TEACHING AND LEARNING: EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

Rhonda Seamons—Learning Assessment Coordinator

Editor’s Note: The following Major Forum address was delivered

at BYU-Idaho on 18 July 2002.

I would like you to remember some of the experiences you had in

kindergarten. Remember the smell of the newly sharpened pencils, of
the purple ditto-master fluid, and of the chalk dust. See in your mind’s
eye that lovely box of sharp, full-length crayons with their wrappers still
on them and that row of children lining up for an assembly. Hear the
recess bell ringing on the playground, a chorus of children repeating the
Pledge of Allegiance, and the hum of the big clock on the wall. (Why
were school clocks always so noisy?) Imagine the feel of the cool desk
chair as you slid into it and the smooth, hard covers of the books in your
school’s library. Taste that white paste! (Don’t kid yourself; we all ate a
few fingerfuls of that stuff!)
You have been there and done that. You are an expert in being a
student. And you don’t just have one year of memories; all of you
have spent at least a decade in school. Some of you have almost
finished your second decade as a student. Now, if any of you ever
went back to your kindergarten classroom after becoming an adult,
you were probably surprised to discover that it was far smaller than Now, if any of you
you remembered as a child. You had grown taller. Your perspective
ever went back to
had changed. You may have experienced that on a physical level.
Today I’d like you to apply that principle on an intellectual level. your kindergarten
Today you are bigger and taller intellectually than you were at
five. I hope. We’re going to look at the teaching-learning process. classroom after

And we’re going to consider it from both a student’s perspective and becoming an adult,
a teacher’s perspective. You see, students don’t always view things
you were probably
the way that teachers view them. What you remember learning as a
student may not be exactly what your teacher remembers teaching.
surprised to
In America today there are six major teaching theories. As I present
discover that it was
them, you will have many “ah-ha!” experiences. You’ll think, “Oh, yeah,
Mrs. Jones did that in fifth grade!” You remember what Mrs. Jones did. far smaller than
Now you’re going to discover why she did it. You might even discover
you remembered
why someday, when you’re teaching your Elders Quorum or Relief
Society or your family, you may want to use Mrs. Jones’ approach!
as a child.

Social Reconstructionism
Each of the six theories flows from a particular world philosophy. For
instance, Social Reconstructionism comes to us from the philosophy of

conceptualizing and communicating • 1

 Idealism. The Greek philosopher Plato, living in the 4th century B.C.,
first formalized the philosophy of Idealism, which stresses the ideas
of the mind. Hence the name “Idealism.” Idealists believe in the
power of the unseen world. They believe in mind over matter.
The modern educational theory that flows from Idealism is Social
Reconstructionism, which holds that schools should be change agents,
free from all forms of discrimination, and concerned with issues of global
welfare. Rather than merely having their students read and talk about
the world’s problems, teachers of this theory encourage their students to
feel and to think about issues. They have their students spend time in
the community becoming immersed in problems and finding possible
solutions. Simultaneously, Social Reconstructionists challenge their
students to acquire strong moral values. One of the primary techniques
employed is simulation and debriefing.
Let me give an example. I once taught with a terrific teacher who
Social
loved the Social Reconstructionist approach. At the time, Mrs. Jeppeson
Reconstructionists was teaching fourth grade at J.A. Taylor Elementary School in
Centerville, Utah. In fourth grade, students learn about Utah history.
challenge their
They study the Anasazi and other Native American tribes. As part of her
students to acquire unit, Mrs. Jeppeson had her students turn their classroom into a cliff
dwelling. The children crumpled brown paper bags, rubbing them until
strong moral values.
they became soft like suede. They flattened the bags and attached them
to every surface in the classroom, making it look like a cave. The
students learned about the pictographs that many tribes used to record
significant events. Then they painted their own stories on their cave
wall. It really was a beautiful work of art.
One day after school when the cave was finished, Mrs. Jeppeson
took cans of spray paint and wrote graffiti all over her classroom
cave. The next morning the students were devastated. Their
beautiful cave had been defaced. They were furious. They
interrogated all of the teachers, learning nothing. They interrogated
the other students. Still nothing. At recess someone found a spray
paint can in the dumpster, which led to a fresh round of bullying
children on the playground to find out if anyone had seen anything.
Nothing came of their efforts. They were beside themselves.
Toward the end of the day, Mrs. Jeppeson called her class together for
the debriefing. She told them that the playground supervisors were
displeased with their behavior. She said she wanted to hear what their side
of the story was. They voiced their frustration at working so long and so
hard to create something beautiful only to have it destroyed by someone
who didn’t care. After hearing what they had to say, Mrs. Jeppeson gently
asked them how they supposed the real Native Americans must feel when
tourists visit their beautiful cave dwellings and put spray paint on

