Articulo

THE OBSERVATION SCIENTIST
by Molly O’Shaughnessy
Once the reasons for habitual observation in the classroom have been es-
tablished, and the intent to observe has been settled, the practical details
of observation must be organized. In this article, O’Shaughnessy gives
us a model for the implementation of observation. She thoroughly reviews
Montessori’s work curves and how they can be used to show the development
of the child through four stages of concentration. O’Shaughnessy discusses
how these work curves can be used to aid the practice of observation, and
she has embedded case studies to clarify her points. She offers practical
tools and tips for use in recording observation and points of awareness,
including the documentation for the observation of errors in order to un-
derstand the obstacles a child is encountering. Constant attention must
be given to the point of contact between the child and the environment so
that we are ever conscious of our role in facilitating that most important
interaction that will allow the child’s potential to unfold.
Molly O’Shaughnessy is an accomplished AMI trainer as well as a

consultant and lecturer. She is a highly requested speaker at both national
and international conferences. She has presented keynotes and workshops
across the United States as well as in Canada, Australia, Mexico, China,
and Europe. She earned her AMI primary diploma from the Montessori
Center of Minnesota in 1976 and holds an M.Ed from Loyola Univer-
sity, Maryland. Since 1996 she has provided strategic leadership for the
Montessori Center of Minnesota, serving as the director of training and
president as well as community faculty for Metropolitan State University
and adjunct faculty for St. Catherine’s University in St. Paul. Molly served
on the board of AMI in Amsterdam and was a long-time member of the
AMI Trainers Group. She is a member of the NAMTA (North American
Montessori Teachers’ Association) board. She serves on the board of the
MM75 fund, which provides financial assistance for future AMI Mon-
tessori teacher trainers. She was recently appointed to the Montessori
Leaders Collaborative. She helped launch Montessori Partners Serving
All Children, an initiative of the Montessori Center of Minnesota commit-
ted to providing high-quality Montessori for low-income and culturally
rooted communities.
O’Shaughnessy • The Observation Scientist 57

When I am in the midst of children, I do not think of myself as a
scientist, a theoretician. When I am with children I am a nobody, and the
greatest privilege I have when I approach them is being able to forget that
I even exists for this has enabled me to see things that one would miss if
one were somebody—little things, simple but very precious truths. It is not
always imperative to see big things, but it is of paramount importance to
see the beginning of things. At their origins there are little glimmers that
can be recognized as soon as something new is developing. (Montessori,
Education and Peace 101)
Dr. Montessori described normalization as “the most important

single result of our whole work” (The Absorbent Mind 178). Her dis-
covery was based on the fact that whenever certain conditions were
provided, the characteristics of normalization would unfailingly
appear. The necessary conditions must be present and when they are
we see the child brought back to the normal path of development.
It is a healing process, a process that restores optimal conditions
for natural development to occur.
Montessori states, “Normalization comes about through ‘concen-

tration’ on a piece of work. For this we must provide ‘motives for
activity’ so well adapted to the child’s interests that they provoke his
deep attention . . . The essential thing is for the task to arouse such
an interest that it engages the child’s whole personality” (180).
The result? Children who love work, are happy, self-disciplined,

sociable, and kind to one another. The essential key is that the activ-
ity call to the inner urges of the child to self-construct through his
own efforts. It is we, the trained adults who have the responsibility
and privilege of linking the child to the offerings in the prepared
environment. They must be presented at the right time, in the right
manner, and with the necessary freedom to repeat without interfer-
ence or interruption.
Our decision on what to specifically offer the children must be

determined through careful, precise, and sustained observation. It is
the greatest tool we possess to assist children in their development.
Most of Montessori’s discoveries were based on her observations
of children around the world. As a medical doctor and scientist,
she was well versed in the techniques of observation. As Montes-
58 The NAMTA Journal • Vol. 41, No. 3 • Summer 2016

sori educators we must develop the art of observation and become
observations artists—both spiritually and scientifically. The two
must work in concert to fully serve the child.
As Sherlock Homes proclaimed, “Data, data, data! I can’t make

bricks without clay.” In order to develop a plan, execute it and evaluate
its success, we must have sufficient data. Various methods of collect-
ing data in Montessori environments have been developed over time.
The system articulated in this article will be primarily based on the
extensive writings of Dr. Montessori on the nature and importance
of observation, as well as the specific work outlined in chapter 3 of
Spontaneous Activity in Education, “My Contribution to Experimental
Science.” Additional elaborations are based on the expanded work of
the Maria Montessori Institute and my own work on the topic.
A framing model outlining the various components of scientific

observation will help to guide the process, ensuring all aspects are
considered in the proper sequence with enough detail and sufficient
processing, analyzing, and planning (figure 1).
ScientiÞc Observation Points to

Consider
Data:
What I
Observe
Adapt the
Environment
Errors
ScientiÞc
Observation
Collecting
Data
Plotting
Planning:
Analyzing Planning:
What I Will Do
What I
Based on My
Record Planning Will Do
ObservaƟon
Keeping:
What I Did Execute Plan
Review Outcomes
Figure 1. Framing model for scientific observation.

Montessori describes the phenomenon of deep engagement by
telling the story of a young child of three, who with deep concen-
tration, repeated taking wooden cylinders in and out of the block
forty-four times, ending in great satisfaction (Spontaneous Activity
in Education 68).
Further explaining it she states, “And each time that such a po-
larization of attention took place, the child began to be completely
transformed, to become calmer, more intelligent, and more expansive;
it showed extraordinary spiritual qualities, recalling the phenomena
of a higher consciousness, such as those of conversion” (68).
In Spontaneous Activity in Education, chapter 3 “My Contribu-

tion to Experimental Science,” Montessori explained that in the
Children’s Houses directed by Anna Maccheroni they were able
to do more methodical observations, which were represented by
diagrams or charts—in order to demonstrate the course of the
phenomena more clearly (96).
There are fourteen charts in

this chapter analyzing various We observe to help determine
aspects observed, such as the what the children are trying to
whole class at work, work- achieve. We can understand this
ing curves of poor children, by the way that they behave and
a primitive curve of ordered interact with the materials. These
work, and so forth. The charts clues help us pay attention to the
demonstrate the characteristics child’s normal development rather
and observable factors of chil-
than their mistakes.
dren at work, starting from a
new child and moving to a more
experienced older child. These curves allow us to understand the
process of normalization and how the child develops, helping us to
support normalization and development in the best way possible.
Montessori clearly pinpoints the features that can be observed in
four levels of normalization as the child progresses along the path
of inner discipline.
Understanding some of the key factors inherent in the curves will

help interpret their meaning. The horizontal line on each chart repre-
sents the line of quiescence, the point at which the child is at rest, quiet

and still. The length on the line from left to right represents the three-
hour work period. The lines above and below the line of quiescence
represent mental states from deep concentration to extreme chaos.
W ORK C URVES AND THE F OUR L EVELS OF N ORMALIZATION

