Level 1 1

Fundamentals Training
Contents
2
Topics: Slide No:
• Process Control Terminology 3 - 10
• Control Principles 11 - 18
• Basic Control Loop 19 - 23
• Advance Control Loop 24 - 31
• Control Algorithm 32 - 46
• Control System 47 - 54
• Exercise 55 - 59
Process Control Terminology
3
What is a PROCESS ?
Any operation or sequence of operations involving a
change in the substance being treated.
Examples:
A change of energy state - hot to cold, liquid to gas
A change of composition - a chemical reaction
A change of dimension - grinding coal

Types of PROCESS VARIABLE:

Pressure Specific Gravity of liquid
Flow Density
Level Mass
Temperature Conductivity
Liquid Interface Composition
Moles
Process Control Terminology
4
What is a CLOSED LOOP ?
A combination of instruments or functions that are
interconnected to measure and control a process variable with
feedback.

input output
PROCESS

FINALCONTROL A MEASUREMENT
ELEMENT System
with
Feedbac
k
CONTROLLER
Process Control Terminology
5
What is a TRANSDUCER
• A device that registers a non-electrical parameter (eg. process
variable) and outputs a corresponding useable electrical signal.
– Pressure to Capacitance
– Pressure to Resistance or mV
– Temperature to Resistance
– Temperature to mV
• Example:
– Capacitance pressure sensor module
– Piezo-resistive pressure sensor module
– RTD
– Thermocouple
Process Control Terminology
6

What is a TRANSMITTER

• A device that will translate the transducers interpretation

of the measured variable into a standard transmission
signal.
– 3 - 15 psi pneumatic signal
– 4-20 mA dc electrical signal
– 1-5 V dc electrical signal
Process Control Terminology
7

ADVANTAGE OF 4-20mA CURRENT SIGNAL

• Lower installation cost
– simple, twisted pair wiring
• Better noise immunity
– current vs. voltage
• Insensitive to wire resistance
– current vs. voltage
• Better suited for hazardous locations
– intrinsic safety
Process Control Terminology
8

What is a CONTROLLER ?
• Used to keep a process variable at a desired value (set
point).
– Closed loop vs. Open loop control
• Difference: Open loop control has no feedback
– Control Modes
• ON/OFF (Binary)
• Proportional (P)
• Proportional-plus-Integral (PI)
• Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative (PID)
Process Control Terminology
9
What is a SIGNAL ?
• An event that conveys data from one point to another.
What is an INDICATOR ?
• An instrument which visually shows the value of the variable.
Example : UM331,UM451,UM551,UM151
What is a RECORDER ?
• An instrument that makes and displays a continuous graphic, acoustic or magnetic
record of a measured variable.
Example : Paperless Recorder DX Yokogawa , FX Yokogawa
What is a DCS ?
• Distributed Control System consisting of functional integrated subsystems. The
subsystems are connected by a communication linkage (eg) data bus,data highway.
Process Control Terminology
1
0
What is a FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT?
• The last control element in the process control loop that
manipulates the process variable.
– Control Valves
» modulates flow rate
» operated by actuator
– Louvers and Dampers
» operated by pneumatic actuators
– Variable Speed Drives
» operated by electronic control signals
 4 - 20 mA
Control Principle
1
1
Control Principle
1
FEED PRODUCT 2
PROCESS

CORRECTING MEASURING
UNIT UNIT

PV
O/P CONTROLLING
UNIT SP OPERATOR

Control theory can be encapsulated as the matching of a

measured variable (PV) to the plant requirement (SP).
A controller implements a Control Algorithm so that an output
signal (O/P) activates a correcting unit. The ratio of output signal
(O) to input signals (I) is Gain (K).

Proportional band 1 % = 100 % = I x 100%

K Gain O
Control Principle
1
3
• Process Variable (PV)
– the actual measurement of the state of the process
• Set Point (SP)
– the desired state of the process variable
• Control Algorithm
– the predefined response of the controller to PV-SP
• Controller Output (O/P)
– a signal determined by the control algorithm
• Offset
– the value of PV-SP when the system is in equilibrium
• Direct Acting Controllers
– as the value of the measured variable increases, the output of the
controller increases.
• Reverse Acting Controllers
– as the value of the measured variable increases, the output of the
controller decreases.
Control Principle
1
Inherent Regulation 4
• A plant possesses inherent regulation
when, in the absence of a controller,
equilibrium is re-established after a
disturbance.
– For example, a tank with constant
inflow is in equilibrium.
– The outflow valve is then opened a little
more.
– The outflow pressure decreases as the
tank level falls until inflow again equals
outflow.
– Manipulation of the outflow valve result
in different, unique equilibrium states.
Control Principle
1
5
Instrument Symbols
Example Instruments

