CHAPTER 7

ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Ore microscopy involves not only the identification of individual mineral

grains but also the interpretation of ore mineral textures , that is, the spatial
relationships between grains. Barton (1991)has astutely noted that "the inter-
pretation oftextures is simultaneously one ofthe most difficult and important
aspects of the study of rocks and ores." Textures may provide evidence of the
nature of such processes as initial ore deposition, postdepositional re-
equilibration or metamorphism, deformation, annealing, and meteoric
weathering. The recognition and interpretation of textures is often the most
important step in understanding the origin and postdepositional history of an
ore. However,the extent to which the ore minerals retain the compositions and
textures formed during initial crystallization varie s widely. Figure 7.1 illus-
trates this variability in terms of equilibration rates and shows that oxides, di-
sulfides, arsenides, and sphalerite are the most refractory of ore minerals.
These minerals are more likely to preserve evidence of their original con-
ditions of formation than are minerals such as the pyrrhotites or Cu-Fe sul-
fides. Argentite, sulfosalts, and native metals are among the most readily
re-equilibrated ore minerals and thus are the least likely to reflect init ial for-
mation conditions. The textures observed in many polymetallic ores reflect
the stages, sometimes numerous, in their development and postdepositional
history. Consequently, the textures and compositions observed in close prox-
imity in complex polymetallic ores may actually reflect several different stages
in the development and postdepositional history of an ore deposit. Hence, the
morphologies and inclusion patterns within refractory minerals such as pyrite
may represent initial high-temperature conditions, whereas coexisting pyr-
120
 INTRODUCTION 121

800

U
~ 600
e
a~
l1>
a.
E
l1>
I-

Argent ite

10- 2

FIGURE 7.1 Equilibration times for various sulfides involved in solid state reactions.
The field widths represent differing rates in different reactions, as well as changes in
rates due to compositional differences in a phase and a great deal of experimental
uncertainty. (From H. L. Barnes, Geochemistry ofHydrothermal OreDeposits, 2nd ed.,
copyright e 1979, Wiley-Interscience, New York, p. 287; used with permission.)

rhotites may have equilibrated-to-intermediate-temperature conditions dur-

ing cooling, and minor sulfosalts or native metals may have equilibrated
down to the very lowest ambient temperatures. Furthermore, there are often
weathering effects that have been superimposed much later and that may be
totally unrelated to the original processes offormation. Hence, complete tex-
tural interpretation involves not only recognition and interpretation of the
individual textures but also their placement in the time framework of the
evolution of the deposit from its formation until the present day.
Textural recognition and interpretation, in addition to providing insight
into the history of a deposit, may also aid in mineral identification (see Section
3.5) and may supply information valuable to ore milling and beneficiation.
Furthermore, the same textures observed in ore mineral assemblages are
found in a large variety of synthetic-made materials (e.g., slags, metals, dental
amalgams, corrosion products), and proper interpretation can help in the
solution of many practical problems. Several of these aspects are discussed in
Chapter 11.
It is not possible, in this text, to discuss the complete variety of textures
observed in ores, but a number of common examples will be described and
used to illustrate the principles involved in textural interpretation. Many
 122 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

additional textures found in specific ore associations are illustrated in Chap-

ters 9 and 10. It is worth noting that many textures are still inadequately
understood and that experienced ore microscopists still disagree as to their
precise origin. Clearly, there remains much to be learned in the realm oftex-
tural interpretation.

FIGURE 7.2 (a) Skeletal crystals of ilme nite in basalt from Hawa ii (width of field =
150 11m). (b) Sulfide d ro plet in Mid-Atl antic Ridge b as alt , composed of (Fe,Ni )l_xSmon-
osulfide solid solution (me diu m gray) and (Cu , Fe)S2_x intermediate solid solutio n
(ligh t gray) . with rim s a nd flames of penti andite (bright) (width of field = 250 11m).
(Re prod uced fro m G . K. Cz a mans kie an d J. G . Moore, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 88,591,
1977. with permissio n.)
 PRIMARY TEXTURES OF OPEN-SPACE DEPOSITION 123

7.2 PRIMARY TEXTURES OF ORE MINERALS FORMED

FROM MELTS

The growth of ore minerals in silicate melts generally results in the develop-
ment ofeuhedral to subhedral crystals,because there is little obstruction to the
growth of faces. Thus, primary chromite, magnetite , ilmenite, and platinum
minerals, phases that are refractory enough to retain original textures, often
occur as well-developed equant euhedra interspersed in the plagioclase, oli-
vine, and pyroxene of the host rock (Figure 9.1). Unobstructed growth, es-
pecially in rapidly cooled basalts, sometimes results in the formation of
skeletal crystals (Figure 7.2a)that may be wholly or partially contained within
subsequently solidified glasses or crystallizing silicates. Poikilitic develop-
ment of silicates in oxides or oxides in silicates is not uncommon. In oxide-
rich layers, the simultaneous crystallization of mutually interfering grains
results in subhedral crystals with widely variable interfacial angles. In con-
trast, the interfacial angles at triple-grain junctions of monomineralic masses
that have been annealed during slow cooling or during metamorphism gen-
erallyapproach 120° (see Section 7.7 for further discussion).
Iron (plus nickel, copper)-sulfur (-oxygen) melts, from which iron-nickel-
copper ores form (see Section 9.3), generally crystallize later than the enclos-
ing silicates.The magnetite often present in these ores crystallizes, whereas the
iron sulfides are wholly or partially molten, and thus tends to be euhedral or
skeletal, whereas the much less refractory sulfides (mostly pyrrhotite) exhibit
textures of cooling and annealing. Primary iron-sulfur (-oxygen) melts can
also result in the formation of small « 100 urn) round droplets trapped in
rapidly cooled basalts and basaltic glasses (see Figure 7.2b).

7.3 PRIMARY TEXTURES OF OPEN-SPACE DEPOSITION

The initial deposition and growth of the ore and gangue minerals in many
deposits occurs in open spaces in vugs or fractures developed by dissolution or
during faulting .Although the open space may no longer be evident because of
subsequent infilling or deformation, the initial formation of the crystals in
open space is often still evidenced by the presence of well-developed crystal
faces (especially in such minerals as sphalerite-see Figures 7.3a and 7.3b-or
chalcopyrite that rarely exhibit euhedral forms) , by crystals that exhibit
growth-zoning (Figure 7.4), by colloform or zoned monomineralic bands
(Figures 7.5a-7.5c). All of these features result from unobstructed growth of
minerals into fluid-filled voids, the banding being the result ofa change in the
ore-forming fluids and the physico-chemical environment of mineralization
with time. Deposition from hydrothermal solutions in open fissures can result
in comb structures and in symmetrically and rhythmically crustified veins, as
shown in Figures 7.6a and 7.6b. Movement along such a vein during or after
ore formation may cause brecciation resulting in breccia ore (Figure 7.7). All of
124 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

