C++

C++ (pronounced see plus plus) is a statically typed, free-form, multi-paradigm, compiled, general-

purpose programming language. It is regarded as a "middle-level" language, as it comprises a combination
of both high-level and low-level language features.[2] It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979
at Bell Labs as an enhancement to the C programming language and originally named C with Classes. It
was renamed C++ in 1983.

As one of the most popular programming languages ever created, C++ is widely used in the software
industry. Some of its application domains include systems software, application software, device drivers,
embedded software, high-performance server and client applications, and entertainment software such
as video games. Several groups provide both free and proprietary C++ compiler software, including
the GNU Project, Microsoft, Intel and Borland. C++ has greatly influenced many other popular
programming languages, most notably Java.

C++ is also used for hardware design, where design is initially described in C++, then analyzed,
architecturally constrained, and scheduled to create a register transfer level hardware description
language via high-level synthesis.

The language began as enhancements to C, first adding classes, then virtual functions, operator

overloading, multiple inheritance, templates, and exception handling among other features. After years of
development, the C++ programming language standard was ratified in 1998 asISO/IEC 14882:1998. That
standard is still current, but is amended by the 2003 technical corrigendum, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. The next
standard version (known informally as C++0x) is in development.Bjarne StroustrupBjarne Stroustrup began
work on "C with Classes" in 1979. The idea of creating a new language originated from Stroustrup's
experience in programming for his Ph.D. thesis. Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very
helpful for large software development, but the language was too slow for practical use, while BCPL was
fast but too low-level to be suitable for large software development. When Stroustrup started working
in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing.
Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like
features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable and widely used. Besides C and
Simula, some other languages that inspired him were ALGOL 68, Ada, CLUand ML. At first, the class,
derived class, strong type checking, inlining, and default argument features were added to C via
Stroustrup's C++ to C compiler, Cfront. The first commercial implementation of C++ was released in
October 1985.

In 1983, the name of the language was changed from C with Classes to C++ (++ being the increment
operator in C). New features were added including virtual functions, function name and operator
overloading, references, constants, user-controlled free-store memory control, improved type checking, and
BCPL style single-line comments with two forward slashes (//). In 1985, the first edition of The C++
Programming Language was released, providing an important reference to the language, since there was
not yet an official standard. Release 2.0 of C++ came in 1989.  New features included multiple inheritance,
abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, The
Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for the future standard. Late
addition of features included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type.

As the C++ language evolved, the standard library evolved with it. The first addition to the C++ standard
library was the stream I/O library which provided facilities to replace the traditional C functions such
as printf and scanf. Later, among the most significant additions to the standard library, was the Standard
Template Library.

C++ continues to be used and is one of the preferred programming languages to develop professional
applications. The popularity of the language continues to grow.

Language standard
In 1998, the C++ standards committee (the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 working group) standardized C++
and published the international standard ISO/IEC 14882:1998 (informally known as C++98[). For some
years after the official release of the standard, the committee processed defect reports, and published a
corrected version of the C++ standard, ISO/IEC 14882:2003, in 2003. In 2005, a technical report, called the
"Library Technical Report 1" (often known as TR1 for short), was released. While not an official part of the
standard, it specified a number of extensions to the standard library, which were expected to be included in
the next version of C++. Support for TR1 is growing in almost all currently maintained C++ compilers.

The standard for the next version of the language (known informally as C++0x) is in development.

Etymology
According to Stroustrup: "the name signifies the evolutionary nature of the changes from C". During C++'s
development period, the language had been referred to as "new C", then "C with Classes". The final name
is credited to Rick Mascitti (mid-1983) and was first used in December 1983. When Mascitti was
questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit. It
stems from C's "++" operator (which increments the value of a variable) and a common naming
convention of using "+" to indicate an enhanced computer program. There is no language called "C
plus". ABCL/c+ was the name of an earlier, unrelated programming language.

Philosophy

In The Design and Evolution of C++ (1994), Bjarne Stroustrup describes some rules that he used for the
design of C++.

