‫ﻴﻢ‬

‫ﺮﺣ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﻤﻦ‬
‫ﺮﺣ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺑﺴﻢ ﷲ‬

Uni
ver
sit
yofKhar
toum
Facul
tyofengi
neer
ing
Depar
tmentofagr
icul
tur
alengi
neer
ing

Ext
ract
ionofSoi
lMoi
stur
eCont
entusi
ngRemot
eSensi
ngand
Geogr
aphi
cal
Inf
ormat
ionSy
stem
Submi
tt
edasapar
ti
alf
ulf
il
lmentpr
ojectf
ort
hedegr
eeofBSc(
Honour
s)i
n
Agr
icul
tur
alEngi
neer
ing.

Pr
epar
edby
:

Rami
badawi
mohammedhaj
Super
visi
on:
Dr
.Abdal
hal
eem Abdal
l
aHassabal
l
a

17-
08-
2015
 Dedi
cat
ion

Thi
sthesi
sis dedi
cat
ed t
o myf
ather
,who t
aughtme t
hatt
he bestki
nd of
knowl
edget
ohav
eist
hatwhi
chi
slear
nedf
ori
tsownsake.I
tisal
sodedi
cat
edt
o
mymot
her
,whot
aughtmet
hatev
ent
hel
argestt
askcanbeaccompl
i
shedi
fiti
s
doneonest
epatat
ime.
Ial
so dedi
cat
ethi
sdi
sser
tat
iont
o mymanyf
ri
endswho hav
esuppor
tedme
t
hroughoutt
hepr
ocess.Iwi
l
lal
way
sappr
eci
ateal
ltheyhav
edone,
Speci
alt
hankt
o dr
.abdal
hal
eem f
orbei
ngt
her
eforust
hroughoutt
heent
ir
e
doct
orat
epr
ogr
am.
 Acknowl
edgement

Wehav
etakenef
for
tsi
nthi
spr
oject
.Howev
er,i
twoul
dnothav
ebeenpossi
ble
wi
thoutt
heki
ndsuppor
tandhel
pofmanyi
ndi
vi
dual
sandor
gani
zat
ions.Wewoul
d
l
i
ket
oext
endoursi
ncer
ethankst
oal
loft
hem.

Wewoul
dli
ket
oexpr
essourgr
ati
tudet
owar
dsoursuper
visorDR.Abdal
hal
eem
Abdul
l
aHassabal
l
aforagr
eei
ngt
osuper
viseust
ocompl
etet
hispr
ojectandf
or
gi
vi
ngussuchat
tent
ionandt
ime.

Al
so wear
ehi
ghl
yindebt
edt
o(Shambatcompl
exatUni
ver
sit
yofKhar
toum,Soi
l
l
ap atUni
ver
sit
yofKhar
toum and Bui
l
ding and Road Resear
ch I
nst
it
ute)f
or
pr
ovi
dingnecessar
yinf
ormat
ionr
egar
dingt
hepr
oject&al
sof
ort
hei
rsuppor
tin
compl
eti
ngt
hepr
oject
.
Ourt
hanksandappr
eci
ati
onsal
sogot
oourcol
l
eaguei
ndev
elopi
ngt
hepr
ojectand
peopl
ewhohav
ewi
l
li
ngl
yhel
pedusoutwi
tht
hei
rabi
l
iti
es.
 Abst
ract

Thest
udyai
medatassessi
ngt
hev
alueofmoi
stur
econt
ent(
MC)ov
eraspeci
fi
c
ar
ea (
shambat–compl
ex)usi
ng r
emot
e sensi
ng t
echni
ques.Because r
emot
e
sensi
ngconsi
der
edasoneoft
hemostdi
rectandef
fect
ivemet
hodf
orest
imat
ing
t
hemoi
stur
econt
entatal
argescal
e,t
hest
udyi
ntendedt
ouset
her
emot
esensi
ng
t
echni
quest
oachi
evet
het
ask.
I
nor
dert
oassesst
heMC,t
het
her
mali
ner
ti
amet
hodwasusedi
nwhi
chsoi
l
sur
facet
emper
atur
ewascal
cul
atedusi
ngt
henor
mal
i
zeddef
erencev
eget
ati
on
i
ndex(
NDVI
),Sur
faceemi
ssi
vi
tyandbr
ight
nesst
emper
atur
einwhi
cht
her
malband
wasused.
Ont
heot
herhand,t
ocal
cul
atet
hesoi
lmoi
stur
eboundar
iesf
ort
hest
udyar
ea,a
hy
dromet
ryt
estwasconduct
edi
nor
dert
oachi
evet
hef
iel
dcapaci
ty(
Fc)
,the
per
manentwi
l
tingpoi
nt(
PWP)asupperandl
owermoi
stur
eboundar
ies.Ev
ent
ual
l
y,
t
hev
olumet
ri
cMCwascal
cul
atedbasedont
heext
ract
edpar
amet
erswhi
chf
ound
t
obei
nar
angeof12%_30%f
ort
hemeasur
ementl
ocat
ion.
Thegener
atedt
her
mali
ner
ti
aal
gor
it
hm wast
henv
ali
dat
edv
iamoi
stur
econt
ent
v
olume,measur
ed i
n-si
tu att
he t
ime ofsat
ell
i
te ov
erpassi
ng t
o ensur
ethe
pr
eci
si
onoft
hesat
ell
i
teest
imat
edMC.
TheMCv
ali
dat
i oducedR2i
onpr nther
angeof60%whi
chi
sconsi
der
edasagood
i
ndi
cat
oroft
hesat
ell
i
teaccur
acyi
nMC est
imat
ionbecauset
heusedsat
ell
i
te
pr
ovi
desi
mageswi
thcoar
ser
esol
uti
on,
whi
chi
ntur
n,pr
oducesr
efl
ect
ionv
aluesof
ahol
i
sti
csur
facecov
er.
 ‫ﻠﺨ ﺺ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺔ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻣ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺎﺕﺑﺠ‬
‫ﺒ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻊﺷ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻤﺠ‬‫ﺔﺑ‬
‫ﺭﻋ‬‫ﺰ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺓ)ﺍ‬
‫ﺩ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﺔﻣﺤ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺔﺩ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻨﻄ‬
‫ﺑﻲﻓﻲﻣ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻯﺍ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺩﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻳﺠ‬
‫ﺔﻹ‬‫ﺍﺳ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻓﺖﺍ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﻫ‬
‫ﻡ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟﺨ‬‫ﺎ‪),‬ﺍ‬
‫ﻬ‬‫ﺗ‬
‫ﺀ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬
‫ﻜﻦﻗ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘﻲﻳ‬
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‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﺎﺑ‬
‫ً‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﻠ‬
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‫ﻤ‬‫ﻗ‬‫ﺎﺕﺍﻷ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﻨ‬
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‫ﻜﻦﺇﺳ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻪﻳ‬
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‫ﺒ‬‫ﺛ‬
‫ﺔ ﻭﺇ‬
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‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟﺼ‬
‫ﺭﺍ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻗ‬‫ﺔﺍﻷ‬
‫ﺍﺳﻄ‬
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‫ﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺯ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻧﺠ‬
‫ﺓﻭﺇ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﺒ‬
‫ﻜ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺎﺣ‬‫ﻤﺴ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺑﻲﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫‪.‬‬
‫ﺮ‬
‫ﺆﺷ‬‫ﻣﻞﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺩﻣ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻳﺠ‬
‫ﻴﺚﺗﻢﺇ‬
‫ﺭﻱﺑﺤ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻟﺤ‬
‫ﺗﻲﺍ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺬ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺭﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬
‫ﻘﺼ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻘ‬
‫ﻳ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻡﻃ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﺨ‬
‫ﺔﺗﻢﺇﺳ‬
‫ﺑ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻠ‬‫ﺑﻲﻟ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻯﺍ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺩﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻳﺠ‬
‫ﻹ‬
‫ﻴﻦﺗﻢ‬
‫ﺗ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻣﻦﻫ‬
‫ﻮﻉﻭ‬
‫ﻟﺴﻄ‬
‫ﺓﺍ‬‫ﺭ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺔﺣ‬
‫ﺭﺟ‬‫ﻟﻰﺩ‬
‫ﺔﺇ‬‫ﻓ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﺎﻹﺿ‬
‫ﺔﺑ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻟﺴﻄﺤ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﺛ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﺑ‬
‫ﻟﻚﺍﻹ‬
‫ﺬ‬‫ﻪﻛ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﺎﻣ‬
‫ﻧ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻭﺟ‬
‫ﺛﻢﺍ‬
‫ﺗﻲﻭ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﺒ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺀﺍ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻐﻄ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺓ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻟﺼ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺔﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺑ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺓﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬
‫ﺘﺨﻼﺹﺣ‬
‫ﺍﺳ‬‫‪.‬‬
‫ﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺮﻱﻋ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻣ‬‫ﻭ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻬ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻴﻞﺍ‬
‫ﻠ‬‫ﺘﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﺒ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﺀﺇﺧ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻘﻞﺗﻢﺇﺟ‬
‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﺓﻣﻦﺍ‬
‫ﺫ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﺄﺧ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﺑﻲﻟ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻯﺍ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺩﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻳﺠ‬
‫ﺪﺇ‬‫ﻌ‬
‫ﺑ‬
‫ﺋﻢ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺪ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻝﺍ‬
‫ﺑ‬‫ﺬ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻘﻄ‬
‫ﺔﻭﻧ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﻘ‬
‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﺔﺍ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻟﺴ‬
‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﺩﻗ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻳﺠ‬‫ﺔﻹ‬
‫ﺑ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻠ‬‫ﺔﻟ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﺒ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻛ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺔﺍ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﻨ‬‫ﺒ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺩﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻳﺠ‬
‫ﻘﻞﻹ‬
‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﺓﻣﻦﺍ‬
‫ﺫ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﺄﺧ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻴ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬
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‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺔﻣﻦﻗ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﻗﻞﻗ‬
‫ﺃ‬‫ﺮﻭ‬
‫ﺒ‬‫ﻛ‬‫ﺄ‬
‫‪.‬ﻛ‬
‫ﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺪﺃﻥﻗ‬
‫ﺪﻭﺟ‬
‫‪،‬ﻭﻗ‬
‫ﺔ‬‫ﺮﺟ‬
‫ﺘﺨ‬‫ﻤﺴ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﺕﺍ‬
‫ﻣ‬‫ﻮ‬‫ﻠ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻠﻰﺍ‬
‫ﺩﻋ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﺘ‬‫ﺎﻹﻋ‬
‫ﻤﻲﺑ‬
‫ﻟﺤﺠ‬
‫ﺑﻲﺍ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻯﺍ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﺩﻗ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻳﺠ‬‫ﺔﺗﻢﺇ‬
‫ﻳ‬‫ﺎ‬‫ﻬ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﺑ‬
‫ﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺡﺑ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﺎﻋﻲﺗ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟﺼ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻡ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺪ‬
‫ﺘﺨ‬‫ﺈﺳ‬
‫ﺎﺑ‬‫ﺪﻫ‬
‫ﻳ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﻲﺗﻢﺗﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺎﻁ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻨ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺑﻲﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫‪15-%20%.‬‬
‫ﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﻡﻗ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﺨ‬
‫ﺈﺳ‬‫ﺭﻱﺑ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻟﺤ‬
‫ﺭﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬
‫ﻘﺼ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺩﻻﺕﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﺔﻣ‬
‫ﺪﻣﻦ ﺻﺤ‬
‫ﻛ‬‫ﺄ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺭﻱﺛﻢﺗﻢﺍ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻟﺤ‬
‫ﺭﺍ‬‫ﻮ‬
‫ﻘﺼ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺔﺍ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺩ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﺒﻄﺖﻣ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﺍﺳ‬
‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺩﻫ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻳﺠ‬‫ﺘﻲﺗﻢﺇ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﻪﺍ‬‫ﺑ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﺪﻣﻦﺗﺸ‬
‫ﻛ‬‫ﺄ‬‫ﺘ‬
‫ﻠ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﻘﻞ‬
‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﻮﻕﺍ‬
‫ﺎﻋﻲﻓ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟﺼ‬
‫ﺮﺍ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻭ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻗﺖﻣ‬
‫ﺎﻓﻲﻭ‬
‫ﺩﻫ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﻳﺠ‬‫ﺘﻲﺗﻢﺇ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺑﻲﺍ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺎﻋﻲ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟﺼ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﺮ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﻡ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﺪ‬
‫ﺘﺨ‬‫ﺈﺳ‬
‫ﺓﺑ‬‫ﺭ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬‫ﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺍ‬‫ﻊ‬‫ﻘﻞﻣ‬
‫ﻟﺤ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺎﻣﻦ‬
‫ً‬
‫ﻳ‬‫ﻭ‬‫ﺪ‬
‫‪.‬ﻳ‬
‫ﺩ‬
‫ﻭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﺞﻓﻲ ﺣ‬
‫ﻧ‬‫ﺑﻲﺃ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻮﻯﺍ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﺄﻟ‬
‫ﻟﺨﻄ‬
‫ﻣﻞﺍ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﻌ‬‫ﻣ‬
‫ﻮﻯ‪60‬‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻤﺤ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﻴﻢﺍ‬
‫ﺔﻗ‬‫ﻗ‬
‫ﻨﻲﺃﻥﺩ‬
‫ﻌ‬‫ﺘﻲﺗ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺎﻭﺍ‬
‫ً‬
‫ﺒ‬‫ﻳ‬
‫ﺮ‬‫ﻘ‬‫‪%‬ﺗ‬
‫ﻨﺢ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻤﻲﻳ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﻠ‬‫ﻌ‬
‫ﺎﻋﻲﺗ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﺮﺻ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻘ‬‫ﺎﻟ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻣ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﺘﺨ‬
‫ﺭﺇﺳ‬
‫ﺎ‬‫ﺒ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻊﻓﻲﺍﻻﻋ‬
‫ﺍﻭﺿ‬
‫ﺫ‬‫ﺓﺇ‬
‫ﺪ‬‫ﻴ‬‫ﺎﻋﻲﺟ‬
‫ﻨ‬‫ﻟﺼ‬
‫ﺮﺍ‬‫ﻤ‬
‫ﻘ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺔﺍ‬
‫ﺍﺳﻄ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺓﺑ‬
‫ﺭ‬‫ﺪ‬‫ﻘ‬
‫ﻤ‬‫ﻟ‬‫ﺑﻲﺍ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫ﺮﻃ‬
‫ﻟ‬‫ﺍ‬
‫ﺔ‬
‫ﻔﻀ‬‫ﻨﺤ‬
‫ﺎﻣ‬‫ﻬ‬
‫ﺘ‬‫ﻗ‬‫ﺔﺩ‬
‫ﻴ‬‫ﻧ‬‫ﺎ‬
‫ﺭﻣﺠ‬
‫ﻮ‬‫‪.‬ﺻ‬
 Tabl
eofcont
ent
Chapt
er1:
 I
ntr
oduct
ion1.
1 …………………………………………………………….
.…….
..
………(
1)

