trench may be supported with sodium
bentonite clay and water slurry. These
slurry materials can then be displaced
with a relatively impermeable fill
material.
Consideration could also be given to
driving steel sheet piles along the toe of
2-20
Photograph 7: Construction of a Landside Seepage Berm

the waterside of the dike to reduce
underseepage. While this method is not
entirely watertight due to leakage at the
interlocks, it can reduce the possibility
of piping in the case of sandy strata in
the foundation.
possible. Consideration may also be

given to thickening the relatively
impervious cover by placing impervious
materials in areas where it thins out,
depending on the effectiveness of this
cover based on analysis.
In BC, cutoff trenches have been utilized

for a number of dike structures and
generally extend to less than 2 m depth.
Deeper cutoff trenches, slurry trenches,
and sheet piling have been less common
in the construction of dikes in BC.
Landside Seepage Berms
Waterside Impervious Layers

Dikes in BC are frequently founded on
natural covers of relatively fine-grained
impervious soils overlying pervious
materials. If these natural covers are
continuous and extend waterward for a
considerable
distance,
they
can
effectively reduce seepage flow and
seepage pressures on the landside of the
dike. Where underseepage is a problem,
waterside excavation shall be avoided if
If uplift pressures in pervious deposits

underlying an impervious top stratum on
the landside of a dike become greater
than the effective weight of the top
stratum, heaving and rupturing of the top
stratum may occur, resulting in sand
boils or blow outs. Where space is
available, the construction of landside
berms can reduce or eliminate this
hazard by providing the additional
weight needed to counteract these
upward seepage forces and the
additional length required to reduce
uplift pressures at the toe of the berm to
acceptable levels. Landside berms also
reduce the potential for sloughing or
failure of the landside slope. Seepage
2-21
berms may be placed on pervious

foundations or reinforce a relatively thin
existing impervious top stratum. Other
advantages of these berms are their
relative ease to construct and limited
maintenance requirements (Photograph
7).
The type of seepage berm used shall be
based on available fill materials, space
available on the landside of the dike, and
relative costs. The most common types
of seepage berms are impervious berms
and sand berms. Relatively impervious
berms need to be constructed to the
thickness necessary to provide an
adequate factor of safety against uplift
from underlying seepage pressures and
sand berms shall be as pervious as
possible to allow excess pore pressures
to dissipate, thereby reducing the
potential of piping and sloughing at the
landside dike toe. Sand berms typically

require less material and space than
relatively impervious berms providing
the same protection. These landside
berms shall fall within the landside dike
ROW. Landside seepage berms have
been used along the Matsqui dike and
the Abbotsford side of the Vedder canal.
Pervious Toe Trench
Where a dike is founded on pervious
materials overlain by little or no
impervious materials, a partially
penetrating toe trench (Photograph 8)
can improve seepage conditions at or
near the toe by reducing the potential for
a buildup of seepage pressure. The main
use of a pervious toe trench is to manage
shallow underseepage and protect the
area in the vicinity of the dike toe. A
perforated pipe can be placed at the base
of the trench to collect the seepage.
They may also be used in conjunction
with relief well systems where the wells
collect deeper seepage and the trench
collects shallow seepage.
Pervious drainage trenches are typically
located at the landside dike toe, but are
occasionally constructed beneath the
landside dike slope and connected to a
horizontal pervious drainage layer
located at the base of the dike and as
discussed below. Trench geometry will
depend on the volume of expected
underseepage, desired reduction in uplift
pressure, construction practicalities, and
the stability of the material in which it is
being excavated. The trench is generally
excavated to a minimum 1 m depth for
dikes which are less than 3 m in height.
Photograph 8
Installation of Pervious Toe Trench
2-22
Photograph 9: Pressure Relief Wells

The granular backfill for trenches must
be designed as a filter material in
accordance with criteria given in Section
2.9.6. If a collector pipe is used, the
pipe shall be surrounded by a 300 mm
thickness of gravel and may need to be
surrounded by a geotextile fabric to limit
the migration of fine grained materials
into the gravel or the collector pipe.
Pressure Relief Wells
Pressure relief wells (Photographs 9,
10) are used where pervious strata
underlying a dike are too deep or too
thick to be penetrated by cutoffs or toe
drains or where space for landside berms
is limited. They may be installed along
the landside toe of dikes to reduce uplift
pressure which may otherwise cause
sand boils and piping of foundation
materials. Wells accomplish this by
intercepting and providing controlled
outlets for seepage that would otherwise
emerge uncontrolled landward of the
dike.
Relief wells shall adequately
penetrate pervious strata and be spaced
sufficiently close to intercept enough

seepage to reduce to safe values the
hydrostatic pressures acting beyond and
between the wells. Relief well systems
can be easily expanded if the initial
installation does not provide the control
needed and the discharge of existing
wells can be increased by pumping if the
need arises.
A relief well system
requires minimal additional land
compared with other seepage control
methods but also require periodic
maintenance and frequently suffer loss
in efficiency with time, due to clogging
of well screens. The increase in seepage
discharge and means for collecting and
disposing of their discharge must be
provided. If relief wells are to be used in
the design, the diking authority must be
informed of and be prepared to accept
the additional maintenance
responsibilities.
The design of a pressure relief well
system involves determination of well
spacing, size, and penetration to reduce
2-23
Photograph 10: Installation of Pressure Relief Wells

uplift between wells to allowable values.
Factors to be considered are:
uncommon in BC due to their relatively

high cost.
Seepage Through Embankments
depth, stratification, and

permeability of foundation soils;
distance to the effective source of
seepage;
characteristics of the landside top
stratum, if any, and;
degree of pressure relief desired.
Proper methods of drilling, backfilling,

and developing a relief well must be
employed or the well will be of little or
no use.
In BC, pressure relief wells have been
used along the Chilliwack side of the
Vedder Canal where a permeable sand
layer is overlain by a relatively thin
weak silt layer. The wells relieve the
hydrostatic pressure created against the
silt layer to reduce the chance of piping
or blowouts.
It should be noted
however, that pressure relief wells are
During high water conditions, most

dikes have a certain amount of seepage
resulting from water percolating slowly
through the dike and its foundation.
Seepage occurs in all dikes and is
considered normal as long as the water
remains clear and the flow is not
concentrated or changes dramatically in
velocity and quantity. However, it is
generally better to be proactive and
reduce the probability for potential
seepage problems by designing a dike,
new or upgraded, with some seepage
control, where appropriate.
Should seepage through an embankment
emerge on the landside slope it can
soften fine grained fill in the vicinity of
the landside toe, causing sloughing of
the slope, or even lead to piping or
2-24
Photograph 11: Flattening Sideslopes to Install Impervious Layer

internal erosion of any fine sand and silt
materials which may exist. It could also
result in high seepage forces, decreasing
the stability of the slope. In many cases,
high water stages do not act against the
dike long enough for this to happen. If
analysis indicates that potential problems
may result from the emergence of
seepage from the slope, provisions shall
be incorporated in the dike section such
as impervious layers, pervious drainage
layers (or toe), or horizontal toe drains to
prevent or reduce seepage from
emerging on the landside slope. For the
most effective control of through
seepage, the permeability shall increase
progressively from the core out toward
the landslide slope, depending on the
materials available.
Impervious Layer
If a relatively pervious material is used
for the general dike construction and
limited seepage through the dike is

preferable, an impervious layer is
commonly placed at the waterside of the
dike to eliminate, or greatly reduce the
amount of seepage passing through the
dike. This impervious layer is typically
0.5 to 1.0 m in thickness and extends
across the entire waterside slope of the
dike. An impervious layer can also be
combined with cutoff trenches, which
have previously been discussed, as a
method for controlling underseepage
(Photograph 11).
Drainage Layer or Toe Drain
A pervious drainage layer or toe drain
will provide an exit for seepage through
the embankment and can lower the
phreatic surface sufficiently so that no
seepage will emerge on the landside
slope. A pervious drainage layer (or toe)
can also be combined with partially
penetrating toe trenches, which have
2-25
Photograph 12: Drainage Layer and Pressure Relief Wells

previously been discussed, as a method
for controlling shallow underseepage. A
pervious drainage layer is typically 0.5
to 1 m in thickness and extends across
the entire landside slope of the dike.
The dimensions of a toe drain are
dependent on the geometry of the dike.
If the difference in gradation between
the bulk dike fills and the pervious
drainage materials are great, the drainage
layer may need to be separated from the
dike fills with a graded filter or
geotextile fabric to reduce the potential
for the migration of soil from the dike
core material into the generally coarser
grained drainage layer, or toe
(Photograph 12).
Horizontal Drainage Layers
Horizontal drainage layers essentially
serve the same purpose as a pervious
drainage layer or toe drain but can
extend further under the embankment

and typically require less material. They
can also serve to protect the base of the
embankment
against
high
uplift
pressures where shallow foundation
underseepage is occurring. These layers
typically have a minimum thickness of
500 mm.
In BC, horizontal drainage layers have
not been commonly used but shall be
considered for new dike construction.
Design of Drainage Layers
The design of pervious drainage layers
or toe drain and horizontal drainage
layers must ensure that such layers have
adequate thickness and permeability to
transmit
seepage
without
any
appreciable head loss while at the same
time preventing migration of finer soil
particles. The design of drainage layers
2-26
must satisfy the criteria outlined in

Section 2.9.6 for filter design.
Methods of Analysis
If the thickness of an existing surficial
impervious layer, underlain by pervious
soils, is greater than the expected
reservoir head, it can generally be
assumed that there will be no major
problems
involved
so
far
as
underseepage or seepage forces are
concerned.
In most other cases
involving new dikes or upgrades to
existing dikes, both underseepage and
through seepage shall be assessed. This
may involve simple analyses in the case
of low dikes, less than 1.5 m in height,
or more detailed analyses for higher
dikes. In many cases, if a designer has
had significant experience with local
dikes, seepage control measures may be
based on past experience and may not
require extensive analyses. Also, in
some cases seepage control measures
may be avoided by flattening the slopes
of the dike enough to reduce seepage
problems by increasing the seepage path
under a dike.
To estimate the amount of underseepage
that may be expected, it is necessary to
determine the coefficient of permeability
of the pervious foundation.
To
determine a reasonable approximation of
these coefficients, the values may be
estimated using the results of gradation
analyses carried out on samples of the
pervious materials, or pump tests where
water is pumped into drill holes and the
rate of seepage is observed under a given
head. When more precise estimates of
the coefficient of permeability are

required for analyses, methods such as
pump out tests, rate of travel of a dye or
electrolyte from the point of injection to
an observation well, or a number of
laboratory tests, have been used
successfully in the past.
Various methods of analysis are
available for the number of possible
underseepage scenarios as determined
appropriate by the designer. Examples
of these include the Darcy formula
(amount of underseepage for simple
analyses), and using a flow net (seepage
forces for more complex analyses).
Computer programs are also available
which greatly reduce the effort of
making such analyses, and primary
attention can then be devoted to the
more important problems of defining the
coefficient of permeability. One such
program that is commonly used for
simple and complex seepage analyses is
Seep/W (Geo-Slope International Ltd.,
2002), which uses the finite element
method of analyses. This program may
also be used in conjunction with
Slope/W (Geo-Slope International Ltd.,
2002) to analyse seepage and stability
problems together.
2.9.2
Fill Settlement
Like uncontrolled seepage, settlement of

a dike can result in failure of the dike,
but more likely will serve to precipitate
failure by another mode such as seepage
or
shear
failure.
Consolidation,
shrinkage, and some lateral deformation
occur over a period of time. Some
lateral deformation can occur quickly,
2-27
however,
particularly
during
construction. Settlement problems are
almost always related to fine-grained
soils, such as silts or clays. Settlement
and/or shrinkage of coarse-grained soils,
such as sands and gravel, is generally
much less than for fine-grained soils and
occurs
quickly,
usually
during
construction.
Settlement of dikes can result from
consolidation of foundation and/or
embankment materials, shrinkage of
embankment materials, or lateral
spreading of the foundation. Excessive
uniform settlement can cause a loss of
dike height. Differential settlement can
result in cracking of the dike, which can
then lead to a shear or piping failure.
This is an especially acute problem at
the contact between a dike and an
adjacent structure.
Settlement of the dike and any other
related structures shall be evaluated and
provisions made in the design to
counteract the effects of any anticipated
settlements which in many cases
involves overbuilding the dike. Where
ongoing
settlement
is
expected,
provisions shall be made to monitor the
dike crest elevation for settlement for up
to a two year period with the dike topped
up periodically as settlement occurs, or
to verify settlement if overbuilding was
carried out. If monitored settlement
persists, a longer monitoring period than
two years maybe required.
Settlement Analyses
Settlement estimates can be made by the
design engineer using standard analysis
methods. Detailed settlement analyses
shall be made when significant
consolidation is expected, as under high
embankment loads, embankments of
highly compressible soil, embankments
on compressible foundations, and
beneath steel and concrete structures in
dike systems founded on compressible
soils.
Where foundation and
embankment soils are relatively
pervious, most of the settlement will
occur during construction. Where
analyses indicate that more foundation
settlement would occur than can be
tolerated, partial or complete removal of
compressible foundation material may
be necessary from both stability and
settlement viewpoints. When the depth
of excavation required to accomplish
this is too great for economical
construction, other methods of control
such as staged construction or vertical
sand drains may have to be employed,
although they seldom are justified for
this purpose.
2.9.3
Fill Slope Stability
Overstressing of low shear strength soils