2• perspective
them … or carve their names in them … or steal parts of them. She never
told them what had happened, that she had deliberately ruined their cave.
That wasn’t the point of the lesson. She had wanted her students to learn
the value of respecting other people’s property, and she did it through
simulation and debriefing. The lesson was well-learned. Her students will
never forget what it felt like to be treated disrespectfully. They will think twice
before destroying other people’s property.
You can probably think of other examples of Social
Reconstructionism. Many of you have studied that classic blue
eye/brown eye simulation of slavery. That’s Social Reconstructionism.
Certainly, at some point in your elementary school experience, your
class created a mini-society complete with some form of currency. You
elected officers and made rules to practice running society. That’s Social
Reconstructionism. It’s a powerful way to teach.

B e h av i o r i s m
And it’s totally different than the theory of Behaviorism at the other
end of the card. Behaviorism finds its roots in Realism. Aristotle, one of
Plato’s pupils, was the father of Realism, which stresses the world of
nature or physical things. Rather than focusing on the ideas in the mind,
realists focus on the tangible things we can sense around us. They rely
heavily on the scientific method, on the systematic analysis of what is
observed. They believe the aim of education is to cultivate habits.
The basic principle of behaviorism is that education can best be
achieved by modifying student behavior through the use of rewards.
Behaviorists believe teachers should state a behavioral objective,
observe student behaviors, and distribute appropriate reinforcers. The basic principle
Behaviorists are big on performance skills and checklists.
of behaviorism is
In junior high school, I had a band teacher who was a
Behaviorist through and through. He loved calling out two names that education can
from one of the sections—like two clarinet players or two
best be achieved by
trombone players—and making us stand up and play the twelve
major scales in rapid succession. The student who played them modifying student
faster was given the higher chair, and the slower student would
behavior through the
take the lower one. Moving up a chair was a powerful reward.
Mr. Thomas also required us to enter a Solo and Ensemble Festival. use of rewards.
For those who have never been, I will explain the procedure. You (and a
friend or two, if you’re in an ensemble) stand before a panel of judges
and play a musical selection on your instrument. The judges evaluate
and critique everything from your posture to your breathing, from your
tonal quality to your use of dynamics. And then they give you a rating.
Our Festival judges made a 1+ the highest score, and it was nigh
impossible to achieve. Anything over a 1- brought tears of happiness.

conceptualizing and communicating • 3

 We would spend weeks practicing to earn a score in the 1 range. Weeks.
That’s Behaviorism.
You have certainly had teachers who practiced Behaviorism. Maybe
you have played Number Munchers, a math facts computer game
where one reward was advancing to the next level. After three rounds of
escaping the Troggles, you were additionally rewarded with a little
comedy sketch. You’ve been in Spelling Bees where the reward was
staying in while the others were eliminated. That’s Behaviorism, too.
The Pizza Hut Book-It Program and the Accelerated Reader Program
are other fine examples of Behaviorism. And they work—very well.

P e re n n i a l i s m
For many years there was a struggle between the philosophy of
Idealism and that of Realism. Eventually, Thomas Aquinas attempted to
reconcile the two. The philosophy he authored, known as Thomism, is
the official philosophy of the Roman Catholic Church. Thomists believe
that both ideas and tangible realities are important. Furthermore, they
believe that when reason fails, man must rely on faith. Thomists feel
Thomists feel that that school curriculum should contain both theology and liberal arts.
And so a “Catholic” theory of education arose—a theory known as
school curriculum
Perennialism. It focuses on the world’s permanencies: on God and on
should contain the classic works of history and literature. The Perennialist teacher feels
education should confront the problems and questions that have
both theology
challenged people over the centuries. And, for the Perennialist, this is
and liberal arts. primarily accomplished by reading and discussing the classics. As a
Perennialist would point out, if a problem was addressed by people in
the past, we can and should learn from them.
When have you experienced Perennialism? Well, perhaps
you were involved with the Junior Great Books program. In it
students read short stories by writers like Tolstoy or Hans
Christian Andersen. On a given day in groups with children and
parent volunteers, they discuss in amazing depth the elements
of the story: the characters, the plot, the setting, and the theme.
Perhaps your school didn’t do Junior Great Books. Still, you
must have had teachers who had you read chapters at home for
an in-class discussion—or an essay. My tenth grade American
History class was that way, as was my AP Biology experience.
When you want to expose students to the greatest thinking
mankind has to offer, Perennialism is the best approach.