 Pr
obl
em st
atement1.
2……………………………………………………….
……………….
(2)

 Obj
ectoft
hest
udy1.
3……………………………………………………….
……………….
(3)

 Scopeoft
hest
udy1.
4………………………………………………………….
…….
.………(
3)

 Thesi
scont
ri
but
ion1.
5……………….
……………………………………………………….
(3)

Chapt
er2:
 Gl
obal
wat
ercy
cle2.
1………………………………………………………….
…………….
(4)

 Soi
lmoi
stur
e2.
2………………………………………………….
……………….
………….
.(
5)

 Def
ini
ti
onofsoi
lmoi
stur
e2.
2.1…………………………………………….
.….
..
.(
5)

 I
mpor
tanceofsur
facesoi
lmoi
stur
e2.
2.2……….
..
.…………………….
……….
.(
6)

 Appl
i
cat
ionofsoi
lmoi
stur
e2.
2.3……………………………………….
.….
..
…..
(6)

 Fundament
alsandChar
act
eri
sti
csofsoi
lmoi
stur
e2.
2.4.
……….
.……………….
(9)

 Ty
pical
soi
lmoi
stur
emeasur
ingt
echni
ques2.
2.5…….
.…….
….………………(
11)

 Remot
esensi
ngt
echni
ques2.
3…………………………………………………….
……….
..
(17)

 Gener
alappl
i
cat
ionsofr
emot
esensi
ng2.
3.1….
.…………………………….
.…(
18)

 Remot
esensi
ngofsoi
lmoi
stur
econt
ent2.
3.2………………….
.……….
…….
..
(19)

 Spat
ial
proper
ti
esofsur
faceMoi
stur
e2.
3.3…….
.……………………….
..
…….
(20)
  Opt
ical
Remot
eSensi
ng2.
3.4……………………………………….
.…….
..
..
…(23)

 Ther
mal
Inf
rar
edRemot
eSensi
ng2.
3.5……………………………………….
..
.(
24)

 Useoft
her
mal
Inf
rar
edt
oest
imat
esoi
lmoi
stur
econt
ent2.
4……………….
..
…………….
.(
26)

Spat
ial
Par
amet
ersf
ormoi
stur
eest
imat
ion2.
4.1……………………….
…………(
27)

Veget
ati
onI
ndi
ces2.
4.2………………………………….
.……………………….
(27)

TheNor
mal
i
zedDi
ff
erenceVeget
ati
onI
ndex(
NDVI
)2.
4.3……….
.…………….
(28)

LandSur
faceEmi
ssi
vi
ty(
ε)2.
4.4…………………….
.………………………….
.(
29)

Sat
ell
i
te’
sSur
faceTemper
atur
e(Ts)…………………………….
.……………….
.(
29)

 MCest
imat
ionf
rom opt
ical
–mul
tisensor
sand

gr
oundmeasur
ement
s2.
5…………………………………………………………….
..
.(32)
 Ther
mal
Iner
ti
a(TI
)Met
hod2.
5.1……………………………………….
…….
.(
33)

Chapt
er3:
 Thest
udyar
ea3.
1………………………………………………………………………….
(36)

 Geogr
aphi
cal
boundar
ies3.
1.1……………………………………….
.……….
(36)

 Nat
ureofsur
face3.
1.2……………………………………………………….
..
.(
37)

 Landuse/cov
er(LULC)3.
1.3……………………………………….
.….
..
..
..
.(
37)

 Dat
avol
ume3.
2………………………………………………….
.…………………….
.…(
37)

 Sat
ell
i
tespeci
fi
cat
ions3.
3…………………………………………………….
..
………….
(37)

 I
n-si
tudat
acol
l
ect
ion3.
4……………………………………………………….
..
……….
.(
40)

 Labor
ator
ywor
ks3.
4.1…………………………………………………………….
(41)

 Hy
dromet
ert
est3.
4.2…….
…………………………………………………….
.….
(43)

 Sof
twar
e’s3.
4.3………….
.……………………………………………….
.………(
43)

a-ENVI…….
.………………………………………….
.……………….
.……….
(43)
b-Ar
cGI
Ssof
twae…………………………………………….
.……….
……….
…(43)
c-Spat
ial
dat
aPr
ocessi
ng……………….
.…………………………….
.…….
.….
.(
45)
d-I
magesPr
e-pr
ocessi
ng……………….
……………….
..
……….
.….
………….
(45)
1-Cal
i
brat
ionandGeor
efer
enci
ng………….
………….
..
…….
.………………(
45)
2-LandsatCal
i
brat
ion………………………….
.….
…..
………………………(
45)
 e-I
magespr
ocessi
ng………………….
…….
.…….
.….
……….
.………………….
(47)
NDVI………………………………………………….
.……….
.….
………….
(47)
LST…………………….
.……….
…………………………….
.…….
.……….
.(
48)
LSTf
rom l
andsat……………….
…….
………………………………….
.….
.…….
(49)
 Met
hodol
ogi
es3.
4.4……………………………….
.…………….
.….
.……………….
.….
(49)

