Reeds Skippers Handbook

00Prelims Skippers hdbk:00Prelims Skippers hdbk 31/1/10 13:50 Pag
REEDS
SKIPPER’S
HANDBOOK
FOR SAIL AND POWER
Sixth edition
MALCOLM PEARSON
RYA Yachtmaster Instructor
ADLARD COLES NAUTICAL

LONDON
Dedicated to Jack – my evening star.
May he never lose his way.
And Major – safe in harbour now.
Published by Adlard Coles Nautical

an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP
www.adlardcoles.com
Copyright © Malcolm Pearson, 1993, 1995, 2000, 2004, 2007
First edition published by Thomas Reed Publications 1993

Second edition 1995
Revised 1998
Third edition 2000
Reprinted 2002
Fourth edition published by Adlard Coles Nautical 2004
Fifth edition 2007
Sixth edition 2010
Print ISBN 978-1-4081-2477-2

ePub ISBN 978-1-4081-5629-2
ePDF ISBN 978-1-4081-0772-0
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced in any form or by any means – graphic,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping or information storage and retrieval systems – without
the prior permission of the Publishers.
Malcolm Pearson has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act, 1988 to be identified as the author of this work.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Note: While all reasonable care has been taken in the

preparation of this publication, the author and publisher accept
no responsibility for any errors or omissions or consequences ensuing upon the use
of the methods, information or products described in the book.
Original drawings by Sherrie Pearson;

Illustrations by Barbara McGavin and Dave Saunders
CONTENTS
Introduction 1 Taking fixes 53
Using transits 54
Acknowledgements 1 Running fixes 56
Position and distance 2 Electronic navigation 58
Latitude and longitude 2 Using GPS 58
Mercator charts 4 Electronic chart systems 67
Great circles and gnomonic
charts 5
AIS radar 68
The Automatic Identification
Measuring distance 6
System 68
Plotting position 8
Chart symbols 11 Tidal curves 70
Chart correction 12 Standard ports 70
Secondary ports 72
Direction and compass 14
Rule of Twelfths 77
Variation 14
Anomalies – South coast 78
Deviation 15
Checking the compass 16 Finding depths 80
Compass conversion 18 Reduction to soundings 80
Finding depth to anchor 82
Leeway 20 Anchoring – depth by echo
Cause of leeway 20
sounder 84
Allowing for leeway 22
Depth and clearance
Tides and tidal streams 24 below the keel 85
Tides 24 Distance off 91
Tidal patterns 25 MHWS/Distance off 91
Tidal streams 27 Rising or dipping lights 92
Tidal definitions 28
Effect of tidal streams 30 The sextant 94
Tidal stream information 32 Index error 94
Tidal streams – interpolation 34 Distance off 95
Coastal tidal streams 36 Vertical sextant angle 96
Course to steer 38 Clearance under bridges 98

Course to steer – Charted clearance 98
short period 38 MHWS 100
longer passages 40 Rules of the Road 101
Sailing to windward 44 Steering and sailing rules 101
ETA 47 Lights and daymarks 106
Sound signals 115
Position 48
EP – Estimated position 48 Buoyage 117
DR – EP 50 Buoys and marks 117
Fixing position 51 Light characteristics 120
SOLAS 121 Sails and wind 168

SOLAS regulations 121 How sails work 168
Passage planning 122 The ‘slot’ effect 169
Apparent wind 170
Safety and distress 123
Points of sailing 172
Distress flares 123
GMDSS/EPIRB 124 Knots, bends and
VHF distress signals 125 hitches 174
Personal safety 126 Knots 174
Helicopter rescue 127 Knots and hitches 175
Life saving signals 128 Hitches 176
Man overboard 130 Bends 177
MOB Cleating sheets and halyards 179
– sailing boat without Rope – characteristics and uses 180
engine 132
– sailing boat using engine 133 Inland waterways 181
– motor cruisers 134 Licences/Equipment 181
Buoyage and traffic lights 182
Communications 135 Rules of the Road 183
Phonetic alphabet/Morse code 135 Locks 184
Flags 136 Signals and signs 187
Weather 138 European Inland
Weather patterns 138 waterways 188
Wind belts 139 CEVNI 188
Anticyclones and depressions 140
Fronts 141 Log check 196
Depressions 142 Measured distance 196
Weather maps 143 Checking speed and distance 197
Local winds 146 Facts and figures 198
Katabatic winds/fog 147 Times, speed, distance/ETA/ Tidal
Beaufort scale 148 stream 198
Shipping forecasts 149 Distance off/Conversions/Sun
Other weather forecasts 151 movement 199
Anchoring and mooring 152 Distance off 200
Anchors 152 Range of lights 201
Anchoring 155 Index 202
Mooring alongside 160
Leaving a berth 166 International Port Traffic
Signals inside back cover
iv
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
First published in 1993, Reeds Skipper’s Handbook soon

became a nautical best seller. It is now sold worldwide
and appears in several foreign language editions. This
6th edition has been revised and updated to include
useful extra information on tides, chart plotting, boat
handling and knots plus a new section on sails and wind.
GPS and electronic chart plotters have significantly
affected the way we navigate and made it possible for us
to fix our position with greater accuracy than ever
before. As a consequence, though, there is a danger that
some skippers might become so reliant on their ‘elec-
tronics’ that they forget how to navigate effectively with-
out them. Of course, the electronic device that is
guaranteed never to malfuntion has yet to be invented
so it is unwise to neglect the traditional skills that will get
you home safely if your GPS fails. Reeds Skipper’s Hand-
book is designed to explain the basics of ‘traditional navi-
gation’ and seamanship in simple terms, and solutions to
most of the problems that are likely to occur during a
coastal passage can be quickly found within its pages.
Malcolm Pearson
Acknowledgements
In recognition of the leading part played by the RYA in the pro-
motion of safe practice for recreational boaters, it should be
noted that many of the techniques explained in this book
emanate from the RYA and are those routinely taught by RYA
trained instructors to students enrolled on their navigation and
seamanship courses.
The figures on pages 11, 33, 34, 35, 71, 76, 79 and 83 are
based upon or are reproduced from Admiralty Charts or publi-
cations with permission from The Controller of Her Majesty’s
Stationery Office and the UK Hydrographic Office.
The Life Saving Signals on pages 128–9 are based upon
material issued by the MCA and are reproduced with their kind
permission.
Thanks to Practical Boat Owner for permission to reproduce
material previously published in that magazine.
Finally, my special thanks to my wife Sherrie without whose
help and artistic ability this book would not have been published.
NOTE: Every effort has been made to find the copyright holders
of any material used in this book that is not the author’s own.
1
01aSkippers handbook:01Skippers handbook 31/1/10 14:14 Page 2
POSITION AND DISTANCE Latitude and longitude
Latitude and longitude

The network of imaginary lines seen on a globe of the
world is used to define position on its surface. The hori-
zontal lines are parallels of latitude and the vertical lines
that converge at the poles are meridians of longitude
(Fig 1).
Latitude is measured vertically along a meridian from
0° to 90° either north or south of the Equator (Fig 2).
Longitude is measured horizontally round the
equator from 0° to 180° either east or west of the
Greenwich Meridian (Fig 3).
Lines of latitude and longitude form complete circles

around the globe. There are 360° in a circle and each
degree can be divided into 60 minutes.
Using these co-ordinates, any place on Earth can be
precisely defined as a position of latitude and
longitude.
Traditionally, latitude is always given first followed by
longitude and in coastal navigation, position is
usually defined to the nearest minute, or if greater
accuracy is required, tenths of a minute can also be
quoted, ie:
Bishop Rock 49° 52´.3N 006° 26´.7W
Mercator projection
To portray the global Earth on a flat chart a projection
called Mercator is generally used. As with a globe,
charts are also overprinted with a lattice of latitude and
longitude but on a Mercator chart, the meridians are
drawn parallel to each other. Doing this distorts the
landmasses in an east-west direction so to preserve the
shape of the land, the north-south distance between
successive parallels of latitude is progressively
increased in proportion toward each pole.
2
POSITION AND DISTANCE

Latitude and longitude
Fig 1 N
Meridians west
of Greenwich Parallels North
Meridian
EQUATOR EQUATOR
Meridians East
of Greenwich
Parallels South Meridian
Greenwich (Prime)
S Meridian
90°N
North Pole Northern Latitudes
Fig 2 0° to 90°N
30°N
EQUATOR 0° EQUATOR 0°
30°S
Southern Latitudes
0° to 90°S South Pole
90°S
North Pole
Fig 3
Longitude 135°W 135°E Longitude

0° to 180°West 90°W 90°E 0° to 180°East
45°W 45°E
Greenwich
(Prime)
Meridian
South Pole
3
POSTION AND DISTANCE Mercator charts
Mercator charts and rhumb Lines

The real value of Mercator’s projection is that although
the scale of the landmasses is distorted, direction is
unaffected. This means that a straight line drawn
between any two positions on a Mercator chart will
cross every meridian at the same angle, so the navi-
gator has only to measure that angle to obtain the true
course to follow from one position to the other (Fig 4).
A line that crosses all meridians at the same angle is
called a rhumb line.
N B
50° Boat’s course

50°T
50°
50°
Fig 4
The rhumb line course between two points is not,
however, the shortest distance between them, this is
only given by a Great Circle route, but for coastal and
offshore passages of less than five or six hundred miles
in low or middle latitudes, the difference is negligible
and can be safely disregarded.
4

Great circles and gnomonic charts
A Great Circle is the largest circle that can be drawn

on the surface of the Earth, and the shortest distance
between any two points on the surface lies along the
arc of a Great Circle that passes through them both.
A Gnomonic chart portrays meridians as straight lines
that converge toward the nearest pole. Parallels, other
than the Equator, appear as curves.
Gnomonic charts are commonly used to plan long
ocean voyages because a Great Circle route can be
drawn on a chart as a straight line between the depar-
ture point and the intended destination (Fig 5).
Fig 5
However, unless a boat sailing a Great Circle route is
sailing directly along a meridian or round the Equator,
it would cross each meridian at a different angle and its
heading would have to be altered frequently to main-
tain a perfect Great Circle course. A more practical way
of steering this course is to transfer a series of co-ordi-
nates taken along the Great Circle track to a Mercator
chart and link them to form a series of rhumb lines that
closely mimic the Great Circle route (Fig 6).
Fig 6
5
POSITION AND DISTANCE Measuring distance
Nautical miles
Distance at sea is measured in nautical miles, a unit
based on the length of an arc that would be formed on
the Earth’s surface by an angle of one minute at the
Earth’s centre. The arc is measured along a meridian
and therefore, one nautical mile is equivalent to one
minute of latitude (Fig 7).
N
20° = 1200 NM
▼
1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical

Fig 7 S mile
1 degree (60 min) = 60nm
10 degrees = 600nm
20 degrees = 1200nm
Because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, however, the

length of one minute of latitude varies slightly, being
shorter at the Equator than at the Poles and so, with
international agreement, the average distance of 1852
metres (6076 feet) has been adopted as the standard
length of one nautical mile.
One degree of longitude varies from roughly 60nm
at the Equator to nil at the Poles.
The nautical mile is divisible into ten ‘cables’ – usually
written as a decimal eg:
5 miles and 6 cables – 5.6 miles.
The nautical unit of speed is the ‘knot’, which is
6 equivalent to one nautical mile per hour.

Measuring distance
5'
Fig 8
‘
Latitude
and
distance
‘
‘
Distance
1.5 NM
49°
‘
‘
1 min = 1 NM
Lat
‘
10' ‘Longitude only‘
The latitude scale at the sides of a Mercator chart,

where one minute of latitude is equivalent to one
nautical mile, can be used to measure distance on the
chart – in any direction. Because the latititude scale
gradually changes as latitude increases (see page 2),
you should only use that part of the scale adjacent to
the section of the chart in use.
Caution. Never measure distance against the longi-
tude scale (see page 6).
Small Medium Large
scale scale scale
Fig 9
When changing
5’ to a different
1’
chart, be aware
that the signifi-
1 mile cance of the
1 mile 1 mile
graduations
51° 51° 51° changes with
the chart’s
natural scale.
7
POSITION AND DISTANCE Plotting position
55' 1° 5'
Required
longitude 5'
‘
Required
latitude
Position:
Lat
Long
51° 02’.0 N
1° 02’.0 E
‘
51°
Fig 10 Position on the Earth’s surface is expressed in

terms of latitude and longitude.
N
MAGNETIC
51°
NORTH
lly
8' annua
asing about E
8) decre
4°05' W(198
Variation
W
TR
Position:
Bearing – 220°T
Distance – 2 miles 55'
from the tower
Fig 11 In coastal navigation, the position of a vessel is

more often identified by its bearing and distance from a
charted place or feature.
8

Plotting position
The Breton plotter

Chart plotters are used to measure angles and plot
bearings on a chart. One of the easiest plotters to use
on a small boat with limited space is the ‘Breton’ which
has only two parts: a transparent rectangular base plate
surmounted with a freely rotating circular protractor
(Fig 12).
340∞
350∞ 10∞
20∞
B
30∞
330∞
0∞
40
∞
32
0∞
50
31
∞
300∞
60
∞
260∞ 270∞ 280∞ 290∞
70∞
80∞ 90∞ 100∞ 110∞
20
10
250∞
0
120∞
240∞
13
0∞
10
0∞
23
14
0∞ 0∞
22 150∞ 20
160∞ 210∞
170∞ 180∞ 190∞ 200∞
Fig 12
To use this plotter to measure the bearing of one

known mark from another, align one edge, or the
centreline of the base plate with both marks A and B as
shown above. Then while holding this alignment firmly,
turn the protractor until its grid is aligned (north to the
top of the chart) with either a meridian or a parallel.
Read the bearing on the protractor against the centre-
line of the base plate – making an allowance for
magnetic variation if necessary.
9
POSITION AND DISTANCE Plotting position
To draw a course line, or tidal stream vector, on the

chart, set the protractor to the required course or tidal
stream direction. Keep the protractor setting fixed and
place one edge of the base plate on either a known
position or the very end of a previously drawn course
line or vector C. Finally, rotate the whole plotter until the
protractor grid – (with north pointing to the top of the
chart) comes into line with either a meridian or a paral-
lel and draw the course line or vector as required (Fig 13).
350∞ 10∞
20∞
340∞ 30∞
330∞
0∞
40
∞
32
0∞
50
31
∞
300∞
60
∞
260∞ 270∞ 280∞ 290∞
70∞
20
80∞ 90∞ 100∞ 110∞

10
0
250∞
10
120∞
240∞
13
0∞
20
0∞
23
14
0∞ 0∞
22 150∞
160∞ 210∞
170∞ 180∞ 190∞ 200∞
Fig 13
Note
The arrow on the base plate should point in the
direction you are either looking or steering.
10

Chart symbols
Reading the chart

On nautical charts, symbols and abbreviations are used
to convey a mass of navigational information to the
mariner. Each symbol has only one meaning, but it is
vital that these ‘coded messages’ are correctly inter-
preted as many of them warn of specific dangers to
navigation such as these:
Overfalls, tide rips, races
Eddies
Obstruction or danger, exact nature not

Obstn Obstn specified or determined, depth unknown
Obstn Obstruction, depth known
Obstruction which has been swept by

Obstn
wire to the depth shown
Breakers
Rock which does not cover, height above

high water
Rock which covers and uncovers, height

above chart datum
Rock awash at the level of chart datum
Underwater rock, depth unknown,

considered dangerous to surface navigation
Wk Wreck showing any part of hull or

superstructure at the level of chart datum
Wreck, depth unknown which is considered

dangerous to surface navigation
Mast Masts Wreck of which the mast(s) only are
Funnel
visible at chart datum
Mast
A complete list of symbols and abbreviations is provided

in the Admiralty publication, Chart 5011. 11
POSITION AND DISTANCE Chart correction
Corrections to charts
Out of date charts are potentially dangerous. Chart
agents will correct them for a small fee, but with care,
you can do the job yourself, using just a fine pen and
the usual chart instruments.
Charts that need updating are listed in Weekly
Notices to Mariners. The notices can be obtained from
any Admiralty chart agent, who will also have copies of
Chart 5011 – Chart Symbols and Abbreviations, which you
may find useful. The notices explain the changes that
need to be made to each affected chart, which, in most
cases, necessitates the insertion, movement or deletion
of a symbol at some specific position on the chart.
Anyone who uses UKHO charts can also keep them up
to date by using the Notices to Mariners Website at
www.nmwebsearch.gov.uk or www.ukho.gov.uk and
you can also find instructions on how to update your
charts on the RYA website at www.rya.org.uk.
When making a correction, ensure that it is being
made in the right place – mistakes can have serious
consequences – and do not use black ink to make a
correction as it may not be immediately obvious to the
chart user. By convention, magenta ink should be used,
but in practice any waterproof red ink will do. Where
possible, a new symbol should be inserted directly
onto the given position, but if the area is too cluttered,
‘arrow’ the new symbol in from a nearby clear space to
a position dot (Fig 14).
Y
(May–Sept)
Sandy shoal
Fig 14
12

Chart correction
Never insert new symbols on top of existing ones

(Fig 16). It may be possible to cover a symbol that is to
be replaced by using a Tippex pen before inserting the
new feature, but it is more usual to delete a symbol by
drawing two straight lines through it and arrowing the
replacement in to a position dot (Fig 15).
VQ(3)5s
BYB BYB
Incorrect Correct
Fig 16 Fig 15
Short distance movement of buoys etc can be shown by
arrowing them to the new position, otherwise delete
them and re-insert them in the new position (Fig 17).
BRB
Y
BRB
Fig 17
Major or complicated amendments are sometimes

effected by using ‘block’ corrections. These are sections
of the chart reprinted in the Notice, which must be cut
out and carefully pasted into place on the chart using an
adhesive such as Pritt Stick. After correcting your chart,
make a note of the year and Notice number in the bot-
tom left margin and check that the current correction is
sequential to the last correction listed in the Notice.
Notices to Mariners are intended for correction to
Admiralty charts but the information is also valid for
Stanfords and Imray charts – and pilot books of course. 13
DIRECTION AND COMPASS Variation
Applying variation
Direction on Earth is measured clockwise from north
using 360° notation. Charts are oriented to true north
but the magnetic compass used to determine
direction at sea points to magnetic north. The angular
difference between the direction of true and magnetic
north from any given position is called variation and
may be either easterly or westerly depending upon the
vessel’s geographic position (Fig 1).
True north Magnetic north
Var Var
Compass Compass ➔
➔
variation variation
‘east’ ‘west’
Fig 1 A magnetic compass points towards magnetic

north not true north. Variation is the angular difference
between them.
Variation not only differs from place to place but also

from year to year. Local variation at the date a chart is
published, together with the annual rate of change is
printed on the magnetic north arrow of the compass
rose, ie 4° 30´ W 2004 (9´ E).
This tells you that magnetic variation is 4° 30´ W in
the year 2004 and the annual change is 9´ E (decreas-
ing) which means that if this chart is used in the year
2008, local variation then will be 3° 54’ W – or more
properly 4° 00’ W, since it is usual to express variation to
the nearest full degree.
14
DIRECTION AND COMPASS

Deviation
Applying deviation
The magnetic compass can be affected by nearby elec-
trical equipment or ferrous masses that deflect the
compass card away from magnetic north. This effect is
called deviation and may be easterly or westerly
depending upon the vessel’s heading.
Magnetic
north
‘
‘
‘
Deviation west Deviation east

on this heading on this heading
No deviation
on this heading
Fig 2 The mass of this boat’s engine is influencing the

compass card. Each time the course is altered, the relative
positions of the engine and the compass change and so
does the value of deviation on that heading.
The difference between a compass course or

bearing and a true course or bearing is the sum of
variation and deviation.
The navigator must convert the course he has
steered by compass into a true course in order to
plot it on the chart and conversely, he must convert
a true course measured on the chart into a course
he can steer by compass (see pages 18 and 19).
15
DIRECTION AND COMPASS Checking the compass
Compass siting and checking

Compass deviation is not a problem provided that the
error for each heading is known and is allowed for.
Steering compasses should be positioned where
they can easily be seen by the helmsman, but as far away
as possible from the influence of ferrous masses and
electrical equipment. After siting, every steering com-
pass should be checked by a qualified compass adjuster
who will adjust it and then prepare a deviation card for
any residual error. A typical card (Fig 3) shows the devia-
tion for each of 16 headings around the compass.
West COMPASS DEVIATION CARD East
8° 6° 4° 2° 0° 2° 4° 6° 8°
000° 000°M
Ship’s head steering compass
Equivalent magnetic heading

045° 041°M
090° 084°M
135° 131°M
180° 181°M
225° 229°M
270° 275°M
315° 319°M
360° 360°M
Fig 3
Note
Deviation is measured for a given boat’s heading –
not for a magnetic course. Each deviation value has
been applied to the boat’s heading by compass to
give the equivalent magnetic heading (see pages 18
and 19).
16

Checking the compass
It is utterly reckless to rely upon an uncorrected com-

pass, so if for any reason its deviation is doubtful or
unknown, you should run your own check on it.
A rough but reliable guide to the deviation on a
single course can be obtained if you stand in the stern
– well away from any magnetic influences – and sight
through the mast and bow with a hand bearing com-
pass (Fig 4). Compare the reading obtained with that
shown by the steering compass and any difference will
be the deviation on that heading.
229
Hand bearing compass

reads 229°
W
S
N
E
Steering compass Therefore deviation

reads 225° is 4° east
Fig 4
If the steering compass reads higher than the hand

bearing compass, deviation is westerly.
If the steering compass reads lower than the hand
bearing compass, deviation is easterly.
By repeating this procedure for each of the
headings shown on the card in Fig 3, you can
produce your own deviation card for the steering
compass in use. 17
DIRECTION AND COMPASS Compass conversion
True bearing to compass bearing

To convert a TRUE course into a COMPASS course apply
correction for variation and deviation in the sequence
shown.
If the error is:

West – add the angle
East – subtract the angle
True° Var Mag° Dev Comp°

W+
E–
ORDER OF WORK
1 Apply variation to the true course to obtain the

magnetic course.
2 Apply deviation to the magnetic course to obtain

the compass course.
The appropriate variation is obtained from the chart in

use.
Deviation is taken from the deviation card belong-
ing to the steering compass being used (see pages 15
and 16).
18

Compass conversion
Compass bearing to true bearing

To convert a COMPASS course into a TRUE course apply
correction for deviation and variation in the sequence
shown.
If the error is:

East – add the angle
West – subtract the angle
Comp° Dev Mag° Var True°

E+
W–
ORDER OF WORK
1 Apply deviation to the compass course to obtain the

magnetic course.
2 Apply variation to the magnetic course to obtain the

true course.
Remember – hand bearing compasses that are used in

locations away from ferrous metal and electrical fields
are deemed to be free of deviation and therefore bear-
ings taken with them are ‘magnetic’ and only need to
be corrected for variation to convert them to true.
Top tip
The word ‘CADET’ can be a useful reminder that to
go from Compass to True you need to Add Easterly
variation and deviation ie:
C° AD E T°
19
LEEWAY Cause of leeway
What is leeway?
Leeway is the angle between the direction of the boat’s
heading and the direction in which she is actually
moving through the water as a result of being blown
sideways (off course) by the wind.
The amount of leeway experienced depends largely
upon the strength of the wind and the speed at which
the boat is moving. It varies from boat to boat depend-
ing upon the hull design, draught, ‘windage’ of the
superstructure or rigging, and, not least, upon the ‘point
of sailing’. Leeway is usually at its greatest when sailing
close hauled – particularly if the helmsman is ‘pinching’,
which causes excessive heeling and a reduction in the
lateral resistance of the keel; it is at its least when run-
ning downwind or motoring head-to-wind.
Motor cruisers that have high topsides will often
make more leeway than a sailing yacht because they
lack the benefit of a deep keel to increase their lateral
resistance.
In Fig 1, A–B is the boat’s course (the direction in
which she is pointing). If no other influence affects that
course she will eventually arrive at B but, with wind on
the port beam, say, the boat will be blown to leeward
(downwind) of the course being steered and will in fact
move along line A–D although at all times her heading
has remained parallel to A–B. The line A–D is therefore
the boat’s track through the water and the angle that
A–D makes with A–B is the ‘leeway angle’, for which an
allowance must be made if serious errors in estimated
position or shaping a course to steer is to be avoided.
With wind on the starboard beam, leeway would be
in the opposite direction of course and the boat’s track
would then be along line A–C.
20
LEEWAY
Cause of leeway
Wind from port side:

Water track is greater than the heading
Wind C 085°
A Heading B 090°
Wind D 095°
Wind from starboard side:

Water track is less than the heading
Fig 1
21
LEEWAY Allowing for leeway
Before you can make an allowance for leeway, its

magnitude must first be measured or estimated but,
because boats and conditions vary so widely, there are
no sophisticated ways of doing this and the various
methods that are employed are all little more than
guesswork. In general though, it is reasonable to
assume that the average sailboat will make between 3
and 5 degrees leeway in a 7-knot breeze and 5 to 8
degrees in a strong 20-knot wind.
Wind ke
Wa
Leeway
Heading
k
trac
ter
Wa
Fig 2
It is often possible to estimate leeway by using buoys

or shore marks when there is little or no tidal stream,
but perhaps the simplest method is to look aft and esti-
mate the angle between the boat’s fore and aft line
and its wake (Fig 2).
Unfortunately, whilst this method produces quite
reasonable results, just when leeway is likely to be at its
maximum – when sailing close hauled in a lumpy sea
for instance – the wake is not always very clear, and so
at times like this or whenever there is doubt, always try
to be upwind (and uptide) of your destination,
especially when approaching the coast at right angles.
22
LEEWAY
Allowing for leeway
Having estimated the boat’s leeway by whatever

means, due allowance can now be made by either
adding or subtracting the appropriate leeway angle to
or from the boat’s heading before you draw the course
on the chart, ie:
When converting a TRUE course taken from the chart

into a course to steer by compass, make an allowance for
leeway that is anticipated by applying the appropriate
angle to WINDWARD of the TRUE course as follows:
Wind from port – subtract the angle

Wind from starboard – add the angle
(See Course to steer page 39.)
When converting a course that has been steered by

compass into a TRUE course to be plotted onto the
chart, make an allowance for leeway which is estimated
to have occurred by applying the appropriate angle to
LEEWARD (downwind) of the TRUE course steered as
follows:
Wind from port – add the angle

Wind from starboard – subtract the angle.
(See Estimating position page 48.)
Top tip
An arrow drawn on the chart to indicate wind direc-
tion will help you to visualise the wind relative to the
boat’s heading and ensure that any allowance for
leeway is applied in the right direction.
23
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Tides
‘Tides’ are the vertical rise and fall of the sea’s surface
caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon.
When the Sun and Moon are in line with the Earth, their
combined influence creates very high and very low
waters known as spring tides, but when the Sun and
Moon are at right angles to the Earth, their effect is much
less and so more moderate neap tides occur (Fig 1).
NP
Sun SP Earth SP
NP
High water
7
High water
6
5
SPRING TIDE 4 NEAP TIDE
3 Low water
2
Low water 1
Fig 1
Spring tides occur about every 14 days at the time of
full and new Moons. Neap tides occur during the alter-
nate weeks when the Moon is in its first or third quarter
(Fig 2).
Waning Waxing
Third Full First New

quarter moon quarter moon
24 Fig 2
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS

Tidal patterns
The rise and fall of sea level is caused by the gravi-

tational forces of the moon and the sun but they only
become noticeable in shallower inshore waters. Many
factors such as the depth of the water, or the size and
shape of the coast affect the tide, and no two places
have exactly the same tidal pattern. Some places such
as the Severn estuary (Britain), Darwin (Australia) and
the Bay of Fundy (Canada) have exceptionally high
tides, while others like the Baltic and Mediterranean
seas have little or no tide at all.
Around the British Isles, north western Europe and
most of the east coast of North America, tides are semi-
diurnal (twice daily), having two high tides of more or
less the same height and two low tides also of roughly
equal heights with an interval of approximately 12
hours 25 minutes between successive high waters
(Fig 3).
24 hrs
HW HW
LW LW
Chart datum
Fig 3 Semi-diurnal tide.
25
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Tidal patterns
Tides around Australia, the Pacific in general, and along

the northern Gulf of Mexico are mostly diurnal (once
daily) and have only one high and one low water each
tidal day. The height of successive high or low waters
does not vary greatly (Fig 4).
24 hrs
HW
LW
Chart datum
Fig 4 Diurnal tide.

The Pacific coast of North America experiences tides
known as mixed tides. These have two high and two low
waters each day but, unlike other semi-diurnal tides,
the first and second tides of each day vary considerably
in height (Fig 5).
24 hrs
HHW
LHW
HLW
LLW
Chart datum
Fig 5 Mixed tide.

26

Tidal streams
Height of tide Times and heights of all high and low

waters for each day of the year are given in tide tables
and nautical almanacs together with instructions for
calculating the height of tide at any given time
between high and low water.
Tidal streams are the horizontal movement of the
water caused by the rise and fall of the tide. Spring tides
create strong streams, and neap tides relatively weaker
ones. The direction and strength of tidal stream in an
area is shown on charts and in tidal atlases and is
directly related to the time of high water and the
range of tide at a specific standard port. The range of
tide is the vertical difference in height between suc-
cessive low and high waters (see Fig 6 and page 28).
Fig 6
Flood tide Ebb tide

(High water) (Low water)
The incoming tide is called the flood and the outgoing

tide, the ebb which, in most locations, is stronger and
lasts longer than the flood.
At high and low tide, the water stops rising or falling
for a short period of time known as the ‘stand of the
tide’.
The ‘interval’ between successive high waters
around the British Isles is approximately 12 hr 25 min.
27
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Definition of tidal levels
The level of the sea is constantly changing as the tide

rises and falls and so, on a chart, depths of water and
drying heights are measured from a common state of
the tide known as the Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT).
This is the lowest level to which the tide is expected to
fall due to any combination of astronomical conditions
and is the chart datum.
Chart datum The level to which soundings and drying
heights are referred on the chart and the level above
which height of tide is measured.
Charted sounding The depth to the sea bed below
the level of chart datum. Shown on the chart by figures
in metres and tenths of metres, eg 65
Drying height The height above chart datum of a fea-
ture that is periodically covered and uncovered by the
tide shown on the chart by underlined figures in metres
and tenths of metres, eg 24
Height of tide The vertical distance between chart
datum and the sea level at any given time.
Mean High Water Springs (MHWS) and Mean Low
Water Springs (MLWS) The average height of high
and low water at spring tides.
Mean High Water Neaps (MHWN) and Mean Low
Water Neaps (MLWN) The average height of high and
low water at neap tides.
MHWS is the level from which the elevation of a charted
terrestrial object is measured.
Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) The highest sea
level likely to occur due to any combination of meteor-
ological or astronomical conditions. In areas with an
appreciable tidal range, vertical clearance under
bridges, overhead pipes and cables is measured above
the level of HAT. Elsewhere, tidal range clearance will
continue to be measured above MHWS or MHW levels.
28 (See note below chart title for relevant clearance datum.)
(Focal plane)
Charted elevation
HAT* Charted overhead clearance of light
(Bridges – Pipes – Cables)
MHWS* *See chart for relevant clearance datum MHWS
MHWN
Height of tide
Neap Spring
Tidal heights and chart datum
range range
MLWN
Drying
height MLWS
01aSkippers handbook:01Skippers handbook
Chart datum Chart Datum

(LAT)
Sounding
Tidal definitions
31/1/10
29
14:14
Page 29
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Effect of tidal streams
All vessels afloat in tidal waters are affected by tidal

streams – the horizontal movement of the sea caused
by the rise and fall of the tide. The direction in which
the stream is moving is called the set; the speed at
which it moves is the rate; and the distance the stream
(and everything afloat in it) travels in a given time is
called the drift, for example:
SET 090°, RATE 2 knots = an eastward DRIFT of 2 nautical

miles in one hour (Fig 7).
Set
1030
e
Rat
t
Drif
0930
Fig 7
The set of the tidal stream relative to the boat’s

heading may assist progress (Fig 8) or hinder it (Fig 9)
but it may also push you off course (Fig 10); in which
case you will have to compensate for ‘lateral drift’ by
steering up into the stream slightly and ‘crabbing’ along
the desired course. The precise angle at which you
need to steer the boat is determined by the speed of
the boat through the water and by the rate and set of
the tidal stream (see Course to steer page 39).
30

Effect of tidal streams
Following stream
5kn
2kn
7kn Sea bed
Fig 8 Speed over ground = boat speed plus tidal stream.
Heading stream
5kn
2kn
3kn Sea bed
Fig 9 Speed over ground = boat speed minus tidal stream.
A Heading B
Fig 10 Tidal stream setting vessel off course to

starboard. 31
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Tidal stream information
Sources of information
Information concerning tidal streams can be found on
Admiralty charts and in tidal atlases.
Admiralty charts Positions where tidal streams have
been measured are marked on Admiralty charts by a
letter within a diamond. An associated table shows the
set and the spring and neap rate of the streams at
these positions for each hour before and after HW at
the standard port (Fig 11).
Tidal atlases have a separate page for each hour
before and after HW at a standard port upon which the
set of the tidal stream is depicted by arrows with
figures alongside to indicate the mean rate in tenths of
a knot. The first pair of numbers show the rate at neaps
and the second pair, the rate at springs (Fig 12).
To use either method you must first obtain the time
of HW at the relevant standard port and pencil it in on
chart or atlas together with the times +/– HW as
required. You can then see at a glance what the tide is
doing at any particular time.
Reeds Nautical Almanac and the excellent tidal
atlases produced by the late Michael Reeve-Fowkes
also provide the same information in different forms
and both include full instructions for their use.
Tide tables for specific Standard Ports are pub-
lished annually and show the times and heights of high
and low water on a daily basis throughout the year.
Nautical almanacs comprise a selection of tide
tables for the area covered, together with information
enabling tidal predictions to be made for those smaller
Secondary Ports for which tide tables are not usually
provided (see page 72).
32

Tidal stream information
Fig 11 Tidal stream tables (top) and a chart extract

(below) showing tidal diamond B.
Tidal Streams referred to HW Dover
A 50°42'3N B 50°53'0N C 51°01'0N D 51°09'7N D 51°03'0N
0 26'5E 1 00'6E 1 10'0E 1 27'8E 1 40'0E
Rate (kn) Rate (kn) Rate (kn) Rate (kn) Rate (kn)
Hours Dir Sp Np Dir Sp Np Dir Sp Np Dir Sp Np Dir Sp Np
⎧
6 248 0.8 0.4 211 1.6 0.9 224 0.9 0.5 212 2.2 1.2 220 1.7 0.9
Before HW
5 067 0.5 0.3 211 2.1 1.2 239 1.0 0.6 213 2.2 1.2 220 2.8 1.6
4
3 ⎨ 068
068
1.9 1.0
2.6 1.5
211 1.8 1.1
211 0.9 0.5
235
242
1.1 0.6
0.6 0.4
216 1.9 1.1
228 1.3 0.8
220
220
3.5 2.0
2.8 1.6
2
1
⎩ 068
068
2.3 1.3
1.2 0.6
S l a c k
031 0.8 0.5
S
052
l a c k
0.6 0.3
S l a c k
032 1.2 1.7
220
040
1.2 0.7
0.8 0.4
HW 067 0.1 0.1 031 1.5 0.8 049 1.2 0.7 038 2.0 1.2 040 2.5 0.1
⎧ 12 248 0.9 0.5 031 1.9 1.1 049 1.3 0.7 039 2.3 1.3 040 3.4 1.9
Before HW
247 1.4 0.8 031 1.7 1.0 156 1.0 0.5 034 2.2 1.2 040 2.9 1.6
⎨ 34 247 1.4 1.0 031 1.6 1.0 159 2.3 0.4 034 1.8 1.2 040 2.5 1.4
⎩5 Lydd
CG
6
#1
# 23
Fl Wks
.
& 10 s 37 155
(c F e
21 Tr.
on H . R G c 4
sp or 3 0m
#
ic) n( 7m 2 Wk
11 BL 3)3 11 7M 201
DG 0s M
Tr. S ec 29
RC
35 Dungeness
Wk Ra Qk. Fl R
64 43
L Fl. 10s. 7 Radar Surveillance Stn Bell (2)
ISSh 23 Wk
RW
RW 91 22 152
RYE BAY IS Wks
Stephenson 25 33 B 183 Wks
Shoal 7
76 22 Wks 201 Wk
29 Wk 235 Fl. Y 5s
Whist
CS1
Y
06
.10 Fig 12 Tidal atlas
.17
09
4
.18 08.1
09.16 10
08.15
chartlets.
SLACK
Dungeness Dover
Folkestone .04
6 02
03.0
.12 .05
.08 07 03
04 SLACK
.10
Shoreham
.12
06
8 07
.10
Littlehampton 04.0
06
.13 07.13 09.16 08.15 09.16

SLACK 07
06.10
03.0 07.13
6
0
06.1
13.24
5
08.1
07.13
12.21
08.15
Dungeness
.12
09.16
4
07
Dover
08.1
Folkestone
.19
.12
07
11
08.15
.15
.26
08
1 hour before Shoreham

15
.28
Littlehampton .07
16
.14
04
HW Dover
08
04.07 SLACK .13

07
7
09.1
08.14 01.02
.14
0
08
06.1
6
4 04.0
02.0
.10
6
09.1
06
HW Dover 33
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Tidal streams – interpolation
Interpolation of rate
The rate of tidal streams is assumed to vary with the
range of tide at the standard port. For times between
full springs and neaps you must interpolate between
the rates given in order to plot accurate tidal vectors
when estimating position or finding a course to steer.
This can be done by using the Computation of Rate
Graph supplied with the atlas (Fig 14 opposite), or
arithmetically with the formula:
Range of tide for day

x Spring rate of tidal stream
Spring range of tide
Remember that if your course passes through an area

marked by more than one tidal diamond or falls
between two tidal stream arrows, it is also necessary to
estimate what the rate is likely to be in the area
between these positions (Fig 13).
Wk
23 18 79
53
Fl R 2.5s 31
213
Qk Fl G
Mid Varne
R NE Varne
S T R
Wks G
F
213 The 31
S
Va r n e 3 2 3 23
29 Wk 22 V Qk Fl 53
Colbart N Sh
BY R 28 Wk
GpFl(3)R. 10s PA
54 SE Varne
#
se
R
27 178 8 42 our S. St
50
13 C 55
60
37 35 Wk
27
27
5
16 42
Ridge 6 1900 Gp Occ(3)Y 12s
27
ZC2 G
L 28 44 Y
16
PA
54
bart 23
Fig 13
34
Mean COMPUTATION OF RATES (For times between Springs and Neaps) Mean
Range Range
Dover Dover
METRES METRES
Springs Springs
Instructions:
From the appropriate
chart extract the mean sping
and neap rates for the position
required. From Admiralty Tide Tables
Neaps Vol 1 extract the mean range of the tide
at Dover for the day. With a ruler join the dots
representing the mean spring and neap rates on
the diagram. Where the ruler cuts the horizontal line
representing the mean range for the day at Dover, follow

the vertical line to the top or bottom scale and read off the
predicted rate.
METRES
METRES
Fig 14 An example: Range of tide from tide tables: 4.8m. Spring and neap rates of stream from chart
Tidal streams – interpolation
31/1/10
1.9–0.8kn. Mean rate from graph 1.4kn.
35
14:14
Page 35
TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS Coastal tidal streams
Tidal streams along the coast

In many places around the coasts of Britain and northern
Europe, tidal streams are strong enough to markedly
affect the progress of sailing yachts and displacement
motor cruisers especially when they are going to wind-
ward. It makes sense, therefore, to plan your passage so
as to take advantage of favourable tidal streams and to
minimize the effect of contrary ones, keeping in mind
that close inshore, streams can be quite different to
those predicted for an area in general.
The strength and speed of tidal streams inshore is
determined to a large extent by the geography of the
area. Irregularities of the coastline and obstructions to
the flow caused by ridges or shoals on the sea bed
combine to affect the pattern of behaviour of the
streams and sometimes give rise to races, overfalls, and
tide rips (Fig 15).
Headlands Tidal streams running parallel to the coast
will run more strongly past headlands (A) and less so
within bays into which they have a tendency to set,
sometimes with a ‘counter current’ or back eddy devel-
oping in the tidal lee of the headland (B).
Channels A tidal stream which is obliged to flow
through a narrow channel or converge with a stream
from a different direction may speed up to form a race
against which, passage is virtually impossible, and
during bad weather, these areas are best avoided
altogether (C).
Overfalls A ledge or steep-faced shoal on the sea bed
may deflect a tidal stream upwards causing broken
water or ‘overfalls’ on the surface which, in strong wind-
over-tide situations, can be very dangerous (D).
36

Coastal tidal streams
Streams
B D
Fig 15
Sea state Strong winds and tidal streams can have a

marked effect on the ‘sea state’. When the wind and
tidal stream are in roughly the same direction, waves
will be lower and longer than the wind strength might
suggest but when the stream turns to flow against the
wind direction the waves become higher and steeper
with the likelihood of breaking crests. Fast motorboats
need to slow down in wind over tide conditions and so
it might be worthwhile to plan a passage against both
wind and tide to take advantage of higher speeds that
are possible in relatively smoother seas.
37
COURSE TO STEER Course to steer – short period
1 On the chart (Fig 1), plot the required ground track

from start to finish: A–B.
2 From the starting point, plot the set of the tidal
stream that will affect the boat’s course, using units
of length equal to its rate in knots: A–C.
3 With dividers centred at the end of the tidal
stream line (C) and set to a radius equal to the
anticipated speed of the boat through the water,
swing an arc to cut the ground track (D).
This cut may go beyond, or fall short of B depend-
ing on the speed of the boat and the set and rate of
the tidal stream affecting the course.
4 A line drawn between the end of the tidal stream
line and the cut at (D) is the required water track:
C–D.
5 Measure the TRUE bearing of the water track and to
windward of it make an allowance to offset any
leeway expected. This is now the course to steer
TRUE: C–E.
6 Apply variation and deviation to this course as
necessary to obtain the course to steer by compass
(see page 18).
Note
Vector triangles are usually drawn for periods of one
hour, although longer or shorter periods may be
used if appropriate. Whichever timescale is chosen,
it is essential to use the same ratio for each vector ie
one hour of tidal drift with one hour of boat speed.
38
COURSE TO STEER
Course to steer – short period
D
A B
C
S
TR
Wind direction
CG
Fig 1
Leeway allowance
This is applied to the required water track:
Wind from port side – subtract the angle

Wind from starboard side – add the angle
Compass conversion
This is applied to the course to steer TRUE:
Variation/deviation east – subtract the error

Variation/deviation west – add the error
Navigator’s symbols
Water track
Ground track
Tidal stream
39
COURSE TO STEER Tidal streams – longer passages
Tidal streams usually take one of two main forms:

Rectilinear, where they flow in one direction for half a
tide and then reverse to flow in the opposite direction
with a period of slack water at the turn of the tide or:
Rotary, in which the stream changes direction from
hour to hour, often without a period of slack water.
To find the course to steer across a channel having rec-
tilinear streams (Fig 2), work out how long the passage
is likely to take by measuring the distance across – in
this case 60 miles. Dividing this distance by the antici-
pated speed of the boat, say 6 knots, suggests a 10-
hour passage. This also tells you that you must make
allowance for 10 hours of tidal stream during the cross-
ing; so first establish what the set and rate of tidal
stream will be at the time you intend to set off, then
find out what the tide will be doing for the rest of the
trip and add up all the westerly and then the easterly
streams and subtract one from the other.
Finally, plot the balance of tide as a vector from the
starting position (Fig 3) and lay off the distance to travel
from the end of it. Apply leeway, variation and deviation
in the usual way to obtain the course to steer.
To make a crossing with rotary streams (Fig 4) find
the distance and crossing time as before but this time
plot tidal vectors for each successive hour and link
them as shown. From the end of this chain lay off the
distance to travel and apply leeway, variation and
deviation to obtain the course to steer.
Slack water When there is little or no tidal stream

at the ‘turn of the tide’.
Stand of the tide When the tide is no longer rising
or falling.
(These two events rarely coincide.)
40
COURSE TO STEER
Course to steer – longer passages
Rectilinear tidal streams
Miles Hours
2.5 1
2.0 2
Drift
7.8 1.8 3
West 1.0 4
0.5 5
60 Slack 6
0.8 Drift 7
1.3 6.7 8
2.0 East
9
2.6 10
Fig 2 The movement of tidal streams for the period.

Distance Estimated
to go
÷ speed
= Time to
cross
Rhumb line
Balance of Distance 60M

tidal stream Boat speed 6kn
7.8 W Est time 10hrs
– 6.7 E
1.1 W
Boat track
see note page 43
Fig 3 Plotting the balance of tide. 41

COURSE TO STEER Course to steer – longer passages
Rotary tidal streams
Distance Time in
in miles hours
1
2
3
4
40 Boat speed:
5kn 5
6
7
8
Fig 4
Rhumb line
Boat track
see note page 43
42 Fig 5
COURSE TO STEER
Course to steer – longer passages
Note
Steering a single course across an ebb and flood tide
will take the boat well away from the required rhumb
line so make certain that no dangers exist on either
side. Plot an EP for every hour and work out a new
course to steer each time that the distance to your
destination is halved.
The alternative is to shape a separate course to
steer for each hour of tidal stream (Fig 5). This will
keep the boat on or close to the rhumb line but
depending upon wind direction, a sailing vessel may
find it difficult to achieve some of the headings
required (Fig 6).
A Rhumb line is a straight line drawn between
any two points on a Mercator chart and shows the
true course to follow from one to the other.
Hours
1
Rhumb line
2
3
4
l l
5 oa oa
Sh Sh
6
7
8
Fig 6 43
COURSE TO STEER Sailing to windward
Destination to windward
When your destination lies directly up wind of the boat,
it becomes necessary to beat towards it by sailing
close-hauled on alternate tacks, preferably keeping
within 10°–15° of the downwind line so as to be well
placed to take advantage of any wind shifts as they
occur.
Set off on the tack which points more directly
toward your destination and work up to it with a series
of relatively short tacks made between predetermined
tack ‘limiting lines’, making due allowance for leeway
and tidal stream in the usual way. Alternatively, if your
objective is visible you can tack each time the appro-
priate bearing to either side of the direct line of
approach is reached (Fig 7).
Wind
Starting
position
30°
015° 345°
Fig 7
44
COURSE TO STEER
Sailing to windward
Lee bowing the tide

If the tidal stream is expected to slacken or reverse
direction, there is an advantage to be gained from
holding the tack which puts the tide on the lee bow
and letting it push the boat to windward. The freeing
wind shift induced by the tide will also allow the boat
to point higher on this tack, helping to get you towards
your destination more quickly.
If the tidal stream is constant, however, there is no
advantage to ‘lee bowing’ as you will lose whatever you
have gained when you go onto the opposite tack
(Fig 8).
Wind
ck
ta
w
bo
Le
e
er
bo
th
w
ea
ta
W
ck
Tidal stream
(Course made good )
Fig 8
45
COURSE TO STEER Sailing to windward
Laying the windward mark

When nearing your destination, and wind and tide are
unlikely to change, use this method to decide when to
make your final tack to lay the mark (Fig 9).
North Tide
wind 180°
5°
04
line
G
Lay
D
B H
Transfer
H
D
G
31
5°
Fig 9
You are at point A on starboard tack, heading 315° at
4kn and your boat will tack through 90°. Tidal stream
rate is 1·5kn. First, find out what the ground track will be
from A and extend it, then work out what the ground
track will be as you head for the buoy on port tack. To
do this, draw the water track backwards from the buoy
and mark off 4 miles for boat speed. Plot 1·5 miles of
tidal stream from the buoy and connect the end of this
line to the end of the water track to form the ground
track. Transfer it to the buoy as shown and extend it to
cut the first ground track at B. This is your lay line – the
most leeward course you can sail to lay the buoy, and B
is the point at which to tack. The length of the ground
track shows that boat speed over the ground is about
3.1kn and since the distance to B from A is almost 4.5
46 miles, you should reach position B in about 87 minutes.
COURSE TO STEER
ETA – Estimated Time of Arrival
Estimated time of arrival (ETA)

To calculate when you will get there, you must know
the distance to your destination, the boat’s speed
through the water, and what the tide is doing:
A
Nautical miles
D
B
A Starting position
B Destination
A–B Distance to go (6·9M)
A–C Tidal stream vector (1·5kn)
From C with dividers set at a distance equal to the
boat’s speed through the water (4·5kn), swing an arc to
cut line A–B at point D.
A–D is the speed (and distance) made good, (4·8kn)
therefore A–B x 60 ÷ A–D is equal to the time in min-
utes that it will take to sail from A to B and if this time
is added to your time of departure from position A
then this will be your ETA at your destination.
A–B
x 60 = 86·25 mins –
A–D
say 11⁄2 hrs approx.
47
POSITION EP – Estimated Position
Estimating your position