Stage One
The main features of the child in stage one are:
1. A new child who is still at the stage of moving quickly

from one activity to the next showing no real interest.
2. A child who tends to work with activities that he/

she has been introduced to rather than through
knowledge and previous experience.
3. A child developing the ability to choose through

experience, practice, and repetition.
4. A need for presentations to increase the possibility of

independent choices, points of consciousness which
lead to repetition.
5. Interest can only be observed if initial presentations

have taken place. Observation therefore provides the
key to discovering where the child’s true interests lie.
As Montessori observed, the first initial polarization
Figure 2. Work curve for stage one.

of attention can only be captured when appropriate
presentations meet the child’s interest.
6. Polarization of attention provides the child with the

first experience of “I can do . . . therefore I want to
do more.” The guide must follow this momentum
and continue to present activities accordingly.
During stage one, the work curve (figure 2) is characterized by

the following features:
฀ Short periods of work with little or no concentration.
฀ The child is in and out of everything and is attracted to every-

thing in the environment. Movements often impulsive.
฀ Superficial interest (mainly curiosity).
฀ The child does the work because it has been shown.
฀ There is a need for a variety of presentations including

practical life, grace and courtesy, spoken language, etc.
฀ The child needs a lot of encouragement to make choices.
฀ The child needs assistance in completing a cycle of activity.
Montessori shares stories from guides describing the children

at this level:
They [the children] at first snatched the objects out of each

other ’s hands; if I tried to show an object to any particular
child, the others dropped what they themselves were hold-
ing and gathered aimlessly and nosily round us. When I
had finished the presentation, all the children snatched at
it and quarreled for its possession. The children showed
no interest in the material: they passed from one object to
another without persevering in the use of any . . . In many
cases the movements of the children were quite aimless,
they ran around the room without any apparent object to
their movements. During these movements they made no
attempt to respect the objects about them; indeed, they
stumbled against the table, stepped on the material, etc.
(Spontaneous Activity in Education 88).

Stage Two
The main features of the child in stage two are:
1. The ability to make independent choices.
2. The ability to meet a challenge and repeat the activity.
3. The first signs of concentration.
4. The ability to complete a cycle of activity.
5. Points of consciousness, representations, games, and

extensions of experience are essential to encourage
repetition and for us to follow their interest through
our observations.
The features of the work curve at stage two (figure 3) are:
฀ Some short periods of work. However, work periods are

beginning to lengthen as concentration develops.
฀ The child beginning to make choices of a challeng-

ing nature.
฀ The child tending to start each day with familiar work

before moving on to a challenging activity.
฀ A pattern of work that often points to the child starting

with some kind of preliminary work usually followed
by periods of restlessness or false fatigue.
Figure 3. Work curve for stage two.

฀ Trying out different activities, the child appearing
unsettled.
฀ This is followed by the main work of the day in which

the child puts in his earnest effort if he is not disturbed
or interrupted by other children or adults.
฀ Usually the main work of the day is brought to

an end by a state of repose or rest (e.g., child may
walk around without disturbing others, watch other
children working, talking to friends, watching other
presentations being given, etc.).
Montessori urges us not to intervene at this point and generally

we observe:
After a few minutes he undertakes some much more difficult
work, and becomes so deeply absorbed in this, that he shows
us he has reached the acme of his activity. When this work
is finished, his activity comes to an end in all serenity; he
contemplates his handiwork for a long time, then approaches
the guide and begins to confide in her. The appearance of
the child is that of a person who is rested, satisfied, and
uplifted. (Spontaneous Activity in Education 97)
She also warns us not to try and control the children during this
period of unrest. She states, “If in the period of ‘false fatigue’ by
10:00 a.m. an inexperienced teacher, interpreting the phenomenon
of suspension or preparation for the culminating work as disorder,
intervenes, calling the children to her, and making them rest, etc.,
their restlessness persists, and the subsequent work is not under-
taken” (Spontaneous Activity in Education 99).
To summarize stage two, we can state that we see preliminary

work, restlessness, and the main work, ending with repose.
Stage Three
The main features of the child in stage three are that:
1. Work has become a habit.
2. Work is of a concentrated level over an extended

length of time.

3. They have the ability to make true conscious choices
for activities which absorb their whole being spiritu-
ally, emotionally, psychologically, and physically.
For the child, the work curve (figure 4) typically features:
฀ Continuation from the previous stage.
฀ Work periods lengthening.
฀ Further desire to get involved in work.
฀ Usually characterized by the disappearance of the

period of unrest.
฀ Preliminary activity/activities followed by more

challenging work.
฀ A child normally determined and adamant about

their choice of work.
฀ The main task of the day brought to a close in con-

templation.
฀ Contemplation of the finished task for some time

after the child ceases to work, before finally putting
the material away.
Figure 4. Work curve for stage three.

Montessori refers to this period of contemplation as a period
of internal work, a period of assimilation, and a period of internal
maturation. She describes it this way:
The contemplative period becomes henceforth an obvious

period of internal work, almost a period of assimilation
or internal maturation. Observation of the work of others
becomes increasingly frequent, as if it were a spontane-
ous comparative study between the child himself and his
companions; or as if an active interest in the contemplation
of the external surroundings were developing: the period
of discovery. We may say that the child studies himself in
his own productions and puts himself into communion
with his companions and his environment. (Spontaneous
Activity in Education 104)
The internal work and assimilation happens in all creative

processes. We see this in adults as well as children. Our role is to
protect the creative process in all children.
To summarize stage three, we can state that we witness a

disappearance of restlessness and that the main work ends with
contemplation. It is important to note that we see a disappear-
ance of false fatigue at this stage. A misinterpretation can lead us
to believe that we will always see false fatigue every day, which
may not be the case.
Stage Four
By stage four, the child is normalized. But what is normalized?

The child’s main features at this stage are:
1. The ability to concentrate on a higher level.
2. Self-motivation.
3. The ability to make choices of a sufficiently chal-

lenging level.
4. The ability to judge their own work.
5. Total independence—the guide knows where they are but

only sees them when they are wanting further challenge
or because the child tells them something’s happening.

6. A drive for order in the way they work and organize
their work.
7. Social awareness.
8. A kindness, thoughtfulness toward others, respect,

and caring.
9. Spontaneous care of the environment.
10. Presenting to others without being asked.
11. Voluntary obedience as described by Montessori as

the third level of obedience.
The features of the stage-four work curve (figure 5) are:
฀ A higher level of work that Montessori termed “a

general elevation.” Montessori observed that the child
at this level, even his preparatory work or warm-up
activities, is now at a higher level.
฀ Development of ones character: perseverance, calm-

ness, and inner discipline.
฀ A greater interest and enjoyment in more intel-

lectual work.
Figure 5. Work curve for stage four.

