RTFI Course Material PDF

PCN
RADIOGRAPHIC
FILM
I
NTERPRETATI
ON
(
RTFI)
MATERIAL
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CONTENTS
S.No Description Page No
1 Introduction 3-4
2 Making a Radiograph 5
3 Nature of Gamma Rays and X-Rays 6-19
4 Principle of Radiographic Technique ( Filters, screens, Film) 20-34
5 Effect of Developing condition 35-39
6 Geometric Principles 40-46
7 Unsatisfactory Radiographs 47-50
8 Sensitivity 51-57
9 Special Processing Techniques and Film Processing 57-94
10 Radiographic techniques 94-104
11 Interpretation of Radiographs 105-124
12 Radiation Safety 124-133
Radiographic Testing Page 2

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Introduction:
BASIC RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiographic testing usually requires exposing film to X rays or gamma rays that have penetrated
a specimen, processing the exposed film, and interpreting the resultant radiograph. There are many
variables in these procedures and successful completion of any test is dependent upon
understanding and control of the variables.
Radiography today is one of the most important, most versatile, of all the nondestructive test
methods used by modern industry. Employing highly penetrating x-rays, gamma rays, and other
forms of radiation that do not damage the part itself, radiography provides a permanent visible film
record of internal conditions, containing the basic information by which soundness can be
determined. In the 1980s decade alone, the evidence from millions of film records, or radiographs,
has enabled industry to assure product reliability; has provided the informational means of
preventing accidents and saving lives; and has been beneficial for the user.
Industrial radiography is tremendously versatile. Objects radiographed range in size from micro-
miniature electronic parts to mammoth missile components; in product composition through
virtually every known material; and in manufactured form over an enormously wide variety of
castings, weldments, and assemblies. Radiographic examination has been applied to organic and
inorganic materials, and to solids, liquids, and even gases.
Radiography is the first of the modern sophisticated methods of non-destructive testing (dating
back to 1895), has led hundreds of industries to put great confidence in the information that it
supplies.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
1. Advantages
Some of the advantages of radiographic testing as a quality assurance procedure are as follows:
a. Can be used with most materials.
b. Provides a permanent visual-image record of the test specimen on film when desired.
c. Reveals the discontinuities of a material.
d. Discloses fabrication errors and often indicates necessary corrective action.
e. Reveals assembly errors.
2. Limitations
There are both physical and economic limitations to the use of radiographic testing. Geometric-exposure
requirements make it impracticable to use radiographic testing on specimens of complex geometry. When
proper orientation of radiation source, specimen, and film cannot be obtained, radiographic testing is of little
use. Similarly, any specimen which does not lend itself readily to two-side accessibility cannot be inspected
by this method. Since radiographs are patterned by material density differences in the specimen, they are of
little value in detecting small discontinuities not parallel to the lines of radiation. Laminar-type discontinuities
are, therefore, often undetected by radiographic testing.
If laminar-type discontinuities are suspected in a specimen, the radiation source, the specimen, and the film
must be oriented to present the greatest possible discontinuity density to the rays. The greatest dimension of the
suspected discontinuity must be parallel to the radiation beam. Safety considerations imposed by X ray and
gamma ray use must also be considered as a limitation.
Compliance with safety regulations, mandatory in radiographic testing, is time consuming and requires
costly space utilization and construction practices. Radiographic testing is a relatively expensive means of
nondestructive testing. It is most economical when it is used to inspect easily handled material of simple
geometry with high rates of test. It becomes expensive when it is used to examine thick specimens that
require equipment of high-energy potential.

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DESTRUCTIVE AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

1. General
Specimens tested by destructive-test methods usually become bent, twisted, notched, chipped, or
broken during the testing and are worthless for further use. Consequently, destructive testing can test
only a certain portion of the articles fabricated and it must be assumed that the remainders are equal
in quality to those tested. Nondestructive testing, however, determines the quality of a specimen
without destroying it, permitting testing of all articles and materials that are to be used.
2. Nondestructive Test Methods
Five methods of nondestructive testing are currently in common use: magnetic particle, liquid
penetrant, eddy current, ultrasonic, and radiographic. Each method has peculiar capabilities and
limitations qualifying it for specific uses. In each instance of nondestructive test, it is necessary to
analyze the test specimen and determine which test method will best obtain the desired results. In
many instances, more than one method may be required.
TESTING PHILOSOPHY
The basic reason for nondestructive testing (NDT) is to assure maximum reliability of the finished
product. Since complex systems are fabricated from many articles that are readily tested by
radiography, it is the task of responsible personnel to determine whether radiographic test results
insure the required reliability. To accomplish this task, standards have been set and test results must
come up to these standards.
PERSONNEL
It is imperative that personnel responsible for radiographic testing be trained and highly qualified
with a technical understanding of the test equipment, the item under test (specimen), and the test
procedures. Quality assurance personnel must be equally qualified. To make optimum use of
radiography, NDT personnel conducting tests must continually keep abreast of new developments.
There is no substitute for knowledge.
TESTING CRITERIA
When required by appropriate documentation, every vehicle and support article must be tested
using applicable nondestructive testing techniques. The criteria is part of a building block test
philosophy that dictates that each item must be tested individually before it is required to perform
in subassemblies that are in turn tested individually before they are required to perform in
assemblies. Using this approach, unsatisfactory and faulty articles are discovered at the earliest
possible time, resulting in high system reliability and reduced cost.
TEST PROCEDURES
Approved procedures for radiographic testing are formulated from analysis of the test specimen,
review of past history, experience on like or similar specimens, and information available
concerning similar specimen defects. It is the responsibility of personnel conducting or checking a
test to insure that test procedures found to be incorrect or inadequate must be brought to the
attention of responsible supervision for correction and incorporation into revised procedures.
TEST OBJECTIVES
1. The objective of radiographic nondestructive testing is to insure product reliability by providing
a means of:
a. Obtaining a visual image of the interior of materials.
b. Disclosing the nature of material without impairing usefulness of the
material.
c. Separating acceptable and unacceptable material in accordance with predetermined
standards. d. Evidencing errors in manufacturing processes.
e. Revealing structural discontinuities, mechanical failures, and assembly
errors.
2. No test is successfully completed until an evaluation of the test results is made. Evaluation of
test procedures and results requires understanding of the test objective.

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SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Because radiation cannot be detected by any of the five senses, strict compliance with safety
regulations is required. Radiographic NDT processes require the use of X-ray and gamma-ray
sources generating great amounts of radiation. Radiation can cause damage to or destruction of the
cells of living tissue, so it is essential that personnel are adequately protected. Radiographic test and
quality assurance personnel must be continually aware of the radiation hazard and cognizant of safety
regulations. TAKE NO CHANCES.
MAKING A RADIOGRAPH
A radiograph is a photographic record produced by the passage of x-rays or gamma rays through an
object onto a film. See the figure No.1 below. When film is exposed to x-rays, gamma rays, or
light, an invisible change called a latent image is produced in the film emulsion.
The areas so exposed become dark when the film is immersed in a developing solution, the degree
of darkening depending on the amount of exposure. After development, the film is rinsed,
preferably in a special bath, to stop development.
The film is next put into a fixing bath, which dissolves the undarkened portions of the sensitive salt.
It is then washed to remove the fixer and dried so that it may be handled, interpreted, and filed. The
developing, fixing, and washing of the exposed film may be done either manually or in automated
processing equipment.
Figure: 1 - Basic set-up for conventional film radiography
Please note that the object must be placed between the Source and the Film.