(al

. (bl

FIGURE 7.3 (a) Well-developed freestanding crystals such as these 1-2 em diameter
spha lerites are generally good evidence of growth in open spaces, Elmwood,Tenn essee
(centimeter scale). (b) The face of the first generation of sphalerite (containing nu-
merou s dark fluid inclusions) cuts across from the upper left to the lower right portion
of the photograph. The second gene ration of sph alerite,which fills the upper portion of
the photograph, contains few inclusions and a much lower level of trace constituents.
Doubly polished thin section; Elmwood, Tennessee (width of field = 1,400 urn),

these textures may be developed on a scale ranging from macroscopic to

micro scopic, and their recognition is important if one is trying to reconstruct
the entire paragenetic history ofa deposit. Open-space filling is exemplified by
the Cu-Pb-Zru -Ag) vein deposits (discussed in Section 9.6) composed of
pyrite, sph alerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and silver-bearing sulfosalts, and by
some Pb-Zn ores in carbonates (discussed in Section 10.7).Pyrite in these ores
generally forms as isolated cubes, more rarely as octahedra or pyritohedra, or
as aggregates of interfering crystal s along the walls of fractures. Sph alerite
may occur as honey-yellow to black crystals or radiating colloform aggregates,
FIGURE 7.4 Growth zoning in a single crystal of sphalerite (from Creede, Colorado)
viewed in transmitted light through a doubly polished thin section. Trails of fluid
inclusions are visible cutting across the growth zones (width of field = 1,200 urn),

FIGURE 7.5 (a) Concentric growth b anding in sphalerite (from Austinville, Virginia)
viewed in transmitted light through a doubly polished thin section. Black areas are
pyrite; white areas are dolomite (width of field = 4 em) . (b) Colloform growth banding
in sphalerite (from Pine Point, North West Territories, Canada) seen in reflected light
(width of field = 2 ern). (c) Growth zoning in pyrite showing radial and concentric
development (fro m Ainai Mine, Japan) seen in reflected light (width of field =
2,000 11m).

125
 126 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

FIGURE 7.5 (Continued)

which often cont ain a well-developed growth banding or zoning (Figure 7.4);
this structure is clearly visible in doubly polished thin sections but is difficult
to see in polished sections (see Section 2.5 and Figure 2.9). Darker sphalerite
colors generally indicate higher iron content, but this correlation is by no
mean s consistent and is especially unreliable if iron content is below 5%.
Gal ena, commonly observed as anhedral intergranular aggregates in many
 PRIMARY TEXTURES OF OPEN-SPACE DEPOSITION 127

:w

(b)

FIGURE 7.6 (a) Comb structure showing growth of crystals outward from fracture
walls. (b) Symmetrically crustified vein showing successive deposition of minerals
inward from open fracture walls. Th is vein is also rhythmically crustified in showing
the depositional sequences a-b-a-c (w = wall rock). Scale variable from millimeter to
several meters across vein.

types of ores, often occurs as well-formed cubes and less commonly as oc-
tahedra or skeletal crystals in open voids. Episodic precipitation, sometimes
with intervening periods of leaching, often leaves hopper-like crystals of
galena. Chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, and the "ruby-silvers" (polybasite-pear-
cite), which almost never exhibit any crystal form in massive ores, commonly
appear as euhedral crystals when unimpeded growth in open cavities occurs.

U'

FIGURE 7.7 Breccia ore showing successive deposition of minerals on breccia frag-
ments and other wall rocks. Scale variable from wall rock fragments of millimeter to
several meters across breccia fragments.
FIGURE 7.8 Compositionally zoned crystals of bravoite (Fe.Ni.Cojfs, from M au-
bach , Ge rm any (width of field = 60 11m).

FIGURE 7.9 (a) Radi ating fibro us crys ta ls of th e mangan ese oxide mineral ch al-
cophanite infilling a n ope n frac ture, Red Bru sh M in e, Virginia (widt h offield = 2,000
11m). (b) Radiating clu sters of fibro us goe th ite crystals forming a botryoidal aggregate
in a weathering zone, Gi les Co ., Virgi nia (width of field = 2,000 11m).
128
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM REPLACEMENT (INCLUDING WEATHERING) 129

FIGURE 7.9 (Continued)

Sequential deposition from cobalt- and nickel-bearing solutions may re-

sult in the development of concentrically growth-zoned pyrite-bravoite crys-
tals (Figure 7.8), which often reveal changing crystal morphology. (cube,
octahedron, pyritohedron) during growth. A similar process of sequential
deposition from metal- and sulfur-bearing fluids circulating through the
intergranular pore spaces in sediments may leave concentric sulfide coatings
on the sediment grains.
Iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides often form botryoidal or even
stalactitic structures in open fractures as a result of meteoric water circulation.
These minerals (e.g., goethite, lepidocrocite, pyrolusite, cryptomelane) may
form concentric overgrowths inward from vein walls or complex masses offib-
rous (brush-like) crystals (Figures 7.9a and 7.9b) radiating from multiple
growth sites along an open fracture.
"Colloform" textures (see Figure 7.5b) have often been cited as evidence for
initial formation by colloidal deposition; however, Roedder (1968)has shown
that many colloform sphalerites in Pb-Zn ores (see Section 8.2.3) grew as tiny
fibrous crystals projecting into a supersaturated ore fluid.

7.4 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM REPLACEMENT

(INCLUDING WEATHERING)

Replacement of one ore mineral by another or by a mineral formed during

weathering is common in many types of ores. However, a major problem in
textural interpretation is the recognition of replacement when no vestige of the
 130 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

replaced phase remains. Probably the most easily recognized replacement

textures are those in which organic materials, such as wood fragments
(Figures 7.l0a and 10.7) or fossil shells have been pseudomorphed by metal
sulfides (commonly pyrite, marcasite,chalcocite) or oxides (commonly hema-
tite, goethite, "limonite," uranium minerals) (Figure 7.l0b). Pyrite cubes and
marcasite laths that have been replaced by iron oxides during weathering
(Figure 7.l0c) are also readily identified.
Replacement may result from one or more of the following processes : (I)
dissolution and subsequent reprecipitation, (2) oxidation, and (3) solid stat e
diffusion. The resulting boundary between the replaced and the replacing
mineral is commonly either sharp and irregular (a careous, or corroded tex-
ture) or diffuse.
Edwards (1947), Bastin (1950), and Ramdohr(1969) have described a wide
variety of replacement geometries-rim, zonal, frontal , and so on -but they
all appear to represent variations of the same process. Replacement textures
depend chiefly for their development on three features of the phase being
replaced: (I ) the surfaces available for reaction, (2) the crystal structures ofth e

FIGURE 7.10 (a) Cellular structure in coal material rep laced by pyrite, Minnehaha
Mine, Illin ois (wid th offie ld = 270 11m). (Reproduced from F. T. Price and Y. N. Shieh ,
Econ. Geol. 74, 1448, 1979, with permission of the authors and the publisher.) (b)
Pseudomorphous repl acement ofeuhedral marc asite (white) crystals by goethite (light
gray), Northern Pennine Orefield, England (width of field = 500 11m). (c) Pyrit e cubes
have bee n conve rted into goeth ite during weathering with the formation of a relatively
solid outer rim and a porous interior, Mo rn ing Star Min e, Ca liforn ia (width offield =
1,200 11m). (Pho togra ph by R. W. She ets.)
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM REPLACEMENT (INCLUDING WEATHERING) 131

(e)

FIGURE 7.10 (Continued)

original and secondary minerals, and (3) the chemical compositions of the
original mineral and the reactive fluid.