When making any passage at sea, an estimate of the
vessel’s position should be maintained at all times by
carefully recording the course steered and distance
run, and by allowing for all the factors that might have
affected that course such as tidal stream, leeway and
surface drift.
How to estimate your position (EP)

1 Convert the course steered by compass to TRUE by
applying deviation and variation as appropriate A–B
(this is not usually drawn on the chart).
2 Adjust the bearing of the course A–B to leeward

(downwind) by the amount of leeway suffered to
obtain the water track TRUE.
3 From the last known position on the chart plot the

water track and along it mark off the distance run
according to the log A–C.
4 From point C plot the set of tidal stream experienced

using units of length equal to its rate in knots C–D.
5 Point D is the boat’s estimated position and a line

drawn between it and the last known position (A) is
the course made good (or ground track) and the
distance along it is the actual distance covered over
the ground A–D.
This distance, divided by the elapsed time, is the boat’s
effective speed over the ground.
48
POSITION
EP – Estimated Position
Plotting the estimated position (EP)
B le
Wind direction e) y ang
tru wa
red Lee C
tee
rses
u
(co
A
Last KNOWN
position
D
Compass conversion This is applied to the course

steered by compass.
Variation/deviation east – add the error
Variation/deviation west – subtract the error
Estimated leeway suffered This is applied to the
course steered TRUE.
Wind from port side – add the angle
Wind from starboard side – subtract the angle
Navigator’s symbols
Water track
Ground track
Tidal stream
Fix EP
49
POSITION DR – EP
Dead reckoning and estimated position

A position derived just from the course steered and the
distance the boat has travelled through the water is
called a dead reckoning or DR position. A more accurate
variant of this is where the effect of leeway has also
been taken into consideration thereby showing the
boat’s actual track through the water but either way,
the position so found will be nothing more than a
place ‘somewhere in the water’.
Estimated position
An estimated position is a refinement of the DR where
the influence of both leeway and tidal stream has been
reflected so as to show the boat’s position relative to
the sea bed. Sadly, the procedure for estimating position
is far from perfect, and so errors tend to accumulate in
the reckoning which means that the boat’s position
must periodically be ‘fixed’ relative to the land if the plot
is not to become more and more uncertain as time
passes. One ‘tried and tested’ method of fixing position,
when coastal sailing, is that of taking visual bearings on
charted objects by hand bearing compass.
Position lines
When the bearing of a known object is drawn onto a
chart it is called a position line and the observer’s boat
must lie along it at some point (Fig 1). It follows there-
fore that the intersection of two or more position lines
obtained at the same time will mark the position of the
observer’s boat at the time that the bearings were
taken (Fig 2).
It is important to recognise, however, that due to the
motion of small boats, any bearing taken from them by
compass is likely to be out by as much as 5° either way
and so, when using this method, there is always a sector
of uncertainty which must be considered when plot-
50 ting a position (Fig 3).
POSITION
Fixing position
Fig 1
Fig 2
CHY
Fig 3
Sector of uncertainty?
51
POSITION Fixing position
Visual bearings
To fix your position by this means, identify two (prefer-
ably three) objects on the coastline that also appear on
your chart (Fig 4).
Using a hand bearing compass
Take the bearing of each object in turn and make a
note of the time and the log reading.
Convert the magnetic bearings to TRUE by applying
variation as necessary and on the chart draw the
appropriate bearing from each object to seaward.
Using a steering compass
Bearings can also be taken using a conveniently
mounted steering compass, but bearings obtained in
this manner must be corrected for both variation and
deviation. Variation is taken from the chart in the usual
way and deviation is read from the deviation card
against the boat’s compass heading at the time the
bearing was taken. Remember that compass deviation
only changes when the boat’s heading is altered (see
page 15) therefore every bearing taken on that
heading will have the same deviation as the steering
compass.
Triangle of position or ‘cocked hat’
Due to the motion of the boat, none of the bearings are
likely to be completely accurate and so the intersection
of three position lines will probably result in a ‘cocked
hat’. The size of this will give an indication of the relia-
bility of the fix. If it is not too large, it is acceptable, but
it should not be assumed that the position lies at the
centre of the cocked hat, it may be close, but the wary
navigator will always presume it to be situated at a
point biased toward the nearest danger along the
course being steered (Fig 5).
52
POSITION
Taking fixes
The three point fix
Fig 4 What you see.
CHY
Fix 0900
Log 53
Fl 2 10 sec
Fig 5 How it looks on the chart.

53
POSITION Using transits
The simplest position line is obtained when it can be

seen that two charted objects are in transit (in line with
one another). Position lines derived from transits are
very accurate if they are made with two fixed and well-
separated objects. Natural transits can be found by
lining up towers, spires, and masts etc and can be
observed without the aid of any instrument other than
binoculars. All the observer needs to do is to draw a line
on the chart that passes through both the objects that
are seen to form a transit to be certain that his vessel
lies somewhere along that line (Fig 6).
A reliable position fix can be obtained by combining
a transit with the compass bearing of some other fixed
object (Fig 7).
Fig 6
?
TR
Transits are so useful to mariners that in some places,

painted boards or lights have been set up in transit to
provide a safe ‘leading line’ into harbour through narrow
channels or hazardous areas (Fig 8). In their absence, you
can sometimes create your own leading line by finding
charted features that form a transit coinciding with your
required course and then, by keeping them in line, make
good that course. If the marks appear to drift apart
when you are following a leading line, your boat has left
the transit and your intended track so you must alter
course to bring the objects back into line (Fig 9).
Note
On charts, the bearings of leading lines is always
given as a ‘True’ bearing from seaward.
54
POSITION
Using transits
Fig 7
CHY
RW
Fig 8
RW
Oc 5s 5M
´
LTs 083° 15 Oc R 5s 3M
LEADING
Fig 9
If the near mark appears to drift to the left of the distant

mark – alter course to port.
If the near mark appears to drift to the right of the
distant mark – alter course to starboard.
(If the transit is used as a ‘back marker’ when leaving
harbour, the opposite action must be taken of course.) 55
POSITION Running fixes
Position lines are normally used in combination to ‘fix’

position and so the value of a single bearing is not
always fully appreciated. When only one object is
visible, however, a procedure known as the running fix
or transferred position line can be used to establish your
approximate position (Fig 10).
0900
Log 40
B
1000
Log 43
Fig 10 What you see.
Example At 0900 take the bearing of the lighthouse

and read the log. One hour later, read the log again and
take a second bearing on the light.
On the chart, draw both bearings A and B from the
lighthouse (Fig 11). Then, starting from any point on
line A, work out your EP by plotting your TRUE course
since 0900, allowing for leeway and tidal stream. Now
draw a line parallel to line A so that it passes through
your EP and cuts line B. The cut on line B is your approx-
imate position by running fix.
56
POSITION
Running fixes
FL 5
10 sec
y)
(Leewa
Fix 1000
rse (A)
Log 43 Cou
(B) EP
Fig 11 How it looks on the chart.
FL 10 sec FL 5
10 sec
Fog
Fix
)
(Leeway
rse (A)
Cou
(B) EP
Fig 12
Top tip
If for any reason (fog perhaps) the observed object
(A) is lost to sight before a second bearing can be
taken, the bearing of a different object (B) taken
some time later can be combined with the bearing
on (A) to provide a reasonable fix (Fig 12).
57
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION GPS – horizontal datums
A horizontal datum is a mathematical model of the

Earth and the base reference for a co-ordinate system
of latitude and longitude used to identify position on
the Earth’s surface.
All nautical charts, electronic or paper, and positions
determined by GPS are based on a given horizontal
datum.
A GPS receiver converts signals from orbiting satel-
lites into a position displayed as co-ordinates of lati-
tude and longitude, but to be of any practical value, this
position needs to be related to your surroundings by
plotting it on your chart. The GPS relates position to a
model of a symmetrical world called WGS 84 (World
Geodetic System 1984) but in reality, the Earth is not a
perfect sphere and so cartographers in different parts
of the world have based their charts on a variety of
more suitable ‘local datums’ none of which quite marry
up with one another, or with WGS 84, which is the
default datum for most GPS receivers. It is important to
understand that positions resulting from different
datums can differ by several hundred metres and it is
essential therefore, to ensure that your GPS and your
chart are referring to the same datum.
Most GPS receivers have all the more commonly
used datums built in and can be set to work on the
same datum as your chart, but be careful when using a
mixture of charts having different datums; it is very easy
to forget to change the GPS datum when you switch to
a different chart. A safer alternative might be to leave
the GPS on the WGS 84 setting and carry out the
necessary adjustment to position on the chart itself by
following the instructions given in the note printed on
the chart entitled ‘Satellite derived positions’.
58
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
GPS – waypoint navigation
Waypoint navigation
Waypoints are co-ordinates taken from the chart and
stored in the memory of a GPS for use as navigation ref-
erence points. A single waypoint may be used as a mark
from which to plot your current position, or a series of
waypoints can be positioned so as to mark successive
legs of a route from one place to another.
Whenever you input a position as a waypoint, always
check that the distance and bearing given by the GPS
matches the distance and bearing that you measured
on the chart. Any difference means that you have prob-
ably entered the latitude and longitude incorrectly?
WPT 3 WPT 1
WPT 2
Fig 1 Be careful when you input a waypoint into a GPS, it

is easy to enter a position incorrectly, or mistakenly plan a
route that takes you into danger. Here, WPT 2 has been
omitted from the plan in error. The incorrect route
between WPT 1 and 3 could put the boat in dangerously
shallow water.
Fig 2 It might be safer to plot a WPT near to a charted

object than on it – you could hit it, and be aware that, in
busy areas, other boats may be using the same WPT. 59
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION GPS – waypoint navigation
In
te
nd
ed
co
ur
se
shoal
bank
355 °
335 °
315° 305°
Fig 3 A GPS does not allow for tidal streams so always

pre-plan the course to steer. If you repeatedly alter course
to steer to a mark using bearings given by your GPS you
will sail further and might put your boat in danger.
5M
4M
3M 270°
2M
1M
280°
290°
300°
310°
320°
330°
Fig 4 Traditional plotting methods can be difficult on

fast-moving boats. Pre-plan your navigation by drawing a
web of ranges and bearings from your key waypoint, then
periodically check its range and bearing by GPS to see
your changing position within the web as you approach.
60
GPS – position by range and bearing
It is often easier to plot your position more accurately

using the GPS bearing and distance display than by
taking co-ordinates from the latitude and longitude
readout and transferring them onto the chart.
You needn’t use just the waypoint you are aiming
for to get a range and bearing. An alternative is to store
the position at the centre of one of the chart’s compass
roses as a random waypoint in the GPS. You can then
plot its bearing quickly and accurately, whenever you
want to, and you don’t even need a plotter to do this.
Any straight edge will do because it can be lined up
directly on the compass rose itself, but do remember to
read the bearing from the opposite side of the rose as
the bearing is to the waypoint and then step off the
distance from the centre of the rose – not the edge.
6∞ 30' 5∞
∞ 0 10∞
0∞ 350 20∞
∞ 34 30∞
330
0∞
40
∞
32
0∞
10∞ 20∞
350∞
0
50
30∞
31
340∞
∞
40
0∞ ∞
300∞
33
60
50
∞
0∞
∞
32
MAGNETIC
0∞
60
260∞ 270∞ 280∞ 290∞
70∞
31
45∞
300∞
70∞
NORTH
80∞ 90∞ 100∞ 110∞

270∞ 280∞ 290∞
090∞
80∞
annually
90∞ 100∞ 110∞
by about 7'
decreasing
30'W (1995)
Variation 4∞
1430 3.1
260∞
120∞
250∞
250∞
13
0∞
0∞
24
120∞
∞
14
070∞
0∞
0∞
240
23 15
0∞ 0∞
22
13
160∞
0∞
210∞
0∞
170∞
23
2.2
180∞ 190∞ 200∞
14
0∞ 0∞
22
1400
150
210∞ ∞
160∞
170∞ 180∞ 190∞ 200∞
055∞
1.75
1330
Fig 5
A second GPS bearing on a similarly chosen arbitrary

position will help to confirm the fix, or better still, try to
obtain a non-GPS cross check such as a depth sound-
ing or visual bearing to confirm the position.
61
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION GPS – position by Lat and Long
Longitude - 003° 06’.0 W
32
0°
(T
)
355° (T)
30
0°
(T)
Fig 6 Latitude - 50° 18’ N
Pre-planning for rapid plotting of position when ‘sea

room’ or visibility is limited can be especially useful on
fast boats where traditional chartwork is difficult.
Using this method, you have only one co-ordinate
to plot and accuracy is good since you will be using
only the basic GPS latitude and longitude readout.
First, draw a meridian on the chart near to your
intended ground track, and clear of all dangers. From
that meridian mark off the appropriate part of the lati-
tude scale so that it crosses your ground track; then
en-route every time the GPS shows that you are cross-
ing one of the marked latitudes, make a note of the cor-
responding longitude and the time, and you will be
able to plot your position as often as you wish.
If your intended track is more east to west, draw in a
parallel of latitude and mark it up with the lines of lon-
62 gitude that you expect to cross.
GPS – crosstrack and range to waypoint
A pre-prepared range and XTE (cross track error) ‘ladder’

is an ideal quick plotting method for fast boats when
making longer coastal passages.
Na
ut
ica
lm
ile
s
30
0°
(T
)
Fig 7
Draw your intended track on the chart in the usual way

but with a scale of distance to the waypoint marked
along it. Next draw lines parallel to the track, well clear
of any hazard, to mark the limits of acceptable cross
track error on either side.
A series of range and XTE readings taken from the
GPS display at regular intervals will then help you to
stay within your self-imposed limits, and maintain a
record on the chart of your vessel’s progress along the
desired track. Note: You cannot get a XTE reading
unless your course lies between two waypoints.
Top tip Find the correct course to steer before
you set off (see page 38) especially if tidal streams
are strong. This will ensure that you will be counter-
acting the tide from the outset rather than waiting
until your boat has been pushed off course before
you can begin to work out the offset to apply. 63
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION GPS – sailing to windward
Destination to windward
When your destination lies directly upwind of the boat
it becomes necessary to beat towards it by sailing close
hauled on alternate tacks, preferably keeping within
10° to 15° of the downwind line so as to be well placed
to take advantage of any favourable windshifts.
Wind
B
Fig 8
To do this, draw the downwind line on the chart then

construct a ‘cone’ by drawing lines to either side of it,
radiating about 10° from the destination but clear of all
off-lying dangers (A). Set off on the tack that points
more directly towards your destination and using GPS,
tack whenever the bearing to the mark is 10° to either
side of the direct track.
If you are facing a very long beat to windward, start
by sailing along a corridor formed by ‘tack limiting lines’
set at a convenient distance to each side of the down-
wind line (B). Using the XTE function, your boat’s posi-
tion will be shown at right angles to the downwind line
enabling you to tack when either of the limit lines is
reached, until you are closer to your destination and
can use GPS bearings on the mark to tack within the
64 limits of the cone.
GPS – laying the windward mark
When you are nearing your destination and the wind

and tide are unlikely to change appreciably, you can
use your GPS to tell you when to make the final tack to
‘lay the mark’ (Fig 9).
Tidal
Wind stream
line
Lay
Fig 9
You expect to head for the fairway buoy on port tack,

so make a note of the COG (ground track) shown by
the GPS as you head for point B on the previous port
tack. Enter the position of the buoy into the GPS as a
waypoint and select it with the GO-TO function. The
GPS will then show a continuously changing bearing to
the waypoint as you sail on starboard tack from B
towards C. When the bearing of the waypoint matches
that of the ground track between A and B, you will have
reached the theoretical point at which you should tack
onto port and head for the buoy although to be sure, it
might pay to hold your starboard tack for just a while
longer. (See page 46 for the ‘traditional’ method.)
65
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION GPS – clearing bearings
Not
°
less
25
n0
tha
tha
n3
ter
50°
rea
tg
No
Fig 10
If you need to tack into a harbour or an anchorage that

has dangers to either side of the entrance, look at the
chart and find a suitable position within the harbour
and enter it into the GPS as a waypoint. Draw lines radi-
ating from the waypoint that will keep you well clear of
any dangers, then when sailing in, you can tack when-
ever the GPS bearing to the waypoint matches either of
the clearing bearings plotted on the chart.
A power-driven vessel doesn’t usually need to tack
of course unless perhaps, for reasons of comfort or
safety, its skipper decides to adopt a tacking procedure
in order to take oncoming waves at an angle rather
than head on, otherwise he can adopt a similar strategy
to the sailboat skipper and avoid lateral dangers by
following a direct bearing to the waypoint whilst
taking care not to stray beyond clearing bearings set to
either side.
66
Electronic chart systems
Chart plotters
Unlike GPS receivers that must be used in conjunction
with a paper chart, an electronic chart plotter, when
interfaced with GPS, will display your boat’s continuously
updated position on an electronic representation of a
nautical chart and enable you to see at a glance where
you are in relation to your surroundings. With most
plotters, you can also enter waypoints, measure direc-
tion and distance, and plan a course or route ‘on screen’.
Chart plotters are generally either PC driven software
systems, whose main benefit is a potentially large dis-
play, or a unit specifically designed for the marine environ-
ment, and having a customised control panel and
integral software, but with a comparatively small screen.
Electronic charts are available in either raster or vector
formats. Basically, vector charts are layered graphic rep-
resentations of the data shown on a paper chart and
each layer can be selected and viewed separately
allowing you to change the level of information you
want, whereas raster charts are exact photographic
images of paper charts and as such, the information on
them cannot be changed or manipulated.
There is a general misconception that electronic
charts are more accurate than paper charts but in fact,
since all electronic charts are digitised from conven-
tional paper charts, whichever system you use – raster
or vector, the electronic data is no better than that of
the paper chart source.
Top tip
If your primary navigation is by GPS, bear in mind
that it could be knocked out by power, aerial, or
satellite failure. Always maintain a record of your GPS
position in the log and have the appropriate paper
charts available too.
67
AIS RADAR The Automatic Identification System
Collision avoidance
Radar has long been a valuable aid to pilotage in fog
and darkness and the only electronic navigation aid
that could be used for collision avoidance. One nega-
tive aspect of radar though, is the inability to positively
identify a specific radar target when multiple contacts
are being tracked, especially at night when it is impos-
sible to verify a vessel’s identity visually.
This difficulty has now been largely overcome with
the advent of the Automatic Identification System (AIS)
– a shipboard VHF transponder system which enables
ships to exchange ID, position, course, speed and other
essential data with other nearby AIS equipped ships
and shore stations via a common VHF radio channel.
AIS works autonomously, continuously transmitting
data to all other AIS equipped vessels within VHF range.
The ship’s position, course, speed and other navi-
gational data is fed into the AIS by the ship’s interfaced
sensors where it is formatted and transmitted as a short
‘data burst’ on a dedicated VHF radio channel. When
this data is received by other AIS equipped ships, it is
automatically decoded and can be displayed in graphic
and text format. Optionally, the data may also be fed to
the ship’s radar plotting system to provide AIS tags for
radar targets. The usefulness of this data decays rapidly
with time of course, so it is continually updated by the
AIS and retransmitted every few seconds.
At present, AIS is only mandatory for large com-
mercial vessels subject to the SOLAS convention and
small vessels such as workboats, fishing vessels and
pleasure craft are not required to have the system, but
its potential to make a significant contribution to safety
and collision avoidance makes it a highly desirable
proposition for any small craft.
68
AIS RADAR
The Automatic Identification System
It is not practical to install full commercial Class A AIS

sets in small craft, however, as they are unlikely to be
equipped with type approved gyro-compasses or GPS
sets so, for the small boat owner, the choice is between
either a Class B AIS set or a ‘receive only’ unit such as
NASA Marine Instruments’ relatively inexpensive ‘AIS
Radar’ (Fig 1). This is a stand alone unit which will plot
the position and track of all AIS carrying vessels within
normal VHF range and display them relative to the
user’s position. The user can then select any vessel on
the screen and its AIS data will be displayed alongside.
Naval vessels are not obliged to transmit on AIS.
USER’S POSITION
SELECTED TARGET SELECTED TARGET’S DATA
Fig 1 AIS radar set made by NASA Marine

Instruments.
69
TIDAL CURVES Standard ports
In the almanac, each standard port is given its own tide

table and tidal curves. The time and height of high and
low water is read directly from the table and the curves
are used to find the height of tide at any other time
between high and low water, for example:
On 1 May at Walton-on-the-Naze
a) What will the height of tide be at 1100 GMT?
and
b) At what time will the tide reach a height of
1·75m?
First, mark up the graph with the Walton high and
low water times and heights and join the heights
with a line as shown.
Now compare the predicted range of tide with the
mean ranges at springs and neaps and decide
which curve to use or whether to interpolate
between them (see page 74).
To answer (a) Enter the graph at the required time
– 1100 and proceed as shown by the red line to find
the height of tide at this time: 2·9m approx.
To answer (b) Enter the graph at the required
height of 1·75m and proceed as shown by the blue
line to find the time at which this height will occur:
0926 GMT approx.
The height found by graph when added to the
depth shown on the chart is the actual depth at
that place.
A drying height shown on the chart when
subtracted from the height found by graph will
be the depth (if any) at that place.
70
TIME ZONE UT (GMT) WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE
Add 1 hr Mar 31–Oct 27 for BST Lat 51°51’ N Long 1°16’ E
MAY JUNE
Time m Time m Time m
1 0049 4.1 16 0041 4.3 1 0142 0.7

W
0652 0.6 Th 0640 0.5 F 0710
HW Hts m
1306 4.0 1304 4.2 0 1 2 3 4 5
1909 0.6 1909 0.4
WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE
0.9 MEAN SPRING AND
MHWS
MHWN
2 0126 4.0 NEAP CURVES
0.8
0.7 MEAN RANGES

Springs 3.8m
0.6 Neaps 2.3m
LW 0652 – 0.6m
HW1306 – 4.0m 0.5
Springs occur 2
Factor
Range 3.4m
0.4 days after
(Springs) New and Full
CHART DATUM
moon
0.3
0.2
0.1
MLWS
MLWN
0 1 2 LW . -5h -4h -3h -2h -1h HW. +1h +2h +3h +4h +5h LW
.
LW Hts m 0906 1106 1306
Standard ports
31/1/10
71
TIDAL CURVES
14:14
Page 71
TIDAL CURVES Secondary ports
Tidal differences
Tidal predictions are published in full for selected places
called standard ports, but tidal data for smaller second-
ary ports must be found by applying local corrections
– tabulated in the almanac as ‘differences’ – to the stan-
dard port times and heights, for example:
STANDARD PORT: WALTON-ON-THE NAZE

TIMES HEIGHTS (Metres)
HW LW MHWS MHWN MLWN MLWS
0000 0600 0500 1100
AND AND AND AND 4.2 3.4 1.1 0.4
1200 1800 1700 2300
DIFFERENCES – BRADWELL
+0035 +0023 +0047 +0004 +1.1 +0.8 +0.2 +0.1
Time differences
The table is saying that if HW at Walton occurs at either
0000 or 1200 then HW at Bradwell will be 35 minutes
later. Alternatively if HW Walton is either 0600 or 1800
then it will occur 23 minutes later at Bradwell.
Similarly if LW occurs at Walton at either 0500 or
1700, LW at Bradwell will be 47 minutes later, but only 4
minutes later if LW Walton is either 1100 or 2300.
Important Note
Tide tables give times of high and low water in the
standard – or zone time of the port. For all UK ports
this is:
Time zone zero. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT/UT).
72
TIDAL CURVES
Secondary ports
Time zones
The relevant time zone is shown at the top of each tide
table (see page 71) and the sign +/– shows how the
time zone correction should be applied to convert
local time to GMT, ie:
Calais time zone – 0100 (Fr standard time).