in the dike and/or the foundation, often
coupled with seepage effects, is the
cause of most dike failures. Failures of
this type can be the most catastrophic of
all since they usually occur quickly and
can result in the loss of an entire section
of the dike. These failures may involve
the dike alone, or they may involve both
the dike and the foundation.
2-28
For dikes constructed in BC on generally

competent foundation conditions it has
been found that dike side slopes are
typically stable at slopes of 2H:1V, or
flatter. The FRFCP standard for dike
construction was 3H:1V, or flatter, for
waterside sideslopes without riprap
protection, 2H:1V, or flatter, with riprap
protection, and 2.5H:1V, or flatter, for
landside slopes, to facilitate mowing.
For dikes of significant height, greater
than 2 m, or when there is concern about
the adequacy of available embankment
materials or foundation conditions, dike
embankment design requires detailed
analysis. Low dikes and dikes to be
built of good and well compacted
material which rest on proven
foundations, may not require extensive
stability analysis.
For these cases,
practical considerations such as type and
ease of construction, maintenance,
seepage and slope protection criteria
control the selection of dike slopes. In
these cases, as a general rule, landside
slopes without seepage control measures
shall be no steeper than 3H:1V, and shall
be no steeper than 2H:1V, with adequate
seepage control.
For the waterside
slope, the slopes shall be no steeper than
2.5H:1V, and may be steepened to
2H:1V, with erosion control. It shall be
noted that dikes with heights of greater
than 2 m and less than 3.5 m shall be
sloped at 3H:1V, or flatter, even under
the most favorable conditions. Higher
dikes require further analyses.
In the case of upgrading an existing dike,
the slope stability shall be checked for
the existing condition and the expected
condition
following
upgrading.
Placement
of
stockpiles,
heavy
equipment, or other surcharges may also
cause instability and shall be analysed.
Methods of Analysis
Analyses of slope stability involves three
basic parts:
obtaining subsurface information;

determining soil strength parameters;
and
determining a potential failure
surface which provides the minimum
safety factor against failure for
various water level stages.
The principal methods used to analyse

dike embankments for stability against
shear failure assume either a sliding
surface having the shape of a circular arc
within the foundation and/or the
embankment, i.e. slip-circle analyses, or
a composite failure surface composed of
a long horizontal plane in a relatively
weak foundation or thin foundation
stratum connecting with diagonal plane
surfaces up through the foundation and
embankment to the ground surface, i.e.
wedge analyses. Various methods of
analysis are available for each of these
scenarios and can be chosen for use
where determined appropriate by the
designer. Some methods commonly
used to carry out these types of analyses
include the Bishop, Janbu, and Spencer
methods. Computer programs are also
available which greatly reduce the effort
of making such analyses, and primary
attention can then be devoted to the
more important problems of defining the
2-29
re
m
gn
si
de
ic
ns
'n
ew
in
te
rim
se
is
Sudden drawdown
Analysis is based on the condition where
a prolonged flood stage saturates at least
the major part of the waterside
embankment portion and then falls faster
than the soil can drain. This condition
only applies to the waterside slope.
pe
ra
t
io
The various loading conditions to which

a dike and its foundation may be
subjected and which shall be considered
in analyses include end of construction,
sudden drawdown from full flood stage,
and steady seepage from full flood stage,
which represents fully developed
phreatic surface. The phreatic surface
or zero pressure surface is the upper
surface of seepage and is referred to as
the phreatic line in cross section.
Although the soil may be saturated by
capillary above this line, giving rise to a
line of saturation, seepage is limited to
the portion below the phreatic line.
re
q
ui
Conditions Requiring Analysis
ur
al
R
es
ou
rc
e
Another type of analyses that may be

considered, but that is not required at
this time in BC, are the effects of
earthquake, or seismic loads on dike
stability.
Steady seepage from full flood stage

(fully developed phreatic surface)
Analysis is based on the water remaining
at or near the full flood stage level long
enough
to
fully
saturate
the
embankment. This condition may cause
a condition of steady seepage which may
result in the landside slope becoming
unstable. This condition only applies to
the landside slope.
try
of
at
The steady-state condition that involves

the maximum saturation of the
embankment is the most critical post
construction condition for the stability of
the landside slope. The most critical
operating condition so far as the stability
of the waterside slope is concerned is a
rapid drawdown after a long period of
high reservoir level.
in
is
M
o
er
t
ef
R
en
ts
.
End of construction
The analysis is based on undrained
conditions for impervious embankment
and foundation soils, i.e. excess pore
water pressures exist due to insufficient
time for the soil to drain following
placement/loading. For most pervious
soil conditions, it can be assumed that
they drain fast enough during
placement/loading so that no excess pore
water pressure exists at the end of
construction. This condition applies to
both the waterside and landside slopes.
shear strengths, unit weights, geometry,

and limits of possible sliding surfaces.
One such program that is commonly
used for simple and complex stability
analyses is Slope/W (Geo-Slope
International Ltd., 2002).
If the factor of safety against slope

stability failure is considered to be too
low, methods commonly used to
improve embankment stability by
changes in the embankment geometry
include flattening embankment slopes
and the addition of stability berms.
Methods to improve stability on dikes
being constructed on weak or
2-30
compressible foundations are discussed

in the following section.
Methods of Improving Stability
Dikes proposed on foundation soils that
cannot support the dike embankment
because of inadequate shear strength
require some type of foundation
treatment if the dike is to be built.
Foundation deposits that are prone to
cause problems broadly include very soft
clays, sensitive clays, native organic
deposits, debris deposited by man, and
loose sands.
Very soft clays are
susceptible to shear failure, failure by
spreading, and excessive settlement.
Sometimes soft clay deposits have a
zone of stronger clay at the surface,
caused by desiccation, which if strong
enough may reduce the need for
treatment. Sensitive clays are brittle and
even though possessing considerable
strength in the undisturbed state, are
subject to partial or complete loss of
strength upon disturbance. Most organic
soils are very compressible and exhibit
low shear strength. The behavior of
debris deposited by man, such as
industrial and urban refuse, is so varied
in character that its physical behavior is
difficult, if not impossible, to predict.
Loose sands are sensitive to disturbance
and can liquefy and flow when subjected
to shock or even shear strains caused by
erosion at the toe of slopes. However,
failure of loose sands is mostly
earthquake related and not presently
required for analyses in BC.
The most effective method of dealing
with excessively compressible and/or
weak foundation soils which are not

excessively deep, is to remove them and
backfill the excavation with suitable
compacted material. Other options to
deal with these types of soils include
displacing the materials by end dumping
new fills onto them (also useful for
access road construction), and staged
construction.
Staged Construction
Staged construction refers to the
building of a dike over several time
intervals (i.e. in stages). This method is
used where the strength of the
foundation material is inadequate to
support the entire weight of the
embankment if constructed at a pace that
does not allow the foundation materials
to drain. Using this method, the
embankment is built to intermediate
grades and allowed to rest for a time
before placing more fill. Such periods
permit dissipation of pore water
pressures, which results in a gain in
strength so that higher embankment
loadings may be supported. Initial
estimates of the time required for the
needed strength gain can be made from
results of consolidation tests and study
of boring data. Piezometers shall be
installed during construction to monitor
the rate of pore water dissipation, and
rate of fill placement shall be based on
these observations, together with direct
observations of fill and foundation
behavior. Disadvantages of this method
are the delays in construction operation,
and uncertainty as to its scheduling and
efficiency.
2-31
If the expected rate of consolidation

under
staged
construction
is
unacceptably slow, it may be increased
by the use of prefabricated vertical or
wick drains. Such drains are geotextile
wrapped plastic cores that provide open
flow areas in the compressible stratum.
Their purpose is to reduce the length of
drainage paths, thus speeding up primary
consolidation. The wick drains are very
thin and about 100 mm wide. They can
be pushed into place through soft soils to
over 30 m depth. Before the drains are
installed, a sand drainage blanket is
placed on the foundation which serves
not only to tie the drains together and
provide an exit for escaping pore water,
but as a working platform as well. This
drainage blanket shall not continue
across the entire base width of the
embankment, but shall be interrupted
beneath the center.
The layer above the drains must be
cutoff as a flow path under the dike. An
upstream clay blanket should be used.
The clay should be placed after
settlement is complete. A toe drain
should be included to manage seepage.
2.9.4
Dike Materials
A wide range of materials may be

considered for use in dikes depending on
seepage and stability considerations, and
materials available for use within the
vicinity of the proposed dike alignment
(or upgrading). If a fine-grained soil can
be brought readily within the range of
water contents suitable for compaction
and for operation of construction
equipment, it can normally be used for
embankment construction. Generally,

any dike fills proposed as bulk fills, or
specific impervious or pervious fill
layers shall limit the particle size to
generally less than 100 mm and shall not
contain materials greater than 150 mm in
diameter. Larger cobbles and boulders
within a dike fill make adequate
compaction difficult to achieve and may
allow void space to remain in the fills
following compaction.
To limit seepage through a dike, the bulk
dike fill would typically comprise
between about 15 and 30 per cent fines
(silts and clays) passing the U.S.
Standard No. 200 sieve. For increased
resistance to seepage, a material with
greater than 30 per cent fines may be
considered but will likely be more
difficult to compact unless it is near its
optimum moisture content. This type of
material can be relatively impervious
when well compacted. If most of the
readily available borrow area materials
contain less than 10 per cent fines, they
may be considered for use as bulk fill if
an impervious layer is placed on the
waterside of the dike. The fill materials
for an impervious layer shall be a clay
based material with greater than about
25 percent fines with limited oversize
particles (i.e. 75 mm minus).
Any proposed pervious drainage layers
placed on the landside of the dike shall
contain less than 5 percent fines passing
the U.S. Standard No. 200 sieve. If this
material is not available in the vicinity of
the dike and needs to be imported, a
75 mm minus well-graded sand and
gravel fill shall be considered.
2-32
A careful analysis of all available

material sources, including location,
material type, and available volume shall
be made (Photograph 13). At least 15 m
in width shall be left undisturbed
between the toe of the dike slope and the
edge of the borrow pit.
Generally, proposed borrow materials
shall have natural water contents low
enough to allow placement and adequate
compaction. The cost of drying borrow
material to suitable water contents can
be very high, in many cases exceeding
the cost of longer haul distances to
obtain material that can be placed
without drying. Borrow soils undergo
construction
considered.
season
shall
also
be
In computing required fill quantities, a

shrinkage factor of at least 25 percent
shall be applied. For example, borrow
area volumes shall be at least
125 percent of the dike cross-section
volume. This will allow for material
shrinkage, compaction, hauling and
other losses.
Borrow areas shall be cleared and
grubbed to the extent needed to obtain
fill material free of objectionable matter,
such as trees, brush, vegetation, stumps,
and roots. Topsoil with low vegetative
Photograph 13: Grizzly For Production of Dike Materials

seasonal water content variations; hence
water content data shall be based on
samples obtained from borrow areas in
that season of the year when dike
construction is planned. Possible
variation of water contents during the
cover may be stripped and stockpiled for

later placement on landside slopes of
dikes and any additional berms.
2-33
2.9.5
Earthquake Considerations
Other than a few major pumping

facilities, dikes and dike structures in BC
are not designed for earthquake forces.
This was necessitated by economics of
treatment, although it was rationalized
by the FRFCP that the chance of
occurrence of a major flood peak
simultaneously with a large earthquake
would be rare. However, substantial
deformation of dikes in tidal areas shall
be given special consideration.
It shall be noted that if foundations or
the dike materials consist of saturated,
low relative density (i.e. loose) sands
and silts, or uniform, cohesionless
materials are encountered, serious
damage may result to the structure
during a moderately large earthquake
due to liquefaction of those materials.
Liquefaction of a saturated soil results
from disturbance of the grain to grain
contact and the consequent transfer of
the load to the water in the voids in the
soil. This leads to a rapid build up of
water pressure in the soil pores, during
which time the soil acts as a liquid.
Some possible effects of liquefaction at a
site include loss of bearing capacity,
settlement, the potential for lateral
spreading, especially near river or sea
slopes, and embankment failures.
Resulting damage to flood protection

works would need to be rapidly repaired
prior to the subsequent flood period, or
prior to high tides.
While it may not be possible to justify
earthquake design, studies shall be
carried out to determine the expected
locations and extent of damage to
specific dikes for different return
periods, the time required to rebuild
following an earthquake, and the return
period for which dikes and foundations
are stable. Of particular concern is
whether it would be possible to rebuild
the threatened dikes before the next
freshet.
Riprap placed steeper than 2H:1V may
be potentially unstable during a seismic
event. The consideration of final slope
configuration will include the cost
savings of placing less material at a
steeper slope, and shall also consider
reconstruction costs in a major seismic
event.
For significant structural
components, such as pump stations,
consideration of seismic issues shall be
included
in
the
evaluation
of
construction cost and overall project
risk. If components survive a seismic
event with little damage, repair costs
will be less.
2.9.6
In BC, the potential for liquefaction

pertains particularly to the Vedder
Canal, Richmond, and Delta dikes, many
of which are composed of fine, loose
sand and silt founded on a thin silty layer
which are underlain by a thick layer of
generally loose to compact fine sands.
Erosion Protection
Riprap Layer
The riprap layer is the primary
protection against shear stress or erosive
forces from flowing water which can act
to remove material from the face of the
2-34
dike. In BC, rock riprap is normally the

most cost effective erosion protection
material, due to its durability, history of
use and availability. Riprap erosion
protection (Photograph 14) is normally
easy to repair, straightforward to
construct and can withstand some
dislocation of the armour without failing.
Limitations include the slope angle,
which has a minimum standard slope of
2H:1V, difficulty in placing underwater
to a suitable finish tolerance,
environmental acceptability as well as
aesthetic appearance.
Erosion protection is constructed to
withstand the following specific
hydraulic processes that can cause
erosion of dikes:
Design criteria for riprap erosion

protection include the following:
The action of water flow, including

frictional erosion due to shear stress,
direct impingement flow, eddying
due to restrictions in the channel;
The action of debris floods and

debris flows, which can include all
of the aforementioned scenarios;
Wave action resulting in wave
breaking and overtopping; and
Ice impact.
Density and strength criteria of rock;