W ORK C URVES FOR I NDIVIDUAL C HILDREN
The practice of creating work curves for individual children lends

itself to understanding the true interests of the child, which in turn
helps the guide to create a plan based on scientific measurements
rather than on a subjective feeling or more limited observations.
While it would be impossible to create a full work curve for each
and every child in the environment on a regular basis, it is a fruitful
process and can be modified with a shortened version that can be
completed with all of the children.
Developing and working with a system of codes enables the

observer to identify the essential indicators toward normalization.
They provide a shorthand that allows the observer to focus on the
key elements of the child’s work. The shortened version, which will
be described, using the same codes, helps us analyze the children’s
work in an effective, efficient, and thoughtful manner, which in
turn will help with planning for individual children. It can also be
beneficial with the entire group of children. Each guide can develop
her own individual codes, but it is best to keep them in the follow-
ing categorized groupings.
Cornerstone Schools, St. Paul, Minnesota

Observation Codes
Choice of Work
฀ (ic) Independent choice
º The child knows what he wants and chooses on

his own.
º The choice typically responds to an inner need,
and inner impulse.
฀ (sc) Suggested/guided choice
º The child may not have confidence to choose.

º The child might have a lack of knowledge at
this point.
º We can start with a guided choice, but if by the
end of the year the child is not able to make a
conscious choice, we are not following or aware
of their interest.
º Choice, not have to be limited to two activities—
“Would you like to do this or that?”
º A guided choice may involve looking at the shelf
together.
º Guided choices need to be informed by previous
observations and notes.
º We use points of consciousness to enhance suc-
cess and interest.
º Take steps to ensure a completed cycle so the child
feels capable of doing it later on their own.
฀ (dc) Directed choice
º At times a child is incapable of making a choice

and we need to direct it for him.
฀ (ci) Child influenced
º The child is interested in something by watching

other children.
º Another child invited him to join.

We also may see an impulsive choice that is not on the list of
codes. An example of this is a child who takes something off the
shelf, explores with it a bit, curious about it, but does not interact
with the material based on real knowledge. We should try and
observe and discover the source of the interest. We may also see
an impulsive choice when an adult who might instruct the child
to “find some work” approaches them. He may take something to
satisfy the request of the adult, but it is not based on true interest.
Initiation
฀ (M) The first letter of guide’s name that presents the
activity, e.g., Molly. If it is a child, then state the full
name, e.g., Kathy.
฀ (1) Indicates a first presentation
฀ (rp) Representation
฀ (p.o.c.) Points of consciousness

An extra challenge (or help) is given to the child in
his work. After the equal sign state what you gave
(e.g., p.o.c. = application of polish in horizontal-
circular movement).
Work Types
฀ (iw) Working independently on an activity.
฀ (name) Child that is working or helping another
child, collaborative piece of work.
Work States
฀ (wd) Working distracted with the activity.
฀ (WC) Working concentrated with the activity.
฀ (DC) Child experiencing deep concentration for a

sustained period of time without any distraction.
Completion of Work
฀ (i) Putting work back independently.
฀ (m) Putting work back with guides help.

Other
฀ (g+c) Grace and courtesy
º Child practices on social manners and how to
respect the environment and peers, e.g., (g+c=how
to carry a chair)
฀ (st) Snack table

฀ (bc) Book corner
฀ (wotl) Walking on the line
State of Disorder
º (sd) slight disorder
º (d) disorder
º (u) uncontrollable
Points to Consider
A point to consider is additional information that will help

inform our decisions. For example, we may notice that a child is
very successful in most aspects of table washing but cannot squeeze
the water out of the sponge. The point to consider might be using
a point of consciousness to highlight that part of the presentation.
Or a child may be baking cookies and you notice that she is most
engaged in the washing and cleaning up process, so you may con-
sider offering other activities that involve washing and cleaning.
After presenting the geometry cabinet, a point to consider might be
to continue adding contrasting figures, and so forth.
Certain elements are necessary to record in order to chart the

work curve of an individual child. These include the following:
฀ How the activity was chosen.
฀ The beginning and ending times for each activity.
฀ Whether the child was working alone or with an-

other child.
฀ The child’s level of concentration.
฀ Completion and putting away of the work.

Children Observed
At the Montessori Center of Minnesota we were able to film entire

three-hour work cycles of four children at various stages of normal-
ization. After filming the entire three hours, we edited the videos to
match the elements that appear on the work curves. The guides in
these environments continued to “chart” the children for the remain-
ing days of the week, allowing us to see an entire week of work.
Macaella
Macaella, now two years, ten months,
began Cornerstone Montessori in the in-
fant community. After four months she
transitioned into the Children’s House.
She had been in the environment for ap-
proximately two weeks when we filmed
her. Her activities and behavior demon-
strate the classic features of the first stage
of normalization. As shown in figure 6,
we see very short periods of work, mostly working distracted, a fair
amount of wandering along, with periods of slight disorder. The
slight disorder tends to occur toward the end of the morning. It is
interesting to note that on Thursday, right before Macaella goes home
early because she is sick, she falls below the line of quiescence.
At this point, for planning purposes, we would rely mostly on

points to consider, to help inform our presentation choices. When
looking at Macaella’s chart, we see that she works with concentra-
tion while washing dishes, washing hands, and working with the
pink tower. She also shows interest and is working, but distracted,
with spoken language cards (fruits and vegetables), polishing wood,
zipper frame, cutting paper, pouring water,
and cleaning items.
Caroline
Caroline is three years, one month.
She has been in an established Montessori
school for three months. She enjoys practi-
cal life activities and often talks to herself
while she works (figure 7).

Figure 6. Macaella’s work curve.
Evan, Age 4½
Evan is four and one-half years old.
He has been in an established Chil-
dren’s House for eighteen months. He
demonstrated a strong sense of order on
the day of filming (figure 8). Evan had
returned from a family trip to Europe
the night before filming. On the day of
filming, we observed what appears to
be a re-orientating to his environment.

Figure 7. Caroline’s work curve.
Throughout the morning he spent significant time adjusting and

re-ordering things that were out of place. For example, he noticed
a scrap of paper in the fish tank and told the guide to come and see
because it does not belong there. He ordered the strips for the ad-
dition strip board; he fixed the number cards for the rods; and he
noticed a cushion was off one of the chairs, fixed it, and proceeded
to check the cushions on six other chairs.

Figure 8. Evan’s work curve.
Jack
Jack is six years, three months old.
He has been in an established Children’s
House for three years. Jack is very inter-
ested in working with the math materials.
Jack is very self-sufficient, careful in his
work, and demonstrates the fourth level
of normalization (figure 9).