Subtract one hour for GMT
Many countries operate ‘Summer Time’ and during

British Summer Time (BST) one hour should be added
to tabulated GMT times. When working out times for
secondary ports, however, this correction should not
be made until all other calculations are complete;
otherwise serious inaccuracy will result because the
time differences for the secondary port are related to
the times of high and low water at the standard port
which are given in GMT.
Height differences
These are applied in much the same way as time differ-
ences, and in this instance the table says that when the
height of HW at Walton is either 4·2 or 3·4m it will be 1·1
or 0·8m higher respectively at Bradwell and when LW at
Walton is either 1.1 or 0.4m, then, at Bradwell, it will be
0.2 or 0.1m higher respectively.
When the tidal predictions for the day do not coin-
cide exactly with the times and heights specified in the
table of differences, interpolation is necessary between
the differences to be applied for that port. This can
usually be carried out quite satisfactorily ‘by eye’ but a
simple free hand graph is more accurate if the magni-
tude of the differences varies greatly. See page 75.
73
Interpolation - tidal differences

Example On a chosen day, HW Walton is 1405 3·8m. It
can be seen that 1405 falls between the reference
times of 1200 and 1800 on the table of differences (see
page 72), therefore the exact difference which has to
be applied lies proportionally between +35 to +23min
(about +30min by eye).
To be more accurate
Draw a graph as shown with the Walton reference
times 1200 to 1800 along one side and their corre-
sponding differences for Bradwell +35 to +23min
along the opposite side (see note on page 75).
Close the triangle by drawing a line A–B between the

last units on upper and lower lines.
Enter the graph with HW Walton 1405 and draw a

line parallel to line A–B to cut the lower line where
the difference to be applied can now be read off
(+31min).
The height of HW at Walton, 3·8, falls between 4·2 and

3·4m on the table of differences which means that the
difference to apply lies between 1·1 and 0·8m.
The precise difference could be found by construc-
ting another graph with reference heights along one
side and the corresponding differences along the other
but in this instance as the range of difference is so small
(0.3m) interpolation by eye should be quite adequate.
74
TIDAL CURVES
Secondary ports
Interpolation of differences
‘SET’ REFERENCE TIMES – WALTON
18
HW – Walton – 1405
00
A
17
00
16
00
15
00
Paral
14
00
13
lel
00
12
B
00
+35
+34
+33
+32
+31
+30
+29
+28
+27
+26
+25
+24
Time difference in minutes – Bradwell +23
⬖ HW Bradwell is 1405 + 31 = 1436
The triangle may be drawn to any appropriate size and

any suitable scale may be used, but it is essential to
keep the reference times and their corresponding
differences in the correct relationship as shown.
Top tip
Tidal height predictions for any given place are
based upon the average height of tide recorded at
that place over a long period of time. Usually these
predictions are very good but it is always best to
allow a generous margin for error whenever you are
calculating clearance over an obstruction.
75
Secondary ports – intermediate heights

The time and height of high and low water at a
secondary port is obtained by applying the differences
tabulated in the almanac to the standard port’s tidal
predictions.
Secondary ports do not usually have their own tidal
curves, so when the height of tide at any time between
that of high and low water at a secondary port is
required, the curve belonging to the standard port is
used after first marking it up with the corrected tidal
information (both times and height) for the secondary
port as shown below.
Walton = (Time) HW LW (Height) HW LW

1200 1700 4.2m 0.4m
Differences = +35 +47 +1.1 +0.1
Bradwell = 1235 1747 5.3 0.5
Bradwell
HW Hts m WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE
5.3
0 1 2 3 4 5
MEAN SPRING AND
MHWS
MHWN
NEAP CURVES
0.9
0.8 MEAN RANGES

Springs 3.8m
0.7
Neaps 2.3m
CHART DATUM
0.6
Springs occur 2
Factor
0.5 days after new

and full moon
0.4
0.3
0.2
MLWN
MLWS
0.1
0 0.5 1 2 LW -5h -4h -3h -2h -1h HW +1h +2h +3h +4h +5h LW
LW Hts m 0935 1235
When the secondary port tidal data has been entered

onto the standard port graph, heights of tide at intermed-
iate time eg 0935 at the secondary port can quickly be
76 found by following the procedure detailed on page 70.
TIDAL CURVES
Rule of Twelfths
This rule gives a rough guide to the height* of a semi-

diurnal tide at times between high and low water by
assuming that the tidal cycle is symmetrical and that the
duration of rise or fall is approximately six hours.
Unfortunately the tide does not rise or fall evenly for
each hour between high and low water and it also
varies from place to place. For this reason, heights found
by this rule are very approximate and should be used
with great caution and with a generous margin for error.
The rule states that the rate of rise or fall is:
During the first hour 1⁄12 of the range
During the second hour 2⁄12 of the range
During the third hour 3⁄12 of the range
During the fourth hour 3⁄12 of the range
During the fifth hour 2⁄12 of the range
During the sixth hour 1⁄12 of the range
HW
1/12
1
2/12
ur
Range of tide
2
Ho
Range 5m
3/12
3
3/12
4
2/12 LW
5
6
1/12
Chart datum
*The rise or fall of tide found by this rule must then be applied to the
predicted height of high or low water as appropriate, to obtain the
height of tide above chart datum.
Top tip
The range of the tide is the vertical difference in
height between successive high and low waters. If
you draw the range of tide to scale across the clock
face as shown, the ‘state of the tide’ at any given time
can be seen at a glance.
77
TIDAL CURVES Anomalies – South coast
Many factors, such as the depth of water or size and

configuration of the coast, can affect the tide and no
two places have exactly the same tidal pattern. Some
places have exceptionally high or low tides and others
like the Baltic or Mediterranean seas have little or no
tide at all. In the British Isles, unusual double high
waters occur in the region between Swanage and
Selsey where times of LW are more easily defined than
HW times; so special tidal curves with times relative to
low water are used for this area. In all other respects, the
method of finding heights of tide at intermediate times
with these curves is identical to that used for normal
secondary ports except that, as the tides at some of
these places cannot be defined properly by two curves,
a third ‘critical’ curve has been introduced for the range
of tide at the standard port – Portsmouth. Any neces-
sary interpolation should take place between this third
curve and either the spring or neap curve as appro-
priate , for example:
Find height of tide at Lymington at 2130 BST when at

the standard port tidal predictions are:
LW 1905 BST – 1·1m

HW 0204 BST – 4·5m
1 Find the tidal data for Lymington by applying the
differences to Portsmouth in the usual way.
2 Mark the corrected time and heights found onto
the Lymington graph and join the heights with a
line in the normal way.
3 Enter the graph at the time required (2130 BST),
and proceed as shown by the red line to obtain
the height of tide at this time.
78
1.7m 1845 2130
HW Hts m 1 2 3
(2.9) 4 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 LW. +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
Mean level .5
.4
Chart datum
Range at Portsmouth
.3
Sp 4.1m
3.2m .2
Lymington Np 2.0m .1
LW Hts m Yarmouth
0
0 1 2 3
(0.8)
LW HW
Portsmouth predictions 1905 BST 1.1m 4.5m (Range 3.4m)
Diffs (interpolated) – 20 min –0.3m –1.6m
Yarmouth
Tides at Lymington 1845 BST 0.8m 2.9m

(Height of tide at 2130 = 1.7m approx)
South Coast –
Lymington and
Note In this example, the range of tide at Portsmouth is very close to that of the
Anomalies – South coast
31/1/10
critical curve so interpolation is between the critical curve and the spring curve.
79
TIDAL CURVES
14:14
Page 79
FINDING DEPTHS Reduction to soundings
Height of tide and depth of water

When a sounding is taken in tidal waters, it cannot be
related to the depths which are shown on the chart
until the prevailing height of tide at that place has been
established and subtracted from the sounding.
This procedure is called reduction to soundings and
forms an important part of several tidal calculations
including the confirmation of an estimated position or
to assist in pilotage when ‘running a line of soundings’.
Height of tide
(from curves)
2 1
Chart datum
X 3
Sea bed
Key
1 Sounding taken
2 Minus height of tide
3 Gives the reduced sounding
X Charted sounding
NB 3 and X should more or less agree if your EP is

correct.
80
FINDING DEPTHS
Reduction to soundings
Height of tide reduced to soundings using

uncalibrated echo sounder
Many echo sounders can be adjusted to measure
depth either from the waterline or from below the keel.
If yours is one of the simpler sounders that only meas-
ures depth below the transducer, you will need to allow
for this in your calculations.
1 Echo sounder reading

2 Plus distance transducer to waterline
3 Gives the actual depth
4 Minus height of tide
5 Gives the reduced sounding
Height of tide
2
1 3 4
Chart datum
5
Sea bed
Compare the reduced sounding obtained to the charted

sounding at your EP to confirm the position. 81
FINDING DEPTHS Finding depth to anchor
Will there be enough water at low tide?

This is a quick and easy way of finding the depth in
which to anchor without calculation.
Preparation
1 Find the times and heights of high and low water
for the area you are in and plot the heights on your
nearest standard port tidal curve as line A.
2 Mark on the LW line the minimum depth at which

you want to be afloat (draught plus safety margin)
and from this point draw a line B parallel to line A.
From now on line A is disregarded and anytime you

want to anchor, the required depth can be read off
quickly by reference to line B.
Example If HW at Walton is 3·5m at 1200 and LW is

0·8m at 1800, plot this on the curve as line A.
Now mark your minimum anchoring depth (say
2m) on the LW line and from it draw line B parallel to
line A.
When you want to anchor, just check the time and
draw a line up to the appropriate curve, across to line B
then up or down to find the safest minimum depth to
drop anchor. In this instance – at 0920 – just circle
round until your echo sounder reads 3·6m or more.
Note
If your anchor cable is all chain you should veer 4 x
max depth of water expected but if using rope with
a chain leader, you should veer at least 6 x max
depth of water expected.
82
HW Hts m
A B
3.6m
0 1 2 3 4 5
WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE
0.9 MEAN SPRING AND
Predictions:
MHWS
MHWN
NEAP CURVES
0.8
0.7 MEAN RANGES
th
Time required: 0920
Springs 3.8m
ep
0.6 Neaps 2.3m
gd
rin
LW 1800
HW 1200
cho
0.5
an
Springs occur 2
Factor
um
days after new
0.8
CHART DATUM
0.4
nim
and full moon
Mi
0.3
0.2
3.5 Range 2.7
0.1
MLWS
MLWN
0 1 2 LW -5h -4h -3h -2h -1h HW +1h +2h +3h +4h +5h LW
LW Hts m
Min depth required: 2m
0900 1200
Finding depth to anchor
31/1/10
83
FINDING DEPTHS
14:14
Page 83
84
FINDING DEPTHS
1 Present height of tide

2 Minus LW height
3 Gives the fall to LW
4 Plus draught of vessel
5 Plus clearance required
aground at LW
6 Gives the total depth required

7 Minus distance of transducer to water line
8 Gives depth by echo sounder required
Height of tide
7
3
1
8 6
Low water
4
Anchoring – depth by echo sounder
2
31/1/10
Chart datum
Finding depth by echo sounder to avoid going
5
Sea bed
14:14
Page 84
FINDING DEPTHS
Depth and clearance below the keel
To find clearance at LW using handline and

lead
1 Depth by handline
2 Minus present height of tide
3 Gives depth below chart datum
4 Plus height of next LW
5 Gives depth at LW
6 Minus draught of vessel
7 Gives clearance at LW
Sea level
when anchoring
‘
‘
1 2
Low water
height 6
4
5
Chart datum
7 3
Sea bed
85
FINDING DEPTHS Depth and clearance below the keel
To find clearance at low water using echo

sounder
1 Echo sounder reading
2 Plus distance – transducer to waterline
3 Gives true depth of water
4 Minus present height of tide
5 Gives depth below chart datum
6 Plus height of next LW
7 Gives depth at LW
9 Gives clearance at LW
Sea level
when anchoring 2 Transducer
‘
‘
Low water
height 8
1 3 4 6 7
Chart datum
9 5
Sea bed
86
FINDING DEPTHS
What is the depth beneath my keel?

2 Plus charted sounding
3 Gives total depth of water
5 Gives depth below the keel
Sea
4 level
1
3 5
Chart datum
2
Sea bed
Use tidal curve to calculate the present height of the tide 87

Height of tide required to clear a bank or bar
1 Draught of the vessel

3 Gives total depth required
4 Minus charted sounding
5 Gives height of tide required
Sea
1 level
5
3 2
Chart datum
4
BANK
Use tidal curve to find the time at which height required

will occur.
88
FINDING DEPTHS
Height of tide required to clear a charted

drying height
1 Draught of the vessel

3 Plus charted drying height
4 Gives height of tide required
Sea
level 1
4
2
3
Chart datum
Use tidal curve to find the time at which the required

height will occur.
89
Will my vessel clear a charted drying height?

2 Minus drying height
3 Gives actual depth of water
5 Gives clearance beneath the keel
Sea
4 level
3 5
1 Drying height
2
Chart
datum
On a falling tide: use tidal curve to find the latest time

to cross in safety.
On a rising tide: use tidal curve to find the time at which

90 the required height will occur.
DISTANCE OFF
MHWS/Distance off
The height of all charted terrestrial features other than

drying heights are measured from the level of MHWS
tides.
If the height of MHWS above chart datum is known
it is possible to find the actual height of the feature
above sea level by adding its charted height to the
level of MHWS at that place and then subtracting the
height of tide at the time from the total (Fig 1).
When the height of the feature has been estab-
lished a distance off can be calculated in daytime by
vertical sextant angle (see page 96) or at night by ‘rising
or dipping’ of the light (see page 92).
MHWS
Height of
tide
2 3
Chart datum
Fig 1
1 Charted height of light 20m

2 Plus height of MHWS 6m
3 Gives the height above chart datum 26m
4 Minus the height of tide 2m
5 Gives the height above sea level 24m
91
DISTANCE OFF Rising or dipping lights
An approximate distance off may be obtained at night

when approaching land by observing the point at which
a light first appears above the horizon or, conversely,
when leaving the coast by noting the point at which it is
on the verge of disappearing below the horizon.
This distance, which is dependant upon the ‘height
of eye’ of the observer and the elevation of the light is
called the geographical range of the light and is the
maximum distance at which a light with sufficient
intensity can be seen when limited only by the curva-
ture of the Earth (Fig 2).
raphic range
Geog
Observers Elevation
height of eye of light
Fig 2
The observed height of the light above sea level

together with the height of eye of the observer above
sea level, is referred to the appropriate table in a
nautical almanac to obtain a distance off.
If tables are unavailable, a reliable distance off can be

obtained with the formula:
√Ht of eye (m) plus √Ht of light (m) x 2.075

√Ht of eye (ft) plus √Ht of light (ft) x 1.15
= Distance off in nautical miles
92
DISTANCE OFF
Rising or dipping lights
1 Charted height of light

2 Plus level of MHWS
3 Gives height of light above chart datum
4 Minus height of tide prevailing
5 Gives height of light above sea level
Now refer the height of the light found, together with

the observer’s height of eye, to the Range of Lights
table on page 201 to obtain the ‘distance off’ (Fig 3).
The bearing of the light, if taken at the same time will

provide the remaining information needed to acquire a
reasonable ‘fix’.
Focal
plane of
light
5 3 1
MHWS
Height
of tide
4 2
Chart datum
Fig 3
93
THE SEXTANT Index error
When coastal sailing, the sextant can be used to fix the

boat’s position by means of either vertical or horizontal
angles of charted objects such as lighthouses etc.
Before using it for this purpose, the sextant should be
adjusted according to the maker’s instructions. Any
residual error in the instrument after this is known as
index error and its value must be applied as a correction
to all future sextant readings.
To find the index error

1 Clamp index bar and micrometer drum at zero.
2 Hold the sextant vertically and sight a clear,
distant horizon turning the drum until the true
and reflected horizons form a single unbroken
line.
3 The sextant reading indicates the index error.
4 If the reading is on the ‘plus’ side of zero it must
be subtracted as a correction.
5 If the reading is on the negative side of zero it
must be added.
TRUE REFLECTED
HORIZON HORIZON
REFLECTED IMAGE
TRUE IMAGE
INDEX ERROR
A B
5
0
MICROMETER
0
DRUM 55
Subtract Error ‘A’ from the measured angle.

Add Error ‘B’ to the measured angle
94
THE SEXTANT
Distance off
Distance off by vertical sextant angle
Distance off
Vertical angle taken between the base of the lighthouse

and FOCAL PLANE of the light, NOT the top of the lighthouse.
Distance off
Vertical angle taken between the base of the object and

its PEAK.
✫
Distance
off & bearing
‘Fix’
A bearing of the object and its distance off provide a ‘fix’.
95
THE SEXTANT Vertical sextant angle
Taking a vertical sextant angle (VSA) on a

lighthouse
Hold the sextant vertically, set the index to zero and
view the centre of the light through the telescope. The
true image will be seen through the plain half of the
horizon glass and the reflected image in the mirror half
(Fig 1).
Both images should coincide. Turn the micrometer
drum so that the index bar moves along the arc away
from you and the image will separate, the reflected
image moving downward. Tilt the sextant to follow this
movement until the centre of the light reaches the
shore line. Read the angle and correct for index error
(Fig 2).
Refer the corrected angle and the charted height of
the light to the table on page 200 or to the appropriate
table in the almanac to obtain a ‘distance off’. Couple
this with a bearing of the light taken at the same time
as the sextant angle to obtain a ‘fix’ by bearing and
distance.
Note
The height of an object on land is measured from
the level of MHWS. If the sea level is below this
datum when the sextant angle is taken, the appar-
ent height of the object is increased, which also
increases the angle being measured. This gives the
impression that the boat is closer to the object than
it actually is, and provides a slight safety margin. It
should not be overlooked, however, that by the
same reasoning, you will also be that much closer to
any hazard that lies behind you.
96
THE SEXTANT
Vertical sextant angle
True image Reflected image
Fig 1
➔
Fig 2
Note
If an almanac or tables are unavailable, the distance
off by vertical sextant angle can be found by using
the formula:
1.852 x height in metres
Distance off (nm) =
angle in minutes of arc
97
CLEARANCE UNDER BRIDGES Charted clearance
The clearance under a bridge or cable which crosses a

navigable waterway is clearly marked on large scale
charts of an area (Fig 1). The clearance hitherto has
been measured from the level of MHWS but on some
new editions of UKHO charts, the vertical clearance is
now measured from the HAT level (see pages 28 & 29).
The water level under a bridge will seldom be as
high as this so the clearance is usually greater than that
given. It should be remembered however, that the
water level in estuaries and rivers may be raised sub-
stantially by strong on-shore winds, heavy rainfall, or by
the relief of weirs upstream; for these reasons a good
margin for error should be allowed. r li
ne
we
po
ead
10
erh
12
Ov
Fig 1
Caution
When you have made certain that your mast or the
boat’s superstructure will clear the bridge, be sure to
check that at the same time you also have enough
water below your keel.
98
CLEARANCE UNDER BRIDGES

Charted clearance
The difference between a charted clearance and the

height of a vessel’s mast (plus a suitable safety margin)
is the fall of sea level below the given clearance datum
that is needed to permit the vessel to pass under the
bridge (Fig 2).
Safety margin
Charted Mast height

clearance and
safety margin
Clearance
datum
Chart datum
Fig 2 The appropriate clearance datum is given in

the notes printed beneath all UKHO chart titles.
Top tip
Whenever the height of your boat’s mast or super-
structure (plus safety margin) exceeds the charted
clearance above the level of MHWS, you can use the
tidal curves to find out when your boat will be able
to pass under the bridge (see page 100).
99
CLEARANCE UNDER BRIDGES Charted clearance – MHWS
Fall required
HW Hts.m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 MEAN RANGES
Springs 4.7m
MHWN
MHWS
Neaps 2.2m
Springs occur 2 days after New and Full Moon

0.9
MEAN SPRING AND NEAP CURVES

0.8
0.7
DEVONPORT
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
MLWN
MLWS
0.1
0 1 2 3 LW –5h –4h –3h –2h –1h HW +1h +2h +3h +4h +5h LW
LW Hts.m
A B
Devonport: mean spring and neap curves.
Using tidal curves to find clearance at MHWS

Mark up the appropriate curve with the day’s tidal pre-
dictions (see page 70), then, starting from the MHWS
level at the top of the graph, count off the fall required
and from this point proceed as shown by the red line
to find the time at which your boat will be able to pass
under the bridge. In this example the boat will have
clearance at any time earlier than A or later than B.
Top tip
If the height of the tide indicated by the fall required
is added to the charted depth near the bridge, you
will also be able to determine whether or not you
have sufficient water beneath your keel at the times
that your mast will clear the bridge.
100
RULES OF THE ROAD

Steering and sailing rules
Key collision avoidance regulations

General conduct in any condition of visibility
Maintain a proper lookout at all times.
Adjust your speed to suit prevailing conditions.
Know who should ‘give way’.
Give-way vessel
Take early, positive and obvious avoiding action.
Do not cross ahead of the other vessel.
‘Stand-on’ vessel
Hold a steady course and speed but be prepared to
stop or turn away if the other vessel fails to take
action.
Traffic separation schemes
Employed in congested areas and clearly marked on
charts, they are ‘one way’ lanes for through traffic. Small
boats and sailing craft should avoid them and use the
Inshore Traffic Zones whenever possible or, if obliged to
cross the lanes do so as quickly as possible on a head-
ing at right angles to the general traffic flow. Vessels
under 20 metres in length, and sailing vessels, must not
impede the safe passage of power driven vessels
following the lanes.
Separation zone
Incorrect Correct
101
RULES OF THE ROAD Steering and sailing rules
Collision avoidance (Rule 7)

When two vessels are steering in directions that would
result in a collision if both maintained their courses and
speeds, they are on collision courses and the ‘give-way’
vessel must take early avoiding action.
If you suspect that you are on a collision course with
another vessel, take a bearing on it at regular intervals
while maintaining your course and speed; and, in a sit-
uation similar to that shown, if the compass bearing
becomes significantly smaller, the other vessel should
pass ahead of you; if the bearings widen appreciably, it
will pass astern, but if the bearing does not alter and
the range is decreasing, one of you must take immedi-
ate action to avoid a collision.
Collision ?
10 knots
5 knots
Note In a situation where the other vessel is on your

port side, bearings will increase if it is to pass ahead of
you and decrease for it to pass astern.
Caution
Risk of collision may sometimes still exist even with
an appreciable change of bearing, for example,
when you are approaching a very large vessel,
particularly at close range.
102
RULES OF THE ROAD

Power-driven vessels – includes vessels sailing

and using engines simultaneously
When meeting head on

Both vessels turn to starboard.
When crossing
Vessel with another on her own starboard side gives
way and avoids crossing ahead.
Overtaking vessel
Keeps clear of the vessel being overtaken.
Power-driven vessels keep clear of:
Sailing vessels not using power.
Vessels engaged in fishing.
Vessels not under command (unable to comply with
the rules for some reason).
Vessels restricted in their ability to manoeuvre or
hampered by their draught. 103
RULES OF THE ROAD Steering and sailing rules
Sailing vessels meeting

A sailing vessel is on port tack when the wind is on its
port side and the mainboom is out to starboard. It is on
starboard tack when the wind comes from starboard
and the mainboom is out to port.
WIND
Vessels with wind on different sides. The vessel on port

tack gives way.
WIND
Vessels with wind on the same side. The windward boat

gives way.
104
RULES OF THE ROAD

WIND
Sailing vessels
meeting
A vessel with wind
on her port side,
that is unable to
determine which
tack a boat to
windward of her is
on, should prepare
to give way.
Overtaking vessel
Keeps clear of the vessel being overtaken.
Sailing vessels (not using power) – keep clear of:

Vessels engaged in fishing.
Vessels not under command (unable to comply with
the rules).
Vessels restricted in their ability to manoeuvre or
hampered by their draught.
Note
Sailing vessels using engines (with or without sails
being set) are considered to be power-driven vessels
and must conform to the steering and lighting
regulations applicable to power-driven vessels.
105
RULES OF THE ROAD Lights and daymarks on vessels
Definitions and arcs of visibility

Lights must be shown from sunset to sunrise and at all
times during reduced visibility. Colours and cut off
angles of lights are designed to indicate the type of
vessel and direction of travel.
Masthead light
(aft higher than fo’rd)
white – 225 deg
Sidelights Stern light

red/green white
112.5 deg 135 deg
All round light

Shows an unbroken light over an arc of 360° around
the horizon.
Flashing light
Regular flashes of 120 or more per minute (hydrofoils
and air-cushion craft).
Towing light
A yellow light with the same characteristics as a stern
light and mounted above it.
Blue lights
These are carried by Police and Customs vessels on
duty.
106
RULES OF THE ROAD

Lights and daymarks on vessels
Lights required for motor yachts
Vessels 12 to 20m LOA

1 A white stern light.
2 Red and green sidelights mounted separately or
combined in a single bi-lantern.
3 A white masthead light shown at least 2·5m above
the level of the sidelights.
Vessels under 12m LOA

Must carry stern and side lights as specified above
and a masthead light mounted a least 1m above the
level of the side lights.
The masthead light and stern light may be com-
bined in a single lantern at or near the masthead.
Vessels under 7m LOA maximum speed not

exceeding 7kn
Required to carry a single all round white light but
should also carry sidelights if practicable to do so.
107
Sailing vessels under 20m
Sailing vessels not using power