 Moi
stur
econt
ent
……………….
……………………………………….
..
…(49)

Chapt
er4
 Resul
ts4.
1…………………………………….
………………………………….
.……….
(53)

 NDVI4.
4.1…………………….
..
……………………………………….
.……(
53)

 Sur
faceemi
ssi
vi
ty4.
1.2………………………….
.……………………….
..
….(
53)

 Sur
facet
emper
atur
e4.
1.3……………………………………….
…….
.….
..
….(
54)

 Soi
lwi
tnessi
ndex4.
1.4……………………………………………………….
.(
55)

 Soi
lmoi
stur
eboundar
ies4.
1.5……………………………………………….
..
(55)

 Est
imat
edmoi
stur
econt
ent4.
1.6………………………………………….
.….
(56)

 Di
scussi
on4.
1.7……………………………………………………………….
(56)

 Val
i
dat
ion4.
2…………………………………………………………………………….
..
(57)

 Tabl
es4.
2.1………………………………………………………………….
.(57)

 Char
ts4.
2.2…………………………………………………………….
…….
.(
61)

Chapt
er5
 Concl
usi
on5.
1……………………………………………………………………………(
62)

 Recommendat
ion5.
2…………………………………………………………………….
.(
63)
 Li
stoff
igur
es

 Thewat
ercy
cleandt
hef
ormi
ngpr
ocess(
Figur
e2.
1)…………….
……………………….
..
.(
5)

 Neut
ronpr
obe(
Fig2.
2)……………………………………………………….
…………….
.(
13)

 Gy
psum-
por
ousbl
ocks(
Fig2.
3)……………………………………………….
……………(
14)

 Tensi
omet
erdev
ice(Fi
g2.
4)………………………………………………….
……………(
15)

 Soi
lmoi
stur
epr
obe(TDR)(Fi
g2.
5)……………………………………….
…………….
.(
17)

 Concept
ual
diagr
am ofTs-
NDVIt
ri
angl
e

f
ordet
ermi
ningSWI(Fi
g2.
6)………………………………………………….
……….
(34)
 Thest
udyar
ea(Fi
g3.
1)……….
.…………………………………………………………….
(36)

 I
mageofLandsat8(Fi
g3.
2).
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..…………………….
.……….
..
..
.(
38)

 I
n-si
tumeasur
ement
s(Fi
g3.
3)…………………………………………………….
……….
.(
40)

 Locat
ionr
egi
str
ati
on(Fi
g3.
4)…………………………………………………….
..
……….
(40)

 Bal
ancedev
iceandt
ray
s(Fi
g3.
5)…………………………………………………….
……(
41)

 El
ect
ri
cov
en(Fi
g3.
6)………………………………………………………………………(
41)

 Char
texpl
ainst
hepr
ocessi
ntegr
ati
onof

t
heusedsof
twar
e’s(Fi
g3.
7)…………………………………………….
…………….
..
(44)
 Cal
i
brat
iont
ool
ki
tforLandsat

usi
ngENVIsof
twar
e(Fi
g3.
8)……………………………………….
..
.….
.(
46)

 Li
nearst
ret
chenhancement(Fi
g3.
9)………………….
..
…….
.…….
..
………(
47)

 Exampl
eofbl
ockav
eragi
ngf
orpoi
nt

measur
ement
ssi
mul
ati
on(Fi
g3.
10)……………………………….
.…….
..
(47)

 St
epsofTsext
ract
ion(Fi
g3.
11)……………………….
.………………………(
48)
 Soi
lwat
erchar
act
eri
sti
cst
ri
angl
e(Fi
g3.
12)……….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
…(49)

 Vol
umet
ri
c moi
stur
e cont
entgener
ated f
rom Landsat8 sat
ell
i
te and f
iel
d
measur
ement
s.(Fi
g3.
13)……………………………….
……………………………………….
(52)

 NDVImap(Fi
g4.
1)…………………………………………………………….
(53)

 Emi
ssi
vi
tymap(Fi
g4.
2)……………………………………………….
……….
(54)

 Sur
facet
emper
atur
emap(Fi
g4.
3)……………………….
..
…………….
.….
(54)

 Soi
lwi
tnessi
ndex(Fi
g4.
4)……………………………….
……………….
…(55)

 Moi
stur
econt
ent(Fi
g4.
5)………………………………….
.…………….
..
..
(56)

 Est
imat
edMCVsMeasur
edMC(Fi
g4.
6)……………………………….
…(60)

 Est
imat
edMCVsMeasur
edMc(Fi
g4.
7)…………………….
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.(
61)
 Li
stoft
abl
es

 Rev
iewofr
emot
esensi
ngappr
oachesf
ormeasur
ementof

Near
-sur
facesoi
lmoi
stur
econt
ent(
Tabl
e2.
1)…………….
………(
21)
 Landsat8bandsspeci
fi
cat
ion(
Tabl
e3.
1)………….
……….
…..
….(
36)

 Pi
xel
-basedsat
ell
i
teMCcompar
edt
o

t
hemeasur
edMCatt
hef
iel
d(Tabl
e4.
1)………………….
……….(
55)
¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬

CHAPTER1
Thi
schapt
erpr
esent
sgener
ali
nfor
mat
ionaboutext
ract
ionofsoi
lmoi
stur
e
cont
entusi
ngr
emot
esensi
ngandGeogr
aphi
cali
nfor
mat
ionsy
stem asoneof
t
he mostef
fect
ive env
ironment
aland hy
drol
ogi
calpar
amet
erst
hatpl
ayan
i
mpor
tantr
olei
ntheassessmentofhy
drol
ogi
calcy
cle'
s par
amet
ersmor
eov
er
t
hischapt
erhi
ghl
i
ght
sthei
mpor
tanceofsoi
lmoi
stur
econt
enti
ncont
rol
l
ingand
managi
ngsur
facewat
eract
ivi
ti
esandI
rr
igat
ionschedul
i
ng,
thechapt
eraswel
l
hi
ghl
i
ght
sthe pr
obl
ems encount
ered t
he t
radi
ti
onalmeasur
ement
s ofsoi
l
moi
stur
e.Fi
nal
l
ythechapt
erout
li
nest
heobj
ect
ivesandSi
gni
fi
canceoft
hest
udy
.

1.
1Int
roduct
ion:
Soi
l
 moi
stur
eisdef
inedast
hequant
it
yof
 wat
er 
cont
ainedi
nthesoi
lagai
nst
t
hegr
avi
ty.Soi
lmoi
stur
eisusedi
nawi
der
angeofsci
ent
if
icandt
echni
cal
areas,
andi
sexpr
essedasar
ati
o,whi
chcanr
angef
rom 0(
compl
etel
ydr
y)t
othev
alue
oft
hemat
eri
als'
 
por
osi
ty 
atsat
urat
ion.I
tcanbegi
venonav
olumet
ri
cormass
(
grav
imet
ri
c)basi
s.
Ther
eisgr
owi
ngr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hei
mpor
tanceofsoi
lmoi
stur
eint
hehy
drol
ogi
c
cy
cle,especi
all
yast
hescal
eofi
nter
estmov
est
oregi
onalandgl
obalpr
obl
ems.
Soi
lmoi
stur
eisoneoft
hef
ewdi
rect
lyobser
vabl
ehy
drol
ogi
cvar
iabl
est
hatpl
ay
ani
mpor
tantr
olei
nwat
erandener
gybudget
snecessar
yforcl
i
mat
est
udi
es[
1].
Sur
facesoi
lmoi
stur
eisav
ari
abl
ethatpl
aysacr
uci
alr
olei
nvar
iouspr
ocesses
occur
ri
ngont
hesoi
l
–at
mospher
eint
erf
ace.Athi
ghspat
ialscal
es,i
tinf
luences
met
eor
ologi
caland cl
i
mat
icpr
ocesses[
2].Atmedi
um scal
es,i
tdet
ermi
nes
hy
drol
ogi
caland agr
onomi
c pr
ocesses such as r
unof
fgener
ati
on [
3]and
ev
apot
ranspi
rat
ion,cr
opdev
elopmentori
rr
igat
ionneeds.Sur
facesoi
lmoi
stur
e
al
soi
nfl
uencessoi
ler
osi
onpr
ocessessuchasgul
l
yandr
il
ler
osi
onandheadcut
appear
ance[
4]orl
andsl
i
deoccur
rence.Atsmal
lscal
es,
itexer
tsahi
ghi
nfl
uence
onbi
ogeochemi
calpr
ocessessuchaspol
l
utantmi
grat
ionand,asar
esul
t,i
tis
r
elat
edt
owat
erqual
i
tyspat
iali
ssues.Sur
facesoi
lmoi
stur
echar
act
eri
zat
ioni
sa
compl
i
cat
edt
askduet
oit
shi
ghandt
empor
alv
ari
abi
l
ity
.Soi
lmoi
stur
evar
iat
ions
nor
mal
l
yfol
l
owr
ainf
all
trends.
Mostoft
hesoi
lmoi
stur
emeasur
ingmet
hodswhi
chhav
ebecomeest
abl
i
shed
consi
sts ofpoi
nt-based pr
obes whi
ch r
equi
ret
he appl
i
cat
ion ofcompl
ex
geost
ati
sti
calt
echni
quest
oobt
ainest
imat
esov
erf
iel
dsorl
argear
eas[
5]i
n
addi
ti
on,t
hehi
gh spat
ialand t
empor
alv
ari
abi
l
ityofsoi
lmoi
stur
emakesi
t
di
ff
icul
ttoext
rapol
atef
rom poi
nt-
basedmeasur
ement
stol
argerscal
es.
Thei
mpor
tanceofsoi
lmoi
stur
eser
vesasasol
ventandcar
ri
eroff
oodnut
ri
ent
s
f
orpl
antgr
owt
h,y
iel
dofcr
opi
smor
eof
tendet
ermi
nedbyt
heamountofwat
er
av
ail
abl
erat
hert
han t
he def
ici
ency ofot
herf
ood nut
ri
ent
s,soi
lmoi
stur
e
r
egul
ates soi
ltemper
atur
e,soi
lfor
ming pr
ocesses depend on wat
er,
soi
l
moi
stur
ehel
psi
nchemi
calandbi
ologi
calact
ivi
ti
esofsoi
l,r
educeoper
ati
ng
cost
s,r
educe wat
erst
ress orpl
ant
s ,i
ncr
ease cr
op pr
oduct
ion ,
i
rri
gat
ion
schedul
i
ng ,
soi
lmoi
stur
eist
he medi
um f
rom whi
ch al
lpl
antnut
ri
ent
sar
e
assi
mil
ated bypl
ant
s.Somet
imesr
efer
red t
o ast
he soi
lsol
uti
on,cont
ains
di
ssol
vedor
gani
candi
nor
gani
csubst
ancesandt
ranspor
tsdi
ssol
vednut
ri
ent
s,
suchasni
tr
ogen,phosphor
us,pot
assi
um,andcal
cium,t
othepl
antr
oot
sfor
absor
pti
on.
Ther
oleofsoi
lmoi
stur
eis 
themai
nfact ode
ort t
ermi
net
hecor
rect
f
requencyanddur
ati
onofwat
eri
ng(
ir
ri
gat
ionschedul
i
ng(t
hatcani
ncr
eases
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.
I
nfact
,remot
e sensi
ng pr
ovi
desa meansofacqui
ri
ng spat
ial
l
ydi
str
ibut
ed
i
nfor
mat
ionoft
hel
andsur
facewi
thper
iodi
cit
y.Thepossi
bil
i
tyofi
nfer
ri
ngt
he
moi
stur
econt
entofsoi
l
sfr
om r
emot
e-sensi
ngi
mageshasbeeni
ntensi
vel
y
st
udi
ed[
6].

