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AZOLLA: BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND SEA'A

GREEN MANURE
-THOMAkS A. LUMPKIN: AND DONALD L.. PLUCKNETT
Made in United States of America

Reprinted from ECONOMic BOTANY,
Vol. 34, No. 2, April-June 1980
© The New York Botanical Garden 1980

Azolla: Botany, Physiology, and Use as a
Green Manure1
THOMAS A. LUMPKIN AND DONALD L. PLUCKNETT 2
This is a comprehensive review of literature pertaining to the aquatic fern

Azolla and its nitrogen-fixing algal symbiont, Anabaena azollae. The preceding
decade has witnessed an explosive growth in research on Azolla, and hopefully
this paper will facilitate those efforts.
The paper is broken into three major categories: botany, physiology and bio
chemistry, and agriculture. The botany section includes a world distribution map
and reference tables for the 6 Azolla species, and includes the first review of
literature on Anabaena azolh.e.
The physiology and biochemistry section covers the range of topics from en
vironmental factors to life processes and nitrogen fixation. Tables on the effect
ofgrowth regulators and on the rate of nitrogen fixation measured by acetylene
reduction are presented.
The agriculture section draws extensively from literature published in the Peo
ple's Republic of China and in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The major
focus of this section is on the history and management practices for Azolla
cultivation as a green manure for rice. The effect of weed suppression, use as
a fish food and animal fodder, and the insects and diseases of Azolla are also
discussed.
Azolla has been of traditional interest to botanists and Asian agriculturists

because of its symbiotic association with a nitrogen-fixing blue-green alga. Stim
ulated by the recent energy crisis, the interests of these two groups have merged,
resulting in the publication of numerous articles in popular magazines and exten
sion bulletins. These articles have focused on the green manure, nitrogen fixation,
and hydrogen production qualities of Azolla (Galston, 1975; Newton, 1976; Brill,
1977; Singh, 1977b).
The intent of this paper is to provide a current and comprehensive survey of
all available literature on the Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis, essentially up-dating
and expanding the excellent review by Moore (1969). Some of the included ref
erences were published prior to 1969 but were hitherto unavailable (e.g., those
from Vietnam and China).
The most remarkable characteristic of Azolla is its symbiotic relationship with
the nitrogen-fixing blue-green alga (cyanobacterium), Anabaena azollae. The del
icate Azolla (Fig. 1) provides nutrients and a protective cavity in each !eaf (Fig.
2) to Anabaena colonies in exchange for fixed atmospheric nitrogen and possibly
other growth-promoting substances (Schaede, 1947; Ashton and Walmsley, 1976).
The rate of nitrogen fixation in the Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis rivals that of the
Rhizobium-legume symbiosis. Talley et al. (1977) reported a daily fixation rate
ISubmitted for publication August i, 1978; accepted August 7, 1978. Joulrnal Series No. 2294 of
the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. This work was in part supported bXID grantlcsd- 3j83
2 Graduate Student (East West Center grantee) and Professor of Agronomy, respectively, Depart
ment of Agronomy and Soil Science, College ofTropical Agriculture, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
Hawaii.
Economic Botany, 34(2), 1980, pp. 111-153

© 1980, by the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458
112 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 34
r4
Fig. 1-2. Fig. I. Azollafiliculoides mats, growing in Hawaiian taro fields, contain approximately
70 kg/N/ha. Fig. 2. Anabaena azollae filaments are visible within the ovoid leaf cavity of an Azolla
pinnata dorsal lobe.
of 1.2 kg N/ha and Dao and Tran (1966) reported an annual nitrogen yield of 864
kg N/ha.
BOTANY OF AZOLLA
Taxonomy and stratigraphy

The genus name, Azolla, is a conjugation of two Greek words, Az6 (to dry)
and oily6 (to kill), suggesting the fern is killed by drought. Some of the fern's
vernacular names are: water velvet, mosquito fern (English); Algenfarn (German);
Helechito del Agua (Spanish); Lu P'ing, Ho P'ing, Man Chiang hung shu
(Chinese); Akaukikusa, Koakaukikusa, Ooakaukikusa (Japanese); Chak pos kra
bey, Chak krahan (Khmer); Nae harnghern (Lao); Beo hoa dau, Beo giau (Viet
namese).
Azolla belongs to the Salviniales which is closely related to the Hymenophyl
laceae (Copeland, 1947; Bierhorst, 1971). Lamarck established the genus Azolla
in 1783 after examining specimens brought from Chile (Griffith, 1845). The genus
was originally included in the Salviniaceae Sadeb., a family of heterosporous
free-floating ferns (Sadebeck, 1902) (Fig. 3), but recently taxonomists have as
signed Azolla to a monotypic family, Azollaceae C. Chr., separate from the genus
Salvinia (Christensen, 1938; Reed, 1954; Sculthorpe, 1967; Konar and Kapoor,
1974; Martin, 1976).
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETF AZOLLA 113
Sporophyte
'Ventral Lobe Initial Embr
Microsporalum Megasporangium - Oosphere Antherozoid
Microspore Megaspo..re Arche1gonium Antherium
Female Prothallus -,
Male Prothallus
Fig. 3. Heternsporous life cycle of Azolla.
The genus is divided into 2 sections (subgenera) and 6 living species, primarily
on the basis of reproductive organs, e.g., megaspore floats and glochidia (Sven
son, 1944; West, 1953; Moore, 1969). The sections are Euazolla (3 floats) and
Rhizosperma (9 floats). The glochidia of the species belonging to Euazolla (A.
fificuloides Lamarck, A. caroliniana Willd., A. microphylla Kaulfuss and A.
mexicana Presl.) are septate, while those of the Rhizosperma are simple in A. Pin
nata R. Brown (Hills and Gopal, 1967) or absent in A. nilotica DeCaisne (De
malsy, 1953). Use of septa in glochidia as a distinguishing characteristic was
questioned by Godfrey et al. (1961) because of extensive morphological variation
within a given species, which has given rise to contradictory observations by
several authors (Clausen, 1940; Svenson, 1944; Hills and Gopal, 1967; Seto and
Nasu, 1975).
The presence or location of glochidia on the massulae can also be a distinguish
ing characteristic (Konar and Kapoor, 1974). The species belonging to the Eu
azolla, A. fificuloides, A. ccroliniana, A. microphylla, and A. mexicana have
glochidia positioned on the total surface, while those of the Rhizosperma are
located on the inner surface of A. pinnata and are absent in A. nilotica, but be
cause sporocarps are usually absent, identification of Azolla species is often
difficult.
The 6 living species are grouped in the sections Euazolla Sadeb. (3 floats) and
Rhizosperma Sadeb. (9 floats). Euazolla replaced the earlier section Azolla in
troduced by Meyen (1836). Four new sections-Antiqua, Filipera, Florschuetzia,
and Simplicispora (Martin, 1976; Follieri, 1977)-include only fossil species, of
which 48 have been recorded (Fowler, 1975). Although the fossil record of the
genus extend- back to the late Cretaceous period (Martin, 1976), the stratigraphic
range of individual species is relatively short (Fowler, 1975). According to Hills
and Gopal (1967) the oldest living species are A. filiculoides of Eazolla and A.
pinnata of Rhizosperma which date back to the Pleistocene era. On the basis of
fossil evidence, most authors assume that Azolla species evolved in a sequential
fashion, but Martin (1976) believes "that each arose separately out of the plastic
cytological situation common to the whole genus."
There has long been confusion about the classification of Azolla species. For
example, some A. filiculoides varieties were named as the species A. rubra and
A. japonica (Moore, 1969) and some A. pinnata varieties as A. africanaand A.
guineenvis (Sweet and Hills, 1971). In several cases the specific epithet was
changed to a varietal name; e.g., A. filiculoides var. rubra and A. pinnata var.
imbricata (Sweet and Hills, 1971). Christensen (1906) and Reed (1954) prepared
lists of synonyms for the species which they recognized, but their lists are not in
total agreement with current beliefs. References for ' current and unaccepted
names of species may be found in papers by Mettenius (1847), Stapf (1929) and
Reed (1954).
Distribution
The geographic distribution of Azolla has been reviewed by many authors.
Papers have been published on the distribution of the 6 living species (Moore,
1969), the 4 species native to the New World (Svenson, 1944), the 3 species native
to the United States, (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), and A. caroliniana,A. filicu
loides, A. nilotica and A. pinnata (Rao, 1936). Sculthorpe (1967) covered all
species except A. inicrophylla and also included notes on the introduction of A.
caroliniana, A.filiculoides, and A. pinnata into Europe. Sweet and Hills (1971)
prepared a map showing the distribution of A. pinnata varieties.
Azolla occurs in ponds, ditches and paddy fields of warm-temperate and trop
ical regions throughout the world (7'ig. 4). Prior to their dispersal by man,
the species were endemic to the h'ollowing areas: A. caroliniana, eastern
North America and the Caribbean; A. filiculoides, southern South America
through western North America including Alaska; A. inicrophylla, tropical and
subtropical America; A. inexicana, northern South America through western
North America; A. nilotica, upper reaches of the Nile to Sudan; and A. pinnata,
most of Asia and the coast of tropical Africa (Sculthorpe, 1967; Svenson, 1944).
According to Sculthorpe (1967), A. filiculoides was formerly native to Europe,
but probably died out during the last Ice Ages. In the 19th century, it was rein
troduced into western Europe, along with A. caroliniana and A. pinnata, as an
ornamental (Saccardo, 1892; Marsh, 1914; Chevalier, 1926; Sculthorpe, 1967),
and it spread unchecked until it became a nuisance (Bolos and Masclans, 1955;
Sculthorpe, 1967). This sequence of events was repeated in South Africa, New
Zealand and elsewhere (Matthews, 1963; Fosberg, 1942; Oosthuizen and Walters,
1961; Ashton and Walmsley, 1976).
The world distribution of the species according to the literature is recorded as
follows:
1. Section Euazolla.
a. A. caroliniana. ASIA: Canton (Saver, 1947), Hong Kong (Herklots, 1940). EUROPE: Belgium
(Lawalree, 1964), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia (Lawalree, 1964), Denmark (Olsen, 1972), France (Scill
thorpe, 1967), Germany (Sculthorpe, 1967), Holland (Lawalree, 1964), Hungary (Lawalree, 1964),
Italy (Avena et al., 1974), Portugal (Reed, 1962), Romania (Lawalree, 1964), Spain (Garcia Nova,
1969). LATIN AMERICA: Antilles (Herter, 1928), Argentina (Sota, 1976), Brazil (Sadebeck, 1902),
Cuba (Svenson, 1944), Guyana (Anonymous, 1960), Jamaica (Svenson, 1944), Mexico, Uruguay (Sota,
1976), Venezuela (Herter, 1928). NOiH AMERICA: Delaware (Cohn and Renlund, 1953), Florida
(Godfrey et al., 1961), Georgia (Duncan, 1960), Kentucky (McCoy, !950), Maryland (Reed, 1951-53),
Massachusetts (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), Nebraska (Peterson, 1935), New Jersey (Cohn and Renlund,
1980) LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETT AZOLLA 115
A&PA
a pow"
Fig. 4. Distribution of Azolla species.
1953), New York (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), North Carolina (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), Ohio (Ott and
Petrik-Ott, 1973), South Carolina (Svenson, 1944), Tennessee (Shaver, 1954), Texas (Correll, 1956),
Virginia (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973).
b. A. fiiculoides (japonica, rubra). AFRICA: South Africa (Ashton and Walmsley, 1976). ASIA:
Australia (Klcinschmidt, 1969), China (Reed, 1954), Japan (Seto and Nasu, 1975), New Zealand
(Matthew% 1963). EUROPE: Belgium (Lawalree, 1964), Britain (Williams and Dollman, 1940), Bul
garia, Czechoslovakia (Sourek, 1958), France (Chevalier, 1926), Germany (Birkenbeil, 1974), Holland
(Sculthorpe, 1967), Italy (Sculthorpe, 1Q67), Ireland (Sculthorpe, 1967), Portugal (Reed, 1962), Ro
mania (Lawalree, 1964), Sardinia (Lawalree, 1964), Yugoslavia (Jalas and Suominen, 1972). LATIN
AMERICA: Argentina (Tur, 1971), Bolivia (Svenson, 1944), Brazil (Reed, 1965), Chile (Reed, 1965),
Colombia (Svenson, 1944), Ecuador (Herter, 1928), Guatemala (Svenson, 1944), Guyana (Reed, 1965),
Honduras (Correll and Knobloch, 1962), Mexico (Svenson, 1944), Peru (Reed, 1965), Trinidad (Reed,
1965), Uruguay (LeGrand and Lombardo, 1958). NORTH AMERICA: Alaska (Svenson, 1944), Ar
izona (Svenson, 1944), California (Svenson, 1944), Hawaii (Neal, 1965), Oregon (Ott and Petrik-Ott,
1973), Washington (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973).
c. A. inexicana. LATIN AMERICA: Bolivia (Svenson, 1944), Costa Rica (Svenson, 1944), French
Guiana (Correll and Knobloch, 1962), Honduras (,venson, 1944), Mexico (Svenson, 1944). NORTH
AMERICA: British Columbia (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), California (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), Illinois
(Gunning and Lewis, 1957), Minnesota (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), Missouri (Svenson, 1944), Nevada
(Svenson, 1944), New Mexico (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973), Oregon (Svenson, 1944), Utah (Svenson,
19,14), Washington (Svenson, 1944), Wisconsin (Ott and Petrik-Ott, 1973).
d. A. inicrophylla. LATIN AMERICA: Bolivia (Sve,:'!on, 1944), Brazil (Svenson, 1944), Dominican
Republic (Svenson, 1944), El Salvador (Svenson, 144), French Guiana (Svenson, 1944), Galapagos
Islands (Morton and Wiggins, 1971), Guyana (Svensoo. 1044), Peru (Svenson, 1944).
I!.
Sectio: i Rhi7.sperma
a. A. nilotica. AFRICA: Congo (Wild, 1961), Malawi (Reed, 1965), Mozambique (Reed, 1965),
Namibia (Wild, 1961), Sudan (Wild, 1961), Tanzan-.a (Demalsy, 1953), Uganda (Reed, 1965), Zaire
(Demalsy, 1953, Zambia (Kornas, 1974).
b. A. pinnata (africana, inbricata). AFRICA: Angola (Sadebeck, 1902), Gambia (Reed, 1965),
Ghana (Sweet and Hills, 1971), Guinea (Sa',.beck, 1902), Ivory Coast (Sweet and Hills, 1971), Mad
agascar (Reed, 1954), Mozambique (Reed, 1965), Namibia (Reed, 1965), Nigeria (Sweet and Hills,
1971), South Africa (Oosthuizen and Walters, 1961), Zaire (Reed, 1965), Zambia (Reed, 1965). ASIA:
Australia (Sweet and Hills, 1971), Bangladesh (Sweet and Hills, 1971), Burma (Sweet and Hills, 1971),
China (de Vol, 1945), India (Sweet and Hills, 1971), Indonesia (Soubert, 1949), Japan (Seto and Nasu,
1975), Korea (Mori, 1922), Malaysia (Chevalier, 1926), Nepal (Ohashi, 1975), New Caledonia (Chev
alier, 1926), New Guinea (Sweet and Hills, 1971), New Zealand (Eady, 1974), Pakistan (Sweet and
Hills, 1971), Philippines (Copeland, 1960), Sri Lanka (Svenson, 1944), Taiwan (Shen, 1960), Thailand
(Sweet and Hills, 1971), Vietnam (Anonymous, 1918).
Anatomical studies
The anatomy of Azolla has been studied by Strasburger (1873), Queva (1910),
Sud (1934), Rao (1936), Demalsy (1953, 1958), Bonnet (1957), Sweet and Hills
(1971) and Konar and Kapoor (1972). The electron microscope has been used to
observe leaves (Kawamatu, 1965b), megaspores (Martin, 1976), root caps (Ka
wamatu, 1962), chloroplasts in root hairs (Kawamatu, 1961, 1963), cortical mi
crotubules (Gunning et al., 1976, 1977), the role of transfer cells in the symbiosis
(Peters, 1976; Duckett et al., 1975a, 1975b) and Anabaena azollae heterocysts
(Lang, 1965; Lang ana Whitton, 1973; Grilli, 1964; Kawamatsu, 1965a).
1. Morphology and cytology.-Azolla plants are triangular or polygonal in shape,