 C++ is designed to be a statically typed, general-purpose language that is as efficient and portable
as C

 C++ is designed to directly and comprehensively support multiple programming styles (procedural
programming, data abstraction, object-oriented programming, and generic programming)
 C++ is designed to give the programmer choice, even if this makes it possible for the programmer
to choose incorrectly

 C++ is designed to be as compatible with C as possible, therefore providing a smooth transition

from C

 C++ avoids features that are platform specific or not general purpose

 C++ does not incur overhead for features that are not used (the "zero-overhead principle")

 C++ is designed to function without a sophisticated programming environment

Stroustrup also mentions that C++ was always intended to make programming more fun and that many of
the double meanings in the language are intentional.

Inside the C++ Object Model (Lippman, 1996) describes how compilers may convert C++ program
statements into an in-memory layout. Compiler authors are, however, free to implement the standard in
their own manner.

Standard library
The 1998 ANSI/ISO C++ standard consists of two parts: the core language and the C++ Standard Library;
the latter includes most of the Standard Template Library (STL) and a slightly modified version of the C
standard library. Many C++ libraries exist which are not part of the standard, and, using linkage
specification, libraries can even be written in languages such asC, Fortran, Pascal, or BASIC. Which of
these are supported is compiler dependent.

The C++ standard library incorporates the C standard library with some small modifications to make it
optimized with the C++ language. Another large part of the C++ library is based on the STL. This provides
such useful tools as containers (for example vectors and lists), iterators to provide these containers with
array-like access and algorithms to perform operations such as searching and sorting. Furthermore
(multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets are provided, all of which export compatible interfaces.
Therefore it is possible, using templates, to write generic algorithms that work with any container or on any
sequence defined by iterators. As in C, the features of the library are accessed by using
the #includedirective to include a standard header. C++ provides 69 standard headers, of which 19 are

deprecated.

The STL was originally a third-party library from HP and later SGI, before its incorporation into the C++
standard. The standard does not refer to it as "STL", as it is merely a part of the standard library, but many
people still use that term to distinguish it from the rest of the library (input/output streams,
internationalization, diagnostics, the C library subset, etc.).

Most C++ compilers provide an implementation of the C++ standard library, including the STL. Compiler-
independent implementations of the STL, such as STLPort, also exist. Other projects also produce various
custom implementations of the C++ standard library and the STL with various design goals.

Language features
C++ inherits most of C's syntax. The following is Bjarne Stroustrup's version of the Hello world
program which uses the C++ standard library stream facility to write a message tostandard output:

int main()
{
std::cout << "Hello, world!\n";
}

Within functions that define a non-void return type, failure to return a value before control reaches the end
of the function results in undefined behaviour (compilers typically provide the means to issue a diagnostic
in such a case). The sole exception to this rule is the main function, which implicitly returns a value of zero.

Operators and operator overloading

C++ provides more than 30 operators, covering basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, comparisons,
logical operations and others. Almost all operators can be overloaded for user-defined types, with a few
notable exceptions such as member access (. and .*). The rich set of overloadable operators is central to
using C++ as a domain specific language. The overloadable operators are also an essential part of many
advanced C++ programming techniques, such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change
the precedence of calculations involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the
operator uses (any operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to
execution). Overloaded "&&" and "||" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.

Templates
See also:  Template metaprogramming  and  Generic programming

C++ templates enable generic programming. C++ supports both function and class templates. Templates
may be parameterized by types, compile-time constants, and other templates. C++ templates are
implemented by instantiation at compile-time. To instantiate a template, compilers substitute specific
arguments for a template's parameters to generate a concrete function or class instance. Some
substitutions are not possible; these are eliminated by an overload resolution policy described by the
phrase "Substitution failure is not an error" (SFINAE). Templates are a powerful tool that can be used
for generic programming, template metaprogramming, and code optimization, but this power implies a cost.
Template use may increase code size, since each template instantiation produces a copy of the template
code: one for each set of template arguments. This is in contrast to run-time generics seen in other
languages (e.g. Java) where at compile-time the type is erased and a single template body is preserved.