2
1.
2Pr
obl
em st
atement
:
Al
thoughmostoft
hesoi
lmoi
stur
esensor
sar
eaccur
ate,easyt
ocal
cul
ate,
di
rect
lymeasur
ethesoi
lwat
ercont
entandav
ail
abl
e,t
heyar
ever
yobst
ruct
ivei
n
measur
ingt
hesoi
lmoi
stur
ethr
oughv
astar
easbecause:
1.Theyar
eusual
l
yusedf
orpoi
ntmeasur
ement
s.
2.Ti
meconsumi
ng.
3.Accesst
ubesmustbei
nst
all
edandr
emov
ed.
4.Theymustbecal
i
brat
edf
ordi
ff
erentt
ypesofsoi
l
s.
5.Li
feofdev
icesi
sli
mit
edandsomeoft
hem ar
eexpensi
ve.
Thi
smakest
heuseofsat
ell
i
tet
echni
quesv
eryv
aluabl
eandappl
i
cabl
e.
1.
3Obj
ect
ivesoft
hest
udy
:
¬¬I
nor
dert
ogai
nabet
tersol
uti
on,
thef
oll
owi
ngobj
ect
iveshav
ebeendr
awn:
(
i)Todemonst
rat
etheappl
i
cabi
l
ityoft
heOpt
ical
/Ther
malI
nfr
areddat
aand
l
and-
cov
eri
nfor
mat
ioni
nsoi
lmoi
stur
econt
ent(
Mc)est
imat
ion.
(
ii
)Todev
elopanappr
oacht
oret
ri
evel
andsur
facemoi
stur
econt
ent(
MC)
.
(
ii
i)To cl
assi
fyt
he soi
lty
pes,soi
lcomposi
tes and v
eget
ati
on cov
er
t
hroughoutt
hest
udyar
ea.
1.
4Scopeoft
hest
udy
:
Ther
esear
ch wasconduct
ed atast
udyar
eawi
thi
n SHAMBAT compl
exat
Uni
ver
sit
yofKhar
toum.Measur
eddat
awer
esoi
lmoi
stur
esampl
esi
ndi
ff
erent
l
ocat
ionsatt
hecompl
ex.
Spat
ialdat
awer
eacqui
redf
rom USGSeducat
ionalwebsi
teatt
hesamet
imeof
moi
stur
econt
entcol
l
ect
ion.
Thest
udyusedonl
yopt
ical
/I
Rsat
ell
i
tei
magesf
rom LANDSAT8sensorbecause
ofi
tsr
elat
ivehi
ghspat
ial
resol
uti
on.
Labor
ator
ywor
kswer
econduct
edi
nor
dert
oext
ractt
hemoi
stur
econt
ent
,soi
l
st
ruct
ure,
per
manentwi
l
tingpoi
ntandf
iel
dcapaci
tyoft
het
arget
edsoi
lsampl
es;
wher
eassoi
ll
abor
ator
yatci
vi
lengi
neer
ingdepar
tmentwasused.

3
 CHAPTER2

LI
TERATUREREVI
EW

Thi
schapt
erdi
scussest
hemostwi
del
yusedal
gor
it
hm t
oassesst
hemoi
stur
e
cont
entt
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hephy
sicalst
ruct
ureoft
hesoi
lthr
oughper
for
ming
t
he par
ti
cle si
ze di
str
ibut
ion t
estas wel
las t
he ext
ract
ion oft
he sur
face
t
emper
atur
e.

2.
1Gl
obal
Wat
erCy
cle

Thehy
drol
ogi
ccy
cleoral
soknownaswat
ercy
clei
sthecont
inuouswat
er
mov
ementsy
stem,abov
ethesur
faceoft
heEar
thandbel
owi
t,i
nacl
osedpat
h
asi
nFi
gur
e2.
1.Wi
thi
nthi
scy
cle,wat
ert
ransf
ersandconv
ert
sfr
om onest
ate
i
ntoanot
heramongt
heocean,l
andandat
mospher
e.Thel
i
ghtandt
heheatof
t
heSunwhi
char
econsi
der
edasef
fect
ivef
ormsofener
gy,
cont
rolt
hehy
drol
ogi
c
cy
clepr
ocessessot
hatt
hest
ateofwat
erchangesamongl
i
qui
d,v
aporandi
ce
i
nsi
det
hecy
cle.Themai
npr
ocessesi
nthewat
ercy
clecanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
ive
t
ypeswhi
char
e:(
a)condensat
ion,
(b)pr
eci
pit
ati
on,
(c)i
nfi
l
trat
ion,
(d)r
un-
offand
(
e)ET.Condensat
ion i
sthe pr
ocess when t
he wat
erv
aporcondenses on
par
ti
clesi
ntheat
mospher
etof
orm cl
oud.Thi
soccur
sasar
esul
tofdr
opi
nai
r
t
emper
atur
ewheni
tri
sesupwar
dsf
rom t
heEar
th’
ssur
face.Thewi
ndconv
eys
t
hiscl
oudacr
osst
hegl
obe.Pr
eci
pit
ati
oni
sther
eleaseofwat
erf
rom t
hecl
oudi
n
l
i
qui
dorsol
i
dfor
m(r
ain,snow,hai
l
,sl
eetet
c.)
.Pr
eci
pit
ati
onbegi
nsaf
tert
he
condensedwat
erbecomesheav
iert
obehel
dint
heat
mospher
e.Af
tert
hatt
he
wat
eri
str
anspor
tedf
rom t
heat
mospher
etor
eacht
heEar
th’
ssur
facet
hrough
pr
eci
pit
ati
on.I
nfi
l
trat
ion i
s anot
her pr
ocess wher
e some por
ti
on of t
he
per
cept
ibl
ewat
erper
meat
esi
ntot
hegr
oundunder
neat
htheEar
th’
ssur
face.The
i
nfi
l
trat
edwat
ersuppl
i
esandconst
it
utest
hegr
oundwat
erorsubsur
facewat
er.
Theamountofi
nfi
l
trat
ingwat
erdependsonsoi
lty
pe,v
eget
ati
ont
ypeandcov
er
andr
ockt
ypeont
hesur
face,sat
urat
ionper
centofsoi
l
,sl
opeandper
meabi
l
ity
.
4
Run-
offt
akespl
acewhent
hesoi
lreachessat
urat
ionst
ateofwat
er.I
nthecol
d
r
egi
ons,i
tcanhappeni
nthef
orm ofsnow mel
ti
ng.Run-
offnor
mal
l
yfal
l
sint
o
st
reams,cr
eeksandr
iver
swhi
chf
inal
l
yfl
ow downusual
l
ytobi
ggerpansl
i
ke
l
akes,
seasandoceans[
7].

Fi
gur
e2.
1:Thewat
ercy
cleandt
hef
ormi
ngpr
ocesses[
8].Sour
ce[
9]

2.
2Soi
lMoi
stur
e

2.
2.1Def
ini
ti
onofSoi
lMoi
stur
e

Soi
lmoi
stur
eisnotcl
ear
lydef
inedi
nli
ter
atur
e;howev
er,i
tcanbedescr
ibedi
n
manyway
sdependi
ngont
heappl
i
cat
iont
hati
tisusedf
or.I
nsomear
eas,i
tis
def
inedaswat
erst
oredi
naf
arm scal
eforcr
oppr
oduct
ionf
rom agr
icul
tur
epoi
nt
ofv
iew [
10]
.Hy
drol
ogi
stsdef
inei
tasapr
econdi
ti
oni
nthewat
ershedscal
eto
af
fectt
he sur
face r
unof
f,sour
ce ofcont
ami
nat
ion and aqui
ferr
echar
ge.
Met
eor
ologi
stsdef
inesoi
lmoi
stur
ewhenconsi
der
edov
eral
argear
eawhi
chcan
i
nter
actwi
tht
heat
mospher
etoaf
fectt
hepr
eci
pit
ati
onov
erl
and[
11]
.Some
5
r
esear
cher
sdef
inei
tast
heamountofwat
ert
hati
shel
dbysoi
l
.Fort
hist
hesi
s,
t
he def
ini
ti
on ofsoi
lmoi
stur
e used by t
he met
eor
ologi
stsi
sthe most
consi
der
abl
eandi
sexpr
essedasadi
mensi
onl
essr
ati
oofmassorv
olumeof
wat
erbyt
otalmassorv
olumeofsoi
lwhi
chcont
ainst
hiswat
er.Thi
srat
ioi
s
r
epor
tedasdeci
mal
fract
ionorper
cent
ageaf
termul
ti
pli
edby100[
12]
.