By visually examining the charts for these four children in the
process of normalization (figures 6, 7, 8, and 9), we can clearly see
the trends from the times of engagement, concentration, and deep
concentration. Deep concentration is the best indicator of interest,
and interest is the primary motivating factor in learning.
Plotting Work Curves

In order to be able to “plot” the chart, we need to collect im-
portant data on the individual child for a week or two using the
codes as our guide. We use a daily observation form to fill in the
necessary data (figure 10). It tells us the start and end times of the
activity, the specific activity used, how it was chosen, whether it was
Figure 9. Jack’s work curve.

a presentation, whether the child is working alone or with someone,
the level of concentration, and how the work was put away. It also
allows us to include points to consider which will inform and sup-
port us in the planning process. Planning cannot be done casually,
but must rely on sufficient, significant, and accurate data. We need
one form for each day that we are observing the child. The bottom
of the form includes the key to the codes to make it easy to reference
when first learning the technique.
Daily Observation Form – Individual Child

NAME OF CHILD:
WEEK OF:
DATE AND DAY OF WEEK:
START END
ACTIVITY WHAT HAPPENED POINTS TO CONSIDER
TIME TIME
Key to Codes:
Choice of State of State of Completion
Initiation Work Type Other
Work Concentration Disorder of Work
(ic) (G) (iw) (wd) (sd) slight >(i) (G+C=)
independent Guide independently working distracted disorder put away Grace and
choice working independently Courtesy
(sc) (1) (name) (WC) (d) >(g) (ST)
suggested 1st presentation name of Working disorder put away Snack Table
choice collaborating Concentrated work with
child guide’s help
(dc) (rp) (DC) (u) (BC)

directed choice representing Deep uncontrollable Book Corner
work Concentration
(ci) (p.o.c.=) (WOTL)
child influence point of Walking on
consciousness the Line
Molly O’Shaughnessy
with permission from the Maria Montessori Institute
Figure 10. Daily observation form.

Figure 11 shows how the daily observation form was filled in
the day we filmed Caroline. She started her day making an inde-
pendent choice of cookie baking. She worked alone with concen-
tration from 9:00 a.m. until 9:45 a.m., at which time she put the
material away independently.
A point to consider was that she was most engaged while clean-
ing and washing the materials. Next she chose the painted globe,
but only had it out for three minutes and then put it back. Interest-
ingly, she then proceeded to take out the sandpaper globe for just
five minutes. It appears there is something within those globes that
she was attracted to—a point to consider. The next long timeframe
Daily Observation Form – Individual Child (Example)
NAME OF CHILD: Caroline

WEEK OF: 12/7/09 – 12/11/09
DATE AND DAY OF WEEK: Thursday, 12/08/09
START WHAT END
ACTIVITY POINTS TO CONSIDER
TIME HAPPENED TIME
9:00 Arrival
most engagement during cleaning
9:03 Baking Cookies (ic) (iw) (WC) > (i) and washing
9:45
9:45 Painted Globe (ic) (iw) (wd) > (i) 9:48
9:48 Sandpaper Globe (ic) (iw) (wd) > (i) 9:53
9:54 Grinding Cinnamon (ic) (iw) (WC) > (i) leaves out cutting board 10:08
10:08 Snack (ic) (Lilly) (ST) > (i) 10:15
10:17 Button Frame (ic) (iw) (wd) > (i) put away unbuttoned 10:19
responding to need;
10:21 Vacuuming up spill (ic) care of environment
10:22 Washing a chowki (ic) (E) (rp) (iw) (WC)

going back and forth between
10:48 Washing a chowki (iw) (wd) > (e) scrubbing and giving cookie advice
11:26
11:26 Group collective; birthday 12:00
Key to Codes:
Choice of State of State of Completion
Initiation Work Type Other
Work Concentration Disorder of Work
(ic) (G) (iw) (wd) (sd) slight >(i) (G+C=)
independent Guide independently working distracted disorder put away Grace and
choice working independently Courtesy
(sc) (1) (name) (WC) (d) >(g) (ST)
suggested 1st presentation name of Working disorder put away Snack Table
choice collaborating Concentrated work with
child guide’s help
(dc) (rp) (DC) (u) (BC)

directed choice representing Deep uncontrollable Book Corner
work Concentration
(ci) (p.o.c.=) (WOTL)
child influence point of Walking on
consciousness the Line
1SPP]3´7LEYKLRIWW]
[MXLTIVQMWWMSRJVSQXLI1EVME1SRXIWWSVM-RWXMXYXI

Figure 11. Sample daily observation form for individual child.

was her work with washing a chowki. It was an independent choice,
but at one point the guide re-presented part of the presentation,
which Caroline watched with great attention. We see a change in
concentration levels during the time she is washing the chowki and
this was noted on the chart once it was plotted.
We collected data for five days and summarized. Each day is re-
corded on a separate sheet. All five days are recorded on the weekly
observation summary (figure 12). We start with a brief narrative stating
Figure 12. Weekly observation summary (continued on the following page).

Figure 12. Weekly observation summary (continued).
that Caroline started in the Children’s House in September. She enjoys

practical life activities and often talks to herself while she works. She
engages easily in conversations with adults and peers. After all five
days have been recorded we give a summary of her week and inter-
ests that have been observed. Caroline showed repetition this week
with cookie baking and grinding spices. She also seems to have be
interested in activities that involve washing and cleaning up.
To begin the plotting we use the plotting chart (figure 13) and
write the times in fifteen-minute increments in the rectangles de-

voted to time. The times are blank because each school could have a
different starting and ending time. After the times are entered, a dot
is placed at the beginning times for each of the activities. Next we
look at concentration levels and draw a line up to the appropriate
level and write the other information, using abbreviations above
the line (see chart). Other information that needs to be included is
the name of the activity, choice, working alone or with someone,
and putting it away. We can use abbreviations because we have the
full information on the daily observation forms to refer back to if
necessary. The purpose of the chart is not to write down every piece
of information. Its purpose is to look at patterns in the child’s work.
4PSXXMRK'LEVXJSV6IGSVHMRK
;IIOPSRK3FWIVZEXMSRSJER-RHMZMHYEP'LMPH
Child's Name: Age: Week of:
Monday Time:
(IIT'SRGIRXVEXMSR
'SRGIRXVEXMSR
;SVOMRKFYX(MWXVEGXIH
5YMIWGIRGI
7PMKLX(MWSVHIV
(MWSVHIV
9RGSRXVSPPEFPI
Tuesday Time:
(IIT'SRGIRXVEXMSR
'SRGIRXVEXMSR
5YMIWGIRGI
7PMKLX(MWSVHIV
(MWSVHIV
9RGSRXVSPPEFPI
Wednesday Time:
(IIT'SRGIRXVEXMSR
'SRGIRXVEXMSR
5YMIWGIRGI
7PMKLX(MWSVHIV
(MWSVHIV
9RGSRXVSPPEFPI
Thursday Time:
(IIT'SRGIRXVEXMSR
'SRGIRXVEXMSR
5YMIWGIRGI
7PMKLX(MWSVHIV
(MWSVHIV
9RGSRXVSPPEFPI
Friday Time:
(IIT'SRGIRXVEXMSR
'SRGIRXVEXMSR
5YMIWGIRGI
7PMKLX(MWSVHIV
(MWSVHIV
9RGSRXVSPPEFPI
1SPP]3´7LEYKLRIWW]
[MXLTIVQMWWMSRJVSQXLI1EVME1SRXIWWSVM-RWXMXYXI
Figure 13. Plotting chart for week-long observation.