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Instead of recording the variations of transmitted X-ray intensity on a film, other methods may
be used:
1. If the X-rays fall on to a fluorescent screen, the X-ray energy is converted to visible light and the
image of a specimen can be seen directly on the screen. This is fluoroscopy, also called real-time
radiography. Usually today, the fluorescent screen would be viewed either with a closed circuit
television camera, or would form part of an X-ray image intensifier.
2. Various radiation detectors can be used - counters, crystals, photodiodes, semiconductors, either
singly or as an array - and a series of point-by-point measurements used to build up an image.
3. Certain insulating materials can hold a surface electrostatic charge, which is partially discharged
on exposure to X-rays, and can be subsequently made visible - Ionography, Xeroradiography.
NATURE OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

X-rays and Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), as is light. Their
distinguishing feature is their extremely short wavelength-only about 1/10,000 that of light, or even
less. This characteristic is responsible for the ability of x-rays and Gamma rays to penetrate
materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light.
X-rays and Gamma rays exhibit all the properties of light, but in such a different degree as to modify
greatly their practical behavior. For example, light is refracted by glass and, consequently, is
capable of being focused by a lens in such instruments as cameras, microscopes, telescopes, and
spectacles. X-rays and Gamma rays are also refracted, but to such a very slight degree that the most
refined experiments are required to detect this phenomenon. Hence, it is impractical to focus x-rays
and Gamma rays.
It would be possible to illustrate the other similarities between x-rays and light but, for the most
part, the effects produced are so different--particularly their penetration--that it is preferable to
consider x-rays and gamma rays separately from other radiations. The figure 2 below shows their
location in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure: 2 - Wavelengths of Electromagnetic radiation
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The main properties of X and γ - rays

1. X-rays are invisible.
2. X-rays travel in straight lines and at the speed of light in free
space.
3. X-rays cannot be deflected by means of a lens or prism, although their path can be bent
(diffracted) by a crystalline grid.
4 .X-rays pass through matter, and are partly absorbed in transmission. The percentage of
absorption being a function of the matter density and thickness, and the wavelength of the
radiation. The degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter and the energy of the X-rays.
5 .X-rays are ionizing radiation; that is, they liberate electrons in matter.
6 .X-rays can impair or destroy living cells.
7. They are electromagnetic with energy inversely proportional to their
wavelength.
8. They have no electrical charge and no rest mass.
9. They are scattered by matter, the amount of scatter being a function of the matter density and
the wavelength of the radiation.
10. They can expose film by ionization.
11. They can produce fluorescence in certain materials.
12. They are invisible and incapable of detection by any of the Senses.
Gamma-rays (γ-rays)
Gamma-rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same physical nature as X-rays. They
have the same properties, but are not produced by an electrical apparatus; gamma- rays arise
instead from the disintegration of the atomic nuclei within some radioactive substances. The energy
of gamma-radiation emitted by a particular radioactive substance cannot be controlled; it depends
upon the nature of the radioactive source. Nor is its intensity controllable, since it is impossible to
alter the rate of disintegration of a radioactive substance. Like X-rays, gamma-rays are partially
absorbed during passage through a thickness of material, and so can be used to produce a
radiographic image.
Gamma-rays are usually emitted as line spectra - - i.e. a series of a few discrete energies.
X-ray Spectrum
The radiation which is emitted by an X-ray tube is heterogeneous; that is, it contains X-rays of a
number of wavelengths, in the form of a continuous spectrum with some superimposed spectrum
lines.
Figure.:3 - X-ray spectrum

X-ray spectrum - intensity/
wavelength distribution. The small
peaks are the
characteristic K and L radiation
of the target material.

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Table 1: - Effects of KV and MA
LOW MA HIGH MA
LOW kV LOW INTENSITY SOFT XRAYS HIGH INTENSITY SOFT XRA YS
LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY

HIGH kV
HARD XRA YS HARD XRAYS
Table 2: - Fundamental Particles

PARTICLE DESCRIPTION
A PARTICLE CARRYING A UNIT POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE. ITS MASS IS

PROTON
APPROXIMATELY ONE ATOMIC MASS UNIT.
A PARTICLE, ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL, HAVING APPROXIMATELY THE SAME MASS
NEUTRON
AS THE PROTON.
A PARTICLE CARRYING A UNIT NEGATIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE. ITS MASS IS
ELECTRON
1/1840 ATOMIC MASS UNIT.*
A PARTICLE CARRYING A UNIT POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE AND HAVING THE
POSITRON
SAME MASS AS AN ELECTRON.
* THE ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU) IS 1/12 THE MASS OF THE CARBON-12 ATOM.
X-ray and Gamma-ray Sources
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
X-rays are produced when electrons, traveling at high speed, collide with matter or change
direction. In the usual type of x-ray tube, an incandescent filament supplies the electrons and thus
forms the cathode, or negative electrode, of the tube. A high voltage applied to the tube drives the
electrons to the anode, or target. The sudden stopping of these rapidly moving electrons in the
surface of the target results in the generation of x-radiation.
The design and spacing of the electrodes and the degree of vacuum are such that no flow of
electrical charge between cathode and anode is possible until the filament is heated.
THE X-RAY TUBE

The figure 4 below is a schematic diagram of the essential parts of an x-ray tube. The filament is
heated by a current of several amperes from a low-voltage source, generally a small transformer.
The focusing cup serves to concentrate the stream of electrons on a small area of the target, called the
focal spot. This stream of electrons constitutes the tube current and is measured in milliamperes
Figure: 4 - Glass envelope X-ray tube

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Figure: 4a - Schematic diagram of an x-ray tube
COOLING
Circulation of oil in the interior of the anode is an effective method of carrying away the heat.
Where this method is not employed, the use of copper for the main body of the anode provides high
heat conductivity, and radiating fins on the end of the anode outside the tube transfer the heat to the
surrounding medium. The focal spot should be as small as conditions permit, in order to secure the
sharpest possible definition in the radiographic image. However, the smaller the focal spot, the less
energy it will withstand without damage. Manufacturers of x-ray tubes furnish data in the form of
charts indicating the kilovoltages and milliamperages that may be safely applied at various exposure
times. The life of any tube will be shortened considerably if it is not always operated within the rated
capacity.
FOCAL-SPOT SIZE
The principle of the line focus is used to provide a focal spot of small effective size, though the
actual focal area on the anode face may be fairly large, as illustrated in the figure 5 below. By
making the angle between the anode face and the central ray small, usually 20 degrees, the effective
area of the spot is only a fraction of its actual area. With the focal area in the form of a long
rectangle, the projected area in the direction of the central ray is square.

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Figure: 5 - Effective focal spot size
FLASH X-RAY MACHINES

Flash x-ray machines are designed to give extremely short (microsecond), extremely intense bursts
of x- radiation. They are intended for the radiography of objects in rapid motion or the study of
transient events. The high-voltage generators of these units give a very short pulse of high voltage,
commonly obtained by discharging a condenser across the primary of the high-voltage transformer.
The x-ray tubes themselves usually do not have a filament. Rather, the cathode is so designed that a
high electrical field "pulls" electrons from the metal of the cathode by a process known as field
emission, or cold emission. Momentary electron currents of hundreds or even thousands of
amperes--far beyond the capacity of a heated filament--can be obtained by this process.
HIGH-VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT
The betatron may be considered as a high-voltage transformer, in which the secondary consists of
electrons circulating in a doughnut-shaped vacuum tube placed between the poles of an
alternating current electromagnet that forms the primary. The circulating electrons, accelerated to
high speed by the changing magnetic field of the primary, are caused to impinge on a target within
the accelerating tube.

