Study Guide

Unit 1: Age of Exploration

Vocabulary
Context
Silk Road The overland route from China to the Middle East
Marco Polo Venetian (Italian) merchant whose recorded travels influenced Europe.
Trans-Saharan Trade Trade route primarily of salt from the Sahara for gold in sub-Saharan Africa.
Ibn Battuta Moroccan scholar who recorded his pilgrimage to Mecca and travels beyond.
Zheng He Chinese diplomat who traveled the Indian Ocean to display China’s wealth and power.
Crusades A Christian war to recover the Holy Land from Muslims that exposed Europeans to
Eastern civilization
Renaissance A European period of renewed interest in Classical learning.
Characters
Prince Henry the Navigator A Portuguese sponsor of exploration along the Western Coast of Africa
Gil Eanes Portuguese explorer whose passage of the Cape of Bojador began exploration of Africa
Bartolomeu Dias Portuguese explorer who rounded the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope
King Ferdinand and Queen Spanish rulers who captured the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rulers and sponsored
Isabella of Spain exploration
Christopher Columbus Italian sailor who was sponsored by Spain to search for a western route to Asia and
encountered the Americas
John Cabot Venetian sailor commissioned by England who explored North America
Vasco da Gama Portuguese explorer who linked Europe and Asia by rounding Africa to India
Amerigo Vespucci Italian explorer who voyaged to South America and demonstrated that the Americas
were not Asia but a new land mass. The Americas were named after him.
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa Spanish explorer who reached the Pacific by crossing the isthmus of Panama
Ferdinand Magellan Portuguese explorer who organized the first circumnavigation of the earth.
Conquistador Explorer and soldier who colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal
Hernan Cortes Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs
Francisco Pizzaro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incans
Giovanni da Verazzano Italian explorer commissioned by France exploring the North American coast
Henry Hudson English explorer who searched for the rumored Northwest Passage to Asia
Conflict
Ottoman Empire The Muslim Ottomans competed with Europe for trade
Fall of Constantinople Sultan Mehmet II conquered the Byzantine capital, capturing an important trade port
Spice Trade Spices were a valuable commodity that Europeans desired greater access to.
Plot
Astrolabe Navigational instrument for determining latitude
Caravel A more maneuverable type of ship with its lateen sail important for exploration
Cape Verde Islands West African islands colonized by the Portuguese and link in the slave trade
New World A name given by Europeans for the Americas, in contrast to the known ‘Old World’ of
Afro-Eurasia.
Strait of Magellan The southern tip of South America named after Ferdinand Magellan
Circumnavigate Travel all the way around the entire planet
Northwest Passage A rumored passage from Europe to Asia north of North America.
Resolution
Columbian Exchange The exchange of plants, animals, culture between the Americas and the Old World
Small Pox Eurasian disease brought by European explorers that devastated Native Americans
Colony A permanent settlement formed and controlled by a country in a distant land.
Analysis
Setting
1. Explain three major causes for the Age of Exploration?
During the Middle Ages, the main centers of culture and learning were in Asia. While there was significant trade at the
time, it was typically regional with merchants from different regions trading at connecting cities. Popular goods like silk,
spices, porcelain and cotton traveled from Asia to Europe. The Crusades exposed Europeans to the civilizations of Asia
and prompted an increasing demand for their luxuries. Cities grew and merchants became increasingly wealthy,
especially in the Mediterranean. It also created an increasing interest in the wider world that sparked the Renaissance.
The exposure through the Crusades, the increasing demand for Asian goods, and renewed interest in learning during the
Renaissance all contributed to the Age of Exploration.

Conflict
2. Assess the role of the Ottoman Empire in Europe’s period of exploration?
The growing power of the Ottoman empire in the Middle East limited European access to the spice trade. With the fall of
Constantinople into Ottoman hands under the leadership of Mehmet II, Europeans lost a major trade city. Europeans
therefore attempted to find a new trade route to Asia.

Characters
3. Name three explorers and describe the importance of their travels for future exploration.
The Portuguese led the way in exploration under Prince Henry. He sponsored many voyages along the west African
coast. The greatest success was Bartolomeu Dias reaching the southern tip of Africa. This opened a new path to Asia that
was ultimately completed by Vasco da Gama.

The Spanish crown followed by sponsoring Christopher Columbus who sought a westward passage to Asia, but
encountered the Americas instead. Initially the Americas were more of an obstacle to be overcome in finding a way to
Asia, which Ferdinand Magellan completed by rounding the southern tip of South America.

France and England were the last to join in exploration and they focused primarily of North America. Henry Hudson
hoped to find a third way to Asia, the Northwest Passage, but no route was found.

Plot
4. Identify three new technological advances and explain their impact on exploration.
The exposure of Europeans to Asian civilization during the Crusades was important for the diffusion of important
technologies. The compass invented by the Chinese was an essential tool for navigation. The astrolabe (or quadrant)
from the Middle East helped sailors determine their latitude. Map-making likewise became increasingly important as
explorers left coastlines for the open ocean. Finally, the caravel with lateen sails gave explorers better control and
speed.

Resolution
5. Explain the impact of the Age of Exploration upon the world.
European became increasingly powerful through trade and colonization of the Americas. (Cortez and Pizarro conquered
the greatest civilizations of the Americas.) It also marked an important step toward globalization as distant regional
markets became directly connected.

Theme
6. Discuss the various motivations for exploration.
Europeans coming out of the conflicts with Muslims had a strong desire to convert people to Christianity. Nevertheless,
the driving force for exploration was economic. Explorers and their sponsors were looking for trade routes and control
of precious commodities. As exploration expanded the European conception of the world, it prompted a desire for
further knowledge.
 Study Guide
Unit 2: Age of Colonization
Vocabulary
Context
Colonization The movement of settlers and their culture to a new territory.
Conflict
Natural resources A useful material found in the environment
Mercantilism an economic system developed to unify and increase the power and especially the
monetary wealth of a nation by a strict governmental regulation of the entire national
economy usually through policies designed to secure an accumulation of gold, a
favorable balance of trade, the development of agriculture and manufactures, and the
establishment of foreign trading monopolies
Characters
Monarchs A sovereign head of state, especially a king, queen, or emperor.
Encomendero The head of an encomienda, responsible for protecting and Christianizing Indians.
Conquistador Explorer and soldier who colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal
Hernan Cortez Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs
Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incans
Missionaries A person sent to promote a religion, namely Europeans Christianizing the Americas.
Indigenous people The native populations of a country are called indigenous people.
Africans The peoples of Africa who were racialized by Europeans in order to justify their
enslavement.
Indentured servants a person who is bound by contract to work for another for a specified time especially
in return for payment of travel expenses.
Slaves A person held in servitude.
Plot
mita A Incan, labor system that the Spanish used for their encomienda.
Encomienda A feudal-like grant by the Spanish government to colonists to demand tribute or labor
from Native Americans in exchange for protection and Christian education.
Smallpox Eurasian disease brought by European explorers that devastated Native Americans
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The Transatlantic Slave Trade brought thousands of native Africans to the
Americas to work as slaves on large farms.
Triangular Trade A massive trading system was set up between Europe, Africa and North America.
Europe provided manufactured goods like guns and alcohol to Africa. Africa provided
slaves to the Americas, and the Americas sent raw materials like crops and furs to
Europe; creating the Triangular Trade Routes.
Middle Passage During the Transatlantic Slave Trade, ships had to cross the Atlantic Ocean. This
journey was called the Middle Passage. Africans were crammed into the bottom hulls
on a boat with little ventilation, sanitation or proper nutrition. Many Africans died
before even making it to America.
Resolution
Exploitation European nations exploited indigenous cultures for their labor and natural resources.
Race Race is a social category, not based in genetics or biology, that sub-divides humans
into categories based on appearance. It developed as a system of social control by
ranking groups in a hierarchy and attributing certain abilities to particular groups. Race
therefore became a justification for slavery and other forms of oppression.
Analysis
Setting
1. How were Europeans able to conquer the Americas?

While Europeans did come with superior weapons, they were vastly outnumbered by Native American groups. They
conquered because disease devastated the Native American population. Also, Europeans developed allies with Native
American groups so that their forces were significantly increased. Cortes, for example, was pushed back at the Mexican
coast until their opponents invited them to ally against the Aztecs. The Aztecs were also able to push Cortes and his
allies out of Tenochtitlan. When Cortes returned, Tenochtitlan’s population had been weakened by disease.

Conflict
2. How did colonization benefit European monarchs at the expense of colonized peoples?

Monarchs wanted to exploit the wealth of their colonies through a policy of mercantilism. European governments tried
to control the economy to increase their wealth and ultimately their power. They would increase their wealth by a
favorable balance of trade wherein colonies became places to get natural resources. This allowed the mother country to
focus on the more profitable endeavor of manufacturing. The colony’s wealth was therefore exploited to increase the
wealth and power of the mother country. Many colonists resisted government control of the economy because it
restricted their trade with other countries.

Characters
3. How did Europeans control indigenous populations?

When Spain began to colonize the Americas, they used a similar structure they used to conquer (Reconquista) the
Iberian Peninsula from Muslims. It was form of exchange like feudalism that rewarded conquistadors, but also
established some form of government over the area. Conquistadors were granted a community of Native Americas that
were to labor and pay tribute in exchange for protection and Christian education. (Spaniards adopted the Incan system
of mita, which also was a system of labor and tribute like the encomienda.) It was a system severely abused by Spanish
colonists, who driven by wealth treated Native Americans as slaves. Priests like Bartolome de las Casas spoke out against
the abuses, which led the Spanish crown to establish New Laws that protected Indians from abuse. The situation
changed little, though. Las Casas suggested that Africans should replace Indian laborers because of the abuse, but he
later regretted that suggestion when he saw a similar treatment of Africans.

Plot
4. Why did the Atlantic slave trade increase in the Americas?

Diseases like smallpox devastated the Indian population. The high demand for labor did not ease and therefore
Europeans began to look for other sources of labor. One option was indentured servitude. Europeans were contracted
to labor for a period of time in exchange for transportation to the New World. Many Europeans were also not immune
to tropical diseases like malaria. While Europeans came to the New World, they tended to come in larger numbers to
areas north of the tropics, namely North America. The option Europeans settled on was slavery. Africans from West
Africa lived in regions where mosquitos had given them greater resilience to certain diseases, especially malaria. This
resilience encouraged greater reliance on Africans for labor. The triangular trade developed to support European
demand for slaves.

Resolution
5. What factors allowed Spain to become the wealthiest county?

Spain exploited the wealth of the Americas by extracting enormous amounts of gold and silver, developing cash crops
and exploiting the labor of Native Americans and Africans.
Theme
6. What is race? Why did racial categories develop?

Race developed during the colonization of the Americas as an early form of social control. As Europeans, Americans and
Africans came into contact and mixed in the Americas during Columbian exchange, Spanish elites began to classify these
groups and their various unions. Spanish anxiety with purity originally developed with religious connotations as
Christians mixed with Jews and Muslims. In the New World, that concern for “blood’ purity expanded into invented
racial categories wherein Spanish “whites” were at the top of the social hierarchy. As it developed it became a
justification for slavery and other forms of oppression.
 Study Guide
Unit 3: Absolutism and the Enlightenment

Theme
How should power be distributed in society?

Vocabulary
Context
Colonization The movement of settlers and their culture to a new territory.
Gunpowder empires States that used firearms to expand their territories and control their own populations.
Bourgeoisie The middle class
Absolutism a political theory which argues that one person should hold all power.
Divine Right Belief that monarchs have a God-given right to rule and that rebellion is a sin.
Absolute Monarchs Rule by one person, monarch, whose actions are not restricted by law or custom
Louis XIV Absolute monarch in France, known as the Sun King and for the Palace of Versailles
Conflict
English Civil War A series of wars Parliamentarians and Royalists, supporters of the King Charles I.
Glorious Revolution Overthrow of King James II by Parliament for William III, also known as the “Bloodless
Revolution.”
Parliament The British legislature
Constitutional Monarchy A monarchy wherein the monarch is restrained by the laws of a constitution.
English Bill of Rights The civil rights Parliament required William III to sign as limits on his power.
Plot
Scientific Revolution Refers to the historic changes in thinking begun by Copernicus until Newton.
Enlightenment The philosophical movement primarily concerned with applying reason to society.
Natural rights rights people supposedly have under natural law (given by nature to all human beings.)
Social contract a hypothetical agreement between rulers and ruled
Characters
Philosopher A philosopher is involved in the rational inquiry into areas that are outside either
theology or science.
Thomas Hobbes British philosopher who dismissed the idea of divine right for a social contract
John Locke British philosopher who believed people could rebel against governments that did not
protect people’s natural rights.
Baron de Montesquieu French philosopher who wrote about the separation of powers.
Voltaire French philosopher who wrote on separation of church and state and freedom of
speech.
Jean Rousseau French philosopher who emphasized the general will of the people through a
representative legislature
Cesare Beccaria Italian philosopher who wrote on criminal justice.
Mary Wollstonecraft British philosopher who wrote on women’s equality
Enlightened Despots Absolute monarchs pursued reforms inspired by the Enlightenment, especially
concerned with education, health, and infrastructure.
Catherine II Considered an enlightened despot of Russia opening hospitals and schools.
Resolution
Revolution a forcible overthrow of a government or social order in favor of a new system.
Analysis
Theme
1. What is power?
Power is the ability to direct or influence the behavior of others. This can take various forms-political, economic and
social. Political power is related to a position and typically is coercive in the making and enforcement of rules. Economic
power is related to expertise in the ability to acquire and control resources, especially wealth. The final type is relational
power that influences others through persuasion and transformation.

Setting
2. How did European monarchs justify absolutism?
European monarchs began to amass enormous power and wealth through military expansion. While monarchs struggled
for dominance in Europe they expanded overseas through colonization. Gunpowerder tipped power away from the
feudal order to absolutism. The power of barons and lords was taken by monarchs as they centralized power through
government bureaucracies. Monarchs justified their increasing power by appealing to divine right. They believed that
their power had been granted to them by god. Louis XIV epitomized this power. He disregarded the power of the Estates
General, the French legislature. He created the Palace of Versailles to be his home, seat of government, and pageant of
power.