2.
2.2I
mpor
tanceofSur
facesoi
lmoi
stur
e

Thei
mpor
tanceofsoi
lmoi
stur
eser
vesasasol
ventandcar
ri
eroff
oodnut
ri
ent
s
f
orpl
antgr
owt
h,y
iel
dofcr
opi
smor
eof
tendet
ermi
nedbyt
heamountofwat
er
av
ail
abl
erat
hert
han t
he def
ici
ency ofot
herf
ood nut
ri
ent
s,soi
lmoi
stur
e
r
egul
ates soi
ltemper
atur
e,soi
lfor
ming pr
ocesses depend on wat
er,
soi
l
moi
stur
ehel
psi
nchemi
calandbi
ologi
calact
ivi
ti
esofsoi
l,r
educeoper
ati
ng
cost
s,r
educe wat
erst
ress orpl
ant
s ,i
ncr
ease cr
op pr
oduct
ion ,
i
rri
gat
ion
schedul
i
ng ,
soi
lmoi
stur
eist
he medi
um f
rom whi
ch al
lpl
antnut
ri
ent
sar
e
assi
mil
ated bypl
ant
s.Somet
imesr
efer
red t
o ast
he soi
lsol
uti
on,cont
ains
di
ssol
vedor
gani
candi
nor
gani
csubst
ancesandt
ranspor
tsdi
ssol
vednut
ri
ent
s,
suchasni
tr
ogen,phosphor
us,pot
assi
um,andcal
cium,t
othepl
antr
oot
sfor
absor
pti
on.Ther
oleofsoi
lmoi
stur
eis 
themai
nfact
ort
odet
ermi
net
hecor
rect
f
requencyanddur
ati
onofwat
eri
ng(
ir
ri
gat
ionschedul
i
ng(
thatcani
ncr
eases
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.

2.
2.3Appl
i
cat
ionofSoi
lMoi
stur
eMC

Al
ong wi
tht
he hy
drol
ogi
c cy
cle,t
he mosti
mpor
tantcomponenti
s MC
becausei
thasani
mpactoncl
i
mat
echangeov
erl
andandpl
ayst
hesamer
ole
ov
erl
andasseasur
facet
emper
atur
epl
aysov
eroceansandseas.I
nsome
ci
rcumst
ances, i
t has a good pot
ent
ial f
or st
ori
ng t
he at
mospher
ic
si
gnat
ure/
ener
gyt
ransf
err
edt
oitt
hroughpr
eci
pit
ati
on(
orderofmont
hs)
,int
urn
t
ransf
err
ingi
tbackt
otheat
mospher
ethr
oughev
apor
ati
onandaf
fect
ingt
he
cl
i
mat
e[13]
.MCassi
stsi
nthedet
ermi
nat
ionoft
her
edi
str
ibut
ionofr
ainf
alli
nto
6
sur
facer
unof
fandsubsur
facer
unof
f[14,15]
,sot
hati
tcont
rol
sthepor
ti
onof
ener
gyatt
hesur
faceaswel
last
hef
eedbackoft
hewat
ert
otheat
mospher
e.
Fur
ther
,itdi
vi
dest
heup-
wil
l
ingener
gyi
ntosensi
bleheatandl
atentheatf
luxes.
I
naddi
ti
on,soi
lmoi
stur
einf
luencest
hesoi
ler
osi
on,soi
laer
ati
on,di
str
ibut
ion
and gr
owt
h ofv
eget
ati
on,soi
lmi
crobi
alact
ivi
ty,t
he concent
rat
ion oft
oxi
c
subst
ances,t
hemov
ementofnut
ri
ent
sint
hesoi
ltot
her
oot
sandweat
her
pr
edi
cti
onatal
ocal
tor
egi
onal
scal
e[16]
.Apar
tfr
om t
hese,
ther
ear
emanyot
her
r
eall
i
feappl
i
cat
ionst
hatsoi
lmoi
stur
econt
rol
s,whi
chmakei
tav
eryi
mpor
tant
par
amet
er.Thef
oll
owi
ngexampl
eshav
ebeenment
ionedduet
othei
rinf
luences
onhumanl
i
fet
oav
eryf
arext
ent
:

Dr
oughtandf
loodmoni
tor
ing– t
heamountofMCcandi
rect
lyaf
fectt
he
hy
drol
ogi
cdr
oughtandf
loodi
ngbecauset
heyar
ecl
osel
yrel
atedt
oit
sav
ail
abi
l
ity
i
nspeci
fi
cregi
on.Thedef
ici
tinr
ootzonesoi
lmoi
stur
eforsomeper
iodoft
ime
l
eadst
ohy
drol
ogi
cdr
oughtandt
henl
aterr
esul
tsi
nagr
icul
tur
aldr
ought(
no
v
eget
ati
on)
.Ont
heot
herhand,
whenr
ainf
all
sforal
ongerper
iodoft
ime,
thesoi
l
get
s sat
urat
ed wi
th wat
erl
eadi
ng t
ofl
oods,especi
all
yfori
nst
antheav
y
pr
eci
pit
ati
on whi
ch doesnotgi
veenough t
imef
ort
heper
cept
ibl
ewat
ert
o
per
col
ateunder
neat
hsoi
landhencegener
ateshi
ghr
un-
offandf
lashf
loodi
ng[
1].

Hydr
ologi
cmodel
i
ng–t
heassessmentofsoi
lwat
erchangeduet
onat
ural
andant
hropogeni
ccausesi
sver
ynecessar
y.Si
nceMCi
samai
ncomponentof
wat
ercy
cle,i
twi
l
lbev
eryhel
pfult
ost
udywat
ercy
clepr
ocesses,pr
eci
pit
ati
on
anddi
schar
gepat
ter
nanal
ysi
sthr
oughdet
ermi
ningt
heamountofMC.

Model
i
ngofcl
i
mat
eandweat
her-I
nacl
i
mat
esy
stem,
MCi
sconsi
der
edasa
wat
err
eser
voi
r,sot
hatMCcomi
ngf
rom t
hepr
eci
pit
ati
onorsnowmel
ti
ngdur
ing
wetseasonsi
sst
oredi
nsoi
landi
sev
apor
ateddur
ingt
hesummert
ime(
dry
season)whent
hesoi
lget
swar
merduet
ost
rongsol
ari
l
lumi
nat
ion.Soi
lmoi
stur
e
act
sasani
nter
facebet
weenwetseasonanddr
yseasonpr
ocessest
odr
ivet
he
cl
i
mat
e.Theknowl
edgeofMC at
ti
tudehel
psi
nunder
standi
ngt
heseasonal
pr
ocessesandmodel
i
ngt
hecl
i
mat
esy
stem.Theweat
herasi
sal
socont
rol
l
ed

7
by t
he soi
lmoi
stur
e.MC quant
if
ies t
he amountofwat
erav
ail
abl
eto be
t
ranspor
tedt
otheat
mospher
ethoughET.I
tcont
rol
sthesensi
bleandl
atentheat
f
luxamount
sthatar
egoi
ngt
otheat
mospher
e.Thei
ntensi
tyandgenesi
sof
sev
erest
ormsandheat
ingandcool
i
ngoft
heat
mospher
eandal
lthosel
ocal
weat
herdependont
heev
apor
atedpor
ti
onofMCt
otheat
mospher
e.

Ci
vi
lEngi
neer
ing–t
hei
mpor
tantst
ruct
ural
proper
ti
esar
ehi
ghl
yinf
luencedby
soi
lwat
erbecausei
tmakessoi
lheav
ierandsof
tert
o hol
dthem.So,i
tis
i
mpor
tantt
oknow andaddr
esst
hemoi
stur
eamountandv
ari
ati
onoft
hesoi
l
wat
erov
ert
hey
ear
s.Thi
scanassi
sti
nmai
ntai
ningt
heengi
neer
ingst
ruct
ures
l
i
kedams,
bri
dges,
roads,
etc.t
hatar
eadequat
elysui
tabl
efort
hesoi
lcondi
ti
ons.
Amongt
hewi
der
angeofMCappl
i
cat
ionsi
nur
banar
eas,t
hef
loodpr
edi
cti
oni
s
basedont
hespat
ial
dist
ri
but
ionoft
hesat
urat
ionofgr
oundsoi
l[17,
18]
.

Managementofwat
ershedsandr
eser
voi
rs – Wat
ershedi
sdef
inedasa
por
ti
onoft
hel
andwher
eal
lthewat
erbeneat
hitordr
aini
ngof
fitgoest
oa
common pl
ace such as st
reams,l
akes orr
iver
s.The wat
ershed i
s hi
ghl
y
cont
rol
l
ed byt
he moi
stur
e av
ail
abl
e wi
thi
nthe r
ootzone oft
he soi
l
.Iti
s
necessar
ytoknowt
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
hesoi
landt
heamountofwat
eri
tcanhol
d
f
ort
heper
fectmanagementofwat
ershedsandr
eser
voi
rs.

Ecosyst
em andf
orestmodel
i
ng – Thebal
anceoft
heecosy
stem i
stoo
i
mpor
tantf
oral
lthel
i
vingbei
ngs.Veget
ati
onr
equi
reswat
erf
rom soi
ltosur
viv
e.
I
nacl
osedenv
ironmentsuchasf
orest
s,i
nsuf
fi
cientav
ail
abi
l
ityofwat
erwi
l
llead
al
lthet
reest
ocompet
eamongt
hemsel
vesanddi
sput
etosur
viv
e.MC al
so
cont
rol
sthe nut
ri
ent
s and chemi
cal
s upt
ake by t
he t
rees and sedi
ment
t
ranspor
tat
ionbyt
her
iver
s.MCi
samaj
orcauseofdef
orest
ati
on.Al
lthel
i
ving
bei
ngs i
nthe ecosy
stem al
so depend on soi
lwat
er,especi
all
yint
he ar
id
env
ironmentwher
epeopl
edi
gdeeperi
ntoaqui
fer
stof
indsomewat
ert
osur
viv
e.
Knowl
edgeoft
heMCassi
stsaccur
atel
yinmodel
i
ngt
heecosy
stem.