Figure 14 represents the day we filmed Caroline and her chart after
all the above data was entered.
The next step is to analyze the charts and develop a plan for the
following week based on the collected data with points to consider
supporting the process.
Looking at the completed weekly observation summary (figure

14), enter the independent choices in the left-hand column (Inde-
pendent Choices) and the number of times the choice was repeated
Figure 14. Caroline’s weekly observation summary (continued on the following page).

throughout the week. For example, cookie baking x4, cinnamon
grating x4, and so forth.
The right-hand side indicates suggested choices (sc) and presen-

tations. In this case, a re-presentation of button sewing and washing
a chowki were entered as well as a presentation on the geometry
cabinet. The next step is to look at concentration levels. In the column
WC (working concentrated), place an asterisk next to the activities
that were WC or DC (deep concentration), leaving the other ones
blank. The second WC column on the right can also be filled in if
Figure 14. Caroline’s weekly observation summary (continued).

appropriate. In this case, Caroline worked with concentration on
the geometry cabinet after the presentation.
The back of the form is for possible presentations and points to

consider and the outcome of the weekly plan. Based on all of the
data from Caroline’s week, we recommended the following plan
for the next week:
Possible Presentations Points to Consider

(PL) window washing p.o.c. to reinforce aim
(PL) washing laundry
(L) voc. enrichment cards fruits/vegetables
(L) sound games shows interest in
spoken language
(L) sandpaper letters interested in tactile activities
(S) geometry cabinet add contrasting figures
(S) bells listening to different pitches
Finally, we execute the plan as fully as we can, keeping in

mind that it may be altered based on our subsequent observations
as well as independent choices the child makes. We document the
presentations given, what happened, points to consider, and any
additional notes.
This in-depth observational tool gives us a clear understanding

of the work cycle, as well as patterns and details of the work with
an individual child. It can help guide us with new children as well
as with children with whom we are not sure how to proceed.
In order to effectively observe and plan an entire group, a

shortened version has been developed using the same key factors.
A simple daily observation form with fifteen children per page is
used for tracing observations (figure 15). The names of the children
are entered from youngest to oldest or vice versa.
Figure 16 is a sample of a daily form filled in. Notice the short-

hand. There are no times entered. It is kept in an easily accessible
location where the guide can quickly enter data.

Obviously we will not capture everything that each child does
every single day, but this form gives us enough information to make
well-informed decisions and to engage in careful planning. As with
the in-depth method, we concentrate on noticing what is most in-
Figure 15. Group daily observation form.

teresting to the children and which activities cause a “polarization
of attention” as described by Montessori.
Additionally, to become scientific observers, we need a measure-

ment for looking at the flow of the entire environment throughout the
day. Dr. Rita Zener, AMI director of training, developed the whole
class at work daily observation form (figure 17). It is simple to use
and gives us a glimpse of the patterns of engagement throughout
Daily Observation Form – All Children (15 children per page) Date:_____B.
John, 2.9 Mary, 3.1 Alec, 3.7
Observing Sound Games, 1st sound Sound Games, 1st sound (sc)(with Mary,
Folding (ic)(iw)(WC) i (sc)(with Alec, Maddie) (G) Maddie) (G)
ST Brown Stair (sc)(iw)(wd) g Color Tablets 3, sunburst (ic)(iw)(WC)i
BC ST WOTL
Washing Table (ic)(iw)(wd) g (p.o.c.)=much Geometry Cabinet, 2 drawers (ic)(iw)(WC) i ST
water on the floor BC Metal Insets, stage 3 (ci)(iw)(WC)i
G+C, Excuse me
BC
Jenny, 4.1 Christina, 4.3 Raoul, 4.5
Painting (ic)(iw)(WC)i Wandering, upset(u) BC
G+C, blow nose ST
Spindle Box (ic)(iw)(WC)i Observing WOTL
Sound Games, sounding out (Sarah, José) (G)
Chalkboard (sc)(iw)(wd)i Trinomial cube, stereognostic (ic)(iw)(WC)i
Moveable Alphabet, story (G)(Sarah)(WC)g Observing
BC Addition w/beads (Anna, Daniel) (rp)(ci)(WC)i
G+C, Excuse me
Metal Insets (ic)(iw)(wd)i BC
Metal Insets (ic)(iw)(wd)g
José, 5.3 Michael, 5.7 Daniel, 5.0

Addition Snake Game (1)(WC)i Wandering (sd) Continuation of Command (sc)(Krista)(wd)i
WOTL WOTL
Asia Map w/labels (ic)(iw)(WC)i G+C, Excuse me
Reading Analysis, stage 2, (sc)(ic)(wd)i Wandering (d) Preposition w/farm (ic)(Krista)(WC)i
BC Handwriting (sc)(iw)(wd)i Addition w/beads (Raoul, Anna)(rp)(ic)(WC)i
BC
Metal Insets (ic)(iw)(WC)i
Jonas, 3.5 Maddie, 3.2 Anna, 4.10

Observing Sound Games, 1st sound (sc)(with Mary, Alec) (G) Metal Insets (ic)(Gina)(wd)i
SPL, t, v, o (dc)(G)i G+C, Blow nose
100 chain (sc)(1)(WC)g
Painting (ic)(iw)(DC)i Plant care (ic)(iw)(wd)i
WOTL Addition w/beads (Raoul, Daniel)(rp)(ci)(WC)i
Safety pin frame (sc)(1)(WC)I (p.o.c.)=did not BC
Stereognostic Bags
close frame
(1)(iw)(WC)i Washing Cloth (ic)(iw)(wd)i (p.o.c.)=did not
G+C, Blow nose Painting (ic)(iw)(WC)i wring cloth
G+C, Excuse me
Tasting Bottles (rp)(iw)(WC)i
ST
Sarah, 4.10 Krista, 5.2 Gina, 5.6
Observing (sd) Continuation of Commands (sc)(Daniel)(wd) Metal Insets (ci)(Anna)(WC)i
BC WOTL
Sound Games, sounding out (Jenny, José) (G) Preposition w/farm, (ic)(iw)(WC) Bells, grading (ic)(iw)(WC)i (p.o.c.)=was
wondering about names of the bells
Moveable Alphabet, story (G)(Jenny)(WC)g Metal Insets (ic)(iw)(wd)i WOTL
100 chain (ic)(iw)(DC)i Reading class 2 (ic)(iw)(WC)i ST
Reading Class 3, horse (ic)(iw)(WC)i
1SPP]3´7LEYKLRIWW]

Figure 16. Completed group daily observation form.