Show lanterns 1 or 3 and 4 in diagram above.
Optional all round red over green masthead lights
may also be shown with lanterns 3 and 4 but not in
conjunction with lantern 1, or when using auxiliary
power.
Sailing vessels using power
Show lanterns 2, 3 and 4.
Tri-lantern 1 must not be used when using auxiliary
power.
When using sail and power together by day, all
vessels must exhibit a black cone point down in the
fore-part where best seen.
Vessels under 7m in length
If unable to exhibit these lights you must have a
white light ready to display to avoid collision.
108
RULES OF THE ROAD

Hovercraft and hydrofoils
✹ ✹
Normal lights for power driven vessels and an all

round flashing yellow light when in non-displace-
ment mode.
Vessels towing
Two masthead lights forward in a vertical line or if

the length of tow exceeds 200m – three lights in a
vertical line. Also side lights, stern light and a yellow
light mounted above the stern light.
Vessel being towed
Length of tow
1 measured here
Stern and sidelights only.
By day When length of tow is over 200m both vessels
display a diamond shape. 109
Vessel constrained by draught
Three all round red lights with normal navigation

lights when making way.
By day Shows a black cylinder.
Vessel not under command (unable to comply

with the rules)
Two all round red lights and when making way –

stern and sidelights. (Not a distress signal.)
By day Shows two black balls in a vertical line.
Vessel aground
Two all round red lights and anchor lights. (Not a

distress signal.)
By day Shows three black balls in a vertical line.
110
RULES OF THE ROAD

Vessels trawling
Masthead light
optional – vessels
under 50m LOA
Two all round lights green over white and lights for
a power driven vessel making way.
Pair trawling
Vessels trawling as a pair direct searchlights

forward and toward one another.
Vessel fishing (other than trawling)
Two all round lights red over white plus stern and
sidelights when making way.
By day Fishing or trawling: two cones apex together.
Additional signals – Vessels fishing in close proximity

Trawler hauling nets: Shooting nets:
Two all round lights Two all round lights
Vessel using purse seine gear:
Alternate flashing yellow 111
Vessels restricted in their ability to manoeuvre
Three all round lights – red/white/red in a vertical

line and masthead – stern and sidelights when
making way.
By day Shows a black ball over a
diamond over a ball
Vessels engaged in underwater operations or

dredging
Safe to pass Obstruction
this side on this side
Two red lights in a vertical line on the ‘foul side’ and

two green lights on the unobstructed side.
When making way, also shows masthead, stern and
sidelights. If anchored does not show anchor lights.
By day The red lights would be replaced by black

112 balls and the green lights by black diamond shapes.
RULES OF THE ROAD

Vessels minesweeping
Three all round green lights with normal navigation

lights.
By day All round green lights are replaced by black
balls.
It is dangerous to approach closer than 1000m
astern or 500m on either side of this vessel.
Pilot vessel: on duty
Two all round lights white over red and stern and
sidelights when making way. At
anchor shows an anchor light.
By day Flies a white and red flag.
Vessel at anchor
50m or more LOA:
Two all round
white lights
Under 50m LOA:

One all round white
light where best seen
Vessels more than 100m LOA must also illuminate

their decks.
By day Shows a black ball. 113
RULES OF THE ROAD Daymarks on vessels
Shapes of daymarks
Daymarks are displayed by day in various combinations
and in all weathers to indicate certain activities in
which the vessel carrying them is engaged.
Cone Ball Diamond Cylinder
In conditions of reduced visibility, appropriate lights

may also be shown.
Vessels under 20m in length engaged in fishing may
exhibit a basket instead of the prescribed day shape for
this type of vessel.
Survey vessels towing long seismic streamers mark
the extremities of the tow with buoys flashing morse
U • • — (international signal: ‘you are running into
danger’).
A vessel engaged in diving operations that is too
small to carry the day-shapes shown on page 112 must
display a rigid replica of code Flag A:
Code flag A ‘I have a diver down –

– keep clear at low speed.’
Note
A vessel is deemed to be underway when not at
anchor or moored to the shore and is making way
when being propelled through the water by any
means of propulsion.
114
RULES OF THE ROAD

Sound signals
Horn or whistle
Short blast Long blast
Vessels in sight of each other – manoeuvring

Turning to starboard
Turning to port
Engines in reverse
Alert ‘wake up’
Vessel in narrow channel

Nearing blind bends
Intent to overtake:
to starboard
to port
Agreement by other vessel
During poor visibility (day or night)

Sounded at two minute intervals
Power vessel making way
Under way but not making way
(See note page 114)
Not under command
}
Unable to manoeuvre
Hampered by draught
Vessel fishing
Vessel towing/pushing
Sailing vessel (not using power)
Vessel under tow (If manned)
115
RULES OF THE ROAD Sound signals
Vessels at anchor or aground (in poor visibility)

At anchor
Vessels under 100m in length must ring a bell for 5
sec every minute.
A vessel 100m or more in length must ring a bell
‘forward’ for 5 sec every minute immediately followed
by a gong sounded for 5 sec ‘aft’.
Any vessel at anchor may also give a warning of
collision to an approaching vessel by sounding
morse ‘R’ (· — ·) on a horn.
Vessels aground
Signals as for at anchor but preceded and followed
by 3 separate and distinct bell strokes.
Vessels under 12m in length

May make the appropriate sound signals given
above or must make some other efficient sound
signal at intervals of not less than 2 min.
Important note
This abridged interpretation of parts A, B, C and D of
the rules must only be read and used in conjunction
with the full rules given in the International
Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea (IRPCS).
The rules are mandatory and there is no excuse for
not knowing them. Rules 1 and 2 stipulate: ‘These
rules shall apply to all vessels upon the high seas
and in all waters connected therewith navigable by
sea going vessels’ and ‘nothing in the rules shall
exonerate any vessel or the owner, master or crew
thereof from the consequences of any neglect to
comply with these rules’.
116
BUOYAGE
Buoys and marks
IALA Maritime Buoyage System

Lateral marks Used in the conventional direction of
buoyage to define the limits of navigable channels in
the general direction of harbour from seaward.
The symbol:
is used on charts to show the direction of buoyage

where this is not obvious.
Preferred channel marks Modified lateral marks are

used to mark the point where a channel divides when
proceeding in the conventional direction of buoyage
and to indicate the main or preferred channel.
Isolated danger mark Used to indicate an isolated

danger of limited size which has navigable water all
around it.
Safe water mark Used as a centre channel or landfall

mark with deep navigable water all around it.
Cardinal marks These cover the four quadrants: N, S, E

and W. Each mark is named after the quadrant it guards
and indicates the side upon which it should be passed
in safety, ie pass to the north of a north cardinal.
Special marks These can be any shape and are used to

mark areas of particular interest such as spoil grounds,
water sport or military exercise areas etc.
New wreck marking buoy Deployed until a wreck is

well known and has been promulgated in nautical
publications and a permanent form of marking has
been established.
117
BU0YAGE Buoys and marks
Cardinal marks
N
Light – white
Continuous flashing
DANGER
W AREA E
Light – white Light – white

Group Fl 9 Group Fl 3
Light – white
Group Fl 6 + 1 long
S
Isolated danger mark
Danger with safe water all round

Light – white Group Fl 2
Safe water mark
Safe deep water all round

Light – white. Occulting, isophase,
or 1 long flash or Morse ‘A’
Pass either side, but leave to
port when entering or leaving
118 a channel entrance
BUOYAGE
Buoys and marks
Lateral marks – region ‘A’

Port hand Starboard hand
red can green cone
Light – red Light – green

any rhythm except any rhythm except
composite Gp Fl 2+1 composite Gp Fl 2+1
Preferred channel marks (modified lateral marks)

Main channel Main channel
to the right to the left
➔
Direction of
buoyage
Light – composite Light – composite

Gp Fl 2 + 1 red Gp Fl 2 +1 green
Special Marks ‘New Hazard’ Mark

(any shape – yellow
Light – Alt. Blue/Yellow

Yellow Light (if lit) any
rhythm other than those Emergency Wreck Marking
prescribed for cardinal, Buoy – deployed in the
isolated danger or safe initial period following a
water marks. wreckage
119
BUOYAGE
120
Light characteristics Int abbr Period shown
Fixed A continuous steady light F

Occulting Steady light – eclipsed at regular and repeated intervals
Single Oc
Group Oc (2)
Isophase Duration – light and dark equal Iso
Flashing Single flashes at regular intervals. Duration of light less than dark
Light characteristics
Single Fl ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲
Long L Fl
Group Fl (3) ▲▲▲ ▲▲▲ ▲▲
Composite group Fl (2+1) ▲▲ ▲ ▲▲ ▲

Morse code Mo (K) ▲ ▲
Alternating Light which alters colour Al WR
31/1/10
in successive flashes W R W R W
Sectored light Shows different colour light when viewed from different directions
14:15
Page 120
SOLAS
SOLAS regulations
Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS)

Sailors who fail to comply with the SOLAS regulations,
mandatory for all leisure craft users from 1 July 2002,
risk prosecution and fines of up to £5000. Also, in
instances where it is proved that fatalities have
occurred because of non-compliance, a jail sentence
could be imposed.
Mandatory regulations – SOLAS chapter V

19 Radar reflectors If it is ‘practicable’ to fit one on
your boat then you must have one.
29 Life saving signals An illustrated diagram depict-
ing these signals must be readily available on board
(see pages 128–9).
31–32 Danger messages All skippers have a duty to
report to the Coastguard anything that might be a
serious hazard to navigation.
33 Distress signals Skippers have an obligation to
respond to distress signals from any source and to
assist as best they can.
34 Safe navigation and avoidance of danger
(See page 122 Passage Planning.)
35 Distress signals – misuse The use of a signal for
anything other than an emergency is prohibited.
Top tip
As far as possible, always avoid any action or activity
that might be harmful to the environment (Rule 2.4).
121
SOLAS Passage planning
Passage planning (Reg V.34)

Skippers who take their boats ‘to sea’, which means any-
where outside categorised waters, must have a passage
plan. For small vessels and leisure craft, the extent of
the plan depends upon the vessel’s size and the length
of the voyage but consideration should be given to:
The limitations of the boat
Is it a suitable boat in which to make the proposed
passage.
Does it carry appropriate safety equipment and have
sufficient fuel, water and provisions.
Crew strength
The competence, experience and physical ability of
both skipper and crew.
Tides
Check tidal predictions in order to make best use of
favourable tidal streams and heights of tide.
Weather
Check the forecast before departure and obtain
regular updates en-route.
Contingency plans
Tell someone ashore where you are going.
Have a plan of action in case things go wrong.
Make a note of ‘ports of refuge’ en-route.
Caution
Don’t rely solely on GPS. Plot your course and
regularly record your position on the chart.
122
SAFETY AND DISTRESS

Distress flares
Emergencies – calling for help using flares

Red flares and orange smoke These are used to
attract attention in case of difficulty and to pinpoint
your position for searching rescue craft.
White flares These are not distress signals – they are
only used to warn others of danger of collision.
Types of distress flare
There are three main types of distress flare, all with
different ignition systems. Read the instructions and
familiarise yourself with each type of flare before you
need to use them in an emergency and ensure that
they are in-date – old flares become very unreliable.
Hand-held red Use day or night when near to the
shore or to assist rescue craft to see you. Wear gloves
if possible, hold at arm’s length downwind and don’t
look directly at the flare.
Orange smoke These are hand-held or buoyant
types. Useful to help rescue helicopters identify your
position and to assess wind direction.
Red parachute rocket Can be seen for up to 25
miles in good visibility. It rises to about 300 metres
then falls slowly under the parachute. Fire vertically
or slightly downwind or in low cloud, fire at 45°.
Never fire a parachute flare if a helicopter is
approaching.
Top tip
Fire flares in groups of two – they are more likely to
be seen than singly. Hold flares downwind and out-
board so that any burning dross falls clear of the
boat.
123
SAFETY AND DISTRESS GMDSS/EPIRB
Emergencies – calling for help

Red flares and VHF radio have long been the mariner’s
principal means of signalling distress but now, the
Global Maritime Distress and Safety Scheme (GMDSS) and
a radio equipped with Digital Selective Calling (DSC) will
enable you to send or receive distress and safety
messages quicker than ever before.
In an emergency, a coded distress alert, which
includes the vessel’s unique identity number and its
current position, is automatically transmitted on CH 70
when a dedicated button on the radio set is pressed.
This signal is repeated at short intervals until a distress
acknowledgement sent by a ship or shore station auto-
matically stops the distress transmission and retunes
the radio to CH 16 ready for voice communication.
Yachtsmen are not obliged to convert to DSC; you
can still use your existing VHF radio to call other yachts
and the UK Coastguard who will continue to monitor
CH 16 until the year 2005 but you will need DSC to call
ships, who are not now obliged to maintain a listening
watch on CH 16, and by 2005, in most parts of Europe,
coastguards and coast radio stations will only be keep-
ing a watch on CH 70 so you will need VHF/DSC to be
able to call them.
If you intend sailing more than a mile or two off
shore, you should also carry an Emergency Position
Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB).
Top tip
False alerts are a big problem with EPIRBS. If you
need to remove yours from the boat – for service or
repair for instance – ensure that it is double
wrapped in aluminium foil to prevent accidental
radiation of signals.
124
SAFETY AND DISTRESS

VHF distress signals: Mayday/PanPan
Distress or emergency signals (VHF)

These are only to be used when there is grave and
imminent danger to a vessel or person and immediate
assistance is required.
Switch on the radio – select channel 16
Transmit on high power
1 Mayday – Mayday – Mayday

2 This is – Name of vessel three times
3 Mayday – Name of vessel once
4 Give your position
5 State the nature of the emergency
6 Type of assistance required
7 Give any other helpful information
8 Over – end of message
If the emergency does not warrant a full Mayday alert

(or if in doubt) the URGENCY call may be used instead:
1 PanPan – PanPan – PanPan

2 All stations – All stations – All stations
3 This is – Name of vessel three times
4 Give your position
5 State the nature of the emergency
6 Type of assistance required
7 Over – end of message
Other recognised signals for help are: SOS in Morse

code by light or sound. Letters NC by flag or Morse code.
A ball shape displayed over or under a square shape.
Continuous sounding of fog horn.
125
SAFETY AND DISTRESS Personal safety
Hypothermia One of the greatest dangers to sailors is

the cold so always try to stay warm and dry by wearing
suitable clothing whatever the weather. In water the
human body loses heat 25 times faster than in air and
without special clothing, you are unlikely to survive in
water of 10°C for longer than four hours.
Lifejackets These must be available for all the crew.

Lifejacket buoyancy is measured in newtons. Ten
newtons equal 1kg of flotation and a 150N jacket is the
standard recommended for offshore yachts and motor
cruisers. When inflated, this jacket will right an uncon-
scious body and lift the mouth and nose above the
water. Lifejackets should be worn at all times by
children and non swimmers, also by anyone leaving the
safety of the cockpit at night or in rough weather and
– routinely when going ashore in the dinghy.
Harness At night and in rough weather, everyone on

deck should wear a safety harness clipped on to a
dedicated strong point on the boat – not to the guard
rails. Adjust the harness to fit snugly over your oilskins
so that it is easy to put on – even in the dark.
Liferafts The number of crew on the boat should not

exceed the capacity of the liferaft. Have it serviced
annually and stow it in a position ready for immediate
use with its painter (release cord) tied on and any anti-
theft device removed.
Abandoning to the liferaft Do not abandon unless

the boat is on fire or you are certain that it will sink or
be wrecked. Check that the painter is tied on, throw the
raft to leeward and tug the painter to inflate it. Let the
strongest and heaviest crewmember climb in first to
stabilise the raft and to help others to board.
126
SAFETY AND DISTRESS

Helicopter rescue
Hi-line transfer
Downdraught from the helicopter will be very
strong so ensure that all loose gear on the deck is
secured or stowed away before the helicopter
arrives.
Use red hand-held flares or orange smoke to
signal your position if necessary. Do not fire para-
chute flares when the helicopter is close by.
Once VHF contact has been established, the helicop-
ter pilot will give you instructions and outline his
intentions before he reaches you. Make sure that you
understand them, it will be too noisy to hear your
radio once the helicopter is overhead. Closely
follow any instructions you are given.
The helmsman should try to maintain a steady
course – usually with the wind 30° on the port bow
to enable the helicopter pilot to stay head to wind
while winching from his starboard side.
When the helicopter is in position, a weighted line
will be lowered first. Allow it to touch the boat or the
water to discharge any static electricity then take up
the slack and stow the loose end in a bucket to avoid
snagging. Do not tie the line to the boat.
As the winchman is lowered on the wire, keep some
tension on the line but only pull it in when told to do
so – this may require the efforts of two people. Once
the winchman is safely aboard, obey his instructions
and let him look after the casualty.
When the winchman and the casualty are being
lifted off, keep enough tension on the line to prevent
swinging and do not cast the hi-line clear until told
to do so.
127
SAFETY AND DISTRESS Calling for help – Life saving signals
Signals to be used by ships, aircraft, or persons in dis-

tress when communicating with life-saving stations,
maritime rescue units and aircraft engaged in search
and rescue operations
Search and Rescue Unit Replies
You have been seen, assistance will be given as soon as possible.
OR
Orange smoke flare. Three white star signals or three

light and sound rockets fired at
approximately 1 minute intervals.
Surface to Air Signals

Message International ICAO/IMO
Code of signals Visual Signals
Require assistance V V
Require medical assistance W X
No or negative N N
Yes or affirmative C Y
©
Proceeding in this direction
Note: Use International Code of Signals by means of lights or flags or by laying out the symbol on
the deck or ground with items which contrast highly with the background.
Air to Surface Direction Signals

Sequence of 3 manoeuvres meaning proceed to this direction.
1 2 3
Circle vessel at least once. Cross low, ahead of vessel Overfly vessel and
rocking wings. head in required
direction.
Your assistance is no longer required
Note: As a non preferred
alternative to rocking
wings, varying engine tone
or volume may be used.
Cross low, astern of vessel rocking wings.
128
SAFETY AND DISTRESS

Calling for help – Life saving signals
Shore to Ship Signals

Safe to land here.
OR
K
Morse code signal by light
Vertical waving of both arms, white flag, light or flare. or sound
Landing here is dangerous. Additional signals mean safer landing in
direction indicated.
OR
S:
Morse code signals by light or sound.
Horizontal waving of white flag, light or flare. R:
Putting one flag, light or flare on ground and Land to the right of your current heading.
moving off with a second indicates direction of L:
safer landing. Land to the left of your current heading.
Air to Surface Replies

Message Understood.
OR OR OR
OR
T R
Drop a message Rocking wings. Flashing landing or navigation Morse code signal
lights on and off twice. by light.
Message Not Understood – Repeat.

OR
OR
R P T
Straight and level flight Circling. Morse code signal by light.
Surface to Air Replies

Message Understood – I will comply.
OR OR
Change course Morse code signal by light. Code & answering

to required direction. pendant ‘Close Up’.
I am unable to comply.
Note: Use the signal OR
N
most appropriate to
prevailing conditions.
Morse code signal by light. International Flag ‘N’
129
SAFETY AND DISTRESS Man overboard
Prevention
In rough weather or at night, wear suitable protective
clothing and a lifejacket fitted with reflective tape, a
whistle and a light. Non-swimmers and children should
wear a lifejacket at all times when on deck. Use a
correctly fitting harness clipped on to a secure attach-
ment point – not onto the guard rails. Jackstays rigged
along each side of the boat will enable you to walk the
full length of the deck without unclipping. Always try to
‘clip on short’ so that if you do slip, you will fall on to the
deck and not over the side.
First reactions
Immediately shout ‘Man overboard’ and drop the
horseshoe and danbuoy into the water. Detail some-
one to watch and point towards the casualty. Hit the
MOB function button on the electronic ‘navaid’ if one is
in use, to record where the person fell overboard. If you
lose sight of the person in the water or have any
doubts about your ability to recover him, do not delay,
put out a Mayday call on your VHF radio (page 125).
MOB recovery drill

The two generally accepted methods of returning to a
person overboard are the ‘reach, tack, reach’ method or
the ‘quick stop’ method. For any given emergency, the
most suitable procedure will always depend to a large
extent upon prevailing conditions, type of boat and
crew size. Practice recovery drill regularly, and under
different conditions if possible. One day someone’s life
may depend on it!
Getting someone back on board can be difficult.
Always tie him to the boat first before trying to get him
aboard and clip yourself on too so that you cannot be
pulled in on top of him.
130
SAFETY AND DISTRESS

Man overboard
A boarding ladder or a short rope with a bowline as a

foot loop can be used if the person in the water is able
to help. If they are unconscious or exhausted, some form
of lifting tackle will have to be rigged up. For example:
swing out the boom guyed fore and aft and use the
mainsheet to winch the casualty onboard. If another
crew member has to enter the water to help the
casualty, he MUST wear a lifejacket and be attached to
the boat by a strong line.
Person in the water

Try not to panic and do not try to swim after the boat.
Look for the lifebuoy which should be close by. The
greatest threat to your survival is from the cold so try to
conserve body heat by restricting your movements.
Cross your legs to keep them close together and pull
your knees up towards your chest. Turn your back to the
waves to keep your nose and mouth clear of the spray.
Note
Research has established that when a MOB is lifted
from the water vertically, blood sinks to the legs low-
ering blood pressure, and this might result in a heart
attack. Recovery using a cradle, or something similar
to keep the casualty horizontal is safer, especially if
the person is unconscious.
131
SAFETY AND DISTRESS MOB – sailing boat without engine
3
MOB
60°
Wind direction
MOB – Sailing boat without engine

1 Put the boat on to a beam reach for a few boat
lengths.
2 Tack on to the opposite beam reach to bring the

person in the water on the weather bow.
3 When down wind of the casualty, tack again, ease the

sheets and fore-reach to approach and come along-
side to windward of the person in the water and
make the recovery in the lee of the boat.
132
SAFETY AND DISTRESS

MOB – sailing boat using engine
Throw a line
if in range?
2
MOB
Hove to
Wind direction
MOB – (quick stop) –sailing boat using engine

1 Come up into wind immediately and tack but leave
the headsail cleated so that the boat stops hove to.
2 Throw a heaving line to the person in the water if you
are still close enough; if not, check for trailing lines in
the water and start the engine. Haul the mainsheet in
tight and furl the headsail.
3 Motor down wind to leeward of the person in the
water.
4 Turn to approach him head to wind with your main-
sail flapping amidships.
Caution
Ensure that the propeller is not turning once you are
alongside the person in the water.
133
SAFETY AND DISTRESS MOB – motor cruisers
Make a tight 180° U turn if you can clearly see the

person in the water, if not, the ‘Williamson Turn’ is a
good way to put your boat onto a reciprocal course:
MOB
1 Put the helm hard over to starboard until you have

added about 50° to your heading (this angle will vary
from boat to boat) then:
2 Spin the wheel onto the opposite lock and hold it
there slowing as you turn until you are moving back
along your original track (3). The casualty should be
somewhere ahead of you but remember that he/she
will have drifted with the tide.
Caution
Ensure that your propellers are not turning when
you draw close to the person in the water.
134
COMMUNICATIONS
Phonetic alphabet/Morse code
Words and Morse

A ALPHA N NOVEMBER
B BRAVO O OSCAR
C CHARLIE P PAPA
D DELTA Q QUEBEC
E ECHO R ROMEO
F FOXTROT S SIERRA
G GOLF T TANGO
H HOTEL U UNIFORM
I INDIA V VICTOR
J JULIET W WHISKEY
K KILO X X-RAY
L LIMA Y YANKEE
M MIKE Z ZULU
Numbers and Morse

0 NADA-ZERO 5 PANTA-FIVE
1 UNA-ONE 6 SOXI-SIX
2 BISSO-TWO 7 SETTE-SEVEN
3 TERRA-THREE 8 OKTO-EIGHT
4 KARTA-FOUR 9 NOVE-NINE
Morse code is no longer used to send messages but

it should not be neglected by the sailor because
SOS by morse is internationally
recognized as a distress signal and, of course, many
charted buoys and beacons have lights with morse
characteristcs ie:
Safe water mark Mo ‘A’ ( )
Lighted offshore platform Mo ‘U’ ( )
Fog signal – siren Mo ‘N’ ( )
135
COMMUNICATIONS Flags
International code of signals

