Art2 PDF

Original Article
An examination of integrated
marketing communication in
US public institutions of higher
education
Received (in revised form): 22nd October 2009
Dawn Edmiston
is Assistant Professor of Management and Marketing at Saint Vincent College. Previously,
Dr. Edmiston served as an adjunct faculty member at Howard University, Johns Hopkins
University, Trinity College, University of Maryland University College and University of Pittsburgh
at Johnstown. This article is based on her dissertation research, which received the 2008 Council
for Advancement and Support of Education Alice L. Beeman Award for Outstanding Doctoral
Dissertation.
ABSTRACT This research analyzes the strategic process of integrated marketing

communication (IMC) and its current application in US public institutions of higher
education (IHEs). The basis for this research was a survey questionnaire that analyzed
the impact of IMC on 42 leading US public colleges and universities (as ranked by
U.S. News & World Report). To further expand upon the findings of the survey,
interviews were conducted with nine of the 42 survey respondents. The research
revealed that several variables impact IMC in US public IHEs to include leadership
and formal communication mechanisms. In addition, IMC was shown to contribute
to heightened institutional brand recognition. The research also considers whether
differences exist between an institution’s IMC level and its Carnegie classification and
geographic location.
International Journal of Educational Advancement (2009) 8, 152–175.
doi:10.1057/ijea.2009.1
Keywords: integrated marketing communication; higher education marketing;

brand equity
INTRODUCTION increased acceptance over the past few

The concept of integrated marketing decades; however, the extent to which
communication (IMC) has gained institutions of higher education (IHEs)
have adopted IMC as part of their
Correspondence: Dawn Edmiston
strategic management approach has
St Vincent College, Aurelius Hall, Room 302, 300 Fraser
Purchase Road, Latrobe, Pennsylvania 15650-2690, USA not been well understood. A review of
E-mail: [email protected] the literature reveals limited research
© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan 1744–6503 International Journal of Educational Advancement Vol. 8, 3/4, 152–175
www.palgrave-journals.com/ijea/
Integrated marketing communication in US public institutions of higher education
on the impact of marketing in higher stage framework, ‘progressing from

education (Mulnix, 1996; Primary a highly practical, tactical orientation
Research Group, 2003; Quatroche, to one increasingly driven by an
2004), and even fewer studies on understanding of customers and their
integrated marketing in higher behaviors’ (p. 21). Based on the
education (Morris, 2003; DePerro, research of the American Productivity
2006). Although a common marketing & Quality Center, it was determined
language is progressively developing in that in the early stages of IMC
the field of higher education development, most organizations
marketing, it remains unclear how addressed ‘marketing communication
marketing and communication activities with tactical ‘how-to’ and
processes are structured in IHEs and ‘when-to’ questions. Once the IMC
whether institutions have advanced to program was in place, they moved
effective integration of IMC processes. progressively to questions about
This study addresses this gap in the coordinating internal and external
research literature. activities; using customer data to drive
priorities; and finally applying IMC
principles to strategic issues such as
DEFINITIONS AND resource allocation, organizational
CLARIFICATIONS alignment, and financial integration
and accountability’ (Schultz and
Integrated marketing Schultz, 2004, p. 21). The four stages
communication of IMC framework served as the basis
‘Since IMC extends beyond traditional for this study’s survey questionnaire.
media and marketing tools and
involves processes that are in Communication vs communications
transition, the challenge of finding Researchers have been inconsistent as
conceptual and directional guidance to whether IMC represents ‘integrated
from research looms larger than in marketing communication’ (Schultz
traditional marketing’ (Cook, 2004, and Schultz, 2004; Swain, 2004) or
p. 1). As a result, over the past two ‘integrated marketing communications’
decades, various definitions of IMC (Novelli, 1989/1990; Duncan and
have evolved and consensus on a Everett, 1993; Kitchen and de
definition has not yet been reached. Pelsmacker, 2004). While a simple
For purposes of this research, the letter ‘s’ may seem to be a minor
assumed definition of IMC will be, ‘a difference, there are major implied
strategic business process used to plan, differences between the two terms. The
develop, execute and evaluate term ‘communication’ is defined as ‘the
coordinated, measurable, persuasive act of communicating; transmission’
brand communication programs over (Communication, n.d.) while the term
time with consumers, prospects and ‘communications’ is defined as ‘the
other targeted, relevant external and technology employed in transmitting
internal audiences’ (Schultz and messages’ (Communications, n.d.).
Schultz, 2004, p. 20). Thus, communication could be viewed
Schultz and Schultz (2004) maintain as strategic while communications
that IMC is developed through a four- could be viewed as tactical. As the
© 2008 Palgrave Macmillan 1744–6503 International Journal of Educational Advancement Vol. 8, 3/4, 152–175 153
Edmiston
primary purpose of IMC is considered DEVELOPMENT OF IMC

to be strategic in nature, the IMC The practice of IMC can trace its
acronym for this study will represent inception to the early 1980s when
‘integrated marketing communication.’ collegiate textbooks began to
emphasize the concept of marketing
Integrated marketing vs integrated communication. Coulson-Thomas
marketing communication (1983) established himself as one of
It is also important to emphasize that the first researchers to outline the
the focus of this research is integrated broad spectrum of marketing
marketing communication not communication channels. Although
integrated marketing. Sevier (1999) an element of interdependence was
revealed that the terms ‘integrated recognized between the different
marketing’ and ‘integrated marketing communication elements (such as
communication’ are often used advertising, marketing and public
interchangeably. But in actuality, these relations), the idea of integration was
terms represent two distinct concepts. not considered a plausible approach to
Sevier (1999) noted ‘integrated developing more effective campaigns at
marketing is a relatively recent that time.
addition to the higher education In 1991, the concept of IMC gained
lexicon. As such, there is – at least at greater attention when seminal
this point – no one, generally accepted research in this field was conducted
definition of integrated marketing’ by faculty at the Medill School of
(p. 1). Integrated marketing is often Journalism at Northwestern University
defined as being ‘concerned with the (Schultz and Kitchen, 1997). The
management of strategic assets’ (p. 3) concept was relatively quick to be
relative to three of the four standard adopted by advertising and public
elements of the marketing mix: relations agencies, as it served to
product, price and place. However, further validate their value to
such a definition relegates the concept corporate America (Wightman, 1999).
of integrated marketing communication The theory of IMC became grounded
to a tactical function within the fourth in the belief that there should be ‘one
element of the marketing mix: basic communication strategy for each
promotions. major target audience. This one
Schultz and Schultz (2004) suggest strategy is then used as the basis for
that such a definition does not place executing each communications
IMC in its proper context. As function (advertising, PR, sales
mentioned previously, Schultz and promotion and so on) throughout a
Schultz define IMC as a strategic variety of communications channels’
business process to drive brand (Duncan and Everett, 1993, p. 31). At
communication programs, not the time, Tortorici (1991) declared that
simply product promotion programs. IMC was one of the most effective
Thus, for IMC to be most effective ways an organization can maximize its
it needs to be implemented not at a return on investment relative to
tactical level but rather at a strategic marketing communication
level in support of the institutional expenditures. However, significant
brand. debate ensued as to whether or not
154 © 2008 Palgrave Macmillan 1744–6503 International Journal of Educational Advancement Vol. 8, 3/4, 152–175
IMC was a management fad Insurance. The research resulted in