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In the linear accelerator, the electrons are accelerated to high velocities by means of a high-
frequency electrical wave that travels along the tube through which the electrons travel.
Both the betatron and the linear accelerator are used for the generation of x-radiation in the
multimillion-volt range.
Figure: 6 - Betatron, cross-section and "donut"
Figure: 7 - Linear Electron Accelerator (Linac)

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Table: 3 - Typical X-ray Machines and Their Applications
Maximum
Screens Applications and Approximate Thickness Limits
voltage (kV)
50 None Thin sections of most metals; moderate thickness of graphite and beryllium; small
electronic components; wood, plastics, etc.
150 None or lead 5-inch aluminum or equivalent. (See Equivalence Factors.)
foil 1-inch steel or equivalent.
Fluorescent 11/2-inch steel or equivalent. (See Equivalence Factors.)
300 Lead foil 3-inch steel or equivalent.
Fluorescent 4-inch steel or equivalent.
400 Lead foil 31/2-inch steel or equivalent.

Fluorescent 41/2-inch steel or equivalent.
8 to 25 MeV Lead foil 16-inch steel or equivalent

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APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF X-RAY APPARATUS

The various x-ray machines commercially available may be roughly classified according to their
maximum voltage. The choice among the various classes will depend on the type of work to be
done. The table above lists voltage ranges and applications of typical x-ray machines. The voltage
ranges are approximate since the exact voltage limits of machines vary from one manufacturer to
another. It should be emphasized that a table like the one above can serve only as the roughest sort
of guide, since x-ray machines differ in their specifications, and radiographic tasks differ in their
requirements.
X-ray machines may be either fixed or mobile, depending on the specific uses for which they are
intended. When the material to be radiographed is portable, the x-ray machine is usually
permanently located in a room protected against the escape of x-radiation. The x-ray tube itself is
frequently mounted on a stand allowing considerable freedom of movement. For the examination
of objects that are fixed or that are movable only with great difficulty, mobile x-ray machines may
be used. These may be truck-mounted for movement to various parts of a plant, or they may be
small and light enough to be carried onto scaffolding, through manholes, or even self-propelled to
pass through pipelines. Semiautomatic machines have been designed for the radiography of large
numbers of relatively small parts on a "production line" basis. During the course of an exposure, the
operator may arrange the parts to be radiographed at the next exposure, and remove those just
radiographed, with an obvious saving in time.
X-ray Output
With most X-ray sets, the output is measured in terms of the milliamperes current (mA) passing
through the X- ray tube. The exposure is therefore measured in (mA.minutes). With some modern
high energy equipment such as linacs, the X-ray output is given in radiation units, for example, R
per minute at one metre distance (Rmm).
The S.I. unit is rarely used for industrial equipment.

Radioactive Sources
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the property possessed by certain elements of emitting α, β and γ-rays.
Alpha (α) and beta (β) rays consist of particles carrying an electrical charge while gamma (γ) rays are
electromagnetic in nature. Up to 1934 only naturally-occurring radioactivity was known, but during
that year the physicists Joliot and Curie succeeded in producing an artificial radioactive substance for
the first time. In the early days, the quantities produced were too small for them to be considered for
industrial purposes, and they were employed only for laboratory experiments (in biology and
medicine).
From 1947 onwards it became possible to produce considerable quantities of radioactive isotopes
of certain elements during the atomic processes taking place in nuclear reactors. Artificial
radioactive isotopes, which emit γ-radiation and are suitable for non-destructive testing of
materials, are by-products of the atomic power industry, and can now be bought at reasonable
prices.
Natural radioactive sources

The elements from this group which have been used for the purposes of industrial radiography are
radium, radon and mesothorium. These give a very hard radiation, making them particularly suitable
for examining very thick objects.

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An advantage of radium is its very long half-life (1,622 years). The disadvantage of these sources is
that it is impossible to obtain them with dimensions small enough to give an adequate intensity, and
also their very high cost.
Natural radioactive sources are hardly, if ever, now used for industrial radiography. In some countries
their use is forbidden.
Artificial radioactive sources
Artificial radioactive substances are obtained by fission or irradiation in a nuclear reactor. It is
possible in this way to obtain isotopes in relatively large quantities and in a reason-ably pure state.
Among the factors deciding their value for non-destructive testing are the wavelength and intensity of
their radiation, their half-life and their specific activity; in fact, only a few of the many artificial radio-
isotopes available have been found to be suitable for radiography.
The "half-life" of a radioactive source

Gamma-ray sources gradually lose activity with time, the rate of decrease of activity depending on
the kind of radioactive material. For instance, the intensity of the radiation from a cobalt 60 source
decreases to half its original value in about 5 years; and that of an iridium 192 source, in about 70
days. Except in the case of radium, now little used in industrial radiography, this decrease in
emission necessitates more or less frequent revision of exposures and replacement of sources.
The "half-life" of a radioactive source is the period of time in which the intensity of the radiation
emitted will fall to one-half of its initial level.
Each radioactive element has its characteristic half-life: iridium-192, for example, has a half-life of
74 days, caesium-137: 30 years, while that of Cobalt-60 is 5.3 years, and that of ytterbium-169, 31 days.
After two half-lives - for example, 148 days with iridium-192, the strength of a 1 Ci source of iridium-
192 will be reduced to 0.25 Ci, and after three half-lives to 125 mCi, etc.
Decay curves for iridium 192. Left: Linear plot. Right: Logarithmic plot.

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Specific activity
A term often used in speaking of radioactive sources is specific activity, a measure of the degree of
concentration of a radioactive source. Specific activity is usually expressed in terms of curies per
gram. Of two gamma-ray sources of the same material and activity, the one having the greater
specific activity will be the smaller in actual physical size. Thus, the source of higher specific
activity will suffer less from self- absorption of its own gamma radiation. In addition, it will give
less geometrical unsharpness in the radiograph or, alternatively, will allow shorter source-film
distances and shorter exposures.
The specific activity of a radioactive source is the activity of 1 gram of this substance ex-pressed
as Becquerel's (Bq), or Ci/g. For a given number of Becquerel's, the dimensions of a radioactive
source will be governed by its specific activity.
Activity (Source Strength)

The activity of a radioactive substance is given by the number of atoms of the substance which
disintegrate in a given time. This is measured in Becquerel's (Bq). The Becquerel is "the quantity of any
radioactive substance in which the number of disintegrations is 1 per second" (1 Bq = 1/s). The older
unit of source strength (the curie, Ci) is still very widely used.
The intensity of gamma radiation depends on the activity-1(strength) of the particular source used.
This, in turn, is usually given in terms of curies (1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010s ). For small or moderate-sized
sources emitting penetrating gamma rays, the intensity of radiation emitted from the source is
proportional to the source activity in curies. The proportionality between the external gamma-ray
intensity and the number of curies fails, however, for large sources or for those emitting relatively
low-energy gamma rays. In these latter cases, gamma radiation given off by atoms in the middle of
the source will be appreciably absorbed (self- absorption) by the overlying radioactive material
itself. Thus, the intensity of the useful radiation will be reduced to some value below that which
would be calculated from the number of curies and the radiation output of a physically small
gamma-ray source.
Specific Gamma-ray Emission