Templates are different from macros: while both of these compile-time language features enable
conditional compilation, templates are not restricted to lexical substitution. Templates are aware of the
semantics and type system of their companion language, as well as all compile-time type definitions, and
can perform high-level operations including programmatic flow control based on evaluation of strictly type-
checked parameters. Macros are capable of conditional control over compilation based on predetermined
criteria, but cannot instantiate new types, recurse, or perform type evaluation and in effect are limited to
pre-compilation text-substitution and text-inclusion/exclusion. In other words, macros can control
compilation flow based on pre-defined symbols but cannot, unlike templates, independently instantiate new
symbols. Templates are a tool for static polymorphism (see below) and generic programming.

In addition, templates are a compile time mechanism in C++ which is Turing-complete, meaning that any
computation expressible by a computer program can be computed, in some form, by a template
metaprogram prior to runtime.

In summary, a template is a compile-time parameterized function or class written without knowledge of the
specific arguments used to instantiate it. After instantiation the resulting code is equivalent to code written
specifically for the passed arguments. In this manner, templates provide a way to decouple generic,
broadly applicable aspects of functions and classes (encoded in templates) from specific aspects (encoded
in template parameters) without sacrificing performance due to abstraction.

Objects
Main article:  C++ classes

C++ introduces object-oriented (OO) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the four features

commonly present in OO (and some non-OO) languages: abstraction, encapsulation,inheritance,
and polymorphism. Objects are instances of classes created at runtime. The class can be thought of as a
template from which many different individual objects may be generated as a program runs.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the hiding of information in order to ensure that data structures and operators are used as
intended and to make the usage model more obvious to the developer. C++ provides the ability to define
classes and functions as its primary encapsulation mechanisms. Within a class, members can be declared
as either public, protected, or private in order to explicitly enforce encapsulation. A public member of the
class is accessible to any function. A private member is accessible only to functions that are members of
that class and to functions and classes explicitly granted access permission by the class ("friends"). A
protected member is accessible to members of classes that inherit from the class in addition to the class
itself and any friends.

The OO principle is that all of the functions (and only the functions) that access the internal representation
of a type should be encapsulated within the type definition. C++ supports this (via member functions and
friend functions), but does not enforce it: the programmer can declare parts or all of the representation of a
type to be public, and is allowed to make public entities that are not part of the representation of the type.
Because of this, C++ supports not just OO programming, but other weaker decomposition paradigms,
like modular programming.

It is generally considered good practice to make all data private or protected, and to make public only those
functions that are part of a minimal interface for users of the class. This hides all the details of data
implementation, allowing the designer to later fundamentally change the implementation without changing
the interface in any way.

Inheritance

Inheritance allows one data type to acquire properties of other data types. Inheritance from a base class
may be declared as public, protected, or private. This access specifier determines whether unrelated and
derived classes can access the inherited public and protected members of the base class. Only public
inheritance corresponds to what is usually meant by "inheritance". The other two forms are much less
frequently used. If the access specifier is omitted, a "class" inherits privately, while a "struct" inherits
publicly. Base classes may be declared as virtual; this is called virtual inheritance. Virtual inheritance
ensures that only one instance of a base class exists in the inheritance graph, avoiding some of the
ambiguity problems of multiple inheritance.

Multiple inheritance is a C++ feature not found in most other languages. Multiple inheritance allows a
class to be derived from more than one base class; this allows for more elaborate inheritance relationships.
For example, a "Flying Cat" class can inherit from both "Cat" and "Flying Mammal". Some other languages,
such as Java or C#, accomplish something similar (although more limited) by allowing inheritance of
multiple interfaces while restricting the number of base classes to one (interfaces, unlike classes, provide
only declarations of member functions, no implementation or member data). An interface as in Java and C#
can be defined in C++ as a class containing only pure virtual functions, often known as an abstract base
class or "ABC". The member functions of such an abstract base classes are normally explicitly defined in
the derived class, not inherited implicitly.

Polymorphism
See also:  Polymorphism in object-oriented programming

Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act differently
under different circumstances.

C++ supports several kinds of static (compile-time) and dynamic (run-time) polymorphisms. Compile-time

polymorphism does not allow for certain run-time decisions, while run-time polymorphism typically incurs a
performance penalty.

Static polymorphism

Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name (but with
different arguments). The functions are distinguished by the number and/or types of their formal
parameters. Thus, the same function name can refer to different functions depending on the context in
which it is used. The type returned by the function is not used to distinguish overloaded functions.