(Cornelissen and Lock, 2000) or several key findings and led to the
theoretical concept (Schultz and development of the four stages of IMC
Kitchen, 2000). framework (McGoon, 1998).
Table 1 provides an overview of the
indicators of the four stages of IMC
THE FOUR STAGES OF IMC that were determined to be most
FRAMEWORK relevant to IHEs, as adapted from
One of the first major IMC studies was Schultz and Schultz (2004).
conducted in 1997 by the American
Productivity & Quality Center. This IMC CHALLENGES
research was one of the few early There are several challenges inherent in
studies that focused on the adopting and applying IMC in
organizations that were actually organizations (Duncan, 2005). Perhaps
employing IMC rather than the ad the greatest obstacle is that most
agencies that were focused on deploying individuals (to include many marketing
such efforts. The study analyzed 22 practitioners) do not fully understand
national organizations that practiced the process of IMC and the value of
varying degrees of IMC such as Dow implementing such a process in their
Chemical, Ernst & Young, FedEx, organizations. There is a tendency to
Fidelity Investments and Prudential consider marketing as a cost factor
Table 1: The four stages of IMC framework (adapted from Schultz and Schultz, 2004)
Orientation Indicators
Stage 1 Tactical coordination of marketing communication

• Coordinate interpersonal and cross-functional communication within the organization
and with external partners
Stage 2 Commitment to market research in support of IMC

• Utilize primary and secondary market research sources as well as actual behavioral
customer data
• Maintain a multitude of feedback channels to gather information about customers
and effectively act upon customer feedback throughout the organization
Stage 3 Application of information technology in support of IMC

• Leverage technologies to facilitate internal and external communications
• Adopt technologies for market research and data management purposes
• Employ technologies to determine individuals who have the potential to deliver the
highest value (financial or service contributions) to the institution
Stage 4 Strategic integration of IMC

• Active support of institutional leadership
• Marketing communication staff empowered by senior leadership to lead the
integration of external communication with internal communication directed
to students, staff, alumni and other constituents
• Measure effectiveness of marketing communication and incorporate findings into
strategic planning
Edmiston
rather than as a driver of value across hushed tones in academia. But during
the institution. Until the links between the past several years, the resistance to
IMC, institutional branding and the concept of marketing in IHEs
customer value are recognized and seems to be dissolving. This acceptance
understood, the true promise of IMC has been helped in part by publications
will remain unfulfilled. on the topic from several prominent
Another issue with IMC is that it is academics such as Derek Bok (2003)
not intended to be a short-term and David Kirp (2004). Kirp’s most
approach; therefore, a long-term recent work, ‘Shakespeare, Einstein,
perspective and institutional and the Bottom Line: The Marketing
commitment are critical to its success. of Higher Education’ has sparked an
However, in a society that emphasizes interest in not only understanding
quarterly growth earnings and rapid market forces in IHE but how
return on investment, such long-term institutions have effectively (and others
strategies are often not given serious not so effectively) applied marketing
consideration. To substantiate the value and communication techniques to
of IMC over the long term, longitudinal propel their institutions forward in the
measures of the impact and effects of twenty-first century.
IMC will need to be developed.
Finally, there exist many levels and COMPETITIVE NATURE OF
dimensions to integration that pose THE HIGHER EDUCATION
individual and collective difficulties. MARKET
‘To be implemented, IMC requires the In the past 40 years, the number of US
involvement of the whole organization colleges and universities has grown
and its agents from the chief executive from 2300 to well over 4000,
downward. It needs consideration from including branch campuses (Rhodes,
the highest strategic level down to the 2006). Not only have IHEs
day-to-day implementation of individual experienced intense competition from
tactical activity’ (Pickton and Hartley, traditional, non-profit institutions but
1998, p. 450). To encourage such there has also been new competition
involvement, consideration should be from for-profit institutions. And these
given to designing compensation for-profit institutions, such as the
systems to recognize and reinforce the University of Phoenix, have adopted
relationship building efforts that are aggressive marketing strategies. The
critical to the success of IMC. University of Phoenix’s parent
Integrated marketing communication company, the Apollo Group, invested
cannot simply be a recommended in excess of $142 million for Internet
strategy in an organization; it must be marketing in 2006, an amount that
practiced by each staff member, who does not take into account the
should be rewarded accordingly. additional tens of millions it paid for
search-engine advertising or amounts
ROLE OF MARKETING spent by companies using the Internet
IN COLLEGES AND to generate leads on its behalf. Such
UNIVERSITIES spending has made the Apollo Group
‘Marketing’ had once been a term that the seventh largest online advertiser
could only be spoken in the most across all industries, spending more
than Dell and General Motors than 1300 institutions nationwide’