A very useful unit in radiography is the radiation output per curie measured at a fixed distance. For
radio- isotope sources the Rhm (roentgens per hour at one metre) is usually used, but the specific
gamma-ray emission or K-factor, measured at one centimetre distance from a 1 mCi source is also
sometimes used.
GAMMA-RAY SOURCES
Radiography with gamma rays has the advantages of simplicity of the apparatus used, compactness
of the radiation source, and independence from outside power. This facilitates the examination of
pipe, pressure vessels, and other assemblies in which access to the interior is difficult; field
radiography of structures remote from power supplies; and radiography in confined spaces, as on
shipboard.
In contradistinction to x-ray machines, which emit a broad band of wavelengths, gamma-ray

sources emit one or a few discrete wavelengths. The figure below shows the gamma-ray spectrum
of cobalt 60 and the principal gamma rays of iridium 192. (The most intense line in each spectrum
has been assigned an intensity of 1.0.).
Note that gamma rays are most often specified in terms of the energy of the individual photon, rather
than in the wavelength. The unit of energy used is the electron volt (eV)--an amount of energy
equal to the kinetic energy an electron attains in falling through a potential difference of 1 volt. For
gamma rays, multiples-- kiloelectron volts (keV; 1 keV = 1,000 eV) or million electron volts
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(MeV; 1 MeV = 1,000,000 eV)--are commonly used. A gamma ray with an energy of 0.5 MeV
(500 keV) is equivalent in wavelength and in penetrating power to the most penetrating radiation
emitted by an x-ray tube operating at 500 kV. The bulk of the radiation emitted by such an x-ray
tube will be much less penetrating (much softer) than this. Thus the radiations from cobalt 60, for
example, with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, will have a penetrating power (hardness) about equal
to that of the radiation from a 2-million-volt x-ray machine.
Figure: 8 - Gamma-ray spectrum of cobalt 60 (solid lines) and principal gamma rays of iridium 192
(dashed lines).
The gamma rays from cobalt 60 have relatively great penetrating power and can be used, under
some conditions, to radiograph sections of steel 9 inches thick, or the equivalent. Radiations from
other radioactive materials have lower energies; for example, iridium 192 emits radiations roughly
equivalent to the x-rays emitted by a conventional x-ray tube operating at about 600 kV.
Following table shows the radio-isotopes in common use for industrial radiography. By far the
most commonly used of these are cobalt-60 and iridium-192. In the past, tantalum-182 and caesium-
134 have also been used.
The gamma-ray spectra of these five radio-isotopes are:

caesium-137 : a single energy line of 0.66 MeV
cobalt-60 two lines of energies 1.17 and 1.34 MeV
iridium-192 : about ten spectrum lines of different intensities, the most important being 0.3, 0.31, 0.32, 0.47 MeV
ytterbium-169 about six spectrum lines, the most important being 0.06, 0,2 MeV
thulium-170 : this is a special case: there are two low energy spectrum lines, 0.052, 0.084 MeV; but two high
energy beta-particles are also emitted which can be re-absorbed or partly re-absorbed in the pellet of
thulium, to emit a continuous background of radiation of peak energy 0,9 MeV and mean energy 0.16
MeV.
The relative intensity of this background radiation depends on the physical size of the source and in
some sources it is responsible for most of the radiation emitted. This background radiation is
sometimes known as "bremsstrahlung".

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From this spectral data it will be seen that Co-60, it-192, Cs-137 are all high energy sources; Yb-169 is
a low energy source and therefore more suitable for the radiography of thin specimens; Tm-170 can
be either high energy or low energy, depending on the intensity of the bremsstrahlung, but usually
this higher energy radiation is predominant.
All gamma-ray sources are purchased as sealed sources in which the radioactive material is
encapsulated by the Atomic Energy Authority of the supplying country. The sealed source cannot of
course be handled with impunity, because it is emitting radiation continuously, and for
transportation and use it must be surrounded by a volume of absorbing material - the storage or
exposure container, or handled by remote manipulation. Transport and exposure containers are
available which can either be opened to emit a controlled beam of gamma-rays, or from which a
source is moved from a storage site to an exposure position by, for example, a Teleflex cable. An
exposure container must be robust and preferably "fail/safe" in design, and there are national and
international regulations on container design (e.g. IS0:2855; BS:3895:1976).
Table:4 - Radio-isotopes in common use for industrial radiography

Radiation Output Energy of Half-value
Mass
Element Symbol number Haft-fife in R per hr per Ci at 1 m Spectrum layer of lead
distance lines (in MeV) (mm)
Caesium Cs 137 30 years 0.37 0.66 8.4
Cobalt Co 60 5.3 years 1.30 1.17,1.33 13
Iridium Ir 192 74 days 0.50 0.13-0.9 4.8
Ytterbium Yb 169 31 days 0.125 0.06-0.31 0.88

0.052,
Thulium Tm 170 127 days 0.0025**
0.084
Selenium Se 75 120 days 0.203 0.066, 0.401 1
Notes
* These gamma-ray spectrum lines are superimposed on a continuous spectrum of radiation of
energy up to 0.9 MeV due to re-absorption of internal electrons.
* * Because of self-absorption effects in the radioactive pellet this value varies with the physical
shape and size of the source.
The advantages of using gamma-rays for radiography, rather than X-rays are:
1. they need no electric power supply and no cooling system, so that they are very easy to use
on a work-site;
2. they can be obtained in a range of source diameters. so that if necessary a very short source-
to-film distance with a small diameter source can be used. for ex-ample, inside a pipe;
3. some radio-isotopes have a very high penetrating power, which makes it possible to
obtain satisfactory radiographs of very thick metal specimens.
The disadvantages of using gamma-rays are:

1. the most commonly-used radio-isotopes (Co-60, lr-192) give less contrasty images on
most specimens than the appropriate energy of X-rays, because of their high energy
radiation; this makes the radiographs less sensitive and more difficult to interpret;
2. the only gamma-ray source which will give good radiographs on thin steel specimens is Yb-
169, which has rather a short half-life;

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3. as it is impossible to switch off the radiation emitted by radioactive sources; they have to be
effectively shielded. With sources whose radiation is very penetrating and/or intense, the shielding
needed may be quite heavy;
4. the radiation from radioactive sources cannot be adjusted in nergy.
The principle application of ytterbium-169 sources, which are a relatively new development, has been
for the examination of circumferential welds in small-bore steel pipes. By using a very small diameter
source (0.3 or 0.5 mm) and inserting it along the centre-line of the pipe, with a film wrapped round
the outside, the whole weld can be examined in one exposure. Because the source is small an
acceptable geometric unsharpness (see Section 7.1) can be obtained, and because the source-to-film
distance is very small (30 mm or less) the exposure-time is short in spite of the low strength of the
source.
Because of the relatively low energy of ytterbium -169 radiation, containers for these sources can be
very small and light in weight.
Figure: 8 - Gamma-ray exposure container with rotating internal cylinder
Figure: 9 - Gamma-ray storage container, from which the source can be moved out, by Teleflex
cable, along a flexible tube, to an exposure site.

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Figure: 10 - Image and non-image forming radiation. Only the radiation traveling along SDP, SEP
forms an image of the defect, at P. The radiation SAA'P, SPB, SCP, SFP is scatter and non-image-
forming.
Typical industrial gamma-ray arrangement

Figure: 11 - Gamma-ray source in a combination "camera" and storage container.