Angular character of rock;
Durability under freeze thaw;
Soundness and texture;
Required size distribution to
withstand the estimated design
forces;
Layer thickness and placement
technique;
Use of toe aprons or berms to
prevent undermining; and
Final placed slope angle.
Design guidelines are presented in the
Photograph 14: Rock Riprap Erosion Protection
2-35
when the erosion layer is being

placed.
manual entitled Riprap Design &

Construction
Guide
(Water
Management Branch, 2000).
Filter Layer
Filter layers are defined as layers to
protect the underlying dike core material
from erosion by currents or waves
without excessive pore water pressure
buildup in the core. The filter can
consist of one or more layers of granular
materials, geotextile fabrics or a
combination of fabric overlain with
granular material.
However, granular filters can be difficult

to place underwater, as uniform
construction thicknesses are not easy to
achieve.
Design criteria for
Filter layers are designed to achieve the

following objectives:
prevent migration of underlying finer

grained soils into the overlying
erosion protection layer; and
reduce hydrodynamic loads on the
dike's outer stone layers, by allowing
additional dissipation of flow energy.
granular
filters
retention criteria to prevent loss of

the foundation or core material;
permeability criteria to reduce
hydraulic gradients across the layer;
internal stability criterion to prevent
loss of the finer fraction of the filter
layers itself; and
layer thickness.
If a geotextile filler is used, it is

recommended that a bedding layer be
placed over the geotextiles to prevent
damage from stone impact.
Riprap Tie-in (or Key-in)
Granular filters can have the following

advantages over geotextile filters in dike
construction:
the filter elements are usually very

durable;
granular filters provide a good
bedding layer between the erosion
protection layer and the underlying
core;
self weight of the filter layer
contributes to its stability during
construction, while geotextiles may
need to be anchored; and
the nature of the granular filter
allows it to better withstand in parts
Adequate tie-in or tie-back is required to

protect against out flanking by
floodwaters. The "Riprap Design and
Construction
Guide"
(Water
Management Branch, 2000) provides
direction on design and construction of
tie-ins.
Groynes
Groynes protect erodible banks by
directing the flow toward the centre of
the channel. They are useful in reducing
meander migration and water velocities
2-36
near the bank. The design variables

most used for deflector design are:
orientation angle and effective

length;
spacing of groynes;
placement site construction material;
and
adequate tie-in to the bank is
required
to
protect
against
outflanking.
2.9.7
Flood Levels River Dikes
In British Columbia, the standard design

flood is the flood with the annual
probability of occurrence of 0.5 %, also
referred to as the 1 in 200 year flood, on
the local reach of the river or the stream
where the flood protection works are
built. The standard design flood levels
for rivers in British Columbia shall be
determined by the proponent, in
consultation with the Flood Hazard
Management section of the Ministry of
Water, Land and Air Protection.
The standard for river dike crest
elevation is the higher of 1 in 200 year
instantaneous flow plus 0.3 m freeboard,
or the 1 in 200 year maximum daily flow
plus 0.6 m freeboard. For agricultural
land, the higher of the 1 in 50 year
instantaneous flow plus 0.3 m freeboard
or the 1 in 50 year maximum daily flow
plus 0.6 m freeboard is the
recommended minimum level.
2.9.8
Flood Levels Sea Dikes
For dikes bordering the ocean, the dike

crest height is estimated considering the
following contributions:
tidal fluctuations;
storm surge; and
wave runup.
The maximum high tide can be derived

from the CHS Tide Tables for the BC
Coast, either by inferring directly from
stations adjacent to the study area, or by
interpolating from one of the reference
stations.
Storm surge occurs as a result of
barometric pressure variation and other
atmospheric effects. The storm surge
magnitude can be estimated from a
comparison of actual measured water
levels and predicted water levels at a tide
reference station. Annual maxima can
be analysed statistically to estimate, for
example, a 1:200 year storm surge. One
then normally includes the storm surge,
plus high tide, plus a freeboard
(normally 0.6 m), to establish the 1:200
year water level for a coastal site.
Additional considerations for dike height
on a site specific basis may include
wave runup and setup. Wave runup is
the limit of wave uprush on the seaward
face of the dike, and wave setup is the
superelevation of the water line
landward of the breaker line. In most
instances, wave runup is an order of
magnitude larger than wave setup, and
can be estimated for the depth limited
wave height at the toe of the structure.
2-37
2.9.9
Freeboard
The profile of the dike crest is obtained

by adding a freeboard allowance to the
standard design flood. Freeboard is the
vertical allowance added to the standard
design flood levels to allow for
uncertainties in flood levels.
The
standard design flood profile is
discussed in Section 2.9.7.
Additional freeboard may be required
where channel infilling, aggradation,
debris accumulation, or log jams may
occur. As well, the freeboard may be
increased to allow for long term dike
settlement.
will be chosen based upon goodness of

fit, consistency of instantaneous and
daily flood estimates and regional
suitability. The proximity of the gauge
to the study area shall be carefully
examined and the quality and length of
the dataset confirmed. The estimated
flow rates at the gauge location can then
be adjusted using an areal adjustment
procedure to incorporate differences in
drainage basin sizes from the recording
site to the site of interest. Further
considerations may include the effect of
other tributaries and timing of peak
flows in those tributaries with respect to
the main system.
Ungauged System
Reference information on design flood

levels for many rivers in B.C. can be
obtained from the Flood Hazard
Management Section of MWLAP.
2.9.10 Design Discharge Estimation
Design discharge estimation is the

process by which a particular flow rate is
determined for the watercourse in
question. There are two approaches
whereby the design discharge can be
estimated and the procedure depends
upon whether the watercourse is gauged
or not.
Gauged System
Should the watercourse be gauged, flood
flows corresponding to various return
periods can be estimated using a
statistical analysis of the gauged data.
Several statistical distributions are
available and the selected distribution
To estimate design discharges in an

ungauged system, one can draw upon
gauged data sets in adjoining similar
watersheds. These gauged watersheds
shall also be reviewed for proximity to
the site, and similarity in physical
characteristics, for example, watershed
size,
hypsometry,
exposure
and
hydrologic zone to determine their
suitability for data transfer and
adjustment.
Flows corresponding to various return
periods are then estimated statistically,
and flows for the target watershed
estimated based upon areal adjustment.
Alternatively, if the areas of adjoining
watersheds lie above and below the area
of the target watershed, the flood flows
for specific return periods can be
interpolated directly or on a water yield
per unit area basis.
2-38
Figure 7 Fisheries Sensitive Zone

There may also be occasions when there
are no suitable local gauges for transfer
to the target watershed.
In these
instances, flood flows can be estimated
using a runoff routing approach whereby
a synthesized design rainfall event can
be used to estimate runoff and hence
flood flows.
Difficulty with this
technique can arise if there are no data or
observations on past floods to enable
some measure of calibration to occur.
existing habitats or vegetation. The

mitigation requirements for a project
will be determined by the relevant
environmental
agency,
such
as
DFO, and generally will require
extensive consultation in the design
phase of the project prior to settling
upon
a
final
alignment
and
configuration.
2.10
Fisheries sensitive zones (FSZ) are

defined as zones adjacent to channels or
watercourses which have the potential to
support fish. FSZ are classified under
the Canadian Fisheries Act and
provincially under the Environmental
Stewardship Branch of MWLAP. In the
absence of specific habitat maps, such as
those prepared for the Lower Fraser by
the Fraser River Estuary Management
Program (FREMP), the FSZ generally
Environmental Issues
2.10.1 Mitigation requirements
Construction of dikes will generally lead

to the implementation of mitigation
works, such as plantings or habitat
features, in order to offset disturbance of
2.10.2 Fisheries Sensitive Zones
2-39
includes the watercourse from top of

bank to top of bank, and extends
landward a distance not less than 30 m.
Figure 7 details a typical FSZ
designation.
Every opportunity shall be taken to
minimize encroachment into the FSZ,
recognizing that if this does occur,
mitigation of habitat loss may be
required.
In bank protection works, approved

vegetation can be incorporated within
the rock riprap layer to provide some
degree of natural vegetation. Acceptable
guidelines for vegetation are detailed in
the
Guideline
for
Vegetation
Management (MELP, 1999).
an efe
G d r to
M uid Na M
C ain an tur ini
ro te ce al st
ss n
R ry
D
a
in n o es of
gs ce cu o F
of A me uce ore
D ct A nt O st
ik
es pp for per s, L
. ro D at an
va ike io d
ns s
lf
or
Pi
pe
Floodplain areas have meandering

streams and marsh habitat.
The
streamside vegetation and the aquatic
insects that breed and reproduce in the
wetland habitat along the stream banks
contribute to the food chain. The trees
and the riparian vegetation along the
banks provide the shade to keep the
water cool during the summer and
regulate the water temperature during
the winter. Therefore, most floodplain
areas are fisheries sensitive zones.
spawning and rearing grounds located

inside the diked area. Construction of
fish friendly structures such as screw
pumps and floodboxes with horizontally
opening floodgates can minimize fish
mortality.
2.11
Structural Issues
2.11.1 Buoyancy of Structures
When a stream is intercepted by the

dike, pump station and floodbox
structures are required to transfer the
internal drainage flow to the outside of
the dike. These structures also interfere
with the normal migration of fish to
Buoyant uplift could also occur in gas

pipelines and partially empty sewer
lines, as well as other enclosed chambers
within the body of the dike. Counter
weights and anchors can be adopted to
prevent this possibility.
Construction of a diking project may

alter the natural habitat and have
significant detrimental effects on the fish
habitat.
Careful planning and
implementing of habitat mitigation,
compensation
and
environmental
enhancement measures, within or locally
outside the proposed flood protection
area, may achieve both flood protection
and environmental protection objectives.
Wherever possible, buoyant structures

shall not be placed in the dike.
However, placement of structures
subject to uplift forces in the dike is
sometimes unavoidable, and is often
required as part of the flood control
strategy.
Structures such as pump
stations, flood boxes, gas pipelines, and
partially empty sewer lines may be
subject to uplift forces. Flotation can be
avoided
by
selecting
heavier
construction materials, providing base
slabs that extend beyond the structure
walls, and by tying down the structure
using anchors, seepage/cutoff collars
and/or headwalls.
2-40
2.11.2 Pump Stations
Pump stations are an essential feature of

the flood protection works.
Pump
stations (Photograph 15, 16) will
discharge the internal drainage across
the dike to the main river, when the
floodboxes are closed by the high tide or
high river elevations.
The operation of the pumps can be
minimized by providing sufficient
internal storage facilities such as wide
drainage canals and storage lagoons.
However, the use of pump stations can
rarely be eliminated.
erosion protection works which are all

essential items. When the structures are
built separately, each structure requires
these components for satisfactory
operation and maintenance.
In the design of pump stations, the
following essential features must be
considered:
Pump stations are generally built with

floodboxes as combined structures.
Combined structures can achieve
considerable savings in excavation,
temporary cofferdams, de-watering,
materials used for construction such as
formwork, concrete and reinforcement.
Also, considerable savings can be
achieved for inlet headwalls, wing walls,
trash racks, screens, outlet works and
A reliable power supply. Pumps

generally require 600 volt 3 phase
power supply;
The inlet and the pump chambers
must conform to the Hydraulic
Institute Standards;
The pump or a combination of
pumps must have adequate capacity
to handle design storms;
The pump station building must be
on a stable foundation. Preloading
of the site or piling may be required.
Site investigation and advice by a
geotechnical
engineer
is
recommended;
The building design shall permit
easy installation and removal of
Photograph 15: Pump Station