(Blumenstyk, 2006). (Vaznis, 2007). However, these
For comparison purposes, a recent rankings are scorned by many higher
survey from Lipman Hearne (2007) education administrators who believe
revealed that only 10 per cent of the various institutional outputs
public IHEs spend $1 million or measured (such as selectivity factors)
more on their marketing and are not as important as certain
communications budget (compared educational outcomes (such as quality
to 16 per cent for private IHEs). In of the learning experience). In May
addition, 57 per cent of public IHEs 2007, a dozen liberal arts colleges
spend less than 0.5 per cent of their received national press coverage for
operating budget on marketing distributing a letter to hundreds of
and communications (compared to college leaders urging them not to
21 per cent for private IHEs) and 61 support surveys conducted by U.S.
per cent spent under $50 per student News & World Report (Vaznis, 2007;
for marketing and communications Wasik, 2007). One of the supporters
expenditures (compared to 11 per cent of the letter and a major opponent of
for private IHEs). college rankings is Lloyd Thacker,
founder and executive director of the
Education Conservancy. Thacker
INFLUENCE OF COLLEGE asserts, ‘The commercialization of the
RANKINGS admissions process has devalued
If a single factor could be attributed to education. What do we do when we
why marketing in higher education has tell a kid that where you go to college
evolved (or devolved, depending on is more important than what you do?’
one’s perspective) it would likely be (Wasik, 2007).
the proliferation of college ranking Even though negatives may exist
systems. As the cost of college with the current ranking systems, the
education escalated in the 1980s, power of these rankings remains
students and parents began to ask the undeniable. It is not uncommon for
question, ‘How do I know I am institutions such as Northeastern
getting my money’s worth?’ ‘When University to make pledges to improve
organized higher education failed to their standings in U.S. News & World
provide a credible answer, U.S. News Report rankings as a way of increasing
& World Report filled the vacuum. prestige (Vaznis, 2007). As Wolfson
Thus, were born the dreaded college (2005) noted:
rankings that rather than focusing on
learning and outcomes, transformed The single best way to build your
reputation and prestige into synonyms brand, as every president of every
for educational quality’ (Zemsky et al, college and university in the country
2001, p. 53). knows, is to make an impression
The U.S. News & World Report where it really counts: the U.S.
rankings are ‘widely considered the News and World Report rankings.
gold standard of college rankings The official line from the magazine
because they are so comprehensive, and the colleges is that the rankings
using dozens of factors to assess more are just one tool students should
Edmiston
use to find the right school. But and ‘farm manager’ were included in
everybody knows the truth: Parents the survey. The only position related
and students obsess about them. to the marketing and communication
Consequently, so do universities. function was the ‘public information
specialist’ role, which would seem to
Brian Kelly, editor of U.S. News &
be limited to the practice of public
World Report, defends the rankings
relations.
and stresses the magazine reviews its
The lack of a marketing
methodology several times a year. He
communication focus tends to be the
also declares the magazine has no
result of how IHEs have evolved over
intention of stopping the ranking
time. As institutions have grown their
system. ‘The rankings allow people
enrollment and program offerings, they
to sort through a baffling array of
have also become increasingly
choices,’ Kelly said. ‘It’s a starting
fragmented internally. Typically this
point. This should not be an end point
has resulted in functions becoming
of the college search’ (Vaznis, 2007).
compartmentalized and departments
A multitude of factors in the
operating without any knowledge of
ranking process could potentially be
the other parts of the institution.
influenced through effective IMC to
Individuals within IHEs tend to view
include peer assessment as well as
themselves as part of a distinct
retention, graduation and alumni
department competing for limited
giving rates. Assuming institutions
organizational resources rather than
ranked as ‘leading’ public IHEs would
as part of a comprehensive system
be more likely than others to have
working toward common objectives.
effectively adopted IMC, the survey
Frank Rhodes, former President of
sample for this research consisted of
Cornell University, explains that
the 82 ranked public IHEs in the U.S.
‘Structural reform remains elusive in
News & World Report (2005)
the academic culture. The structural
America’s best colleges.
imbalance between goals, tasks, and
resources seems to have shown little
MARKETING STRUCTURE improvement since 1966. The rigidity
IN COLLEGES AND of departmental structures continues to
UNIVERSITIES limit the ability of colleges to adapt
Although it is common to have a and respond to new circumstances.
public relations officer in IHEs, it has Any change tends to be laboriously
not been common to have a dedicated incremental, with a significant time lag
‘marketing’ or ‘marketing between the decision to make it and
communication’ practitioner within the ability of the institution to carry
the institution. In a recent higher it out’ (Rhodes, 2006, p. A18).
education administration survey by the Such a fiefdom mentality is a major
College and University Professional barrier to effective IMC. Rather than
Association for Human Resources establish a concerted, integrated
(June, 2006), none of the listed 163 marketing communication strategy, it
positions incorporated the terms is more typical to develop separate
‘marketing’ or ‘communication’ and offices to address admissions
yet positions such as ‘museum curator’ marketing, media and public relations,
alumni and development, athletic can lead to increased earnings for the
marketing, publications and creative brand; assurance of such earnings; and
services to include website initiatives. the opportunity for new earnings
Such a mindset must be overcome if through new customers as a result of
the development of a true brand customer advocacy, new geographic
orientation, critical to IMC, is to areas of service, or other factors
occur. (Schultz and Schultz, 2004).
The concept of brand equity is often
difficult to understand owing to its
VALUE OF BRAND EQUITY intangible nature. Although measuring
Various definitions exist for ‘brand the value of a science center or library
equity’ (Aaker, 1991; Wood, 2000); can typically be done in specific
however, Schultz and Schultz (2004) financial terms, brand equity is not as
have developed a definition based on easily quantifiable. Still, the concept of
the perspective of IMC: ‘branding’ has become a powerful
force in higher education in the
Brand equity is the composite of
twenty-first century. Following is an
the brand’s presence, identity/image,
example of how branding has been
perceived quality, and commitment
effectively leveraged at one of the
among constituents, culminating
nation’s leading public universities.
in long-term financial value to
the firm and its shareholders. The
dimensions of the brand are affected
Building brand equity
by the action of competitors as well
at University of Maryland
In 2003, John Pulley authored an
as the attitudes and behaviors of
article in The Chronicle of Higher
customers, prospects, employees,
Education titled, ‘Romancing the
alliance partners, investors, and
Brand,’ which highlighted the branding
other key stakeholders’ (p. 309).
evolution at University of Maryland.
According to Schultz and Schultz In the mid-1990s, Maryland prepared
(2004), brand-building efforts typically to undertake its first major fundraising
result in four major areas of return or campaign. Before doing so, the
benefit to the organization: increased institution attempted to gauge the
number of customers supporting the expected level of support from
brand; increased usage by existing potential donors and was dismayed
customers; increased customer income with the results. ‘Maryland, it seemed,
flows that stem from increased loyalty; had taken for granted that its
and the ability of the organization to constituents – alumni, donors, parents
extend the brand into new areas that of students, business leaders, and
result in increased new customers, new legislators – knew of its progress.
sales or both. ‘Note how closely these The public, in fact, largely unaware
brand returns mirror the four basic of the strides taken at College Park,
goals of marketing communication – had an image of the institution that
acquire customers, retain customers, was fixed in the past’ (Pulley, 2003,
grow volume and value, and migrate p. A30).
customers through the product Thus, Maryland focused upon the
portfolio’ (p. 313). These four benefits development of a visual identity, which
Edmiston
eventually evolved into a national identity strategy and its customer-based