Agr
icul
tur
eandcr
opsyst
em model
i
ng–Agr
icul
tur
eist
hemostdependenton
MCandi
rr
igat
ion,especi
all
yint
hedr
yseasonwhent
her
ainf
alli
sscar
ce.I
tis
8
hi
ghl
yimpor
tantt
o know t
he amountofmoi
stur
eint
he r
ootzone bef
ore
cul
ti
vat
inganycr
opandcanhel
pfar
mer
stodeci
dewhet
hert
heywantt
opl
anta
cr
opt
ypewhi
chi
ntakesl
otofwat
er,buty
iel
dsf
oodv
eryf
astoracr
opt
ype
whi
chi
ntakesl
esswat
erandt
akesl
ongert
imet
oyi
eldf
ood.

Soi
lconser
vat
ion–oneoft
hemaj
orgeohazar
dswhi
cht
hreat
enst
hecr
op
pr
oduct
ionsy
stemsi
nMal
aysi
aist
hesoi
ler
osi
on.MChol
dst
hesoi
lti
ght
lyand
cont
rol
sthesoi
ler
osi
onposi
ti
vel
yandnegat
ivel
ythr
oughr
educi
ngt
hemass
mov
ement
s(soi
lpar
ti
cles)andt
het
ranspor
tat
ionofsoi
lcomponent
sbywat
er
r
espect
ivel
y[19]
.

Fi
rer
iskmanagement–Manyt
reesal
ongt
her
egi
onsdi
eduet
othel
owr
ate
ofMC.Theypr
ovi
deanexcel
l
entf
uel(
dryt
reesandwood)f
orwi
l
dlandf
ir
es.So,
t
her
egi
onswi
thl
owMCar
ehi
ghl
ypr
onet
owi
l
dlandf
ir
es.

2.
2.4Fundament
alsandChar
act
eri
sti
csofsoi
lmoi
stur
e

Soi
lmoi
stur
eisunder
stoodt
obewat
ert
hati
slockedi
nthespacesbet
ween
cont
ami
nant
sofsoi
l
.Whi
l
esur
faceMCcoul
dpossi
blybet
hewat
ert
hati
sfound
wi
thi
ntheupper10cent
imet
ersofsoi
l
,wher
easr
ootzoneMCst
andsoutast
he
wat
ert
hati
sav
ail
abl
etopl
ant
s,whi
chi
sgener
all
yconsi
der
edbei
ngwi
thi
nthe
upper 200 cent
imet
ers of soi
l
(
htt
p:/
/wor
ldwi
deweb.
ghcc.
msf
c.nasa.
gov
/landpr
ocess/
lp_
home.
html
).Soi
lMC
canbeexpr
essedgr
avi
met
ri
cal
l
yorv
olumet
ri
cal
l
y,i
.e.
,

M
MCg= water×100%, (
2.1)
Msolid

V
MCv= water×100%, (
2.2)
Vsolid

eMCg andMCv r
Wher epr
esentt
hegr
avi
met
ri
candv
olumet
ri
cMCcont
ent
r
espect
ivel
y,MwaterandMsolid r
epr
esentt
hemassofwat
erandsol
i
dmat
eri
alsi
n
9
t
hesoi
lrespect
ivel
y,andVwaterandVsolid r
epr
esentt
hev
olumeofwat
erandsol
i
d
mat
eri
alsi
nsoi
lrespect
ivel
y[20]
.

Al
lsoi
l
scont
aint
hreecomposi
tes:
sol
i
d(mi
ner
alandor
gani
c),
wat
erandgas.
Thei
rmechani
cal
,phy
sicalandchemi
calpur
sui
tsar
ecompl
i
cat
ed,
andt
her
efor
e
ar
efr
equent
lyi
mpact
ed by t
he pr
opor
ti
on ofwat
erwi
thi
nthe soi
lvoi
ds.
Est
imat
ionofMCi
sthusanessent
ial
facetofsoi
lresear
ch[
21,
22]
.

Duet
oit
spor
ouschar
act
eri
sti
cs,soi
lisubi
qui
touscont
ainerofwat
ert
hati
t
suppl
i
est
othepl
ant
s.Ast
het
hreenat
uralact
ivi
ti
es(
evapor
ati
on,dr
ainageand
upt
ake bypl
ant
s)t
ake outwat
eri
nthe cont
ainer
,whatr
emai
ns becomes
pr
ogr
essi
vel
yinaccessi
blet
opl
antr
oot
s.Thi
sleadst
ost
ressi
npl
ant
sandt
hei
r
gr
owt
hist
hreat
ened.Howev
er,whent
hesoi
ltankr
eachescapaci
tyornear
capaci
ty,anyext
rawat
erpl
acedi
nthet
opwi
l
lleadt
orunof
f,t
husl
eadi
ngt
o
hazar
dousf
loodander
osi
on.Ther
efor
e,i
nfor
mat
iononsoi
lmoi
stur
eishi
ghl
y
si
gni
fi
cant
,especi
all
yregar
ding t
he hy
drol
ogi
calmodel
i
ng and agr
icul
tur
al
management[
23]
.

Wat
eri
sgener
all
yhel
dinsoi
linoneoft
wost
ates.Fi
rst
,fr
eewat
eri
swi
thi
n
t
hepor
esoft
hesoi
lst
ruct
ureandf
lowswi
thi
nthatst
ruct
ure.Thusf
reewat
er
dr
ainsef
for
tl
essl
ywhi
chi
seasi
l
yav
ail
abl
etocr
opr
oot
s.Secondl
y,wat
ercoul
d
beboundt
othesoi
lcont
ami
nant
sbecauseofchemi
calandphy
sicalat
tr
act
ive
f
orces.Si
ncet
heseki
ndsoff
orcesdecr
easequi
ckl
ywi
thdi
stancef
rom t
he
speci
fi
edpar
ti
cl
e,boundwat
ermayexi
stsuchasal
ayermer
elyacoupl
eof
mol
ecul
est
hickar
oundeachaggr
egat
e[24]
.Soi
l
-wat
err
elat
ionshi
pcoul
dbe
spi
tt
edi
ntot
hreet
ypesbasedont
hepot
ent
ial
ener
gyexi
sti
ngdr
y,moi
st,
andwet
.
Dr
ysoi
l
sar
ethoset
ypesi
nwhi
cht
hesoi
lreachest
hewel
ti
ngpoi
ntwher
e
t
ensi
onequal
stof
if
teenbar
s(1500kpa)
.Thi
sreal
l
yisgr
eat
erMCt
han“
airdr
y”
soi
l
s,buti
tissol
owt
hatr
egul
armesophy
ticpl
ant
scan’
tsur
viv
e[25]
.Moi
stsoi
l
s
ar
ethosei
nwhi
cht
hemoi
stur
eexi
stsundersomeki
ndofat
ensi
onwhi
chi
s
bet
ween1/
3and15bar
s(33-
1500kpa)
,whi
l
eext
remel
ymoi
stsoi
l
sar
ethosei
n
whi
cht
hemoi
stur
eiswi
thi
ntensi
onbet
ween.
01and1/
3bar
s(1-
33kpa)
.Soi
lis

10
weti
fitconsi
stsoff
reewat
er,
orwher
etensi
ondoesnotr
eal
i
ze1kpa[
25]
.

2.
2.5Ty
pical
soi
lmoi
stur
emeasur
ingt
echni
ques

Amul
ti
pli
ci
tyofal
gor
it
hmsandt
echni
queshav
ebeenest
abl
i
shedandav
ail
ed
f
orMCmeasur
ement
.Thewayofsel
ect
ingt
hemet
hodandequi
pmenti
smost
ly
dependi
ng on ease ofuse,equi
pmentexpenses,pl
us a need t
o moni
tor
cont
inuousal
ter
ati
onsi
nMC.Thef
oll
owi
ngex
ampl
esshow somet
ypi
calMC
cont
entmeasur
ingt
echni
ques:

2.
2.5.
1Gr
avi
met
ri
cmet
hod:

Thesoi
lmoi
stur
econt
entmaybeexpr
essedbywei
ghtast
her
ati
ooft
he
massofwat
erpr
esentt
othedr
ytot
hedr
ywei
ghtoft
hesoi
lsampl
e,orby
v
olumeasr
ati
oofv
olumeofwat
ert
othet
otalv
olumeoft
hesoi
lsampl
e.To
det
ermi
neanyoft
heser
ati
osf
orapar
ti
cul
arsoi
lsampl
e,t
hewat
ermassmust
bedet
ermi
nedbydr
yingt
hesoi
ltoconst
antwei
ghtandmeasur
ingt
hesoi
l
sampl
e mass af
terand bef
ore dr
ying.The wat
ermass (
orwei
ght
)ist
he
di
ff
erencebet
weent
hewei
ght
soft
hewetandov
endr
ysampl
es.Thecr
it
eri
on
f
oradr
ysoi
lsampl
eist
hesoi
lsampl
ethathasbeendr
iedt
oconst
antwei
ghti
n
ov
enatt
emper
atur ween100–110oC(
ebet 105oCi
sty
pical
).I
tseemst
hatt
his
t
emper
atur
erangehasbeenbasedonwat
erboi
l
ingt
emper
atur
eanddoesnot
consi
dert
hesoi
lphy
sical
andchemi
cal
char
act
eri
sti
cs

Wat
ercont
enti
nvol
umet
ri
cbasi
sisexpr
essedas:

Volumeofwater
Θv
d=
Volumeofsoi
l
(
2.3)

2.
2.5.
2Neut
ronPr
obe:

A 
neut
ronpr
obe 
i
sadev
iceusedt
omeasur
ethequant
it
yof
 wat
er 
present
i
n soi
l
.
11
At
ypi
cal
neut
ronpr
obecont
ainsapel
l
etof
 amer
ici
um-
241 
and 
ber
yll
i
um.
The 
alphapar
ti
cles 
emi
tt
edbyt
hedecayoft
heamer
ici
um col
l
idewi
tht
hel
i
ght
ber
yll
i
um nucl
ei,
produci
ng 
fastneut
rons.Whent
hesef
astneut
ronscol
l
ide
wi
th 
hydr
ogen 
nucl
eipr
esenti
nthesoi
lbei
ngst
udi
ed,
theyl
osemuchoft
hei
r
ener
gy.Thedet
ect
ionof
 sl
owneut
rons 
ret
urni
ngt
othepr
obeal
l
owsanest
imat
e
oft
heamountofhy
drogenpr
esent
.Si
ncewat
ercont
ainst
woat
omsofhy
drogen
permol
ecul
e,t
hist
her
efor
egi
vesameasur
eofsoi
lmoi
stur
e.Fi
g(2.
2)Far
mer
s
uset
hist
odet
ermi
nehowmuchwat
eri
sint
hei
rfi
elds.