2-41
pumps for future maintenance and

repairs;
Consideration shall be given for the
installation of fish friendly screw
pumps;
The control room and the electrical
controls must be housed above the
internal flood level;
Adequate heating, ventilation and
lighting shall be provided for the
control room;
Air vents shall be provided for the
pump discharge chambers;
Debris control and collection
facilities to prevent debris entering
the pump intake by the installation of
trash racks and debris deflecting log
booms. These can also prevent
beaver activity and potential
blockage of inlets;
Stable forebay area, not subject to
deposition or erosion. Wingwalls,
headwalls and rock rip-rap filters
may be required at the inlet;
Forebay area shall provide sufficient

storage volume to prevent frequent
starts and stops of the pumps, which
can be harmful for the pump motors;
Discharge area designed to prevent
erosion.
Erosion protection is
required for discharge flow pipes.
Trash racks or screens are also
essential at the outlet to prevent
floating debris and log deposition
against floodgates;
Safety features such as handrails and
barriers must be installed at inlet and
outlet;
The pump control room must have
steel doors. Pump chamber covers
and access covers must be steel
secured with locks to prevent
vandalism and damage to equipment;
Staff gauges shall be installed at both
inlet and outlet to monitor internal
and external water levels. This will
help for future maintenance and
keeping records of high water levels.
Photograph 16: Pump Station

2-42
Staff gauges shall be tied to Geodetic

Datum;
Standby generators or emergency
power supply equipment may be
considered;
Also portable pumps complete with
portable generators may be required
during extreme high water levels and
flooding periods;
Alarms and remote monitoring
system to detect pump failure and
high water levels.
Radio or
telephone equipment must be
installed;
Provide flood lighting at inlet and
outlet
areas
for
emergency
inspections during night and to deter
vandalism;
Copy of Pump Station Operation and
Maintenance Manual relating to the
installation must be kept at the
station; and
Operations log must be maintained
and kept at the station.
prevent debris from becoming lodged in

the gate.
Depending on the volume of flow, a
floodbox may consist of a single culvert
or a series of culverts. At each flood box
installation, at least one side mounted
gate shall be provided to allow larger
openings during smaller differential
heads.
This is beneficial for fish
passage.
The normal top-mounted flapgate design
was changed in some installations to a
side-mounted design part of the way
through the FRFCP program at the
request of DFO to provide easier fish
passage.
an efe
G d r to
M uid Na M
C ain an tur ini
ro te ce al st
ss n
R ry
D
a
in n o es of
gs ce cu o F
of A me uce ore
D ct A nt O st
ik
es pp for per s, L
. ro D at an
va ike io d
ns s
lf
or
Pi
pe
2.11.3 Floodboxes
A floodbox is a drainage culvert through

the dike that conveys the internal
drainage from a watercourse from inside
the dike to the main river outside the
dike. A gate is installed at the outlet end
of the floodbox to prevent back flow
from the river to the inside and to allow
gravity flow from inside to the outside.
This can occur only when the outside
water level is lower than the inside water
level. The gate must have a proper seal
to prevent leakage at high river or high
tide periods.
Trash racks shall be
provided at the inlet and outlet to
Cast-in place & precast concrete box

sections can be used for the construction
of single-bay or multi-bay floodboxes.
Use of precast concrete sections can
reduce construction time, dewatering
costs,
formwork,
reinforcement
installation, concrete supply and
placement and other on-site costs.
However, cast-in-place seepage cutoff
collars may have to be built on site.
The use of corrugated steel pipes (CSP)
as floodboxes across dikes is not
recommended.
Drainage
flows
contaminated by fertilizer and flow
coming through peat bog areas or
brackish water causes the CSP to
corrode.
CSP has been used for non-acidic flows,
but must be zinc or asphalt coated to
prevent corrosion in acidic flows.
2-43
an efe
G d r to
M uid Na M
C ain an tur ini
ro te ce al st
ss n
R ry
D
a
in n o es of
gs ce cu o F
of A me uce ore
D ct A nt O st
ik
es pp for per s, L
. ro D at an
va ike io d
ns s
lf
or
Pi
pe
Photograph 17: Headwall With Wingwalls and Flapgate
Alternative methods include circular

concrete and high density polyethylene
(HDPE) pipes. The issue of long term
maintenance shall be discussed between
the engineer and the proponent. Items
that have a cheaper capital cost may
require more maintenance in the future.
Any selected materials shall be approved
by the IOD.
Proper design of joints and connections

for
pre-cast
concrete
sections,
particularly where settlement of the
structure may occur, is required.
2.11.4 Headwalls and Wingwalls
Headwalls and wingwalls (Photograph

17) prevent erosion and sloughing of
dike slopes at floodbox and pump station
inlet and outlet areas. Headwalls and
wingwalls help reduce the length of the
floodboxes and pump intake and
discharge structures.
Headwalls can also act as seepage cutoff

walls at structures, but shall not be
included in the total seepage collar
calculation.
2.11.5 Floodgates
Floodgates are generally fabricated from

plate steel and structural sections. Gates
consist of two parts, a frame and a gate.
The frame complete with a neoprene seal
around its perimeter is attached or cast
onto the outside face of the floodbox.
The gate is made as a separate unit with
hinges and is attached to the frame. All
components shall be galvanized with
zinc coating.
Manufactured gates are available up to a
certain size. Side mounted gates are not
readily available, especially for larger
openings.
Manufactured gates are
normally used for small round
floodboxes.
In agricultural areas where there is a
need to feed back irrigation water from
2-44
the river to the interior, a sluice gate is

installed. An irrigation intake tunnel can
be built with the floodboxes or the sluice
gate can be installed on the pump
discharge outlet to allow backflow from
the river to the interior.
2.11.6 Guard Rails and Hand Rails
Safety handrails and guardrails can be

securely installed on headwalls and
wingwalls. Guardrails and handrails
shall be provided in accordance with
Worker Compensation Board (WCB)
requirements and local building codes.
Vehicle barriers shall be provided where
damage to dike, floodbox, pump station
or other flood protection works could
occur.
2.11.7 Dike Construction Adjacent to

Structures
When a dike is abutted against a

concrete or other structure, items that
shall be considered in the design of the
abutment include differential settlement,
compaction, and embankment slope
protection.
Differential settlement caused by
unequal consolidation of the foundation
soil at the abutment between a dike
embankment and a typically lighter
concrete or other structure can be serious
if foundation conditions are poor and the
abutment is not well designed.
Preloading has been used successfully in
the past to minimize these potential
differential settlements.
Proper compaction of the dike
embankment at the abutment of the
Photograph 18: Compaction of Dike Materials Adjacent to Structures

2-45
structure and dike is essential

(Photograph 18). Good compaction
decreases the permeability of the
embankment material and ensures a
better contact with the structure. Heavy
compaction equipment shall be used as
close to the structure as possible and
smaller equipment such as plate tampers
shall be used immediately adjacent to the
structures and in any other confined
areas.
Slope protection and/or flattening of the
dike sidelopes shall be considered where
dikes abut concrete or other structures
due to the potential for turbulence to
occur at the juncture of these structures
and the possible increased chance of
instability.
existing dikes. If the proposed bridge

crosses an existing dike the clearance
between the dike crest and the soffit of
the bridge must permit trucks to pass
over the dike. This clearance shall not
be less than 4.5 m over the dike crest.
In addition to conventional engineering
design practice regarding construction of
bridges, the following shall apply to
bridges and similar structures in diked
areas:
2.11.8 Bridges and Stream Structures
Approvals by the IOD for such

structures will be limited to assessing the
impact of the proposed crossing on
structures (Photograph 19) shall not

present an unreasonable obstruction
to the floodway, or the channel of the
watercourse and floodplain required
to pass the design flow;
the hydraulic effects of the bridge,
including probable debris and ice
jams, shall not increase the dike
design profile upstream of the
bridge;
bridges and related works shall be
situated and constructed to minimize
Photograph 19: Bridge Clearance

2-46
Photograph 20: Floodwall
opportunity for blockage, diversion,

redirection or change in velocity of
flows, scour, sedimentation and / or
interference
with
access
for
operation and maintenance of the
flood protection works;
spans are preferred to be clear and
not alter the natural channel width;
piers, abutments and in-stream
support structures shall be oriented
and shaped to convey flows
efficiently parallel to the natural
direction of flow without aggravating
or causing unnatural impingement on
the flood protection works or
presenting propensity for blockage;
abutments and piers shall be founded
on piles or piers extended below
river scour levels and protected
against erosion and scour. Bank
protection shall be aligned and
oriented to provide hydraulically
smooth banks and tied in to existing
flood protection works;
backwater effects, head losses,
changes in flow direction or velocity
shall not be caused at the design
flood level;
the underside of a bridge shall have a

minimum clearance of 1.5 m above
the higher of the calculated peak
instantaneous 1:200 year level or
flood level of record, or higher as
required for ice or debris passage;
If demonstrated to be uneconomic or
not feasible, clearance requirements
may be varied if there is an
acceptable debris/ice management
program in effect or determination of
acceptable risk of blockage. Under
no circumstances will the underside
of a bridge be lower than the higher
of 0.3 m above the peak
instantaneous 1 in 200 year level or
0.6 m above the 1 in 200 year mean
daily flow.
Foot bridges shall be designed to the

same guidelines described in Bridges
and Stream Structures.
2.11.9 Floodwalls and Retaining
Walls
Retaining
walls
and
floodwalls
(Photograph 20) are built where physical
2-47
Photograph 21: Lock Block Retaining Wall with Gangway to Float

restrictions and space limitations do not
allow the construction of a standard
earthfill dike with acceptable slopes.
one approach which has been well

accepted.
2.11.10
Retaining walls are also built to

overcome obstructions along the dike
alignment. The presence of existing
buildings and other structures in close
proximity to the dike toe may prevent
the
construction
of
a
sloped
embankment. Short length retaining
walls are built to save partial demolition
or removal of the existing structures.
Lock block walls are a particular
configuration of retaining wall which
makes use of individual concrete units
for the wall. Construction is rapid, as
the units come precast with keys and
keyways. A suitable foundation layer of
granular crush is required for the base,
with suitable backfill and drains being
required. Seepage between individual
blocks must be prevented; grouting is
Marinas/Docks/Boat
Ramps
Marine structures such as marinas and

docks, or debris booms, shall be
designed to minimize opportunity for
flow deflection, trapping of debris or ice,
or other effects that may affect the
stability or safety of the dike.
Consideration of the access for dike
maintenance is also required, in
particular under or adjacent to docks and
ramps. A further issue to note may be
the provision of utility service corridors,
such as lights and power, through the
dike to enable lighting and so forth on
the marina (Photograph 21).
Provision should be made to prevent
erosion by boat wash, or wakes. This
may include, for example, altered riprap
2-48
or erosion protection works, as well as

operational criteria such as vessel
velocity, in close proximity to the dike.
Also, boat ramps must not jeopardize the
integrity of the dike.
2.11.11
Seepage Reduction
Around Pipes and Culverts
Seepage collars and cutoff walls help

minimize the probability of flow paths
along the soil-pipe interface. In British
Columbia, increasing the seepage path
by 20% using these devices has been
traditionally used. Seepage collars or
cutoff walls are required on all pipes or
structures that extend through a dike.
This requirement can be waived for
pipes 50 mm or smaller that are located
in the freeboard allowance of the dike.
Seepage collars should be built around
the outside perimeter of the pipe
projecting at least 600 mm beyond the
edge of the pipe. The seepage collars
should be spaced at maximum 6 m
centres along the pipe centreline. They
should be located at least one metre from
pipe joints, and if possible, midway
between pipe joints. Where possible,
cutoff walls should be located within the
impervious core of the dike and
sufficiently far from the embankment
surface to prevent a reduced seepage
path.
an efe
G d r to
M uid Na M
C ain an tur ini
ro te ce al st
ss n
R ry
D
a
in n o es of
gs ce cu o F
of A me uce ore
D ct A nt O st
ik
es pp for per s, L
. ro D at an
va ike io d
ns s
lf
or
Pi
pe
Seepage tends to creep along the

relatively smooth surface of pipes,
culverts and floodboxes placed within
the dike fill. There are a few effective
methods for reducing this seepage. In
British Columbia, seepage collars or
cutoff walls have been historically used.
The difference between these devices is
that a number of seepage collars are
typically used along a pipe, while
typically only one cutoff wall is used
along a pipe or other structure.
Consideration may be given to designing

seepage collars or cutoff walls by
utilizing the Lanes' weighted creep
method (Lane, 1935, Rijkswaterstaat,
1999). The collars/cutoffs would be
designed such that Cw, the seepage
factor, is increased to a conservative
value.
Photograph 22:
Seepage Collars
Seepage collars (Photographs 22, 23 &

24) can be built using concrete, steel
plate or high density polyethylene sheet.
Whatever the material used, it is
important to provide a proper seal along
2-49
an efe
G d r to
M uid Na M
C ain an tur ini
ro te ce al st
ss n
R ry
D
a
in n o es of
gs ce cu o F
of A me uce ore
D ct A nt O st
ik
es pp for per s, L
. ro D at an
va ike io d
ns s
lf
or
Pi
pe
Photograph 23: Cutoff Wall Installation
and concrete pipes to provide the seal.