brand campaign. This evolution brand equity, that is, brand awareness
included the establishment of a and brand image’ (p. 70). Specifically,
marketing and communications office, they propose ‘a conceptual model of
development of a University logo, brand equity in which the aspirational
identification of core brand values and brand identity guides IMC in an effort
execution of a national $650 000 to develop and maintain customer-
branding campaign. However, such based brand equity’ (p. 70).
efforts initially met resistance. The ability to measure the strength
‘Overcoming such resistance, say of the ongoing brand relationship has
people who have both succeeded and been enhanced through advanced
failed, requires the advocacy of an technologies that enable interactive
institutional champion. Maryland’s IMC. By understanding the value and
campaign was buoyed by its president, nature of customer relationships, it
who insisted that the endeavor be becomes ‘practical for the marketer to
bold’ (Pulley, 2003, p. A30). categorize customers based on their
Maryland’s brand investments value to the brand and the value of the
eventually met with great success. In brand to the customer’ (Schultz and
4 years, freshmen applications Schultz, 2004, p. 134). ‘Where
increased from 17 000 to 23 000, moderate relationships exist, they
while over the course of 10 years, the might be strengthened. Where they are
average high-school GPA of incoming strong, they can be reinforced. The
freshmen increased from 3.01 to 3.75. marketer can become proactive in
In addition, membership in the alumni developing lasting relationships with
association increased 35 per cent and desirable customers and prospects by
donors nearly doubled from 21 000 to understanding the reciprocity that must
41 000 over a 5-year period, while the exist between the two’ (p. 134).
endowment grew to $270 million, Following is an example of how
a more than fivefold increase over a reciprocity relationships in IHEs
10-year period (Pulley, 2003). contribute to effective brand
development.
Relationship between IMC and
brand equity A MODEL OF IMC
Madhavaram et al (2005) note that EFFECTIVENESS IN
effective marketing communication HIGHER EDUCATION
‘enables the formation of brand Schultz and Schultz (2004) contend
awareness and a positive brand image. that the IMC reciprocity approach is
These then form the brand knowledge ‘to refer to brand relationships, which
structures, which, in turn, trigger the are defined as the relationships that
differentiated responses that constitute exist between buyers and sellers
brand equity’ (p. 70). These through the exchange of value for
researchers effectively argue that the products or services over time’
IMC strategy is essential to the (p. 129). It is this reciprocity that will
organization’s strategic brand define buyer–seller relationships, and
development and that it ‘strengthens it is this shared value that creates
the interface between the firm’s brand ongoing relationships. ‘Reciprocity will
be determined and continually Further analysis of the 15 major

redefined based on every brand contact reasons for student dissatisfaction
and every communication delivered revealed that eight of them could
and received by both marketer and potentially be resolved through
customer’ (p. 130). marketing communication actions.
Schultz and Schultz (2004) illustrate ‘Three key solutions were then
the reciprocal approach of IMC with identified: improvements in
an example of a US-based educational communication, provision for
services provider who offered a improvements in the operating
traditional classroom experience as systems, and development of direct
well as Internet-based distance systems solutions that could be
education. This particular organization implemented by local managers’
sought and acquired new students (p. 139). Potential loss recovery
through various promotional methods was determined for each of the
ranging from traditional advertising to marketing-related solutions; as a
Internet marketing. The organization result, the organization prioritized
had an excellent enrollment record, its efforts toward the solutions
but customer retention had not with the greatest financial impact.
achieved an acceptable level. Although this is a simplified
Using the reciprocal approach, the example, it still serves to demonstrate
organization initially examined the the potential institutional and financial
value of the customer to the gains inherent in IMC and effective
educational institution via the three management of customer and brand
primary components of its revenue relationships in the educational
stream: (1) the number of enrollees, (2) marketplace.
the length of time the students were
enrolled, and (3) the revenue and
profit per month (on average) for each RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
student enrolled. The student Quantitative survey research was
population was divided into several conducted to analyze the impact of
segments relative to revenue and IMC on 42 leading US public colleges
profitability. and universities as ranked by the
Turning to the other side of the U.S. News & World Report (2005).
equation, the value of the educational The four stages of IMC framework,
institution to the customer, it was based on studies of the American
interesting to note that of those Productivity & Quality Center,
students who de-enrolled, 40 per cent served as the foundation for the
based their decision to leave on some research. To further expand upon
type of dissatisfaction with the the findings of the survey, qualitative
institution itself. Thus, the question interview research was conducted
became, ‘Could those reasons for with nine of the survey respondents.
dissatisfaction be addressed with Table 2 provides an overview of the
marketing communication so that the entire dissertation research approach to
vulnerable students would be identified demonstrate the relationship between
and the expected attrition of other the survey research methodology and
students prevented?’ (p. 138). results.
Edmiston
Table 2: Research methodology approach
Study phase Description
Phase I Conduct Secondary Research

Literature review of IMC and marketing in IHEs
Phase II Pre-test Survey Questionnaire

Administer survey questionnaire to six IMC senior practitioners; analyze results; modify
interview questions
Phase III Implement Survey Questionnaire

Distribute 82 surveys to the senior marketing and communication officer at the leading
public IHEs in the United States
Phase IV Analyze Survey Questionnaire Results

Categorize the 42 respondents by Basic, Intermediate or Advanced level of IMC
Phase V Follow-up Interviews

Develop interview questionnaire based on survey results; conduct interviews with three
respondents from each of the Basic, Intermediate and Advanced categories of IMC
Phase VI Code and Classify Interview Content
Phase VII Present Findings and Conclusions
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE constrained for financial resources and

METHODS potentially have the most to gain
from IMC, that is public IHEs rather
Target sample than private IHEs, would be more
The target population for this research willing to take the time to respond to
was public institutions of higher the survey.
education in the United States. After the list of sample institutions
A purposive target sample for the was derived from the U.S. News &
structured questionnaire consisted of World Report, the marketing
the 82 top-ranked US public IHEs as communication contact at each
determined across all categories of the institution was determined based on an
U.S. News & World Report (2005) individual review of each institution’s
America’s best colleges rankings. A website. This compilation process
purposive sample was deemed most proved quite challenging as it was
appropriate for this research as it often difficult to determine who within
was important to reach a targeted the organization would be primarily
sample quickly and sampling for responsible for marketing
proportionality was not the primary communication. A few institutions did
concern (Trochim, 2006). The clearly identify the senior marketing
attainment of a high response rate was communication official; however, many
also a consideration when determining institutions did not seem to have such
the survey population. It was hoped a role. In these cases, the selected
those IHEs that are often most individual tended to be the most senior
contact in the University Advancement on redundancy. Having too many