Conflict
3. How did the English Civil War shift power in England?
While monarchs on the European continent were increasing in power, Britain had a tradition of resistance to the
overreach of the monarchy with the Magna Carta. When Charles I attempted to assert absolute power, Parliament took
up arms against him. A series of wars pitted the Roundheads, supporters of Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell against
the Cavaliers, supporters of the King, that ultimately brought Charles’ reign to an end with his beheading. A republic was
formed with leaders elected, but when rebellions in continued, the country descended into a military rule. Parliament
decided to return to a monarchy, but again when Charles II overstepped his position, they kicked him out and chose
another. William III was selected, who agreed to the English Bill of Rights, forming a constitutional monarchy.

Plot
4. How did the Enlightenment rethink society and power?
The Enlightenment flowed out of the larger trend in Europe begun with the Renaissance. It was a turn from a divine
perspective to one centered on humans—humanism. This led to movements that questioned religious authorities during
the Reformation and the Ptolemaic understanding of the universe during the Scientific Revolution. The Enlightenment
continued in this growing dependence on logic or reason and questioning traditional authorities. If universal laws could
be found governing the universe, then philosophers tried to find those principles governing human actions in society and
government.

Characters
5. Compare and contrast the philosophies of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke?
Both thinkers begin by discussing people in a state of nature, that is people without government. Then they consider
why we form government to determine its purpose. What is the social contract between government and people? This
leads them to describe the form of government best suited to the situation. While they share similar patterns of thinking
they come to different conclusion. Hobbes argues that people are generally bad, while Locke sees them as generally
good, having an innate sense of moral law. Hobbes sees people forming government out of fear and an absolute
monarch is best suited to keep people under control. Locke on the other hand argues that people need government to
judge between people when people’s natural rights are broken. Government should protect people’s freedom and
therefore he argues for a government where power is separated into executive, legislative and judicial powers. Locke
concludes that if government is not protecting those natural rights, the social contract has been broken and the people
can rebel against that illegitimate government.
Resolution
6. Identify three Enlightenment thinkers and describe how their ideas were revolutionary?

Montesquieu wrote on the separation of powers in government—executive, legislative, and judicial—challenging the
absolutist monarchy of France. Voltaire critiqued government and church throughout his life and this freedom to speak
out against authorities led to ideals like freedom of speech and separation of church and state. Rousseau wrote on the
importance of the general will of the people which refocused the role of government around the needs and desire of the
people rather than the elite. Beccaria writing on the criminal justice system spoke out against torture and the death
penalty and wrote about due process, which was influential on the American Bill of Rights. Mary Wollstonecraft
challenged the social norms around women arguing that women should be treated as equals.
 Study Guide
Unit 4: Revolutions

Theme
What kind of change is revolutionary?

Vocabulary
Context
Enlightenment The philosophical movement primarily concerned with applying reason to society.
The French-Indian War War between France and England for territory in North America, which England won.
(The Seven Years War) Both countries had huge war debts that required greater taxation.
Conflict
Stamp Act A tax passed by the British Parliament on paper products in the American colonies to
pay for the French-Indian War, which angered the colonists.
Sons of Liberty A secret society to protect the colonists’ rights and fight taxation.
Boston Tea Party A protest on against the Tea Act, where the Sons of Liberty dumped British tea
overboard in the Boston harbor.
Common Sense A popular pamphlet written by Thomas Paine making a case for independence
Plot
American Revolution A colonial revolt for independence against Great Britain.
Declaration of The statement adopted by the 13 colonies announcing their independence from Great
Independence Britain.
Constitution The supreme law of the United States, outlining the form of government as a republic.
Treaty of Paris The formal recognition of the United States as a separate state from Great Britain.
French Revolution The social and political upheaval in France against the privileges of the old order.
Tennis Court Oath The vow made by the Third Estate declaring themselves the National Assembly, after
locked out from the Estates General, to form a constitution.
Storming of the Bastille The Paris uprising that destroyed the Bastille in support of the National Assembly
Declaration of the Right of The core statement of the National Assembly stating the natural rights of men.
Man and the Citizen
Reign of Terror The period of mass executions under the Jacobin party that ended with the fall of
Robespierre.
Characters
Thomas Jefferson Writer of the Declaration of Independence.
George Washington General of the Continental Army against the British in the American Revolution.
King Louis XVI The King at the time of the French Revolution who was beheaded.
Estates General The assembly of representatives of the three French estates—the clergy (first), nobility
(second) and commoner (third).
Maximilian Robespierre Leader of the Jacobin party pushing for a republic and responsible for the reign of
Terror
Resolution
Napoleon Military leader in the French Revolutionary wars who rose to become leader of France.
Nationalism A support for the interests of one’s group through self-governance
Haitian Revolution The independence of San Domingue from French rule through a successful slave
rebellion.
Latin American Revolutions The independence of Spanish colonies from Spain.
Analysis
Setting
1. How did the Seven Years War lead to the conflicts in the American colonies and France?

The Seven Years War between France and England left both countries deep in debt. Gunpowder armies were a powerful
force for building empires, but were also extremely costly. Both countries struggled to pay their war debts and their
kings hoped to raise taxes in order to solve the problem. Taxation sparked movements in each country for greater
participation in government. In America, the failure to get representatives in the British Parliament led to an
independence movement. In France, the Third Estate pushed for greater representation leading to the creation of a
constitutional monarchy and then a republic.

Conflict
2. Were the American colonists justified in their revolution against King George III?

The American colonists benefited from the Seven Years War and many leaders in England felt that it was only right for
the American colonists to share the financial burden of the war. The taxes Parliament imposed were very unpopular
with the colonists and sparked many protests, boycotts and destruction. Parliament tried different tax plans, but
ultimately the problem for colonists came down to representation. They wanted a voice in Parliament and this was
denied them. On this point, the colonists were justified in seeking change.

Plot
3. Compare and contrast the French and American Revolutions?

Both revolutions were inspired by the Enlightenment ideals. The Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the
Right of Man both point to the natural rights of man, that all men should be treated equally before the law. The
character of each movement was shaped by their individual circumstances though. The American Revolution ultimately
was about independence from Great Britain. The French on the other hand were faced with having to reform their
society from within.

Characters
4. How did Maximilian Robespierre change the direction of the French Revolution?

Robespierre and the Jacobin party committed to more radical change moved the French toward a republic from a
constitutional monarchy. Nevertheless, they were less tolerant of dissent. The Reign of Terror dealt with dissent harshly
and spiraled France into a wave of executions. Thousands were killed by guillotine. It was only brought to an end with
the execution of Robespierre.

Resolution
5. What was the impact of Napoleon Bonaparte?

After the chaos of the Reign of Terror, the people looked for stability and peace. They hoped Napoleon, a popular
military leader of the French Revolutionary Wars, would provide that. He was able to centralize the government and
create the Napoleonic Code that protected basic freedoms and guaranteed equality before the law. He led France to
many wars and was very successful in conquering much of Europe, spreading the ideas of the revolution with him. He
was finally stopped at the Battle of Waterloo and sent into exile. The era of absolute monarchs was in decline
afterwards.

Theme
6. Which revolution do you think was most successful? Why?
 Study Guide
Unit 5: Nationalism, Industrialism and Imperialism

Theme
What is the impact of technology upon society?

Vocabulary
Context
Domestic System Merchants distributed jobs out to people to complete in their homes
Steam engine A machine using steam to perform mechanical work.
Fossil Fuels An energy source (oil, gas and coal) formed from ancient plants captured underground
Conflict
Industrialization An economic system built on manufacturing products with machines
Factory system Replacing the domestic system, people now went to factories that were built to house
machines
Urbanization The process of moving from rural to urban areas, or from farms to cities.
Capitalism An economic system based on the free trade of privately owned goods or services
provided through firms or companies.
Communism An economic system where the means of production are shared thereby eliminating
social class.
Characters
James Watt Inventor of the steam engine
Adam Smith Influential economist who observed the productivity of specialization and argued that
markets would regulate themselves through supply and demand.
Karl Marx Influential economist who critiqued industrialism and argued that workers would unite
against their exploitation to move society to holding property in common.
Cecil Rhodes British colonizer in South Africa who grew wealthy trading in diamonds.
King Leopold II of Belgium Belgian king who grew wealthy from the rubber trade in his colony of Congo.
Plot
Imperialism A country’s expansion of power into new territories through colonization.
Berlin Conference A gathering of European powers to organize the colonization of Africa.
Scramble for Africa The division, occupation, and colonization of Africa by European nations from 1881 to
1914.
Social Darwinism The application of the concept of natural selection to human society, arguing some
were more ‘fit’ than others.
“White Man’s Burden” The task of white colonizers to civilize the people in their colonies.
Resolution
Nationalism Pride in one’s people marked by a sense of superiority over other peoples
Opium Wars Wars successfully fought by the British over China to open new ports for their opium
trade.
Meiji Restoration The radical political changes in Japan to modernize it as a response to Western
imperialism
Analysis
Answer the following questions in complete sentences using your own words. The answers require about 3 sentences.

Setting
1. How was life transformed by the Industrial Revolution?
Life before the Industrial Revolution was focused on agriculture. Most people were farmers and their life and
work tended to revolve around their family and house. They lived by the rhythms of the sun and seasons. The
Industrial Revolution shifted the center of life from farming to factories. People moved to cities, urbanization,
where they found work in the newly developing factory system. There they worked by the clock for tasks
requiring minimal skills. They were now required to work long hours under a boss for small pay, shifting life
away from the family.
Conflict
2. What contributed to the changes of the Industrial Revolution?
Several changes contributed to the industrial revolution. 1) A labor force. New innovations in agriculture helped
to increase the productivity of the land, like Jethro Tull’s seed drill. More could be produced with fewer people.
This created a population looking for new employment. 2) Capital. New technologies in cloth-production put an
end to the domestic system because machines could produce more. These new machines required large
amounts of capital (money) both to have them built and to house them in factories. Only a few could afford this.
3) Natural resources. The availability of natural resources, especially fossil fuels, for running machines was
required. 4) Transprotation. Finally a strong system of transportation supported the movement of goods.
Characters
3. Compare and contrast the thought of Adam Smith and Karl Marx.
Both economists were deeply impacted by the changes they witnessed during the Industrial Revolution. Adam
Smith saw the efficiency and productivity of specialization, or a division of labor. He argued that the balance of
supply and demand did not require oversight, but worked naturally by “the invisible hand”; therefore, he was
critical of the mercantilist system of the time. On the other hand, Karl Marx saw how work in the industrial
factories dehumanized and exploited people. He argued that workers would unite to revolt against this system
of oppression.
Plot
4. Why did industrialized nations imperialize other places?
Industrialization began with machines that could increase the production of goods, but with that increased
efficiency there was also a demand for more natural resources. (Increased production of cloth leads to a
demand for more thread. Increased production of thread leads to a greater demand for cotton.) European
nations looked beyond their borders for natural resources and they turned to Africa and Asia. A new wave of
colonization began. At the Berlin Conference, European nations agreed to divide up Africa, ignoring traditional
ethnic and cultural boundaries.
Resolution
5. How was imperialism justified?
Europeans influenced by Social Darwinism believed that they had a special responsibility as a superior “race” to
civilize the foreign peoples of Africa and Asia. Europeans transferred Darwin’s new observations on biology and
evolution to a social context believing that Europeans were more “evolved” or” fit” than others. They moved
outward not only colonize, but with a sense of responsibility to civilize others—the “white man’s burden.”
European nationalism became increasingly competitive as they scrambled for control of resources and power.
Theme
6. Was the impact of the Industrial Revolution positive or negative?
The Industrial Revolution led to overall increasing wealth, especially for the new growing middle class.
Nevertheless, it had many negative consequences, like working conditions that exploited the working class both
at home and abroad, environmental pollution, colonization, and questionable social values.
 Study Guide
Unit 6: World War I and the Russian Revolution

Theme
What is necessary for a lasting peace?

Vocabulary
Context
Militarism The desire of a nation to have a strong military to promote its national interests.
Alliances Countries joining together for mutual benefit and protection.
Imperialism A country’s expansion of power into new territories through colonization.
Nationalism Pride in one’s people marked by a push for freedom and self-government
Ottoman Empire A weakening empire that was losing land in Europe (the Balkans) and creating a power
vacuum that was a cause of the war.
Conflict
July Crisis The diplomatic conflict between European powers after the assassination of the
Archduke
Propaganda Information, usually biased, used to promote a political cause.
Stalemate A situation when military progress is impossible.
Trench Warfare A type of combat when opposing forces face each other from trenches because of a
stalemate.
Total War A war disregarding laws on the types of weapons used, where fighting takes place and
who can be a combatant.
Mustard Gas A chemical agent used as a weapon that causes blistering.
Plot
Lusitania A passenger ship sunk by German submarine warfare that began to turn the American
public away from neutrality toward war.
Dictator A ruler with complete power, like Joseph Stalin over Russia
Russian Revolution The revolution that turned Russia from a monarchy to one inspired by communism
Characters
Archduke Franz Ferdinand Heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary whose assassination sparked World War I
Czar Nicholas II Ruler of Russia, who saw the collapse of his military and economic empire.
Bolsheviks A faction of the Communist party that believed that a special group should lead the
revolution, rather than the democratic Mensheviks.
Vladimir Lenin Leader of the Bolshevik faction of the Communists who led the Russian Revolution.
Woodrow Wilson American President whose Fourteen Points for peace were influential in the peace
talks.
Resolution
Armistice An agreement between warring countries to stop fighting
Fourteen Points Wilson’s Plan for international peace based on national self-determination, free trade,
and international cooperation—a League of Nations.
Treaty of Versailles The peace agreement to end World War I that had a harsh punishment for Germany
League of Nations An international organization between countries to resolve conflicts and predecessor
to the United Nations.
Analysis
Answer the following questions in complete sentences using your own words. The answers require about 3 sentences.