4• perspective
Essentialism
The Reformers, men like Martin Luther and John Calvin, protested the
abuses of the Catholic Church. Not surprisingly their philosophy is called
Protestant Sectarianism. Like the Thomists the Protestants believed that
God exists and can be known by both faith and reason. Unlike the Catholics
who maintained a strong attachment to the past (like Latin, a rather dead
language), Protestants didn’t focus heavily on the “classics.” They focused
on what was essential for their day. So while formal schooling was important
to the establishment of a “priesthood of believers,” Reformers like Luther
thought academics should occupy only part of the day and vocational
training should occupy the rest.
Their theory of education became known as Essentialism, the Their theory
curriculum consisting of the “essentials”: reading, writing, and arithmetic.
of education
The primary method employed by Essentialists is the lecture and test.
Essentialists like the no-nonsense approach of just telling students what became known

they must know. And they usually like students to take notes during the
as Essentialism,
lecture—often in Roman outline form, if you know what I mean.
I remember the first teacher who introduced me to outlining a the curriculum

lecture. I was in Mr. Burrell’s sixth grade grammar class. He called

consisting of
us into the alcove (I went to a school without walls), handed us
squatty little notebooks, told us to copy everything he wrote into our the “essentials”:

“Notes,” turned to the chalkboard, and began to lecture on the eight

reading, writing,
parts of speech. And I neatly copied the information into my
notebook. I felt so mature. It was actually exciting. and arithmetic.
My AP European History teacher at Roy High School also used the
lecture format—exclusively. I never remember Miss Larkin using any
other method. And she was, without question, one of the best teachers I
ever had. History came alive in that class. I still remember her stories
about Robespierre and Rasputin. Wow! Many Essentialist teachers
incorporate visual aides into their lectures—you know, PowerPoint
presentations and video clips. Not Miss Larkin. She kept us spellbound
with just her personal charisma. She was an Essentialist teacher who
knew the power of that theory. Essentialists focus on presenting the
fundamentals—and doing it in a very direct fashion.

Existentialism
The next theory to develop was Existentialism, which arose in the
nineteenth century from the philosophy of Existentialism, which makes it
easy to remember. While some of the teachings seem a bit bleak,
Existentialism, more than any philosophy which preceded it, taught that we
must create our own meaning. Existentialists believe that we are
responsible for the choices we make. They believe students must choose to

conceptualizing and communicating • 5

 learn. A teacher cannot force knowledge into a student. A
teacher cannot arrange the conditions. At some point
ultimately the student must take that responsibility.
Existentialist teachers provide time for their students to do self-
reflection in journals because they value that part of the learning
process. They want their students to make personal meaning from
the education they are receiving. The main teaching strategy they
employ is independent research and presentation.
As an elementary school teacher, I used the Great Brain
program for independent research wherein students spend
about one month researching a topic of their choice both in
class and at home. When they are ready, they teach the class
what they have learned. The projects were incredible.
For instance, one student, Fantasia, asked if she could learn to
make porcelain dolls, a craft her grandmother enjoyed. Her hour-
long presentation showing dolls at each stage of the firing process
was delightful, and she even gave me a doll she helped make.
Another student, Jeff, asked if he could study planes. Now Jeff was
one of those quiet, artsy students. You know the type: they never say
anything, but their illustrated desktops are simply incredible to look at. I
figured he was going to draw a few planes and quietly hold them up for
us to look at, but I said, “Sure.” On the day of his presentation, Jeff
asked if he could set up during lunch recess. I gave him permission to
remain in the room, and I went out with my class. When we returned
some 40 minutes later, Jeff had suspended a dozen model airplanes
from the ceiling. He had positioned them in dogfights, doing all sorts of
aerial maneuvers. He had gone to Hill Air Force Base and had secured
a copy of the fighter plane silhouette book. With intense (and surprising)
animation, Jeff asked us to open the book at random. He could identify,
by silhouette, any plane in the world. He told us which country
manufactured it, which countries had access to it, how many mach it
could go, which ones had vertical lift-off. It was fascinating. He held us
Existentialism is
captivated for over an hour. That’s the power of independent research.
Maybe your school did a Science Fair, Math Fair, or Free Enterprise
probably the best Fair. In each case you did your research on your own and then came in
theory for teaching and made your presentation. Existentialism is probably the best theory
for teaching students to be independent and life-long learners.
students to be