and float on the water surface individually or in mats. They give the appearance
of a dark green to reddish carpet, except A. nilotica which does not produce the
red anthocyanin pigment. Plant diameter ranges from 1-2.5 cm for small species,
such as A. pinnata, to 15 or more cm for A. nilotica (Ridley, 1930). The latter
species has leafy fronds placed on a wide-trailing leafless stem (Baker, 1887;
Sadebeck, 1902).
The main rhizome bears several alternating branches with attached lateral
branches. At the point of attachmen, each branch has an abscission layer which
is important in vegetative reproduction (Westermaier and Ambronn, 1881; Rao,
1936; Konar and Kapoor, 1972). Cuticulate leaves are alternately arranged and
each consists of a thick aerial dorsal lobe and a thin floating ventral lobe of
slightly larger size (Fig. 5, 6). The papillose dorsal lobes are chlorophyllous
except in the colorless margin and contain the symbiont within an ovoid cavity
(Fig. 2) connected to the atmosphere by a pore (Fig. 7). The transiucent ventral
lobes resting on the water surface support the frond and are nearly achlorophyl-
IOus.
Stomata are present in vertical rows on both surfaces of the dorsal lobe and on
the superior surface of the ventral lobe (Demalsy, 1953; Inamdar et al., 1971).
Initially, each stomata has two guard cells, but these fuse to form a single annular
guard cell with a central pore (Fig. 8) (Sud, 1934). Seto and Nasu (1975) reported
that A. filiculoides (japonica) has two guard cells, and A. pinnata (imbricata)
has only one. Inamdar et al. (1971) counted 112 stomata/mm2 on a leaf of A.
pinnata.
Adventitious roots hang in the water or, when in shallow water, occasionally
penetrate into mud. Root length ranges from 1.5 cm (A. pinnata)to 11 cm (A.
nilotica) depending upon the species. The roots develop in an acropetal fashion
from branch points on the lower surface of the stem and have an abscission layer
at the point of attachment (Rao, 1936). The young root is covered by a cap which
is shed during growth of the basal root hairs (Leavitt, 1902; Chauveaud, 1901,
1911). Sircar (1935) and Kawamatu (1960) found granular mitochondria in the root
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETT: AZOLLA 117
10 ,
Fig. 5-10. Fig. 5. Vascular tissue and the colorless margin arc visible on the dorsal lobe of an
Azolla fiiculoi's leaf. Fig. 6. The achiorophyllous ventral lobe of an Azolla fihicudoides leaf may
play a role in flotation. Fig. 7. The large pore results when enclosing epidermal cells cap a leaf
depression to form the a,gal cavity. Fig. 8. Azolla is unique in having a single annular guard ,:ell
surrounding each stoma. Fig, 9. Three massulae are visible within the crushed periplasmodium ot'an
Azolka pinntw microsl~Jrangium. In this species. glochidia (protruding appendages) are somewhat
pointed and cover only part of the massula surface. Fig. 10. Barbed ,g.ochidia, covering the total
surface of Azollafilicuhloidest massulae, are representative of the section Euazolla.
hairs of A. pinnata. Numerous authors (Schimper, 1883; Rao, 1936; Atkinson,

1938; Kawamatu, 1961, 1965a, 1965b; Konar and Kapoor, 1972) have mentioned
the existence of chloroplasts in the unicellular root hairs and in the cortical layers
of the root. Transfer cells have also been detected in the roots (Duckett et a!.,
1975a, 1975b).
Using the acetocarmine squash technique, Loyal (1958) observed that the chro
mosomes of A. pinnaza number 2n = 44 and are the smallest chromosomes in
the ferns. The largest of these chromosome pairs measured only 2.08 microns
and the smallest was 1.04 microns (Loyal, 1972). Litardiere (1921) reported 2n
48 in A. caroliniana, but his observation was disputed by Loyal (1958) because
it was "based upon sectioned material which experience has shown may not be
trustworthy." Duncan (1940) observed 18 and 20 chromosome pairs during mei
osis in A. filiciloides.
2. Reproductive biology.-Commencing with Meyen (1836) and Griffith (1845),

numerous authors have described the sporophytic cycle of Azolla (Fig. 3). Al
though no authors have mentioned methods of inducing sporocarp development,
in A. filiculoides it is known to be associated with mat formation (Talley et al.,
1977; T. Lumpkin, pers. obs.) and summer months in temperate regions (West,
1953; CorrcI, 1956; Ashton, 1974). Azolla pinnata sporocarp development is
associated with winter months in both India (Konar and Kapoor, 1974) and Tai
wan (Shen, 1960). Singh (1977d) reported that sporocarp development seems to
retard growth of the fronds.
Sporocarp development on individual species was described by the following
authors: Berggren (1882), Pfeiffer (1907) and Bergad (1972) described sporocarp
development in A. caroliniana. Strasburger (1873), Rose (1883, 1888), Campbell
(1893), Sadebeck (1902), Hannig (1911), Duncan (1940), Smith (1955), Bonnet
(1957), Demalsy (1958), and McLean and Ivimey-Cook (1960) describci the spo
rocarps of A. filiculoides. Meyen (1836), Baillon (1876) and Morton and Wiggins
(1971) wrote brief reports about the sporocarps of A. inicrophylla. Rao (1936),
Mulay (1938), Demalsy (1958), Shen (1960) and Konar and Kapoor (1974) de
scribed the sporocarps of A. pinnata. Demalsy (1953) wrote a commendable
monograph on A. nilotica including information on its sporocarps. The article by
Konar and Kapoor (1974) is one of the best on the subject. Sweet and Hills (1971),
Seto and Nasu (1975) and Follieri (1977) prepared short glossaries of new ter
minology specifically for the sporocarps of Azolla.
Sporocarps are borne by short stalks on the first ventral lobe initial of a lateral
branch and occur in pairs, except in A. nilotica in which they occur in tetrads
(Demalsy, 1953). A sporangial pair may be of the same or opposite "sex." Micro
sporangia (male) are large and globular relative to the small and ovoid megaspo
rangia (female).
As first observed by Strasburger (1873), the primordia of both microsporangia
and megasporangia develop from megasporocarps. Sporangial development be
gins in a leptosporangiate fashion (Pfeiffer, 1907) when a ventral lobe initial di
vides (Bonnet, 1957) and eventually gives rise to 32 megaspore nuclei. If a mega
spore develops, all but one of the apical nuclei abort. If all of the megaspore
nuclei abort, microsporangial initials arise from basal outgrowths on the stalk of
the megasporangium (Koar and Kapoor, 1974).
A megasporocarp takes about one week to mature (Campbell, 1893) and pro
duces only one megaspore. A megaspore initial is embedded in the nutritious
periplasmodium and is eventually covered by a thick perispore. Vacuoles form
within the periplasmodium and give rise to the characteristic float corpuscles.
The 3 floats in Euazolla or the 9 floats (3-float tier above a 6-float tier) in Rhi
zosperma are borne on a filamentous columella. Together, the floats and columella
constitute the so-called "swimming apparatus" described by Strasburger (1873).
Both megasporocarps and microsporocarps dehisce at maturity and sink to the
1980] LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNEIr: AZOLLA
119
TABLE 1. CELL DIMENSIONS OF ANARAENA AZOLLAE IN VARIOUS AZOLLA SPECIES (/jAn).
Vegetative cells Heterocysts

Azolla
species Diameter Length Diameter Length Source
A. carolinlana 5 8 10 Tilden, 1910

A. caroliniana 5 8 10 Toni, 1907
A.filiculoldes 4-6 6-12.5 Hill, 1977
A. filiculoides 5 9 7 11 Pers. obs., T. Lumpkin
A. pinnata 4-5 5-7 6-7.5 7.54.5 Shen, 1960
A. pinnata 6-8 10-12 Singh, 1977a
Unknown 4-5.5 5-9.5 9.5 11.5 Geitler, 1925
Unknown 4-5 6-9.5 6-9.5 9-11.5 Prescott, 1951
bottom (Sud, 1934; Konar and Kapoor, 1974). After a dormant period, the sub
merged megaspores germinate and produce female prothalli (gametophytes), each
of which produces one or more archegonia.
When microsporangial initials start to develop, additional initials appear. At
maturity, as few as 8 (Svenson, 1944) or as many as 130 (Duncan, 1940) stalked
microsporangia may occupy a microsporocarp. Within the periplasmodium of a
microsporangia, 32 or 64 microspores develop and are aggregated into 3 (Ge,4frey
et al., 1961; Demalsy, 1953) or 4-10 (Svenson, 1944) alveolar massulae wh,,:n are
homologous to float corpuscles in the megaspore. Massulae are created from
vacuoles lined by a hardened network of cytoplasmic threads (Konar and Kapoor,
1974). Massulae are either bald (A. nilotica), partially covered (A. pinnata, Fig.
9) or totally covered (Euzolla, Fig. 10) with barbed protruding appendages (glo
chidia). After a microsporangium disintegrates and massulae are released, glo
chidia anchor massulae to megaspore entanglements. Next, microspores germi
nate and release antherozoids which escape through the gelatinized massula to
fertilize the egg (oospore). Fertilization takes place underwater (Bierhorst, 1971).
The embryo produces a root and foot from hypobasal cells and a shoot and
cotyledon from epibasal cells. As the cotyledon and first or second leaf emerge
from the archegonium neck, the seedling floats to the surface (Campbell, 1893).
The cotyledon lacks a cavity for the symbiont, but the succeeding dorsal lobes
and shoot apex entrap Anabaena hormogonia (short filaments) surviving under
the indusium cap. Anabaena hormogonia differentiate rapidly and begin growing
in harmony with the fern.
Anabaena and morphology of the symbiosis