or University Relations department. questions on the same topic runs the
risk of unnecessarily increasing
Survey questionnaire format response burden as well as potentially
The survey questionnaire consisted irritating respondents’ (Church and
primarily of Likert-type questions Waclawski, 2001, p. 64). The number
structured around the four stages of of questions for each of the topic areas
IMC framework. The stated questions in this survey research instrument
were close-ended and used ordinal- ranged from four to seven questions
level items. ‘Ordinal-level items are the per topic.
most frequently used of the three
close-ended measurement scale types in Implementation of the survey
organizational survey instruments’ questionnaire
(Church and Waclawski, 2001, p. 72). A mixed-mode approach was adopted
As Garson (n.d.) noted, ‘Likert scales for this survey to facilitate a response
are ordinal but their use in statistical rate as high as possible. ‘Response
procedures assuming interval level data rates are generally considered to be the
is commonplace.’ most widely compared statistic for
The selected measurement format judging the quality of surveys.
for the questionnaire was a 5-point Ironically, they are also one of the
scale with an additional option of a most controversial’ (Johnson and
‘Don’t Know’ response. Scales Owens, 2003, p. 127). Over the past
consisting of even-numbered anchors, several decades, survey response rates
such as 4-, 6- or 8-point scales are less have been declining owing to a broad
common because they do not allow for range of environmental factors.
the possibility of a neutral midpoint. ‘Concerns with privacy, confidentiality,
‘Although many practitioners and the exploitation of personal
researchers have examined the effects information, general cynicism, and
of scale length in more general declining civic participation are
contexts, with decidedly mixed pervasive social trends that each
conclusions, we have found in our contribute to decreasing survey
work that 5-point scales may indeed participation’ (p. 128). Declining
be the best overall, based on analyses participation rates have led to concerns
of different level (mean) and shape that non-response error may cause
(variability) effects’ (Church and survey findings to be selectively biased.
Waclawski, 2001, pp. 74–75). Garson Thus, it was deemed important to
(n.d.) concluded that for Likert scales adopt a mixed-mode approach to
to be commonly used with interval achieve a high response rate on this
procedures, such scales need to have at survey.
least five categories. The implementation of the survey
Another important issue to consider involved multiple contacts and
when designing a survey instrument is response mechanisms to include paper,
the number of items assigned to email and fax. Since online and email
measure each topic area. ‘In most surveys have been found to typically
surveys, having more than five produce convergent results (Deutskens
questions on a specific concept borders et al, 2006), it was determined that a
Edmiston
mixed-mode approach would be institutions in the Mid-West and

appropriate for this research study. In 11 institutions in the West.
an attempt to limit potential question
order bias, four variations of the SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
questionnaire were developed and were RESULTS
equally distributed across the survey The findings of the questionnaire
sample. survey data were utilized to categorize
Initially, a formal letter and the an IHE relative to its institutional
survey instrument were sent to the stage of IMC. Because the survey was
survey sample, with a self-addressed based on a 5-point response scale
stamped envelope for return of the (with an additional option for ‘Don’t
survey. Respondents were also Know’), each response was weighted
provided a fax number if they as follows: ‘Strongly Disagree’ = 1
preferred to return the survey in such point; ‘Disagree’ = 2 points;
a manner. In addition, an Internet ‘Neutral’ = 3 points; ‘Agree’ = 4 points;
version of the survey was established ‘Strongly Agree’ = 5 points.
on Survey Monkey. Within 2 weeks Scores for the questions within each
of the initial mailing, an email with stage were totaled and then an overall
a link to the Internet version of average score for that particular stage
the survey was distributed. The was calculated. The Stage 1 (tactical
following week, a final email reminder coordination of marketing
was sent to the survey population. communication) score was an average
The survey collection period extended of the individual scores for Q3–Q9.
from 24 September to 24 October The Stage 2 (market research) score
2006. was an average of the individual scores
At the end of the survey collection for Q10–Q15; the Stage 3 (applied
period, 42 out of a possible 82 information technology) score was an
complete surveys had been received for average of the individual scores for
a response rate of 51.2 per cent. 23 Q16–Q19; and, the Stage 4 (strategic
responses arrived via mail, 18 integration of IMC) score was an
responses arrived via the Internet and average of the individual scores for
one response arrived via fax. The Q20–Q24.
response rate calculation did not If a respondent answered ‘Don’t
include two individuals who responded Know’ for a particular question, that
they were not able or willing to question was removed from the overall
complete the survey nor did it include stage calculation. Thus, for an
four incomplete Internet surveys. institution to be considered as
The collected data represented a effectively demonstrating the attributes
cross-section of the survey population of a particular stage in the four stages
to include eight national universities, of IMC framework, the institution
25 regional universities and nine would need to receive an average score
liberal arts and regional comprehensive of at least 3.0 points across the
colleges. The geographic dispersion of various questions that comprised that
the respondents included nine specific stage.
institutions in the North, 12 Interestingly, 50 per cent of the
institutions in the South, 10 respondents did not progress in a
Table 3: Highest scored IMC framework stage of survey respondents
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Number of respondents whose average stage score was 9 1 21 10

highest in this particular stage
Average score across all respondents 3.50 3.48 3.86 3.72
linear manner through the framework, practical framework as certain stages