Setting
1. What are the MAIN causes for World War I?
The rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire contributed to four MAIN causes for World War I. 1) Militarism:
The Industrial Revolution contributed to a modernization of weapons like machine guns, missiles, airplanes, tanks, and
submarines. This set of an arms race between European powers for military dominance. 2) Alliances: The arms race in
Europe contributed to various countries seeking support for others. Austro-Hungary looked to Germany, while Russia
looked to France and Britain. 3) Imperialism: The Industrial Revolution set off a competition for resources that brought
European powers into conflict with each other overseas and in Europe in the Balkan region where the Ottoman Empire
was in decline. 4) Nationalism: A sense of common identity had recently unified Germany, but also was leading to
conflicts in the Balkans where the Ottomans where weakening. Various groups pushed for independence, which Austria-
Hungary wanted to expand into. This fervor prompted Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, to assassinate the heir to
the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand II.

Conflict
2. How did stalemate change the direction of World War I?
World War I was the first modern war where new military weapons capable of mass destruction were used. The German
offensive toward Paris merely introduced Europe to the ravages of modern war. The Battle of the Marne brought the
German forces to a halt. The war came to a stalemate as each opposing army dug trenches to hold their line—the
Western Front. That line of trenches remained largely unchanged for the remainder of the war and became a source of
immeasurable suffering. Deaths stacked up as men were uselessly sent into the “no man’s land” in a futile attempt to
attack the enemy trench, only to be mowed down by machine guns. The mental shock of the living conditions and
disease, not to mention the stress of unexpected weapons like mustard gas, led to massive abandonments. Ultimately
the stalemate required the mobilization of whole countries for war. Women went to factories to prepare munitions.
Governments turned to propaganda to mobilize their country for war.

Plot
3. What was the appeal of the communist revolution in Russia?
The Eastern Front of the War between Russia and Germany was disastrous for Russia. Czar Nicholas II insistence on
continuing the war was increasingly unpopular. The February Revolution of 1917 forced the Czar to step down with a
provisional government in power. The Bolshevik faction of the Communist Party popular among workers and soldiers
began to promise “Bread, Land and Peace”, that is, an end to the war, a redistribution of land to farmers, and food. In
the October Revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin took power. They took the country out of the war
and began a radical shift in how the economy would work.

Characters
1. How did Vladimir Lenin change Russia?
He was leader of the Bolshevik faction of the Communist party that took control of Russia during the October
Revolution. The Mensheviks, who were a democratic form of communism and more dominant during the provisional
government were swept away. He movement on behalf of the proletariat, the working class, helped industrialize the
country and bring greater education and rights. Nevertheless, he was also as ruthless as the Czar in securing power by
eliminating dissent.

Resolution
4. Why was the Treaty of Versailles a failure?
Renewed German submarine warfare pushed the United States into World War I on the Allied side. This tipped the
balance of the war against Germany. Germany was willing to seek an armistice with the Allies using Woodrow Wilson’s
the Fourteen Points as an outline for peace talks. When peace talks began in France, the leaders of France, England, and
Italy were more interested in punishing Germany for the war. The resulting Treaty of Versailles had some minor
successes like the formation of a League of Nations (which ironically the United States rejected) and greater national
self-determination for European nations, but Germany was forced to give up land, pay for the war (reparations),
demilitarize, and accept guilt for the war.

Theme
5. What is necessary for a lasting peace?

At the heart of Woodrow Wilson’s plan for peace was making a space for the nations of the world to resolve conflicts
through diplomacy, that is, representatives of the world’s nations talking through the issues they are facing together.
Previously European countries had used alliance, secret treaties, and military force to resolve their differences. The
devastation of modern warfare of World War I convinced many that another way must be found. This led to the
formation of the League of Nations, which would become the predecessor to the United Nations. The United Nations
would be formed after World War II.
 Study Guide
Unit 7: Interwar Years and World War II
Theme
How do you distinguish between fact and fiction?
Vocabulary
Context
Treaty of Versailles WWI Peace treaty that formed the League of Nations and punished Germany harshly.
Reparations Payments the Treaty of Versailles required Germany to pay as punishment for the War.
Great Depression The severe recession of the 1930s beginning in the US and spreading around the world
Inflation A general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing power of money
Propaganda biased information designed to shape public opinion and behavior.
Characters
Benito Mussolini Italian fascist dictator who allied with Germany and brought Italy into WWII
Adolf Hitler Leader of the Nazi Party and dictator of Germany, who began WWII by invading Poland
Franklin Delano Roosevelt US president during the Great Depression and entered WWII after Pearl Harbor
Joseph Stalin Russian dictator of the USSR who created a totalitarian and entered WWII after the
German invasion—Operation Barbarossa.
Totalitarianism Form of government that subordinates all aspects of life to the authority of the state
through coercion or repression, ignoring individual rights.
Fascism A right-wing, political movement (anti-communist) that exalts the nation over the
individual through a totalitarian government headed by a dictator.
Dictator A person with unlimited governmental power
National Socialist Party Or Nazis, the fascist party of Germany led by Adolf Hitler.
Conflict
Appeasement The attempt to avoid conflict by making concessions to an aggressive power, namely
giving Hitler lands from Czechoslovakia in order prevent war in the Munich Pact.
Axis Powers The alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan during WWII
Allied Powers The alliance between Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union
D-day Or Operation Overlord, Attack upon German occupied France that gave the Allies a
foothold in Europe
Atom Bomb US Bomb developed in the secret Manhattan Project used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
that led to Japanese surrender
Plot
Anti-Semitism Hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group
Nuremburg Laws Anti-Semitic laws excluding Jews from citizenship and removing their political rights
Kristallnacht the wave of violent anti-Jewish violence on November 9 and 10, 1938 in Germany
Final Solution The Nazi plan to concentrate in ghettos and annihilate European Jewry in death camps
Genocide the deliberate killing of a large group of people, particularly ethnic groups or nations.
Resolution
Holocaust The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and
murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.
Nuremburg Trials Trials held between 1945 and 1949 in which the Allies prosecuted German military
leaders, politicians, industrialists, and financiers for crimes committed during WWII.
United Nations Organization to maintain international peace, replacing the League of Nations
Analysis
Answer the main questions in complete sentences using your own words. The supporting questions are provided to
guide your response that should be about 3-4 sentences.

Theme
7. How do you distinguish between fact and fiction?

In order to decide between fact and fiction in society, one needs reliable information. Reliable information should be
unbiased, because typically politicians play on our emotions to message their ideas. The information should be
supported by good sources like experts, research and other important data. We also rely on journalists that work by
professional standards of conduct because they play an important role of scrutinizing authority. Our society depends on
trustworthy organizations, strong sources of information and an unbiased presentation of information.

Setting
8. How did the Nazi Party appeal to German people?

The Nazi party took advantage of the fears and frustrations of the German people through their propaganda campaign.
Germans felt anger and humiliation at the demands of the Treaty of Versailles, which required that Germany give up
land, accept guilt for the war, and pay reparations. The country suffered economically from WWI, but the Great
Depression sunk Germany into desperation. Various political parties competed for votes during the Weimar Republic,
but the Nazi Party successfully appealed to the economic uncertainty and anger of Germans, particularly among the
middle class, by presenting Hitler as a strong leader to rescue them from their troubles, scapegoating Jews as the source
of their problems, and the need to rally around him for change. The Nazis presented themselves as the ones who could
restore German pride and success.

Characters
9. How did Adolf Hitler maintain control of Germany?

Hitler controlled Germany through his fascist ideology of nationalism, centralized power and terror. Hitler’s appeal to
German nationalism was important in convincing Germans to sacrifice their own individual rights for the country. He
was quick to centralize power when it arose, like imprisoning political opponents after the Reichstag fire, consolidating
his leadership powers after Hindenburg’s death, and shutting down media opposed him. He also was not unwilling to
use intimidation to get obedience from the German population by having dissent crushed. Hitler created a totalitarian
state by centralized power around himself as dictator and controlling people lives through propaganda and intimidation.

Conflict
10. What were major events of WWII?

Despite early losses, the Allied forces successfully defeated the Axis powers in Europe and Asia. Attempting to prevent
war in Europe, France and England tried to appease Hitler with Czech land in the Munich Pact, while Russia signed a non-
aggression pact with Germany. Germany broke these agreements and conquered much of Europe leaving England and
USSR teetering on defeat in the Battle of Britain and Operation Barbarossa. Russia fought much of the war in Europe
until D-Day, when British and US forces successfully gained a foothold in German occupied France. Despite an
unsuccessful German offensive in the Battle of the Bulge, the Allied forces slowly moved in from Russia and France to
defeat Germany. In Asia, Japan wanting to expand its empire in the Pacific attacked the US at Pearl Harbor to weaken its
only major threat in the region. The US turned the tide of the Pacific War at Midway. After many difficult battles with
Japan and attempting to prevent further American losses, atomic weapons were used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
forcing Japan to surrender.
Plot
11. What was the Holocaust?

Persecution of Jews had existed in Europe for centuries, but Hitler’s anti-Semitism escalated that hatred to an
unprecedented level in the Holocaust. Hitler’s German nationalism defined in racial categories understood Jews as a
negative intrusion upon Germany, scapegoating them as the cause for the challenges Germany was facing after the war.
When Hitler got to power he could enact his racist ideology first by passing laws that legalized discrimination against
Jews in the Nuremburg Laws. After removing citizenship, orchestrated acts of violence could begin as in Kristallnacht
when their homes, businesses and synagogues were destroyed. The next escalation removed Jews from German society
and isolated them in walled ghettoes. When the “final decision” regarding the “Jewish problem” was made mobile killing
squads and death camps were created to murder Jews. Under the Nazi regime, hatred of Jews led to the genocide of
around six million Jews

Resolution
12. How did people respond to the devastation of WWII?

After the devastation of the war around the world, people were again ready to commit to peace and justice. A more
robust and inclusive organization was formed in the United Nations after the failure of the League of Nations. It was also
necessary to deal with the atrocities committed during the war, particularly in the Holocaust. The Nuremberg Trials
began to establish a precedent for an international court that could try people for crimes against peace, war crimes, and
crimes against humanity. The trials also exposed the crimes committed by the Nazi regime, particularly the German
people. It was necessary to confront the full evil of what had been done in order to recommit to a process for peace.
 Study Guide
Unit 8: Cold War
Theme
How do we build peace in times of conflict?
Vocabulary
Setting
Yalta Conference WWII meeting between FDR (United States), Winston Churchill (United Kingdom) and Joseph Stalin
(Soviet Union) for the purpose of discussing Europe's postwar reorganization.
Atom Bomb Nuclear weapon developed by the USA and used on Japan during the WWII.
Superpowers a very powerful and influential nation
Capitalism an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private
owners for profit, rather than by the state.
Democracy a system of government by the whole population typically through elected representatives.
Communism a theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is
publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.
Command economy an economy in which production, investment, prices, and incomes are determined centrally by a
government.
Hegemony leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others.
Conflict
Cold War Geopolitical tensions after WWII between the Eastern bloc (USSR led) and Western bloc (US led)
Marshall Plan American initiative to aid Western Europe by giving economic assistance to help rebuild Western
European economies after the end of WWII
Truman Doctrine The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet
geopolitical expansion during the Cold War.
Containment the policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or influence over “satellite” states
Iron Curtain a metaphor Winston Churchill introduced to describe the ideological barrier forming between the
Soviet Union and Western Europe
North Atlantic Treaty A military alliance between several North American and European countries to establish a system of
Organization (NATO) collective defense from the nuclear threat of the Soviet Union
Warsaw Pact A military alliance formed in reaction to and as a collective defense against NATO.
Plot
Proxy War a war instigated by a major power that does not itself become involved
Korean War proxy war between North Korea (backed by China and USSR) and South Korea (backed by US)
Vietnam War proxy war between North Vietnam (backed by China and USSR) and South Vietnam (backed by US)
Domino theory the theory that a political event in one country will cause similar events in neighboring countries
Cuban Missile Crisis 13-day confrontation between the US and Soviet Union over placement of nuclear weapons
Space Race Competition between the US and USSR for dominance of spaceflight.
Characters
Harry Truman 33rd President of the United States who became president at the beginning of the cold war
Joseph Stalin Soviet dictator who oversaw the post war reconstruction and development of nuclear weapons
John F Kennedy 35th president of the United States who began the space race and involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Mikhail Gorbachev Last president of the Soviet Union before its collapse.
Resolution
Glasnost The policy of openness through a consultative government and wider dissemination of information
Perestroika The policy of restructuring or reforming the economic and political system.
Berlin Wall a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be a topic sentence, three supporting sentences and a
conclusion. The supporting questions are provided to support your thinking around the main question.

Theme
1. How do we build peace in times of conflict?
Peace is built when conflicts are used as opportunities for dialogue, understanding and cooperation. Rather than
spiraling in a destructive cycle of anger, attack and misunderstanding, conflict should be acknowledged and worked
through so people can learn from each other, opportunities for correction opened and problems solved. Obstacles to
peace are removed when people get behind the conflict to understanding the needs people are attempting to meet and
the values that shape their decision making. Building peace requires developing curiosity about the conflict through
constructive dialogue, identifying the source of a conflict, finding multiple options for resolving it and making clear
agreements. Conflicts are normal. The challenge is for us to work through them constructively.

Setting
2. Why were the US and USSR in conflict?
As Europe declined as the major superpower after two devastating wars, the United States and the Soviet Union
competed to fill that power vacuum. The United States driven by ideas of a liberal democracy wanted to promote
international free trade, whereas Russia, a relatively new communist nation, desired to be a recognized power on the
world stage. Each felt that the philosophy of their enemy was dangerous and corrupt; therefore, they felt a need to
secure themselves against each other through an arms race and by extending their influence into other parts of the
world. The Cold War conflict encompassed the world as the two superpowers struggled for dominance or hegemony.

Conflict
3. How did the Cold War develop?
At the Yalta Conference the Allies made agreements about what should happen after the war, but post-war tensions
developed that would develop into the Cold War. The Soviet Union concerned to secure her country from future wars
disregarded their agreement about free elections in Eastern European countries and created buffer states. An iron
curtain was descending on Europe, as Winston Churchill described it, that separated East and West. The failed Berlin
Blockade gave the United States and Britain the impression that Russia was going to continue to expand into Europe, so
Truman decided to contain the spread of communism by supporting anti-communist countries (the Truman Doctrine)
especially through aid (the Marshall Plan). The Cold War ultimately developed into new military alliances (NATO and the
Warsaw Pact) formed to protect themselves from any threat.