In this case, there should be a neoprene
or similar seal between the collar and the
the contact face of the pipe. In case of

steel or polyethylene pipes, steel or
polyethylene walls can be continuously
welded or bolted onto the pipe.
Concrete walls can be built around steel
Photograph 24: Cutoff Wall Installation

2-50
an efe
G d r to
M uid Na M
C ain an tur ini
ro te ce al st
ss n
R ry
D
a
in n o es of
gs ce cu o F
of A me uce ore
D ct A nt O st
ik
es pp for per s, L
. ro D at an
va ike io d
ns s
lf
or
Pi
pe
Photograph 25: Transverse Pipe Crossing
2.11.12
Piping failure can occur where seepage

collars or cutoff walls are used if the
material around the seepage collar/cutoff
wall has been poorly compacted at its
contact with the structure. Adequate
compaction is critical, in particular
around the lower half of the collar, or
under the haunch of the pipe.
Transverse Pipe Line Crossings
pipe.
Cast-in-place
concrete
surrounding the pipe is also acceptable.
An alternative that has become more

popular in recent years is a 0.5 m
thickness of drainage fill around the
landside third of the pipe, regardless of
the size and type of pipe to be used (U.S.
Army Corps, 2000, Design of Levees).
Pipe Crossings and Pipe

Joint Restraints
Transverse pipe crossings (Photograph

25) cannot be avoided in urban and
residential areas. Pipe crossings may be
required for water, sewer, gas and buried
cables for power, telephone and cable
television. The most important aspect of
transverse piping crossings is to cutoff
seepage along the pipeline. Section
2.11.11 provides further details.
Where
possible,
transverse
pipe
crossings should be located in the upper
zone of the dike, preferably within the
freeboard zone.
2-51
Some of the basic construction

requirements for proposed pipelines that
cross through or under a dike fill are as
follows:
marking the exact centreline

location; and
All valves shall be fully encased.
Longitudinal Pipeline Placement
Work shall be timed or procedures

taken to eliminate any possibility of
flooding caused by the pipeline
construction;
Where considerable foundation
settlement is likely to occur, camber
shall be used to eliminate future
sags;
Seepage collars and/or cutoff walls
shall be placed along the length of
the pipe;
The walls of the pipe trench shall be
roughened to allow a proper bond
between the pipe fill material and the
dike;
Pipe bedding shall be wellcompacted, fine-grained material
limited in depth to the minimum
necessary to create a continuous
interface with the pipe;
Pipe bedding material within the
body of the dike fill shall not be
more pervious than the existing dike
material;
Compaction of replacement fill shall
be to 95% Standard proctor;
Crest running surface material, if
different than the dike fill, shall be
replaced to original standards;
All disturbed grassed slopes shall be
replanted;
All disturbed riprap shall be replaced
to original or better condition;
Wherever the proposed pipeline
crosses the dike fill, appropriate
metal signage shall be put in place
Installation of longitudinal pipelines

within the dike structure shall not be
permitted. The dike shall not be viewed
as a convenient, inexpensive route for
pipelines but as an essential public safety
structure whose construction integrity
shall not be compromised.
Where
pipelines parallel a dike near the
landward side toe, the alignment shall be
beyond the dike structure and seepage
layer. The pipeline must not hinder the
free
movement
of
maintenance
equipment. As well, trench excavation
during installation or repairs must ensure
continued dike integrity. Warning signs
shall be posted at regular intervals along
the pipe alignment. Regular inspections
shall be carried out to check for
subsidence or settlement along the
pipeline. Where there is no alternative
to installing pipes near the landward side
of the dike, ductile iron or steel pipe
shall be used. All such pipes are to be
kept outside of the typical core of the
dike and only permitted where
absolutely necessary in an overbuilt fill.
Pipe Joint Restraints
Joint separation can occur due to
hydraulic forces and differential
settlement including pipe sag. Pipe
joints in transverse pipes shall be
minimized, with preference given to
continuously welded pipes.
Where
2-52
Photograph 26: Pipe Jacking

joints exist, adequate restraint must be
provided to prevent joint separation.
Joint restraint could involve thrust
blocks, tie backs, or reverse camber.
Reliance on reverse camber shall only be
considered in low pressure situations and
where long term settlement can be
reliably predicted.
Pipe bends and fittings shall be avoided
within the dike.
However, where
unavoidable, pipe bends and fittings
shall be restrained with thrust blocks and
anchored. Warning signs shall be posted
at regular intervals along the pipe
alignment. Regular inspections shall be
carried out to check any subsidence or
settlement along the pipeline.
Pipe Jacking
Open cut and cover is the preferred
method of transverse pipe installation
through dikes. Pipe jacking (Photograph

26) is a highly specialized task and
expert advice shall be sought if this
installation
method
is
pursued.
Experienced specialized contractors
shall complete the installation.
The pipe jacking procedure generally
uses a casing pipe of steel or reinforced
concrete that is jacked through the soil.
Pumping bentonite or suitable lubricants
around the outside of the pipe during the
jacking operation often reduces jacking
loads. Typically, jacks are oversized so
they can be operated at a lower pressure
and maintain a reserve jacking capacity.
It is common to install the pipe in a
continuous operation to reduce the
possibility that the pipe will set in the
ground as pore water pressures dissipate.
Grout plugs in each section of pipe can
be used to pump lubricants around the
outside of the pipe during the jacking
2-53
operation and to pump grout around the

outside of the pipe after the push is
completed.
If the jacking pit encroaches on the
landside toe, a seepage collar can be
provided within the dike structure. The
jacking pit shall be filled with wellcompacted dike fill material.
A drainage detail shall be provided that
is adequate to prevent excessive seepage
and piping at the landside toe. The
detail may consist of buried drainage
features with suitable filter, drainage
collection and discharge elements, an
inverted filter and weight berm above
the toe of the dike and the pipe
installation pit, or a combination of
these.
Directional Drilling
Directional drilling for performing
crossings of a wide variety of surface
obstructions was developed in the 1970's

by combining techniques employed by
conventional road boring and the
horizontal directional drilling of oil and
gas wells. This method is now widely
employed for the placement of pipelines
and conduits for petroleum products,
fiber optic and electric cables, water and
waste water lines, and for the
transmission of other products.
The process generally includes three
distinct phases beginning with the
drilling of the pilot hole from the surface
on one side of the obstacle to be crossed.
Drilling continues along a designed
profile below and beyond the obstacle to
exit at the surface on the other side. The
second phase entails the reaming of the
pilot hole to a diameter sufficiently large
enough to accept the pipeline or conduit.
Finally, the pipeline or conduit is pulled
into place within the enlarged hole.
Photograph 27: Typical Gate Configuration

2-54
The advantages of the directional

drilling installation method over
alternative construction methods are
numerous. Environmental issues are
minimized as operations are limited to
relatively small areas at each end of, as
opposed to, the complete length of, the
installation.
construction,
maintenance
inspection vehicles.
Normal activity, such as river and

highway traffic, can continue unhindered
during installation as it is not disrupted
along the surface of the installation.
Safety
concerns
associated
with
trenching or open cutting in rivers or
other waterways, or when deeper
installations are required on land, are
eliminated.
During the planning and design stage,

attention shall be paid to the
maintenance aspects of the flood
protection works. The works shall be
designed to provide easy access for
regular inspections and more importantly
during emergency situations, where
materials and equipment may have to be
transported in the shortest possible time,
to repair washouts and slope failures.
However, particular consideration must

be given to soil conditions and access.
As with pipe jacking, suitable drainage
details may be required once the work is
complete.
Professional geotechnical
advice should be engaged, in particular,
depending upon the nature of the
crossing.
2.11.13
Gates and Fences
Cross fences shall not impede access

along the dike crest for maintenance
purposes. Longitudinal fencing shall be
adequate to prevent livestock from
accessing the dike body and shall not
impede the mowing of the dike slopes.
Copies of keys to locks must be retained
by the responsible dike maintenance and
flood response personnel.
and/or
Gate locks shall be designed to deter

vandalism.
2.12
Design Aspects of Operations

and Maintenance
Unlike concrete structures or paved

roadways, dikes generally built of
earthfill material over weak foundations,
are subject to settlement, current erosion,
surface erosion due to rainfall runoff and
vehicle damage to dike crest and
shoulders. Dikes are also subject to
damage by burrowing animals, and
seepage and piping leading to sloughing
and slope failures therefore, regular
maintenance is a high priority task.
Consideration shall be given to
incorporate access roads, access ramps,
turnouts and turn arounds in the original
design. Also fences and gates shall be
provided to prevent unauthorized access
and vandalism. Cost of these provisions
shall be considered as part of the project
costs of the flood control works.
Gates (Photograph 27) shall be wide

enough to allow the unimpeded access of
2-55
2.12.1 Operation and Maintenance

(O&M) Manual
It is the responsibility of the design

engineer to prepare an O & M Manual.
This shall be done soon after the
commissioning of the works but prior to
handing over the project to the diking
maintenance authority or the private
owner for maintenance.
If a pump station structure is built with
the flood protection works, a separate O
& M manual shall be prepared for the
specific structure.
The IOD can provide the most recent
templates used for preparation of
operations and maintenance manuals.
Supplementary information such as
record drawings, reports, etc. can be
appended to the O & M Manual.
2.12.2 Access Roads
Access roads are required for dike

repairs, upgrades, and emergency works.
Therefore, a permanent right-of-way
shall be established for all dike
maintenance access roads and, with the
exception of security gates, shall be kept
clear of obstructions at all times. The
minimum roadway width shall be 4.0 m.
Minimum road elevations shall be
reviewed with the local Diking
Authority to ensure the road elevation
exceeds the normal internal flood levels.
The road surface shall be capped with
well-graded crushed gravel or paved.
Access roads connecting the dike to the

local road system, shall be maintained
even if they go through private
properties. Arrangements shall be made
with the property owners to provide
access for emergency vehicles and crews
which may be necessary during high
flow periods and winter season. Access
shall be available at all times for
inspection and maintenance.
The dike crest shall be surveyed not later
than two years after the completion of
works to check settlement of the crest.
Settled sections shall be restored by
placing crest gravel, grading and rolling.
Thereafter, the dike crest shall be
surveyed every five years.
2.12.3 Management of Approved
Vegetation
To facilitate inspection of dikes, and

future upgrades or repairs, only certain
vegetation growth is allowed on dikes
(Photograph 28). Trimmed grass is the
only vegetation that shall be established
on dike slopes. This will reduce surface
erosion due to rain, current and waves.
Tree and shrub planting is not
recommended on dike slopes. Trees
detrimentally affect dike fills by root
penetration causing cracking, loosening,
wind throw holes and seepage. During
windstorms, falling trees can take a large
ball of soil from the dike slope leading to
erosion and slope failure. Roots in the
dike can also cause seepage and piping
at high river levels. Trees can also
displace riprap bank protection, leading
to holes where erosion and instability
2-56
may occur.
Trees, brush and tall
vegetation on dike slopes obstruct the
inspectors view to detect seepage,
piping and animal burrows.
No new planting of trees or shrubs is to
be undertaken without the written
approval of the IOD.
The Environmental Guidelines for
Vegetation Management on Flood
Protection Works to Protect Public
Safety and the Environment (MELP,
DFO, 1999) provide direction on
acceptable planting and vegetation
configurations.
2.12.4 Vandal Proofing
The dike system cannot be made

completely vandal proof. The main
objective of vandal protection for dikes
is to prevent unauthorized motor
vehicles from accessing the dike works
and restricting access to pump stations.
The following precautionary measures
will help to reduce damage by vandals:
Continuous fencing along the

landside of the dike;
Cross fencing and strong gates
installed at access points;
Tamperproof padlocks on gates;
Security fencing around pump
station structures;
Heavy duty steel doors on pump
station control rooms;
Security steel grills for ventilation
and other openings;
Steel plate covers with locks for
pump chamber openings and access
openings; and
Flood lighting around the pump
station yard.
2.12.5 Inspections
It is the responsibility of the diking

maintenance authority, or the private
owner, to conduct routine and periodic
inspections and maintain and repair the
works to the same flood protection
standard that the works were built to.
Necessary funds shall be budgeted
Photograph 28: Vegetation Management

2-57
annually and set apart for the specific

purpose of maintenance and repair of the
flood control works.
The entire flood protection system shall
be inspected in detail at least once every
year.
Such inspections shall be
scheduled prior to the high flow season
allowing sufficient time to carry out any
repair work needed to put the works
back to design standards.
Additional inspections may be necessary
after each winter season to check slope
erosion or sloughing, frost damage or
vehicle damage to the dike crest, access
ramps, access roads and turn arounds.
Annual inspection reports shall be kept
and may be asked for by the IOD as part
of their audit.
performance of the flood control works.