that is, an institution that scored an may take longer to achieve full
average of below 3.0 on an earlier integration.
stage could have scored 3.0 or above It may also be the case that the
at a later stage. In fact, half of the often slow but methodical approach
respondents achieved their highest inherent in academia may lead IHEs
average score in Stage 3 (which to initially assume a more strategic
represented the application of (Stage 4) rather than tactical (Stage 1)
information technology in support of focus in their IMC efforts. The intense
IMC), as noted in Table 3. market environment may force many
There could be several reasons for commercial organizations to react
such a non-linear progression. Nearly with a quick tactical approach rather
a decade has passed since the than a thoughtful strategic approach
development of the four stages of to marketing communication. Thus,
IMC framework and information the four stages of IMC framework
technology has become a pervasive relative to IHEs may actually be
force in the world during that time. Stage 4 (strategic integration)→Stage 2
Now, it may be more likely for IHEs (market research)→Stage 3 (application
to adopt information technology at of information technology in support
an earlier point than Stage 3. The of IMC)→Stage 1 (coordination of
potential also exists that it may marketing communication).
actually be simpler to adopt elements Even if the framework is not
of certain stages. For example, an IHE necessarily supported in the higher
may find it simpler to utilize secondary education environment, each of the
market research (Q11 in the survey, a four stages in the framework
Stage 2 element) and use email for represents a critical aspect in the
internal communication (Q16 in the development of an effective IMC
survey, a Stage 3 element) than it is to strategy. Therefore, the survey findings
optimize coordination of policies, provide valuable insight into the extent
practices and procedures for the that respondents have adopted
branding of all marketing initiatives elements related to the various stages
(Q3 in the survey, a Stage 1 element) of IMC, although it is obvious from
across the institution. Although the differences in scores that certain
previous research suggests that a IHEs have achieved a higher degree of
linear progression may be a natural integration than others. The follow-up
and perhaps even ideal framework, interviews were designed to further
non-linear progression may be a more analyze potential factors that could
Edmiston
account for the differences in IMC South, Mid-West, West) of the United
progress. States. The nine structured telephone
As 50 per cent of the respondents interviews took place from 15
did not proceed in a linear manner November to 18 December 2006.
through the framework, it was A list of five open-ended interview
necessary to develop a modified questions was developed based on the
framework for analyzing the impact of survey questionnaire findings. The
IMC on these IHEs. Thus, respondents interview questions evolved out of
were designated an overall IMC five themes that permeated from the
category based on the number of survey questionnaire: (1) importance
stages for which they attained an of coordinating IMC efforts,
average score of 3.0 or above. An IHE (2) compensation effects on IMC,
would be considered in the Basic (3) communication of marketing
Category if the institution scored an objectives across the institution,
average of 3.0 or above in zero or one (4) relevance of centralized
stage; the Intermediate Category would communication on branding initiatives,
represent those IHEs that scored an and (5) impact of IMC on the
average of 3.0 or above in two or selectivity of an institution. The list of
three stages; and, the Advanced questions was pre-screened by four
Category would represent those IHEs practitioners, further refined and then
that scored an average of 3.0 or above distributed to the subjects before the
in all four stages. The modified interviews.
analysis revealed 13 institutions in the Each of the telephone interviews
Basic Category of IMC, 14 institutions was digitally recorded with the
in the Intermediate Category of IMC permission of the interviewee. All
and 15 institutions in the Advanced participants were assured that their
Category of IMC. comments would not be directly
attributed to them or their institution.
INTERVIEW RESEARCH Each interview lasted between 30 and
METHODS 40 min.
For purposes of the interview process,
three respondents from each of the POTENTIAL LIMITATIONS
Basic, Intermediate and Advanced OF THE RESEARCH
Categories of IMC were selected. In METHODOLOGY
addition to meeting the quantitative The design of the research methods
standards of the Basic, Intermediate combines both quantitative and
and Advanced Categories (as noted in qualitative dimensions and could be
the previous section) the interviewees criticized by a purist in either camp
also stated at the end of the survey because of the mixing of
questionnaire that they were willing to methodologies that has taken place
participate in the interview process. In (Wilson, 2005). However, as noted in
addition, effort was made to ensure the literature review, there is a dearth
that the interviewees represented a of IMC research relative to IHEs,
broad geographic distribution, that is, which prevents replication of past
there were at least two interviewees research methods or use of other
from each of the four regions (North, researchers’ questionnaires.
Another potential limitation is that IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON

the research is based on a convenient THE EFFECTIVENESS OF IMC
and purposeful sample. As Trochim Even though there was no question
(2006) noted, ‘With a purposive specific to the topic of leadership in
sample, you are likely to get the the interview research, the importance
opinions of your target population, but of institutional leadership was the
you are also likely to overweight most frequently mentioned IMC
subgroups in your population that are success factor. The importance of
more readily accessible.’ leadership’s commitment to integrated
The respondents self-reported their marketing communication and their
institutional experiences, which could role in instituting the coordination of
conceivably be biased. Additionally, IMC efforts was voiced by five out of
this research design is limited by the nine interviewees. Interestingly, the
the small number of interviews that four interviewees who did not mention
could be conducted due to the time the importance of leadership included
and resources involved with the all three of the Basic Category of IMC
interview process. Such biases may interviewees. Such a finding could be
limit the generalizations that can be the result of not recognizing the
reached. important role of leadership, or the
Finally, it should be recognized that result of leadership not understanding
IMC is still in its infancy, both as a the importance of their role in
concept and a process. Further analysis emphasizing the need for marketing
and adoption of common metrics for and communication to be valued
performance would be required to across the institution.
conduct a study with greater Although the research revealed that
generalizable conclusions (Strasser, centralized communication was not
2004). As IMC’s theoretical necessarily a requirement for effective
foundations continue to be debated, IMC, strong leadership was a mandate.
there are bound to be inconsistencies As one interviewee noted, ‘You can
across the survey sample of this study have a strong brand through senior
as well as the general population management direction and no
regarding their understanding of IMC. coordination, but not the opposite …
if you do not have clear management
INTERVIEW RESEARCH direction, then centralized coordination
RESULTS is not going to achieve anything.
The interview findings revealed that Centralized coordination is a tactic not
several factors are important to the a strategy. The strategy is the more
success of IMC in colleges and important issue.’
universities to include the support of Another interviewee echoed such
leadership and formal communication sentiment: ‘The president needs to
mechanisms. In addition, those have the vision for how marketing can
institutions that were advanced in their help the institution and how it should
IMC efforts experienced greater brand help the institution. And then the
recognition than other institutions. president needs to be willing to
Table 4 provides an overview of the commit his or her power and prestige
resulting interview themes. and institutional time and resources to
Edmiston
Table 4: Resulting themes from interviews with nine public IHEs
Interview theme Category of IMC (three possible

respondents in each category)
Basic Intermediate Advanced

IMC IMC IMC
What factors have the most influence on effective coordination of IMC?

• Leadership — 2 3
• Culture of the organization 2 2 3
How might compensation policies or factors impact the effectiveness of IMC?

• Nominal effect, as IHE staff value intrinsic rewards 2 1 —
• Demonstrates marketing communication is valued — 1 2
• Encourages marketing communication to be evaluated and 2 1 2
measured
What factors influence effective communication of marketing objectives across the institution?
• Informal communication mechanisms 2 1 2
• Formal communication mechanisms — 3 3
• Visible support of leadership 2 2 2
What factors are most relevant to achieving branding objectives?

• Consistent understanding of the concept of branding 2 — —
• Coordinated but not necessarily centralized communication — 3 2
• Leadership direction 2 2 2
What internal factors impact the selectivity of an institution?