When declaring a function, a programmer can specify default value for one or more parameters. Doing so
allows the parameters with defaults to optionally be omitted when the function is called, in which case the
default arguments will be used. When a function is called with fewer arguments than there are declared
parameters, explicit arguments are matched to parameters in left-to-right order, with any unmatched
parameters at the end of the parameter list being assigned their default arguments. In many cases,
specifying default arguments in a single function declaration is preferable to providing overloaded function
definitions with different numbers of parameters.

Templates in C++ provide a sophisticated mechanism for writing generic, polymorphic code. In particular,
through the Curiously Recurring Template Pattern it's possible to implement a form of static polymorphism
that closely mimics the syntax for overriding virtual functions. Since C++ templates are type-aware
and Turing-complete they can also be used to let the compiler resolve recursive conditionals and generate
substantial programs through template metaprogramming.

Dynamic polymorphism
Inheritance

Variable pointers (and references) to a base class type in C++ can refer to objects of any derived classes
of that type in addition to objects exactly matching the variable type. This allows arrays and other kinds of
containers to hold pointers to objects of differing types. Because assignment of values to variables usually
occurs at run-time, this is necessarily a run-time phenomenon.

C++ also provides a dynamic_cast operator, which allows the program to safely attempt conversion of

an object into an object of a more specific object type (as opposed to conversion to a more general type,
which is always allowed). This feature relies on run-time type information (RTTI). Objects known to be of a
certain specific type can also be cast to that type withstatic_cast, a purely compile-time construct

which is faster and does not require RTTI.

Virtual member functions

Ordinarily when a function in a derived class overrides a function in a base class, the function to call is
determined by the type of the object. A given function is overridden when there exists no difference, in the
number or type of parameters, between two or more definitions of that function. Hence, at compile time it
may not be possible to determine the type of the object and therefore the correct function to call, given only
a base class pointer; the decision is therefore put off until runtime. This is called dynamic dispatch. Virtual
member functions or methods allow the most specific implementation of the function to be called, according
to the actual run-time type of the object. In C++ implementations, this is commonly done usingvirtual
function tables. If the object type is known, this may be bypassed by prepending a fully qualified class
name before the function call, but in general calls to virtual functions are resolved at run time.

In addition to standard member functions, operator overloads and destructors can be virtual. A general rule
of thumb is that if any functions in the class are virtual, the destructor should be as well. As the type of an
object at its creation is known at compile time, constructors, and by extension copy constructors, cannot be
virtual. Nonetheless a situation may arise where a copy of an object needs to be created when a pointer to
a derived object is passed as a pointer to a base object. In such a case a common solution is to create
a clone() (or similar) function and declare that as virtual. The clone() method creates and returns a

copy of the derived class when called.

A member function can also be made "pure virtual" by appending it with = 0 after the closing parenthesis

and before the semicolon. Objects cannot be created of a class with a pure virtual function and are called
abstract data types. Such abstract data types can only be derived from. Any derived class inherits the
virtual function as pure and must provide a non-pure definition of it (and all other pure virtual functions)
before objects of the derived class can be created. A program that attempts to create an object of a class
with a pure virtual member function or inherited pure virtual member function is ill-formed.

Parsing and processing C++ source code

It is relatively difficult to write a good C++ parser with classic parsing algorithms such as LALR(1). This is
partly because the C++ grammar is not LALR. Because of this, there are very few tools for analyzing or
performing non-trivial transformations (e.g., refactoring) of existing code. One way to handle this difficulty is
to choose a different syntax, such asSignificantly Prettier and Easier C++ Syntax, which is LALR(1)
parsable. More powerful parsers, such as GLR parsers, can be substantially simpler (though slower).

Parsing (in the literal sense of producing a syntax tree) is not the most difficult problem in building a C++
processing tool. Such tools must also have the same understanding of the meaning of the identifiers in the
program as a compiler might have. Practical systems for processing C++ must then not only parse the
source text, but be able to resolve for each identifier precisely which definition applies (e.g. they must
correctly handle C++'s complex scoping rules) and what its type is, as well as the types of larger
expressions.