Communication between vessels nowadays is usually
carried out by radio, but code signals may also be sent
by flag, light, or sound.
Single letter signals are perhaps the most important
code signals and are understood internationally. Each
letter of the alphabet except R is a complete message
when sent individually, for example:
A D F L
T U V W
A I have a diver down. Keep clear.
D Keep clear. Manoeuvring with difficulty.
F I am disabled. Communicate with me.
L You should stop your vessel instantly.
T Keep clear – Pair trawling.
U You are running into danger.
V I require assistance.
W I require medical assistance.
Flags N and C displayed

together signify distress
N C
136
COMMUNICATIONS
Flags
Racing – code flags
Protest Preparatory
Come Life belts

within compulsory
hail
Postponement
Mark
missing
15 minute
postponement
Abandoned (Black ball
hoisted)
One hour
Abandoned
postponement
Resail shortly
Two hour
postponement
Cancellation
Postponement
until a later
General recall date
The meaning of single letter code flags when used for

racing purposes 137
WEATHER Weather patterns – a summary
Causes of weather patterns

Variations in weather conditions are the direct result
of changes in temperature within the moist dense
air mass that envelops the Earth. The air exerts a
pressure on the surface of the Earth and atmospheric
pressure at sea level, measured by barometer, averages
1013·2mb, but radiant energy from the sun heats the
surface unevenly so that the atmosphere is warmer
in some places than in others; since warm air is less
dense than cold air it rises – cold air sinks to replace it –
and variations above and below average pressure
occur resulting in regions of relatively high and low
pressure.
Air always moves from a region of high pressure to
one of lower pressure – but not directly because the
movement is deflected by the rotation of the Earth. The
flow of air is felt as wind whenever there is a difference
in atmospheric pressure between two localities; its
strength is determined by the rate of change in
pressure between the two centres.
Warm Cold
rising sinking
air Air Air air
flows flows
into out of
centre centre
Low High
Warm surface Cold surface
138
WEATHER
Wind belts
Wind belts
This global convection process results in a pattern of
pressure and wind belts around the Earth but there are
also local patterns.
Generally, when air is moving down in an area of
high pressure, the weather is dry and settled, but where
the air is rising and pressure is low the weather is
disturbed because rising air cools, expands and con-
denses into cloud and this rising air draws in more of
the surrounding air masses to fuel the process.
North
Polar Easterlies High Calm, sinking
Westerlies Changeable,
Low rising
Variables Calm,
High sinking
NE Trades
Equatorial Thundery,
(Doldrums) Low
rising
Variables High Calm,
SE Trades sinking
Westerlies Low Changeable,
Roaring Forties rising
Polar Easterlies High Calm, sinking
South
General circulation of the rotating Earth’s atmosphere.
Barometric pressure
Variation in barometric pressure is one of the sailor’s
principle indications of impending changes to wind
and weather in his area.
In general, barometer steady, or rising steadily
indicates fair weather. Falling slowly indicates rain –
possibly wind. Falling or rising rapidly indicates strong
wind – probably rain.
139
WEATHER Anticyclones and depressions
Highs and lows

Anticyclones and depressions (highs and lows) are the
two main weather systems of the middle latitudes. In
the northern hemisphere, an anticyclone is a system
where winds blow in a clockwise direction around
areas of high pressure. The strongest winds blow round
the outer extremities of the area and gradually dimin-
ish in strength toward the centre where they are light
or non-existent.
Anticyclones are fair weather systems with moderate

winds and reasonably clear skies. They are generally
slow moving, sometimes remaining stationary for
several days.
Depressions and their associated fronts are largely

responsible for unsettled weather, strong winds and
heavy rainfall. A depression is an area of low pressure
around which the winds blow in an anti-clockwise
direction in the northern hemisphere. They vary greatly
in size and intensity and can move rapidly in any direc-
tion but most usually eastward.
Warm
Cold rising
sinking air
air
Anticyclone Depression
or ‘High’ or ‘Low’
140
WEATHER
Fronts
Weather fronts
A ‘front’ is the boundary between two kinds of air. The
main air masses which affect British waters originate
from either the Polar or sub-tropical highs. Although
classified according to its source, each air mass may
arrive by different routes, therefore its properties will
depend upon its path and the general kind of weather
to be expected from each mass is:
Arctic and Polar – cold
Tropical – warm
Maritime – wet
Continental – dry
Arctic
Polar Polar
maritime continental
Tropical Tropical
maritime continental
Most depressions that approach Britain form along the

Polar front – the name given to the boundary between
these two air masses.
Cold
Polar air
Warm
tropical air
Front with opposing air currents.

141
WEATHER Depressions
How depressions develop

When warm and cold air masses meet they interact and
a wave develops in the front with its tip on the pole-
ward side. Atmospheric pressure at the tip of the wave
commences to fall until a complete circulation of air
around a low pressure centre is established and a sector
of warm air has become trapped in a squeeze between
the cold air behind and the cool air ahead producing
the fronts which are characteristic of a depression.
Development of
a depression
Cold air
Low
Warm air
Depressions are bad weather systems with their most

turbulent winds occurring at their centres; so it is an
advantage to know where the centre of an approach-
ing depression lies in relation to your own position.
Buys Ballot’s Law states that if you face the wind in

the northern hemisphere, the low pressure centre
will be between 90°–135° on your right. ‘The crossed
winds’ rule also provides a rough guide to weather
trends: if you face the wind and look up at the
clouds to compare the direction of the higher
altitude wind. If the cloud comes from the right,
the weather is likely to deteriorate. If the movement
is from the left, the weather will most likely improve,
but if the movement is either directly toward or
away from you, then existing conditions will
probably remain unchanged.
142
WEATHER
Synoptic charts
Weather maps
A weather map shows the distribution of atmospheric
pressure throughout an area by means of lines (isobars)
drawn through places having the same pressure. The
isobaric structure in any area gives an indication of the
weather pattern prevailing there, ie isobars are drawn
at intervals of 2, 4, or 8mb either side of 1000mb thus
forming a pressure contour map similar to a geograph-
ical contour map.
The pressure gradient is the rate of change in pres-
sure across the isobars and is analogous to the gradient
of a hill. Closely-spaced land contours indicate steep
gradients; similarly, closely-spaced isobars portray
steep pressure gradients which, in turn, produce
stronger winds (Fig 1).
Low
High
Warm
front
Warm
Cold sector
front
Fig 1 143
WEATHER Weather maps
Each isobar forms a closed circuit around a centre of

either high or low pressure and in the northern hemi-
sphere, winds above 2000ft blow parallel to the isobars
– clockwise around areas of high pressure and anti-
clockwise around low pressure areas. Surface winds
however are always ‘backed’ from the direction of the
isobars and diverge away from a centre of high pressure
but converge toward a centre of low pressure (Fig 2).
Low High
Fig 2
Fig 3 depicts a simple depression in the northern hemi-

sphere with winds blowing anti-clockwise in the gen-
eral direction of the isobars but backed slightly
inwards. From the centre, line A–B represents the warm
front – the leading edge of the air in the warm sector
which is riding up over the relatively cold air to the
right of it. Line A–C is the cold front. This is the leading
edge of a wedge of cold air which is pushing into the
warm sector ahead of it. In this instance the depression
and its fronts are moving steadily from left to right in
the general direction of the isobars in the warm sector
and if you were at ‘X’, you might expect to experience
the following pattern of events as the depression
passes over you.
144
WEATHER
Weather maps
High cloud from the west increases and lowers as

the warm front approaches, pressure falls and the wind
strengthens and backs; visibility deteriorates and light
rain becomes continuous and heavy. As the warm front
passes, pressure steadies, the wind veers, and rain stops
or turns to drizzle. In the warm sector (Fig 4), visibility is
poor with drizzle or showers. Wind and pressure is
steady. At the cold front, pressure falls then rises
sharply. Wind veers and becomes squally with heavy
rain. As the front moves away, rain stops, visibility
improves, and pressure rises.
Fig 3
A
Low X
Warm
Warm front
sector
B
C Cold front
Warm
air
Warm
air
Cold air Warm Cold
sector air
Showers Rain Mild/cloudy Steady rain High cloud
Fig 4 Section through a warm sector depression.
145
WEATHER Local winds
Local effects
Wind is moving air created by temperature differences.
Local winds in various forms are a modification to the
general weather pattern but stem from the same basic
cause.
Fig 5
Sea breezes These develop in coastal areas when con-
vection over the land on a warm sunny day causes
strong upward currents of air (Fig 5). The rising air is
replaced by an inflow of air from over the sea which
creates an onshore wind.
Fig 6
Land breeze At night the process is reversed (Fig 6).

The Earth cools quickly after sunset while the sea
retains its temperature and so air is drawn off the land
to replace the warm air rising from over the sea.
146
WEATHER
Katabatic winds/fog
Katabatic winds
In areas where the coastline is more dramatic and
cloudless skies at night result in radiation cooling of the
land, a strong, down-slope wind can develop as air in
contact with the ground becomes chilled and flows
rapidly down the hillside (Fig 7).
Fig 7
Fog This can form at any time of year but does so most
frequently in late spring to mid-summer. It occurs when
warm moist air is cooled sufficiently to become satu-
rated and condense into water vapour.
Advection (sea fog) This occurs when warm moist air

flows over a relatively cold sea surface and the tem-
perature of the air in contact with this surface is
lowered. If the sea temperature is below the dew point
temperature of the air and cooling continues until the
air is saturated, condensation will take place and form
mist or fog.
Radiation (land fog) A clear night sky results in rapid

cooling of the land. Should the surface temperature fall
below the dew point temperature of the air, saturation
will occur and condensation will take place with the
formation of fog, which may drift out to sea.
147
WEATHER Beaufort scale
Beaufort wind force scale

Force Knots Wind Probable sea state
1 1–3 Light airs Ripples
2 4–6 Light breeze Small wavelets
3 7–10 Gentle breeze Crests begin to break
4 11–16 Mod breeze Waves becoming larger, frequent

white crests
5 17–21 Fresh breeze Mod waves, many white crests,

some spray
6 22–27 Strong breeze Large waves, extensive white

crests
7 28–33 Near gale Sea heaps up, waves breaking

white foam blown in streaks
8 34–40 Gale Mod high waves, crests break

into spindrift, white foam
9 41–47 Strong gale High waves, crests topple

spray affects visibility
10 48–55 Storm Very high breaking waves,

dense foam streaks
Caution
Originally devised for larger sailing craft, this scale is
only a rough guide to what may be expected in open
water. Wind speeds are averages and gusts up to the
next force should be anticipated. Sea conditions are
generally more severe nearer to land and wave
height can increase dramatically within minutes.
You should never venture outside sheltered
waters unless you have obtained a current weather
forecast and can interpret it correctly.
148
WEATHER
Shipping forecasts
BBC radio shipping forecasts

Shipping forecasts are broadcast by BBC Radio 4 on
LW (1515m, 198 kHz) and Radio 4 FM at 0048, 0520,
1201* and 1754 (local time).
Reports from coastal stations are now only given
with 0048 and 0520 forecasts.
*Radio 4 FM (weekends only)
Note Broadcast times are subject to change.
Gale warnings
These are given at programme junctions following
their issue and after each hourly news bulletin.
Warnings remain in force until cancelled or if persisting
for more than 24 hours the warnings are
re-issued.
A gale warning indicates that winds of at least

force 8–34kn (gusting to 43kn) are expected in the
area.
A severe gale implies winds of force 9 with wind gust-
ing up to 50kn. A storm implies winds of force 10
gusting to 60kn.
Wind direction is given as the direction from which it
is blowing and is defined by compass point rather
than 360° notation.
Wind shifts
In the Northern hemisphere a wind is said to back
when it shifts to blow from a more anti-clockwise direc-
tion and to veer if it shifts to blow from a direction
more clockwise.
A backing wind usually indicates the approach of
bad weather, while a veering wind signals the
approach of better weather.
149
WEATHER Shipping forecasts
Meaning of shipping forecast terms
Timing of gale warnings

Imminent Within 6 hours of time of issue
Soon 6 to 12 hours
Later 12 to 24 hours
Visibility
Good More than 5 miles
Moderate 2 to 5 miles
Poor 1100 yards to 2 miles
Fog Less than 1100 yards
Pressure tendency
Steady Change less than
0·1mb in 3hrs
Rising or falling slowly Change 0·1 to 1·5mb
in last 3hrs
Rising or falling Change 1·6 to 3·5mb
in last 3hrs
Rising or falling quickly Change 3·6 to 6·0mb
in last 3hrs
Rising or falling very rapidly Change of more than
6·0mb in last 3hrs
Now rising or falling Change within the last
3hrs
Speed of movement
Slowly up to 15kn
Steadily 15 to 25kn
Rather quickly 25 to 35kn
Rapidly 35 to 45kn
Very rapidly over 45kn
150
WEATHER
Other weather forecasts
Other weather forecast sources
The Met Office This provides weather information

for sailors via phone, fax, internet and mobile phone.
There is also the facility to obtain direct access to a
Met Office forecaster if the need arises.
For a free Met Office booklet detailing these
services, telephone 0845 300 0300 or go to
www.metoffice. gov.uk/leisuremarine
Coastguard Inshore waters forecasts are announced
on VHF CH16; normally broadcast on VHF CH23, 84
or 86).
NAVTEX An electronic news and weather informa-
tion system. (A dedicated onboard receiver is needed.)
Internet Provides forecasts for UK inshore waters.
Met Office – www.meto.gov.uk
Online weather – www.onlineweather.com
Television TV weather maps provide a useful
overview of general weather trends.
CEEFAX and TELETEXT For the latest weather
updates.
Harbour office This will give the latest local weather
conditions.
Top tip
Always check the weather forecast before you go
and be prepared to change your plans. And remem-
ber, if in doubt – don’t go!
151
ANCHORING AND MOORING Anchors
Choice of anchor
CQR, Danforth and Bruce anchors have largely replaced
the ‘traditional’ Fisherman pattern as main anchor
because they offer more holding power for less weight.
It is the composition of the sea bed, however, that
finally determines whether or not any particular type of
anchor will hold well. Although a smaller, lighter anchor
may hold securely in an ‘ideal bottom’, it will almost cer-
tainly drag if the ground is very soft, or if it is too hard
for the anchor to penetrate. It is then the weight of the
anchor that matters, rather than its resistance to drag.
In general, anchors hold best in hard mud, clay or
sand and less well in soft mud, gravel and shingle.
Holding in weed or on rock is always unreliable.
Fisherman This anchor must be heavy to be effective
but it is the only one which will hold at all well on a
rocky sea bed. Can be stowed flat.
CQR High holding-to-weight ratio. Designed to burrow.
Good in sand and mud, not so good on hard sand or in
weed. Awkward to stow.
Danforth Good holding-to-weight ratio. Holds well in
soft sand and mud. Not good on hard sand or in weed.
Can often be hard to break out of sea bed. Stows flat.
Bruce Very high holding-to-weight ratio. Good in sand
or mud. Awkward to stow.
Top tip
Cruising boats should carry a large main anchor,
preferably rigged with chain, and a smaller kedge
anchor with a chain leader and a long nylon warp.
Having main and kedge anchors of different types
gives a choice to suit varying sea bed composition.
152
ANCHORING AND MOORING

Anchors
Common types of anchor
Fisherman CQR
Danforth Bruce
Fig 1 (Not to scale)
Suggested anchor weights (guide only)

Danforth/
Boat length Bruce CQR Chain
mtrs kg kg mm
6–8 5 8 8
9 7.5 14 8
10 10 14 10
11 10 14 10
12 15 19 10
14 20 25 12
16 20 25 12
18 30 34 12
Kedge anchor
Usually of a different type and about 20% lighter than
the main anchor, rigged with a 6m chain ‘leader’ and a
long nylon warp of suitable strength. 153
ANCHORING AND MOORING Anchors
Anchor cables
These can be of either chain or rope, but for any type
of anchor to be effective, the pull on its cable must
lie parallel to the sea bed. The weight of a chain
ensures a horizontal pull and its catenary (curve)
provides a damping effect as the yacht surges
against its anchor. If a nylon warp is used, at least six
metres of chain should be connected between it
and the anchor. The stretch in nylon rope acts as a
damper, but it is light and a weight may be needed
to increase the catenary and improve the horizontal
pull (Fig 2 opposite).
Where to anchor
A suitable place to anchor should be well protected
with little or no tidal stream and have good holding
ground. Recommended anchorages are printed on
charts or are indicated by the chart symbol .
Depth of water and composition of the sea bed is also

shown (Fig 3). Never anchor off a lee shore.
Tr Sp
0
M S
5 43
2 St
39 71 S/M
S 10
73
112
154 Fig 3
A Kedge anchor with chain leader and nylon warp
Fig 2
B Main anchor with all chain cable
Anchor ball
Anchor buoy
and trip line
Anchor
weight
A Catenary
B
Anchoring
31/1/10
155
14:15
Page 155
ANCHORING AND MOORING Anchoring
Anchoring technique
When you have found a suitable anchorage, motor in
and have a good look around. Choose a spot where
your boat will have ample room to swing around its
anchor without fouling anything or colliding with any
boats that are already there. If you have any doubts,
remember that the ‘first boat in has right of stay’ – so it’s
up to you to find another spot.
Have everything prepared in advance. Hang the
anchor over the bow roller, secured but ready to let go.
Flake out the required amount of cable on to the deck
and secure the inboard end to a cleat or the samson post.
You will need at least six times the maximum depth
of water expected if your cable is rope or four times the
depth if it is all chain (see page 82).
Make your approach into the strongest element –
wind or tide – and motor a short distance beyond the
spot where you want your boat to lie; put the engine in
neutral and once the boat has stopped, lower the
anchor smoothly to the bottom and pay out the cable
as the boat drifts back. When all the cable is out, a short
burst astern with the engine will usually set the anchor.
After the boat has settled down and appears to be
riding to the anchor, and before you switch off the
engine, take bearings on one or two fixed objects
ashore and check them periodically for any change that
would suggest a dragging anchor. Finally, rig an anchor
ball or light as required by the Colreg (see page 113).
Top tip
If you are unable to take bearings for any reason, sus-
pend a sounding lead from the bow, leaving some
slack in the line. Check the line every few minutes
without lifting the weight from the bottom. If the
line is still vertical, your anchor is holding, but if the
156 line is sloping out ahead, it is dragging.

Anchoring
Using two anchors

A boat lying to a single anchor will have a large
swinging circle and should not be left unattended. In
crowded anchorages in calm conditions, the circle can
be reduced by using two anchors laid out over the bow
with the heaviest anchor towards the strongest tidal
stream (Fig 4).
Drop the main anchor as before and allow the boat
to drift back as you pay out twice the required length
of cable. Lower the second anchor and pull the boat
forward again by hauling in the main cable while
paying out the second anchor’s cable until the boat is
positioned midway between the two anchors. Make
the second cable fast to the main cable and let them
out until the joint is well below the keel depth.
Caution
In strong cross winds both anchors may drag.
Fig 4
157
ANCHORING AND MOORING Anchoring
Windy conditions
When strong winds are expected, and the boat will be
wind-rode rather than tide-rode, a safer method of
lying to two anchors is to drop the main anchor as
before, allow the boat to drift back to set the anchor,
and then motor off at an angle of about 40º to the line
of the first anchor and drop the kedge level with it
(Fig 5). Allow the boat to drift back again, then adjust
and cleat the cables securely.
Fig 5
40°
Top tip
To secure a cable (rope or chain) to a samson post,
take three turns round the post, pass a bight of
cable under the part attached to the anchor
and slip it over the turns on the post.
For extra security, take the end
round the post again and
repeat the process
with a second bight of
cable. A rope or chain
secured in this way will
not jam and can be
released under load.
158

Anchoring
Fouled anchor
Never anchor near underwater cables or pipelines and
avoid places on the chart marked ‘Foul Ground’ where
there will be obstructions upon which an anchor might
become fast.
An anchor buoy with a trip line attached to the
crown of the anchor will provide a means of freeing it;
but it is not unknown for an unwary skipper to try to
moor up to someone else’s anchor buoy, and there is
also a danger that the line may foul your rudder at low
water and trip the anchor later as the tide rises. For these
reasons, you may prefer to lash the tripping line to your
anchor cable and bring the buoy back on board.
Fig 6
If you have no tripping line set and the anchor

becomes fast, haul the cable in until it is vertical and
taut, take a turn around a cleat, move all the crew right
aft and see if the motion of the boat will break it out
(Fig 6). If not, try motoring in the opposite direction
from which the anchor was originally set or veer a little
more cable, then keeping it taut, motor in a circle
around your anchor to see if that will free it. 159
ANCHORING AND MOORING Mooring alongside
When nearing your intended berth, note the direction

and strength of wind and tide and make your approach
into the strongest element. Check for obstructions or
warning notices, rig adequate fenders and if the quay
has projecting buttresses, rig a fender board to bridge
the gaps (Fig 7).
Mooring lines
The lines needed to hold a boat against a quay or
pontoon, or alongside another boat are generally
positioned as shown (Fig 8). Bow and stern lines hold
the boat in position while springs prevent her from
surging back and forth. Breast ropes hold the boat
close in but are rarely necessary on small craft and they
must never be left unattended on a boat berthed
against a tidal quay.
Unless your boat is moored to a floating pontoon,
ensure that all your other lines are long enough to
allow for the range of the tide. Bow and stern lines
should be at least three times as long as the predicted
range and springs one and a half times the range.
Top tip
If you expect to be away from the boat while the
tide is ebbing and you are uncertain about the
range of tide at your mooring, or the amount of slack
you need to leave in the lines, just make a bight in
one of the lines and double it, then put on a ‘seizing’
of some easily breaking stuff such as ordinary string.
If the lines are then subject to any undue strain, the
string will break and allow another metre or so of
slack (Fig 9).
160

Mooring alongside
Fig 7
A C C A
B B
Fenders
A – bow and stern lines B– springs

C – breast ropes
Fig 8
Fig 9
161
Mooring rings and bollards

A line is best attached to a mooring ring with a round
turn and two half hitches (Fig 10). This knot is very
secure and can be released while under tension.
A bowline is best for making fast to a bollard, but
always pass the loop up through any others that are
there before dropping it over the bollard (Fig 11). The
lines can then be released in any order just by lifting
the appropriate loop off the bollard and dropping it
back through the others.
Fig 10 Fig 11
Protect your lines from ‘chafe’ where they are likely to

rub on the rough stone edges of a tidal quay.
Route all mooring lines through fairleads on the boat

and secure them to deck cleats so that the load is
taken along their length, not across them.
Check to see if any mooring lines are likely to snag

and dislodge the fenders.
162

Mooring alongside
Slip ropes
When preparing to leave a berth, you can rig mooring
lines as slip ropes by doubling them back through a ring
or round a cleat or bollard on shore so you can let them
go from on board, but slip ropes are liable to jam if they
are not rigged or handled correctly.
When slipping from a ringbolt, pass the line down
through a ring which hangs from a quayside but up
through a ring which lies on top of a quay.
Always let go the shortest end of the rope and haul
in steadily.
Do not jerk the rope, especially when the end is near-
ing the ring or bollard.
Mooring alongside another boat

It doesn’t usually matter which way you face in relation
to the other boat, ask permission to come alongside
and head into the strongest element: wind or tide.
Provide adequate fenders; rig springs and breast ropes
to the other boat and haul them tight. If the boats are
facing the same way, adjust the springs to put the
masts out of line in case the boats roll, and take your
own bow and stern lines ashore (Fig 12). Don’t rely on
the other boat’s lines to hold you.
Fig 12
163
Leaving a raft of boats

To leave from a berth in the middle of a raft of boats, you
must rearrange the mooring lines of the adjacent boats
so that you can leave in the direction of the strongest
element (wind or tide) so that its force will cause the
other boats to swing together as you leave. If you
attempt to leave against a strong wind or tide, the raft
will be torn apart and boats may be damaged (Fig 13).
Fig 13
To leave a raft (bows first)

1 Have your engine running in neutral. Take in your
bow and stern lines, remove your springs from the
inside boat and make up the breast ropes as slip lines.
2 Unfasten the bow line of the boat lying outside you
at the mooring and lead it right round your own
boat, outside the guardrail and shrouds and back to
the shore, extending the line if necessary (Fig 15).
3 Cast off the springs and breast ropes of the outside
boat, make a final check for any forgotten ropes,
snagged fenders, or rope dangling in the water, then
slip your breast ropes from the inside boat and
gently ease your boat out with the current (Fig 16). If
there is no one aboard the other boats to help you,
you will have to leave one of your crew behind to
164 secure their lines, and pick him up later.