• Mission of the institution 1 1 2
• Role of marketing and communications 2 3 1
the marketing effort.’ However, as one objectives across the institution, can be
of the Advanced Category interviewees perceived differently depending on
cautioned, even with leadership whether an institution has achieved
support, the senior marketing Basic, Intermediate or Advanced IMC.
communication official still needs to In particular, while the importance of
be capable of developing a team- informal communication mechanisms
oriented approach. It is the role of the was mentioned by IHEs across all IMC
marketing and communications staff categories, formal and structured
to effectively support the vision of communication mechanisms were
leadership and disseminate the value mentioned only, and unanimously, by
of IMC to all constituencies. the Intermediate and Advanced IMC
interviewees.
IMPORTANCE OF FORMAL One of the most common formal
COMMUNICATION communication mechanisms is the
MECHANISMS establishment of marketing committees.
The factors that influence the quality A recent Lipman Hearne survey (2007)
of communication, to include the found that ‘Institutions that have
effective communication of marketing marketing committees, particularly
campus-wide committees, also reported One such question asked whether

greater on-campus collaboration. Half ‘The institution is achieving greater
of the institutions surveyed reported brand recognition across key target
that their institutions had a campus- markets.’ A t-test was conducted on
wide marketing committee, while the data, which revealed a significant
one-quarter had an alumni/trustee difference in scores between
marketing committee’ (p. 7). institutions that achieved the Advanced
One interviewee noted that their Category of IMC and those institutions
institution had established a senior- in the Basic Category of IMC
level executive advisory group, (t[28] = − 3.613, P < 0.05). Thus, the
‘whereby we have pulled leaders from Advanced Category respondents more
across the university to be the strongly believed than the Basic
advocates for some of the more central Category respondents that their
marketing communications initiatives institution was achieving greater brand
that we have undertaken.’ However, as recognition across key target markets.
cautioned by another interviewee, the The mean score of institutions that
establishment of such a committee achieved the Advanced Category of
should not be the sole element of the IMC was X̄ = 4.733; the mean score
formal marketing outreach. of institutions that achieved the Basic
Other formal communication Category of IMC was X̄ = 3.692.
mechanisms could include marketing As noted in USA Today (2006),
and communications audits or annual while IHEs are enjoying an
reports, as well as regular marketing unprecedented pool of students that
and communications forums. As trend will start to decline in the next
mentioned by one of the interviewees, several years. As such, it would seem
such formalized processes allow to be in the best interest of IHEs to
individuals to share feedback and feel build an IMC foundation that will
as though they have a voice in the allow it to maintain its brand
process, an especially important recognition even in the most
element in the environment of higher competitive of markets. Thus, since
education. In addition, audits and there is a significant difference between
annual reports (if constructed properly) brand success of Advanced and Basic
can serve as measurement of and IMC institutions, what steps might a
testament to the impact of IMC Basic IMC institution take to
across the institution’s various strengthen their brand equity?
constituencies. Based on the interview discussions,
it seems one of the initial challenges
that Basic Category institutions need
IMPACT OF IMC CATEGORY to address is to ensure the concept of
ON BRAND RECOGNITION branding is understood across the
In addition to the questions that were organization. IHEs need to understand
used to determine an institution’s IMC that brand equity is not simply logos
category, several questions were asked or school colors, but rather as Schultz
at the end of the survey questionnaire and Schultz (2004) explain, brand
to better understand an institution’s equity encompasses ‘the brand’s
brand equity. presence, identity/image, perceived
Edmiston
quality, and commitment among conducted on the data, which revealed