independent and life- P ro g re s s i v i s m

The last theory is Progressivism, which comes from the philosophy of
long learners.
Pragmatism, the philosophy of twentieth-century America, which is,
“Whatever works.” For the Pragmatist, “reality is an event, a process, a verb.”
Pragmatists believe that learning should be centered around the interests

6• perspective
and needs of the child, and that it should be creative and fun. This is the
first philosophy to truly encourage “fun.” The theory of Progressivism
encourages cooperation, not competition. It is focused on problem-solving
in cooperative groups, and it makes use of peer evaluation and review. The theory of
I incorporated many cooperative learning activities in my class, projects
Progressivism
which integrated numerous subjects. One of my students’ favorites was our
doll house project. In math we were learning about scale and ratio. The encourages
students were placed in teams for building “dream houses” for a Barbie.
cooperation, not
They each drew plans on graph paper, and then they met to evaluate which
features they liked best. These were blended into a single set of blueprints. competition. It
They later enlarged the plans onto butcher paper, eventually tracing them
is focused on
onto plywood. Several parents took the boards home and cut the pieces.
The next week I handed out power drills and screwdrivers to my fifth problem-solving in

graders—and may I pause to point out that ten-year-olds are probably too
cooperative groups,
young to fully comprehend the use of power tools; a few desks in that room
were riddled with holes by the end of the day—and we assembled the and it makes use
houses. In art we learned about color theory, and they painted the homes. In
of peer evaluation
science we studied circuitry, and they wired them with electricity. They made
furniture and other interesting accessories for their elevators, helicopter and review.
launch pads, and swimming pools. And we eventually sold the houses at
auction for over $100 each. That’s cooperative learning. That’s
Progressivism: integrated subjects and fun!
I did other things, from Interplanetary Travel Companies to a
Children’s Museum for the Ancient Cradles of Civilization. Creative
Pursuit, in the state of Utah, is another fine example of Progressivism.
Kids like it, and they do learn from it. It does tend to be a bit noisier than
some of the other approaches, though. Power drills can be that way.

Mormonism
When I teach courses in educational theory, students here at BYU–
Idaho often ask, “Which theory of education does Mormonism use?” The
answer is not so obvious as you might think. The world believes we are
a protestant sect. They think we are Essentialists. And, frankly, if all you
see is Sacrament Meeting and General Conference, you might be
inclined to believe that all we do in this church is lecture. Fortunately,
there is more to the Mormon theory of education than that!
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints happily
teaches that all of the philosophies I have mentioned contain
some truth. In 1978 the First Presidency gave a statement
regarding God’s Love for All Mankind. In it they proclaimed:
The great religious leaders of the world such as Mohammed, Confucius, and the

Reformers, as well as philosophers including Socrates, Plato, and others, received

conceptualizing and communicating • 7

 a portion of God’s light. Moral truths were given to them by God to enlighten
whole nations and to bring a higher level of understanding to individuals.

All of the philosophies I have presented today, and all of

the theories that emerged from them, contain some truth.
Elder B.H. Roberts explained the doctrine this way:
While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is established for the
instruction of men; and it is one of God’s instrumentalities for making known the
truth; yet he is not limited to that institution for such purposes, neither in time nor
place. God raises up wise men and prophets here and there among all the
children of men, of their own tongue and nationality, speaking to them through
means that they can comprehend.… All the great teachers are servants

of God; among all nations and in all ages. They are inspired men,
appointed to instruct God’s children according to the conditions in
the midst of which he finds them.