Finally, a practical C++ processing tool must be able to handle the variety of C++ dialects used in practice
(such as that supported by the GNU Compiler Collection and that of Microsoft's Visual C++) and implement
appropriate analyzers, source code transformers, and regenerate source text. Combining advanced
parsing algorithms such as GLR with symbol table construction and program transformation machinery can
enable the construction of arbitrary C++ tools.

Compatibility

Producing a reasonably standards-compliant C++ compiler has proven to be a difficult task for compiler
vendors in general. For many years, different C++ compilers implemented the C++ language to different
levels of compliance to the standard, and their implementations varied widely in some areas such as partial
template specialization. Recent releases of most popular C++ compilers support almost all of the C++ 1998
standard.

In order to give compiler vendors greater freedom, the C++ standards committee decided not to dictate the
implementation of name mangling, exception handling, and other implementation-specific features. The
downside of this decision is that object code produced by different compilers is expected to be
incompatible. There are, however, third party standards for particular machines or operating systems which
attempt to standardize compilers on those platforms (for example C++ ABI); some compilers adopt a
secondary standard for these items.

With C
For more details on this topic, see  Compatibility of C and C++.

C++ is often considered to be a superset of C, but this is not strictly true. Most C code can easily be made
to compile correctly in C++, but there are a few differences that cause some valid C code to be invalid in
C++, or to behave differently in C++.

One commonly encountered difference is that C allows implicit conversion from void* to other pointer

types, but C++ does not. Another common portability issue is that C++ defines many new keywords, such
as new and class, that may be used as identifiers (e.g. variable names) in a C program.

Some incompatibilities have been removed by the latest (C99) C standard, which now supports C++
features such as // comments and mixed declarations and code. On the other hand, C99 introduced a

number of new features that C++ does not support, such as variable-length arrays, native complex-number
types, designated initializers and compound literals. However, at least some of the new C99 features will
likely be included in the next version of the C++ standard, C++0x.

In order to intermix C and C++ code, any function declaration or definition that is to be called from/used
both in C and C++ must be declared with C linkage by placing it within anextern "C"
{/*...*/} block. Such a function may not rely on features depending on name mangling (i.e., function
overloading).

Criticism

Critics of the language raise several points. First, since C++ includes C as a subset, it inherits many of the
criticisms leveled at C. For its large feature set, it is criticized as being over-complicated, and difficult to fully
master. Bjarne Stroustrup points out that resultant executables do not support these claims of bloat: "I have
even seen the C++ version of the 'hello world' program smaller than the C version."  An Embedded C+
+ standard was proposed to deal with part of this, but criticized for leaving out useful parts of the language
that incur no runtime penalty.

Other criticism stems from what is missing from C++. For example, the current version of Standard C++
provides no language features to create multi-threaded software. These facilities are present in some other
languages including Java, Ada, and C# (see also Lock). It is possible to use operating system calls or third
party libraries to do multi-threaded programming, but both approaches may create portability concerns. The
new C++0x standard addresses this matter by extending the language with threading facilities.

C++ is also sometimes compared unfavorably with languages such as Smalltalk, Java, or Eiffel on the
basis that it enables programmers to "mix and match" object-orientedprogramming, procedural
programming, generic programming, functional programming, declarative programming, and others, rather
than strictly enforcing a single style,  although C++ is intentionally a multi-paradigm language.
A fraudulent article was written wherein Bjarne Stroustrup is supposedly interviewed for a 1998 issue of
IEEE's 'Computer' magazine. In this article, the interviewer expects to discuss the successes of C++ now
that several years had passed after its introduction. Instead, Stroustrup proceeds to confess that his
invention of C++ was intended to create the most complex and difficult language possible to weed out
amateur programmers and raise the salaries of the few programmers who could master the language. The
article contains various criticisms of C++'s complexity and poor usability, most false or exaggerated. In
reality, Stroustrup wrote no such article, and due to the pervasiveness of the hoax, was compelled to
publish an official denial on his website.

C++ is commonly criticized for lacking built in garbage collection. On his website, Stroustrup explains that
automated memory management is routinely implemented directly in C++, without need for a built-in
collector, using "smart pointer" classes. Garbage collection not based on reference counting is possible in
C++ through external libraries.