the environment. This information will guide us in determining
what might be the best time to present, whether there is false fa-
tigue, and so forth.
The upper half of the form represents the morning work cycle
and the lower half the afternoon work cycle. The numbers on the
sides indicate how many children are present in both the morning
and the afternoon work cycles. The rectangles on the bottom are
for time in fifteen-minute increments. Every fifteen minutes, look
1SPP]3´7LEYKLRIWW]
[MXLTIVQMWWMSRJVSQ(V6MXE>IRIV
Figure 17. Whole class at work daily observation form. Developed by Dr. Rita Zener.

around the room and estimate how many children are engaged. Circle
the asterisk next to that number. At the end of the day, connect the
asterisks with a line and it will show the flow of the day, possible
false fatigue, periods of greatest engagement, and so forth. This is
an effective tool to use when a new school gets started. We used it
when we opened Cornerstone and saw the gradual normalization
evolving over time.
In addition to creating individual plans, we need to have a plan

for potential group presentations and activities based on observa-
Weekly Plan for Group Presentations

Plan Date Executed Outcome/Notes
Grace and Courtesy:
Songs/Poems/Etc:
Walking on the Line:
Language:
Math:
Sensorial:

Figure 18. Weekly plan for group presentations.

tion. Figure 18 is a weekly plan for group presentations, divided
into areas we offer to small groups of children. These presentations
are ones we often forget to plan and therefore may not be fully uti-
lized. The major categories include grace and courtesy, song, poems,
stories, walking on the line, language activities, math, and sensorial
activities. In addition to what is planned for the week, there is space
to indicate when these presentations were executed and what the
outcome was. Additional points to consider will help.
Another aspect of scientific observation included in the fram-

ing model is record keeping (figure 1). It is critical to keep precise
records of what has been presented to the children. Many record
keeping systems have been developed, both electronically and in
paper form. The key is to determine what will work best for you. It
should be simple, clear, and easy to access. There should be a clear
distinction between record keeping “What I did” and “What I ob-
served.” If we only know what we did, it will not give us sufficient
information to reflect and create the best plan. A simple checklist of
what has been presented does not tell us how long the child worked
with the material, his level of concentration, number of repetitions,
challenges he encountered, and so forth. The shortened form of
observation in addition to record keeping gives us a fuller picture
of what is happening with each child in the environment.
T HE R OLE OF E RROR IN S CIENTIFIC O BSERVATION

Looking at the framing model at the beginning of this article
(figure 1), we see a circle that directs us to look at the children’s
errors to inform our planning and to help us see the developmental
challenges and successes they encounter. In order to understand the
errors we observe, we must first examine the nature of mistakes.
Errors are developmental; all children and adults make errors. What
are some major points to consider?
The first is our attitude. We need to adjust our attitude toward

mistakes because if we become obsessed by them, what will hap-
pen? We will not be able to more forward and we will get “stuck”
in judgment and in the belief that we need to correct the child. In-
stead of focusing on the child and the mistakes she is making, it is
better to focus on the difficulty she is experiencing in that moment.
While considering the mistakes themselves may lead us to subjective

judgment, we can observe difficulty objectively. We must focus on
the particular difficulty the child is experiencing at this particular
moment with this particular activity. By shifting our perspective in
this way, we are able to focus on the nature of the mistake, rather
than the mistake itself.
Many of us have vis-

ceral memories of being We help the child become interested in
corrected as children that his own mistakes, to be interested in
deeply influence both knowing what went wrong. I have seen
our beliefs about our- children with the finger charts trying to
selves and how we view discover where they made a mistake.
mistakes. In a discussion When they check their work with the
about this with trainees, control chart and see a mistake has
they were asked if they
been made, they use their power to
had a difficult time in
know and reason to figure out where
their own educations
the mistake was made. Our role is to
with not feeling capable
find a way to engage them in doing it
or good enough based on
for themselves rather than us stepping
comments from people in
in and correcting their errors.
authority. One of the stu-
dents aptly stated, “That
is why we are here.” This
is a profound statement. We know that when we approach education
as an aid to life rather than as a teaching method the adult prepares
herself to function in a radically different manner. It becomes a kind
of healing process. It gives us the opportunity to re-envision how
to be in relationship with children and with ourselves. Montessori
says, “It is well to cultivate a friendly feeling towards errors, to
treat it as a companion inseparable from our lives, as something
having a purpose, which it truly has” (The Absorbent Mind 215). She
reminds us, “Many errors correct themselves as we go through life.
The tiny child starts toddling uncertainly on his feet, wobbles and
falls, but ends up walking easily. He corrects this by growth and
experience” (215).
In the insightful article “Errors and Their Correction,” A. M.

Joosten suggests that in the early period of a child’s development
we must observe and remember the child is far from what he will
become. That disorder will vanish as the child normalizes. Not to

concentrate on the child’s imperfections. To hold a view of reality
not yet visible; not to attach ourselves to the mistakes as it will only
make them permanent (4).
We must focus exclusively on the nature of the mistake. We do

not want to have a negative response. Sometimes we jump in to
correct something without pausing to observe how the child might
correct herself if given the time to explore and reflect. It is important
to find indirect ways to help children with mistakes.
Joosten also explains that we must examine the child’s activity and
determine whether it is spontaneous, and whether it is contributing
to development or hindering it. These are important considerations
when we are observing a child. If the child’s activity is not hindering
development, and is in fact supporting development, we must not
intervene even of she is making a mistake, because the materials
are self-correcting and through her own repetition, the child will
learn from the experience.
We cannot rob the children of the opportunity to discover their

own mistakes. When children discover their own mistakes, it is
a powerful experience and a self-taught lesson. We cannot do it
for them. Normal development cannot happen without making
mistakes. Most likely, the activities that are freely chosen, and are
based on interests and knowledge, will be the activities that are the
most engaging for the children. As Joosten writes, “Interest is the
life breath of development” (5).
There are many reasons that children make mistakes and keen
observations will reveal them. Did they not understand how to
handle the material? Was the presentation unclear? Were the con-
cepts beyond their comprehension? An example we often observe
is in the presentation of the sound cylinders. The control of error is
that the pairs are not going to have two cylinders of the same color.
There will not be two blues together or two reds together. This is
contrary to what they are accustomed to in their matching patterns.
Typically they put things that are identical into pairs. As we observe
children working with the sound cylinders, we see them try to put
the two reds and two blues together. If we deem that as lack of clar-
ity, we can do something as simple as saying, “These red ones are

exactly the same as the blue ones. We put them together.” The point
of consciousness may be a simple statement lending clarity to the
procedure. We do not have to go into a long explanation.
Is it a lack of capacity? Sometimes we think a child can under-

stand something based on our observations. We discover actually
that they cannot. The indirect supports are not in place yet. We have
to determine if that is the issue. If the mistake stems from a lack of
capacity we have to respond differently.
Or is it really a lack of interest? Some children will even tell us

they are not interested in what we are offering or they may tell us
it is boring. When children say these things, we should listen. It
brings us back to the importance of charting the children to deter-
mine their true interest.
We observe to help determine what the children are trying to