Plot
4. How was the Cold War fought?
The Cold War was fought primarily through an arms race and proxy wars. The introduction of the atomic bomb to the
world by the United States escalated tensions significantly, leading the Soviet Union to balance that power by
developing their own bomb. This began an arms race as they competed for better technology that would lead to the
development of the hydrogen bomb, intercontinental ballistic missiles and a space race with the Russian development of
Sputnik I. Besides safeguarding national security, the US concerned that nations turning to communism would begin a
domino effect attempted to promote their interests in the third world leading to proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Chile,
Afghanistan and many other places. The conflict encompassed the world as each superpower attempted to develop
stronger weapons and spread their influence around the world.

Characters
5. Did John F Kennedy respond effectively in Cuban Missile Crisis?

Despite the high tensions, Kennedy and Khrushchev brought the Cuban Missile Crisis to a positive resolution. Kennedy’s
attempt to overthrow Castro in the Bay of Pigs invasion set off a chain of events that led to the crisis. Castro received
weapons from Russia to protect itself from another invasion, and Russia balanced the placement of weapons in the
world by locating some near the US as the US had placed weapons near Russia in Turkey and Italy. Once Kennedy
discovered the presence of Soviet missile sites in Cuba, he created a blockade to prevent Russian supplies from reaching
Cuba. This was an act of war that brought the situation to a high point, but diplomats were able to bring the nations to
an agreement. The US would remove their missiles from Turkey and Italy and promise not to invade Cuba, if Russia
removed their weapons from Cuba.

Resolution
6. How did the Cold War end?

Several policy changes contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, which brought the Cold War to an end. Both the
United States and the Soviet Union were feeling the weight of military spending in the ongoing arms race, which led to a
policy of détente, a relaxing of tensions by reducing armaments. When Reagan came into office, he began a new arms
race that stretched a weak Russian economy. Gorbachev on the other hand, trying to reform the Soviet government
implemented a policy of glasnost (openness) to encourage criticism and transparency in government and perestroika
(restructuring) to loosen control of the economy. Gorbachev’s economic policies had little time to have an impact
because Eastern bloc countries suddenly changed governments and the Soviet Union dissolved closely afterwards. The
Berlin Wall a symbolic barrier of the Cold War tensions between East and West was taken down reuniting Germany.
 Study Guide
Unit 9: New Nations
Theme
How do you bring reconciliation to situations of injustice?
Vocabulary
Setting
British Empire British Empire, a worldwide system of dependencies—colonies, protectorates, and other territories—
that over a span of some three centuries was brought under the sovereignty of the crown of Great
Britain and the administration of the British government.
Structural violence violence that is the result of a social structure or institution that keeps people from their basic needs.
Privilege a special right or advantage granted or available only to a particular person or group of people.
Decolonization the undoing of colonialism
Nationalism advocacy of political independence for a particular country.
Conflict
Mandates control of one country transferred to another by the League of Nations following World War I
Palestine a geographical and historical region in the Middle East;
Zionism a movement for (originally) the re-establishment and (now) the development and protection of a
Jewish nation in what is now Israel.
Palestinian Liberation The Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the
Organization (PLO) "liberation of Palestine" through armed struggle
Intifada “to shake off”; Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip
Characters
Mohandas Gandhi political and spiritual leader during India's struggle with Great Britain for home rule, advocating of
nonviolent civil resistance
Jawaharlal Nehru Indian statesman and leader with Gandhi in the struggle for home rule; was the first prime minister of
the Republic of India
Muhammad Ali lawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan
Jinnah
Nelson Mandela South African statesman who was released from prison to become the nation's first democratically
elected president in 1994
Desmond Tutu South African Anglican cleric and theologian known for his work as an anti-apartheid and human rights
activist.
Plot
Indian National political party founded in 1885 and central to the independence movement in the 1930s under
Congress Mahatma Gandhi
Civil Disobedience the refusal to comply with certain laws or to pay taxes and fines, as a peaceful form of political protest.
Nonviolence the use of peaceful means, not force, to bring about political or social change.
Salt March A march to the sea to break the law regarding the British monopoly on salt.
Partition the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions,
India and Pakistan.
Resolution
Pan Africanism a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between
all people of African descent.
Apartheid a policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race in South Africa
Truth and a court-like restorative justice body assembled in South Africa after the abolition of apartheid in 1994.
Reconciliation
Commission
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be a topic sentence, three supporting sentences and a
conclusion. The supporting questions are provided to support your thinking around the main question.

Theme
1. How do you bring reconciliation to situations of injustice?

Reconciliation is the challenging task of rebuilding relationships after experiencing the pain of injustice. It is a long and
difficult process because injustice creates painful wounds that require healing, especially when it is committed against
whole groups of people—women, people of color, poor, etc. A variety of groups face a daily violence that is not physical,
but a constant closure of opportunities to them because of social norms that marginalize them. Reconciliation is a long
process of rebuilding relationships through truth telling and honest dialogue that move offenders beyond the blindness
of their privileged power to admissions of guilt and restitution. It is not just of matter of saying sorry, but doing sorry
through acts that correct the injustice.

Setting
1. What sparked the decolonization of Asia and Africa?

Decolonization was sparked by the decline of European imperial powers after two world wars. Since the industrial
revolution, Europeans had colonized Asia and Africa to exploit their resources, but the devastation of war weakened
them. Japanese expansion into European colonies demonstrated their political weakness and the economic burden of
maintaining their empire. This led to nationalist movement advocating for their own rights for self-determination, which
found support from Soviets during the Cold War. The weakening of European empires and the desire of colonized
people for independence pushed imperialism to an end.

Conflict
2. How did British colonization lead to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict?

The Israel-Palestine conflict was sparked by decisions the British made regarding Palestine after World War I. The British
made contradictory promises to Arab and Zionist Jews, namely Arab independence for fighting against the Ottoman
Turks and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. They also broke promises to Arabs by secretly planning to take
control of the Middle East in the Sykes-Picot Treaty. The British attempted to appease both sides after colonization, but
ultimately handed the conflict over to the UN who decided upon a two-state solution, upsetting Arabs. Israelis expanded
their territory in two wars (Israeli-Arab War and Six Days War) leading to greater recognition of Israel by its neighbors
(Camp David Accords), but also a reaffirmation of the two-state solution (Oslo accords). The conflict remains unresolved
with Palestinians pushing for an independent state through the PLO and Hamas and Israelis continuing to settle in
Palestinian territories.

Characters
3. How did Gandhi fashion a new response to injustice in India?

Under British colonization, some wanted to work within the British government to bring change, while other wanted a
violent revolution to bring independence. Unhappy with those options, Gandhi pushed for independence through
nonviolent civil disobedience. He would disobey laws, like the Rowlatt Act and Salt Tax, he considered immoral in order
to raise awareness of the injustice of the British rule. These acts of civil disobedience exposed the unjust British rule
through the violence committed by the British to enforce their rule, most notoriously in the Amritsar Massacre. His
movement was successful in pushing the British to give India independence, but his goal of bringing reconciliation was
not as successful with fighting between Muslims and Hindus and little responsibility for the crisis by the British.
Plot
4. Why was there a partition of India?

The British partitioned India into the two states of India and Pakistan because Hindus and Muslims distrusted each
other. The Indian National Congress organized to push for independence, but the British ruled with a policy of “divide
and conquer” that pitted Hindus and Muslims. British created suspicion and animosity between Muslims and Hindus so
they would not fight British rule. Despite the Gandhi’s desire to create unified India for Hindus and Muslims, Jinnah was
fearful of being a minority within a Hindu majority country. The fear and uncertainty between Muslims and Hindus won
out with the partition of India.

Resolution
5. How did Africa decolonize?

African decolonization began as African nationalist movement began to put pressure on European empires to let go of
their political control. After centuries of political domination, economic exploitation, and social marginalization, Africans
from a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds developed a sense of African identity to counter this injustice. Kwame
Nkrumah promoted Pan-Africanism as necessary to not only gain political independence, but economic and social
independence from the ongoing influence of Western powers through neo-colonialism. Western neocolonialism
promoted the rapid industrialization of Africa that ultimately put them in debt to Western powers. South Africa
embodied the complex nature of European control through apartheid. It promoted White society by depriving Blacks of
good land, education, and work and therefore Blacks, like Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress, were
pushing for the end of an apartheid regime that prevented them from flourishing in all aspects of their life.
 Study Guide
Unit 10 Human Rights
Theme
How do we advocate for change?
Vocabulary
Setting
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international
cooperation and to create and maintain international order.
Universal Declaration Motivated by the experiences of the preceding world wars, the Universal Declaration was the first time
of Human Rights that countries agreed on a comprehensive statement of inalienable human rights.
UN Declaration on an international document promoting child rights because their vulnerability requires special care and
the Right of the Child protection.
Conflict
Exploitation the action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work.
Discrimination the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the grounds
of race, age, or sex.
Genocide the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation.
Poverty The inability to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter.
Privacy being free from being observed or disturbed by other people.
Torture inflicting severe pain on someone as a punishment or to force them to do or say something, or for the
pleasure of the person inflicting the pain.
Refugees a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural
disaster.
Characters
Advocate a person who publicly supports or recommends a particular cause or policy.
Amnesty a London-based non-governmental organization which campaigns to end abuses of human rights.
International
Human Rights Watch an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights.
Plot
Institutional Institutionalized discrimination refers to the unjust and discriminatory mistreatment of an individual or
Discrimination group of individuals by society and its institutions as a whole, through unequal selection or bias,
intentional or unintentional; as opposed to individuals making a conscious choice to discriminate.
Race A social category that divides humanity into different categories, typically along physical characteristics
Sex either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and many other living things
are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions.
Gender the state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather
than biological ones).
Child labor the use of children in industry or business, especially when illegal or considered inhumane.
Resolution
Activism the action of using vigorous campaigning to bring about political or social change.
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be A) one topic sentence, B) three supporting
sentences and C) a conclusion. The italicized, supporting questions are provided to help you answer the main question.

Theme
1. How do we advocate for change?

What are the Aristotle’s three styles of persuasion?

Why are each important for persuading people?

How does persuasion contribute to activism?

Setting
2. Why is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights important?

What is the purpose of the UN?

Why did they develop the UDHR?

What rights does the UDHR protect?

Conflict
3. Why are human rights violated?

What is an example of a human rights violation?

What is the historical background for the violation?

How is the violation justified?

Characters
4. Why are human rights organizations important?

What are some important human rights organizations?

What do those organizations do?

How do they advocate for change?

Plot
5. How are people impacted by violations of their human rights?

Which right of the UDHR is violated?

What are the physical, psychological, and emotional consequences of the violation upon its victims?

How does that violation prevent people from flourishing?

Resolution
6. How do activists mobilize people for action?

What specific change are activists advocating for to stop the violation?

What steps are they taking to reach that goal?

How are activists raising awareness?

 Study Guide
Unit 1: Age of Exploration
Vocabulary
Context
Silk Road The overland route from China to the Middle East
Marco Polo Venetian (Italian) merchant whose recorded travels influenced Europe.
Trans-Saharan Trade Trade route primarily of salt from the Sahara for gold in sub-Saharan Africa.
Ibn Battuta Moroccan scholar who recorded his pilgrimage to Mecca and travels beyond.
Zheng He Chinese diplomat who traveled the Indian Ocean to display China’s wealth and power.
Crusades A Christian war to recover the Holy Land from Muslims that exposed Europeans to
Eastern civilization
Renaissance A European period of renewed interest in Classical learning.
Characters
Prince Henry the Navigator A Portuguese sponsor of exploration along the Western Coast of Africa
Gil Eanes Portuguese explorer whose passage of the Cape of Bojador began exploration of Africa
Bartolomeu Dias Portuguese explorer who rounded the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope
King Ferdinand and Queen Spanish rulers who captured the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rulers and sponsored
Isabella of Spain exploration
Christopher Columbus Italian sailor who was sponsored by Spain to search for a western route to Asia and
encountered the Americas
John Cabot Venetian sailor commissioned by England who explored North America
Vasco da Gama Portuguese explorer who linked Europe and Asia by rounding Africa to India
Amerigo Vespucci Italian explorer who voyaged to South America and demonstrated that the Americas
were not Asia but a new land mass. The Americas were named after him.
Vasco Nuñez de Balboa Spanish explorer who reached the Pacific by crossing the isthmus of Panama
Ferdinand Magellan Portuguese explorer who organized the first circumnavigation of the earth.
Conquistador Explorer and soldier who colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal
Hernan Cortes Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs
Francisco Pizzaro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incans
Giovanni da Verazzano Italian explorer commissioned by France exploring the North American coast
Henry Hudson English explorer who searched for the rumored Northwest Passage to Asia
Conflict
Ottoman Empire The Muslim Ottomans competed with Europe for trade
Fall of Constantinople Sultan Mehmet II conquered the Byzantine capital, capturing an important trade port
Spice Trade Spices were a valuable commodity that Europeans desired greater access to.
Plot
Astrolabe Navigational instrument for determining latitude
Caravel A more maneuverable type of ship with its lateen sail important for exploration
Cape Verde Islands West African islands colonized by the Portuguese and link in the slave trade
New World A name given by Europeans for the Americas, in contrast to the known ‘Old World’ of
Afro-Eurasia.
Strait of Magellan The southern tip of South America named after Ferdinand Magellan
Circumnavigate Travel all the way around the entire planet
Northwest Passage A rumored passage from Europe to Asia north of North America.
Resolution
Columbian Exchange The exchange of plants, animals, culture between the Americas and the Old World
Small Pox Eurasian disease brought by European explorers that devastated Native Americans
Colony A permanent settlement formed and controlled by a country in a distant land.
Analysis
Setting
1. Explain three major causes for the Age of Exploration?
During the Middle Ages, the main centers of culture and learning were in Asia. While there was significant trade at the
time, it was typically regional with merchants from different regions trading at connecting cities. Popular goods like silk,
spices, porcelain and cotton traveled from Asia to Europe. The Crusades exposed Europeans to the civilizations of Asia
and prompted an increasing demand for their luxuries. Cities grew and merchants became increasingly wealthy,
especially in the Mediterranean. It also created an increasing interest in the wider world that sparked the Renaissance.
The exposure through the Crusades, the increasing demand for Asian goods, and renewed interest in learning during the
Renaissance all contributed to the Age of Exploration.