1. Taxonomy.-Anafiaena azollae Strasburger is the only species mentioned in
symbiotic association with Azolla (Fig. 9). However, Fjerdingstad (1976) claimed
that the alga is actually an ecoform of Anabaena variabilisand should, therefore,
be called A. variabilis status azollae. His proposal was based on second-hand
information and a specimen of Azolla supposedly containing heterocyst-free al
gae. Wide variation within A. azollae is probably found within the 6 Azolla
species, but information on this subject has not been reported.
Taxonomists place Anabaena azollae within the phylum Cyanophyta, order
Nostocales, family Nostocaceae. The species has sinuous trichomes (threads)
composed of bead-like or barrel-shaped cells without a sheath (Tilden, 1910;
Fig. lt-16. Fig. I I. These Anabnenn azolhu and a few transfer hairs are the contents of one
Azol/a pinnata leaf cavity. Fig. 12. Two Anahnena azollae filaments within an Azolla pinnata leaf
cavity. A transfer hair attachment point is visible in the center of the photograph. Fig. 13. An Azolla
pinnate transfer hair with an Anwbaena garland is shown partially torn from its anchorage (lower
left). These transfer hairs are covered with rod-shaped bacteria. Fig. 14. A healthy Azolla pinnata
plant was p'aced in the center of phosphorus deficient heat-stressed plants. The healthy plant isgreen
and spreading compared to the crimson and compact phosphorus-deficient heat-stressed plants. Fig.
15. An Azol/a pinnate nursery in Kiangsu province, People's Republic of China. Azolla is multiplied
here before being introduced into newly-planted rice fields. Fig. 16. Azolla being cultivated in rice
fields prior to the transplanting of rice seedlings. Note the rice-row barriers to prevent Azolla from
drifting.
Geitler, 1925; Shen, 1960). There are three types of cells-vegetative cells (pri
mary site of photosynthesis), heterocysts (site of nitrogen fixation, Fogg et al.,
1973) and akinetes (thick-walled resting spores formed frem vegetative cells).
Several authors have not observed spores (Tilden, 1910; Prescott, 1951; Hill,
1977). The dimensions of A. azollae vegetative cells and heterocysts were par
tially reviewed by Fjerdingstad (1976). Table 1 presents cell dimensions of Ana
baena azollae in; relation to their associated Azolla species.
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNE'rr: AZOLLA 121
2. Morphology of the symbiosis.-Sexual phase. In illustrations by Strasburger

(1873), Campbell (1893), Smith (1955), Bonnet (1957), Shen (1960), and Konar
and Kapoor (1974), A. azollae akinetes are contained under the developing in
dusium (cap) of both the microsporocarps and megasporocarps. Anabaena azol
lae persists in the mature megasporocarps, but its fate in the microsporocarps
is unknown. When an akinete germinates, its contents divide and form a short
filament (hormogonium). The spore membrane becomes mucilaginous, swells,
and then ruptures releasing its contents (Fritsch, 1904; Shen, 1960). After various
attempts, Shen (1960) found she could induce formation of akinetes by running
tap water over Azolla fronds. As is obvious from the literature, the life cycle of
A. azollae is poorly understood.
Vegetative phase. Durin, differentiation of the dorsal lobe primordia of the
leaf, the cavity occupied by the symbiont is created by an epidermal cell growth
covering a depression on thf.c basal half of the lobe's ventral surface (Konar and
Kapoor, 1972). Over the center of the depression, epidermal cells meet and form
a large pore (Strasburger, 1873; Sadebeck, 1902; Rao, 1936; Shen, 1960; Konar
and Kapoor, 1972) whichi may allow gaseous exchange between the cavity and
the atmosphere (Fig. 7). Several A. azollae cells sheltered in the shoot apex are
entrapped by the enclosing epidermal cells and begin colonizing the cavity par
ticularly on its dorsal surface (Fig. 12). These algal cells are considered generative
in function since they are composed largely of dividing cells which do not contain
heterocysts nor fix nitrogen (Hill, 1977). The alga and fern develop in synchrony;
as the leaf primordia develop, algal vegetative cells enlarge and a few differentiate
into heterocysts (Fig. 12) which begin fixing nitrogen.
3. Heterocyst frequency and nitrogen fixation.-Lang (1965) and Grilli (1964)

observed the sequential development of heterocysts from vegetative cells in A.
azollae under the electron microscope. Lang (1965) noted similarities to hetero
cyst development in A. cylindrica. In Azolla fronds, heterocyst frequency in
creases from near zero at the shoot apex to a plateau of 29-33% in the 15th leaf,
but after the 20th leaf, heterocysts begin to senesce (Hill, 1975). Hill (1977) raea
sured nitrogen fixation at each leaf position on an Azolla frond, starting from the
apex to the 32nd leaf and found that the rate of nitrogen fixation reaches a max
imum at about the 12th leaf and declines with leaf senescence at about leaf 20 to
24. The average frequency of heterocysts observed by Peters (1975) was 23. 1%,
with the remainder composed of 60.9% vegetative cells and 16% akinetes. Other
reported heterocyst frequencies are: 15-20% (Becking, 1976a) and 22-30%
(Singh, 1977a). In comparison to A. azollae, the heterocyst frequency of free
living A. cylindrica was reported to be about 6% (Hill, 1975).
4. Transfer hairs.-The interior surface of a mature leaf cavity is lined with an

envelope (Peters, 1976) 'and covered by a mucilaginous layer of unknown com
position in which A. azollae filaments, multicellular transfer hairs and a few
bacteria are found (Bottomley, 1920; Gregor, 1938; Grilli, 1964; Wieringa, 1968;
Peters, 1976). Moore (1969) presumed that the mucilage was secreted by the
transfer hair, but Duckett et al. (1975a) found that cavities freed of the symbiont
did not contain mucilage. They speculated that mucilage normally found in the
cavities was probably derived from the symbiont. Schaede (1947) and Grilli (1964)
122 ECONOMIC BOTANY (VOL. 34
claimed that liquid fills the whole cavity, but observations by the senior author
indicate that the cavity is lined with mucilage and largely filled with gas.
Transfer hairs (Fig. 13) within the cavity appear to be organs of metabolic
exchange between the fern and A. azollae. They demonstrate the transfer cell
morphology of a dense cytoplasm containing abundant reticulum and numerous
mitochondria (Duckett et al., 1975a), as defined by Gunning and Pate (1969).
Konar and Kapoor (1972) observed that transfer hairs in the cavities are com
posed of several branched or unbranched cells and suggested that they are se
cretory in function. Duckett et al. (1975a) believed that the main function of the
hairs is absorption of the rcitrogenous products of A. azollae.
The senior author has counted 8-21 evenly spaced epidermal hairs per leaf in
a small sample of A. filiculoides. Paradoxically, development of transfer hairs
(and the cavity) is not dependent upon the presence of A. azollae (Peters and
Mayne, 1974a; Peters, 1976; Ashton and WValmsley, 1976).
5. Bacteria.-Anabaenaazollae shares the leaf cavity with small populations of

bacteria. Isolated cultures of A. azollae were reportedly freed of bacteria by
either ultraviolet radiation (Venkataraman, 1962) or heat treatment at 470 C for
100 minutes (Wieringa, 1968).
Bottomley (1920) mentioaed isolating Pseudornonasand Azotobacter from the
cavity. Peters and Mayne (1974b) conducted acetylene reduction assays on sub
cultures of the bacteria and concluded that they were non-nitrogen fixing. They
also noted that Azolla fronds freed of A. azollae belt supposedly containing bac
teria do not fix nitrogen. Furthermore, bacteria are not involved in nitrogen fix
ation because nitrogen fixation in Azolla requires light and is inhibited by chlor
amphenicoi (Peters, 1976; Peters et al., 1976; Peters and Mayne, 1974b).
Isolation and growth

1.Alga-free Azolla.-Naturally occurring alga-free Azolla have occasionally been
reported (Marsh, 1914; Fremy, 1930; Hill, 1977) but 're extremely rare. Moore
(1969) reviewed the early methods claiming to produce alga-free Azolla fronds.
These methods involved growing Azolla under conditions of environmental
stress, such as cold, low light, and nutrient deficiency (Limburger, 1925; Huneke,
1933). Nickell (1958) pioneered the development of a dependable method for
producing alga-free Azolla through the use of antibiotics. He treated Azolla se
quentially in potassium penicillin, Terramycin, and streptomycin sulfate for one
week each until Azolla was freed of A. azollae and contaminating microorgan
isms. His method was successfully employed by Johnson et al. (1966), Peters and
Mayne (1974a) and Ashton and Walmsley (1976). Hill (1975, 1977) produced alga
free Azolla by first growing Azolla under low light intensity (1250 lux) and then
under high light intensity (10,000 lux), a method similar to that reported by
Schaede (1947). Alga-free Azolla is characteristically more compact, tends to
have more roots and requires nitrogen fertilizer (Peters, 1976; Ashton and Walms
ley, 1976; Hill, 1975).
Two techniques have been developed for isolating experimental quantities of
A. azollae from Azolla fronds. One technique requires squashing the fronds with
a teflon roller, followed by centrifugation and coarse filtering (Peters and Mayne,
1980] LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNEIT: AZOLLA 123
1974a). The other technique utilizes repeated enzymatic digestion of Azolla fronds
followed by several cycles of vortexing and screening until only algal packets
surrounded by a filmy limiting envelope remain (Peters, 1976).
2. Anabaena azollae.-The difficulty of culturing A. azollae in isolation has been

a major obstacle in elucidating the symbiosis. Numerous authors (Vouk and Wel
lisch, 1931; Huneke, 1933; Tuzimura et al., 1957; Shen, 1960; Venkataraman,
1962; Wieringa, 1968; Ashton and Walmsley, 1976; Becking, 1976a, 1976b)
claimed to have grown A. azollae in isolation, but these reports were disputed
by many who were unable to culture the alga in isolation (Singh, 1977a; Peters,
1976; Hill, 1975; Lang, 1965; Bortels, 1940; and Oes, 1913). Huneke (1933) and
Bortels (1940) attempted to recombine isolated A. azollae and alga-free Azolla,
but their attempts were unsuccessful.
PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY
Environmental factors
I. Nutrient requirement.-Azolia can be readily cultured in inorganic nutrient
solution, and most researchers have used a nitrogen-free formula. Many use some
dilution of a modified Knop's, Hoagland's, or Crone's formula. Watanabe and
Espinas (1976) used a culture solution similar to that used for rice except that the
solution included a double concentration of phosphorus (20 ppm), a triple con
centration of molybdenum (0.1 ppm) and was nitrogen-free. Nickell (1958) added
sucrose, thiamine, pyridoxin, nicotinamide, and potassium nitrate to his culture
solution for aseptic Azolla. In a later study with aseptic Azolla, Nickell (1961)
demonstrated that sucrose had a beneficial effect. Olsen (1972) added sodium to
his nutrient solution because it was reported to be required by free-living Ana
baena cylindrica and also he demonstrated that manganese was essential. Finally,
nitrogen fixation by Azolla-Anabaena has been shown to require cobalt (Johnson
et al., 1966; Olsen, 1972) and molybdenum (Bortels, 1940; Olsen, 1972).
Phosphorus is probably the most common factor limiting the growth of Azolla
(Fig. 14). Fronds placed in a phosphorus deficient solution decreased or ceased
growth, became red in color and developed curled roots (Cohn and Renlund
1953; Watanabe and Espinas, 1976). Although the minimum phosphorus concen
tration for optimum ;,rowth is not known, Olsen (1972) found that Azolla thrives
in Danish lakes with .I mg P/I.
Another common limiting element is iron. In an acidic solution, Watanabe and
Espinas (1976) have shown that I ppm Fe was sufficient for rapid growth, but in
an iron deficient solution Azolla fronds became yellow. Deficiency problems arise
in neutral to alkalire solution because ferric ions precipitate. In his definitive
study on iron deficiency in Azolla, Olsen (1972) found that several elements
interact with iron to affect its availability. His results showed competition be
tween ferrous and manganous ions in neutral solution and reduction in absorption
of both iron and manganese in a solution with high calcium concentration. At pH
4, ferric ions were so readily available that a high concentration of calcium was
required to balance the increased absorption of iron; otherwise the fronds suffered
from iron toxicity.
2. Light.-Ashton (1974) reported that relative'growth rate and nitrogenase ac

tivity of A. fificuloides were maximum at 50% of full sunlight (40-57.5 klux).
Also, nitrogenase activity declined more rapidly when light intensity increased
in comparison to when light intensity decreased. Ahmad (1941a) found maximum
growth in the range of 500-2000 lux. Others (Peters, 1975, 1976; Peters et al.
1976) reported that CO2 fixation saturated at 8000 lux and nitrogen fixation sat
urated at 5000 lux in A. caroliniana.Reports from China (Lu et al., 1963; Anon
ymous, 1975b, 1975c) indicate that 25,000 lux resulted in the highest nitrogen
content (4.81,), while 47,000 lux resulted in the highest rates of growth and ni
trogen fixation for A. pinnata. They also reported that A. pinnata survived in a
range from 3,500-120,000 lux but 20,000-40,000 was preferable since the nitrogen
content was higher. Lu et al. (1963) showed that Azolla Leaf Area Index declined
to zero as the LAI of rice increased to a maximum when heavy shading occurred.
3. pH.-Azolla can survive within a pH range of 3.5-10, but optimum growth is

observed in the range of 4.5-7 (Nickell, 1961; Le Van and Sobochkin, 1963; Lu
et al., 1963; Ashton, !974; Anonymous, 1975a. 1975b, 1975c). Ashton (1974) found
that relative growth rate is influenced by a direct relationship between light in
tensity and pH; high light intensity (60,000 lux) with high pH (9-10) and low light
intensity (15,000 lux) with low pH (5-6) allowed maximum relative growth rates.
An inverse relationship between pH and temperature influences nitrate reduc
tion and nitrogen fixation. Nitrate red:,ction was optimal at pH 4.5 and 30°C while
nitrogen fixation was optimal at pH 6.0 and 20°C (Ashton, 1974; Hoist and Yopp,
1976). Both Ashton (1974) and Watanabe et al. (1977) reported that nitrogen
fixation decreased at neutral pH.
4. Temperature.-The most favorable temperature for growth and nitrogen fix

ation by A. pinnata is between 20-30°C. Outside o' this range, growth decreases
until the plant begins to die at temperatures below 5°C and above 45 0C (Lu et al.,
1963; Tran and Dao, 1973; Anonymous, 1971c, 1975P., 1975b, 1975c). Temperature
affects both nitrogen and water content. Azolla pinnata grown at 5°C contained
1.75% N (dry wt.) and 84% H20 (fr. wt.); at 250C, it contained 4.5% N and 94%
H20; and at 40'C it contained 2.5% N and 90% H20 (Anonymous, 1975b). Talley
et al. (1977) reil"rted that A. filiculoides could withstand temperatures as low as
-5°C without apparent harm but was less tolerant than A. mexicana to high
temperature. Cold tolerance increased with pH and was highest in the pH range
of 8-10 (Ashton, 1974).
5. Salinity.-The growth rate of Azolla gradually declines as salinity increases.