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Table:5 - Industrial Gamma-Ray Sources and Their Applications
Applications and Approximate Practical Thickness

Source Limits
Thulium 170 Plastics, wood, light alloys. 1/2-inch steel or equivalent.
Iridium 192 11/2- to 21/2-inch steel or equivalent. 1 to
Cesium 137 31/2-inch steel or equivalent. 21/2- to 9-
Cobalt 60 inch steel or equivalent.
Selenium 75 5-30mm in steel or equivalent
The Principles of Radiographic Techniques

Most applications of industrial radiography use radiographic film as the detecting / recording
medium, and these methods will be considered in this chapter.
The radiation image and the image on the film

The intensity of a beam of X-rays or gamma-rays undergoes local attenuation as it passes through
a specimen, due to absorption and scattering of the radiation. As a result, the beam emerging from
the specimen contains, at the surface of the film, areas of differing intensities which make up the
radiation image. When the film is processed these variations are shown as varying film densities - a
high radiation intensity produces a higher film density, etc.
The quality of the radiograph can be severely affected by scattered radiation, and it is important to
keep its effects to a minimum.

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When the primary X-ray beam is partly absorbed in the specimen some radiation is scattered and so
can reach points on the film by an indirect path (Fig. 18). At any point on the film, therefore, the total
radiation reaching that point is made up of some transmitted primary radiation forming the image of
the defect - the "image-forming" or direct radiation, intensity ID - and some indirect, "non-image-
forming", scattered radiation, intensity Is , the total radiation intensity at that point being (ID + Is).
The ratio (ID + Is)/lD = (1 + Is/lD) is called the build-up factor, and is of considerable importance
in studies of attainable radiographic sensitivity. It usually has a value between 2 and 20, depending
on the radiation energy and the specimen thickness, and is much less with very high energy
radiation.
It must also be appreciated that every object in the neighborhood of the object being examined (table,
walls, ground and so on) which is struck by the gamma or X-rays will partially reflect these rays in
the form of back-scatter which is liable to fog the film. The back scatter coming from nearby objects
can be quite substantial in relation to the radiation passing through the object being radiographed.
Scatter is less penetrating than the primary radiation from which it is derived and can be intercepted
by a metallic filter be-fore it reaches the film. Scattered radiation coming from objects under the
film can be intercepted by means of a protective sheet of lead, and the rear face of metal film
cassettes do in fact often incorporate a sheet of lead foil.
Other scatter problems arise with cylindrical specimens, when scatter from one specimen to the
next can be eliminated with lead strips between the specimens (Fig, 12). The effects of scattered
radiation can be reduced by:
1. Keeping the size of the X-ray beam to a minimum, by the use of a diaphragm or localizing
cone (Fig. 12);
2. by using masks around the edges of the specimen.
Figure: 12 - .
Scattered radiation. Radiography of
cylindrical specimens. Scattered
radiation from specimen 1 causes a
spurious band at a, etc. .. unless
lead strips as shown below are used.

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Filters
Radiographic filters can also be used to reduce the effects of scattered radiation and the filter may be
placed either close to the X-ray tube (on the diaphragm) or between the specimen and the film
cassette, as shown in Fig. 13. The filter is usually a sheet of lead or copper of a thickness to match
the X-ray energy. in practice if a filter is to be close to the film, a thick front lead intensifying
screen is effectively a filter and intensifying screen.
Filter placed between the X-ray source and the object

In this case there is an effective "hardening" of the incident X-rays, leading to a lower image
contrast, which may be counter-balanced by a reduction in scattered radiation, with an overall
improvement in image quality.
Filter placed between the object and the film

If a sheet of lead, or a sandwich of lead and tin sheets, is placed immediately behind the object
being radiographed (i.e. between the object and the film) the scatter passing through the object will be
absorbed by the filter to a greater extent than the primary radiation.
This selective absorption is due to two factors:

1 . the absorbing capacity of the filter is greater for soft rays than for the more penetrating
direct, image-forming radiation:
2. as scattered radiation passes through the filter at an oblique angle, its path through the filter is
longer than that of the direct radiation, and more absorption occurs.
Figure: 13 - Minimization of
scattered radiation :
diaphragm: mask:
collimator : lead backing.
This greater degree of absorption of the scattered radiation results in a decrease of the scatter ratio.
If the edge of the object being radiographed is not close to the film (as in the case of a cylindrical
body) it is possible for considerable scatter of the primary radiation to occur, leading to fogging. In
this case it is much better to position the filter between the object and the film.
Reducing the contrast by filtration is also desirable when a radiographic image of an object of widely-
varying thickness has to be obtained on a single film. In lowering the contrast of the radiation image,
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over-exposure behind the thin sections of the subject and/or under-exposure behind the thick sections
can be avoided.
If the filter is placed between the object and the film, it must be quite free of scratches or
irregularities; these will be visible on the film and could lead to errors in reading the radiographs.
Typical filter thicknesses are

0.25 - 0.5 mm lead for 200 kV X-rays
0.6 - 1.0 mm lead, with 400 kV X-rays.
Filters are rarely used with high energy X-rays or with gamma-rays, although in some cases it has
been found advantageous to use thick intensifying screens
Figure: 14a - Radiation of casting taken without lead Figure: 14b - Radiation of casting taken with lead intensifying
intensifying screens screens.
Intensifying screens
X-ray and other photographic films are sensitive to the direct action of the x-rays, but the
photographic effect can be increased very appreciably, and exposure time can be decreased by the
use of an intensifying screen in contact with each side of the film.
One form of intensifying screen consists of lead foil, or a thin layer of a lead compound evenly
coated on a paper backing. Under the excitation of x-rays of short wavelength and gamma rays, lead
is a good emitter of electrons, which expose the sensitive film, thus increasing the total photographic
effect.
Another form of intensifying screen consists of a powdered fluorescent chemical--for example,

calcium tungstate, mixed with a suitable binder and coated on cardboard or plastic. Its action
depends on the fact that it converts some of the x-ray energy into light, to which the film is very
sensitive.
The decision as to the type of screen to be used-or whether a screen is to be used at all-depends on a
variety of circumstances.
The degree of photographic effect of the gamma or X-rays depends upon the amount of radiation
energy absorbed by the sensitized coatings of the film; this is of the order of 1 % for radiation of
medium penetrating power. The remaining radiation passes through the film and is consequently
not used. To overcome this, the film is sandwiched between two intensifying screens. Under the
action of the gamma or X-rays these screens either fluoresce (fluorescent intensifying screens - salt
screens) or emit electrons (lead screens), and the result is an extra photographic effect upon the
film emulsion layers.
Close contact between the film and the screens is essential in order to obtain sharp images.