Conflict
2. Assess the role of the Ottoman Empire in Europe’s period of exploration?
The growing power of the Ottoman empire in the Middle East limited European access to the spice trade. With the fall of
Constantinople into Ottoman hands under the leadership of Mehmet II, Europeans lost a major trade city. Europeans
therefore attempted to find a new trade route to Asia.

Characters
3. Name three explorers and describe the importance of their travels for future exploration.
The Portuguese led the way in exploration under Prince Henry. He sponsored many voyages along the west African
coast. The greatest success was Bartolomeu Dias reaching the southern tip of Africa. This opened a new path to Asia that
was ultimately completed by Vasco da Gama.

The Spanish crown followed by sponsoring Christopher Columbus who sought a westward passage to Asia, but
encountered the Americas instead. Initially the Americas were more of an obstacle to be overcome in finding a way to
Asia, which Ferdinand Magellan completed by rounding the southern tip of South America.

France and England were the last to join in exploration and they focused primarily of North America. Henry Hudson
hoped to find a third way to Asia, the Northwest Passage, but no route was found.

Plot
4. Identify three new technological advances and explain their impact on exploration.
The exposure of Europeans to Asian civilization during the Crusades was important for the diffusion of important
technologies. The compass invented by the Chinese was an essential tool for navigation. The astrolabe (or quadrant)
from the Middle East helped sailors determine their latitude. Map-making likewise became increasingly important as
explorers left coastlines for the open ocean. Finally, the caravel with lateen sails gave explorers better control and
speed.

Resolution
5. Explain the impact of the Age of Exploration upon the world.
European became increasingly powerful through trade and colonization of the Americas. (Cortez and Pizarro conquered
the greatest civilizations of the Americas.) It also marked an important step toward globalization as distant regional
markets became directly connected.

Theme
6. Discuss the various motivations for exploration.
Europeans coming out of the conflicts with Muslims had a strong desire to convert people to Christianity. Nevertheless,
the driving force for exploration was economic. Explorers and their sponsors were looking for trade routes and control
of precious commodities. As exploration expanded the European conception of the world, it prompted a desire for
further knowledge.
 Study Guide
Unit 2: Age of Colonization
Vocabulary
Context
Colonization The movement of settlers and their culture to a new territory.
Conflict
Natural resources A useful material found in the environment
Mercantilism an economic system developed to unify and increase the power and especially the
monetary wealth of a nation by a strict governmental regulation of the entire national
economy usually through policies designed to secure an accumulation of gold, a
favorable balance of trade, the development of agriculture and manufactures, and the
establishment of foreign trading monopolies
Characters
Monarchs A sovereign head of state, especially a king, queen, or emperor.
Encomendero The head of an encomienda, responsible for protecting and Christianizing Indians.
Conquistador Explorer and soldier who colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal
Hernan Cortez Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs
Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incans
Missionaries A person sent to promote a religion, namely Europeans Christianizing the Americas.
Indigenous people The native populations of a country are called indigenous people.
Africans The peoples of Africa who were racialized by Europeans in order to justify their
enslavement.
Indentured servants a person who is bound by contract to work for another for a specified time especially
in return for payment of travel expenses.
Slaves A person held in servitude.
Plot
mita A Incan, labor system that the Spanish used for their encomienda.
Encomienda A feudal-like grant by the Spanish government to colonists to demand tribute or labor
from Native Americans in exchange for protection and Christian education.
Smallpox Eurasian disease brought by European explorers that devastated Native Americans
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade The Transatlantic Slave Trade brought thousands of native Africans to the
Americas to work as slaves on large farms.
Triangular Trade A massive trading system was set up between Europe, Africa and North America.
Europe provided manufactured goods like guns and alcohol to Africa. Africa provided
slaves to the Americas, and the Americas sent raw materials like crops and furs to
Europe; creating the Triangular Trade Routes.
Middle Passage During the Transatlantic Slave Trade, ships had to cross the Atlantic Ocean. This
journey was called the Middle Passage. Africans were crammed into the bottom hulls
on a boat with little ventilation, sanitation or proper nutrition. Many Africans died
before even making it to America.
Resolution
Exploitation European nations exploited indigenous cultures for their labor and natural resources.
Race Race is a social category, not based in genetics or biology, that sub-divides humans
into categories based on appearance. It developed as a system of social control by
ranking groups in a hierarchy and attributing certain abilities to particular groups. Race
therefore became a justification for slavery and other forms of oppression.
Analysis
Setting
1. How were Europeans able to conquer the Americas?

While Europeans did come with superior weapons, they were vastly outnumbered by Native American groups. They
conquered because disease devastated the Native American population. Also, Europeans developed allies with Native
American groups so that their forces were significantly increased. Cortes, for example, was pushed back at the Mexican
coast until their opponents invited them to ally against the Aztecs. The Aztecs were also able to push Cortes and his
allies out of Tenochtitlan. When Cortes returned, Tenochtitlan’s population had been weakened by disease.

Conflict
2. How did colonization benefit European monarchs at the expense of colonized peoples?

Monarchs wanted to exploit the wealth of their colonies through a policy of mercantilism. European governments tried
to control the economy to increase their wealth and ultimately their power. They would increase their wealth by a
favorable balance of trade wherein colonies became places to get natural resources. This allowed the mother country to
focus on the more profitable endeavor of manufacturing. The colony’s wealth was therefore exploited to increase the
wealth and power of the mother country. Many colonists resisted government control of the economy because it
restricted their trade with other countries.

Characters
3. How did Europeans control indigenous populations?

When Spain began to colonize the Americas, they used a similar structure they used to conquer (Reconquista) the
Iberian Peninsula from Muslims. It was form of exchange like feudalism that rewarded conquistadors, but also
established some form of government over the area. Conquistadors were granted a community of Native Americas that
were to labor and pay tribute in exchange for protection and Christian education. (Spaniards adopted the Incan system
of mita, which also was a system of labor and tribute like the encomienda.) It was a system severely abused by Spanish
colonists, who driven by wealth treated Native Americans as slaves. Priests like Bartolome de las Casas spoke out against
the abuses, which led the Spanish crown to establish New Laws that protected Indians from abuse. The situation
changed little, though. Las Casas suggested that Africans should replace Indian laborers because of the abuse, but he
later regretted that suggestion when he saw a similar treatment of Africans.

Plot
4. Why did the Atlantic slave trade increase in the Americas?

Diseases like smallpox devastated the Indian population. The high demand for labor did not ease and therefore
Europeans began to look for other sources of labor. One option was indentured servitude. Europeans were contracted
to labor for a period of time in exchange for transportation to the New World. Many Europeans were also not immune
to tropical diseases like malaria. While Europeans came to the New World, they tended to come in larger numbers to
areas north of the tropics, namely North America. The option Europeans settled on was slavery. Africans from West
Africa lived in regions where mosquitos had given them greater resilience to certain diseases, especially malaria. This
resilience encouraged greater reliance on Africans for labor. The triangular trade developed to support European
demand for slaves.

Resolution
5. What factors allowed Spain to become the wealthiest county?

Spain exploited the wealth of the Americas by extracting enormous amounts of gold and silver, developing cash crops
and exploiting the labor of Native Americans and Africans.
Theme
6. What is race? Why did racial categories develop?

Race developed during the colonization of the Americas as an early form of social control. As Europeans, Americans and
Africans came into contact and mixed in the Americas during Columbian exchange, Spanish elites began to classify these
groups and their various unions. Spanish anxiety with purity originally developed with religious connotations as
Christians mixed with Jews and Muslims. In the New World, that concern for “blood’ purity expanded into invented
racial categories wherein Spanish “whites” were at the top of the social hierarchy. As it developed it became a
justification for slavery and other forms of oppression.
 Study Guide
Unit 3: Absolutism and the Enlightenment

Theme
How should power be distributed in society?

Vocabulary
Context
Colonization The movement of settlers and their culture to a new territory.
Gunpowder empires States that used firearms to expand their territories and control their own populations.
Bourgeoisie The middle class
Absolutism a political theory which argues that one person should hold all power.
Divine Right Belief that monarchs have a God-given right to rule and that rebellion is a sin.
Absolute Monarchs Rule by one person, monarch, whose actions are not restricted by law or custom
Louis XIV Absolute monarch in France, known as the Sun King and for the Palace of Versailles
Conflict
English Civil War A series of wars Parliamentarians and Royalists, supporters of the King Charles I.
Glorious Revolution Overthrow of King James II by Parliament for William III, also known as the “Bloodless
Revolution.”
Parliament The British legislature
Constitutional Monarchy A monarchy wherein the monarch is restrained by the laws of a constitution.
English Bill of Rights The civil rights Parliament required William III to sign as limits on his power.
Plot
Scientific Revolution Refers to the historic changes in thinking begun by Copernicus until Newton.
Enlightenment The philosophical movement primarily concerned with applying reason to society.
Natural rights rights people supposedly have under natural law (given by nature to all human beings.)
Social contract a hypothetical agreement between rulers and ruled
Characters
Philosopher A philosopher is involved in the rational inquiry into areas that are outside either
theology or science.
Thomas Hobbes British philosopher who dismissed the idea of divine right for a social contract
John Locke British philosopher who believed people could rebel against governments that did not
protect people’s natural rights.
Baron de Montesquieu French philosopher who wrote about the separation of powers.
Voltaire French philosopher who wrote on separation of church and state and freedom of
speech.
Jean Rousseau French philosopher who emphasized the general will of the people through a
representative legislature
Cesare Beccaria Italian philosopher who wrote on criminal justice.
Mary Wollstonecraft British philosopher who wrote on women’s equality
Enlightened Despots Absolute monarchs pursued reforms inspired by the Enlightenment, especially
concerned with education, health, and infrastructure.
Catherine II Considered an enlightened despot of Russia opening hospitals and schools.
Resolution
Revolution a forcible overthrow of a government or social order in favor of a new system.
Analysis
Theme
1. What is power?
Power is the ability to direct or influence the behavior of others. This can take various forms-political, economic and
social. Political power is related to a position and typically is coercive in the making and enforcement of rules. Economic
power is related to expertise in the ability to acquire and control resources, especially wealth. The final type is relational
power that influences others through persuasion and transformation.

Setting
2. How did European monarchs justify absolutism?
European monarchs began to amass enormous power and wealth through military expansion. While monarchs struggled
for dominance in Europe they expanded overseas through colonization. Gunpowerder tipped power away from the
feudal order to absolutism. The power of barons and lords was taken by monarchs as they centralized power through
government bureaucracies. Monarchs justified their increasing power by appealing to divine right. They believed that
their power had been granted to them by god. Louis XIV epitomized this power. He disregarded the power of the Estates
General, the French legislature. He created the Palace of Versailles to be his home, seat of government, and pageant of
power.

Conflict
3. How did the English Civil War shift power in England?
While monarchs on the European continent were increasing in power, Britain had a tradition of resistance to the
overreach of the monarchy with the Magna Carta. When Charles I attempted to assert absolute power, Parliament took
up arms against him. A series of wars pitted the Roundheads, supporters of Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell against
the Cavaliers, supporters of the King, that ultimately brought Charles’ reign to an end with his beheading. A republic was
formed with leaders elected, but when rebellions in continued, the country descended into a military rule. Parliament
decided to return to a monarchy, but again when Charles II overstepped his position, they kicked him out and chose
another. William III was selected, who agreed to the English Bill of Rights, forming a constitutional monarchy.

Plot
4. How did the Enlightenment rethink society and power?
The Enlightenment flowed out of the larger trend in Europe begun with the Renaissance. It was a turn from a divine
perspective to one centered on humans—humanism. This led to movements that questioned religious authorities during
the Reformation and the Ptolemaic understanding of the universe during the Scientific Revolution. The Enlightenment
continued in this growing dependence on logic or reason and questioning traditional authorities. If universal laws could
be found governing the universe, then philosophers tried to find those principles governing human actions in society and
government.

Characters
5. Compare and contrast the philosophies of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke?
Both thinkers begin by discussing people in a state of nature, that is people without government. Then they consider
why we form government to determine its purpose. What is the social contract between government and people? This
leads them to describe the form of government best suited to the situation. While they share similar patterns of thinking
they come to different conclusion. Hobbes argues that people are generally bad, while Locke sees them as generally
good, having an innate sense of moral law. Hobbes sees people forming government out of fear and an absolute
monarch is best suited to keep people under control. Locke on the other hand argues that people need government to
judge between people when people’s natural rights are broken. Government should protect people’s freedom and
therefore he argues for a government where power is separated into executive, legislative and judicial powers. Locke
concludes that if government is not protecting those natural rights, the social contract has been broken and the people
can rebel against that illegitimate government.
Resolution
6. Identify three Enlightenment thinkers and describe how their ideas were revolutionary?

Montesquieu wrote on the separation of powers in government—executive, legislative, and judicial—challenging the
absolutist monarchy of France. Voltaire critiqued government and church throughout his life and this freedom to speak
out against authorities led to ideals like freedom of speech and separation of church and state. Rousseau wrote on the
importance of the general will of the people which refocused the role of government around the needs and desire of the
people rather than the elite. Beccaria writing on the criminal justice system spoke out against torture and the death
penalty and wrote about due process, which was influential on the American Bill of Rights. Mary Wollstonecraft
challenged the social norms around women arguing that women should be treated as equals.
 Study Guide
Unit 4: Revolutions

Theme
What kind of change is revolutionary?