At about 1.3% salt (33% of sea water) the growth of Azolla ceases and higher
concentrations result in death (Hailer et al., 1974). Tran and Dao (1973) suggested
that the optimal concentration of mineral nutrients should be within the range of
90-150 mg/I. Le Van and Sobochkin (1963) reported that Azolla did well in lake
water with a salt concentration of 160-380 mg/I but wilted in full Knop's solution
(1500 mg/I) and in some rice fieids where the salt concentration reached 1480
1872 mg/I during the summer season. Salinity is a factor which should be consid
ered wherever the introduction of Azolla is being considered.
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETI:AZOLLA 125
Life processes
1. Photosynthesis.-Azolla chloroplasts are comparable to spinach chloroplasts.
They have a chlorophyll a/b ratio of 2.78 and demonstrate photosystem II and
photosystem I activity as high as 45 (diphenyl carbazide --* DCIP) and 246 (as
corbate + DCIPH 2 -+ NADP +) tmol/mg chl' hr, respectively (Peters and Mayne,
1974a). As stated earlier, CO 2 fixation by both the symbiont and the association
saturatec at 8,000 lux (Peters, 1975).
Anabaena azollae contains the photosynthetic pigments, phycocyanin and chlo
rophyll a (Becking, 1976a; Peters and Mayne, 1974a). Chlorophyll a is the only
chlorophyll pigment found in the Cyanophyta. The symbiont contains 10-20% of
the association's chlorophyll a or 7.5-13% of the total chlorophyll (Peters and
Mayne, 1974a). Phycocyanin, a watei soluble phycobilin pigment present in blue
green algae, traps light of low intensity inside the lobe cavity and passes the
trapped energy on to chlorophyll.
Photosynthesis in the alga produces the reductant utilized for nitrogen fixation.
This is illustrated by three findings: phycocyanin is concentrated in algal vege
tative cells adjacent to the heterocysts (Becking, 1976a); CO2 fixation occurs only
in vegetative cells (Peters, 1975); and vegetative cells have a low chl/P700 ratio
(Peters and Mayne, 1974a).
Even though the symbiont has a significant proportion of the total chlorophyll,
Peters (1977) believes that the symbiont cannot photosynthetically support its
level of nitrogen fixation and must supplement its energy requirements by either
mixotropic activity (combining holophytic with saprophytic nutrition) or by cross
feeding of a carboxylated compound from the fern.
2. Ligt.compensation point.-The light compensation point, defined as the light

intensity where photosynthesis and respiration are in equilibrium, was determined
for A. fili,'uloides by Ahmad (1941a, 1943) using light intensity and temperature
as variables. He found that the light compensation point at all light intensities
(400-2,000 lux) was reached when the temperature was reduced to 5°C or in
creased to 35°C. None of the light intensities used was low enough to determine
the light compensation points between 5' and 35°C.
3. CO2 compensation concentration.-Peters (1977) reported that an increase in

the partial pressure of oxygen from 2% to 20% caused an increase in the CO 2
compensation concentration of the Azolla association from 19 ppm CO 2 to 51
ppm CO2 ; the same increase had no effect on isolated Anabaena azollae. He
interpreted these results to indicate that photorespiration does not occur in the
symbiont.
4. Anthocyanin.-During periods of stress, anthocyanin is thought to protect the

TABLE 2. EFFECT OF CHEMICALS ON THE GROWTH OF AZOLLA.
Growth regulators Sources, Remarks and recommendations
Gibberellin (GA) (1) reduces root number, roots appear tentacle-like

(2) inhibits natural fragmentation of frond, lethal at
100 mg/I in 7 days.
Indole acetic acid" (1) stimulatory at 0.1 ppm, inhibitory I ppm and above.
(IAA) (2) little growth effect, I mg/l, and les. educes
fragmentation; 10 mg/I increases fragmentation,
lethal at 100 mg/I in 24 h.
IAA + GA (2) fragmentation effect of 50 mg/I IAA is suppressed by
1-10 mg/I GA.
Maleic hydrazide (I) strong inhibition of growth.
(2) no growth effect, except lethal at 10 mg/I in 48 h.
AMO 1618 (1) ineffective at all levels.
2,4-D (i) ineffective at all levels, except lethal at 100 ppm.
Diquat/paraquat (3) at 0.05-1.0 ppm becomes chlorotic and dies; starch

granules and osmiophilic globules accumulate.
Herbicide studies
2,4-D (4) not recommended, 1,000-10,000 ppm results in
proportional necrosis.
(5) ineffective, 2,2-DPA-Amitrole-2,4-D.
(6) ineffective.
(7) effective, good control with granular butoxy ethanol
ester of 2,4-D at 270 kg/ha of 2% w/w product.
Diquat (8) effective, 0.25-1.0 ppm active ingredient,
foliar spray.
Diquat/paraquat (9) effective, 100% chlorotic at 1.0 ppm.
Paraquat (5) effective, surface application at 0.56-2.24 kg/ha.
Diesel 0:1 (6) effective, foliar application, 1:
1 with water.
(5) adequate, with PCP.
'Souirces
(I) Nickell, 1961 (6) Oosthuizen and Wailters, 1961
(2) Dusek and Bondes, 1965 (7) Kleinschmidt, 196l
(3) Lang and Seaman, 1964 (8) State or Florida, 1973
(4) Cohn and Renlund, 1953 (9) Blackburn and Weldon. 1965
(5) Matthews, 1963
Xs stated previously, greater than 50% of full sunlight reduces photosynthesis

(Ashton, 1974). Personal observations (T. Lumpkin) suggest that the formation
of anthocyanin is also caused by stress factors which limit photosynthesis, such
as insect damage, high pH, or the low temperature associated with onset of
winter, any of which limits the ability ci the fern to utilize strong sunlight. Azolla
anthocyanin pigment resembles luteoimidin-5-glucoside (Shimura and Terada,
1967; Hoist, 1977).
5. Growth-regulating compounds.-The findings reported in published papers on

the effect of growth regulating compounds on Azolla (Nickell, 1961; Dusek and
Bondes, 1965; Lang and Seaman, 1964) are summarized in Table 2. Bottomley
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETr: AZOLLA 127
(1920) and Ahmad (1941b) reported that auximone, derived from bacterized peat
or from yeast, promoted the growth of A. filiculoides. Nickell (1961) used Ana
baena-free Azoila in his study of growth regulators, while other researchers ap
parently used the intact association.
Nitrogenfixation
Although A :oila can extract nitrogen from its aquatic environment, the algal
symbiont is capable of meeting the entire nitrogen requirement of the association.
Nitrogen fixation by the Azolla-Anabaena symbiosis has been demonstrated in
directly by the use of nitrogen-free nutrient solution, acetylene reduction-gas
chromatography, and assay of H, production and directly by the use of 15N2.
Nitrogen can be supplied to the association by N2 fixation, by absorption from
the aqueous medium, or by any combination of the two without the loss of ni
trogenase activity (Peters et al., 1976). Nitrogenase activity of the endophytic
Anabaenaazollae is protected by the fern from combined nitrogen in the medium.
Even after 6-7 mo of growth in a medium containing nitrogen, Azolla fronds still
exhibited appreciable nitrogenase activity (Peters and Mayne, 1974b).
1. Acetylene reduction.-The acetylene reduction technique has been used to

estimate nitrogenase activity of the association, the algal symbiont, and alga-free
fionds. Although results shown in Table 3 verify that the symbiont is the agent
of N, fixation, there is considerable variation among the figures.
Acetylene reduction by the association in the dark was reduced to 25-30% of
the activity in the light (Becking, 1976a). Reduction by the isolated symbiont is
negligible in dark anaerobic conditions, but reduction under dark aerobic condi
tions is 40% of light aerobic production until the endogenous substrates are de
pleted (Peters, 1975).
Nitrogenase requires 2 electrons to reduce C2H2 to C 2H4 and 6 electrons to
reduce N2 to 2NH 3 . Theoretically, a conversion ratio of 3C2H2 reduced per N2
fixed should exist (Becking, 1976a; Brotonegoro and Abdulkadir, 1976). However,
an atmosrhere with C2 H2 as a substrate suppresses H2 production, while an
atmosphere with N2 as a substrate continues to use electrons to produce hydro
gen. Therefore, determination of H2 production in conjunction with C2H2 reduc
tion and N2 fixation is desirable. Peters et al. (1977) compared the partial pressure
of 0.1 atmosphere C2H2 (95% inhibition of H2 production) and various partial
pressures of a mixture of 14N2 and '5N2, with H2 production. They concluded that
the conversion factor for C.,H 2 /N2 is actually between 1.6 and 2.0 for the associa
tion and 2.5 and 3.0 for the symbiont. Watanabe et al. (1977) found C2H2/N2 con
version ratios for A. pinnala of 3.4, 1.6 and 2.4 after 14, 19 and 22 days of
growth, respectively.
Considering that the alga's portion of the total plant nitrogen is about 10-17%,
Becking (1976a) estimated that the nitrogenase activity (C2H.) of the alga is 6-10
times higher than the activity of the association and 12-20 times higher than the
activity of free-living blue-green algae.
2. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer.-Nitrogen fertilizers usually have an adverse effect

on the growth of Azolla (Oes, 1913; Le Van and Sobochkin, 1963; Anonymous,
TABLE 3. NITROGEN FIXATION RATES OF AZOLLA. ALGA-FREE AZOLLA. AND ANABAENA AZOLLAE UNDER VARIOUS LIGHT AND
TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS.
The association
Azolla spp. Ethylene production _.H,- Light Temp*C Source
caroliniana 1.7-2.6 nmol/mg dry wt. rinb 11-20 27 klux 29 Becking, 1976a
•
caroliniana 20-60 nmol/mg total chl. min 10 5 klux 24/28 Peters, .1976
caroliniana 25-60 nmol/mg total chl. min 10 8 klux 23 Peters and Maynt., 1974b
caroliniana 41 nmol/mg total chi. min 10 5.4-7.5 klux 26-28 Peters et al., 1976
caroliniana 13.% nmol/mg total chi. min 10 5.4 klux 28 Peters et al., 1977
filiculoides 0.96 nmol/mp dry wt. min 20 40-57.5 klux 25 Ashton, 1974
filiculoides 0.58 nmol/m2 dry wt. min 20 80-115 klux 25 Ashton, 1974
filiculoides 2.7-3.8 nmol/mg dry wt. min 9 .8b 14 kix 27 Becking, 1976a
filiculoides 0.773 nmol/mg dry w.. min * 300 /E/m2/sc 26 Talley et al., 1977
filiculoides 0.559 nmol/mg dry wt. min * midday Talley et al., 1977
2 Talley et al., 1977 z
0.800 nmol/mg dry wt. min * 300 tiE/m /sec 26
mexicana
mexicana 0.848 nmol/mg dry wt. min * midday * Talley et al., 1977
pinnata 0.6-1.4 nmol/mg dry wt. min 8 .5bb midday 28-30 Becking, 1976b
29 Becking, 1976a 0W
1.4-2.1 nmol/mg dry wt. min 12_21 14 klux
pinnata
pinnata 21.6 mg/g dry wt. day * 50-70 klux 24-35 Brotonegoro and
pinnaia 2.25 mg/g dry wt. hr .* 60 klux 36 Abdulkadir, 1976 .
pinnata 0.9-1.1 nmol/mg fr wt. hr 10 4-5 klux 31-32 Watanabe and Epinas, 1976
Algal-free Azolla
caroliniana 0 nmol/mg total chl. min 10 8 klux 23 Peters and Mayne, 1974b
• 0 nmol/g fr wt. hr 10. 25 Newton, 1976
IsolatedAnabaena azollae
0.9-3.1 nmol/mg protein min 14 19 klux 29 Becking. 1976a, 1976b,
50-150 nmol/mg algal chi. mine 10 4.3 klux 28 Peters, 1975
50-150 nmol/mg algal chl. min 10 5/8 klux 24/28 Peters, 1976
45 nmol/mg algal chi. min 10 8 klux 23 Peters and Mayne, 1974b
92.97 nmol/mg algal chl. min 10 5.4 klux 28 Peters et al., 1977
179 nmol/mg algal chi. a min 10 4.3 klux 28. Peters ct al., 1976
Percent acetylene in incubation atmosphere.
b58 mg dry weight contained 11.6 mg protein (Becking. 1976a. 1976b).
* A. azcilae contains 7.5-15% of the association's total chlorophyll or 10-20% of its chlorophyll a (Peters and Mayne. 1974a).
* Unknown.
i975b; Singh, 1977a) although other authors (Bortels, 1940; Tuzimura et al, 1957)
have reported that low concentrations of nitrate and especially ammonium pro
mote growth in culture solution. When Azolla is subjected to cold stress in the
range of 5-15'C, nitrogen fixation declines sharply and nitrogen fertilizer is re
quired (Lu et al., 1963; Anonymous, 1975b). Personal experience of the senior
author (T. Lumpkin) indicates that nitrogen fertilizer per se does not have an
adverse effect on the growth of Azolla but increased competition from other
organisms stimulated by nitrogen tertilizer does have an adverse effect.
Reports on the effect of nitrogen fertilizer on acetylene reduction activity are
inconsistent. Peters and Mayne (1974b) found a 30% decrease in rzcetylene re
duction after 35 days and a 90% decrease after 6-7 mo for the association grown
on a culture solution containing nitrate or urea. They also reported that ammo
nium chloride was inhibitory. Newton (1976) reported an 87% decrease in acet
ylene reduction by Azolla after growth in medium containing nitrate for an un
reported length of time. However, Becking (1976a) reported that in the light,
nitrate-grown A. filiculoides reduces twice as much acetylene compared to A.
pinnata and A. caroliniana grown on nitrogen-free Crone's solution.
Peters (1977) used his data and the data from Newton (1976) to calculate the
relative efficiency of nitrogen fixation for the association grown ol N2 and on
nitrate. His data resulted in nitrogen fixation efficiency values of 0.94-0.99 for
N2-grown Azolla and 0.60-0.84 for nitrate-grown Azolla, while Newton's data
resulted in efficiency values of 1.0 and 0.89 for N2-grown and ni',rate-grown Azol-
Ia, respectively.
3. Hydrogen production.-Tht Azolla association is capable of significant light