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Lead intensifying screens
These are made up from a thin sheet of lead foil (which is specially uniform in structure) stuck
on to a thin base such as a sheet of paper or card. Two lead screens are used; the thickness of the
front screen must be matched to the hardness of the radiation being used, so that it will pass the
primary radiation while stopping as much as possible of the secondary radiation (which is less
penetrating and has a longer wavelength). The screen is usually 0.02 to 0.15 mm thick. The back
screen is usually thicker (0.25 mm), but the thickness is not critical.
The metallic surface of lead screens is polished, to allow as close a contact as possible with the
surface of the film. Flaws such as scratches or cracks on the surface of the metal will be visible on
the radiograph.
Lead screens emit 3-particles (electrons) to which the film is sensitive. With lead screens there is
a partial absorption of primary radiation by the front screen, and there is a greater absorption of all
"soft" radiation and scattered radiation; that is, the front intensifying screen acts as a filter as well
as an intensifying screen.
The overall effect of using lead or metal intensifying screens is therefore that
1) There is an improvement in the contrast of image detail, due to the reduction of scatter.
2) There is a decrease in the exposure-time when the intensifying effect is greater than the
attenuation produced by the absorption in the front screen. The intensification factor obtained
with lead screens is seldom greater than 5, and the intensifying action is only achieved with X-
rays above 120 kV.
There are sometimes cases, using X-rays below 120 kV, when the filtering action of a front screen
is useful even though there is no intensifying effect. X-ray film is also marketed in paper
envelopes with built-in lead screens, (STRUCTURIX ROLLPAC, STRUCTURIX VACUPAC),
the latter being vacuum-packed to ensure perfect emulsion-to- screen contact.
For certain radiations, lead is not the best material for metal intensifying screens. With cobalt-60
gamma-rays. copper or steel screens have been shown to produce better quality radiographs than
lead screens, but they require a longer exposure-time (x2) With mega-voltage X-rays in the energy
range 5-8 MeV, thick copper screens produce better radio-graphs than lead screens of any
thickness, and in the 15-31 MeV range, tantalum and tungsten screens are to be preferred, usually
using a front screen only, with no back screen.
Fluorescent intensifying screens (Salt Screens)

Fluorescent intensifying screens consist of a thin, flexible base coated with a fluorescent layer
made up from micro-crystals of a suitable metallic salt, (usually calcium tungstate).
When subjected to X-rays the screen emits fight to which the film is sensitive. The light intensity
is in direct proportion to the X-radiation intensity and produces a very large screen intensification
effect on the film. Because of the loss of image quality they cause, salt screens are very rarely used
in industrial radiography, although there has recently been a resurgence of interest in them for a
special application (projected image radiography with a microfocus X-ray tube - see Section 13.3).
Fluorometallic screens
Apart from fluorescent and lead intensifying screens, there are also fluorometallic screens, which
to a certain extent combine the advantages of lead and fluorescent intensifying screens. These
screens are provided with a lead foil between the base and the fluorescent layer.
The amount of intensification achieved with these screens largely depends on the spectral
sensitivity of the X-ray film used to the light emitted by the screens, on the exposure-time, and on
the temperature.

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To achieve satisfactory radiographs with fluorometallic screens, these screens must be used with
the appropriate radiographic film (STRUCTURIX RCF film with RCF screens). When used
correctly, a reduction in exposure-time of up to x10 can be obtained, compared with lead screens,
but this is not a constant increase in speed which is obtainable with all radiation energies and all
exposure-times.
SCATTERED RADIATION
It is a property of all materials not only to absorb and transmit x-rays and gamma rays in varying
degrees, but also to scatter them--as radiation of longer wavelength--in all directions. In radiography,
the film receives scattered radiation from the object, the film holder, and any other material in the
path of the primary x-ray beam. The effect is to diminish the contrast, detail, and clarity of the
radiographic image. Lead screens, in contact with the film, lessen the relative effect of this longer-
wavelength scattered radiation. Under some circumstances, a filter of copper or lead, placed
between the x-ray tube and the object, or between the object and the film, diminishes the effect of
scattered radiation on the film. A lead mask that limits the volume of matter exposed to the primary
radiation is sometimes helpful in lessening scatter.
The radiographic film

The use of X-ray films calls for an adequate knowledge of sensitometry. This is the science which
studies the photographic properties of a film, and the methods enabling these to be measured.
The relationship existing between the photographic densities on the film (after development under
carefully- defined conditions) and the exposures which have produced them is represented in
sensitometry by a graph known as the characteristic curve".
It is necessary at this stage to describe the structure of the X-ray film and to define some of the
terms used in sensitometry.
Structure of an X-ray film
An X-ray film is made up of seven layers (Fig. 14):
1. a cellulose triacetate or polyester base, (d)
2. on both sides of this base are applied:
a layer of hardened gelatin to protect the emulsion,
(a) a layer of emulsion,
(b), composed mainly of silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin, and
a very thin layer called the substratum,
(c), which ensures that the emulsion layer adheres to the base.
Fig. 14 Cross-section of radiographic film
The normal X-ray film therefore has two coatings of emulsion, resulting in higher speed and mare contrasty
images.

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Latent image
When light or X-radiation strikes a sensitive emulsion, the portions receiving a sufficient quantity
of radiation undergo a change extremely small particles of silver halide crystals are converted into
metallic silver. These traces of silver are so minute that the sensitive layer remains to all appearances
unchanged.
The number of silver particles produced is higher in the portions struck by a greater quantity of
radiation and less high were struck by a lesser quantity. In this manner a complete, though as yet
invisible, image is formed in the light-sensitive layer when exposure takes place, and this image is
called the "Latent image".
Development
Development is the treatment by which a latent image is converted into a visible image. This result is
obtained by selective reduction into black metallic silver of the silver halide crystals in the
emulsion, which form the latent image, and carry traces of metallic silver. Several substances can
reduce the exposed silver halides to metallic silver: These are called "developing agents"
Developers are aqueous solutions which, in addition to developing agents, contain other substances
which each have their own distinctive function. All ordinary developers contain the following
essential constituents:
CONSTITUENTS
Developing agent(s)
The developing agent reduces the exposed silver halide grains to metallic silver. The various
developing agents all have their own characteristics. The result is influenced by the nature of the
developing agent used, but also depends upon the nature and quantity of the other chemicals added
Generally speaking a combination of developing agents is used, mainly Metol-hydroquinone or
Phenidone-hydroquinone.
Chemicals in common use

Metol
Hydroquinone
Phenidone
Glycin
Pyro-catechin
Amidel
Para-phenylenediamine
Accelerator
This is a chemical possessing an alkaline reaction, which speeds up development.
Sodium carbonate Potassium carbonate Borax
Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide
Preservative
This substance prevents the oxidation of the developer and hinders the formation of colored
oxidation products both in preparation and use. Sodium sulphite (preservative) gives an alkaline
reaction. It follows therefore that in the case of certain developers the addition of another substance
having an alkaline reaction (accelerator) is superfluous.
Sodium sulphite
Restrainer
Although only to a very small extent, all developers act also on the silver halide grains which have
not been affected by light, the slight grey even veil that is formed being called development fog. As
a result of the action of the restrainer, the formation of this fog takes place much more slowly than
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that of the photographic image. In this way the fog produced during the course of development does
not reach an obstructive level.
Potassium bromide.
Density (photographic)
When a photographic film is placed an illuminated screen for inspection, it will be observed that the
image is made up of areas of different brightnesses, dependent on the local densities of the developed
emulsion.
Photographic density (0) is defined as the logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of the incident light and
the transmitted light through the film:
Density, D = Intensity of incident light
Intensity of transmitted light
Contrast
The contrast of an image is the relative brightness between the image and the adjacent
background.
The contrast between the two densities on a film, for example, an image and the back-ground, is
the density difference between them and is usually termed the "radiographic contrast
Film contrast, or emulsion contrast, are rather vague terms used to describe the overall contrast
inherent in a particular type of film. Thus, when an emulsion increases most of the image contrasts
present, it is said to be of "high contrast" or "hard".
For the measurement of film contrast, the term "film gradient" is to be preferred and the usual
symbol is Go, the suffix D being the density at which G is measured.
Exposure
By exposure (symbol E) is meant the dose of radiation striking the emulsion, that is to say the
intensity (symbol 1) of incident radiation, multiplied by the exposure time (symbol t). Thus we get
E=I/t.
Characteristic curve
Density obtained in a photographic emulsion does not necessarily vary linearly with the applied
exposure. The relation between different exposures and density is not usually plotted on a linear scale
but on a density log10 (exposure) scale and the curve obtained is called the "characteristic curve" of
the film, or the "density curve".
This curve is obtained by applying increasing exposures to a series of successive areas of a strip of
emulsion (on film, plate or paper). After development, the densities (D) are measured (by means of a
densitometer) and then plotted against the logarithmic values of the- corresponding exposures
(log10E). The points obtained are then joined together by a continuous line. It should be pointed out
that both the density axis (vertical) and the horizontal (exposure) axis of the characteristic curve
are calibrated in logarithmic scales. This manner of representing the curve is the most practical both
from the point of view of the dimensions of the graph and its application in practice.
It is not necessary to know the absolute exposure values; relative exposure values can be used (i.e.
exposure-time for a fixed X-ray intensity).
The characteristic curve is generally shaped like an oblique elongated S (see Fig. 14). The lower part
of the curve (ab) is called the "toe", the middle part (bc) is called the "straight-line portion", and the
upper part (cd) is called the "shoulder".