Mooring alongside
Fig 14
Fig 15
Fig 16
165
ANCHORING AND MOORING Leaving a berth
Leaving an alongside berth when there is little

or no wind or tidal stream
If your boat is docked closely between other boats and
you are short-handed, or your boat is too heavy to push
off with the boat-hook, try ‘springing it off’ using your
engine and a suitable mooring line.
Fig 17 Rig your bow spring as a ‘slip’ and position a

fender well forward between the bow and the
quay. Gently engage forward drive with rudder
turned towards the quay and the stern will begin to
swing out. Once you are clear of the boat behind,
slip and retrieve the spring and reverse away.
Fig 18 Rig a stern spring as a ‘slip’ and position a

fender well aft between the boat and the quay.
Centralise the rudder and gently engage astern
drive. The bow will begin to swing out and when it
is clear of the boat ahead, slip and retrieve the
166 spring and motor ahead and away.

Leaving a berth
Using the tidal stream to leave an alongside

berth
stream
Fig 19 With the tidal stream on the bow, position a

fender aft and rig the stern spring as a ‘slip’. Remove
the bow lines and the effect of the tidal stream will
cause the bow to swing out. When clear of any boat
ahead, engage forward drive, slip and retrieve the
stern spring and motor ahead and away.
stream
Fig 20 With the tidal stream from astern, position

a fender well forward and rig the bow spring as a
‘slip’. Remove the stern lines and the effect of the
tidal stream will cause the stern to swing out. When
clear of any boat behind you, engage astern
propulsion, slip and retrieve the bow spring and
reverse away. 167
SAILS AND WIND How sails work
It is possible to sail a boat ‘upwind’ chiefly because its

sails are designed to assume an aerofoil shape when
the wind strikes them. Air flowing over the curved lee-
ward side of the sail accelerates, decreasing the
pressure on that surface and creating a partial vacuum
or suction effect called ‘lift’ which tends to drive the
boat forward (Fig 1).
Fig 1 Faster air flow –

Lower pressure
‘LIFT’
WIND
Slower air flow –

Higher pressure
Wind pressure on the other side of the sail gives it its

curved shape and also creates a force that tries to push
the boat downwind. But this sideways movement (lee-
way) is resisted by the keel and rudder and so the for-
ward ‘lift’ of the sail predominates and, combined with
a similar forward ‘lift’ generated by the keel which func-
tions as a ‘hydrofoil’, the boat is driven in that direction
(Fig 2).
Wind
Fig 2
Lift
Lift
Resistance
168
SAILS AND WIND

The ‘slot’ effect
The faster that the air can be made to flow over the
curved surface of a sail, the greater will be the ‘lift’
created. This condition is met, when beating or
reaching, by an overlap between the headsail and the
luff of the main which creates a ‘slot effect’ to squeeze
and speed up the airflow through the gap between the
sails (Fig 3).
Fig 3
In general, the narrower the slot, the faster the airflow

(Fig 4), but this must not be overdone or the air-stream
from the leech of the headsail will ‘backwind’ the luff of
the mainsail (Fig 5) and destroy its lift completely.
The mainsail needs to be sheeted in slightly harder
than the headsail, but try to keep the slot between the
two sails even so that their leeches follow a similar
curve.
Fig 4 Fig 5
169
SAILS AND WIND Apparent wind
All moving vehicles experience a ‘speed wind’ blowing

in the opposite direction to that in which the vehicle is
moving (Fig 6).
Speed wind
20 knots
Fig 6 Boat speed – 20 knots
Even on a windless day, a cyclist will feel a wind on his

face caused solely by his movement through the still air
and the faster he pedals, the stronger that wind will
become (Fig 7).
Speed wind
Fig 7
On a windy day, the wind that is felt by the crew of a

moving yacht is a combination of the true wind and
the speed wind and is known to sailors as the ‘apparent
wind’. This is the wind to which the sails are trimmed
and its direction is invariably forward of the true wind’s
direction.
In sailing, especially sailboat racing, apparent wind is
a vitally important factor, since it determines the points
of sail on which the sails can most efficiently generate
forward motion.
170
SAILS AND WIND

Apparent wind
ind
d
d
in
in
tw
w
w
ren
ue
ue
pa
Ap
Tr
Tr
A B
45° 30°
SPEED WIND
Fig 8
Most boats are unable to sail closer than about 45° to
the true wind A but once the boat begins to move and
pick up speed, the apparent wind strengthens and
moves forward and the sails are trimmed accordingly
as in B (Fig 8).
d n
ee 4k
Sp ind Speed wind 5kn
w
Sp d 5
w
in
ee kn
d
n
d 15k
n
13 k
nt win
ind
True
wind
d
nt w
9kn t win
True True
Appare
12kn
wind wind
are
12kn 12kn
are
App
d
ee
App
n sp
4k oat
Boat
B
speed
Bo eed
5kn
at
s p
5k
n
CLOSE REACH BEAM REACH BROAD REACH
Fig 9
Given a true wind of constant velocity, the velocity and

direction of the apparent wind varies with the speed of
the vessel and its point of sailing, as shown by the
vector diagrams (Fig 9).
171
SAILS AND WIND Points of sailing
WIND
Beam reach
Close reach
Broad reach
Close-hauled
*
Head-to-
wind (in Running
irons)
Close-hauled
Close reach Broad reach

Beam reach
A boat cannot sail directly into the wind; its sails would
‘flog’ uselessly. They need to be set at an angle to the
wind to enable them to assume an aerodynamic shape
and develop drive. In order to reach an objective dead
to windward, the boat must be sailed on a zig-zag
course towards it, close-hauled on alternate tacks with
the wind first on one side of the boat and then the
other. The sails are sheeted in as tightly as possible, and
the boat is sailed as close to the wind as it will go with-
out losing drive in the sails.
172
SAILS AND WIND

Points of sailing
Beating, reaching and running

These are terms used to describe a boat’s course rela-
tive to the wind direction.
Beating No sailing boat is able to sail directly into the
wind and few can sail closer to the true wind than
about 45°. This term describes a boat that is sailing as
close to the wind as possible with its sails sheeted in
tightly (close-hauled).
Reaching is any point of sailing between that of
beating or running. The boat is said to be on a close
reach when it is no longer close-hauled or ‘hard on the
wind’. It is on a beam reach when the sails are eased
further out and the wind is at roughly right-angles to its
course, and it is on a broad reach when the wind
blows over the quarter (‘aft’ of the beam).
Running is when the boat is sailing directly down
wind with its sails eased out to their furthest extent.
When running, the headsail is in the lee of the main and
does no work so it is often ‘poled out’ on the opposite
side to catch the wind – generally known as ‘goose
winging’. Great care must be taken when running dead
before the wind since there is always the danger of an
involuntary gybe. If the wind should catch the sail from
the other side it may cause the boom to scythe across
the deck and strike anyone in its path.
A boat’s speed increases as it moves from close-hauled

to reaching and a broad reach can be the fastest point
of sailing if extra sail is set. Beyond this point, the
apparent wind diminishes, the boat slows and a dead
run is the slowest point of all.
173
KNOTS, BENDS AND HITCHES Knots
The dividing line between knots, bends and hitches is

not precise. In general, most knots are formed in the
end of a rope as a ‘stopper’ or ‘binder’, a bend is used to
join the ends of two ropes and a hitch is used to secure
a rope to some other object.
Figure of eight knot A single strand stopper put on
the end of a sheet or halyard to prevent the end
unreeving (Fig 1).
Fig 1
Reef knot A binder knot used for tying in ‘reef points’ or

when furling sails. To undo quickly, jerk one end away from
its own standing part (Fig 2) and the knot will capsize
into a cow hitch which will easily slide off the rope’s end.
Fig 2
Caution
Do not use a reef knot as a ‘bend’ for tying two ropes
together. If the ropes are of different sizes or materials,
or if one is stiffer than the other, the knot is very
liable to fail.
174
KNOTS, BENDS AND HITCHES

Knots and hitches
Bowline knot Undoubtedly this is the sailor’s most

useful knot. Used to form a standing loop in the end of
a line, it will not jam, slip or capsize. It is easy to undo
when not under load (Fig 3).
Fig 3
Half hitch (Fig 4): Although it will not hold on its own
without a seizing, it is the basis for several other knots,
one of which is the round turn and two half hitches
(Fig 5), the most commonly used hitch for securing a
rope to a post or bollard. It is easily untied. Seize the end
if it is used aloft.
Fig 4 Fig 5
175
KNOTS, BENDS AND HITCHES Hitches
Clove hitch Used to secure a line to a spar or post, this

hitch is only secure if a load is applied to both sides of
the knot (Fig 6). It tends to unwind with a steady pull to
one side only unless the free end of the line is seized, or
finished off with a couple of half hitches.
Fig 6
Rolling hitch Used to attach a line to a spar, or a larger

rope, when the direction of ‘pull’ is along the rope or
spar (Fig 7). It is basically a clove hitch with an extra turn
inserted on that side of the ‘clove’ to which the hitch
must not slide.
Fig 7
176

Bends
Fisherman’s (or anchor) bend A variation of the

round turn and two half hitches and is used to secure a
rope to a ring or an anchor (Fig 8). It is easy to undo, even
when it has been strained, and will not jam if the loose
end is stopped back to the standing part of the rope.
Fig 8
Sheet bend (Fig 9) Used to attach the end of one rope

to the end of another. The double sheet bend (Fig 10)
is more secure when one rope is much thinner than the
other. To join rope of different materials, the ends
should be seized to prevent the bend from ‘spilling’.
Fig 9 Fig 10
177
KNOTS, BENDS AND HITCHES Bends
Sheepshank (Fig 11) Used to temporarily shorten a

rope where both ends of the rope are made fast. It can
be used to take the strain off a damaged rope by ensur-
ing that the damaged part lies on the section of rope
between the two loops – X. The sheepshank will fall
apart if the load comes off the rope unless each bight is
secured to the standing part with a seizing.
Fig 11
The Klemheist knot (Fig 12) More familiar to climbers

perhaps, it has many uses on board as a ‘rolling stopper’.
The strop is easily fashioned from a short length of suit-
able line A and has the advantage that when it is
attached to another rope as shown in B the knot will
slide in either direction but when a strain is put on the
eye of the knot as in C it will not slip.
Fig 12
A B C
178

Cleating sheets and halyards
To cleat a halyard, apply a full turn (1) followed by one

half turn (2) and a twisted ‘locking’ turn (3) for extra
security. It is unwise to use a locking turn when cleating a
sheet; you may need to free it in a hurry. Just apply a full
turn, one half turn, and finish off with another full turn.
1 A full turn
2 A half turn
3 A locking turn
(a ‘twisted loop’)
Note
If a rope becomes jammed on a cleat it is usually
because the full turn is missing – there are too many
half turns – or the locking turn has been put on ‘back
to front’.
179
KNOTS, BENDS AND HITCHES Rope – characteristics and uses
Nylon (Enkalon, Polyamide) Rope used for anchoring,

mooring and towing lines. It is very strong with good
resistance to wear and ultraviolet degradation. Good
elastic and shock-absorbing qualities, but not very acid
resistant and tends to go stiff when wet, especially in
three-strand larger diameter sizes. The plaited version is
more flexible. Nylon does not float.
Polyester (Terylene, Dacron) This is used for mooring
lines. It is almost as strong as nylon, but not as elastic.
Also supplied ‘pre-stretched’ or braided for halyards,
sheets, reefing and control lines to give very low-
stretch qualities where needed most. It has excellent
chemical and ultraviolet resistance, good flexibility and
wear resistance but it does not float.
Polypropylene (Merkalon, Betelow, Novolen) A rope
used for mooring lines and other general purposes. It
comes in split film, monofilament, multifilament and
staple types. It is not as strong as polyester, and has a
stretch factor between nylon and polyester depending
on type. It has excellent chemical resistance but poor
resistance to ultraviolet light. Polypropylene has fairly
good wear resistance. The monofilament type is prone
to ‘splintering’ with age. All types float.
Kevlar This is used for halyards, sheets, guys and con-
trol lines. It has very high tensile strength and extremely
low-stretch qualities, but low resistance to ultraviolet
light therefore it is usually sheathed in polyester. It is fire
proof but does not float.
General stowage and care of rope Use the ‘figure of
eight’ for stowing braided ropes, but ‘coil’ three-strand
rope. Washing rope in fresh water removes dirt, grit, and
salt. Beware of mechanical damage. Avoid chafe by
routeing ropes through fairleads and protect ropes
that may rub on rough edges of quays or piers.
Remember that knots can reduce the strength of a rope by
180 as much as 50 per cent.
INLAND WATERWAYS
Licences/Equipment
Licences
British inland waterways are a relic of the industrial
revolution, former trade routes now largely given over
to pleasure craft. British Waterways manages more than
2000 miles of canals and rivers (see their website at
www.waterscape.com). The Environment Agency
together with other Canal Trusts and Authorities
administer the remainder. All boats using the water-
ways must be licensed and have a Boat Safety Scheme
certificate. The charge for a British Waterways licence is
based on the length of the boat and includes a
‘reciprocal use’ agreement with some, but not all of the
other waterway authorities.
Seagoing craft of suitable dimensions can access
parts of the waterways from several points around the
coast, but any restrictions imposed by depths of water,
clearance under bridges or lock size should be estab-
lished beforehand. Some equipment not normally
carried by seagoing craft should be obtained:
Equipment
Metal spikes for mooring to the bank.
A gang plank, for use when the boat cannot be
moored close in and a fairly long, stout pole for
‘pushing off’.
Extra fenders will be needed in locks.
A windlass for lock gate paddle gear.
A ‘headlight’ for dark tunnels.
Anchoring is not permitted on most canals but on
fast flowing rivers, keep an anchor ready anyway, for
use as a ‘handbrake’ in case of engine failure etc and a
‘mud weight’ could be useful where there is little or
no current.
You will also need maps of the canals and rivers
concerned to pinpoint the location of locks, weirs,
bridges, moorings, water, sanitation and refuse points.
181
INLAND WATERWAYS Buoyage and traffic lights
Canals do not have, or need, navigation marks. Where

these are found on other waterways they generally
conform to the conventional system of lateral buoyage
in tidal waters: red buoys or beacons showing red lights
at night being left to port when heading upstream, and
green buoys or beacons showing green lights at night
to starboard (Fig 1). (Some lateral marks may also have
a white band.)
Fig 1
Traffic lights similar to those used on roads are found at

some locks and bridges and must be obeyed (Fig 2).
Green Red – Stop

You may proceed Do not pass
this light
Red and Green Amber

Make ready to Proceed with
go but do not caution
pass red light
Fig 2
182
INLAND WATERWAYS
Rules of the Road
In general, boats on inland waterways observe the

same rules as seagoing vessels, but as most canals are
saucer shaped in section with the deepest water in the
middle, whenever possible, you should keep to the
middle of the channel except on bends where the
deepest water will be on the outside of the bend.
Whenever you meet another boat, slow down, move to
the right and steer to miss it but do not go in close to
the bank or you may run aground.
If you need to overtake another boat, leave it to star-
board (Fig 3) but do not attempt to overtake near
bends, bridges, weirs or locks.
Fig 3
When approaching a bridge where the channel

becomes narrower, slow down if a boat coming the
other way is nearer to the bridge than you are. Keep
over to the right until it is through and clear. On rivers,
a boat coming downstream always has priority (Fig 4).
Fig 4
183
INLAND WATERWAYS Locks
Locks are set on rivers and canals to enable boats to fol-

low the contours of the land. They vary in both size and
design, some being automated, while others are manu-
ally operated, but the working principle is the same.
Strong gates enclose each end of a brick or stone
chamber in which the water level can be adjusted to
equal the level above or below the lock.
The water is controlled by sliding ‘paddles’ which can
be opened to let water in at the top end of the lock or out
at the bottom. Ground paddles control the flow of water
through a culvert built into the lock side. Gate paddles
cover an underwater aperture in the gate itself (Fig 5).
Ground paddle Gate paddle

mechanism mechanism
Upper
pound Cill Lock chamber
Lower
pound
Fig 5 Culvert Cill
Lock operation The operating procedures are simple

– and safe – if carried out correctly.
A windlass is necessary to turn the gear which winds
the paddles up or down.
Make sure that it fits correctly; don’t use a square
section windlass on a tapered pinion.
Never leave the windlass on a raised paddle. If the
ratchet slips, the windlass will fly off and could
seriously injure someone.
Except in emergencies, always wind the paddle down.
Do not release the pawl and let the paddle drop.
Lock dimensions Lengths vary. Width inside:
Narrow locks – 7ft (2m); Broad locks – 14ft (4m) (max).
184
INLAND WATERWAYS
Locks
Going up
1 If the lock is full, ensure that the top paddles are
closed. Raise bottom paddles to empty the lock.
2 Open bottom gates and enter the lock. Close the
gates and bottom paddles (Fig 6).
3 Raise the top paddles and when the lock is full, open
the top gates and exit the lock.
4 Close the gates and top paddles.
Fig 6
In narrow locks open the paddles gradually. A sudden

inrush of water will cause the boat to surge forward
violently against the top gate. Hold a cruiser back with
ropes around a bollard. Ensure that the rising boat does
not become caught under any projections.
If yours is the only boat in a broad lock, open the
ground paddle on the same side as the boat first. The
inrush of water from the culvert will pin the boat along-
side and stop it being washed about.
In locks which have both ground and gate paddles,
open the ground paddles first and wait until the water
level has risen to cover the gate paddles before you
open them. If you open the gate paddles first, you
could swamp your boat.
185
INLAND WATERWAYS Locks
Going down
1 If the lock is empty, ensure that bottom gates and
paddles are closed and raise the top paddles to fill
the lock.
2 Open the top gates and enter the lock. Close the
gates and the top paddles (Fig 7).
3 Raise the bottom paddles and when the lock is
empty, open the gates and exit the lock.
4 Close the gates and bottom paddles.
Fig 7
Hold the boat steady with ropes but do not tie them to
anything. Ensure that the stern does not settle on to
the top gate cill or the bows become hooked on the
bottom gate. Some locks taper slightly – ensure that
any large pieces of debris, logs etc. do not become
wedged between the hull and the lock wall.
Man overboard in a lock

IMMEDIATELY close all paddles. Throw a lifebuoy and
line, stop the boat engine and ensure that the boat
cannot swing and crush the person in the water.
(Method of recovery must depend upon circum-
stances of course.)
186
INLAND WATERWAYS
Signals and signs
Signals
Use your horn to signal your intentions
Short blast Long blast Pause
I am turning to starboard
I am turning to port
I am going astern
I am unable to manoeuvre
I am turning around to my right
I am turning around to my left
Your intentions are unclear
Sound one long blast when approaching blind bends
or bridges. Repeat after 20 seconds.
Some common British Waterways signs

Warning Informative
17'6"
5.25m
Headroom Overhead Weir Toilet Water

limited cable pump out tap
Prohibitory Mandatory
No entry No No Turn in this Sound

overtaking turning direction horn
Note
Other navigation authorities may have different
signs and regulations. Make sure that you obtain and
read a copy of the relevant rules and regulations
before you set off.
187
02Skippers handbook:02Skippers handbook 31/1/10 14:24 Page 188
EUROPEAN INLAND WATERWAYS CEVNI – Rules, regulations & definitions
The Code Européen des Voies de la Navigation Intérieure –

CEVNI for short – is the code that is used to govern navi-
gation on all the interconnected inland waterways of
Europe. The rules, signs, signals and procedures that make
up the code are understood, and used by boat-masters of
all nationalities and if you intend to visit these waters, you
need to have a CEVNI qualification and a good working
knowledge of the code to navigate there in safety.
CEVNI classifies vessels over 20m long as ‘normal
vessels’ and gives them priority over small craft, so it is
essential for the skipper of a small pleasure craft to
understand the intentions of ‘normal vessels’ and be
able to interpret and correctly react to the signs and
signals which may be given by them.
Normal vessels going downstream have priority
over those coming upstream but upstream vessels can
choose which side they will give way on. If the meeting
is to be ‘port to port’ the upstream vessel will make no
signal, but if the meeting is to be ‘starboard to star-
board’, the upstream vessel will display a blue board –
with or without a scintillating white light – and the
downstream vessel signals acknowledgement by dis-
playing its own blue board.
Vessels flying a red pennant at the bows have prior-
ity of passage at specified places such as locks – even if
they are small craft. They include ‘official’ boats and
those giving a regular passenger service.
Vessels displaying blue cones by day or blue lights
at night have dangerous cargoes. Do not attempt to
enter a lock with a vessel displaying 2 or 3 blue cones.
Note
This section does not cover all the rules and signs for
CEVNI. It is a legal requirement to carry a copy of the
CEVNI handbook on board.
188
EUROPEAN INLAND WATERWAYS

CEVNI – visual signals on vessels
Signals indicating side to pass

Night
or
Pass slowly on either side. DO NOT CREATE WASH.

Night
or
Pass only on the side displaying red and white flags or a

red and white board. DO NOT CREATE WASH.
Night
or
Pass only on the side displaying green bi-cones or a green

and white board.
Night
or
It is safe to pass on either side.
Caution
Do not confuse the passage-prohibited sign
with the sign which permits passage without
creating wash. 189
EUROPEAN INLAND WATERWYS CEVNI – red waterway signs
General prohibitory signs
ENTRY OR PASSAGE NO ACCESS EXCEPT FOR

FORBIDDEN NON MOTORISED SMALL CRAFT
Specific prohibitions – Red diagonal bar
NO OVERTAKING NO PASSING OR NO TURNING

OVERTAKING
NO ANCHORING NO MOORING NO BERTHING
NO MOTORISED NO ROWING BOATS NO SAILING

VESSELS OR CANOES
Mandatory – Prescribed course
GO IN DIRECTION MOVE TO LEFT MOVE TO RIGHT

OF ARROW OF CHANNEL OF CHANNEL
KEEP TO LEFT KEEP TO RIGHT CROSS CHANNEL CROSS CHANNEL

OF CHANNEL OF CHANNEL TO PORT TO STBD
Important
These abridged notes and illustrations should only
be used in conjunction with those given in the
190 official CEVNI handbook.