dependent, nitrogenase-catalyzed H2 evolution (Peters, 1975, 1976; Peters et al.,
1976, 1977; Newton, 1976). In an argon atmosphere, hydrogen production by the
association and by the isolated alga was measured to be 21.7 and 88.6 nmol H2/mg
chl a-min, respectively (Peters et al., 1976). Newton (1976) measured levels as
high as 760 nmol H,/g fr wt-hr. Both articles reported that alga-free Azolla does
not produce H,nor reduce acetylene, and that CO inhibits all reductions catalyzed
by nitrogenase except the production of H2. Peters et al. (1976) suggested that H2
production is the result of a nitrogenase catalyzed, ATP-dependent reaction by
the algal symbiont, since H., production by the isolated symbiont is inhibited by
N 2 and C,H.,. Also, he reported that H, evolution and acetylene reduction were
completely inhibited by 5 /imol ni-chlorocarbonyl cyanide phenylhydrazone (an
uncoupler of phosphorylation) and partially inhibited by 12 A.mol DCMU (diuron).
This inhibition was also reported by Hoist and Yopp (1976) and Newton (1976).
Most authors believe that H2 is produced from H,O by reductant supplied by
photosystem I1.
4. Ammonia excretion and as ;imilation.-The isolated symbiont not only fixes

nitrogen, but it also excretes amimonia (Peters, 1976; Ashton and Walmsley, 1976)
and continues to excrete ammonia in an environment with ammonium chloride
concentrations as high as 5 mmol (Peters, 1975). Peters (1977) used '5N2 to
determine the distribution of nitrogen compounds produced by the algal symbiont.
From preliminary data he reported that the 15 N2 labeled products were 49.9%
extracellular ammonia, 6.4% intracellular ammonia, 5.(% extracellular organic
nitrogen, and 38.1% intraceilular organic nitrogen. Newton and Cavins (1976)
reported that 43% of the total intracellular nitrogen in the free nitrogen pools of
Azolla was in the form of ammonia, and the protein constituent of the pools
contained 24% glutamine and 8%glutamate, which are carriers of ammonia. Ven
kataramar, and Saxena (1963) listed aspartic acid, glutamic acid and alanine as
the extracellular products of their independently cultured Anabaena azollae.
Ammonia produced by nitrogen fixation in the symbiont is excreted into the
leaf cavity and is adsorbed by ammonia-assimilating enzymes in the fern. Glu
kamine synthetase (GS) is thought to be the principal ammonia-assimilating en
zyme (Peters, 1977). Rhodes and Stewart (1974) have developed a procedure for
the in vivo determination of GS activity by freezing Azolla with liquid nitrogen
to render the cells permeable. They found GS activity as high as 0.78 tmol/min.
gram fresh weight. Peters (1977) reported high GS activity in the association and
low activity in the symbiont. Because the symbiont excretes ammonia, GS activ
ity is expected to be high in the host, especially in transfer hairs.
Some Azolla species are thought to release nitrogenous compounds into their
aquatic environment. Shen et al. (1963) reported that a Chinese variety of Azolla
(Whole River Red) released 14-21% of its fixed nitrogen into the water. Saubert
(1949) reported that 2% of the nitrogen assimilated by A. pinnata was released.
Brill (cited by Peters, 1977) mentioned that a researcher working in his laboratory
found a specimen of A. mexicana which excreted about 20% of its fixed nitrogen
as ammonia. Talley et al. (1977) also speculated that A. inexicana released fixed
nitrogen. However, Watanabe et al. (1977) found only I ppm ammonia in an
originally nitrogen-free solution taken from a container where A. pinnata had
been grown, and Peters (1977) did not find any nitrogen compounds in a solution
where A. caroliniana had been grown.
AZOLLA IN AGRICULTURE
History of cultivation
1. Vietnam.-Azolla pinnata has been used as a green manure crop in Vietnam

for centuries, long before French colonial rule (Bui, 1971). There are numerous
embellished legends about its domestication and many conflicting reports about
its subsequent use. Supposedly, 'Beo Giong' Azolla was discovered and domes
ticated in La Van village, Thai Binh province, by a peasant woman called Ba
Heng (Le Van'and Sobochkin, 1963). This domesticated Azolla was so effective
for spring rice that, after Ba Heng's death, the villagers erected a pagoda in her
honor and offered prayers and sacrifices to her spirit.
'Beo Giong' Azolla multiplied rapidly only during the colder seasons, partic
ularly before and after transplanting of the spring rice crop in January. When the
average temperature rose to about 22°C in April, 'Beo Giong' Azolla withered
away and after 5-7 days released its nutrients as the rice crop entered the stage
of maximum tillering (Duong, 1971). Wild types of Azolla either did not die, or
did not die early enough to fertilize the standing crop (Burkill, 1966) because they
were resistant to higher temperatures (Chevalier, 1926).
By the early part of this century, utilization of Azoda had spread only to the
adjacent provinces of Nam-Dinh, Hai-Duong and Hung-Yen because each autumn
1980) LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETI: AZOLLA 131
TABLE 4. ESTIMATES OF THE AREA UNDER AZOLLA CULTIVATION 61 NORTHERN VIET-

NAM.
Year' Hectares Source

.1954 5,000 Bui and Tan, 1976
1955 40,000 Tran and Dao, 1973
1957 90,000 Karamyshev, 1957
1971 300,000 Bui, 1971
1973 500,000 Gigineishvili, 1973
1976 400,000 Bui, 1976
rice farmers had to go to La Van for starter colonies of 'Beo Giong' since their
stock had perished in the spring. Only a few families in La Van knew the secret
techniques of selecting and multiplying 'Beo Giong' Azolla during the hot sum
mer. These secret techniques were retained by the families' males through a strict
system of taboos and inheritance (Galston, 1975). There are two theories about
what comprised these secret techniques.
I One theory is based on sexual reproduction. 'Beo Giong' Azolla produces
sporocarps prior to senescence in April (Nguyen, 1930). In July, the developing
Azolla embryos float to the surface of ponds. Experts in La Van identified and
collected 'Beo Giong' Azolla plants in these ponds. Supposedly, this Azolla had
dark green stripes with thick leaves and transparent roots (Nguyen, 1930). These
plants were propagated behind high fences in ponds especially designed for this
purpose. The ponds were cleaned of all fish and aquatic animals and then the
water level was brought to a depth of I m. The young Azolla plants were placed
in floating bamboo frames to keep them from being blown about and were reg
ularly fertilized with pig manure, ash, urine, and or castor oil cake (Nguyen,
1930).
Another theory involved preserving a stock of 'Beo Giong' Azolla by regulating
the acidity of propagation ponds or vats to prevent Azolla senescence (Galston,
1975). Many paddy fields become increasingly alkaline as the growing season
progresses, making iron and phosphorus unavailable to floating Azolla. A secret
formula of acidification kept 'Beo Giong' Azolla alive until it was sold as a starter
stock in the autumn.
In either case, the villagers of La Van began selling starter stocks of 'Beo
Giong' Azolla in November to regional propagators at high prices which declined
during the season (Chevalier, 1926). Peasants who bought early, later sold stocks
to their neighbors. The fern was multiplied in old rice seedling beds or in some
other highly nutritious environment. Then it was placed in corners of the rice
fields for propagation and surrounded by a low dike made of earth, straw or
bamboo to prevent the fronds from being scattered by the wind (Nguyen, 1930)
which retarded their growth (Braemer, 1927a). As the Azolla multiplied, enclo
sures in each corner were enlarged daily as needed until most of the rice field
was covered by a dense carpet (Nguyen, 1930). A 3 kg stock cultivated in No
vember would yield 2.5 tons of fresh Azolla by February (Nguyen, 1930).
The present government of Vietnam became interested in the potential of both
Azolla pinnata and Sesbonia cannabina in 1954 when the secrets involved in the
cultivation of these green manures were made public (Pham, 1971). An extension
network was organized to stii.,ulate the utilization of Azolla, and over 1,000
depots for its multiplication were established (Moore, 1969), resulting in its spread
throughout the northern part of the country (Bui, 1967) (Table 4).
In the mid-1960s the Vietnamese government made renewed efforts to extend
the area under Azolla cultivation. Some cooperatives experienced repeated fail
ures before cultivation of Azolla was established (Pham, 1971), especially in
summer. Growth rates of Azolla are actually higher in the summer (Dao and
Tran, 19661, but, because of the extreme parasite problem and high temperatures
during summer, cultivation is rarely practiced then (Tran and Dao, 1973). Because
of this problem Chevalier (1926) proposed the use of heat tolerant "wild" Azolla
and Bui (1966) suggested planting the "wide-spreading" strain during summer.
Nevertheless, Sesbania cannabinahas replaced Azolla as a green manure crop
for the summer rice crop in Thanh Oai district (Nguyen, 1971; Pham, 1971).
Dao and Tran (1966) described a 6-step approach for cooperatives to introduce
Azolla cultivation into rotation with their rice. In essence the 6 points are as
follows:
(1) Rearrange the crop rotation schedule to accommodate Azolla production
in all seasons, especially during the gaps between rice crops. Five to 10 percent
of the summer paddy fields should be used to produce the quantity of Azolla
needed to fertilize the spring rice crop. Rice seedling fields are useful for this
purpose.
(2) 'fake measures to provide a year-round water supply for Azolla production.
The use of silty water is recommended to reduce dependence on fertilizers for
Azolla.
(3) The cooperative should organize an Azolla team and train them for 3-6 mo
on the difficult techniques and meticulous care required for multiplying Azolla.
Training should emphasize sowing densities, fertilizer requirements, and protec
tion from insects.
(4) To insure a high yield and a low price, labor should be organized with the
principle of product consignment in mind. Each member of the Azolla team
should be responsible for 0.5-1 ha of Azolla, while other cooperative members
should take care of 0.3-0.5 ha of Azolla when it is introduced into the rice fields.
(5) A good technical and material foundation for the production of Azolla must
be insured. The annual requirements for one hectare of Azolla are 360-500 kg
P2O.1 (158-220 kg P), 3600-5000 kg ash (on poor land) and 5-7 I of "Vofatoc"
insecticide.
(6) The schedule for raising and harvesting Azolla must be closely coordinated
with the sowing and transplanting of rice in order to attain 100% coverage of the
rice a;-ea.
Two varieties of A pinnala are presently recognized in northern Vietnam
"green Azolla" with :reen dorsal lobes and white ventral lobes, and "purple
Azolla" with green dorsal lobes, which turn red-violet in case of insufficient
nutrition, and pink ventral lobes (Tran and Dao, 1973).
2. China.-Short histories of Azolla cultivation in China are provided by Lu et

al. (1963) and by the Chekiang Agricultural Academy (Anonymous, 1975b). The
cultivation of A. pinnata (syn. A. imbricata)in Chinese rice fields was reported
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETI': AZOLLA 133
to extend back two centuries, with long histories of utilization in Chekiang, Fu
kien, Szechuan and Kwangtung (Canton) provinces.
In Chekiang province, the use of Azolla expanded gradually after 1948 when
about 16,200 ha were cultivated. By 1962, when major research efforts began,
only 24,200 ha were under Azolla. But within a few years, research overcame
the two major obstacles impeding the spread of Azolla. First, new techniques in
overwintering the Azolla were developed (Anonymou3, 1974a, 1975b) to supple
ment the ancient use of hot springs for this purpose. The second obstacle was
conquered in 1961 when techniques were developed to prevent the "summer
death" of Azolla.
In conjunction with these efforts, se!Lctions from wild Azolla were identified
and cultivated, the life cycle and activities of pests infesting Azolla were ob
served, and experiments were conducted to determine proper methods of fertil
izing and utilizing Azolla. The success of these efforts made possible additional
use of Azolla during the summer and fall and allowed its cultivation to spread
inland and northward into cooler regions.
In China, cultivars of A. pinnata are divided into four categories, and their
characteristics and usage are described in scientific magazines and provincial and
national pamphlets. These cultivars and their pertinent publications are: "Red
Azolla" (Anonymous, 1975a, 1975c, 1976c), "Green Azolla" (Anonymous,
1971b, 1974c, 1975b, 1976c), Wild Azolla-"Whole River Red" (Shen et al., 1963;
Anonymous, 1974b, 1975a, 1975b), and "Vietnam Azolla" (Anonymous, 1975a).
Green manure
Azolla is primarily grown as a green manure for rice, but it is also grown with
water bamboo (Zizanica aquatica), arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifolia) and taro
(Colocasia esculenta) (Anonymous, 1975b). The Kiangsu People's Publishers
(Anonymous, 1976b) recently released a booklet about producing compost for
use on any crop from Azolla, water hyacinth, and other aquatic weeds.
Ngo (1973) examined the positive effect of Azolia green manure on the number
of shoots, length of longest leaf, fresh weight, and dry weight of rice plants. Shen
et al. (1963) compared the nitrogen fixation ability of "Red Azolla" with alfalfa
(Medicago sativa) and soybean (Glycine max). They discovered that 1.5 mo of
Azolla cultivation increased the nitrogen content of the soil to a level equal to
that produced by a crop of soybeans, but to only 40% of the level produced by
alfalfa. Their calculations were based on alfalfa, soybean and "Red Azolla" ni
trogen contents 2.87%, 2.90% and 3.5%, respectively (dry weight basis). Also,
they pointed out that since cultivation of Azolla is combined with rice, it does
not occupy extra land. Talley et al. (1977) reported that A. fificuloides could
provide one half of the nitrogen requirement for California rice if it were grown
as a green manure before rice seeding. Tran and Oao (1973) reported that two
successive Azolla layers, incorporated into the soil before rice transplanting, can
supply 50 perccat of the nitrogen necessary to produce 5 tons of rice per hectare.
I. Yield.-The maximum density of an Azolla layer is subject to considerable