TT Temperature Transmitter I/P Current-to-Pressure

Transducer
FIC Flow Indicating Controller PT Pressure Transmitter

TE Temperature Element P/P Pressure-to-Pressure

(Thermocouple, RTD) Transducer

Instrument Location
Local Panel Front Panel Rear,
Mounting Mounting or Rack Mounting
Control Principle
1
Instrument Symbols 6
Letter Designations
First Letter Succeeding Letters
Measured or Modifier Readout or Output
Initiating Passive Function
Variable Function
A Analysis Alarm
C User's Choice Control
D User's Choice Differential
F Flow Rate Ratio
(Fraction)
I Current Indicate
(Electrical)
L Level Light
P Pressure, Point (Test
Vacuum Connection)
Q Quantity Integrate,
Totalize
R Radiation Record
T Temperature Transmit
V Vibration Valve, Damper,
Louver
Control Principle
1
Signal Types (ISA) 7

Connection to Process,
Instrument Supply,
or Direct Mechanical Link

Pneumatic Signal

Electric Signal
Control Principle
1
Controller Types 8

• Pneumatic
• Analog
• Digital
– Single Loop Controllers
– Distributed Control System
– Fieldbus Control System
Basic Control Loop 1
Pressure Control Loop 9

I/P PIC • Pressure Loop Issues:

– May be a Fast Process
» Liquid
» Small Volume
– May Require Fast Equipment
PT
Basic Control Loop 2
Temperature Control Loop 0
• Temperature Loop Issues:
– Fluid response slowly to change in input heat
– Requires advanced control strategies
» Feedforward Control

Load UT151
Disturbance UT351
TIC UT551

Cold
Water
I/P

TT
Steam

Hot
Water
Basic Control Loop 2
Flow Control Loop 1
• Flow Loop Issues:
– May be a Very Fast Process
» “Noise” in Measurement Signal
• May Require Filtering
» May Require Fast-Responding Equipment
– Typically Requires Temperature Compensation

I/P FIC

FT TT
Basic Control Loop 2
Level Control Loop (Inflow) 2
UT351
I/P LIC
UT451

• Level Loop Issues:

– Control At Inflow or Outflow
– Non-Self Regulating

LT
Basic Control Loop 2
Level Control Loop (Outflow) 3

LIC I/P

LT
Advance Control Loop
2
What is CASCADE CONTROL ? 4
Consist of one controller (primary, or master) controlling the variable that is to be kept at
a constant value, and a second controller (secondary, or slave) controlling another
variable that can cause fluctuations in the first variable. The primary controller positions
the set point of the secondary, and it, in turn, manipulates the control valve.

Primary Secondary
Multi-Variable Control
controller controller
r1 r2 m Disturbance
FBC FBC

Secondary Primary
c1 c2 Process Process
Advance Control Loop
2
Example of CASCADE CONTROL 5
The temperature of the liquid in the vessel is controlled by
regulating the steam pressure in the jacket around the vessel.

Temperature Temperature
transmitter Measurement
controller

IN Output

Measurement Pressure
Jacket controller
Pressure
transmitter

Valve
OUT Steam

SINGLE-LOOP CONTROL Cascade Control Loop

Advance Control Loop
2
Implementing Cascade Control 6
Advance Control Loop
2
What is FEED FORWARD CONTROL ? 7
Applies to a system in which a balance between supply and
demand is achieved by measuring both demand potential and
demand load and using this data to govern supply. It gives a
smoother and stable control than feedback control.

Multi-Variable Control Steam

Feedwater
FT
FT LT
Flow Boiler
Feed
controller SP
PV O/P Level forward
indicating
controller
SP
Advance Control Loop 2
Implementing Feedforward Control 8
 Advance Control Loop
2
What is RATIO CONTROL ? 9
An uncontrolled flow determines a second flow so that a desired ratio
is maintained between them.
The ratio factor is set by a ratio relay or multiplying unit which would be
located between the wild flow transmitter and the flow controller set
point. Flow B is controlled in a preset ratio to flow A.