Special attention shall be paid to check
seepage through the dike and
functioning of the dike toe drainage
filters or concentration and increase in
seepage flow through certain areas.
Piping and transportation of fine
material such as silt and sand in seepage
flows on the landside slope or toe area
can be noticed by a spring, upwelling
sandy silty water along the toe area.
Immediate action is required to control
such areas, by building sand bag rings
around the boil and placing gravel
filters. In controlling a boiling spot, the
boil may reappear in another area.
Sufficient time must be spent to ensure
that the boiling is under control.
2.12.7 Burrowing Animals
2.12.6 High Water Inspections
Inspections shall be carried out during

high water events to monitor the
Burrowing animals are another problem

source for earthfill dikes. Bank beavers
and rodents burrow through the dike
Photograph 29: Bank Protection on Outlet Side of Dike

2-58
creating a system of tunnels. During

high water periods seepage and piping
can weaken the dike embankment
leading to erosion and local failure of the
dike section.
It is essential to keep the dike slopes
clear of shrubs and tall grass, in order to
detect the animal burrows during routine
inspections. Trapping of the animals
may be one way to reduce this problem.
Once the animal burrows are discovered,
the holes and tunnels shall be excavated
and backfilled with suitable material and
compacted.
2.12.8 Bank Protection Works
Bank protection and erosion protection

(Photograph 29) works along the dike
and at inlet and outlet areas of
floodboxes and pump stations must be
regularly inspected and maintained to
keep the works up to the original design
standards.
For maintenance and repairs, the Riprap
Design and Construction Guide,
(MELP, 2000) may be consulted.
2-59
3.0
CONSTRUCTION
3.1
Site Preparation
3.1.1
Access
Suitable access from adjoining road or

street systems is required.
3.1.2
Clearing, Grubbing and

Stripping
For new dike construction, changing the

existing alignment or widening of the
existing fill, the dike area shall be
properly cleared, grubbed and stripped
(Photograph 30). Initially the extent of
the dike footprint and any additional
berms shall be surveyed and marked for
the exact boundaries required to do the
work (Photograph 31).
The typical extent of clearing, grubbing
and stripping is given below:
Clearing
The entire dike right-of-way including
the dike footprint, and any proposed
berm footprints shall be cleared prior to
any further construction operations.
Clearing consists of complete removal of
all objectionable and/or obstructional
matter above the ground surface which
includes all trees, fallen timber, brush,
vegetation, loose stone, abandoned
structures, fencing, and similar debris.
All cleared material must be disposed of
by approved means.
Grubbing is usually not necessary

beneath additional berms. Grubbing
consists of the removal of all stumps,
roots, buried logs, old piling, old paving,
drains, and other objectionable matter.
Roots or other intrusions over 50 mm in
diameter within the dike foundation area
shall be removed to a depth of 1 m
below natural ground surface. All holes
and depressions caused by grubbing
shall be flattened and then backfilled and
well-compacted to avoid soft spots
under the dike and maintain the
continuity of the natural blanket. All
grubbed material must be disposed of by
approved means.
Stripping
The entire dike footprint, and any
existing dike surfaces which require
additional materials, shall be stripped
following foundation clearing and
grubbing.
Stripping is usually not
necessary beneath additional berms.
Stripping consists of the removal of low
growing vegetation and organic topsoil.
The depth of stripping is determined by
local conditions and typically varies
from 150 to 300 mm. In preparation of
new dike fills, the ground shall be
scarified following stripping.
All
stripped material suitable for use as
topsoil shall be stockpiled for later use
on the slopes of the embankment and
berms. Unsuitable material must be
disposed of by approved means.
Grubbing
The entire dike footprint shall be
grubbed following clearing operations.
3-1
Photograph 30: Site Preparation Prior to Dike Upgrade
3.1.3
Dewatering
Areas where minor seepage inflow is

expected during subexcavation of
materials or trench excavation can likely
be treated using conventional ditching
and sumping techniques which are
relatively inexpensive.
Areas with
moderate to major seepage will likely
require more extensive and costly
dewatering methods such as well point
dewatering.
If settlements around the construction
site are expected due to dewatering,
consideration may be given to
groundwater control methods such as
recharge wells, infiltration ditches, or
other approved alternatives to avoid
lowering of water levels beyond the
construction site.
To avoid expensive dewatering,
consideration may be given to designing
the dike with seepage control measures

situated above the water table (such as
berms), or some degree of underseepage
may need to be accepted. If significant
dewatering is expected to be required
during placement and compaction of fills
due to subexcavation from stripping,
consideration may be given to using fill
materials that can be more readily
compacted under saturated conditions.
3.2
Construction
3.2.1
Excavation
Stable excavation below the existing

ground surface is highly dependant on
foundation soil and groundwater
conditions. Any proposed excavations
shall be reviewed by a qualified
professional
geotechnical
engineer
registered in B.C. during the design and
construction stages of a project.
3-2
If space permits, the excavations can

typically be carried out with open cut
slopes, together with the installation of
suitable dewatering measures. For most
soil conditions with limited seepage,
unsupported excavation side slopes can
typically be developed at 1.5 Horizontal
to 1 Vertical (1.5H:1V) or flatter. These
cuts shall be flattened to 2.5H:1V if
significant seepage and/or sloughing
occurs or alternatively, prepared as
described below.
For unsupported excavations greater
than 3 m deep or carried out below the
groundwater level, large, open cut
excavations may be impractical. Even
with use of flat slopes, significant
sloughing may occur (depending on soil
conditions). Consideration can be given
to carrying out excavations using
suitable temporary excavation support
and dewatering to maintain a stable, dry
excavation.
Such support can be
provided using a moveable trench box or

using suitably braced shoring. The
contractor shall engage a qualified
professional
geotechnical
engineer
registered in B.C. to design and inspect
all temporary works proposed and to
ensure safety and compliance with WCB
Regulations. The temporary shoring
shall be braced to resist the anticipated
soil loads and differential hydrostatic
loads, including surcharge loads
resulting from construction equipment
and/or
any
material
stockpiles.
Measures shall be taken to minimize the
risk of base heave when using open cut
or shored systems. The method of
excavation shall be reviewed on a case
by case basis, considering the conditions
at the time of construction.
3.2.2
Excavation adjacent to or
through existing works
Excavations adjacent to or through
Photograph 31: Survey Layout For Dike Upgrading

3-3
Photograph 32: Vibratory Roller

existing dikes, bank protection or other
flood
protection
structures,
and
excavation near existing structures shall
be avoided, but where necessary, expert
advice shall be obtained to ensure that
the excavation is compatible with
stability of the works.
If excavation is necessary, suitable
support to any critical utilities and
structures will need to be provided to
minimize the potential vertical and/or
lateral deformation of the critical
structures
associated
with
the
construction operations. Typically, any
excavation slopes shall be set-back at
least 1 m horizontally from the existing
critical structures and the slopes cut at
1.5H:1V, or flatter under dewatered
conditions and subject to review by a
qualified
geotechnical
engineer.
Alternatively, suitably designed shored
systems shall be used to prevent ground
movements and deformation of the
existing critical structures.

If it is
considered acceptable for some of the
critical structures (such as utilities) to be
repaired if broken, shoring systems may
not be required.
It is also recommended that monitoring
gauges be installed on the existing
critical structures to permit measurement
of any vertical and lateral deformations.
Gauges shall be monitored prior to,
during, and after construction which is
located close to any critical structures.
The readings shall be forwarded to a
qualified geotechnical engineer for
review and analysis.
In many cases drainage ditches are
proposed near dikes. Ditches close to
the landside toe of the dike can lead to
both seepage and/or slope stability
problems. The location, depth, and
feasibility of any proposed ditch shall be
3-4
Photograph 33: Sheepsfoot Roller

determined by seepage and stability
analyses.
degree of compaction required, and

economic factors (Photograph 32).
3.2.3
Compaction of Dike Fills
Fill Placement/Compaction
Compaction Fundamentals
Soils containing fines can be compacted
to a specific maximum dry density with
a given amount of energy; however,
maximum density can be achieved only
at a unique water content called the
optimum water content. Maximum dry
density and optimum water content are
determined in the laboratory by carrying
out Proctor testing on collected samples.
Compactive effort can be increased by
increasing contact pressure of the roller
on the soil, increasing the number of
passes, or decreasing the lift thickness.
Combinations of these procedures to
increase and control compaction on a job
will depend on difficulty of compaction,
Requirements of the more important

compaction features, such as water
content
limits,
layer
thickness,
compaction equipment, and number of
passes will be contained in the
specifications and must be checked
closely by the inspector to ensure
compliance.
Specifications will
generally state the type and size of
compaction equipment to be used.
Uncompacted or loose lift thickness will
be specified. Lift thickness specified
will be based on type of material and
compacting equipment used. Impervious
or semipervious materials are commonly
placed in 150 to 200 mm loose lift
thicknesses and compacted with six to
eight passes of a sheepsfoot roller, or an
approved alternative (Photograph 33).
3-5
When using any roller that leaves a

smooth surface after compaction,
scarification of the compacted lift prior
to placing the next lift is specified to
ensure a good bond between the lifts.
Pervious materials, less than about 10
per cent fines, are commonly placed in
300 mm loose lift thicknesses and
compacted with four to five passes of a
vibratory steel-wheel rollers in the
weight range of 5 to 15 tons, or an
approved alternative.
In-place water content and density must
be related to optimum water content and
to maximum dry density to judge
whether a compacted soil is suitable or
unsuitable. Minimum acceptable field
density is normally established in design
as a percent of maximum dry density,
and an allowable range of placement
water contents is given in the
specifications relative to optimum water
content of the soil being compacted

(Photograph 34).
Commonly, the
specification calls for a minimum
95 percent of the Standard Proctor
Maximum Dry Density (ASTM D698,
Method C).
Each soil type has a
different maximum dry density and
optimum water content for a given
compactive effort, and it is necessary
that in-place field densities and water
contents be compared with laboratorydetermined optimum water contents and
maximum densities of the same soil.
Because mixing different soil strata in
borrow areas can result in materials with
unexpected compaction characteristics,
if a material being compacted in the field
cannot be related to available laboratory
compaction
data,
a
laboratory
compaction test shall be performed on
that material. Check companion tests
shall be performed by field personnel
before fill placement to ensure
Photograph 34: Water Placement For Optimum Soil Moisture

3-6
consistency with target values for a

given soil.
Compaction of Drainage Layers
Placement and compaction of drainage
layers must ensure that adequate density
is attained, but shall not allow
segregation and contamination to occur.
Vibratory rollers are probably the best
type of equipment for compaction of
cohesionless material although crawler
tractors and rubber-tired rollers have
also been used successfully. Saturation
or flooding of the material as the roller
passes over it will aid in the compaction
process and in some cases is the only
way specified densities can be attained.
Care must always be taken to not
overcompact to prevent breakdown of
materials or lowering of expected
permeabilities. Loading, dumping, and

spreading operations shall be observed
to ensure that segregation does not
occur. Gradation tests shall be run both
before and after compaction to ensure
that the material meets specifications
and does not contain too many fines.
Rapid Impact Compaction
Rapid impact compacting (Photograph
35) involves the use of a high speed
compacting
unit
that
maintains
continued contact with the soil surface,
to improve the engineering properties of
a wide range of fills.
It has
demonstrated
improvements
in
miscellaneous fills. Advantages include:
Speed of operation;
Lack of introduction
of
other
Photograph 35: Rapid Impact Compaction
3-7
materials such as water; and

No time lapse before the fills can be
built upon.
concrete, extending 0.6 metres outward

with a minimum of 0.15 metres
thickness, provided proper bonding to
the abutment can be achieved.
Compaction Grouting
Compaction grouting is the injection of a
viscous soil-cement grout under pressure
into the soil mass, which consolidates
and densifies targeted soils insitu.
When injected into poorly compacted
soils, grout pushes the material aside and
occupies void space, thereby improving
compaction of displaced soils and
providing a more uniform soil mass.
Applications include densification of
foundation soils and mitigation of
liquification potential. The principal
application of this technique is
densification of soils subject to longterm settlement.
Embankment Construction
Deficiencies
Typical construction deficiencies include
the following:
Reinstated Dike Fills Abutting New

Concrete Structures
Where there is a possibility of seepage

due to a reinstated dike fill abutting a
new concrete structure, the following
techniques have proven successful to
ensure adequate protection against
seepage.
Seepage plates (or barriers) shall be
installed where disturbed dike fill will
abut new, smooth concrete walls. These
barriers shall be placed at the centre of
the dike crest to the depth of dike fill
disturbance and shall extend outwards
by 0.6 metres. Barriers could either be
metal, affixed securely and watertight to
the abutment wall, or constructed out of
Organic material not stripped from

foundation:
- Differential settlements; shear
failure; internal erosion caused
by through seepage
Highly organic or excessively wet or
dry fill:
- Settlements; inadequate strength
Placement of pervious layers
extending completely through the
embankment:
- Allows unimpeded seepage which
may lead to internal erosion and
failure of the embankment
Inadequate
compaction
of
embankment, such as lifts too thick:
- Settlements; inadequate strength
through haphazard coverage by
compacting equipment, seepage
Inadequate compaction of backfill
around structures in embankment:
- Settlements; inadequate strength;
provides seepage path between
structure and material which may
lead to internal erosion and failure
by piping
3-8
Riprap and Filter Layer