Adv
ant
ages:
•
Accur
atei
ndet
ermi
ningsoi
lmoi
stur
e
•
Lar
gespher
eofi
nfl
uence
•
Notaf
fect
edbyt
emper
atur
e,soi
lty
peorpH
•
Measur
ement
sar
eint
erpr
etedbyt
heCont
ract
orandpr
ovi
dedbackt
oyou
•
Accesst
ubesi
nst
all
edwi
thmi
nimal
soi
ldi
stur
bance
•
Trai
nedconsul
tantdoesr
eadi
ngsf
ory
ou
•
Repor
tsandadv
icegi
venbyanI
rr
igat
ionconsul
tantwhoi
sfami
l
iarwi
thy
our
pr
oper
ty

Fi
g2.
2:neut
ronpr
obe
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
•
Cost
sofser
viceandset
-upon-
far
m
•
Licensesr
equi
redt
otaker
eadi
ngs(
radi
oact
ivesour
ce)
,hencey
ouar
e

12
 unabl
eto t
akear
eadi
ngatwi
l
l.
•
Cost
sofser
viceandset
-upon-
far
m
•
Clearaccesst
opr
oper
tyandsi
tesr
equi
redatal
lti
mes
•
Accesst
ubesmaybecomecompact
ed
Sl
• i
ghtdel
ayi
nrecei
vi
ngr
eadi
ngs/
repor
ts

2.
2.5.
3Gy
psum-
por
ousbl
ocks:

TheGy
psum Bl
ocki
sacy
li
ndr
icalbl
ockofgy
psum (
CaSO4)i
ntowhi
cht
wo
el
ect
rodesar
einser
ted.Thepor
ousgy
psum al
l
owswat
ert
omov
einandoutof
t
hebl
ockast
hesoi
lwet
s(underi
rr
igat
ionorr
ainf
all
)anddr
ies(
ast
hepl
ant
dr
awswat
eraway
).TheCaSO4goesi
ntosol
uti
onandal
l
owsi
onmov
ement
bet
weent
het
woel
ect
rodes.Whent
hebl
ocki
sexci
tedel
ect
ri
cal
l
y,el
ect
ri
cal
r
esi
stancebet
weent
heel
ect
rodesi
smeasur
edandr
elat
edt
omoi
stur
econt
ent
asat
ensi
on.
(Fi
g2.
3:gy
psum-
por
ousbl
ocks)

¬¬¬

Fi
g2.
3:gy
psum-
por
ousbl
ocks
Adv
ant
ages:
 Cheapi
ncompar
isont
oot
hersy
stems
 Easyt
ouseandi
nst
all
 Readi
ngsar
enotaf
fect
edbysoi
lsal
i
nit
y-al
thought
hel
i
feoft
hebl
ock
13
 canbe
 Measur
ement
scanbet
akenqui
ckl
yandsomepr
oduct
sar
eabl
etobe
l
ogged.
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
•Requi
resl
abori
nputt
otaker
eadi
ngsordownl
oadt
ocomput
er.
•Li
fet
imecanber
educedi
nsomesoi
lty
pes
•Rel
ati
vel
ysmal
lspher
eofi
nfl
uence.

2.
2.5.
4Tensi
omet
ers:
Tensi
omet
ermeasur
essoi
lmoi
stur
e.I
tisani
nst
rumentdesi
gnedt
omeasur
e
t
het
ensi
onorsuct
iont
hatpl
ant
s'r
oot
smustexer
ttoext
ractwat
erf
rom t
hesoi
l
.
Thi
stensi
oni
sadi
rectmeasur
eoft
heav
ail
abi
l
ityofwat
ert
oapl
ant
.
Whenbur
iedi
nthesoi
lthecer
ami
cti
poft
het
ensi
omet
eral
l
owswat
ert
omov
e
f
reel
yinoroutoft
het
ube.Ast
hesoi
ldr
iesout
,wat
eri
ssuckedoutt
hrought
he
por
ouscer
ami
cti
p,cr
eat
ingapar
ti
alv
acuum i
nsi
det
het
ensi
omet
erwhi
chi
s
r
eadont
hev
acuum gauge.Whent
hesoi
liswet
tedbysuf
fi
cientr
ainf
allor
i
rr
igat
ion,wat
erf
lowsbacki
ntot
het
ensi
omet
er,t
hev
acuum decr
easesandt
he
gauger
eadi
ngi
slower
ed.
(f
ig2.
4:t
ensi
omet
er)

14
 f
ig2.
4:t
ensi
omet
erdev
ice

Adv
ant
ages:
•
Easyt
ouse
•
Measur
ement
stakenqui
ckl
y
•
Dir
ecti
ndi
cat
ionofpl
antsuct
ioni
nkpapr
ovi
deseasyi
dent
if
icat
ionoft
he
‘
ref
il
l’
Poi
nt,
wheni
rr
igat
ioni
srequi
red
•
Inexpensi
ve
•
Simpl
etoi
nst
all
•
Mini
mal
soi
ldi
stur
bance
•
Nocal
i
brat
ionr
equi
red
•
Avai
l
abl
elocal
l
y
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
•
Requi
rel
abori
nputf
orr
eadi
ngs
•
Requi
rer
egul
armai
ntenance
•
Plantsuct
ioni
ncr
easesr
api
dlynear
ingi
rr
igat
ion-car
eful
moni
tor
ingi
s
r
equi
red
15
 •
Rel
ati
vel
ysmal
lspher
eofi
nfl
uence
•
Maynotbeasr
esponsi
vei
ncoar
sesands

2.
2.5.
5Ti
me-
Domai
nRef
lect
omet
er(
TDR)
:

TheTDRi
samobi
l
edev
icet
hati
susedt
oconductmeasur
ement
sofMCata
poi
ntbasedorcoul
dbeconnect
edt
oamul
ti
plexeri
ncaseofmeasur
ementf
ora
v
ari
etyofbur
iedwav
egui
des[
26]
.Anel
ect
romagnet
icwav
eist
ransmi
tt
edv
ia
pr
obes.Ref
lect
ivi
ty oft
he pl
aced si
gnalwi
l
ltake pl
ace wher
ether
e ar
e
i
mpedancechanges.Thev
alueoft
hei
mpedancer
elat
est
othegeomet
ri
cal
ar
rangementoft
hepr
obewhi
chi
sinv
ersel
ycor
rel
atedt
othedi
elect
ri
cconst
ant
oft
hesoi
l
.Agener
alchangei
nvol
umet
ri
cMCofsoi
lar
oundt
hepr
obel
eadst
o
anal
ter
nat
ioni
nthedi
elect
ri
cconst
ant
.Theal
ter
ati
onoft
hedi
elect
ri
cconst
ant
oft
hesoi
lchangest
hei
mpedanceoft
hepr
obewhi
chi
nfl
uencest
hef
orm oft
he
r
efl
ect
edsi
gnalt
hatcont
ainsi
nfor
mat
ionwhi
chi
susedt
ofi
gur
eoutMC.A
nor
malTDRsoi
lmoi
stur
emeasur
ingpr
obei
spr
esent
edi
n(Fi
gur
e.2.
5)t
heMCi
s
usual
l
yest
imat
edev
ersi
ncet
hedi
elect
ri
cconst
antofasoi
lincr
easeswi
tht
he
wat
erper
cent
age.

Fi
gur
e2.
5:Soi
lmoi
stur
epr
obe(
TimeDomai
nRef
lect
omet
erTDR)
[5]
.

Adv
ant
ages:
TDRi
spr
eci
se,
suppl
i
escont
inuousmeasur
ement
sdoesnotr
equi
re
cal
i
brat
ionandi
sunaf
fect
edbysal
ts.

Di
sadv
ant
ages:TDR damages t
he soi
l
,cont
ains di
ff
icul
tel
ect
roni
cs,and

16
expensi
vedev
icesar
erequi
redf
orsuccessf
ulmeasur
ement
s[27]
.

2.
3Remot
esensi
ngt
echni
ques

Remot
esensi
ngi
sat
ermt
hati
susedf
ort
hest
udyofobj
ect
ssensedf
rom a
di
stance.I
tdenot
est
heempl
oymentofmoder
nsensor
sanddat
apr
ocessi
ng
[
27]
.Theuseofr
emot
esensi
nghasr
epl
acedsomecont
actanddest
ruct
ive
met
hodsi
nsensi
ngenv
ironment
alandagr
icul
tur
alphenomena.Ther
ear
emany
r
emot
esensi
ngt
echni
quest
hatcanbeusedi
nthei
nfr
aredandmi
crowav
e
spect
ralr
egi
onsi
nor
dert
ocol
l
ectdat
afr
om t
arget
edl
ocat
ions.LunelandDi
l
l
[
28]r
epor
ted t
hat r
emot
e sensi
ng can be used f
or t
he det
ect
ion and
char
act
eri
zat
ionofagr
icul
tur
alandl
andphenomena.