Multi-Variable Control
Controlled Controlled
flow, B flow, B

Remote - Ratio
Wild Ratio Output = A x ratio Wild flow, A
set controller
flow, A relay
SP controller SP

Output Output
 Advance Control Loop
3
Example of RATIO CONTROL 0
Pickling Process
Acid
 supply
Set
Measurement
Manual
water FT Flow FC
transmitter
regulator Magnetic
flowmeter
Water Flow A Flow B

Control valve

Pickle tank
Other Application : Fuel/air ratio control system on combustion equipment, e.g.
boilers.
Advance Control Loop
3
What is SELECTIVE CONTROL ? 1
The more important condition between two or more candidates is selected.
They are used mainly to provide protection to a piece of equipment which could
suffer damage as a result of abnormal operating conditions.

Multi-Variable Control

Low select
RS O/P
O/P Speed
Control PIC
PIC
O/P PV
PV
Pump
Control Algorithm
3
2

• On/Off

• Multi-step

• Proportional

• Integral

• Derivative
Control Algorithm
3
On-Off Control 3
It is a two-position control, merely a switch arranged to be off
(or on as required) when the error is positive and on (or off as
required) when the error is negative. Ex.. Oven & Alarm control.

Measured
differential
variable

Controller
output

Time
Control Algorithm
3
Multi-Step Action 4
A controller action that may initiate more than two positioning of
the control valve with respect to the respective predetermined
input values.
8
Input

5
8
0
7
5

Time
Valve position

4
3
2
1

Time
Multi-step action
Control Algorithm
3
5
Proportional Action (P)
It is the basis for the 3-mode controller. The controller output (O/P)
is proportional to the difference between Process Variable (PV)
and the Set Point (SP).

Process
Load
SP
PV

Controller
Output

Open-loop response of proportional mode

Control Algorithm
3
O/P % 6
Proportional Action (P) 100
The Algorithm is :

- (PV - SP) 50
O/P = + Constant
Proportional
Band
(Constant is normally 50% ) S - PV
Tan  = Gain = 100 / Proportional Band

When a disturbance alters the process away from the set-point, the
controller acts to restore initial conditions. In equilibrium, offset (PV-
SP = constant) results.
PV
Many controllers have a ‘manual
Time
reset’. This enables the operators
to manipulate the ‘constant’ term Recovery time Offset
of the algorithm to eliminate offset. SP

Time
Control Algorithm 3
7
Low Proportional Gain: (Closed Loop)
Control Algorithm 3
8
High Proportional Gain: (Closed Loop)
 Control Algorithm
3
Integral Action (I) 9
Whilst PV  SP, the controller operates to restore equality.
As long as the measurement remains at the set point, there is no
change in the output due to the integral mode in the controller.
The output of the controller changes at a rate proportional to the offset.
The integral time gives indication of the strength of this action. It is the
time taken for integral action to counter the ‘offset’ induced by
Proportional Action alone.

Set
%
Set Point
Measurement
Point RT
RT = Reset Time min./rpt
a{
% Output b{ a=b
Open-loop
Time Time
response
Integral mode Proportional plus Integral mode
Control Algorithm 4
Integral Action: (Closed Loop) 0
100

90

80 SP

70

60
PV
% 50

40 Proportional
Plus Integral
30 Output

20

10 Proportional
Response

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time
 Control Algorithm
4
Derivative Action (D) 1
As the PV changes, the controller resists the change.
The controllers output is proportional to the rate at which the
difference between the measured and desired value changes.
The derivative time is an indication of this action. It is the time that
the open-loop P+D response is ahead of the response due to P only.

Set
%
Set Point
Measurement
Point DT = Derivative Time (min)
DT
% Output Proportional only
(I/D)
Open-loop
Time
Time response
Proportional + Derivative

Derivative mode Proportional plus Derivative mode

Control Algorithm 4
2
PID Action: (Closed Loop)
100

90

80 SP

70

60
PV PID Output
% 50

40

30

20

10

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time
Control Algorithm
4
PID Control 3
80
% Scale Range

Measurement
60
A
40

20

Proportional
Controller Output
Valve Position

Proportional +
Integral
or

Proportional + Integral +
Derivative
Time - minutes

Open-loop response of three-mode controller

Control Algorithm
4
P & ID Piping & Instrumentation Drawing 4

Compressed Air Pipe

Converter
I/P PIC PID
Controller
Pneumatic
Control PT Pressure
Valve
Transmitter
P
Process Vessel

Fluid Pump
Control Algorithm
4
Controller Selection 5

Start
 Step change in
valve travel

Use Can offset be Yes Use

PID tolerated ? P-only

No
63.2  Reaction curve
% of measured
Yes
variable

Is dead time No Is noise Yes Use C

excessive ? present ? P+I
Capacity
Dead Time
No Time (sec)
Control Algorithm
4
Controller Adjustment 6
Period
Controlled Variable

P-only

PID

PI

Time
Control loop Proportional band Time constant Derivative
Flow High (250%) Fast (1 to 15 sec) Never
Level Low Capacity dependent Rarely
Temperature Low Capacity dependent Usually
Analytical High Usually slow Sometimes
Pressure Low Usually fast Sometimes
Control System
4
7
Adaptive Control
An automatic control scheme in which the controller is programmed to
evaluate its own effectiveness and modify its own control parameters to
respond to dynamic conditions occurring in or to the process which affect
the controlled variables.