Vocabulary
Context
Enlightenment The philosophical movement primarily concerned with applying reason to society.
The French-Indian War War between France and England for territory in North America, which England won.
(The Seven Years War) Both countries had huge war debts that required greater taxation.
Conflict
Stamp Act A tax passed by the British Parliament on paper products in the American colonies to
pay for the French-Indian War, which angered the colonists.
Sons of Liberty A secret society to protect the colonists’ rights and fight taxation.
Boston Tea Party A protest on against the Tea Act, where the Sons of Liberty dumped British tea
overboard in the Boston harbor.
Common Sense A popular pamphlet written by Thomas Paine making a case for independence
Plot
American Revolution A colonial revolt for independence against Great Britain.
Declaration of The statement adopted by the 13 colonies announcing their independence from Great
Independence Britain.
Constitution The supreme law of the United States, outlining the form of government as a republic.
Treaty of Paris The formal recognition of the United States as a separate state from Great Britain.
French Revolution The social and political upheaval in France against the privileges of the old order.
Tennis Court Oath The vow made by the Third Estate declaring themselves the National Assembly, after
locked out from the Estates General, to form a constitution.
Storming of the Bastille The Paris uprising that destroyed the Bastille in support of the National Assembly
Declaration of the Right of The core statement of the National Assembly stating the natural rights of men.
Man and the Citizen
Reign of Terror The period of mass executions under the Jacobin party that ended with the fall of
Robespierre.
Characters
Thomas Jefferson Writer of the Declaration of Independence.
George Washington General of the Continental Army against the British in the American Revolution.
King Louis XVI The King at the time of the French Revolution who was beheaded.
Estates General The assembly of representatives of the three French estates—the clergy (first), nobility
(second) and commoner (third).
Maximilian Robespierre Leader of the Jacobin party pushing for a republic and responsible for the reign of
Terror
Resolution
Napoleon Military leader in the French Revolutionary wars who rose to become leader of France.
Nationalism A support for the interests of one’s group through self-governance
Haitian Revolution The independence of San Domingue from French rule through a successful slave
rebellion.
Latin American Revolutions The independence of Spanish colonies from Spain.
Analysis
Setting
1. How did the Seven Years War lead to the conflicts in the American colonies and France?

The Seven Years War between France and England left both countries deep in debt. Gunpowder armies were a powerful
force for building empires, but were also extremely costly. Both countries struggled to pay their war debts and their
kings hoped to raise taxes in order to solve the problem. Taxation sparked movements in each country for greater
participation in government. In America, the failure to get representatives in the British Parliament led to an
independence movement. In France, the Third Estate pushed for greater representation leading to the creation of a
constitutional monarchy and then a republic.

Conflict
2. Were the American colonists justified in their revolution against King George III?

The American colonists benefited from the Seven Years War and many leaders in England felt that it was only right for
the American colonists to share the financial burden of the war. The taxes Parliament imposed were very unpopular
with the colonists and sparked many protests, boycotts and destruction. Parliament tried different tax plans, but
ultimately the problem for colonists came down to representation. They wanted a voice in Parliament and this was
denied them. On this point, the colonists were justified in seeking change.

Plot
3. Compare and contrast the French and American Revolutions?

Both revolutions were inspired by the Enlightenment ideals. The Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the
Right of Man both point to the natural rights of man, that all men should be treated equally before the law. The
character of each movement was shaped by their individual circumstances though. The American Revolution ultimately
was about independence from Great Britain. The French on the other hand were faced with having to reform their
society from within.

Characters
4. How did Maximilian Robespierre change the direction of the French Revolution?

Robespierre and the Jacobin party committed to more radical change moved the French toward a republic from a
constitutional monarchy. Nevertheless, they were less tolerant of dissent. The Reign of Terror dealt with dissent harshly
and spiraled France into a wave of executions. Thousands were killed by guillotine. It was only brought to an end with
the execution of Robespierre.

Resolution
5. What was the impact of Napoleon Bonaparte?

After the chaos of the Reign of Terror, the people looked for stability and peace. They hoped Napoleon, a popular
military leader of the French Revolutionary Wars, would provide that. He was able to centralize the government and
create the Napoleonic Code that protected basic freedoms and guaranteed equality before the law. He led France to
many wars and was very successful in conquering much of Europe, spreading the ideas of the revolution with him. He
was finally stopped at the Battle of Waterloo and sent into exile. The era of absolute monarchs was in decline
afterwards.

Theme
6. Which revolution do you think was most successful? Why?
 Study Guide
Unit 5: Nationalism, Industrialism and Imperialism

Theme
What is the impact of technology upon society?

Vocabulary
Context
Domestic System Merchants distributed jobs out to people to complete in their homes
Steam engine A machine using steam to perform mechanical work.
Fossil Fuels An energy source (oil, gas and coal) formed from ancient plants captured underground
Conflict
Industrialization An economic system built on manufacturing products with machines
Factory system Replacing the domestic system, people now went to factories that were built to house
machines
Urbanization The process of moving from rural to urban areas, or from farms to cities.
Capitalism An economic system based on the free trade of privately owned goods or services
provided through firms or companies.
Communism An economic system where the means of production are shared thereby eliminating
social class.
Characters
James Watt Inventor of the steam engine
Adam Smith Influential economist who observed the productivity of specialization and argued that
markets would regulate themselves through supply and demand.
Karl Marx Influential economist who critiqued industrialism and argued that workers would unite
against their exploitation to move society to holding property in common.
Cecil Rhodes British colonizer in South Africa who grew wealthy trading in diamonds.
King Leopold II of Belgium Belgian king who grew wealthy from the rubber trade in his colony of Congo.
Plot
Imperialism A country’s expansion of power into new territories through colonization.
Berlin Conference A gathering of European powers to organize the colonization of Africa.
Scramble for Africa The division, occupation, and colonization of Africa by European nations from 1881 to
1914.
Social Darwinism The application of the concept of natural selection to human society, arguing some
were more ‘fit’ than others.
“White Man’s Burden” The task of white colonizers to civilize the people in their colonies.
Resolution
Nationalism Pride in one’s people marked by a sense of superiority over other peoples
Opium Wars Wars successfully fought by the British over China to open new ports for their opium
trade.
Meiji Restoration The radical political changes in Japan to modernize it as a response to Western
imperialism
Analysis
Answer the following questions in complete sentences using your own words. The answers require about 3 sentences.

Setting
1. How was life transformed by the Industrial Revolution?
Life before the Industrial Revolution was focused on agriculture. Most people were farmers and their life and
work tended to revolve around their family and house. They lived by the rhythms of the sun and seasons. The
Industrial Revolution shifted the center of life from farming to factories. People moved to cities, urbanization,
where they found work in the newly developing factory system. There they worked by the clock for tasks
requiring minimal skills. They were now required to work long hours under a boss for small pay, shifting life
away from the family.
Conflict
2. What contributed to the changes of the Industrial Revolution?
Several changes contributed to the industrial revolution. 1) A labor force. New innovations in agriculture helped
to increase the productivity of the land, like Jethro Tull’s seed drill. More could be produced with fewer people.
This created a population looking for new employment. 2) Capital. New technologies in cloth-production put an
end to the domestic system because machines could produce more. These new machines required large
amounts of capital (money) both to have them built and to house them in factories. Only a few could afford this.
3) Natural resources. The availability of natural resources, especially fossil fuels, for running machines was
required. 4) Transprotation. Finally a strong system of transportation supported the movement of goods.
Characters
3. Compare and contrast the thought of Adam Smith and Karl Marx.
Both economists were deeply impacted by the changes they witnessed during the Industrial Revolution. Adam
Smith saw the efficiency and productivity of specialization, or a division of labor. He argued that the balance of
supply and demand did not require oversight, but worked naturally by “the invisible hand”; therefore, he was
critical of the mercantilist system of the time. On the other hand, Karl Marx saw how work in the industrial
factories dehumanized and exploited people. He argued that workers would unite to revolt against this system
of oppression.
Plot
4. Why did industrialized nations imperialize other places?
Industrialization began with machines that could increase the production of goods, but with that increased
efficiency there was also a demand for more natural resources. (Increased production of cloth leads to a
demand for more thread. Increased production of thread leads to a greater demand for cotton.) European
nations looked beyond their borders for natural resources and they turned to Africa and Asia. A new wave of
colonization began. At the Berlin Conference, European nations agreed to divide up Africa, ignoring traditional
ethnic and cultural boundaries.
Resolution
5. How was imperialism justified?
Europeans influenced by Social Darwinism believed that they had a special responsibility as a superior “race” to
civilize the foreign peoples of Africa and Asia. Europeans transferred Darwin’s new observations on biology and
evolution to a social context believing that Europeans were more “evolved” or” fit” than others. They moved
outward not only colonize, but with a sense of responsibility to civilize others—the “white man’s burden.”
European nationalism became increasingly competitive as they scrambled for control of resources and power.
Theme
6. Was the impact of the Industrial Revolution positive or negative?
The Industrial Revolution led to overall increasing wealth, especially for the new growing middle class.
Nevertheless, it had many negative consequences, like working conditions that exploited the working class both
at home and abroad, environmental pollution, colonization, and questionable social values.
 Study Guide
Unit 6: World War I and the Russian Revolution

Theme
What is necessary for a lasting peace?

Vocabulary
Context
Militarism The desire of a nation to have a strong military to promote its national interests.
Alliances Countries joining together for mutual benefit and protection.
Imperialism A country’s expansion of power into new territories through colonization.
Nationalism Pride in one’s people marked by a push for freedom and self-government
Ottoman Empire A weakening empire that was losing land in Europe (the Balkans) and creating a power
vacuum that was a cause of the war.
Conflict
July Crisis The diplomatic conflict between European powers after the assassination of the
Archduke
Propaganda Information, usually biased, used to promote a political cause.
Stalemate A situation when military progress is impossible.
Trench Warfare A type of combat when opposing forces face each other from trenches because of a
stalemate.
Total War A war disregarding laws on the types of weapons used, where fighting takes place and
who can be a combatant.
Mustard Gas A chemical agent used as a weapon that causes blistering.
Plot
Lusitania A passenger ship sunk by German submarine warfare that began to turn the American
public away from neutrality toward war.
Dictator A ruler with complete power, like Joseph Stalin over Russia
Russian Revolution The revolution that turned Russia from a monarchy to one inspired by communism
Characters
Archduke Franz Ferdinand Heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary whose assassination sparked World War I
Czar Nicholas II Ruler of Russia, who saw the collapse of his military and economic empire.
Bolsheviks A faction of the Communist party that believed that a special group should lead the
revolution, rather than the democratic Mensheviks.
Vladimir Lenin Leader of the Bolshevik faction of the Communists who led the Russian Revolution.
Woodrow Wilson American President whose Fourteen Points for peace were influential in the peace
talks.
Resolution
Armistice An agreement between warring countries to stop fighting
Fourteen Points Wilson’s Plan for international peace based on national self-determination, free trade,
and international cooperation—a League of Nations.
Treaty of Versailles The peace agreement to end World War I that had a harsh punishment for Germany
League of Nations An international organization between countries to resolve conflicts and predecessor
to the United Nations.
Analysis
Answer the following questions in complete sentences using your own words. The answers require about 3 sentences.

Setting
1. What are the MAIN causes for World War I?
The rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire contributed to four MAIN causes for World War I. 1) Militarism:
The Industrial Revolution contributed to a modernization of weapons like machine guns, missiles, airplanes, tanks, and
submarines. This set of an arms race between European powers for military dominance. 2) Alliances: The arms race in
Europe contributed to various countries seeking support for others. Austro-Hungary looked to Germany, while Russia
looked to France and Britain. 3) Imperialism: The Industrial Revolution set off a competition for resources that brought
European powers into conflict with each other overseas and in Europe in the Balkan region where the Ottoman Empire
was in decline. 4) Nationalism: A sense of common identity had recently unified Germany, but also was leading to
conflicts in the Balkans where the Ottomans where weakening. Various groups pushed for independence, which Austria-
Hungary wanted to expand into. This fervor prompted Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, to assassinate the heir to
the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand II.

Conflict
2. How did stalemate change the direction of World War I?
World War I was the first modern war where new military weapons capable of mass destruction were used. The German
offensive toward Paris merely introduced Europe to the ravages of modern war. The Battle of the Marne brought the
German forces to a halt. The war came to a stalemate as each opposing army dug trenches to hold their line—the
Western Front. That line of trenches remained largely unchanged for the remainder of the war and became a source of
immeasurable suffering. Deaths stacked up as men were uselessly sent into the “no man’s land” in a futile attempt to
attack the enemy trench, only to be mowed down by machine guns. The mental shock of the living conditions and
disease, not to mention the stress of unexpected weapons like mustard gas, led to massive abandonments. Ultimately
the stalemate required the mobilization of whole countries for war. Women went to factories to prepare munitions.
Governments turned to propaganda to mobilize their country for war.

Plot
3. What was the appeal of the communist revolution in Russia?
The Eastern Front of the War between Russia and Germany was disastrous for Russia. Czar Nicholas II insistence on
continuing the war was increasingly unpopular. The February Revolution of 1917 forced the Czar to step down with a
provisional government in power. The Bolshevik faction of the Communist Party popular among workers and soldiers
began to promise “Bread, Land and Peace”, that is, an end to the war, a redistribution of land to farmers, and food. In
the October Revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin took power. They took the country out of the war
and began a radical shift in how the economy would work.

Characters
1. How did Vladimir Lenin change Russia?
He was leader of the Bolshevik faction of the Communist party that took control of Russia during the October
Revolution. The Mensheviks, who were a democratic form of communism and more dominant during the provisional
government were swept away. He movement on behalf of the proletariat, the working class, helped industrialize the
country and bring greater education and rights. Nevertheless, he was also as ruthless as the Czar in securing power by
eliminating dissent.

Resolution
4. Why was the Treaty of Versailles a failure?
Renewed German submarine warfare pushed the United States into World War I on the Allied side. This tipped the
balance of the war against Germany. Germany was willing to seek an armistice with the Allies using Woodrow Wilson’s
the Fourteen Points as an outline for peace talks. When peace talks began in France, the leaders of France, England, and
Italy were more interested in punishing Germany for the war. The resulting Treaty of Versailles had some minor
successes like the formation of a League of Nations (which ironically the United States rejected) and greater national
self-determination for European nations, but Germany was forced to give up land, pay for the war (reparations),
demilitarize, and accept guilt for the war.

Theme
5. What is necessary for a lasting peace?