achieve. We can understand this by the way that they behave and
interact with the materials. These clues help us pay attention to the
child’s normal development rather than their mistakes. Mistakes
and development are not contradictory. This is true at all levels of
learning. Throughout our lives as adults, it remains true.
Particularly in young children, if they believe that it is accept-

able to make a mistake they will take risks and keep trying. Unfor-
tunately, we also have children who come into our environments
terribly afraid, for one reason or another, to make a mistake. They
feel they must do things perfectly. It can be difficult to help these
children feel comfortable with their mistakes.
The decision to correct or not can be a difficult one. Many mistakes

are about the ability to correctly perceive something. If a child cannot
build the pink tower symmetrically, it is telling us they do not yet
have the ability to perceive the proper order. Telling or correcting
them is not going to help them perceive it. When my husband tries
to show me something on the computer that he understands but I
do not, he just cannot understand that I am not able to perceive it.
Once I do get it, though, it is like, “There it is!” That is how it is with
the children. To intervene or correct does not help their develop-
ment. A lesson may need clarification or maybe a re-presentation,

but in general repeated
experience with the mate- Instead of focusing on the child and the
rial is the greatest lesson mistakes she is making, it is better to
of all. focus on the difficulty she is experiencing
in that moment. While considering the
As Joosten points mistakes themselves may lead us to
out, correction in and of subjective judgment, we can observe
itself is not an obstacle to difficulty objectively. We must focus
development. Sometimes
on the particular difficulty the child is
there is not a control that
experiencing at this particular moment
is obvious to the child
with this particular activity.
with the material. In this
case, we might be able to
help the child by just making a small point of consciousness. With
corrections we have to figure out when to intervene. When do I stand
back? When do I wait a bit longer? It is usually better to wait a bit
longer. But we do correct it if something is really being misused.
Faulty handling is something we address immediately, making sure
to show what to do, rather than what not to do.
Every correction must serve development. The last thing we

want to do is to destroy interest. In general it is best to not correct
immediately, unless a situation is harmful or disrespectful to the
material or to others. There are other effective ways that mistakes
can be handled. As discussed above, very often the material cor-
rects the mistake. Often the child discovers the mistake himself,
which is the ideal solution. Other children may also step in to help.
They are often the best control of error and they do it gracefully
with kindness.
When we do correct, we should always respect the efforts the

children are making and understand the positive value. We help
the child become interested in his own mistakes, to be interested in
knowing what went wrong. I have seen children with the finger charts
trying to discover where they made a mistake. When they check their
work with the control chart and see a mistake has been made, they
use their power to know and reason to figure out where the mistake
was made. Our role is to find a way to engage them in doing it for
themselves rather than us stepping in and correcting their errors.

T HE C ENTER AND THE P ERIPHERY
One of the most important principles of the Montessori method

is that we do not directly teach the child, but we feed the periphery.
Montessori makes a distinction between the center and the periphery.
In most educational methods, the teachers attempt to feed directly
into the child’s center—the child’s mind. Montessori, however, as-
serts that we must not attempt to penetrate into the mysteries of
the mind directly:
What goes on in this mysterious center of the child’s

creative intelligence is his secret, and we must respect
that secret…That inner creative center is the part of the
individual that belongs entirely to himself. The center is
the innermost part of the personality from which action
proceeds; it is the place from which things start. At this
center the child increases his mental powers by seeking out
sensations and movements, which take part at the second
part of his personality—the periphery. This is the part of
the child’s personality that comes into contact with the
external world. It comprises the senses, and movements,
and the outward manifestations of his choice. Through the
continuous interaction of these two factors, the center and
periphery, the mind of the child develops, unfolds, and
creates itself. (Montessori qtd in Standing 235)
Our job is to respect the center, for this is the child’s creative
work. Instead of focusing on the center, we feed the periphery. We
do this by presenting activities in such a way so as to evoke pur-
poseful movement on the part of the child.
When we have teacher-centered, curriculum-based education,

the teacher is at the center, directly teaching the children. But in
Montessori environments, the child is at the center and we act at
the periphery. We cannot directly penetrate the child’s own creative
process. We must offer the right things at the periphery and this
can only be done if we hone our skills as observers.
Observation is our best guide and a critical part of our daily

work. It is not something that we do once a week; it must happen
daily with systems in place to make the data meaningful, measur-
able and usable. Our observations will reveal visible, tangible mag-
nifications of what is feeding the spirit of the child and we must

The
Center
Figure 19. The center and the periphery.
note those and reflect on them in our planning. We can most clearly
observe what is happening at the periphery when the children are
given true freedom of choice in their activities.
We feed the periphery, E. M. Standing states in Maria Montessori:

Her Life and Work, “by means of occupations so prepared that they meet
the child’s natural tendency to explore the world around him through
material objects, and by doing so abstract ideas from them. These ideas
he spontaneously builds into his own individual mental system. This
is the work of the center” (237). It is at the periphery, through what we
offer him, that the child comes into contact with the external.
Connecting the child to the developmental materials is one of our

main responsibilities, but we are not always successful in this regard.
Montessori states, “In practice you may often see that a teacher has
prepared the environment, but the children do not pay attention, are
not interested, and act in a disorderly manner. What is the matter?
Is it the method, or the environment, or the teacher, or the children?
Something evidently has gone wrong” (in Standing, 239). Montessori
clearly explains what is missing is the “Point of Contact” (239). Stand-
ing elaborates, explaining that “Through the continuous interaction of
these two factors, the center and the periphery, the mind of the child
develops, unfolds, expands, creates itself in unity” (236).

How do we know when we have successfully made a point of
contact? What should we observe? Standing describes two key
changes we observe in the child’s behavior when a point of contact
has been successful:
First, there is a limitation of his movements; and secondly,

there is exactitude and precision. In the mental sphere an
analogous process must take place. Before the establishment
of the point of contact there results at once a limitation
of the mental field, that is a concentration on a definite
aspect of reality; which is accompanied by a movement
with exactitude and precision. (240)
We aim to present activities in such a way that they invoke in-

terest, engagement, and purposeful movement. As a child engages
using very purposeful movement, she begins to understand the
concepts that are imbedded in the materials. Each of our materials
has concepts imbedded in them that can only be revealed through
repeated exploration.
In order to feed the spirit of the child, we must respect that

process of exploration; we must have the humility of a spiritual
observer. We must remember that the periphery is the only part of
the child that is accessible to us. How do we know what is happen-
Cornerstone Schools, St. Paul, Minnesota

ing at the center? Our best guesses are based on what the children
choose, what they say, and how they interact with the material. These
are the visual manifestations when we have fed the periphery in a
meaningful way. The point of contact is a communication between
our spirit and the spirit of the child.
What we offer is not chosen randomly. It has to be based on