Ex) Digital Controller

- Sensors are run to the computer’s input.
- Servomechanisms are connected to the computer’s output.
- Future changes don’t require re-wiring.
- Changing control functions (P,I, and D) and configurations
(between cascade mode and feedforward mode) will be
made on the computer’s program and not necessarily to any
hardware.
Control System
4
Supervisory Control 8
A control strategy where the process control computer performs
system control calculations and provides its output to the setpoints
inputs of conventional analog controllers. These analog controllers
actually control the process actuators, not the main-control
computer.
S
SP1 Controller A
Supervisory
M.I.S
Control S

SP2 Controller A

S
SP3
Controller A
Control System
4
Today’s DCS System 9

Coax

I/O Rack Controller

Tools for Process
Analysis, Diagnostics.

HW and
Software Sampled
Filtering Value

Measurement I/O Rack Controller Tools for Process

Analysis, Diagnostics.
Control System
5
What is a FIELDBUS ? 0

Definition...
A digital, two-way, multi-drop communication link among
intelligent field devices and automation systems.

Fieldbus (Only Digital Signals)

T
Control room
operator stations
L

Control systems
(DCS or PLC)
F
 Control System
5
Fieldbus Control System 1
Work
Total of approximately 35,000 devices
Systems
(due to address limits) .

Gateway HSE
Controller
124
H2 Bridge
H1 Devices
H1
H1
H1
H1
32 Devices
H1 - 31.25 Kbit/s H1
HSE - 100 M bit/s
32
(Fast Ethernet) Devices
Control System
5
Proprietary Bus 2

ADVANCED CONTROL OPTIMIZATION

PID
PID PID
PID

AI
AI AI
AI AO
AO
DCS
4 -20 mA
4 -20 mA 4 -20 mA

• Control in the control room

Control System 5
Foundation Fieldbus Devices 3
CENTUM CS300
Built-In Control
Function Anywhere
Blocks
Valve
Transmitter
FIELDVUE
BKCAL_IN BKCAL_OUT

OUT OUT CAS_IN

IN
AI PID AO

• Control in the field with fieldbus

Look at how the CONTROL migrate
5
4
Central Local Control Control in
Control Loop DCS
Loop the field
FCS
DDC
Digital
PID
PID Digital

Analog Analog
PID PID

Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 1 Loop 2

Control in the
device itself
Exercise
5
Which defined term is closest to the description or encompasses the example given? 5
A. Controller F. Primary element
B. Converter G. Signal
C. Instrument H. Transducer
D. Point of measurement I. Transmitter
E. Process

1. Process temperature increases the measurable

resistance in a monitored electrical circuit. [ ]

2. Pulsed output from a turbine meter. [ ]

3. Heat-injected plastic molding. [ ]

Exercise
5
6
4. Temperature transmitter. [ ]

5. Device which adjusts the measured value of the

process to the requirements of the operator. [ ]

6. Element, flow transmitter, controller and correcting unit. [ ]

7. A pipe piece is tapped for a sample fluid. [ ]

8. A device changes an industry standard pneumatic signal to an industry

standard hydraulic signal. [ ]
Exercise
5
9. Identify the components indicated by the Arrows. 7
Exercise
5
8
Which defined term is closest to the description or encompasses the example given.
A. Cascade control F. Gain
B. Control algorithm G. Offset
C. Control valve H. Proprietary Bus
D. Feed-forward control I. Smart Device
E. Foundation Fieldbus

10. The predefined response of the controller to PV-SP. [ ]

11. The value of PV-SP when the system is in equilibrium. [ ]

12. The ratio of controller’s output to input. [ ]

13. It is a final control element operated by an actuator. [ ]
Exercise
5
9
14. Involves master & slave controllers. [ ]
15. The output of the loop drives the input. [ ]
16. A digital communication based control network
with control action in the controller only. [ ]
17. A digital communication based control network that
allow control in the field. [ ]
18. A device that provide both analog & communication
signal in its loop wire pair. [ ]