constituents’ (p. 309). no significant difference in scores
Strong brand equity can translate between institutions that were
into a multitude of positives for the classified as a national university or a
organization to include increased liberal arts and regional comprehensive
selectivity of students. While several of college (t[17] = 0.1371, P < 0.05). The
the interviewees noted that the mission mean score of national universities was
of the institution was an important X̄ = 4.285; the mean score of liberal
factor related to selectivity, six out of arts and regional comprehensive
the nine interviewees stated that colleges was X̄ = 4.222.
marketing and communications had It is interesting to note that while an
the power to impact the selectivity of IMC category classification does have
an institution. Although institutions an impact on brand recognition, the
may not be able to control the external Carnegie classification of an institution
environment, they can control how does not have such an impact. In fact,
they effectively respond to the each IMC category – Basic,
environment through IMC. The Intermediate and Advanced – included
Advanced Category respondents institutions representing each Carnegie
seemed to be most successful owing to classification. This could be
solid leadership direction and encouraging news for smaller
coordinated (but not necessarily institutions that might have been
centralized) communication. concerned about not being able to
attain a level of IMC effectiveness
IMPACT OF CARNEGIE similar to larger institutions.
CLASSIFICATION ON
BRAND RECOGNITION IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHIC
As noted earlier in the section on DIFFERENCES ON THE
the implementation of the survey DIFFUSION OF IMC
questionnaire, the composition of the As Cateora and Graham (2007) note,
survey respondents included eight ‘Geography has influenced history,
national universities, 25 regional technology, economics, our social
universities and nine liberal arts and institutions, and our ways of thinking’
regional comprehensive colleges. If any (p. 99). Perhaps it has even influenced
difference in scores existed relative to the process of diffusion of IMC across
an institution’s Carnegie classification, the United States. Interestingly, there
it was expected that the difference seems to be a pattern of horizontal
would be most evident between the diffusion of IMC whereby the number
eight national universities and the of institutions with the most advanced
nine liberal arts and regional level of IMC is highest in the North
comprehensive colleges (although it is and incrementally declines as the
important to caution that this is a institutions shift from the South to the
small sample size). Mid-West and finally, the West, as
Once again the examined question revealed in Table 5.
was whether ‘The institution is When regions were combined,
achieving greater brand recognition according to Table 6, to examine East
across key target markets.’ A t-test was Coast vs West Coast institutions, the
Table 5: Comparison of IMC category level West Coast institutions to lead their
and general geographic location of institution regional advancement of IMC and
capture a competitive edge in the
Geographic No. of No. of No. of
region Basic Intermediate Advanced
market.
IMC IMC IMC
VALIDITY OF THE FOUR
North (9) 2 (22%) 1 (11%) 6 (67%) STAGES OF IMC FRAMEWORK
South (12) 2 (16%) 5 (42%) 5 (42%) RELATIVE TO IHEs
Mid-West (10) 4 (40%) 3 (30%) 3 (30%)
As initially discussed in the section on
West (11) 5 (45%) 5 (45%) 1 (9%)
the categorization of survey
respondents’ IMC level, the possibility
exists that the IMC framework in
Table 6: Comparison of IMC category level IHEs may actually follow a
and East Coast or West Coast orientation of progression of Stage 4 (strategic
institution integration)→Stage 2 (market
research)→Stage 3 (application of
Geographic No. of No. of No. of information technology in support of
region Basic Intermediate Advanced
IMC IMC IMC
IMC)→Stage 1 (coordination of
marketing communication). In fact,
East Coast 4 (31%) 6 (43%) 11 (79%) this may be a more ideal framework
North (9)+ for all organizations and is certainly
South (12) deserving of further research. Ideally,
West Coast 9 (69%) 8 (57%) 4 (21%)
organizations would plan strategically,
Mid-West (10)+
West (11) invest in market research and
information technologies and then
Total number 13 14 15 coordinate their marketing
of IHEs in
communication tactics. The corporate
a particular
IMC category environment may be too demanding
for this approach, but perhaps it
would reduce wasted tactical efforts
that are sub-optimized and non-
distinctions were even more extreme, congruent with the overall
with East Coast institutions comprising organizational strategy. Developing the
79 per cent of the Advanced IMC strategy at the start of the process
level. Perhaps this trend reflects the would improve the alignment of
East–West axis phenomenon tactical efforts and specific
popularized by Pulitzer Prize winner communications with the overall
Jared Diamond, who ascertained that strategy. At this point clarity comes in
historically innovations spread faster execution, and the strategy may in fact
east to west (Cateora and Graham, be improved or modified and the
2007). remainder of the framework iterated.
As these findings suggest that IMC
has been adopted and advanced much CONCLUSIONS
quicker on the East Coast than the This research demonstrated that IMC
West Coast, perhaps this is a potential does exist in US public IHEs. Nearly
opportunity for forward-thinking all of the interviewees expressed
Edmiston
enthusiasm for the study and the value not simply the outputs, of marketing
of IMC in public IHEs. The communication.
interviewees in the Basic Category of
IMC shared a hopeful view that their LIMITATIONS OF THE
organizations were taking steps toward STUDY AND DIRECTIONS
a more comprehensive and effective FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
marketing communication strategy. As one of the first studies to research
The interviewees in the Intermediate the impact of IMC on public IHEs, the
and Advanced Categories of IMC findings were more encouraging than
exuded confidence in the power of this author expected. Although a
integrated marketing communication certain resistance to the concepts of
and recognized it as a distinct marketing and branding continues to
competitive advantage. exist in higher education, such conflict
The support of institutional is no longer as prevalent as it had been
leadership was revealed to be the a decade ago. However, marketing and
single most powerful determinant of communications are still not
whether an IMC strategy was consistently integrated in IHEs as
successful. Not only does leadership evidenced by the 36 different titles
need to mandate the coordination of given to the senior official responsible
marketing communication efforts but for marketing and communications at
they also need to visibly support the the 42 responding institutions. A
institution’s marketing communication possible limitation of this study is that
objectives. these findings have been self-reported
Once leadership support has been by the marketing and communications
established, the next challenge seems official responsible for such efforts.
to be ensuring that the value of Future research could be conducted to
marketing is understood across the seek feedback from both internal and
institution. Several of the interviewees external stakeholders relative to the
recommended developing a pattern of impact and effectiveness of IMC
small successes so that others start to initiatives.
appreciate the power of marketing and Additional research could also be
communications. In addition, the conducted on the validity of the four
organization needs to recognize the stages of IMC framework. While the
value of branding, and how each framework was initially presented a
marketing communication action decade ago as a linear process, this
potentially increases or decreases research would suggest that many
institutional brand equity. IHEs proceed through the various
For IMC to be most effective, stages at differing paces and differing
marketing and communications staff rates of success. A proper sequence for
should adopt both informal and the framework may actually be Stage 4
formal outreach efforts. Campus (strategic integration)→Stage 2 (market
‘influencers’ should be enlisted to research)→Stage 3 (application of
support both the planning and information technology in support of
promoting of IMC initiatives. In IMC)→Stage 1 (coordination of
addition, it is critical that metrics are marketing communication). Further
established to evaluate the outcomes, analysis is clearly needed to establish
the most effective implementation admissions. Such a mindset fails to

pattern of IMC in IHEs. This analysis consider that students will often have
should also be applied to private as much greater value to the institution as
well as public IHEs. alumni. Thus, it is important to
Another important consideration is establish strong relationships with
the timing of this study, when there is students before they even arrive at the
a plethora of student applicants. Thus, college, continue to build upon those
many of the findings related to relationships while they are attending
branding may simply reflect positive college and ideally extend the value of
market conditions. However, it would those relationships across a lifetime. If
seem that those IHEs that will be able IHEs do not consider the entire
to sustain success as the market lifetime value chain of a student and
becomes increasingly competitive connect the links in the chain with
during the next few years will be those concepts such as IMC, they will
that effectively differentiate themselves undoubtedly lose considerable
through strategic IMC. opportunities to advance their
Future research efforts could focus institutions.
more specifically on how institutions
define factors related to IMC such as
branding. In addition, it would be
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Original Article

ABSTRACT This research analyzes the strategic process of integrated marketing

Keywords: integrated marketing communication; higher education marketing;

INTRODUCTION increased acceptance over the past few

on the impact of marketing in higher stage framework, ‘progressing from

primary purpose of IMC is considered DEVELOPMENT OF IMC

IMC was a management fad Insurance. The research resulted in

Stage 1 Tactical coordination of marketing communication

Stage 2 Commitment to market research in support of IMC

Stage 3 Application of information technology in support of IMC

Stage 4 Strategic integration of IMC

than Dell and General Motors than 1300 institutions nationwide’

eventually evolved into a national identity strategy and its customer-based

be determined and continually Further analysis of the 15 major

Table 2: Research methodology approach

Study phase Description

Phase I Conduct Secondary Research

Phase II Pre-test Survey Questionnaire

Phase III Implement Survey Questionnaire

Phase IV Analyze Survey Questionnaire Results

Phase V Follow-up Interviews

Phase VI Code and Classify Interview Content

Phase VII Present Findings and Conclusions

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE constrained for financial resources and

contact in the University Advancement on redundancy. Having too many

mixed-mode approach would be institutions in the Mid-West and

Table 3: Highest scored IMC framework stage of survey respondents

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Number of respondents whose average stage score was 9 1 21 10

linear manner through the framework, practical framework as certain stages

Another potential limitation is that IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON

Table 4: Resulting themes from interviews with nine public IHEs

Interview theme Category of IMC (three possible

Basic Intermediate Advanced

What factors have the most influence on effective coordination of IMC?

How might compensation policies or factors impact the effectiveness of IMC?

What factors are most relevant to achieving branding objectives?

What internal factors impact the selectivity of an institution?

campus-wide committees, also reported One such question asked whether

quality, and commitment among conducted on the data, which revealed

the most effective implementation admissions. Such a mindset fails to

http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2006- Wilson, K.N. (2005) The utilization of assistive

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