7.4.1 Crystal Surfaces

Replacement is the result of a surface chemical reaction; hence, any channel
between grains or through grains is a prime site for initiation of the replace-
ment process. Replacement along grain boundaries or internal channel ways
very often appears in the form ofthin laths or equant crystals of the replacing
 · ..
~

r....
•

,,
'\
"

FIGURE 7.11 (a) Cove llite repl acin g chalcopyrite (white) along grai n boundaries,
Great Gossan Lead. Virginia (width of field = 520 urn), (b) Cha lcocite (med ium gray)
replacing galena (light gray) along gra in boundaries and cleavages, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire. England (width of field = 500 urn). (c) G alen a (white) repl aced by cerussite
(PbCO), light gray) from the marg ins ofthe origina l gra in, Northe rn Pennine Orefield,
Engl and (width of field = 500 urn), (d) Fine-grai ned pyri te and marcasite (white)

132
 \

.
~ .'-.'
~
I
, . r,
••
<,

l-
If,
. i· ·~
~~ .... •
"- ..
.....
:
-~ y
' o' ..... .~ ..
, 'I .'. . ~
"
~ ....

.
~
. .
.
~

, " j
., .... '
f ,
..
., .J ~

.
• I
I , .: ~

. .
"
.7
. ....
'i II
.
'~ _(C) ~. (
,,' , ,.. '
,
-
I

.'
• I 1
) .

pseud omorph ou sly repl acing elonga ted crystals of pyrr ho tite. Som e remnants of pyr -
rh otite (po) rem ai n in the cores of th ese pseud om orph s. Sph alerite (sl) and side rite (sd)
co mp rise the matri x (width of field = 3.000 11m ). (Reproduced from W. C. Kelly and F. S.
Turnea ure, Econ. Geol. 65. 620. 1970. with perm ission of the autho rs and the pub -
lish er.)

133
134 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

phase projecting into the host. It may also appear as thin concentric coatings
developed roughly parallel to the advancing front of replacement. In the early
stages of the process, replacement may be readily identified, because much of
the original phase remains and the original grain boundaries, fractures, or
cleavages are still visible (Figures 7.11 a and 7.11 b). In more advanced stages,
the original phase may be reduced to "islands" now left in a matrix of the
secondary minerals (Figure 7.1lc). If the original material was coarsely crys-
talline and optically anisotropic, the residual island grains may well show
optical continuity (i.e.,extinguish simultaneously when viewed under crossed
polars). Complete replacement of one mineral by another is often difficult to
establish unless vestigial structures, such as the typical morphology of the
replaced phase (pyrite cubes now seen as goethite, Figure 7.lOc; pyrrhotite
laths now seen as pyrite and marcasite, Figure 7.lld), are left behind.
With careful observation, one can usually distinguish between replace-
ment along fractures and mere fracture infilling resulting from precipitation
of a later phase or its injection during metamorphism. Replacement con-
sumes some of the original phase and tends to produce a rounding off of
irregular surfaces , whereas infilling leaves the original fractured surfaces
intact. After replacement, the surfaces on either side of a fracture do not
"match" (Figure 7.12a), whereas, after infilling, the surfaces should still
"match" (Figure 7.12b). It is important to note that textures such as that shown
in Figure 7.12b have been erroneously interpreted and used as evidence that
pyrite is breaking down to form pyrrhotite in these ores.
Replacement along fractures may also resemble some ofthe exsolution tex-
tures discussed later. However, replacement commonly results in an increase
in the volume of the secondary replacing phase at the intersections of frac-
tures, whereas this is not common in exsolution. In fact, exsolution often pro-
duces the opposite effect in which intersecting exsolution lamellae show
depletion of the exsolved phase in the zone of intersection. For the same
reasons , exsolution often leaves depleted zones in the host phase (Figure
7.17d) adjacent to major concentrations of the exsolved phase. Replacement,
however, may result in greater concentration of the secondary phase adjacent
to, and extending out from, major replacement areas .

7.4.2 Crystal Structures

The crystal structure of the phase being replaced may control replacement,
either because this determines cleavage directions or because diffusion can
take place more readily along certain crystallographic directions. For exam-
ple, the oxidation of magnetite commonly results in replacement by hematite
along (111) planes (Figure 7.34).

7.4.3 Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of the primary phase may control the composition
of the phase that replaces it. During weathering, and often during hydrother-
FIGURE7.12 (a) Subhedral pyrite crystal (white) replaced along fractures by chalco-
pyrite (light gray) in a matrix of bornite. The chalcopyrite has formed as a reaction
product of the pyrite with the bornite depositing fluid, Magma Mine Superior, Arizona
(width offield = 2,000 urn). (b) Fractures in pyrite infilled by injected pyrrhotite with lit-
tle or no replacement, Great Gossan Lead, Virginia (width of field = 520 urn).
135
 136 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

mal replacement, the secondary phase retains the same cation composition as
the primary phase, with merely a change in oxidation state (e.g., hematite
forming during oxidation of magnetite or violarite forming on pentlandite,
Figures 7.34 and 9.8) or a change in anion (e.g., hematite replacing pyrite or
anglesite replacing galena). Replacement may also selectively remove one
cation while leaving another; this is frequently seen in the replacement of
chalcopyrite or bornite by covellite (Figure 7.11 a).The effects ofthe removal of
cations during weathering are shown schematically for some common sul-
fides by the arrows in Figures 7.13 and 7.14. The removal of iron from hex
agonal pyrrhotite results in an increase in the sulfur-to-metal ratio and the for-
mation of monoclinic pyrrhotite (which often looks like "flames" along the
margins of fractures) and ultimately in pyrite and marcasite (as grains, col-
loform masses, or "birds eyes"-see Figure 7.35). The iron removed from the
pyrrhotite may leave the area in solution or may be precipitated as goethite
along the fractures. The weathering of chalcopyrite or bornite usually results
in the removal of iron before copper (i.e., so that the composition of the
remaining sulfides moves in the direction ofthe arrow in Figure 7.14). Conse-
quently, the outer margin of the chalcopyrite or bornite is converted to chal-
cocite, digenite, orcovellite. The iron, as in the case ofpyrrhotite weathering, is
either removed or reprecipitated as goethite.
Selective removal of iron in preference to titanium is exhibited in the
weathering of the iron-titanium oxides in placer ores. As shown in Figure
10.12, the selective removal of hematite laths from grains that contain inter-
growths ofhematite and ilmenite results in an increase in the titanium content
of the remaining grain. This natural upgrading of the grains can significantly
improve the quality and profitability of a placer ore deposit (see discussion in

Fe 'OO'--l>--_ _oJI S
hpompo py/mc
FIGURE 7.13 Weathering or oxidation ofiron sulfides is shown schematically by the
arrow on the Fe-S-O diagram. The addition of oxygen results in extraction of iron from
the phases and the conversion ofhexagonal pyrrhotite into monoclinic pyrrhotite and,
ultimately, into pyrite or marcasite. The extracted iron may form an oxide or an hy-
droxide phase or may be removed from the system by fluids.
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM REPLACEMENT (INCLUDING WEATHERING) 137

ATOM rc "10 25° C

10 20 30 40 50 60
Fe
FIGURE 7.14 Weathering of the copper-iron sulfides is shown schematically by the
arrow on the Cu-Fe-S system. During weathering, iron is preferentially removed from
chalcopyrite (cp), forming bornite (bn) and, ultimately, digenite (di) and/or covellite
(cv). Pyrite may form but is commonly absent because of the difficulty of nucleating
pyrite at low temperatures.