At the heart of Woodrow Wilson’s plan for peace was making a space for the nations of the world to resolve conflicts
through diplomacy, that is, representatives of the world’s nations talking through the issues they are facing together.
Previously European countries had used alliance, secret treaties, and military force to resolve their differences. The
devastation of modern warfare of World War I convinced many that another way must be found. This led to the
formation of the League of Nations, which would become the predecessor to the United Nations. The United Nations
would be formed after World War II.
 Study Guide
Unit 7: Interwar Years and World War II
Theme
How do you distinguish between fact and fiction?
Vocabulary
Context
Treaty of Versailles WWI Peace treaty that formed the League of Nations and punished Germany harshly.
Reparations Payments the Treaty of Versailles required Germany to pay as punishment for the War.
Great Depression The severe recession of the 1930s beginning in the US and spreading around the world
Inflation A general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing power of money
Propaganda biased information designed to shape public opinion and behavior.
Characters
Benito Mussolini Italian fascist dictator who allied with Germany and brought Italy into WWII
Adolf Hitler Leader of the Nazi Party and dictator of Germany, who began WWII by invading Poland
Franklin Delano Roosevelt US president during the Great Depression and entered WWII after Pearl Harbor
Joseph Stalin Russian dictator of the USSR who created a totalitarian and entered WWII after the
German invasion—Operation Barbarossa.
Totalitarianism Form of government that subordinates all aspects of life to the authority of the state
through coercion or repression, ignoring individual rights.
Fascism A right-wing, political movement (anti-communist) that exalts the nation over the
individual through a totalitarian government headed by a dictator.
Dictator A person with unlimited governmental power
National Socialist Party Or Nazis, the fascist party of Germany led by Adolf Hitler.
Conflict
Appeasement The attempt to avoid conflict by making concessions to an aggressive power, namely
giving Hitler lands from Czechoslovakia in order prevent war in the Munich Pact.
Axis Powers The alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan during WWII
Allied Powers The alliance between Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union
D-day Or Operation Overlord, Attack upon German occupied France that gave the Allies a
foothold in Europe
Atom Bomb US Bomb developed in the secret Manhattan Project used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
that led to Japanese surrender
Plot
Anti-Semitism Hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group
Nuremburg Laws Anti-Semitic laws excluding Jews from citizenship and removing their political rights
Kristallnacht the wave of violent anti-Jewish violence on November 9 and 10, 1938 in Germany
Final Solution The Nazi plan to concentrate in ghettos and annihilate European Jewry in death camps
Genocide the deliberate killing of a large group of people, particularly ethnic groups or nations.
Resolution
Holocaust The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and
murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.
Nuremburg Trials Trials held between 1945 and 1949 in which the Allies prosecuted German military
leaders, politicians, industrialists, and financiers for crimes committed during WWII.
United Nations Organization to maintain international peace, replacing the League of Nations
Analysis
Answer the main questions in complete sentences using your own words. The supporting questions are provided to
guide your response that should be about 3-4 sentences.

Theme
7. How do you distinguish between fact and fiction?

In order to decide between fact and fiction in society, one needs reliable information. Reliable information should be
unbiased, because typically politicians play on our emotions to message their ideas. The information should be
supported by good sources like experts, research and other important data. We also rely on journalists that work by
professional standards of conduct because they play an important role of scrutinizing authority. Our society depends on
trustworthy organizations, strong sources of information and an unbiased presentation of information.

Setting
8. How did the Nazi Party appeal to German people?

The Nazi party took advantage of the fears and frustrations of the German people through their propaganda campaign.
Germans felt anger and humiliation at the demands of the Treaty of Versailles, which required that Germany give up
land, accept guilt for the war, and pay reparations. The country suffered economically from WWI, but the Great
Depression sunk Germany into desperation. Various political parties competed for votes during the Weimar Republic,
but the Nazi Party successfully appealed to the economic uncertainty and anger of Germans, particularly among the
middle class, by presenting Hitler as a strong leader to rescue them from their troubles, scapegoating Jews as the source
of their problems, and the need to rally around him for change. The Nazis presented themselves as the ones who could
restore German pride and success.

Characters
9. How did Adolf Hitler maintain control of Germany?

Hitler controlled Germany through his fascist ideology of nationalism, centralized power and terror. Hitler’s appeal to
German nationalism was important in convincing Germans to sacrifice their own individual rights for the country. He
was quick to centralize power when it arose, like imprisoning political opponents after the Reichstag fire, consolidating
his leadership powers after Hindenburg’s death, and shutting down media opposed him. He also was not unwilling to
use intimidation to get obedience from the German population by having dissent crushed. Hitler created a totalitarian
state by centralized power around himself as dictator and controlling people lives through propaganda and intimidation.

Conflict
10. What were major events of WWII?

Despite early losses, the Allied forces successfully defeated the Axis powers in Europe and Asia. Attempting to prevent
war in Europe, France and England tried to appease Hitler with Czech land in the Munich Pact, while Russia signed a non-
aggression pact with Germany. Germany broke these agreements and conquered much of Europe leaving England and
USSR teetering on defeat in the Battle of Britain and Operation Barbarossa. Russia fought much of the war in Europe
until D-Day, when British and US forces successfully gained a foothold in German occupied France. Despite an
unsuccessful German offensive in the Battle of the Bulge, the Allied forces slowly moved in from Russia and France to
defeat Germany. In Asia, Japan wanting to expand its empire in the Pacific attacked the US at Pearl Harbor to weaken its
only major threat in the region. The US turned the tide of the Pacific War at Midway. After many difficult battles with
Japan and attempting to prevent further American losses, atomic weapons were used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
forcing Japan to surrender.
Plot
11. What was the Holocaust?

Persecution of Jews had existed in Europe for centuries, but Hitler’s anti-Semitism escalated that hatred to an
unprecedented level in the Holocaust. Hitler’s German nationalism defined in racial categories understood Jews as a
negative intrusion upon Germany, scapegoating them as the cause for the challenges Germany was facing after the war.
When Hitler got to power he could enact his racist ideology first by passing laws that legalized discrimination against
Jews in the Nuremburg Laws. After removing citizenship, orchestrated acts of violence could begin as in Kristallnacht
when their homes, businesses and synagogues were destroyed. The next escalation removed Jews from German society
and isolated them in walled ghettoes. When the “final decision” regarding the “Jewish problem” was made mobile killing
squads and death camps were created to murder Jews. Under the Nazi regime, hatred of Jews led to the genocide of
around six million Jews

Resolution
12. How did people respond to the devastation of WWII?

After the devastation of the war around the world, people were again ready to commit to peace and justice. A more
robust and inclusive organization was formed in the United Nations after the failure of the League of Nations. It was also
necessary to deal with the atrocities committed during the war, particularly in the Holocaust. The Nuremberg Trials
began to establish a precedent for an international court that could try people for crimes against peace, war crimes, and
crimes against humanity. The trials also exposed the crimes committed by the Nazi regime, particularly the German
people. It was necessary to confront the full evil of what had been done in order to recommit to a process for peace.
 Study Guide
Unit 8: Cold War
Theme
How do we build peace in times of conflict?
Vocabulary
Setting
Yalta Conference WWII meeting between FDR (United States), Winston Churchill (United Kingdom) and Joseph Stalin
(Soviet Union) for the purpose of discussing Europe's postwar reorganization.
Atom Bomb Nuclear weapon developed by the USA and used on Japan during the WWII.
Superpowers a very powerful and influential nation
Capitalism an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private
owners for profit, rather than by the state.
Democracy a system of government by the whole population typically through elected representatives.
Communism a theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is
publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.
Command economy an economy in which production, investment, prices, and incomes are determined centrally by a
government.
Hegemony leadership or dominance, especially by one country or social group over others.
Conflict
Cold War Geopolitical tensions after WWII between the Eastern bloc (USSR led) and Western bloc (US led)
Marshall Plan American initiative to aid Western Europe by giving economic assistance to help rebuild Western
European economies after the end of WWII
Truman Doctrine The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet
geopolitical expansion during the Cold War.
Containment the policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or influence over “satellite” states
Iron Curtain a metaphor Winston Churchill introduced to describe the ideological barrier forming between the
Soviet Union and Western Europe
North Atlantic Treaty A military alliance between several North American and European countries to establish a system of
Organization (NATO) collective defense from the nuclear threat of the Soviet Union
Warsaw Pact A military alliance formed in reaction to and as a collective defense against NATO.
Plot
Proxy War a war instigated by a major power that does not itself become involved
Korean War proxy war between North Korea (backed by China and USSR) and South Korea (backed by US)
Vietnam War proxy war between North Vietnam (backed by China and USSR) and South Vietnam (backed by US)
Domino theory the theory that a political event in one country will cause similar events in neighboring countries
Cuban Missile Crisis 13-day confrontation between the US and Soviet Union over placement of nuclear weapons
Space Race Competition between the US and USSR for dominance of spaceflight.
Characters
Harry Truman 33rd President of the United States who became president at the beginning of the cold war
Joseph Stalin Soviet dictator who oversaw the post war reconstruction and development of nuclear weapons
John F Kennedy 35th president of the United States who began the space race and involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Mikhail Gorbachev Last president of the Soviet Union before its collapse.
Resolution
Glasnost The policy of openness through a consultative government and wider dissemination of information
Perestroika The policy of restructuring or reforming the economic and political system.
Berlin Wall a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be a topic sentence, three supporting sentences and a
conclusion. The supporting questions are provided to support your thinking around the main question.

Theme
1. How do we build peace in times of conflict?
Peace is built when conflicts are used as opportunities for dialogue, understanding and cooperation. Rather than
spiraling in a destructive cycle of anger, attack and misunderstanding, conflict should be acknowledged and worked
through so people can learn from each other, opportunities for correction opened and problems solved. Obstacles to
peace are removed when people get behind the conflict to understanding the needs people are attempting to meet and
the values that shape their decision making. Building peace requires developing curiosity about the conflict through
constructive dialogue, identifying the source of a conflict, finding multiple options for resolving it and making clear
agreements. Conflicts are normal. The challenge is for us to work through them constructively.

Setting
2. Why were the US and USSR in conflict?
As Europe declined as the major superpower after two devastating wars, the United States and the Soviet Union
competed to fill that power vacuum. The United States driven by ideas of a liberal democracy wanted to promote
international free trade, whereas Russia, a relatively new communist nation, desired to be a recognized power on the
world stage. Each felt that the philosophy of their enemy was dangerous and corrupt; therefore, they felt a need to
secure themselves against each other through an arms race and by extending their influence into other parts of the
world. The Cold War conflict encompassed the world as the two superpowers struggled for dominance or hegemony.

Conflict
3. How did the Cold War develop?
At the Yalta Conference the Allies made agreements about what should happen after the war, but post-war tensions
developed that would develop into the Cold War. The Soviet Union concerned to secure her country from future wars
disregarded their agreement about free elections in Eastern European countries and created buffer states. An iron
curtain was descending on Europe, as Winston Churchill described it, that separated East and West. The failed Berlin
Blockade gave the United States and Britain the impression that Russia was going to continue to expand into Europe, so
Truman decided to contain the spread of communism by supporting anti-communist countries (the Truman Doctrine)
especially through aid (the Marshall Plan). The Cold War ultimately developed into new military alliances (NATO and the
Warsaw Pact) formed to protect themselves from any threat.

Plot
4. How was the Cold War fought?
The Cold War was fought primarily through an arms race and proxy wars. The introduction of the atomic bomb to the
world by the United States escalated tensions significantly, leading the Soviet Union to balance that power by
developing their own bomb. This began an arms race as they competed for better technology that would lead to the
development of the hydrogen bomb, intercontinental ballistic missiles and a space race with the Russian development of
Sputnik I. Besides safeguarding national security, the US concerned that nations turning to communism would begin a
domino effect attempted to promote their interests in the third world leading to proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Chile,
Afghanistan and many other places. The conflict encompassed the world as each superpower attempted to develop
stronger weapons and spread their influence around the world.

Characters
5. Did John F Kennedy respond effectively in Cuban Missile Crisis?

Despite the high tensions, Kennedy and Khrushchev brought the Cuban Missile Crisis to a positive resolution. Kennedy’s
attempt to overthrow Castro in the Bay of Pigs invasion set off a chain of events that led to the crisis. Castro received
weapons from Russia to protect itself from another invasion, and Russia balanced the placement of weapons in the
world by locating some near the US as the US had placed weapons near Russia in Turkey and Italy. Once Kennedy
discovered the presence of Soviet missile sites in Cuba, he created a blockade to prevent Russian supplies from reaching
Cuba. This was an act of war that brought the situation to a high point, but diplomats were able to bring the nations to
an agreement. The US would remove their missiles from Turkey and Italy and promise not to invade Cuba, if Russia
removed their weapons from Cuba.

Resolution
6. How did the Cold War end?

Several policy changes contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, which brought the Cold War to an end. Both the
United States and the Soviet Union were feeling the weight of military spending in the ongoing arms race, which led to a
policy of détente, a relaxing of tensions by reducing armaments. When Reagan came into office, he began a new arms
race that stretched a weak Russian economy. Gorbachev on the other hand, trying to reform the Soviet government
implemented a policy of glasnost (openness) to encourage criticism and transparency in government and perestroika
(restructuring) to loosen control of the economy. Gorbachev’s economic policies had little time to have an impact
because Eastern bloc countries suddenly changed governments and the Soviet Union dissolved closely afterwards. The
Berlin Wall a symbolic barrier of the Cold War tensions between East and West was taken down reuniting Germany.
 Study Guide
Unit 9: New Nations
Theme
How do you bring reconciliation to situations of injustice?
Vocabulary
Setting
British Empire British Empire, a worldwide system of dependencies—colonies, protectorates, and other territories—
that over a span of some three centuries was brought under the sovereignty of the crown of Great
Britain and the administration of the British government.
Structural violence violence that is the result of a social structure or institution that keeps people from their basic needs.
Privilege a special right or advantage granted or available only to a particular person or group of people.
Decolonization the undoing of colonialism
Nationalism advocacy of political independence for a particular country.
Conflict
Mandates control of one country transferred to another by the League of Nations following World War I
Palestine a geographical and historical region in the Middle East;
Zionism a movement for (originally) the re-establishment and (now) the development and protection of a
Jewish nation in what is now Israel.
Palestinian Liberation The Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the
Organization (PLO) "liberation of Palestine" through armed struggle
Intifada “to shake off”; Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip
Characters
Mohandas Gandhi political and spiritual leader during India's struggle with Great Britain for home rule, advocating of
nonviolent civil resistance
Jawaharlal Nehru Indian statesman and leader with Gandhi in the struggle for home rule; was the first prime minister of
the Republic of India
Muhammad Ali lawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan
Jinnah
Nelson Mandela South African statesman who was released from prison to become the nation's first democratically
elected president in 1994
Desmond Tutu South African Anglican cleric and theologian known for his work as an anti-apartheid and human rights
activist.
Plot
Indian National political party founded in 1885 and central to the independence movement in the 1930s under
Congress Mahatma Gandhi
Civil Disobedience the refusal to comply with certain laws or to pay taxes and fines, as a peaceful form of political protest.
Nonviolence the use of peaceful means, not force, to bring about political or social change.
Salt March A march to the sea to break the law regarding the British monopoly on salt.
Partition the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions,
India and Pakistan.
Resolution
Pan Africanism a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between
all people of African descent.
Apartheid a policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race in South Africa
Truth and a court-like restorative justice body assembled in South Africa after the abolition of apartheid in 1994.
Reconciliation
Commission
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be a topic sentence, three supporting sentences and a
conclusion. The supporting questions are provided to support your thinking around the main question.