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The shoulder of a characteristic curve relating to direct type emulsions intended for use with metal
intensifying screens will, with normal processing, correspond to densities very much higher than 4.
Since such densities are too high for normal film viewing, the shoulder of the curve in Fig. 14 is
shown as a broken line.
It should be noted that the "straight-line" portion (bc) is not truly straight, but continues the upward
trend of the toe of the curve (Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 Characteristic curve : the "straight-line" portion is Fig.15 Characteristic curve : av er ag e gradient = alb.
only approximately straight : gradient, G D= a/b.
Gradient
The slope of the characteristic curve at any given point is equal to the slope of the tan-gent at this
point (a/b in Fig. 15). This slope is called the film gradient Go, sometimes called the "film contrast".
The slope alb (see Fig. 15) of the straight line connecting two points on a characteristic curve is
equal to the "average gradient" of the segment of the curve linking these two points. The average
gradient of a segment of the characteristic curve represents the mean of all the gradients in this
segment. ISO (ISO/DIS 7004) recommend using "ISO Average Gradient" between densities 3.50 and
1.50 as a standard characteristic of a radiographic film.
The maximum gradient of a characteristic curve is called the film "gamma". This term is only of value
with exposures to light (e.g. fluorescent screen type film) where the shoulder of the characteristic
curve occurs at film densities within the useful density range. It is not useful for films used with metal
intensifying screens.
From the characteristic curve of a film, the point-by-point values of gradient Go can be measured
and a gradient-density curve produced (Fig. 16).

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Fig. 16 Gradient-density curves for

typical radiography (direct type) films. A- very
fine-grain film. B- fine-grain film.
C- medium-grain film.
From the shape of these G-D curves, which are broadly similar for all radiographic films used with
metal intensifying screens, it is clear that the film gradient increases with in-creasing density, and
continues to increase to densities which are much greater than can be examined on a conventional
illuminated screen. If one requires high contrast on a radiograph, therefore, it is necessary to use the
highest density radiograph which one can satisfactorily view. Most codes of good practice ask for
densities between 2.0 and 3.0 in the relevant area of the image (see also "Viewing Conditions"),
Table 5 shows the loss in contrast on a typical film as the density is reduced below 3.0.
Table 5. Contrast loss with reduced film density.
Density Film contrast as a % of the value
at density 3.0
3.0 100
2.5 85
2.0 71
1.5 54
1.0 35
A simple illustration of the effect of film density on defect sensitivity is shown in Fig. 27. Using a
typical radiographic film characteristic curve, suppose a plate specimen containing a small step is
radiographed with an exposure-time which produces the two densities A, B on the film (position 1);
the metal step thickness is shown on the radiograph by the density difference (B-A).
If now, using the same type of film and the same X-ray kilo-voltage, a longer exposure time is
given, this has the effect of moving the radiograph along the log E axis to position 2, and because
of the shape of the characteristic curve the metal step is now shown on the radiograph by density
difference (D-C) , which is clearly greater than (B-A); that is, the radiograph shows more contrast.
Film Speed
There is no widely accepted method of measuring the film speed of radiographic films and no films
ye: carry a recognized speed number.
ISO (ISO/DIS 7004) have proposed an "ISO speed" which is defined as (1 /100X5), where Xs is
the exposure, measured in coulombs per kg (1 C/kg = 3876 R) to produce a density of 2.00 above
(base + fog) density: using a specific processing technique.
Clearly, the only real difficulty in determining such a speed rating is the measurement of the
radiation dose, but so tar no film manufacturer publishes ISO Speed values.

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Graininess
The visual appearance of the lack of homogeneity of density on a processed radiograph is called
"graininess" and an instrumental measurement of the same phenomenon is called "granularity".
Both are very difficult to measure consistently and quantitative values for radiographic films are
almost non-existent.
Radiographic films are described qualitatively as "ultra-fine-grain", "very-fine-grain", "fine-grain",

"medium-grain", or very slow, slow, medium-speed, fast, etc.
Because the quality of a radiographic image depends on film parameters such as graininess, which
can only be measured in specialized photographic laboratories. Various attempts nave been made
to relate these parameters to image quality, using special test objects.
TYPES OF FILM
Several special types of x-ray film have been designed for the radiography of materials. Some types
work best with lead screens, or without screens. Other types are intended primarily for use with
fluorescent intensifying screens. X-ray films are commonly coated with emulsion on both sides of
the support--the superposition of the radiographic images of the two emulsion layers doubles the
density and hence greatly increases the speed. X-ray films coated on one side only (single-coated
films) are available for use when the superposed images in two emulsions might cause confusion.

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Most radiographic film manufacturers market a range of films for use " with metal intensifying
screens or without screens; these are usually known as "direct type" or "non-screen type films to
distinguish them from films for use with fluorescent screens. Agfa-Gevaert market STRUCTU R
IX D2, D3, D4, D5, D7, D8 films which are of this type, and in the past there was also the D10
type.
Most film manufacturers market one or more films for use with salt intensifying screens; these are
generally known as "screen type" films. Industrial P is a contrasty film of this type.
Agfa-Gevaert also market a film, SI RUCTURIX RCF, specially for use with fluorometallic
intensifying screens. Ultra-fine- grain emulsion film such as D2, is also available for the
radiography of miniature items where an image which can he examined under optical
magnification is required.
Following Table lists the Agfa-Gevaert films and some of the film data concerning these films.
Industrial X-ray films of Agfa-Gevaert carry the generic name STRUCTURIX. The
titles of the various types of "STRUCTURIX" films differ in the number which
follows the generic name - e.g. "STRUCTURIX D4". The full range of
"STRUCTURIX" films is given below.
Relative exposure factors (approx.) DIN ASTM

Film type 100 kV 200 kV lr 192 Co 60 Gradient group class
(1) (2) (3) (4) G2o
D2 8.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 5.8 G1 special
D3 3.80 4.00 4.00 3.90 5.0 G1 1
D4 3.00 2.60 2.50 2.40 5.0 G2 1
D5 1.70 1,60 1.60 1.50 5.0 G2 1-2
D7 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 4.9 03 2
D8 0.55 0.60 0.55 0.50 4.8 G4 2
RCF (5) 0.08 - 0.20
Notes:1) Without lead screens

2) Lead screens 0.027 mm thick
3) With lead screens 0.027 mm thick
4) With lead screens, front : 0.10 mm - back : 0.15 mm thick
5) used with fluorometallic (RCF) screens; exact exposure factor is dependent on exposure time 6) Processing : automatic 8'
cycle in developer G 135 at 30°C.
In the absence of a speed number, DIN (Germany) and ASTM (USA) have tentatively grouped radiographic films into
"quality groups" and these are also shown in the above Table.