what we have observed. The material must ensure that the child
can use it with his own hands. When they use their own hands and
repeat it, it creates what we call intelligent hands. It is like when
you practice with the materials in your own training. Why did
anyone care how precise you were? We wanted intelligent hands.
Our hands must be so intelligent they can do these presentations
without even looking at the materials. It allows us to observe how
the child is responding so we can see details we may need to refine
or points of interests that we need to offer.
That is the other thing that is important: The point of contact

is not always with us. I believe that right now we do not facilitate
enough peer teaching in our environments. Ideally, children will
show each other things, one child acting as a point of contact to
another child.
In his chapter on “Movement and Mental Assimilation,” Standing

outlines some practical rules on how to establish a point of contact
(243–244). To summarize, points of contact are individual and cannot
be established with the whole class together; they should be individu-
ally initiated and followed by free choice; in the beginning, the guide
may act as a traditional teacher presenting in front of the class; as each
child’s ability increases, the guide’s presence must decrease; points of
contact are established through movement. Movement is especially
critical in points of contact involving the exercises of practical life.
Montessori, he says, describes the response of the children when
shown something as simple as putting down a chair. Obviously they
have seen chairs put down before, but the way we present it is special
and different. The careful precision, the slow movements, the silence,
intrigues and fascinates the children. The specialness with which we
imbue this activity inspires them to repeat it with the utmost care.
We witness the great joy it brings them.

Once this contact has been made, the child is essentially altered;
she is not the same human being. And the “new child” that Mon-
tessori describes begins to emerge, able to follow along the path of
normal development.
C ONCLUSION
When we develop ourselves as spiritual and scientific observ-

ers we are able to truly serve the children with love. The secrets of
childhood reveal themselves to us through our observations and as
Montessori suggests “Life acts of itself, and in order to study it, to
divine its secrets or to direct its activity, it is necessary to observe
it and to understand it without intervening—this idea, I say, is very
difficult for anyone to assimilate and to put into practice” (The
Montessori Method 88).
The practice and art of observation must become a habit of

mind, fully engrained in us, never to be abandoned or neglected.
We must diligently attend to what is in front of us, to the smallest
details. As we move along the path, side by side with the child, we
strive to prepare both the environment and ourselves to support
the spontaneous activity of children, in an atmosphere of freedom.
Observation is our core and most ardent ally in these fundamental
preparations. It protects the integrity of the method and the work
of the child. It fuels our understanding of each unique individual
child allowing us to truly serve her needs in an exact and thought-
ful manner.
Montessori reminds us, “As we observe children, we see the

vitality of their spirit, the maximum effort put forth in all they do,
the intuition, attention and focus they bring to all life’s events, and
the sheer joy they experience in living” (The Child, Society, and the
World 99).
Be as the children, and we will thrive; we will become joyful

observers.

B IBLIOGRAPHY
Joosten, A. M. “Errors and Their Correction.” Bombay:

Indian Montessori Training Courses, 1974.
Montessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. 1949. Madras:

Kalakshetra, 1982.
---. The Child, Society, and the World. 1979. Oxford: Clio,
1989.
---. Education and Peace. 1949. Chicago: Henry Regnery,

1972.
---. The Montessori Method. New York: Frederick A. Stokes

Company, 1912.
---. Spontaneous Activity in Education. 1916. New York:

Schocken Books, 1965.
Standing, E. M. Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work. New

York, Penguin, 1984.
This article has been based on the writings of Dr. Montessori and the
extensive work on scientific observation that has come out of the Maria
Montessori Institute in London. In preparation for presenting on the topic
of observation at the AMI/USA Refresher Course in 2010, O’Shaughnessy
worked directly with Hilla Patell and Karen Pearce, who developed and
conducted a postdiploma certificate course on observation, and with trainees
on the London courses. Patell entrusted her with the extensive body of work
she has done over many years on the topic with the hope of extending its reach
and of perpetuating further interest in and study of this important topic.
Karen Pearce is an AMI lecturer and runs the Maria Montessori Institute’s
postdiploma course on the science of observing children. Karen is a director
of pedagogy at The Montessori Place (UK). She is the former head of school
at the Maria Montessori Institute and ran their model Children’s House
from 1990 to 2008 under the mentorship of Hilla Patell. She continues to
mentor Montessori guides.


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THE OBSERVATION SCIENTIST

Molly O’Shaughnessy is an accomplished AMI trainer as well as a

O’Shaughnessy • The Observation Scientist 57

Dr. Montessori described normalization as “the most important

Montessori states, “Normalization comes about through ‘concen-

The result? Children who love work, are happy, self-disciplined,

Our decision on what to specifically offer the children must be

58 The NAMTA Journal • Vol. 41, No. 3 • Summer 2016

As Sherlock Homes proclaimed, “Data, data, data! I can’t make

A framing model outlining the various components of scientific

ScientiÞc Observation Points to

Figure 1. Framing model for scientific observation.

O’Shaughnessy • The Observation Scientist 59

In Spontaneous Activity in Education, chapter 3 “My Contribu-

There are fourteen charts in

Understanding some of the key factors inherent in the curves will

60 The NAMTA Journal • Vol. 41, No. 3 • Summer 2016

W ORK C URVES AND THE F OUR L EVELS OF N ORMALIZATION

The main features of the child in stage one are:

1. A new child who is still at the stage of moving quickly

2. A child who tends to work with activities that he/

3. A child developing the ability to choose through

4. A need for presentations to increase the possibility of

5. Interest can only be observed if initial presentations

Figure 2. Work curve for stage one.

O’Shaughnessy • The Observation Scientist 61

6. Polarization of attention provides the child with the

During stage one, the work curve (figure 2) is characterized by

฀ Short periods of work with little or no concentration.

฀ The child is in and out of everything and is attracted to every-

฀ Superficial interest (mainly curiosity).

฀ The child does the work because it has been shown.

฀ There is a need for a variety of presentations including

฀ The child needs a lot of encouragement to make choices.

฀ The child needs assistance in completing a cycle of activity.

Montessori shares stories from guides describing the children

They [the children] at first snatched the objects out of each

62 The NAMTA Journal • Vol. 41, No. 3 • Summer 2016

The main features of the child in stage two are:

1. The ability to make independent choices.

2. The ability to meet a challenge and repeat the activity.

3. The first signs of concentration.

4. The ability to complete a cycle of activity.

5. Points of consciousness, representations, games, and

The features of the work curve at stage two (figure 3) are:

฀ Some short periods of work. However, work periods are

฀ The child beginning to make choices of a challeng-

฀ The child tending to start each day with familiar work

฀ A pattern of work that often points to the child starting

Figure 3. Work curve for stage two.

O’Shaughnessy • The Observation Scientist 63

฀ This is followed by the main work of the day in which

฀ Usually the main work of the day is brought to

Montessori urges us not to intervene at this point and generally

To summarize stage two, we can state that we see preliminary

The main features of the child in stage three are that:

1. Work has become a habit.

2. Work is of a concentrated level over an extended

64 The NAMTA Journal • Vol. 41, No. 3 • Summer 2016