CEVNI – red waterway signs
Restrictions and mandatory instructions
190 18
6 12
DEPTH LIMIT HEADROOM LIMITED PASSAGE CHANNEL CHANNEL 12m
(190cm) (6m) WIDTH (18m) FROM BANK
6
SPEED LIMIT KEEP A SHARP STOP AS SOUND HORN
(6kph LOOK OUT NECESSARY
GIVE WAY TO VESSELS USING MAJOR WATERWAY AHEAD NAVIGATION RESTRICTED

MAKE ENQUIRIES
Additional information panels
500
8 BAC ZOLL
SPEED LIMIT BEWARE – STOP – CUSTOMS
8kph IN 500m FERRY AHEAD
150
500
10
NO BERTHING NO ANCHORING FOR STRONG CROSS
WITHIN 10m NEXT 500m CURRENT – 150m
191
EUROPEAN INLAND WATERWAYS CEVNI – blue waterway signs
Blue informative and advisory signs
GO THIS WAY OVERHEAD CABLE TURNING AREA UNPOWERED FERRY
VHF
11
END OF RESTRICTION WEIR AHEAD CHANNEL IN MAJOR WATERWAY
LOCAL USE AHEAD
P 1200
ANCHORING MOORING BERTHING
PERMITTED PERMITTED PERMITTED
SPORT
PLEASURE CRAFT
MOORINGS
1200m AHEAD
BERTHING RESERVED FOR COMMERCIAL VESSELS
Special berthing signs
Vessels displaying blue cones by day or blue lights at

night have dangerous cargoes and special berths distin-
guished by blue triangles are reserved for these vessels.
Do not berth within 10m of a sign with one blue

triangle, within 50m of a sign with two triangles,
or within 100m of a sign with three triangles.
192

CEVNI – light signals
Light signals at locks and opening bridges
or
PROLONGED STOPPAGE NO ENTRY IN DIRECTION OF

(EG LOCK OUT OF SERVICE) THE ARROW
or or
TEMPORARY STOPPAGE
or or
DO NOT PASS – BUT PREPARE TO GET UNDERWAY
or with or or
Red and green lights control passage under moveable

bridges. When yellow lights are shown in conjunction
with red lights, passage is permitted for vessels of
reduced height.
or or
ENTRY PERMITTED
PASSAGE PERMITTED IN DIRECTION OF
THE ARROW
GREEN AND WHITE SIGN

Entry or passage permitted
(May be used in conjunction with lights.)
193
EUROPEAN INLAND WATERWAYS CEVNI – land marks and cross-overs
Land marks
or
Red and white top marks on posts indicate that the

channel lies close to the right bank – the bank on your
right-hand side as you travel down stream (‘Down hill’
on a canal).
or
Green and white top marks on posts indicate that the

channel lies close to the left bank – the bank on your
left-hand side as you travel down stream (‘Down hill’ on
a canal).
Lights – if fitted – are rhythmic red or green as
appropriate.
Cross-overs
or or
RIGHT BANK MARKS LEFT BANK MARKS
A post with either a yellow or a yellow and black top

mark indicates the place where the channel crosses
from one bank to the other.
Lights – when fitted – are yellow. Group flashing (2) or
occulting with even number characteristics on the
right bank.
Group flashing (3) or occulting with odd number char-
acteristics on the left bank.
194

CEVNI – fixed bridge markings
Bridges with channels too narrow to allow the simul-

taneous passage of two or more vessels are marked with
either red and white or green and white diamonds.
Fig 1 Passage is PROHIBITED in the area outside the

white triangles.
Fig 2 It is RECOMMENDED that vessels remain within

the area between the green triangles.
a b c
Fig 3a Red and white No entry/No passage sign. The

span is closed to traffic travelling in this direction
Fig 3b A single yellow diamond. The recommended
route for all vessels. The span is open to traffic in
BOTH directions.
Fig 3c Two yellow diamonds. The span is open for
vessels travelling in this direction, but is closed to
vessels coming the other way. 195
LOG CHECK Measured distance
All patent logs should be checked periodically for

accuracy. At a number of places on the coast, marks
have been set up in transit with accurately measured
distances between them to enable the speed of vessels
on passage to be checked (Fig 1).
Measured Distance
Fig 1
Using any charted distance of any length, steer a
course at constant speed under power parallel to the
chosen measured distance. Begin timing by stopwatch
as the first pair of marks come into transit and stop tim-
ing at the second transit.
With only a single run past the marks, allowance
must be made for any tidal stream which may be
affecting the course. Tidal stream can be ignored, how-
ever, when test runs are made at identical speeds in
alternate directions. In practice, when checking speed
in this manner, it is customary to make two or more
runs in each direction to obtain an average speed
which is more dependable.
The speed of the vessel over the ground is found by
dividing the distance run by the time taken.
196
To check the accuracy of the log against a measured distance
For each run made, record: Speed indicated by the log
Distance recorded by the log
Actual time taken
Complete the boxes below and compare the total distance recorded by the log for runs 1 and 2
against the measured distance to obtain the log error. Compare the average speed found against the
log’s recorded speed to find the log error.
Distance Elapsed Speed in
in metres time in knots
seconds
Difference Approx rate
Run 1 x 3600 ÷ ÷ 1852 = runs 1–2 tidal stream
÷2=
02Skippers handbook:02Skippers handbook
Run 2 x 3600 ÷ ÷ 1852 =

➧
3600 seconds per hour Average

1852 metres in one nautical mile Total 1 + 2 ÷2= ➧ speed
31/1/10
Checking speed and distance

14:24
197
LOG CHECK
Page 197
FACTS AND FIGURES Times, speed, distance/ETA/Tidal stream
Time, speed, distance

Distance x 60
= Time (in minutes)
Speed
Distance x 60
= Speed (in knots)
Time
Speed x Time
= Distance (in nautical miles)
60
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA)

Distance to go x 60 ÷ effective speed
= Time in minutes
Add to departure time to obtain ETA
A rough estimate of boat speed can be obtained by
noting the time it takes to travel its own length past
a stationary object in the water.
Length in metres
Speed in knots = x 1.94
Time in seconds
OR
Length in feet
Speed in knots = x 0.59
Time in seconds
Tidal stream – computation of rate

Range of tide for day
x Spring rate of tidal stream
Spring range of tide
198
FACTS AND FIGURES

Distance off/Conversion/Sun movement
Distance off by vertical sextant angle

1.852 x ht in metres
Dist Off =
(n miles) angle in mins of arc
Distance of visible horizon (n miles):

√ Ht of eye (metres) x 2.075
One nautical mile = 1·852 kilometres
= 1·15078 statute miles
= 6076·12 feet
= 1852 metres
= 10 cables
Conversion factors
Feet to metres multiply by 0·3048
Metres to feet " 3·2808
N miles to statute miles " 1·1515
Statute miles to n miles " 0·8684
Knots to mph " 1·1515
Mph to knots " 0·8684
Knots to km/hr " 1·8519
Km/hr to knots " 0·5400
Sq ft to sq m " 0·0929
Sq m to sq ft " 10·7643
Litres to pints " 1.7600
Litres to gallons " 0.2200
Pints to litres " 0.5683
Gallons to litres " 4.5460
1 Gallon (English) = 4.546 litres
1 Gallon (USA) = 3.785 litres
Apparent movement of the sun
1° in 4 mins
15° in 1 hour
360° in 24 hours
199
FACTS AND FIGURES Distance off by vertical angle
Dist Height in metres

in 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
miles
Vertical angle
0.1 3° 05’ 6° 10’ 9° 12’ 12° 11’ 15° 06’ 17° 56’ 20° 42’ 23° 21’ 25° 54’ 28° 21’
0.2 1 33 3 05 4 38 6 10 7 41 9 12 10 42 12 11 13 39 15 06
0.3 1 02 2 04 3 05 4 07 5 08 6 10 7 11 8 11 9 12 10 12
0.4 0 46 1 33 2 19 3 05 3 52 4 38 5 24 6 10 6 55 7 41
0.5 0 37 1 14 1 51 2 28 3 05 3 42 4 19 4 56 5 33 6 10
0.6 0 31 1 02 1 33 2 04 2 34 3 05 3 36 4 07 4 38 5 08
0.7 0 27 0 53 1 19 1 46 2 12 2 39 3 05 3 32 3 58 4 24
0.8 0 23 0 46 1 10 1 33 1 56 2 19 2 42 3 05 3 28 3 52
0.9 0 21 0 41 1 02 1 22 1 43 2 04 2 24 2 45 3 05 3 26
1.0 0 19 0 37 0 56 1 14 1 33 1 51 2 10 2 28 2 47 3 05
1.1 0 17 0 34 0 51 1 07 1 24 1 41 1 58 2 15 2 32 2 49
1.2 0 15 0 31 0 46 1 02 1 17 1 33 1 48 2 04 2 19 2 34
1.3 0 14 0 29 0 43 0 57 1 11 1 26 1 40 1 54 2 08 2 23
1.4 0 13 0 27 0 40 0 53 1 06 1 19 1 33 1 46 1 59 2 12
1.5 0 12 0 25 0 37 0 49 1 02 1 14 1 27 1 39 1 51 2 04
1.6 0 12 0 23 0 35 0 46 0 58 1 10 1 21 1 33 1 44 1 56
1.7 0 11 0 22 0 33 0 44 0 55 1 05 1 16 1 27 1 38 1 49
1.8 0 10 0 21 0 31 0 41 0 52 1 02 1 12 1 22 1 33 1 43
1.9 0 10 0 20 0 29 0 39 0 49 0 59 1 08 1 18 1 28 1 38
2.0 0 09 0 19 0 28 0 37 0 46 0 56 1 05 1 14 1 23 1 33
2.1 0 09 0 18 0 27 0 35 0 44 0 53 1 02 1 11 1 19 1 28
2.2 0 08 0 17 0 25 0 34 0 42 0 51 0 59 1 07 1 16 1 24
2.3 0 08 0 16 0 24 0 32 0 40 0 48 0 56 1 05 1 13 1 21
2.4 0 08 0 15 0 23 0 31 0 39 0 46 0 54 1 02 1 10 1 17
2.5 0 07 0 15 0 22 0 30 0 37 0 45 0 52 0 59 1 07 1 14
2.6 0 07 0 14 0 21 0 29 0 36 0 43 0 50 0 57 1 04 1 11
2.7 0 07 0 14 0 21 0 27 0 34 0 41 0 48 0 55 1 02 1 09
2.8 0 07 0 13 0 20 0 27 0 33 0 40 0 46 0 53 1 00 1 06
2.9 0 06 0 13 0 19 0 26 0 32 0 38 0 45 0 51 0 58 1 04
3.0 0 06 0 12 0 19 0 25 0 31 0 37 0 43 0 49 0 56 1 02
3.1 0 06 0 12 0 18 0 24 0 30 0 36 0 42 0 48 0 54 1 00
3.2 0 06 0 12 0 17 0 23 0 29 0 35 0 41 0 46 0 52 0 58
3.3 0 06 0 11 0 17 0 22 0 28 0 34 0 39 0 45 0 51 0 56
3.4 0 05 0 11 0 16 0 22 0 27 0 33 0 38 0 44 0 49 0 55
3.5 0 05 0 11 0 16 0 21 0 27 0 32 0 37 0 42 0 48 0 53
3.6 0 05 0 10 0 15 0 21 0 26 0 31 0 35 0 41 0 46 0 52
3.7 0 05 0 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 30 0 35 0 40 0 45 0 50
3.8 0 05 0 10 0 15 0 20 0 24 0 29 0 34 0 39 0 44 0 49
3.9 0 05 0 10 0 14 0 19 0 24 0 29 0 33 0 38 0 43 0 48
4.0 0 05 0 09 0 14 0 19 0 23 0 28 0 32 0 37 0 42 0 46
4.1 0 05 0 09 0 14 0 18 0 23 0 27 0 32 0 35 0 41 0 45
4.2 0 04 0 09 0 13 0 18 0 22 0 27 0 31 0 35 0 40 0 44
4.3 0 04 0 09 0 13 0 17 0 22 0 26 0 30 0 35 0 39 0 43
4.4 0 04 0 08 0 13 0 17 0 21 0 25 0 30 0 34 0 38 0 42
4.5 0 04 0 08 0 12 0 16 0 21 0 24 0 29 0 33 0 37 0 41
4.6 0 04 0 08 0 12 0 16 0 20 0 24 0 28 0 32 0 36 0 40
4.7 0 04 0 08 0 12 0 16 0 20 0 24 0 28 0 32 0 36 0 39
4.8 0 04 0 08 0 12 0 15 0 19 0 23 0 27 0 31 0 35 0 39
4.9 0 04 0 08 0 11 0 15 0 19 0 23 0 27 0 30 0 34 0 38
5.0 0 04 0 07 0 11 0 15 0 19 0 22 0 25 0 30 0 33 0 37
32.8 65.6 98.41 31.2 164.0 196.8 229.7 262.5 295.3 328.1
Height in feet See page 96
200
FACTS AND FIGURES

Range of lights
Distance of lights – rising or dipping

HEIGHT OF EYE
Height Metres
of 1.5 3 4.6 6.1 7.6
Light Feet
5 10 15 20 25
m ft
12 40 9 3⁄4 11 11 3⁄4 12 1⁄ 2 13
15 50 10 3⁄4 11 3⁄4 12 1⁄ 2 13 1⁄ 4 14
18 60 11 1⁄ 2 12 1⁄2 13 1⁄ 2 14 14 3⁄4
21 70 12 1⁄ 4 13 1⁄ 4 14 14 3⁄4 15 1⁄ 2
24 80 13 14 14 3⁄4 15 1⁄ 2 16
27 90 13 1⁄ 2 14 1⁄ 2 15 1⁄ 2 16 16 3⁄4
30 100 14 15 16 16 1⁄ 2 17 1⁄ 4
34 110 14 1⁄ 2 15 3⁄ 4 16 1⁄ 2 17 1⁄ 4 17 3⁄4
37 120 15 1⁄ 4 16 1⁄ 4 17 17 3⁄4 18 1⁄ 4
40 130 15 3⁄ 4 16 3⁄ 4 17 1⁄ 2 18 1⁄ 4 19
43 140 16 1⁄ 4 17 1⁄ 4 18 18 3⁄ 4 19 1⁄ 2
46 150 16 3⁄4 17 3⁄4 18 1⁄ 2 19 1⁄ 4 19 3⁄4
49 160 17 18 1⁄ 4 19 19 3⁄4 20 1⁄ 4
52 170 17 1⁄ 2 18 1⁄ 2 19 1⁄ 2 20 20 3⁄4
55 180 18 19 20 20 1⁄ 2 21 1⁄ 4
58 190 18 1⁄ 2 19 1⁄ 2 20 1⁄ 4 21 21 1⁄ 2
61 200 18 3⁄4 20 20 3⁄4 21 1⁄ 2 22
64 210 19 1⁄ 4 20 1⁄ 4 21 21 3⁄ 4 22 1⁄ 2
67 220 19 1⁄ 2 20 3⁄4 21 1⁄ 2 22 1⁄ 4 22 3⁄ 4
70 230 20 21 22 22 1⁄ 2 23 1⁄ 4
73 240 20 1⁄ 2 21 1⁄ 2 22 1⁄ 4 23 23 1⁄ 2
76 250 20 3⁄4 21 3⁄4 22 1⁄ 2 23 1⁄ 4 24
79 260 21 22 1⁄ 4 23 23 3⁄ 4 24 1⁄ 4
82 270 21 1⁄ 2 22 1⁄ 2 23 1⁄ 4 24 24 1⁄ 2
85 280 21 3⁄4 23 23 3⁄ 4 24 1⁄ 2 25
88 290 22 23 1⁄ 4 24 24 3⁄ 4 25 1⁄ 4
91 300 22 1⁄ 2 23 1⁄ 2 24 1⁄ 2 25 25 3⁄4
Distance of sea horizon

Height of eye Distance Height of eye Distance
metres feet n miles metres feet n miles
0.3 1 1.15 4.3 14 4.30
0.6 2 1.62 4.9 16 4.60
0.9 3 1.99 5.5 18 4.87
1.2 4 2.30 6.1 20 5.14
1.5 5 2.57 6.7 22 5.39
1.8 6 2.81 7.3 24 5.62
2.1 7 3.04 7.9 26 5.86
2.4 8 3.25 8.5 28 6.08
2.7 9 3.45 9.1 30 6.30
3.0 10 3.63 9.8 32 6.50
3.4 11 3.81 10.4 34 6.70
3.7 12 3.98 11.0 36 6.90
4.0 13 4.14 11.6 38 7.09
201
INDEX Index
Admiralty charts 11, charted drying height distress signals 125

31 – calculating height dredging, lights for 112
advection (sea fog) of tide 89–90 drift (tidal) 30
147 charted overhead drying height 28, 29
AIS 68–9 clearance 29
all round light 106 charted sounding 28, ebb tide 27
alternating lights 120 29 echo sounder, using
anchors 152–4 checking speed and for anchoring 81, 84,
anchored vessels 116 distance 196 86
anchoring – depth by clearance under a effect of tidal streams
echo sounder 84 bridge 98–9 30–1
anchoring 154–9 clearing bearings 66 electronic chart
anticyclones 140 cleating a halyard 179 systems 67
apparent wind 170–1 clove hitch 176 electronic navigation
arcs of visibility of nav
coastal navigation 8 58–67
lights 106 coastal tidal streams emergencies 124
Automatic 36 EPIRBs 124
Identification code flag A 114 equipment for inland
System 68–9 collision avoidance 68, waterways 181
101–5 estimated position
backing winds 149 Colregs 101–116 (EP) 48–50
barometric pressure compass 14–19 plotting 49
139 bearings 18–19 estimated time of
bearings 18, 19, 52, 61 checking 16–17 arrival (ETA) 47
Beaufort Wind Scale conversion 18–19, calculation 198
148 49 European waterways
bends 177–8 siting 16 188–195
berth, leaving 166–7 correcting charts 12,
bowline knot 175 13 figure of eight knot
Breton plotter 9–10 course to steer 38–47 174
Bruce anchor 152–3 CQR anchor 152, 153 fisherman anchor 152
buoyage for UK inland crabbing 30 fisherman’s bend 177
waterways 182 crosstrack and range fishing boat lights 111
buoys 117–20 to waypoint 63 fix symbol 49
light characteristics fixed lights 120
120 Danforth anchor 152, fixing position 51–53
Buys Ballot’s Law 142 153 flags 136–7
daymarks on vessels flares, distress 123
cables 6 113 flashing lights 106, 120
cardinal marks 117, dead reckoning 50 flood tide 27
118 depressions, weather fog 147
CEEFAX 151 140, 142 fouled anchor 159
CEVNI regulations for depth and clearance
European water- under keel 85–90 gale warnings 149
ways 188 depth to anchor 82 give-way vessel 101
channel marks 117 destination to wind- Gnomonic charts 5
channels 36 ward 44, 64 GPS
Chart 5011 11, 12 deviation 15, 18, 39 clearing bearings 66
chart card 16 crosstrack and range
agents 12 dipping lights 92–3 to waypoint 63
correction 12, 13 direction and com- horizontal datums
datum 28–9 pass 14–19 58
plotters 67 distance off 91–3, 95, laying the wind-
symbols 11 199, 200 ward mark 65
systems, electronic distance, measuring 6 position by lat and
202 67 distress flares 123 long 62
INDEX
Index
position by range isobars 143–4 measuring distance 6,

and bearing 61 isolated danger marks 7, 196
sailing to windward 117, 118 Mercator projection 2,
64 isophase lights 120 4
waypoint navi- meridians of
gation 59, 60 katabatic winds 147 longitude 2, 3
graph for tidal curves kedge anchor 152, 153 Met Office 151
70–1, 79, 83, 100 keel, depth under mooring 160–165
Great Circle 5 85–90 leaving a raft of
Greenwich meridian 2, Klemheist knot 178 boats 164–5
3 knots 174–8 morse code 135
ground track symbol knots (nautical motor yachts, lights
39, 49 miles) 6 required for 107
half hitch 175 land breezes 146 nautical atlases 32

hand bearing lateral drift 30 nautical miles 6
compass 19, 50, 52 lateral marks 117, 119 navigation lights
harness 126 latitude 2–3, 6, 7, 62 106–113
headlands 36 scale 7, 8 NAVTEX 151
height differences, laying the windward neap tides 24
tidal 73 mark 44, 65
height of light 91–3 lee bowing the tide 45 occulting lights 120
height of tide 27, 28, leeway 20–21 overfalls 36
29 allowance 39 overtaking vessels 103,
height of tide, allowing for 22–3 104
calculating 88–9 licences for inland
helicopter rescue 127 waterways 181 Panpan 125
high pressure 140 life saving signals parallels of latitude
hitches, 174–6 128–9 2–3
horizontal datums 58 lifejackets 126 personal safety 126
hovercraft lights 109 liferafts 126 phonetic alphabet 135
hypothermia 126 light characteristics of plotting estimated
buoys 120 position 49
IALA Maritime light signals, CEVNI 193 plotting position 8
Buoyage System lights on vessels points of sailing 172–3
117–120 106–112 Poles 2, 3, 6
index error 94 locks 184–6 position 48–57
inland waterways, UK log check 196–7 and distance by
181–7 longitude 2–3, 6, 7, 62 range and
licences 181 low pressure 140 bearing 61
locks 184–6 lines 50
rules of the road 182 magnetic compass plotting 8
traffic lights 182 14–15 power boats keeping
signals 187 man overboard 130–4 clear 103
equipment 181 in a lock 186 power boats, lights
International maps, weather 143–5 required for 107
Regulations for Mayday 125 projection, chart 2, 3
Preventing mean high water
Collisions at Sea 116 neaps (MHWN) 28–9 radiation (land fog)
interpolation springs (MHWS) 147
tidal differences 28–9 range of tide 27, 34
74–5 mean low water ranges of lights 201
of rate 34 neaps (MLWN) 28–9 rate (tidal) 30
tidal stream 35 springs (MLWS) rectilinear tidal
IRPCS 116 28–9 streams 40, 41
203
INDEX Index
reduction to special marks 117, 119 track through the

soundings 80, 81 speed 6, 47 water 50
reef knot 174 and distance, traffic lights for inland
rhumb line 4, 43 checking 197 waterways 182
rising lights 92, 93 over the ground 31 traffic separation
risk of collision 102 spring range 34 schemes 101
rolling hitch 176 spring tides 24 transferred position
rope 180 stand of tide 27, 40 line 56
rotary tidal streams 40 stand on vessel 101 transits 54–5
rule of twelfths 77 standard ports 70, 71 triangle of position
rules of the road steering a single (cocked hat) 52
101–116 course 43 true bearings 18, 19
UK waterways 183 steering compass 16,
running fixes 56, 57 17, 52 UK inland waterways
steering rules 101–5 181–190
safe water marks 117, symbols, chart 11
118 synoptic weather variation 14, 18, 39
safety and distress charts 143 vector triangles 38
123–134 veering winds 149
Safety of Life at Sea taking fixes 53 vertical sextant angle
(SOLAS) 121, 122 three point fix 53 95–6
sailing rules 101–105 tidal anomalies 78, vessel’s heading 15
sailing to windward 79 vessels meeting 103
44–46, 64 tidal atlases 32 VHF radio 124–5
sailing vessels keeping tidal curves 70–79 visual bearings 52
clear 105 using to find
sailing vessels clearance 100 water depth under
meeting 104, 105 tidal definitions 28–9 keel 85–90
sails and wind 168–73 tidal diamonds 33 water track symbol 39,
satellite derived tidal differences 72–4 49
position 58 tidal heights 29 water, checking depth
satellite failure 58 tidal patterns 25–6 of 82
sea breezes 146 tidal streams 27, 30–7, waterway signs, CEVNI
sea state 37 34, 39, 49 190–2
secondary ports computation of weather 138–151
72–76 rate 198 forecasts 149–151
sectored lights 120 effect of 30 fronts 141
set (tidal) 30 longer passages maps 143–5
sextant 94–97 40–42 patterns 138
sheepshank 178 rectilinear 40, 41 Weekly Notices to
sheet bend 177 rotary 40, 42 Mariners 12, 13
shipping forecasts stream information WGS 84 58
149, 150 32, 33 wind and sails 168–73
signals on UK inland stream interpolation wind belts 139
waterways 187 35 wind shifts 149
slack water 40 tide tables 32 winds, local 146
slip ropes 163 tides 24, 27–37 World Geodetic
software for chart height of 27 System 1984 58
plotters 67 range of 27 wreck marking buoy
SOLAS regulations stand of the 40 117, 119
121, 122 time zones 73
sound signals 115, 116 times, speed, distance
sources of tidal calculations 198
information 32 towing light 106,109
204

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00Prelims Skippers hdbk:00Prelims Skippers hdbk 31/1/10 13:50 Pag

ADLARD COLES NAUTICAL

And Major – safe in harbour now.

Published by Adlard Coles Nautical

Copyright © Malcolm Pearson, 1993, 1995, 2000, 2004, 2007

First edition published by Thomas Reed Publications 1993

Print ISBN 978-1-4081-2477-2

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

Note: While all reasonable care has been taken in the

Original drawings by Sherrie Pearson;

Course to steer 38 Clearance under bridges 98

SOLAS 121 Sails and wind 168

First published in 1993, Reeds Skipper’s Handbook soon

POSITION AND DISTANCE Latitude and longitude

Latitude and longitude

Lines of latitude and longitude form complete circles

POSITION AND DISTANCE

Longitude 135°W 135°E Longitude

POSTION AND DISTANCE Mercator charts

Mercator charts and rhumb Lines

50° Boat’s course

POSITION AND DISTANCE

A Great Circle is the largest circle that can be drawn

POSITION AND DISTANCE Measuring distance

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical

Because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, however, the

POSITION AND DISTANCE

The latitude scale at the sides of a Mercator chart,

POSITION AND DISTANCE Plotting position

Fig 10 Position on the Earth’s surface is expressed in

Fig 11 In coastal navigation, the position of a vessel is

POSITION AND DISTANCE

The Breton plotter

To use this plotter to measure the bearing of one

POSITION AND DISTANCE Plotting position

To draw a course line, or tidal stream vector, on the

80∞ 90∞ 100∞ 110∞

POSITION AND DISTANCE

Reading the chart

Overfalls, tide rips, races

Obstruction or danger, exact nature not

Obstn Obstruction, depth known

Obstruction which has been swept by

Rock which does not cover, height above

Rock which covers and uncovers, height

Rock awash at the level of chart datum

Underwater rock, depth unknown,

Wk Wreck showing any part of hull or

Wreck, depth unknown which is considered

A complete list of symbols and abbreviations is provided

POSITION AND DISTANCE Chart correction

POSITION AND DISTANCE

Never insert new symbols on top of existing ones

Major or complicated amendments are sometimes

DIRECTION AND COMPASS Variation

True north Magnetic north

Fig 1 A magnetic compass points towards magnetic

Variation not only differs from place to place but also

DIRECTION AND COMPASS

Deviation west Deviation east