variation. Gopal (1967) reported a maximum yield of 37.8 tons/ha fresh weight
containing 2.78 tons dry weight of A. pinnata growing on a temporary pond in
India. Talley et al. (1977) reported maximum yields of 0.98 ton/ha dry weight (24
45 kg N/ha) for A. mexicana and 1.8-2.57 tons/ha dry weight (58-105 kg N/ha)
for A. filiculoides. A yield of 3 tons/ha dry weight (90 kg N/ha) of A. filiculoides
was obtained in Denmark (Olsen, 1972). Under Asian rice field conditions, A.
pinnata could realistically produce yields of 8-10 tons/ha (25-50 kg N/ha) per
crop fresh weight (Tran and Dao, 1973).
2. Annual N2 fixation.-Estimates of the annual nitrogen fixation potential and

rate vary widely. Becking (1972) estimated 335-670 kg N/ha. year for A. pinnata
in Indonesia, but later revised his estimate (Becking, 1976a) to a more conser
vative 103-162 kg N/ha- year. Talley et al. (1977) reported that A.fificuloides and
A. inexicana produced 52 kg N/ha and 41 kg N/ha, respectively, in 35 days under
field conditions. Both species fixed nitrogen at a rate of 1.2 kg/ha day between
10-35 days after field inoculation. Watanabe et al. (1977) estimated a daily rate
of 1.1 kg N/ha or 120 kg N/ha in 106 days by A. pinnata. Moore (1969) estimated
potential fixation values of 100-160 kg N/ha in 3-4 mo. The highest estimates of
annual fixation potential come from the two countries with the longest experience
of cultivation. The Vietnam Institute of Agriculture (Pham, 1971) suggested an
approximate potential of 1000 kg N/ha, while the People's Republic of China
published figures of 92.7-151.8 kg N/ha in 1.5 mo (Shen et al., 1963) and 59.2 kg
N/ha in 30 days (Lu et al., 1963).
The Institute of Soils and Fertilizers in the Chekiang Agriculture Academy,
China (Anonymous, 1975b), reported that Azolla used as a green manure de
creased specific gravity, increased porosity (3.7-4.2%) and increased organic
matter in soils. Also, in one of their experiments, growth of Azolla reduced
evaporation by 11%, water salt content by 0.012-0.049%, and soil salt content
by 0.014-0.048%.
3. Rice yields.-The effect of Azolla on rice yields has been the primary focus
of most research. In his excellent review, Moore (1969) cited rice yield increases
of 14, 17, 22 and 40 percent with the cultivation of Azolla. Talley et al. (1977)
achieved 1)rice yield increases of 112% over the control by incorporating one 60
kg N/ha layer of A. filiculoides into the paddy soil and 2) a 216% increase (over
4 metric tons) by first incorporating one layer (as in I above) and then growing
Azolla as a dual crop with rice. Singh (1977a) obtained a 6% rice yield increase
when A. pinnata was grown with rice but was not incorporated and increases
ranging from 9-38% when Azolla was incorporated into the soil. Watanabe (1977)
reported a 13% increase in grain yield with incorporated A. pinnata, but recently
he has observed considerably higher yields (personal communication), possibly
due to a cumulative effect of slow nitrogen release from successive manuring
with Azolla. Scientists in the People's Republic of China (Anonymous, 1975b)
reported rice yield increases of 0.4-158%, with al average of 18.6%, from the
results of 422 field experiments. An Azolla-rice experiment in Sri Lanka (Kulo
sorriya and de Silva, 1977) produced 32% more filled grains per panicle compared
to control; unfortunately, grain yields were not reported.
4. Growth rate.-Azolla has an exponential growth potential which is subject to

numerous environmental variables. A. pinnata can double its biomass in 3-5
TABLE 5. ELEMENTAL ANALYSES OF AZOLLA TISSUE ON DRY WEIGHT BASIS. C
% Percent
.----------------------- ---------------------------- PPP- .....
Total
dry wt. N P K Ca Mg S Na Cl Mn Fe CU Zn Species Remark Reference
6.4- 3.6- 0.12- 0.88- 0.60- 0.25- Mixed Lit. review Moore, 1969
7.2 4.75 0.95 6.52 2.49 0.41
6-7 3-4 0.6- 1.5- A. pinnata Anonymous, 1975ab,c
1.5 2.5
4.47 0.49 0.97 A.filiculoides Buckingham et al., 1977
3.44 0.43 1.98 0.61 0.62 0.61 0.92 2.50 430. 5,870. 14. 79. A.filiculoides Taro field Unpublished data,
T. Lumpkin c
2.16 0.16 1.99 0.79 0.43 6.30 1,456. 3,045. 12. 392. A. filiculoides Red Unpublished data,
T. Lumpkin
2.77 0.21 2.57 : 0.65 0.54 0.37 1,91!. 3,022. -39. 487. A.filiculoides ~z
Red center Unpublisbed data,
T. Lumpkin
3.46 0.43 2.56 0.65 0.47 0.47 2.331. 5,426. 29. 135. A.filiculoides Green Unpublished data, V,
*;; T. Lumpkin . -
TABLE 6. PERCENTAGE OF SPECIFIC FREE AMINO ACIDS IN AZOiLA.
Leu a wCosn y
Species Ala Arg Asn Asp Cys Cyth Gin Glu Gly lie Met Phe Pro Ser Thr Try Val a & slto Reference
A.filiculoides 13.5 1.1 11.6 6.4 0.8 37.5 12.9 1.9 1.1 0.1 - 0.1 0.2 4.7 7.7 Thin layer Labdesmaki,
Knop's 1968
Newton &
A. caroliniana 5.5 1.8 3.6 12.7 43.6 14.5 3.6 7.3 1.8 5.5 Column N-free Cavins,
Hoagland's 1976"
Y-amino butyric aid&

b Percetales caculated from dam relport in reference.
days, but in the field 5.-10 days is more likely (Duong, 1971; Tran and Dao, 1973;
Watanabe et al., 1977; Watanabe, 1977). The senior author has observed a dou
bling time of 2.8 days with A. pinnata in the phytotron at the International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI). Talley et al. (1977) measured a similar doubling time
(2.8 days) for A. inexicana but a longer doubling time of about 7 days for A.
filiculoides. Mitchell (1974) reviewed the mathematical formulae used to analyze
the exponential growth rate of Azc!'U and other aquatic weeds. He discussed the
importance of a stable hydrological regime for good growth of aquatic weeds.
5. Composition.-On a dry weight basis (Tables 5, 6), Azolla has a substantial

protein content, with repofis as high as 13% (Tran and Dao, 1973), 16. 1%(Anon
ymous, 1975a), 22.6% (Fujiwara et al., 1947) and 23.4% (Buckingham et al., 1977).
Buckingham et al. (1977) conducted amino acid analyses and rat feeding experi
ments with A.filiculoides. Amino acid analysis indicated lysine, methionine and
histamine were probably limiting. Feeding trials with Azolla verified the preceding
point and indicated that indigestible fiber and minerals were excessive. Their
experiments also indicated that Azolla did not contain grow'h inhibitors or toxins
for rats.
On a dry weight basis, other reported constituents are: lignin 9.3% and cellulose
15.2% in A. filiculoides (Buckingham et al., 1977); ash 23.8%, fat 4.42%, fiber
9.5%, and starch 6.38% in A. pinnata (Fujiwara et al., 1947) and, also in A.
pinnata, ash 9.7%, carbohydrate 61%, crude fat 6.3%, and protein 23% (Varghese
et al., 1976).
A carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) of 15:1 for A. pinnatawas reported by Chinese
scientists (Anonymous, 1975b). Peters (1977) found that A. carolinianagrown on
different sources of nitrogen resulted in different C:N ratios: 18.1 with N2 only,
15.4 with urea and N2 , and 10.4-10.6 with nitrate and air or argon.
6. Decomposition.-Talley et al. (1977) and others have recognized an increase

in nitrogen recovery when Azolla is incorporated into soil rather than allowed to
decompose into water. Azolla nitrogen is released slowly and its availability to
the first rice crop is only about 70% of that of ammonium sulfate (Watanabe et
al., 1977). Siigh (977d) observed that Azola decomposed after 8-10 days in
Indian paddy soil, and the rice crop benefited noticeably after 20-30 days. Other
authors have reported that two-thirds of Azolla nitrogen was released after 6
weeks (Watanabe et al., 1977) or 5-8 weeks (Tuzimura et al., 1957) in paddy soil.
Management practices
As a green manure for rice in tropical Asia, Azolla is cultivated in essentially
two ways (Bui, 1966; Duong, 1971; Anonymous, 1975a, 1975b, 1975c, 1976c). In
brief, one way is to set aside approximately 5-10% of the crop area for year
round Azolla production for each crop of rice to be grown. Inconsequence, two
crops of rice would require 10-20% of the cultivated area in Azolla. Azolla is
cultivated in special fields (Fig. 15) or ponds and later added as compost to the
rice or other crops. In the second way, Azolla is cultivated in the rice fields (Fig.
16) and incorporated into the paddy soil during intervals before and/or after the
rice crop and between crops. Freferably, Azolla is grown and incorporated sev
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETf: AZOLLA 137
eral times before transplanting the rice seedlings. AsAzolla approaches maximum
density and its growth rate begins to decline, '/- of the Azolla is retained as
seed for the next crop, and the remainder is incorporated into the paddy soil. In
both methods, Azolla is usually cultivated as a dual crop with rice.
I. Planting density.-The inoculum rate or planting density is an important factor

in the efficient production of Azolla. Since Azolla is propagated vegetatively, the
planting density should be high enough to intercept most sunlight, yet low enough
to permit a several-fold multiplication before high density reduces its growth rate.
The following recommended planting densities (as kilograms fresh weight) are
subject to modification due to labor costs and environmental factors. The Viet
namese (Tran ard Dao, 1973) recommended an A. pinnata planting den ty of 0.5
kg/m 2 which increases to a density of 1-1.6 kg/m 2 in winter and 1- -tkg/m 2 in
summer. If algal blooms are expected to be a problem, they reco ,mend a rate
of 0.7-0.8 kg/m 2 to prevent sunlight from reaching the algae. Singh used planting
densities of 0.1-0.3 kg/m2 (1977b), 0.37 kg/m and 0.4 kg/m 2 (1977a). The last
mentioned density reulted in 8-15 tons/ha of green manure in 8-20 days with a
nitrogen content of 30-50 kg/ha. Talley et al. (1977) followed a Vietnamese rec
ommendation (Bui and Tan, :976) of 0.5 kg/m2 for their experiments with A.
inexicana and A. filiculoides in California.
2. Fertilizer requirement.-Azolla is notably responsive to phosphorus fertilizer

and requires a continuous supply of the element for rapid propagation. Talley et
al. (1977) applied phosphorus fertilizer at the rate of 7.2 kg P/ha as KH 2 PO 4 in
four equal doses 7 days apart. They concluded that each kg of phosphorus re
suited in more than 5 kg of additional nitrogen in the Azolla biomass after 35 days
of growth. Their conclusion followed an earlier report by Tran and Dao (1973)
that I kg of P.,O, (440 g P) resulted in a quantity of Azolla equivalent to 2.2 kg
of nitrogen. The Vietnamese recommended 5-10 kg of superphosphate (1-2 kg
PO,) per ha every 5 days. Singh (1977a) recommended 4-6 kg P2 OJha/week.
Shen et al. (1963) conducted a phosphorus fertilizer experiment on Azolla with
1.5, 3 and 6 kg of superphosphate (0.3, 0.6 and 1.2 kg P,O0) in plots of 8.5 M 2.
The resulting nitrogen increases were 35, 76, and 190 percent, respectively, after
8 dsys. Tuzimura et al. (1957) conducted phosphorus fertilizer experiments using
0.5 -2 buried earthenware pipes as a growing container. An inoculum of 0.4 g A.
fificuioides per pipe resulted in the following weight increases above the zero P
rate after 40 days: 69% (20 kg P.,O:!ha), 349% (40 kg P.,OJha), 948% (80 kg
P.,OJha) and 879% (160 kg P.,OJha). Ideally, phosphate fertilizer should probably
be applied as a solution in frequent small doses into neutral to acidic paddy water.
On light soils with low organic matter and mineral nutrients, Tran and Dao
(1973) recommended 5 kg of (,0 per ha (4.1 kg K/ha) every 5 days. Also, these
authors suggested that microelements can be applied as ash at the rate of 100 kg
per ha every 5 days. Singh (1977b) used 5-8 kg K,O (4.1-6.56 kg K) per ha per
week and 50 kg ash per ha to supply microelements. In another experiment
(Singh, 1977a), 0.125 kg/ha of molybdenum was applied per month to enhance
nitrogen fixation. Talley et al. (1977) obtained a significant Azolla growth response
from a single application of 0.8 kg of iron per hectare as 0.01 M ferric ethylene
diaminetetracetate (EDTA), but they did not believe that the iron deficiency in
. -. C2
W3
" 1 \ -
-, / S
,S 0I
pusher and bamboo pole used for