Theme
1. How do you bring reconciliation to situations of injustice?

Reconciliation is the challenging task of rebuilding relationships after experiencing the pain of injustice. It is a long and
difficult process because injustice creates painful wounds that require healing, especially when it is committed against
whole groups of people—women, people of color, poor, etc. A variety of groups face a daily violence that is not physical,
but a constant closure of opportunities to them because of social norms that marginalize them. Reconciliation is a long
process of rebuilding relationships through truth telling and honest dialogue that move offenders beyond the blindness
of their privileged power to admissions of guilt and restitution. It is not just of matter of saying sorry, but doing sorry
through acts that correct the injustice.

Setting
1. What sparked the decolonization of Asia and Africa?

Decolonization was sparked by the decline of European imperial powers after two world wars. Since the industrial
revolution, Europeans had colonized Asia and Africa to exploit their resources, but the devastation of war weakened
them. Japanese expansion into European colonies demonstrated their political weakness and the economic burden of
maintaining their empire. This led to nationalist movement advocating for their own rights for self-determination, which
found support from Soviets during the Cold War. The weakening of European empires and the desire of colonized
people for independence pushed imperialism to an end.

Conflict
2. How did British colonization lead to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict?

The Israel-Palestine conflict was sparked by decisions the British made regarding Palestine after World War I. The British
made contradictory promises to Arab and Zionist Jews, namely Arab independence for fighting against the Ottoman
Turks and the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. They also broke promises to Arabs by secretly planning to take
control of the Middle East in the Sykes-Picot Treaty. The British attempted to appease both sides after colonization, but
ultimately handed the conflict over to the UN who decided upon a two-state solution, upsetting Arabs. Israelis expanded
their territory in two wars (Israeli-Arab War and Six Days War) leading to greater recognition of Israel by its neighbors
(Camp David Accords), but also a reaffirmation of the two-state solution (Oslo accords). The conflict remains unresolved
with Palestinians pushing for an independent state through the PLO and Hamas and Israelis continuing to settle in
Palestinian territories.

Characters
3. How did Gandhi fashion a new response to injustice in India?

Under British colonization, some wanted to work within the British government to bring change, while other wanted a
violent revolution to bring independence. Unhappy with those options, Gandhi pushed for independence through
nonviolent civil disobedience. He would disobey laws, like the Rowlatt Act and Salt Tax, he considered immoral in order
to raise awareness of the injustice of the British rule. These acts of civil disobedience exposed the unjust British rule
through the violence committed by the British to enforce their rule, most notoriously in the Amritsar Massacre. His
movement was successful in pushing the British to give India independence, but his goal of bringing reconciliation was
not as successful with fighting between Muslims and Hindus and little responsibility for the crisis by the British.
Plot
4. Why was there a partition of India?

The British partitioned India into the two states of India and Pakistan because Hindus and Muslims distrusted each
other. The Indian National Congress organized to push for independence, but the British ruled with a policy of “divide
and conquer” that pitted Hindus and Muslims. British created suspicion and animosity between Muslims and Hindus so
they would not fight British rule. Despite the Gandhi’s desire to create unified India for Hindus and Muslims, Jinnah was
fearful of being a minority within a Hindu majority country. The fear and uncertainty between Muslims and Hindus won
out with the partition of India.

Resolution
5. How did Africa decolonize?

African decolonization began as African nationalist movement began to put pressure on European empires to let go of
their political control. After centuries of political domination, economic exploitation, and social marginalization, Africans
from a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds developed a sense of African identity to counter this injustice. Kwame
Nkrumah promoted Pan-Africanism as necessary to not only gain political independence, but economic and social
independence from the ongoing influence of Western powers through neo-colonialism. Western neocolonialism
promoted the rapid industrialization of Africa that ultimately put them in debt to Western powers. South Africa
embodied the complex nature of European control through apartheid. It promoted White society by depriving Blacks of
good land, education, and work and therefore Blacks, like Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress, were
pushing for the end of an apartheid regime that prevented them from flourishing in all aspects of their life.
 Study Guide
Unit 10 Human Rights
Theme
How do we advocate for change?
Vocabulary
Setting
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international
cooperation and to create and maintain international order.
Universal Declaration Motivated by the experiences of the preceding world wars, the Universal Declaration was the first time
of Human Rights that countries agreed on a comprehensive statement of inalienable human rights.
UN Declaration on an international document promoting child rights because their vulnerability requires special care and
the Right of the Child protection.
Conflict
Exploitation the action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work.
Discrimination the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the grounds
of race, age, or sex.
Genocide the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation.
Poverty The inability to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter.
Privacy being free from being observed or disturbed by other people.
Torture inflicting severe pain on someone as a punishment or to force them to do or say something, or for the
pleasure of the person inflicting the pain.
Refugees a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural
disaster.
Characters
Advocate a person who publicly supports or recommends a particular cause or policy.
Amnesty a London-based non-governmental organization which campaigns to end abuses of human rights.
International
Human Rights Watch an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights.
Plot
Institutional Institutionalized discrimination refers to the unjust and discriminatory mistreatment of an individual or
Discrimination group of individuals by society and its institutions as a whole, through unequal selection or bias,
intentional or unintentional; as opposed to individuals making a conscious choice to discriminate.
Race A social category that divides humanity into different categories, typically along physical characteristics
Sex either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and many other living things
are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions.
Gender the state of being male or female (typically used with reference to social and cultural differences rather
than biological ones).
Child labor the use of children in industry or business, especially when illegal or considered inhumane.
Resolution
Activism the action of using vigorous campaigning to bring about political or social change.
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be A) one topic sentence, B) three supporting
sentences and C) a conclusion. The italicized, supporting questions are provided to help you answer the main question.

Theme
1. How do we advocate for change?

What are the Aristotle’s three styles of persuasion?

Why are each important for persuading people?

How does persuasion contribute to activism?

Setting
2. Why is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights important?

What is the purpose of the UN?

Why did they develop the UDHR?

What rights does the UDHR protect?

Conflict
3. Why are human rights violated?

What is an example of a human rights violation?

What is the historical background for the violation?

How is the violation justified?

Characters
4. Why are human rights organizations important?

What are some important human rights organizations?

What do those organizations do?

How do they advocate for change?

Plot
5. How are people impacted by violations of their human rights?

Which right of the UDHR is violated?

What are the physical, psychological, and emotional consequences of the violation upon its victims?

How does that violation prevent people from flourishing?

Resolution
6. How do activists mobilize people for action?

What specific change are activists advocating for to stop the violation?

What steps are they taking to reach that goal?

How are activists raising awareness?

 Study Guide
Unit 11 Globalization
Theme
How do we make the world a better place?
Vocabulary
Setting
Maslow’s Hierarchy a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943 comprising of five tier model of human
of Needs needs that motivate human action.
Globalization The interconnection of people, companies and governments of different nations though international
trade and investment aided by information technology.
UN Sustainable a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations.
Development Goals
Conflict
Supply Chain the sequence of processes involved in the production and distribution of a commodity.
Externality a side effect or consequence of an industrial or commercial activity that affects other parties without
this being reflected in the cost of the goods or services involved
Exploitation the action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work
Climate change a change in long-term weather patterns (including precipitation, temperature, and wind) over time
Characters
Company a business organization that makes, buys, or sells goods or provides services in exchange for money.
Labor the services performed by workers for wages as distinguished from those rendered by entrepreneurs
for profits
Labor Union an organized association of workers formed to protect and further their rights and interests
Government the group of people with the authority to direct and control actions of the members, citizens, or
inhabitants of country or state.
Global Trade World Trade Organization (WTO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, Organization of
Organizations the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Consumers a person who purchases goods and services for personal use.
Plot
Linear Economy A linear economy works according to the ‘take-make-dispose’ step plan. Resources are extracted and
products are produced. Products are used until they are discarded and disposed of as waste. Value is
created by maximizing the amount of products produced and sold.
Trade Agreement terms of the acceptable exchange of goods and services between the parties; for example, the North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Extraction The action of taking out natural resources, especially of non-renewable resources
Production the process of manufacturing or creating material goods and products
Distribution the transport and delivery of material goods from production to consumers
Marketing activities that promote the transfer of goods from a seller to a buyer
Consumption the process of using natural resources, materials, or finished products to satisfy human wants or needs
Disposal the act of getting rid of unwanted items or things that are no longer useful
Resolution
Sustainability meeting our own needs now without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs,
which requires balancing social, economic and environmental needs.
Circular Economy A circular economy works according to the 3R approach of “Reduce, Reuse & Recycle”. Material
extraction is reduced where possible by using less material. Products are made of reused parts and
materials and after discarding a product, materials and parts are recycled. In a circular economy value
is created by focusing on value retention.
Analysis
Answer the main questions in a perfect paragraph. There should be A) one topic sentence, B) three supporting
sentences and C) a conclusion. The italicized, supporting questions are provided to help you answer the main question.

Theme
1. How do we make the world a better place?

Making a better world goes hand in hand with meeting people’s basic needs. Often leaders examine their economic
growth as indicated by the GDP to evaluate the well-being of their country, but it does not gauge how that wealth is
distributed or the quality of life. For example, the United States is one of the wealthiest nations, but has a health crisis
around obesity, depression, and substance abuse. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs clarifies that all humans have needs that
move from the fundamental physiological need to survive onward to safety, intimacy, esteem and finally self-
actualization. Meeting the needs to survive through adequate food, water, and sleep and a sense of safety through
secure income, housing and health open the way for great human relationships. These basic building blocks allow us to
thrive as a human community, which is why most of the UN’s sustainable development goals prioritize tackling these
important global concerns of people, planet and prosperity.

Setting
2. How are we living in a globalized world?

Our apparently simple purchases at a store have a network of global interactions behind them. Companies do not often
make a whole product from beginning to end in one place. Raw materials are grown or mined in one place,
manufactured in another and sold in a third. For example, the cotton for a T-shirt is grown in the United States, cleaned,
carded and knitted into fabric in Indonesia, assembled in Bangladesh or Columbia, and then sold in the United States.
Inexpensive transportation costs, strong communication networks, and cheap labor have supported a global division of
labor in the production of various goods. Purchasing a T-shirt in a store connects us to people around the world, but we
are often unaware of those connections and how our consumption impacts others, like the urbanization of Bangladesh
as rural people flock to sweatshops in cities in search of a better life.

Conflict
3. How do externalities impact our world?

The price for a product is not the same as the cost. Prices are often unusually low because costs are externalized into the
environment or poor communities. For example, the extraction of a coltan, an important mineral for electronics,
depends on exploiting communities in the Congo to work for little income and displacing the burden of environmental
pollution unto the community’s water supply. Companies save money, but through environmental pollution and cheap
labor. The environmental impacts of production often fall onto local communities and subsequent generations who pay
the costs in declining health and taxes for cleanup. Companies exploit poor communities who have little means for
recourse by not paying a living wage, providing unsafe working conditions, and no safety net in emergencies. We often
look to the government to regulate behavior that does not benefit the community, but companies often exert a pressure
on governments through lobbyists.

Characters
4. How is global trade regulated?

While the United Nations has been important to global governance by promoting peace by intervening in conflicts
through sanctions or peacekeeping troops or building peace by investing in developing nations through the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, it does not directly address trade relationships. In our globalized era nations
often form trading agreements, typically free trade agreements like NAFTA, where nations agree to remove trade
barriers by eliminating tariffs on each other’s products. Sometimes nations form organizations to promote regional
economic growth like the European Union (EU) or the success of their resource like oil in OPEC. When trade disputes
occur member countries can turn to the World Trade Organization (WTO), which settles disputes by judging between
parties. There are attempts to address the externalized costs on the environment through climate agreements.

Plot
5. Why does a linear economy not work?

A linear economy is set up to take resources, make stuff and waste it. Assuming the earth had limitless resources,
companies design products for the dump or for high turnover. Planned obsolescence created dependable customers by
either making products that would become useless through poor manufacturing or by manipulating their perceptions of
what was “in”. While profitable for the business, it is unsustainable in its environmental impact. Natural resources were
disposable without consideration of their limitations. The amount of trash that humans produce is not only wasting
precious resources, but also leading to environmental issues like climate change and pollution of our land and seas.

Resolution
6. How do we move toward a circular economy?

A circular economy attempts to solve the linear economy’s enormous problem of waste. The circular economy takes the
model of nature, where there is no waste, but everything is part of a material cycle. Ultimately if there is no waste, we
have become more efficient in the use of materials and removed the need for landfills. People are innovating new ways
of thinking about the economy, like shifting to thinking in terms of service rather than products. For example, clothing is
rented and returned to the company for material recovery. There are also inventions that create new materials, like
using mushrooms to create packing materials, a replacement for wood and even leather-like products. This removes
toxics and create biodegradable materials. Finally policy decisions support shifting society and the economy to this
sustainable structure. While the circular economy will move us to an environmentally sustainable structure, there
continues to be a need for advocacy around equity and labor.