The first prophet of this dispensation, Joseph Smith, often

expounded on our need to remain open to all available sources of divine
The first prophet of light and knowledge. As he put it, “One of the grand fundamental
principles of ‘Mormonism’ is to receive truth, let it come from whence it
this dispensation,
may.” He further exhorted Church members to “gather all the good and
Joseph Smith, often true principles in the world and treasure them.”
So, have we done it? Have we embraced the truth in these
expounded on our
theories? Of course! You can find each one of the theories of
need to remain education represented in some program of our Church:
open to all available Social Reconstructionism (Simulation and Debriefing)
Pioneer Trek
sources of divine
Fast Sunday
light and knowledge.
Existentialism (Independent Research and Presentations)
Lay Clergy (Preparing a talk)
Personal Scripture Study
Perennialism (Read and Discuss)
Sunday School
Relief Society and Priesthood
Family Scripture Study
Essentialism (Lecture and Test)
General Conference
Sacrament Meeting

Progressivism (Cooperative Learning and Peer Review)

Enrichment Meeting

8• perspective
 Family Home Evening
Behaviorism (Performance and Checklist)
YW Medallion and Duty to God Award
Temple Recommend Interviews

Education at BYU–Idaho
Of course, BYU–Idaho is a curious blend of education and
religion. Not surprisingly, you can also find each of the
theories of education represented here:
Social Reconstructionism (Simulation and Debriefing)
Internships
Practicums
Academic Travel
Student Teaching
Existentialism (Independent Research and Presentations)
Sketchbooks
FA 100
English 313 Journals
Religion
Perennialism (Read and Discuss)
Children’s Literature
Shakespeare
Esentialism (Lecture and Test)
American Heritage
General Education
Forums
Devotionals
Progressivism (Cooperative Learning and Peer Review)
Editing teams in your composition courses
Lab teams in some Science courses
Behaviorism (Performance and Checklist)
Expert Juries in Music
Swimming Class
Online Courses

conceptualizing and communicating • 9

 Learning and Teaching
Many strategies for teaching and learning are being used here. And
not just here; you have seen the different theories at work throughout
your schooling—even back in that kindergarten class we mentioned
earlier. A few years ago Robert Fulghum wrote what has become an
immensely popular book called All I Really Need to Know, I Learned in
Kindergarten. The book begins with these observations:

Most of what I really need to know about how to live, and what to do, and
how to be, I learned in kindergarten. Wisdom was not at the top of the
graduate school mountain, but there in the sand box at nursery school.
These are the things I learned. Share everything. Play fair. Don’t hit people.
Put things back where you found them. Clean up your own mess. Don’t take
things that aren’t yours. Say you are sorry when you hurt somebody. Wash
your hands before you eat. Flush. Warm cookies and cold milk are good for
you. Live a balanced life. Learn some and think some and draw some and
paint and sing and dance and play and work every day.

Take a nap every afternoon. When you go out in the world, watch for
traffic, hold hands, and stick together. Be aware of wonder. Remember
the little seed in the plastic cup? The roots go down and the plant goes
up and nobody really knows how or why. We are like that.

And then remember that book about Dick and Jane and the first
word you learned, the biggest word of all: LOOK! Everything you
need to know is there somewhere. The Golden Rule and love and
basic sanitation, ecology, and politics and sane living.

Think of what a better world it would be if we all, the whole world, had
cookies and milk about 3 o’clock every afternoon and then lay down
with our blankets for a nap. Or we had a basic policy in our nation and
other nations to always put things back where we found them and clean
up our own messes. And it is still true; no matter how old you are, when
While it is true that you go out in the world, it is best to hold hands and stick together.

we are instructed to Mr. Fulghum’s point is well made; the important themes of education
are introduced in kindergarten. And then, with the cyclical nature of a
be as little children
school’s curricular scope and sequence, those concepts are presented
in terms of faith and again and again, with ever-increasing complexity. And we should strive
to increase our understanding of those themes. While it is true that we
of being submissive,
are instructed to be as little children in terms of faith and of being
we are commanded submissive, we are commanded not to be as children in understanding.
As Paul put it in his epistle to the Corinthian saints, “Brethren, be not
not to be as children
children in understanding: howbeit in malice be ye children, but in
in understanding. understanding be men” (1 Corinthians 14:20).

10 • p e r s p e c t i v e
 Today, I have tried to help you achieve a deeper understanding
about the various teaching theories you have experienced over the
years. Hopefully, this will help you as you teach in the various
auxiliaries in the Church, or in your occupation, or in your home. You
should be able to say, “What am I trying to accomplish?” And, “What
method would be the best for doing it?”

conceptualizing and communicating • 11