Fig. 17-20. Fg. 17. Chinese (PRC) illustration of an Azolla
1975b). Fig. 18. An illustration of"Azolla moth lif
amassing and transporting Aolla (Anonymous,
(PRC) publication. Larva of Pyralis sp. (above) and Nymphla spp. (below) of.
cycles in aChinese
1975b). Fig. 19. Chinese (PRC) illustration on
the Pyralidae family attack Azola mats (Anonymous,
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETr: AZOLLA 139
their test paddies was a widespread nutrient problem. Finally, boron deficiency
has been observed in paddy fields of southern China.(Lumpkin, 1977).
3. Water control.--Water control is critical, especially for year-round cultivation

of Azolla. A water level which allows Azolla roots to touch the soil surface will
often cause mineral deficiencies to disappear. This phenomenon has been ob
served in Hawaiian taro fields and was observed in rice fields by Saubert (1949)
and Talley et al. (1977). The latter authors recommended low water levels and
rough plowing to protect Azolla from wind and wave action, which can eventually
fragment and kill Azolla (Ashton, 1974). Azolla filiculoides was seen surviving
on moist soil under Hawaiian taro plants, but dispersion was limited since stand
ing water was not present. Nguyen and Nguyen (1934) suggested that Azolla
could be kept alive during the hot season by growing it on mud-covered floating
rafts under a sun screen.
4. Tools.-An Azolla publication by the Chekiang Acaden'y of Agricultural Sci

ence (Anonymous, 1975b) included a section on hand tools useful for intensive
small scale cultivation of Azolla. This is the only publication known to include
any information on tools. An Azolla basket, pusher, scooper, scrape board and
beater are described (Fig. 17).
5. Rotation.-Vietnam has shifted to intensive farming and multiple cropping in

order to increase their annual rice yields froa 5 or fewer tons/ha to 15 or more
tons/ha. Inclusion of Azolla in their rotation patterns has been a key point in this
shift. Duong (1971) listed three rotations where Azolla was included: (1) dry
ploughing + Azolla + spring rice + Sesbania cannabina + "tenth-moon" rice,
(2) Azolla + spring rice + Azolla + "tenth-moon" rice, and (3) Azolla + spring
rice + Azolla + rice with a short duration of growth (with late transplantation in
August so that Azolla may give a high yield). Duong (1973) listed rotations which
included Azolla for clay soil: (1) spring rice + "tenth-moon" rice + winter farm
ing + Azolla and (2) spring rice + "tenth-moon" rice + Sesbania cannabina +
Azolla. During a visit to IRRI, Bui and Tan (1976) described the following rota
tion: spring rice.(February-June) + summer rice (June-November) + Azolla in
oculum grown in summer rice seedbeds (September-November) + Azolla grown
in rice paddies and incorporated twice (November-February).
Chinese rotations are numerous and complex, but those mentioned in the avail
able literature can be divided into Azolla rotations for the subtropical south
(Anonymous, 1975a, 1975c) and those appropriate for the temperate Chekiang
region (Anonymous, 1971c, 1974a, 1975b) where overwintering techniques have
been developed.
the lifecycle of the Azolla midges, family Chironomidae. Red and white larvae of these midges attack
the roots of Azolla (Anonymous, 1975b). Fig. 20. A thick mat of Azolla filculoides, as seen in
Hawaiian taro fields, is known to suppress the growth of some weedsbecause of its shading effect.
140 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL.34
Insects aud disease

A key element in successful Azolla cultivation is effective prevention and con
trol of insects and disease. Fortunately, the insects which attack Azolla are dif
ferent from those attacking rice, yet most Azolla pests are controlled by pesticides
used for rice (Bui and Tan, 1976). Insect attacks are more prevalent during the
summer, especially when the temperature rises above 28°C. If care is not taken,
an Azolla crop can be destroyed by insects in 3-5 days (Anonymous, 1971c).
Singh (1977b, 1977c, 1977d) recommended 2.5-3 kg active ingredient of Furadan
per hectare to control Azolla insects. In contrast, Reed (1965), Singh (1977b),
and Knoff and fabeck (1976) recommended utilizing insects as a biocontrol in
locations where , -olla is a weed.
1. Vietnam.-The earliest report of insects attacking Azolla was by Nguyen

(1930). He mentioned two different larvae of Microlepidoptera which attacked
Azolla during its vegetative period. One larva species was white with a black
head and the other was brown with a red head. The presence of these insects
was noticed when infested plants were found to be stuck together. At that time,
control measures amounted to drowning the insects by submerging overnight,
baskets of Azolla planting material. Tran and Dao (1973) described the main
insect pests of Azolla in Vietnam as larvae of Chironomus, Pyralis, and Nym
phula species. These insects were controlled by spraying affected fields with
organic phosphate or organic chloride pesticides such as DDT, "666" (BHC) or
"Vofatoc" (Tran and Dao, 1973; Galston, 1975) and by adding pesticide to a
slurry of superphosphate fertilizer and mixing it with Azolla just before seeding
(Bui and Tan, 1976).
2. China.-Scientists in the People's Republic of China are by far the most ad
vanced in the study of insects attacking Azolla. A substantial number of publi
cations have been produced at the provincial level detailing Azolla insec:.s, their
life cycle and methods of control (Anonymous, 1971c, 1974a, 1975a, 1975b, 1975c,
1976a).
Since all of the above publications contain similar information, none will be
referred to individually, except at the end of this section where deviations will
be noted. Three members of the moth family, Pyralidae, are the most prevalent
and destructive insects attacking Azolla (Fig. 18). The larval forms of the species
Nymphida turbata Butler and Nymphula enixalis Swinhoe of the subfamily Nym
phulinae and a species of the genus Pyralis, hatch from eggs laid on the ventral
surface of Azolla leaves. The young larvae eat the terminal buds and new shoots
of Azolla. The Nymphula species form oval cocoons by surrounding themselves
with stem and leaf portions of Azlla fronds. A single larva, inside its cocoon
can become as large as a peanut and can consume 9-14 Azolla plants each day.
Another very destructive group of Azolla pests is the aquatic red larval and
white larval forms of undetermined species of Chironomus,Microspectoror Poly
pedium of the midge family, Chironomidae (Fig. 19). The larvae reside in under
water tubes in the paddy soil and swim up to feed on Azolla roots. Some members
of the Chironomidae are known to damage rice seedlings.
Two other pests of Azolla, noted by the Chinese, are the "Azolla Elephant
Beetle" and several species of snails. The beetle and its larvae consume the
fronds, and the snails consume both the fronds andthe roots.
A Kwangtung (Canton) province pamphlet (Anonymous, 1975a) and a Shanghai
handbook (Anonymous, 1976a) both mentioned a decay or mold disease and
appropriate control measures, but they did not identify the specific cause of the
disease. This disease may be similar to a mold observed by the senior author at
the IRRI in the Philippines and in Thailand. The Kwangtung pamphlet also dis
cussed damage by algae and agricultural chemicals. The Shanghai handbook and
a Chekiang Agriculture Academy handbook (Anonymous, 1975b) both report pest
life cycles and the dates and timing of pesticide applications. All of the above
mentioned Chinese articles detail pesticide application for Azolla. Commonly
used pesticides for Azolla in China are organic phosphates and organic chlorides
such as "666" (BHC), and "223" (DDT).
3. Other countries.-The following pests or diseases have been found in associ

ation with Azolla: the neotropic water mites, Arrenurus (Megaluracarus)tricon
icus Marshall and Arrenurus (Megaluracarus) epimerosus Marshall, in Argentina
(de Ferradas, 1973); the weevil S~enopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal (Richerson and
Grigarick, 1967); larvae of the moth Nymphiula responsolis Walker in India (Ver
gis, 1976); larvae of the moth Samea multiplicalis in Florida (Knopf and Habeck,
1976); adults of Paidinaacurninata in Trinidad (Reed, 1965); aphids and larvae
of the moth Agrotis ipsilon Hufnagel on Azolla mats in Hawaiian taro fields (pers.
ob., T. Lumpkin), and mold on Azolla mats grown in the IRRI phytotron, ten
tatively identified as a Penicillium spp. (Pers. comm., I. Watanabe, IRRI).
Weed or weed suppressoir?

1. World opinion.-In many regions of the world, an understanding of Azolla's
usefulness is lost in ambivalence. The maxim that "any plant is a weed when it
grows where it isn't wanted" is seldom appropriate for Azolla. Usually Azolla
is considered a weed where ignorance prevents man from exploiting its presence.
- As a weed, Azolla has been reported to disrupt fishing and livestock watering
(Florida Dept. of Nat. Resources, 1973), clog pumps (Chomchalow and Pone
pangan, 1973), impede water flow in ditches, clog pipes and floodgates (Oosthl
izen and Walters, 1961; Matthews, 1963; Blackburn and Weldon, 1965; Kleinsch
midt, 1969; Eady, 1974; Edwards, 1975), and interfere with watercress cultivation
in Maryland (Reed, 1951) and Hawaii (personal observation, T. Lumpkin).
Taro growers in Hawaii have divided opinions over the usefulness of Azolla
(Fosberg, 1942). Regardless of the growers' opinions, Azolla is found in nearly
all flooded Hawaiian taro fields as a result of heavy fertilization (Fig. 20).
Outside of Vietnam and China, rice growers also have divided opinions. Tuz
imura et al. (1957) mentioned that Azolla was an unpopular weed inJapan because
it covered rice seedlings immediately after transplanting if the water level rose;
this phenomenon was also observed by Singh (1977c). Nikhida (1974) mentioned
two kinds of Azolla, "Ooakaukikusa" and "Akaukikusa," as being weeds in
Japan. Yet Fujiwara et al. (1947) mentioned a Japanese rice farmer who purposely
cultivated Azolla in his rice fields for use as a green manure. Azolla was men
tioned as a rice weed in Guyana (Anonymous, 1960), but in references concerning
the presence of Azolla in rice fields in Italy (Saccardo, 1892), Spain (de Bolos
and Masclans, 1955), Portugal (Wild, 1961), and Java (Burkill, 1966; Becking,
1976b), opinions concerning its effect were not expressed.
Although the Vietnamese and Chinese have developed management practices
for the cultivation of Azolla, they still recognize certain Azolla strains as weeds.
In colonial Vietnam, one strain of Azolla hindered rice cultivation because it
grew throughout the year instead of dying in the spring like the domesticated
variety (Chevalier, 1926; Braemer, 1927a, b). In China, a strain of A. pinnata
called "Whole River Red" was recognized as a weed (Anonymous, 1974b, 1975a,
1977), but an earlier article (Shen et al., 1963) mentioned it as a valuable sup
pressor of other weeds. Recently, a handbook (Anonymous, 1975b) recommended
collecting this strain for local use.
Azolla has often been found growing in association with other floating aquatic
weeds. Lemna was almost always mentioned (Shaver, 1954; Torrey, 1934; Neal,
'965; Birkenbeil, 1974) as well as Salvinia (Chevalier, 1926; de Vol, 1945; Bo
netto, 1970), Eichhornia (Chevalier, 1926; Bonetto, 1970), Pistia (Chevalier,
1926) and Spirodelapolyrhiza (Cohn and Renlund, 1953).
2. Weed suppression.-The ability of a thick, light-proof Azolla mat to suppress

weed development has long been observed (Braemer, 1927a, b; Nguyen, 1930;
Fosberg, 1942; Shen et al., 1963; Olsen, 1972; Anonymous, 1975b), but little hard
evidence has been collected. In some rice fields, the benefit from Azolla weed
suppression may even surpass the benefit from nitrogen fixation. Of course weeds
with strong stature and abundant food supply can push through an Azolla mat,
and weeds or rice growing above the water surface before and after mat devel
opment and large floating weeds will not be affected. Nguyen (1930) reported that
a thick Azolla mat caused the death of Utriculariaflexuosa,Echinochloacrusgalli
and Sagittaria species. Olsen (1972) reported that A. caroliniana successfully
displaced Lemna on Danish lakes but could not survive the cold winter. Ngo
(1973) provided a graph showing the suppressive effect of different A. pinnata
mat densities on the quantity of Echinochloa crusgalli found in a paddy field.
After a 6-week period, the 50% Azolla cover plot had 70% fewer E. crusgalliand
the 100% Azolla cover plot had 93% fewer E. crusgalli than the control. Talley
et al. (1977) found that early development of a thick A. filiculoides mat success
fully suppressed Cyperus difformis. They also demonstrated the effect of different
Azolla treatments on rice yield and distribution of Cyperus difformis, Echinoch
loa crusgalli and Polygonum sp.
3. Chemical control of Azolla.-The complete eradication of Azolla may be very