Placement
technique can also result in breakage of

riprap units.
Riprap and filter layer placement is best

described in the publication Riprap
Design and Construction Guide March
2000 available from the office of the
IOD.
The following procedures
however provide an overview of the
requirements of riprap placement.
The upstream end of the riprap must be

keyed into the bank or physically
connected to a relatively permanent
structure such as a solid rock outcrop to
help prevent outflanking.
The
downstream end of the riprap must be of
such an alignment and configuration that
it does not cause a scour hole to develop.
3.2.4
Rock for use as riprap must be

placed in such a manner as to
produce a reasonably well-graded
mass of rock with the minimum
practicable percentage of voids;
Rock for use as riprap must be
constructed within the specified
tolerance to the lines and grades
shown on the design cross-sections;
No rock shall protrude more than 0.3
metres above the lines and grades
shown on the design cross-sections;
Rock riprap material shall not be
dropped from a height greater than
three (3) metres vertically from its
final position;
The larger pieces of rock shall be
well distributed and the entire mass
of rock in its final position shall be
roughly graded to conform to the
gradation as specified in the design;
and
The finished riprap shall be free of
objectionable pockets of small stones
and/or clusters of larger stones.
Placing riprap by end dumping from

haul units over the bank or similar
methods likely to cause segregation of
the various sizes in their final position
will not be permitted. This placement
3.2.5
Final Grading
A survey of the dike crest is usually

needed for the final grading to ensure
there are no low areas. Any low spots
along the crest of the dike are to be
filled.
The dike crest shall be graded with a
slight camber to prevent water from
sitting on the crest. If the dike crest
running surface is of a pervious material,
it shall be placed above the design crest
level. The running surface usually is
constructed above the freeboard.
Sideslopes are to be trimmed, usually
with a hydraulic excavator with a
cleanout bucket or a Gradall, to the
required slope. Topsoil can be placed
onto the side slopes that require a
medium to promote the growth of grass,
and the sideslopes can then be
hydroseeded. The vegetation will serve
to protect the slopes from erosion by
surface runoff water.
3-9
3.2.6
Timing/Construction Staging
The issue of construction timing and

staging is of importance with respect to
water levels, aquatic habitat and
weather.
DFO has clearly noted
schedules when instream works are to
be undertaken, thus it is important to
review and confirm these schedules
prior to tendering.
Construction timing can also be water
level driven.
Works in and about
streams shall be undertaken during low
flow periods in order to take advantage
of a broader exposure of bank and or
shoreline. This can facilitate ease of
construction and decrease costs.
Construction timing is also driven by
tide levels. Daytime low tides, for
example, in late August and early
September, provide a suitable work
window for shoreline works on
tidewater. At other times of the year,
daytime low tides can be higher, thereby
limiting above water work.
3.3
Monitoring
3.3.1
Site Inspection Construction

Monitoring
Simple controls using both visual

observations and rough measurements
are the primary means by which
construction monitoring is carried out.
However, they must not be used as the
only means of monitoring, but must be
supplemented by a program of control
testing. For any estimate to be
meaningful and accurate, the observer
must have his eye and hand calibrated to

all conditions expected. It is desirable to
construct a small test section prior to the
beginning of major fill placement so
inspectors and the contractor can
become familiar with the behavior and
compaction characteristics of the fill
material and with the performance of the
compacting equipment.
Gradation tests shall be performed to
ensure that the material being placed is
within specification limits. The number
of gradation tests needed will depend on
the variability of material as obtained
from the borrow areas. Complete
gradation tests shall be performed on
material for which the entire range of
particle sizes is specified.
Proper lift thickness is fairly easy to
estimate when the inspectors judgment
has been calibrated by actual thickness
measurements.
However,
many
contractors are interested in placing lifts
as thick as they can get by with, and
conflict often arises on this point.
Therefore, control of lift thickness by
visual observation alone is not sufficient
and must be supplemented with
measurements.
Field control testing, field density tests
and record sampling of compacted fill
are conducted for two basic reasons: to
ensure
compliance
with
design
requirements, and to furnish a permanent
record of as-built conditions of the
embankment. Field control testing
consists largely of determinations of the
water content, density, and classification
of the field-compacted material. Record
3-10
sampling
consists
of
obtaining
undisturbed samples, often with
companion disturbed bag samples at
selected locations in the embankment
during construction.
Frequent density testing shall be carried
out at the start of fill placement; after
rolling requirements have been firmly
established and inspection personnel
have become familiar with material
behavior and acceptable compaction
procedures, the amount of testing can be
reduced. Sampling shall be carried out
at locations representative of the area
being checked. A systematic testing and
sampling plan shall be established at the
beginning of the job. Control tests are
usually designated as routine and are
performed at designated locations, no
matter how smoothly the compaction
operations are being accomplished. A
routine control test shall be performed
for every 1000 to 2500 m of compacted
material and even more frequently in
narrow embankment sections where only
a small volume of material raises the
section height considerably. In the first
lift above the foundation, tests shall be
made more frequently to ensure that
proper construction is attained in this
important area. The locations of record
samples shall be at the discretion of the
design engineer and shall also be stated
on a predetermined plan of testing.
In addition to routine density tests, tests
shall be made in the following areas:
where the inspector has reason to doubt
the adequacy of the compaction, where
the Contractor is concentrating fill
operations over relatively small areas,
where special compaction procedures are

being used (power tampers in confined
areas, etc.), where instruments are
located, and adjacent to structures.
Currently, the nuclear method is a
common means by which both water
content and density determinations can
be made more rapidly than by
conventional direct methods, which were
commonly used in the past. Most nuclear
gauges are built to measure density by
one or more methods, classified as the
direct transmission, backscatter, and airgap density methods; however, all
nuclear gauge methods are based on the
principle of using gamma radiation to
establish a density relationship.
The advantage of the nuclear method is
the speed with which density and water
content determinations can be obtained
as compared with conventional methods.
However, the field density and water
content must still be related to a
compaction curve or to maximum and
minimum densities, as is the case with
data obtained by conventional methods.
Consequently, it is necessary to
occasionally obtain samples of the
material at the location of the nuclear
test in order to relate the field and
laboratory data.
3.3.2
Environmental Monitor
An Environmental Monitor is often

required and allowances for such
services shall be included in the design
estimates. The Inspector onsite can also
fulfill the role of Environmental Monitor
if they are deemed suitably qualified by
3-11
the approving environmental agencies.

Generally, the Environmental Monitor
will have authority to stop work for
work practices that are not in compliance
with the environmental permits for the
job, which is similar to the role of the
Inspector.
3-12
4.0
REFERENCES
Alberta Environment. 1975. Design Considerations for Stream Groynes - Water

Resources Management Services.
Ashton, George D. 1986.
Publications.
River and Lake Ice Engineering.
B.C. Ministry of Transportation and Highways.

Highway Construction.
Water Resources
1987. General Specifications for
B.C. Ministry of Transportation and Highways. 1988. Highway Design - Manual of

Standards & Instructions.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks/Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 1992.
Land Development Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Habitat.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1996. Deputy Inspector of Dykes
Manual.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1999. Guidelines for Management of
Flood Protection Works in British Columbia.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks/Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 1999.
Environmental Guidelines for Vegetation Management on Flood Protection
Works to Protect Public Safety and the Environment.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 2000. Riprap Design and Construction
Guide.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 2000. Regulatory Tools for Flood
Hazard Management. A Guide for Local Government.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 2000. Flood Protection Works Inspection Guide.
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 2001. Dyke Operation and Maintenance
Manual Template (for Dikes and Associated Flood Protection Works).
B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 2001. Standard Template (New Works),
Flood Mitigation Works, Operation and Maintenance Manual.
4-1
Church, M. 2002. Potential Changes in Relative Sea Level and Implications for
Sustainability in the Fraser River Delta. Presented at "The Changing Face of the
Lower Fraser River Estuary". New Westminster, B.C."
Dike and Channel Maintenance and Habitat Subcommittee - 2001 - Comprehensive
Management for Flood Protection Works, Fraser Basin Council.
Directional Crossing Contractors Association, 1997. Guidelines for Successful MidSized Directional Drilling.
Finlay, Don. 1995. Technical Reference Manual (Draft) For Dyke Construction.
Prepared for B. C. Ministry of Environment, Land and Parks.
Fisheries and Oceans Canada/Province of B.C. 1980. Stream Enhancement Guide.
Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 1986. Policy for the Management of Fish Habitat.
DFO/3524-1986 - ISBN 0-662-15033-3.
Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 1991. Canada Fish Habitat Law: DFO/4438 - 1991 ISBN
0-662-18596.
Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 1995. Fish Habitat Conservation and Protection - What
the Law Requires DFO/5077 - 1995 - ISBN 0-662-61634-0.
Fraser Basin Management Program. 1994. Review of the Fraser River Flood Control
Program, a Task Force Report to the Fraser Basin, Management Board.
Holmes, C.D. 1978. Manual for Roads and Transportation (Volumes One and Two).
BCIT. Forest Resource Technology. Prepared by Technical Advisory Committee
on Flood Defences.
Lane, E.W. 1935. Security From Under-Seepage of Masonry Dams on Earth
Foundations. Proceedings. ASCE, paper 1919.
Loukas, A and Quick, M. 1996. Effect of Climate Change on Hydrologic Regime of
Two Climatically Different Watersheds. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, pp.
77-87.
Michel, Bernard. 1978. Ice Mechanics. Les Presses de L'Universite' Laval, Quebec.
National Research Council 2000. Risk Analysis and Uncertainty in Flood Damage
Reduction Studies - Commission On Geosciences and Environment.
4-2
Provincial Emergency Program. 1999. Flood Planning and Response Guide for British
Columbia.
Rijkswaterstaat, Road and Hydraulic Engineering Institute, Delft. 1999. Technical
Report on Sand Boils (piping). Prepared by Technical Advisory Committee on
flood Defences.
U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 1987. Design of Small Dams - 3rd Edition.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1991 and 1994. Hydraulic Design of Flood Control
Channels.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1995. General Principles of Pumping Station Design
and Layout EM 1110-2-3102.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2000. Design and Construction of Levees. EM1110-21913.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2000. Guidelines for Vegetation Management at Levees.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2001. Coastal Engineering Manual. EM 1110-2-1100
(Part VI).
Watt, W.E. 1989. Hydrology of Floods in Canada: A Guide to Planning and Design.
Prepared by National Research Council of Canada.
Woods, P.J. 1996 - Flood Protection Dykes and Environmental Concerns (Water
Resource Branch).
Woods, P.J. 1982. Design and Construction of Rock Riprap Bank Protection. B.C.
Ministry of Environment.
N:\Active\Year 2003\450\031-450003 Dike Design Manual\Wordpro\Dike Design Guide\August 1 2003 Dike Design and Construction
Guidelines.doc
4-3
APPENDIX I
GLOSSARY
Alluvial Fan:
Fan shaped deposits of predominantly water borne materials.
Apex:
Upper limit of depositional area of an alluvial fan.
Bank Protection:
Treatment of slopes of dikes and banks of streams, lakes and

other water bodies by placement of riprap (an engineered layer
of graded broken rock pieces) or other forms of protection to
prevent erosion by surface runoff, stream flows and/or wave
action.
DIOD:
Deputy Inspector of Dikes.
Debris Flood:
A very rapid, surging flow of water, heavily charged with

debris, in a steep channel.
Debris Flow:
Very rapid to extremely rapid flow of saturated nonplastic

debris in a steep channel.
Dike:
An embankment, berm, wall, piling or fill constructed to

control flooding of land.
Dike Height:
The vertical distance from the dike crest level to natural ground
as measured at the landside toe of a dike.
Erosion:
Loss of land or bed materials due to action of flowing water

which can be regular or highly episodic.
Excessive Vegetation:
Growth such as blackberry and salmonberry whose pervasive

presence obscures visibility and inhibits access.
Flash Flooding:
Rapid rise in creek or river levels due to intense rainstorms or

rain or snow events.
Freeboard:
Vertical allowance added to standard design flood level to

allow for uncertainties in flood levels.
Freshet Flooding:
Spring snowmelt runoff influenced by annual winter

accumulation of snowpack and specific temperature and
rainfall conditions in the spring.
Global Warming:
Long term rise in mean atmospheric temperature due to

greenhouse effects.
A1 -1
IOD:
Inspector of Dikes.
Ice Jam:
Stationary accumulation of ice that restricts flow.
Overbank:
The area of land between the waterside toe of a setback dike

and the top of the streambank.
Overwidth Dike:
A dike having standard dike side-slopes (or flatter) and a

minimum 9 metre crest width measured from the landside crest
edge. Overwidth dikes are sometimes formed by roads or
dikes constructed beside natural riverside levees.
Natural Riverbank:
The bank of the river, formed naturally and not part of the dike
fill; located below the dike height on the river side.
Piping:
Internal erosion of embankment materials due to seepage.
Right-of-Way:
A legally defined strip of land to provide access for

maintenance.
Riparian Vegetation:
The vegetation immediately in contact with a water body or

sufficiently close to have direct influence on aquatic habitat
values.
Riverside Dike:
A dike located adjacent to a stream, directly on a streambank.