Section 10.5).Chemical control ofreplacement is also demonstrated in Figure

7.12a,in which a copper-rich fluid has deposited bornite around earlier pyrite.
Where the copper-bearing fluid encountered the pyrite and the chemical
potential of FeS2 was highest (e.g., within the centers of the fractured pyrite
crystals), the replacement reaction resulted in the formation of chalcopyrite.
Replacement may occur selectively, affecting only One phase in an inter-
growth or particular ZOnes in a compositionally zoned crystal (producing an
atollstructure, see Figure 7.15). The reasons for such selective replacement may
be extremely subtle and are, in most instances, poorly understood.
A final example of replacement is the open void "boxwork" texture com-
posed of cellular crisscross laths of goethite, hematite, and sometimes pyrite,
as are found in gossans (Figure 7.16).

FIGURE 7.15 Differing stages in the development of atoll structure resulting from
the selective replacement of intergrown or compositionally zone crystals.
138 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

FIGURE 7.16 Boxwork texture oflaths of hematite and goethite with residual pyrite
in a gossan, Elba. Italy (width of field = 500 urn).

7.5 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM COOLING

Many ores form at elevated temperatures and have undergone cooling over
temperature ranges that may be, for example, less than 100°C for many Pb-Zn
ores in carbonates but as much as lOOO°C for Fe-Ni-Cu ores in ultramafic
rocks. As suggested by Figure 7.1, refractory minerals such as magnetite,
chrornite, pyrite, sphalerite, and some arsenides often retain their original
composition and texture through the cooling episode, whereas many sulfides,
sulfosalts, and native metals re-equilibrate compositionally and texturally
during cooling. The textural effects resulting from cooling include those dis-
cussed below.

7.5.1 Recrystallization
Re-equilibration of ores on cooling is usually accompanied, to some degree,
by recrystallization of the primary minerals, an effect that mayor may not
leave any vestige of the original texture. Thus, many massive chromite seams,
which no doubt accumulated as well-formed octahedra settling from an
igneous melt, have been modified by prolonged annealing, as discussed in
Section 7.7.
FIGURE 7. 17 (a) Exso lution of cha lco pyrite lamell ae (light gray) withi n bornite
(da rk gray). La ter alte ra tio n has resulted in the development of chalcocite (medium
gra y) along the edges of th e fractures a nd as rim s on th e chalcopyrite lam ellae, Grayson
County. Virginia (wid th of field = 520 11m). (b) Fi ne lam ellae of matildi te (wh ite a nd
black) within a matrix of galena.T his textu re h as resulted fro m the decomposition (on
cooling) of an initially hom ogen eou s phase; crossed po la rs, oil immersion ; Lea dville,
Co lorado (width of field = 265 11m). (c) "Allernontite," a myr mekitic texture of na tive

140
arsenic (black due to oxidation) and stiba rson (white ), which has result ed from the
deco mpos itio n of an initi ally homogene ou s ph ase (width of field = 520 J.Im). (d)
Exso lution in coex isting FeTi ox ides . Flan king gra ins of hem atite-ilmenite solid solu-
tion have separated int o hematite (white) and ilme nite (medi um gray), and a central
grain of Ti-mag netite has exso lved lam ellae of ulvospinel (wid th of field = 2,000
J.Im).

141
 142 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

tion). For example, pentlandite exsolves such that the (Ill), (110), and (112)
crystallographic planes are parallel to the (001), (110), and (100) planes, re-
spectively, of the host pyrrhotite (Figure 8.8b), ulvospinel exsolves parallel to
the (Ill) planes of host magnetite (Figure 7.17d).
If parent and exsolved phases have completely different structures or if
there is no crystallographic continuity across the interface between phases,
noncoherent exsolution occurs. For example, it is apparent from phase equili-
brium studies (Figure 8.18), that if pyrite and pyrrhotite equilibrate at elevated
temperatures ( ~400°C or above), pyrite will exsolve on cooling. (See also Sec-
tion 10.10 regarding the changes in pyrite and pyrrhotite during metamor-
phism.) However, the pyrite exhibits a considerable force of crystallization
(i.e., a tendency to grow as euhedra at the expense of surrounding phases),
which , when combined with the dissimilarity of the pyrite and pyrrhotite
structures, results in the pyrite occurring as individual grains (commonly
euhedral cubes) rather than as recognizable exsolution lamellae. The kinetics
of the exsolution depend on temperature, degree of supersaturation, and the
concentrations of impurities; in nature, virtually all pyrrhotites have com-
positions that have readjusted at low temperatures. A rigorous treatment of the
kinetics and mechanisms of exsolution is beyond the scope of this text; for
such detail, the reader is referred to the works ofYund and McCallister (1970),
Putnis and McConnell (1980), or Kelly and Vaughan (1983). Decrease in the
interfacial energy during exsolution is frequently accomplished by the ex-
solved phase taking on more equant forms . Hence, early formed flames of
pentlandite in pyrrhotite coalesce into irregular veinlets , and well-defined
thin lamellae of chalcopyrite in bornite (or vice versa) retain a basket weave
texture but swell into bulbous lenses . A study of the exsolution textures ob-
served in copper-iron sulfides (Brett, 1964) demonstrated that they are not par-
ticularly indicative of the rate of cooling or the temperature of initial formation
of the ores.
The large variety of exsolution textures observed are difficult to classify
using a simple terminology. However, certain terms are widely employed to
describe the textures , notably marginal, lamellar, emulsoid, and myrmekitic
exsolution textures (see Figure 7.17). The distinction between crys-
tallographically controlled exsolution and similar replacement textures often
can be made because intersecting lamellae show depletion at the junction in
the former case and greater concentration in the latter case. Also, the depletion
of exsolved material around a large bleb , known as seriate distribution, is a dis-
tinctive feature that is well illustrated in Figure 7.17d,which shows the exsolu-
tion intergrowths in FeTi oxides, among the most important and widely
observed of such textures.
The exsolution of hematite and ilmenite (in widely varying proportions)
results from cooling and is very commonly found in many types of high-grade
metamorphic and igneous rocks. "Black sands," accumulated in many sedi-
mentary environments (see Section 10.5),usually contain a large proportion of
grains exhibiting hematite-ilmenite intergrowths.
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM COOLING 143