difficult, especially in locations such as New Zealand where it is a serious pest.
Eady (1974) stated, "It is necessary to completely eradicate all plants from a
given area, otherwise a rapid reinfestation will result. The chances of eliminating
all living plants from an area by either chemical or mechanical means are not
good, furthermore if nearby waterways remain infested it is very likely that rein
troduction will take place in a very short time." Azolla literature often mentions
that infestation was commonly caused by waterfowl (Eady, 1974; Sculthorpe,
1967).
Matthews (1963) recomm"'ded controlling Azolla by surface application of
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNTr*: AZOLLA 143
0.56-2.24 kg/ha of paraquat PCP preparations applied in diesel oil, but he dis
couraged the use of 2,2-DPA-amitrole/2,4-D mixtures since they have little or no
effect. Patnaik (1976) also recommended paraquat which was effective at 0.2 kg/
ha and was not toxic to fish. Cohn and Renlund (1953) and Oosthuizen and
Walters (1961)
also discouraged the use of liquid 2,4-D, but Kleinschmidt (1969)
obtained good control by applying a granular formulation of the butoxy ethanol
ft2 (270 kg/ha).
ester of 2,4-D at the rate of I pound of 20% w/w product per 200
The Florida Department of Natural Resources (1973) recommended foliar spray
or injection into non-flowing water of 0.25-1 ppm diquat. Oosthuizen and Walters
(1961) recommended spraying diesoline, either undiluted or mixed with water in
a ratio of 1:1, to destroy Azolla. Table 2 summarizes chemical control measures
for Azolla.
The physiological effects of diquat, paraquat (Lang and Seaman, 1964; Black-
burn and Weldon, 1965), and diuron (Peters, 1976) were discussed in a previous
section.
4. Biological control of Azolla.-Biological and physical means are preferred for

continued control of Azolla. Richardson (1975) described a laminar flow system
which skimmed Azolla and other undesirable plants from the water surface of a
Louisiana bayou. As mentioned earlier, Knoff and Habeck (1976) reviewed efforts
to use the moth Samea multiplicales to control Salvinia and reported that the
moth is commonly found on A. caroliniana.Pauliniaacuiminata may also prove
useful in controlling Salvinia and Azolla (Reed, 1965). On a local basis, initial
efforts should first concentrate on the prevention of water pollution which may
be providing nutrients, especially phosphorus, that are conducive to Azolla's
growth. The use of fish for biological control is discussed in a later section.
Azolla is and may become a weed in certain special locations and/or situations,
but its fragile structure and high nutrient requirement prevent its invasion of most
waterways. Nutrient-rich bodies of water created by man are susceptible to in
vasion. The presence of Azolla in canals, watercress fields, and fields where rice
is seeded by broadcasting is especially undesirable. With proper planning and
management Azolla should not become a threatening weed; on the contrary, it
can be managed to suppress other weeds.
Other uses
1. Fishfood and weed control.-The grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, has
been studied as a biological control for aquatic weeds (Anonymous, 1971a; Ed
wards, 1974, 1975; Varghese et al., 1976). These herbivorous fish have a short,
inefficient digestive system and, at suitable water temperatures, will consume
daily more than their own weight of aquatic weeds. These fish normally will not
spawn outside of their native Amur river unless pituitary hormones are admin
istered; thus their numbers can be controlled. Grass carp show a marked pref
erence for Azolla, Lemna, and other small floating weeds (Anonymous, 1971a;
Edwards, 1974, 1975; Varghese et al., 1976). A hybrid cross of grass carp (Cte
nopharyngodon idella) and Isr.eli carp (Cyprinus carpio) was found to prefer A.
carolinian" and even the root system of Pistia stratiotes (Duthu and Kilgen,
1975). Another fish, Tilapia mossambica, has been shown to be an efficient de
144 ECONOMIC BOTANY (VOL. 34 .',
stroyer of aquatic vegetation. In feeding trials, it always consumed Azolla and

Lemna first when these plants were provided in any combination of 12 other
aquatic weeds (Lahser, 1967).
2. Mosquito control.-Around the turn of the century, a strong international

interest developed in the use of Azolla (often called mosquito-fern) for mosquito
control. Azolla mats were thought to prevent mosquitoes from laying eggs and
prevent larvae from coming up for air (Benedict, 1923; King et al., 1942; Cohn
and Renlund, 1953; Shaver, 1954; Neal, 1965; Burkill, 1966), but little hard evi
dence is available to support this claim.
A 1909 report by the U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor (cited by
Howard, 1910) described research at a malaria station in Wilhelmshaven, Ger
many. Azolla was found to suffocate mosquito larvae and prevented the insect
from depositing eggs; subsequently, it was used successfully by a mosquito-de
stroying commission on the Rhine. However, a German official involved with
mosquito extermination in the African colonies of Germany was far from enthu
siastic about its use. He believed Azolla could only be used in special places
since the plant would not grow under the dense or even moderate shade of tropical
forests, would not -row in brackish water or along seacoasts, and wouid die from
drought and thus necessitate restocking.
3. A fodder crop.-Azolla has a tremendous potential as a fodder crop if the

previously mentioned grcwth rate and protein content are considered. Tran and
Dao (1973) reported that one hectare of Azolla can produce 540-720 kg of assim
ilable protein per month. It has traditionally been used as a fodder throughout
Asia and parts of Africa (Chevalier, 1926) and was fed to pigs, ducks and chickens
(Chevalier, 1926; Fujiwara et al., 1947; Dao and Tran, 1966; Burkill, 1966; Anon
ymous, 1975a, b); cattle (Le Van and Sobochkin, 1963; Dao and Tran, 1966, 1973;
Sculthorpe, 1967) and fish (Le Van and Sobochkin, 1963; Sculthorpe, 1967). When
pigs were fed Azolla, their manure contained 0.87% nitrogen, compared to 0.42%
for pigs on regular diets (Dao and Tran, 1966).
4. Miscellany.-Azolla has been found to help purify water (Cohn and Renlund,
1953); to be an ingredient in soap production by some African tribes (Chevalier,
1926) and was chewed to cure sore throat in New Zealand (Usher, 1974). Bui
(1966) implied that with suitable processing Azolla could become a good source
of human food. Dr. P. K. Singh (pers. comm.) wrote from Cuttack, India, that
he has eaten Azolla regularly in several fried preparations; he reports that these
preparations are tasty and do not cause digestive difficulties. He was taking steps
to popularize the cultivation of Azolla in small trays for human consumption.
5. Genetic material.-Selection and collection of Azolla genetic material has not

received sufficient attention. Several institutions have begun to collect the 6
species and promising varieties. China (Anonymous, 1975b, 1975c; Lumpkin,
1977) and Vietnam (Tran and Dao, 1973) are selectiaL. varieties of A. pinnata
to meet their regional requirements. In California Talley et al. (1977) have used
A. filiculoides and A. inexicana in agronomic studies, but most other researchers
utilize oniy A. pinnata, which is indigenous to Asia.
19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETF: AZOLLA 145
CONCLUSIONS
Azolla is useful to man because of the following attributes: 1)the ability to fix
atmospheric nitrigen in nitrogen-deficient water commonly found in unfertilized
paddy fields, 2) the ability to grow in flooded paddy conditions where traditional
nitrogen-fixing green manures cannot grow, 3) the ability to suppress development
of submerged paddy weeds without affecting the growth of transplanted rice, 4)
the inability of native Azolla species to pose a serious weed threat. (At least one
species is present in most paddy regions but is considered innocuous or unobtru
sive.), 5) the ability to provide secondary benefits, e.g., compost for upland crops,
high protein fodder for carp and pigs, and, possibly, food for human consumption,
and 6) the potential of the algal symbiont, if it can be cultured independently, to
be significant as a photosynthetically-driven nitrogen, hydrogen, and/or protein
factory.
Some reasons for Azolla's limited popularity as a green manure are: 1) unfa
vorable environmental conditions which limit Azolla's growth potential through
out the entire year, 2) the need for maintenance of an off-season starter stock,
so that Azolla cultivation can begin before rice seedlings are ready to transplant,
instead of waitiag for naturally occurring species to germinate later in the growing
season, 3) lack of a sufficient research base, both in terms of information about
the plant as well as financial support (Effective mass selection, cross breeding,
and germ plasm storage techniques have not been developed.), 4) ignorance of
Azolla's potential an,! of the methods required for its cultivation (Only China and
Vietnam have fudl scale extension programs.), 5) farmer resistance to learning
the management system, increasing his work load, and purchasing necessary
inputs such as pesticides and phosphorus fertilizer, and 6) use of inorganic nitro
gen fertilizer, when it is cheap relative to the labor cost required for Azolla
cultivation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge support from the following sources: East
West Center (Resources Systems Institute) for fellowship and travel support for
the senior author, the United States Department of Agriculture (Food for Peace,
Section 406) Root Crop Project at the College of Tropical Agriculture, and the
Agency for International Development (AID) for a 21 l(d) grant to the Department
of Agronomy and Soil Science for the study of biological nitrogen fixation. The
junior author was privileged to observe Azolla use in China as Chairman of the
Vegetable Farming Systems delegation to the People's Republic of China, which
was sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences Committee for Scholarly
Communication with the People's Republic of China, June-July, 1977.
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L44A

AZOLLA: BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND SEA'A

-THOMAkS A. LUMPKIN: AND DONALD L.. PLUCKNETT

Made in United States of America

Vol. 34, No. 2, April-June 1980

© The New York Botanical Garden 1980

THOMAS A. LUMPKIN AND DONALD L. PLUCKNETT 2

This is a comprehensive review of literature pertaining to the aquatic fern

Azolla has been of traditional interest to botanists and Asian agriculturists

Economic Botany, 34(2), 1980, pp. 111-153

Taxonomy and stratigraphy

19801 LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETF AZOLLA 113

'Ventral Lobe Initial Embr

Microsporalum Megasporangium - Oosphere Antherozoid

Microspore Megaspo..re Arche1gonium Antherium

1980) LUMPKIN AND PLUCKNETT AZOLLA 115

Fig. 4. Distribution of Azolla species.

116 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 34

1. Morphology and cytology.-Azolla plants are triangular or polygonal in shape,

hairs of A. pinnata. Numerous authors (Schimper, 1883; Rao, 1936; Atkinson,

2. Reproductive biology.-Commencing with Meyen (1836) and Griffith (1845),

TABLE 1. CELL DIMENSIONS OF ANARAENA AZOLLAE IN VARIOUS AZOLLA SPECIES (/jAn).

Vegetative cells Heterocysts

A. carolinlana 5 8 10 Tilden, 1910

Anabaena and morphology of the symbiosis

2. Morphology of the symbiosis.-Sexual phase. In illustrations by Strasburger

3. Heterocyst frequency and nitrogen fixation.-Lang (1965) and Grilli (1964)

4. Transfer hairs.-The interior surface of a mature leaf cavity is lined with an

5. Bacteria.-Anabaenaazollae shares the leaf cavity with small populations of

Isolation and growth

2. Anabaena azollae.-The difficulty of culturing A. azollae in isolation has been

PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY

2. Light.-Ashton (1974) reported that relative'growth rate and nitrogenase ac­

3. pH.-Azolla can survive within a pH range of 3.5-10, but optimum growth is

4. Temperature.-The most favorable temperature for growth and nitrogen fix­

5. Salinity.-The growth rate of Azolla gradually declines as salinity increases.

2. Ligt.compensation point.-The light compensation point, defined as the light

3. CO2 compensation concentration.-Peters (1977) reported that an increase in

4. Anthocyanin.-During periods of stress, anthocyanin is thought to protect the

TABLE 2. EFFECT OF CHEMICALS ON THE GROWTH OF AZOLLA.

Growth regulators Sources, Remarks and recommendations

Gibberellin (GA) (1) reduces root number, roots appear tentacle-like

(2) no growth effect, except lethal at 10 mg/I in 48 h.

AMO 1618 (1) ineffective at all levels.

2,4-D (i) ineffective at all levels, except lethal at 100 ppm.

Diquat/paraquat (3) at 0.05-1.0 ppm becomes chlorotic and dies; starch

Xs stated previously, greater than 50% of full sunlight reduces photosynthesis

5. Growth-regulating compounds.-The findings reported in published papers on

1. Acetylene reduction.-The acetylene reduction technique has been used to

2. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer.-Nitrogen fertilizers usually have an adverse effect

3. Hydrogen production.-Tht Azolla association is capable of significant light­

4. Ammonia excretion and as ;imilation.-The isolated symbiont not only fixes

1. Vietnam.-Azolla pinnata has been used as a green manure crop in Vietnam

TABLE 4. ESTIMATES OF THE AREA UNDER AZOLLA CULTIVATION 61 NORTHERN VIET-

Year' Hectares Source

2. China.-Short histories of Azolla cultivation in China are provided by Lu et

I. Yield.-The maximum density of an Azolla layer is subject to considerable

2. Annual N2 fixation.-Estimates of the annual nitrogen fixation potential and

4. Growth rate.-Azolla has an exponential growth potential which is subject to

TABLE 6. PERCENTAGE OF SPECIFIC FREE AMINO ACIDS IN AZOiLA.

2. Light.-Ashton (1974) reported that relative'growth rate and nitrogenase ac

4. Temperature.-The most favorable temperature for growth and nitrogen fix

3. Hydrogen production.-Tht Azolla association is capable of significant light

4. Tools.-An Azolla publication by the Chekiang Acaden'y of Agricultural Sci

3. Other countries.-The following pests or diseases have been found in associ

-, W. R. Evans, and R. E. Toia. 1976. Azolla-Anabaena azollae relationship IV. Photosyn