2.
3.1Gener
alappl
i
cat
ionsofr
emot
esensi
ng

Remot
e sensi
ng as a sophi
sti
cat
ed sy
stem t
oday has become t
he best
per
for
ming,ef
fect
iveandpr
eci
sesour
cef
ort
hemappi
ngandmoni
tor
ingof
env
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsov
erear
thsur
faceatal
llev
elsandscal
es.Al
lthose
sy
stems hav
e been used i
ntensi
vel
y f
or f
iel
d’s spect
roscopy and
spect
ror
adi
omet
erst
udi
eswhi
chi
ssuet
hesubsequentact
ivi
ti
esasexampl
es:
t
heanal
ysi
soft
hecommonr
elat
ionshi
pamongt
hespect
ralchar
act
eri
sti
csof
sur
facet
arget
sandt
hei
renv
ironment
alqual
i
tiesandf
eat
uresi
nthef
iel
d.Gr
ound
t
rut
hing,whi
ch i
s an i
n si
tuf
iel
d measur
ementofphy
sicalenv
ironment
al
par
amet
erswi
thequi
val
enti
l
lumi
nat
ionandv
iewi
nggeomet
ryf
orr
easonabl
e
cor
rel
ati
ont
osat
ell
i
teandai
rcr
aftsensordat
a.Anal
ysi
sofMul
ti
spect
raland
hy
per
spect
rali
mager
y,whi
char
eacol
l
ect
ionofv
isi
ble,neari
nfr
ared,andshor
t
wav
einf
rar
edi
magesf
ort
her
ecogni
ti
on,det
ect
ion,andquant
it
yassessmentof
sur
facesubst
ances,
organi
c,andchemi
calact
ivi
ti
esf
oranal
ysi
sandr
esear
chi
n
sev
eralecol
ogi
calandsecur
it
ypur
poses.r
esear
chonsoi
landcr
op,whi
chi
sa
det
ail
edi
dent
if
icat
ionofsoi
lnut
ri
ent
s,i
tsst
ruct
ure,hy
drol
ogi
calpar
amet
ers

17
act
ingonsoi
lpr
ofi
l
eandsur
faceaswel
last
het
opogr
aphi
calaspectofsoi
l
sur
face,whi
l
eresear
choncr
opsi
ncl
udest
hemoni
tor
ingofcr
opgr
owt
hst
ages
andheat
h,i
rr
igat
ionwat
err
equi
rement
sbesi
dest
hephot
osy
nthet
icalact
ivi
ti
es
andmanyot
herpl
antpr
ocesses.Resear
chesoni
cechar
act
eri
sti
csandsnow,
whi
ch ent
ail
sthe moni
tor
ing ofi
ce and snow pr
oper
ti
es t
oimpr
ovet
he
under
standi
ngoft
hephenomenai
nacl
earway
,suchast
hebal
ancei
nradi
ati
on
bet
weent
heEar
thandt
heat
mospher
eandcor
rel
ati
onsbet
weent
hesi
zeoft
he
snowgr
ain'
sconf
igur
ati
onandi
tsr
efl
ect
ion,
har
dnessi
ndex,
densi
ty,
li
qui
dwat
er
cont
ent
,and t
emper
atur
e.Landscape ecol
ogyand ecol
ogyr
esear
ches al
so
i
nvol
vet
hecapabi
l
ityt
opr
eci
sel
yachi
ever
efl
ect
anceandr
adi
omet
ri
cmeasur
es
ofgr
eencanopyandsoi
lwi
thi
nthef
iel
d.Ai
rbor
ner
emot
esensi
ngmeasur
ement
s,
i
smost
lyappl
i
edov
erar
east
hatar
einaccessi
bleorr
elat
ivel
ylar
gef
ori
nsi
tu
dat
acol
l
ect
ion.At
mospher
icr
emot
esensi
ngandspect
rali
rr
adi
ancer
esear
ch
pr
ovi
desi
nfor
mat
ioni
ndi
rect
,di
ff
usi
on,
andcompl
etei
rr
adi
ancef
rom spect
rum.
I
naddi
ti
on,t
oskyandcl
oudr
adi
ancear
ecr
uci
alf
orenv
ironment
alr
esear
chi
na
l
otofcl
i
mat
eandecosy
stem ener
gybal
ancer
esear
ches.Resear
chesoncl
i
mat
e,
whi
chconcer
nst
hegl
obalchangei
sconduct
eddai
l
yanddat
aiscol
l
ect
edv
ia
r
emot
esensi
ngwhi
chcanbeut
il
izedef
fect
ivel
yincl
i
mat
icchangest
udi
es.
Remot
esensi
ngofgeol
ogyr
esear
chescont
ainsst
udi
esoft
hef
ormul
a,mat
eri
al,
st
ruct
ure,pr
ocesses,and hi
stor
yofourpl
anet
,usual
l
yfort
hedet
ect
ion of
mi
ner
alsandnew ener
gyr
esour
ces.Remot
esensi
ngofwat
er,oceanscoast
al
andi
nlandwat
erbodi
esi
nvol
vest
her
efl
ect
edr
adi
ancef
rom wat
ersur
facet
o
af
fectwat
erl
eav
ingr
adi
omet
ri
calpr
oper
ti
eswi
thnoneedt
ost
udyandmeasur
e
t
hei
n-wat
ert
oint
erpr
etand v
ali
dat
ethesat
ell
i
tei
mager
yand much mor
e.
Fur
ther
mor
e,ot
herv
ari
abl
eappl
i
cat
ionsi
nur
banpl
anni
ng,ur
banheati
sland,
nat
uraldi
sast
ers,env
ironment
aland met
eor
ologi
calobser
vat
ions whi
ch ar
e
ext
endedatt
heear
thsur
facear
eal
soi
nvol
ved.

2.
3.2Remot
esensi
ngofsoi
lmoi
stur
econt
ent

18
 Thedi
str
ibut
ionsofMCcondi
ti
onspat
ial
l
yandt
empor
all
yatt
hesur
faceand
r
ootzonet
hroughoutl
argel
andpr
esentacr
uci
ali
nputf
orsev
eralagr
icul
tur
al,
hy
drol
ogi
cal
,aswel
lasmet
eor
ologi
caluses[
29]
.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,ev
aluat
ionof
sur
faceandr
ootzoneMCatnumer
oust
empor
alandspat
ialscal
esi
sof
tena
cr
it
icalf
act
ort
ost
rat
egi
cmanagementofwat
err
esour
ces.Sur
faceMCi
san
essent
ialst
oragef
act
or,
whi
chusual
l
yregul
atespar
ti
ti
oni
ngofener
gyandmass
r
elev
antt
oETandr
unof
f[30]
.Numer
ousst
udi
esi
ntheSGP97(
Sout
her
nGr
eat
Pl
ains1997hy
drol
ogyexper
iment
)si
tehav
eanal
yzedt
hepar
amet
erst
hataf
fect
t
hespat
io-
tempor
alci
rcul
ati
onofMCi
naddi
ti
ont
osur
facef
luxes[
31,32]
.The
est
imat
ionofMCofsoi
landener
gy/
massexchangei
smost
lysi
mul
atedt
hrough
Soi
lVeget
ati
onAt
mospher
eTr
ansf
ermodel
s(SVAT)
.Thepr
eci
sionofSVAT
model
sisnor
mal
l
yconf
inedbyundependabl
eest
imat
ionsofsur
faceandr
oot
zone MC [
32]
.In spi
te of t
he i
mpor
tance of MC i
n hy
drol
ogi
caland
met
eor
ologi
calf
orecast
s,compr
ehensi
vespat
io-
tempor
almodel
i
ngofsoi
lMCat
t
hel
ocalandgl
obalr
angei
susual
l
ymi
ssi
ng.Di
str
ibut
ionsofMCwoul
dbebest
ev
aluat
edbyr
egul
argr
avi
met
ri
csampl
i
ngort
hroughadj
ust
edTDRappr
oaches.
Foraspeci
fi
clocat
ion,MCcoul
dbef
requent
lymoni
tor
edsi
mpl
ybycal
i
brat
ing
segment
edTDRpr
obese.
g.,
[33]ort
hroughmul
ti
-sensorcapaci
tancepr
obese.
g.,
[
34]
.RootzoneMCest
imat
ionswer
eret
ri
evedv
iasur
facemeasur
ementf
ordr
ied
outsoi
lal
ongwi
thcompl
etel
ygr
ownr
oot
sbyusi
ngal
i
nearr
elat
ionshi
pbet
ween
MC i
nacoupl
eofsoi
llay
ers[
35]
.Thesemet
hodsassi
stef
fect
ivel
yforf
iel
d
por
ti
onorl
ocal
-scal
emoni
tor
ingbutar
en'
tpr
act
icalf
orwat
ershedorr
egi
onal
scal
e.Remot
esensi
ngofMCf
rom sat
ell
i
teshast
hecapaci
tyt
osur
passt
his
i
ssueandof
ferhugespat
ialcov
erageandt
empor
alcont
inui
ty.Wi
thi
nthel
ast30
y
ear
sresear
cher
s hav
e ef
fect
ivel
ypr
oven t
he usage ofpassi
ve mi
crowav
e
r
emot
esensi
ng t
o det
ermi
net
hesur
facewet
ness[
36,37]
.Theset
ypesof
measur
ement
sexpl
ainedsoi
lmoi
stur
ewi
thi
nat
hinsoi
llay
er,nor
mal
l
yupt
oa
dept
hof0.
05m under
neat
hthesoi
lsur
face.Nev
ert
hel
ess,ar
elat
edpr
obl
em,
t
hatobst
ruct
edt
hemeasur
ementofsoi
lmoi
stur
efr
om ai
r/
spaceusi
ngpassi
ve
mi
crowav
emet
hods,i
sit
slow spat
ialandt
empor
alr
esol
uti
ont
hati
snoti
n
conj
unct
ionwi
tht
hescal
eofhy
drol
ogi
cpr
ocessesofi
nter
est
.