An example of the confusion that can arise in the interpretation of ore tex-
tures is provided by sphalerite-chalcopyrite intergrowths. In many types of
ores, sphalerite contains chalcopyrite in the form of randomly dispersed or
crystallographically oriented rows of blebs and rods, each of which may be 1-
20 urn across (Figure 7.18). This form of chalcopyrite, appropriately termed
"chalcopyrite disease " by Barton and Bethke (1987), has commonly been
ascribed to exsolution on the cooling of the ores after emplacement. The
detailed work of these authors and the supporting evidence of experimental
studies (Wiggins and Craig, 1980; Hutchison and Scott, 1981) have demon-
strated, however, that chalcopyrite will not dissolve in sphalerite in significant
amounts unless temperatures are above 500°C. These data, and the observa-
tion of chalcopyrite-bearing sphalerites in Zn -Pb ores in carbonates (which
form at lOO-150 °C) and in un metamorphosed volcanogenic ores (which form
at 200-300 °C) suggest that temperature-dependent exsolution is not the
means by which these intergrowths form. Furthermore, detailed studies of
doubly polished thin sections of these ores (Barton , 1978; Barton and Bethke,
1987; and Figure 3.2) reveal that some of the chalcopyrite is actually present at
myrmekitic worm- or rod-like bodies that may extend up to several hundred
microns. The most detailed study of these features, by Barton and Bethke

FIGURE 7.18 Grains and rods of chalcopyrite oriented within sph alerite . This as-
semblage often has been interpreted as the result of exsolution, but experiment al
studies reveal that sphalerite could not dissolve sufficient copper to form this texture by
exsolution. See text for additional discus sion. Great Gossan Lead , Virginia (width of
field = 520 11m).
144 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

(1987), has concluded that the chalcopyrite results either by epitaxial growth
during sphalerite formation or by replacement as copper-rich fluids react with
the sphalerite after formation. During metamorphism, finely dispersed chal-
copyrite may be redistributed when the sphalerite recrystallizes, so that it
remains concentrated along the sphalerite grain boundaries.
Exsolution itself is a form of decomposition, because the original high-
temperature composition no longer exists as a single homogeneous phase.
However, the term "decomposition" is more commonly applied when a phase
undergoes an abrupt change into two phases of distinctly different com-
positions, as in eutectoidal breakdown. The term "decomposition" is also ap-
plied to the breakdown of the central portion of a complete solid solution
series, with the resulting development of an intimate intergrowth of com-
positionally distinct phases. Eutectoidal breakdown on cooling is well known
in metallurgical studies, but relatively few mineral examples have been veri-
fied. Digenite, CU9SS, is not stable below 70°C unless it contains ~ 1% iron and
decomposes on cooling below this temperature to form a complex mixture of
anilite and djurleite (see the Cu-S phase diagram in Figure 10.8). Ifthe original
composition before cooling is more Cu-rich, the decomposition may result in
the formation ofa mixture ofchalcocite and djurleite. In a detailed study of the
Cobalt-Gowganda, Ontario ores, Petruk (1971) has reported a complex inter-
growth of galena and chalcocite that apparently has formed as a result of the
decomposition of a Cu-Pb sulfide that is only stable at high temperature
(Craig and Kullerud, 1968). .
Two examples of textures resulting from the decomposition of the central
portion of a solid solution series are lath-like matildite-galena intergrowths
(Figure 7.17b) and the myrmekitic arsenic- (or antimony-) stibarsen inter-
growths referred to as "allemontite" (Figure 7.17c). The fineness of the inter-
growth (sometimes on a scale of a few microns) and the similarity in ap-
pearance ofconstituent phases can easily result in their misidentification as a
single phase.

7.5.3 Inversion
Inversion of a mineral from one structural form to another of the same com-
position is not often easily discernible texturally but may produce characteris-
tic twinning. Sometimes, even though inversion has occurred, the crystal
morphology of the high-temperature phase is retained as a paramorph. Some
high-temperature phases always invert so rapidly on cooling that only the low-
temperature forms are observed (e.g., troilite, chalcocite, acanthite). Unfor-
tun ately, the twinning in acanthite, once thought to be diagnostic ofinversion,
can form below the inversion temperature of 176°C (Taylor, 1969). Certain
other phases that are observed as both high- and low-temperature forms (e.g.,
cinnabar-metacinnabar; famatinite-luzonite) may not be diagnostic of for-
mation conditions, because one of the forms is metastable.
Marcasite, although apparently never thermodynamically stable, com-
monl y forms in low-temperature environments, including coals, black shales,
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM DEFORMATION 145

and carbonate- and sediment-hosted zinc-lead deposits . It is also frequently

observed in supergene assemblages, especially forming along fractures in
pyrrhotite. However, examination of the iron sulfides in these occurrences
often reveals pyrite grains that exhibit the lath-like and radiating patterns typi-
cal of marcasite. Murowchick (1992) has pointed out that inversion of mar-
casite to pyrite results in a 2.6% volume reduction that leaves characteristic
small pores . In contrast, the formation of marcasite or pyrite at the expense of
pyrrhotite during weathering results in about a 30% volume reduction.

7.5.4 Oxidation-Exsolution and Reduction-Exsolution

Exsolution lamellae of ilmenite in magnetite (and less commonly of mag-
netite in ilmenite) are often present in a relative volume that exceeds the
known solubility limits for these minerals. Lindsley (1976) has explained the
mechanism by which these lamellae form with reference to the fOz- T plot for
the Fe-Ti oxides given in Figure 9.13. On this plot, the curves for magnetite-
ulvospinel solid solution (Mt-Usp) dip more steeply and those for hematite-
ilmenite solid solution (Hem-Ilm) dip less steeply than the curves for buffers
such as Ni-NiO, fayalite-magnetite-quartz or most fluids. Consequently, on
cooling along a buffer curve or in the presence of a fluid of constant composi-
tion, a given Mt-Usp will undergo oxidation and lamellae ofilmenite will form
on the (111) planes. Conversely, a Fe20rrich ilmenite, cooled under similar
conditions, will be reduced, yielding lamellae of Ti-magnetite parallel to the
(0001) planes.

7.5.5 Thermal Stress

Most ore minerals have approximately the same coefficients of thermal ex-
pansion, and thus most mono or polymineralic masses suffer little induced
strain on cooling. One significant exception is pentlandite, (Fe,Ni)9Sg, which
has a coefficient of thermal expansion that is 2-10 times larger than such sul-
fides as pyrrhotite and pyrite with which it is generally associated (Rajamani
and Prewitt, 1975). AB a result, the chain-like veinlets ofpentlandite (Figure
9.5) that form at elevated temperatures (300-600°C) by coalescence of early
exsolved lamellae, are typically fractured, because they have undergone much
greater shrinkage than the host pyrrhotite.

7.6 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM DEFORMATION

Many ores contain textural evidence of deformation. The evidence ranges

from minor pressure-induced twinning to complete cataclasis. The degree to
which individual mineral grains both respond to and preserve deformational
effects ranges widely,depending on the mineral, the rate ofstrain,the nature of
the deformation, the associated minerals, the temperature at the time ofdefor-
mation, and the postdeformational history. The response threshold of min-
 146 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

erals appears to be primarily a function ofhardness. Hence, minerals such as

many native metals, sulfosalts, and copper and silver sulfides deform most
readily; copper-iron sulfides and monosulfides, less readily; and disulfides,
oxides, and arsenides, least readily. Accordingly, in polymineralic ores, defor-
mation textures are often evident in only some minerals. The softer minerals
deform most readily, but they also recrystallize most readily, so that the defor-
mational effects are obliterated before those in more refractory minerals.
Specific deformation features commonly observed include those discussed in
the following subsection.