Riverside dikes may be constructed with or without bank
protection.
Seepage:
Movement of water through soil under differential head.
Setback Dike:
A dike that is set back from the ordinary high water mark of a
river creating an overbank strip of natural ground between the
dike fill and the riverbank.
Sliver Fill:
A narrow fill wedge occurring due to widening of an existing

sloped surface.
Standard Design Flood:
A flood with an annual probability of occurrence of 0.5%, also

known as a 1 in 200 year flood.
Storm Surge:
Rise in mean water level due to barometric or atmospheric

effects.
A1 -2
Tides:
The regular rise and fall of ocean water levels due to the
gravitational influence of the sun and moon.
Tsunamis:
Seismically or landslide generated waves.
A1 -3
APPENDIX II
SAMPLE DESIGNS
(FOR DEMONSTRATION PURPOSES ONLY)
Design Example: Seepage Control
AII - 1
Design Example 1: Seepage Control

Problem:
To design an acceptably stable dike (with limited seepage through and beneath the
dike) to contain a design flood event and associated forces with a 200 year
recurrence period interval (1:200 year), and an appropriate additional freeboard
allowance.
Known Design Criteria:
The required height of the dike above the existing ground surface, based on a
1:200 year flood event, is 3 m. This includes a 0.6 m freeboard allowance.
A 4 m minimum crest width allowance for maintenance vehicles, with a minimum
150 mm thick gravel surfacing.
A minimum 150 mm thickness of topsoil and subsequent hydroseeding on the
finished sideslopes.
Winter construction period with periods of heavy precipitation expected.
Soil and Groundwater Conditions:
The soil and groundwater conditions at the site were determined by auger drilling
investigation along the dike alignment. Dynamic Cone Penetration tests
(DCPTs) were carried out adjacent to some of the auger holes to determine the
relative density of the soils along the proposed dike alignment. Standpipe
piezometers were installed in some of the open augerholes to allow continued
monitoring of the groundwater level along the alignment.
The landside portion of the proposed dike alignment is underlain by a thin layer of
silty topsoil (less than 300 mm thickness), which tapers out towards the waterside
of the dike.
A pervious sand stratum of up to 1.5 m thickness exists at the surface of the
waterside of the proposed dike and below the topsoil layer on the landside of the
proposed dike. Based on the DCPT results, this layer is inferred to be relatively
compact.
A relatively impermeable stiff clay stratum underlies the pervious sand stratum.
Based on the readings collected from the standpipe piezometers, the groundwater
table is expected to be between 0.5 and 1 m depth below the existing ground
surface at the time of construction.
A borrow pit comprising generally sand with a trace of gravel and about 5 to 10
per cent fines (silt and clay sizes), exists near the site and the material is
economically available. This material will be utilized wherever possible in the
final design.
AII - 2
Geotechnical and Hydrological Analyses:

Detailed slope stability and seepage analyses was initially carried out assuming
only the available sand (well compacted) is used to construct the dike to the
required 3 m height above the existing ground surface.
o Based on our combined seepage and stability analyses, excessive seepage
is expected both through and beneath the dike during a design flood event.
In addition, even with relatively flat 4 Horizontal:1 Vertical (4H:1V) dike
sideslopes, piping, erosion, and sloughing may occur, and there is a
possibility of a more extensive failure through the dike. Based on these
analyses, and assuming the available sand is to be used wherever possible,
seepage control and dike zoning will be required to achieve an acceptable
level of stability and seepage control during a design flood event.
Based on our subsequent detailed slope stability and seepage analyses, the
following dike design limits seepage through and beneath the dike and achieves
an acceptable level of stability during a design flood event. This design does not
consider the effects of seismic loading or possible liquefaction potential (due to
seismic loading) at the site. It should be noted that a number of other designs are
possible to control seepage and to achieve an acceptable level of stability during a
design flood event with the same design criteria:
o A sand and gravel drainage layer and pervious toe trench are proposed at
the landside of the dike. The pervious drainage layer will provide an exit
for seepage through the embankment and can lower the phreatic surface
sufficiently so that no seepage will emerge on the landside slope. This
drainage layer is combined with a pervious toe trench as a method for
controlling shallow underseepage by reducing the potential for a buildup
of seepage pressure (due to the existence of the thin topsoil layer). A
geotextile fabric is proposed between the pervious drainage layer and the
bulk dike fills (the available sand), to provide a separation/filter layer to
prevent the finer sand fill from migrating into the coarser sand and gravel
fill.
o Dike sideslopes of 3H:1V are proposed. Based on our analyses, the
sideslopes will have an acceptable level of stability during a design flood
event. In addition, they are flat enough for future mowing of the slopes.
o Although the stability of the dike is acceptable using the above
methodology, the expected level of seepage both through and under the
dike would still be higher than desired due to the generally pervious nature
of the dike fills and subsurface soils. To reduce seepage, and to further
improve stability, an impervious layer and cutoff trench are proposed at
the waterside of the dike to greatly reduce seepage through and beneath
the dike. Due to the possibility of heavy precipitation during construction,
a relatively impermeable silt and clay fill material is not considered to be
feasible due to the expected difficulty to compact and transport these
AII - 3
materials during periods of heavy precipitation. A geosynthetic clay liner

is proposed as shown, with the liner covered along the waterside sideslope
and the cutoff trench filled with the available sand fill material. This liner
should be adequately anchored at the top of the dike to prevent it from
sliding. The cutoff trench would be excavated to and keyed into the
impervious stiff clay stratum which underlies the site. It should be noted
that such a liner would need to be installed based on the manufacturers
specifications and care would need to be taken to avoid tearing this
material during construction. Some additional seepage should be expected
in areas where tears in the liner occur.
Additional Comments:
It should be noted that this is a design example provided for discussion purposes
only to provide some methods used successfully in the past and for consideration
in future designs. Actual site specific dike design and analyses should be carried
out by qualified professionals and dike construction should be carried out with an
acceptable level of quality assurance including site inspections to confirm that the
specified dike criteria are being met.
AII - 4
Design Example 2: Soft Ground Conditions
AII - 5
Design Example 2: Soft Ground Conditions

Problem:
To design an acceptably stable dike (with limited seepage through and beneath the
dike) to contain a design flood event and associated forces with a 200 year
recurrence period interval (1:200 year), and an appropriate additional freeboard
allowance.
Known Design Criteria:
The required height of the dike above the existing ground surface, based on a
1:200 year flood event, is 2 m. This includes a 0.6 m freeboard allowance.
A 4 m minimum crest width allowance for maintenance vehicles, with a minimum
150 mm thick gravel surfacing.
A minimum 150 mm thickness of topsoil and subsequent hydroseeding on the
finished sideslopes.
An important utility exists about 50 m from the centerline of the dike (landside).
Soil and Groundwater Conditions:
The soil and groundwater conditions at the site were determined by auger drilling
investigation along the dike alignment. Standpipe piezometers were installed in
some of the open augerholes to allow continued monitoring of the groundwater
level along the alignment. Testing was carried out on collected soil samples to
determine the compressibility and strength characteristics of the existing site soils.
A highly compressible very soft peat deposit of up to 2 m thickness underlies the
proposed dike alignment.
A moderately compressible soft silt clay stratum underlies the surficial peat
deposit.
Based on the readings collected from the standpipe piezometers, the groundwater
table is expected to be between 0 to 0.5 m depth below the existing ground
surface at the time of construction.
A borrow pit comprising generally sand and gravel fill and about 5 to 10 per cent
fines (silt and clay sizes), exists near the site and the material is readily available.
This material will be utilized wherever possible in the final design.
Geotechnical and Hydrological Analyses:
The natural peat, silt and clay soils that underlie the proposed dike alignment are
highly sensitive to disturbance and considered moderately to highly compressible.
As a consequence, any increased loading, such as that resulting from the proposed
dike fills, will cause significant long-term consolidation settlement of these
sediments as well as give rise to potential stability concerns if the dike is not
constructed in carefully controlled stages. In addition, significant lateral soil
AII - 6
movements are also possible within these soft and generally weak soils during
construction of the dike.
Detailed slope stability and settlement analyses were carried out for the project
with the following dike design achieving an acceptable level of stability during
construction and subsequently during a design flood event and to reduce the
potential long term settlements at the site. This design does not consider the
effects of seismic loading at the site. It should be noted that a number of designs
are possible to stabilize the underlying soils and reduce potential long term
settlements with the same design criteria:
o Installation of instrumentation to monitor the porewater pressure
performance within the fine-grained and organic subgrade soils, and
ground movement effects;
o Slope Inclinometers installed about 20 m from the landside toe of the dike
to monitor lateral movements adjacent to the dike (side of existing utility);
o If limited time was available to build the dike, wick drains could be
installed within the subgrade soils to facilitate the dissipation of excess
porewater pressure and accelerate consolidation of the soils beneath the
dike area. This effectively strengthens the subgrade soils and improves
the stabilizing effect of the dike, allowing for more rapid dike
construction;
o Base reinforcement such as geogrid and/or geotextile may be installed
beneath the dike to improve base stability.
o The readily available sand and gravel is constructed in stages (maximum
0.5 m thick), with a delay imposed between fill stages to allow for
dissipation of excess porewater pressures and strength gain within the
underlying soft foundation soils. If excessive porewater pressures buildup
too high they can lead to rapid failure of soft foundation soils. Each stage
of filling commences when monitoring of instrumentation and engineering
analyses confirm that it is safe to do so. Filling continues until some 3 to
4 m thickness of fills are in place and the top of the dike is about 300 mm
above the proposed final elevation to allow for future settlements.
o A final crest width of 5 m is proposed with 300 mm of gravel surfacing.
This will provide enough room to top-up the dike materials in the future
following expected ongoing settlements, and still maintain a reasonable
crest width and running surface for maintenance vehicles without the
addition of fill materials to the sideslopes of the dike.
o An impervious layer is proposed at the waterside of the dike to greatly
reduce seepage through the dike. An imported silt and clay fill with
between about 20 and 40 per cent fines is proposed for this layer. A
geotextile fabric is proposed between the relatively impervious silt and
clay fill layer and the bulk dike fills (the available sand and gravel fill), to
AII - 7
provide a separation layer to prevent the finer silt and clay fill from
migrating into the coarser sand and gravel fill.
o Dike sideslopes of 3H:1V are proposed. Based on our analyses, the
sideslopes will have an acceptable level of stability during construction
and subsequently during a design flood event. In addition, they are flat
enough for future mowing of the slopes.
Additional Comments:
If a 3 m dike was required instead of the 2 m high dike discussed above, flatter
sideslopes and additional construction time would likely be required to maintain
adequate stability of the structure. Also, additional settlements would be expected
due to the larger footprint and additional weight of materials required.
Fill placement on peat results in extensive and unavoidable vertical ground
settlements, as well as significant lateral movements. In many cases, ground
displacements in the order of a few metres can result from the loading of peat
sites utilizing carefully controlled staged loading together with regular
monitoring. Even larger soil displacements and ground failures (including up
thrusting of adjacent land) are common where such loading is undertaken without
adequate geotechnical investigation design, construction inspection, and ground
movement monitoring to control the rate of fill application. Ground failures can
lead to severe damage of adjacent structures or utilities. Once an area has failed,
the soft peat and silts reduce to a residual soil strength. It can take months or
possibly years for the soils to return to their natural strengths and continued
construction would be very difficult during this period.
It should be noted that this is a design example provided for discussion purposes
only to provide some methods used successfully in the past and for consideration
in future designs. Actual site specific dike design and analyses should be carried
out by qualified professionals and dike construction should be carried out with an
acceptable level of quality assurance including site inspections to confirm that the
specified dike criteria are being met.
AII - 8

Dike Des Cons Guide July-2011 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dike Des Cons Guide July-2011 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dike Des Cons Guide July-2011 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dike Design and Construction Guide

Best Management Practices for

Flood Hazard Management Section

Dike Design and Construction Guide

Flood Hazard Management Section

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data.

Main entry under title:

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

DIKE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION GUIDE

Neil Peters, P. Eng.

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

Purpose and Limitations of Document..................................................1-1

Pre-Design Study .................................................................................2-1

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

Civil Design Issues ...............................................................................2-6

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................... 3-1

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

Proposals for construction of new flood

Purpose and Limitations of

Numerous criteria and issues must be

established. However, logical steps

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

Management Branch 1999), and Flood

The following list of definitions is taken

diking authority means:

the commissioners of a district to

improvement district means an

Flooding in British Columbia

Flooding in British Columbia is caused

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

modified by natural and/or manmade

Freshet flooding refers to spring snowmelt

Flooding from the ocean is influenced by

The outer coast, including deep fjords, is

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

The B.C. coast has been subject to several

Debris Flood And Debris Flow

The geography of British Columbia has

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

transported in a debris flood is smaller than

Erosion can occur as a result of sudden

Ice Jams and Loading

An ice jam is a stationary accumulation

Photograph 1: Debris Flow, Chilliwack River Valley

Ice loading on dikes may need to be

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

enough to dislodge or damage the structure

Global warming due to the greenhouse

annual runoff may increase (Loukas et

Dike Design Guidelines Best Management Practices for British Columbia

Legislation and Regulations

Legislation and Regulatory

Regulatory controls on construction of new

Drainage Ditch and Dike Act; and

Emergency Management Act;

Relevant federal legislation includes the