7.6.1 Twinning, Klnkbanding, Pressure Lamellae

Twinning, kinkbanding, and pressure lamellae occur in ores subjected to any
degree ofdeformation and can even be artificially introduced into some ofthe
softer minerals by rough treatment of specimens. Twinning may occur in
minerals during initial growth, during structural inversion on cooling (Sec-
tion 7.5), or as a result ofdeformation. Although little or no quantitative study
has ever been undertaken, Ramdohr (1969)suggests that the three major types
of twinning (illustrated in Figures 7.19 and 7.20) can be distinguished as
follows:

Growth Occurs as lamellar twins of irregular width that are

unevenly distributed, present in only some grains,
and may be strongly interwoven
Inversion Commonly occurs as spindle-shaped and inter-
grown networks not parallel throughout grains
Deformation Occurs as uniformly thick lamellae, commonly as-
sociated with bending, cataclasis, and incipient
recrystallization (regions of very small equant .
grains), with lamellae often passing through adja-
cent grains

These criteria are useful but not infallible guides to the identification ofmajor
types. Clark and Kelly (1973), in investigating the strength of some common
sulfide minerals as a function of temperature, show that deformation in
pyrrhotite may be as kinkbanding (Figure 7.20c),kinked, or bent subparallel
lamellae, each ofwhich show undulose extinction, or twinning. At less than 2
Kbar, kinkband deformation predominates below -300°C, whereas above
this temperature both kinking and twinning are common. Pyrrhotite and
many other sulfides that are only moderately hard (e.g.,stibnite, bismuthinite)
also commonly contain "pressure lamellae" (Figure 7.21), slightly offset por-
tion s of grains that exhibit either undulatory extinction or slightly different
extinction positions. Pressure-induced twins and pressure lamellae (Figure
7.20a and Figure 7.20d) often terminate in regions of brittle fracture and
crumpling, or very fine-grained regions in which crushed grains have re-
crystallized.
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM DEFORMATION 147

FIGURE 7.19 (a) Growth twin ofwolframite. (b) Polysynthetictwinningdeveloped in

synthetic acanthite that has inverted from argentite on cooling from initial formation
at 400°C; crossed polars, oil immersion (width of field = 190/lm).

Breaking of specimens by hammering or damage caused during grinding

or even in careless polishing can induce local pressure twinning in some very
soft phases, such as native bismuth (Figure 7.20b), argentite, and molybdenite.
The cause of such twinning is usually recognizable because of its local dis-
FIGURE 7.20 (a) Deformation twins in pyrrhotite, Great Gossan Lead, Virginia;
crossed polars (width offield = 52011m). (b) Polysynthetic twinning developed in native
bismuth as a result ofdeformation, Nipissing Mine, Cobalt, Ontario;cro ssed polars,oil
imme rsio n (width of field = 21011m). (c) Kinkbanding in pyrrhotite accentuated by thin
layers of micas, C he rokee Min e, Ducktown, Tennessee (partially crossed nicols; width
of field = 0.24 mm) . (d) Deformation twinning induced in specul ar hematite, Rana
Gruber, Norway (width of field = 1,200 11m).
148
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM DEFORMATION 149

(e)

(d)

FIGURE 7.20 (Continued)

tribution or association with scratches; it can often be induced in native bis-

muth by merely drawing a needle point across a polished surface.

7.6.2 Curvature or Offset of Linear Features

Deformation of ores is often evidenced by the curvature or offset of normally
linear or planar features , such as crystal faces, cleavages, fractures, twins,
exsolution lamellae, and primary mineral layering or veining. The triangular
cleavage pits in galena, so diagnostic in identification, commonly serve as a
measure of deformation. Although the boundary of a single pit may exhibit
curvature, the effects are most often seen in the curvature of a row of such
cleavage pits (Figure 7.22). Deformation-induced twin lamellae in pyrrhotite,
ilmenite, chalcopyrite, and many other minerals frequently exhibit significant
curvature and commonly extend across several grains, whereas growth or
inversion twins are usually confined within individual grains.
FIGURE 7.21 Complex pressure lamellae developed in stibnite as a result of defor-
mation; the wide varietyof colors results from different crystallographic orientation s of
the lamellae; crossed pol ars (width of field = 520 11 m ).

..
. .'
-
..
•• ~
~ -~ .

,. . ....
'
~
:4....., - --.

--_.
~ -
- ...... -
"
....
~' .
• .. ......'" --.. , -~

FIGURE 7.22 Curved cleavage pits that have developed in galena as a result of
postdeposition al deformation. Austinville, Virginia (width of field = 520 11 m ).

150
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM DEFORMATION 151

Exsolution intergrowths of cubanite in chalcopyrite, ilmenite in hematite

(or vice versa), chalcopyrite in sphalerite, pentlandite in pyrrhotite, and bor-
nite in chalcopyrite (or vice versa) are often linear (or planar) features that are
crystallographically controlled. Curvature of the laths, rows of blebs, flames ,
or rods is indicative ofdeformation; however, it is not always clear whether the
exsolution or the deformation occurred first.
Folding or offseting of primary mineral banding is a common feature in
many deformed ores on both micro- and macroscales. Folding often results in
a relatively ductile flow of such softer sulfides as chalcopyrite, galena, and
pyrrhotite but brittle fracture of such harder minerals as pyrite, arsenopyrite,
and magnetite.Thus, the softer sulfides infill fractures between discontinuous
broken portions of harder mineral zones (Figure 10.27). Microscale offsetting
of mineral bands or mineralized veins (Figure 8.4a), commonly with infilling
by later generations of ore or gangue minerals, is frequently seen in ores.

7.6.3 Schlieren
Deformed ores often contain zones along which shearing has occurred. In
such zones, known as schlieren, the ore minerals may be pulverized and
smeared out parallel to the direction of movement The schlieren are usually
planar features in which the ore minerals are very fine grained (sometimes re-
crystallized) relative to the surrounding rock; typically, equant minerals such
as galena are frequently present as elongate (often strained and fractured)
grains.

7.6.4 Brecciation, Cataclasis, and Durchbewegung

Deformation in ores is often evidenced by fracturing or brecciation of ore and
gangue minerals, especially (but not exclusively) of those that are harder and
more brittle, such as pyrite, chromite, and magnetite. The amount ofbreccia-
tion depends on both the degree ofdeformation and the mineralogy of the ore.
Thus, moderate deformation will result in considerable brecciation of mas-
sive pyrite, magnetite, or chromite ore where all strain is relieved by brittle
fracture of these minerals. In contrast, pyrite admixed with pyrrhotite or
chalcopyrite usually suffers little, even under extreme deformation, because
the strain is taken up in the softer sulfides . A notable exception to this is the
"rolled" pyrite from Sulitjelma, Norway. In this ore, the pyrite cubes have been
markedly rounded by being "rolled" in the matrix pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite
during severe deformation. Local brecciation of pyrite also occurs where
pyrite grains, otherwise protected by the host pyrrhotite, impinge upon one
another (Figure 7.23). Minor brecciation grades into complex cataclasis with
an increasing degree offragmentation and disorientation, eventually involv-
ing both ore and gangue minerals (Figure 7.24); this penetrative deformation
has been termed durchbewegung (literally "move through") by Vokes (1969). In
fault zones and in ores that have suffered penetrative high-grade meta-
 152 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

FIGURE 7.23 Despite intense deformation, much of the pyrite in the pyrite-p yrtho-
tite ores of Ducktown, Tenn essee, show no fracturing, becau se the softer interstitial
pyrrhotite has deformed. Here, however, pyrite grains show localized fracturing, be-
cause they have impinged upon on e anothe r (width of field = 1,200 urn).

morphism, there may be pulverization of ore and gangue minerals, com plete
randomness of fragment orientation, the development of "ba ll textures," in
which fragments of foliated gangue are rounded into "balls," and extensive
development of the deform ational features previously described . Injection of

FIGURE 7.24 Durchbewegung texture developed in inten sely defor med pyrr hoti te.
Th e black silica te inclu sions were stretched and rotated as the pyrrh otite mat rix flowed
under pressure, Great Gossan Lead, Virginia. Th e scales are in centimeters a nd
inch es.
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM CRYSTAL GROWTH 153

softer ore minerals into fractures and cleavages in more brittle ore minerals
and gangue minerals is common (Figure 10.27).

7.7 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM ANNEALING AND

METAMORPHIC CRYSTAL GROWTH

After initial formation, many ores have been subjected to slow cooling or have
passed one or more times through metamorphic cycles in which they were
subjected to prolonged periods of slow heating and slow cooling. The textural
effects of this treatment may be indiscernible, or may lead to distinctive
annealed grain boundaries or even to the growth of porphyroblastic crystals.

7.7.1 Annealing
The annealing effects of the slow cooling of ores after deposition or slow heat-
ing during metamorphism can significantly alter the original textures. Since
both cooling and metamorphism are prolonged annealing processes, the
effects discussed here may produce similar textures to those discussed in Sec-
tion 7.2. The most characteristic feature of anneallng is recrystallization to
minimize the areas of grain surfaces and interfacial tension through the
development of roughly equant grains with 120° interfacial (or dihedral)
angles (Figure 7.25). The interfacial angles observed at triple junctions of
annealed monomineralic aggregates tend toward 120°, whereas those of poly-
mineralic aggregates vary as a function of the mineralogy. The interfacial
angles of some equilibrated pairs of common sulfide minerals include galena-
sphalerite (103° and 134°), chalcopyrite-sphalerite (106-108 °), and pyrrhotite-

FIGURE 7.25 Annealed texture of recrystallized monomineralic pyrite sample.

Note the common development of near 120° triple junctions. Mineral District, Virgin ia
(width of field = 520 urn),
 154 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

sphalerite (l 07-108 °) (Stanton, 1972). Since the surface ofthe polished section,
cut at random through the polycrystalline mineral aggregat e, yields only
appa rent angles that can range from 0° to 180°, it is necess ary to measure
many interfacial angle s in a given section in order to determine statistically
the true angle. If a large number of angles are measured, the one most fre-
quently observed will represent the true angle. During the annealing process,
small grains are resorbed at the expense oflarger one s; however, small grains
ofminor phases ma y remain trapped as lens-like bodies along the grain boun-
daries of larger grains (Figure 1O.27d).
The re-equilibration that results from annealing can produce either zon ed
overgrowths on grains or the homogenization of grains containing primary
growth zoning. For example, pyrite overgrowths on primary pyrite or th e
remai ns of primary growth zoning may be visible in normal poli shed sections
but often require etching to become evident (Figure 2.10). Residu al primary
growth zoning in sphalerite or tetrahedrite is rarely evident in poli shed sec-
tions but can be observed in transmitted light using doubly polished thin sec-
tion s (Figur e 2.9).

7.7.2 Metamorphic Crystal Growth

Recrystallization during annealing, especi ally during metam orphism, usu-
ally results in an increase in grain size and may also result in the growth of

FIG URE 7.26 An nealed texture of recrystalli zed pyrite euhe d ra (light gra y) with in a
matrix of sph alerite (dark gray) , a n d min or chalco py rite (m edium gray). Miner al Di s-
trict. Virgin ia (width of field = 520 urn).
 SECONDARY TEXTURES RESULTING FROM CRYSTAL GROWTH 155

euhedral, sometimes porphyroblastic crystals, of such phases as pyrite (Figure

7.26), arsenopyrite, magnetite, and hematite. The growth of these minerals,
like the well-known examples among metamorphic gangue minerals (e.g.,gar-
net and staurolite), depends on the conditions of annealing and the bulk com-
position of the mineralized zone .Though commonly only a fewmillimeters in
diameter, porphyroblasts may exceed 25 em across, as observed in the pyrite-
pyrrhotite ores of Ducktown,Tennessee (Figure 7.27). Porphyroblastic growth
or overgrowth complicates paragenetic interpretation, because there may be
no unequivocal means of distinguishing porphyroblasts from early formed
euhedral crystals. Frequently, however, porphyroblasts contain different
amounts and types of inclusions compared to the corresponding primary
minerals in the ore. Furthermore, the types of inclusions may be indicative of
the timing ofcrystal growth. Hence, the inclusion ofhigh-grade metamorphic
min erals (e.g., amphiboles, garnets, etc.) indicates that overgrowth occurred
after metamorphism had reached a grade sufficient to form those meta-
morphic minerals.
Detailed studies ofthe large, generally euhedral pyrite crystals ofthe Duck-
town, Tenn essee, ores (Brooker, Craig, and Rimstidt, 1987; Craig, Vokes, and
Simp son , 1991 ; Craig and Vokes, 1993) have revealed two principal types of
inclusion patterns. The most common type is that of concentrically arranged
inclu sions of silicate s (usually quartz, amphiboles, and carbonates) and sul-
fides (usually sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite; see Figure 7.28). Such a
pattern may indicate concentric growth outward in all directions from a cen-
tral point, or it may indicate "snowball-type" growth that has been cut parallel
to the axis of rotation. The other type of growth pattern is that of a spiral
(Figure 7.29), much like that observed in rotated garnets. Both types ofinclu-
sion patterns may repres ent "snowball" growth, in which the difference in
appearance results from the orientation ofthe cut. Hence, cutting a snowball-

FIGURE 7.,27 Ten-em pyrite cube in the amphiholite grad e region ally metamor-
pho sed ores of the Ducktown, Tennessee, depo sits.
FIGURE 7.28 Five-mrn pyrite crystal display ing a concentric pattern of amphibole
inclusions incorporated during growth; gray phase is pyrrhotite. This is a composite
image made up of 16 photomicrographs, Cherokee Mine , Ducktown, Tenn essee.

FIGURE 7.29 Ten-em , equant, pyrite crystal, which exhibits a double-spiral inclu -
sion pattern indi cative of pyrite rotation of 360° relative to the enclo sing pyrrhotite
during growth. Cherokee Mine , Du cktown, Tennessee. (Reproduced from Cr aig et al,
1991 . E COfl. Geol. 86, 1743; with permi ssion.)

156
 TEXTURES OF PLACER GRAINS 157

type grain perpendicular to its axis of rotation presents a spiral pattern instead
of a concentric pattern. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 7.30.
The absolute amounts of the ore minerals probably change very little dur-
ing most metamorphic episodes, despite significant changes in grain sizes and
shapes. Exceptions to this would occur if there were significant oxidation or
reduction reactions or if there were significant solubility of One phase in
another as a function of temperature or pressure. Hence, the proportions of
pyrite to pyrrhotite may change during a metamorphic cycle, and the propor-
tions of pyrrhotite to sphalerite (and the sphalerite composition in terms of
FeS content) may change as a function of pressure. (See Section 10.10 for an
additional discussion of these points.)

7.8 TEXTURES OF PLACER GRAINS

Placer deposits are composed of the grains of ore minerals that have been
weathered out of pre-existing rocks. Consequently, the mineral grains gen-
erally contain internal textures that reflect their initial origins but marginal
and external textures that reflect the abrasion and weathering to which they
have been subjected. Although nearly any ore mineral could, under some cir-
cumstances, be liberated from its host rock or ore and thus appear in a placer
deposit, only a few actually occur with any frequency (see Section 10.5). Few
sulfide minerals survive weathering without being completely oxidized. One
notable exception appears to be the rounded pyrite grains in Precambrian
conglomeratic deposits (see Section 10.6), which escaped oxidation appar-
ently because of the lack of oxygen in the early atmosphere. In contrast, the
oxide minerals cassiterite (SnOz), ilmenite (FeTi0 3) , rutile (TiO z), and mag-

I+-+-...;rotation
axis

Section A Section B

III II
I 1_ ..J I
I
- -
FIGURE 7.30 Schematic representation of how the inclusion patterns would ap-
pear in sections cut across (A) and parallel to (B), the rotation axis in a crystal that
rotated as it grew.
 158 ORE MINER AL TEXTURES

netit e (Fe30 4), and native gold (Au to AuAg) generally survive weathering
quite well. Despite the varied original sources ofthese minerals, there are onl y
a relativel y few textures that are commonly encountered.
The weathering and erosional processes rapidly round and smooth the
exterior surfaces ofmost placer grains, as is apparent in Figure 7.31. Other fre-
qu ently ob served marginal effects include the conversion of rutil e grain s into
leucoxene around their margins, the oxidation ofmagnetite grains to hematite
or goethite, especially along clea vage planes (Figure 7.34). This lead s to the
forma tion of "martite."
Ilmenite is particularly resistant to weathering and is the most abunda nt
hea vy mineral in many are as. It may display a wide variety oftextures in plac er
grains, ranging from single crystals to polycrystalline aggregates. Commonly,
ilmeni te grains contain variable quantities of hematite as oriented lamellae,
as shown in Figure 10.12. During weathe ring and erosion, selective dissolu-
tion of the more soluble hematite proceeds from the margins of the grains
inward. Th e result, as shown in Figure 7.32, is that man y ilmenite gra ins are
left with hemat ite dissolved from around th e edges or with onl y orien ted holes
whe re the hematite lens es used to be.
Pl acer gold grains (many are actually electrum in which the silver content
exceeds 20 wt %) may possess a wide varie ty of initial shapes as the gra ins are
liberated during weat hering. Becau se of the softness and malle abili ty of th e
gold, the grain s readil y undergo mechanical deformation th at results in round ed
to flattened nuggets. Although they have been long considered as relatively
homogeneou s materi als th at might include some fragm ent s oforiginal host or
inhe rited det rital material, it is now widely recogn ized tha t many, if no t most,
placer gold grains develop rim s of very high puri ty gold (Figur e 7.33). Th e
mechanisms by which the se rims form are not completely understood, but
they may occur as sma ll localized patche s or as complete surroundi ng layers.

FIG URE 7.31 Placer ilmen ite and rutil e gra ins in a heavy min eral co ncentrate from
Green Cove Springs, Florida, display a typical rounded to elo nga ted shape (widt h of
field = 1,200 urn).
 TEXTURES OF PLACER GRAINS 159

FIGURE 7.32 Placer ilmenite grains .Th e grains on the lower left and on the right are
entirely ilmenite. The round central grain, originally an ilmenite with hematite lamel-
lae (see Figures 7.l7d and 9.11), has had all of the hematite dissolved out during
weat hering, Lilesville, North Carolina (width of field = 600 urn). Compare also with
Figure 10.1 2.

The thicknesses range from less than 1 urn to more than 100 urn, but their
boundaries with the underlying core gold or electrum are always very sharp.
Becau se the rims are usually of very high fineness (usually more than 95%
gold) , they are a more deep yellow color than the lower fineness interiors; this
is easily seen especially by use of oil immersion. Gentle etching with dilute
cyanide solutions can enhance the appearance of these rims .

FIGURE 7.33 Placer electrum grain with a well-developed and sha rply bounded rim
(darker) of high -purity gold . Such rims, which ma y be very delicate or more solid (see
Figure 10.14), are common on placer gold grai ns; Lilesville. North Carolina (width of
field = 600 urn).
 160 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

FIGURE 7.34 "Martite" in which hematite (white) has developed along crystal-
lographicallypreferred planes in magnetite as a result of oxidation (width offield = 240
11m).

7.9 SPECIAL TEXTURES

A number of the textures ob served in ore mine rals are sufficie ntly distinctive
or widely observed to have been given special names. Amongst primary
depositional textures areframboids (Figure 1O.5b), the aggregates of spherical

FIGU RE 7.35 Well-d eveloped "bird's-eye" texture composed of pyrite and marc asite,
formed along a fracture during weathering of pyrrhotite, Great Gossan Lead, Virginia
(width of field = 1,200 11m).
 CONCLUDING STATEMENT 161

FIGURE 7.36 Sphalerite "star" in chalcopyrite, Mineral District, Virginia (width of

field = 330 urn),

particles often seen in pyrite and in uraninite. Similar to these primary tex-
tures are the oolitic textures familiar from carbonate rocks but also found in
iron and manganese ores (see Section 10.2).Among replacement textures, the
replacement of magnetite by hematite along cleavage (111) directions is
termed martitization (Figure 7.34), and the characteristic alteration of pyr-
rhotite to a fine mixture of pyrite and marcasite results in birds eye texture
(Figure 7.35). Some exsolution textures are particularly characteristic, such as
the flam es of pentlandite in pyrrhotite (Figure 8.8b) and the stars of exsolved
sphalerite found in some chalcopyrite (Figure 7.36).

7.10 CONCLUDING STATEMENT

Rarely does a single texture provide unequivocal evidence regarding the

origin or history of an ore deposit. Commonly, a variety of textures represent-
ing different episodes in the development and subsequent history of a deposit
are observed. This chapter has not provided an exhaustive discussion of the
great variety of textures seen in ores, but it has introduced some of the most
commonly encountered types. With careful observation, common sense, and
a little imaginative interpretation that incorporates whatever is known of the
geologica l setting of a deposit, much can be learned about the origin and
postdepositional history of an ore from the study of ore textures.
 162 ORE MINERAL TEXTURES

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Taylor, L. A (1969). The significance of twinning in Ag2S.Arn. Mineral. 54,961-963.

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Chern. Geol., 5-30.

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