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Choice of Film Type

Most codes of good practice recommend the type of radiographic film to be used on specific
applications, based on the above DIN or ASTM classifications. For weld inspection, when one is
attempting to detect small cracks, a film of group G2 or G1 would be specified. For casting
inspection or general radiography a film of group G3 would normally be used. For small component
inspection, where the image might be inspected under magnification, a film of group G1 or even a
single emulsion group G1 film should be used.
In megavoltage radiography, because most equipments have a very high X-ray output, group
G1 films are used, to utilize the higher film gradients which can be attained.
KODAK FILM CLASSIFICATION
SELECTION OF FILMS FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
Industrial radiography now has many widely diverse applications. There are many considerations in
obtaining the best radiographic results, for example:
• the composition, shape, and size of the part being examined--and, in some cases, its weight and location as
well
• the type of radiation used--whether x-rays from an x-ray machine or gamma rays from a radioactive material
• the kilovoltages available with the x-ray equipment
• the intensity of the gamma radiation
• the kind of information sought--whether it is simply an overall inspection or the critical examination of some
especially important portion, characteristic, or feature
• the resulting relative emphasis on definition, contrast, density, and the time required for proper exposure
All of these considerations are important in the determination of the most effective combination of
radiographic technique and x-ray film.

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The selection of a film for the radiography of any particular part depends on the thickness and
material of the specimen and on the voltage range of the available x-ray machine. In addition, the
choice is affected by the relative importance of high radiographic quality or short exposure time.
Thus, an attempt must be made to balance these two opposing factors. As a consequence, it is not
possible to present definite rules on the selection of a film. If high quality is the deciding factor, a
slower and hence finer grained film should be substituted for a faster one--for instance, for the
radiography of steel up to 1/4-inch thick at 120-150 kV. Film Y might be substituted for Film X. If
short exposure times are essential, a faster film (or film-screen combination) can be used. For
example, 11/2-inch steel might be radiographed at 200 kV using fluorescent screens and a film
particularly sensitive to blue light, rather than a direct exposure film with lead screens.
The figure below indicates the direction that these substitutions take. The "direct exposure" films
may be used with or without lead screens, depending on the kilovoltage and on the thickness and
shape of the specimen. (See "Radiographic Screens".)
Change in choice of film, depending on relative emphasis on high speed or high radiographic quality.
Fluorescent intensifying screens must be used in radiography requiring the highest possible
photographic speed (see "FLUORESCENT SCREENS"). The light emitted by the screens has a
much greater photographic action than the x-rays either alone or combined with the emission from
lead screens. To secure adequate exposure within a reasonable time, screen-type x-ray films
sandwiched between fluorescent intensifying screens are often used in radiography of steel in
thicknesses greater than about 2 inches at 250 kV and more than about 3 inches at 400 kV.

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Effect of developing conditions
The characteristic curve of an X-ray film is not only determined by the emulsion-characteristics,
but also by the way the film is developed. Parameters which can influence the sensitometric
characteristics are:
• Developing time
• Developing temperature
• Activity of the developer (type - concentration - degree of
exhaustion)
• Agitation.
Fog, contrast and speed are influenced by the developing activity. We can take the effect of
developing time as an example.
In a first stage (A) contrast and speed will be low and increase rapidly with increasing
developing activity. In a second stage (B) further increase in developing activity will
have little effect on the sensitometric characteristics of the film.
In a third stage (C) further increase in developing activity will increase the fog level, and as a result
eventually decrease contrast.
This typical evolution is shown schematically in figure.

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facto
Relative
Contras
Chemical fog
Figure: Film characteristics with different development-times - speed contrast and chemical fog.
Effect of type of developer
For STRUCTUAIX firms the optimum developing time (at 20°C) is between 4 and 7 minutes.
Depending on the type of film and developer used, the shape of the 3 curves in relation to developing
activity can be different, and the optimum condition to be selected is the one where contrast is
maximum and fog still acceptable.
Sometimes there is a zone in which speed will increase but contrast remains constant, In this situation,
one must remember that there is an increase in graininess with increased speed.
The chemical fog, graininess, effective film speed and contrast of an X-ray film are all affected by
the type of developer used.
Recommended developing-times
The best developing-time for an X-ray film is determined by the optimum ratio of contrast to fog, for
this reason, development is not taken to the limit so as to obtain the maximum contrast of which the
film is capable. The recommended development- time for STRUCTURIX films in G 128 developer is
5 minutes, at 20°C.
Exposure latitude and developing-time
It is possible to compensate, to a certain extent, for minor variations from the correct exposure by
altering the developing- time, although first-class radiographs can seldom be achieved by using other
than the recommended time. Prolonging the development brings an increase in fog, while cutting down
development excessively leads to lack of contrast.

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Developer temperature
When an X-ray film is being developed manually, the best temperature to use is 20°C (68°F); at
this temperature the developing-time is 5 minutes, so that slight errors in the time are comparatively
unimportant. The use of a higher temperature calls for a shorter developing-time if excessive fog and
graininess are to be avoided (and it must be borne in mind that developer oxidizes far more rapidly
above 20°C). A very high developing temperature can give rise to reticulation and stripping or
melting of the emulsion. If the temperature drops below 18°C (64°F) the hydroquinone - the
ingredient which gives the contrast - becomes less active. Higher temperature automatic processing is
however now a common practice, using special solutions.
Agitation
The film must be kept moving for the first 30 seconds in order to dislodge air bubbles, which can
adhere to the surface of the emulsion and cause marks on the film. The film must also be agitated once
a minute to ensure even development. If the film is continuously agitated the developing-time will
need to be reduced.
The Figure above shows the STRUCTURIX D 4 film - spot-welds in aluminium: 32 kV; 20 mA E min. ;
FFD 35 cm; no screens and STRUCTURIX D 2 film - Transistors, 100 kV; 5 mA ; 2 min. ; FED 70 cm; 27 It
lead screens
Inverse Square Law

The intensity of an X-ray beam varies inversely with the square of the distance from the radiation
source. X rays, like visible light rays, diverge upon emission from their source and cover
increasingly large areas as the distance from the source increases. This relationship, illustrated in
the following Figure, is known as the Inverse Square Law. It is a major consideration in computing
radiographic exposures and safety procedures. Mathematically the inverse square law is expressed as
follows:
I1 = D 2
I D12
where I and I1 are the intensities at distances D and Dl' respectively.

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Diagram of the Inverse Square Law
Half-value Thickness
A convenient practical method of using the linear absorption coefficient is the half-value thickness
or the tenth-value thickness (TVT). These are defined as the thickness of a particular material
which reduces the intensity of a beam of radiation to half or one-tenth respectively, and can be
calculated from
HVT = 0.693/µ or TVT = 2.303/µ
With a heterogeneous beam the HVT is not constant for a particular beam; there is a 1St HVT, a
2nd HVT a little larger, and eventually a constant value of HVT.
Units
Until 1978 the International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) used the
conventional radiation units of Roentgen (R), Rad, and Curie (Ci). Since 1978 the ICRU has
recommended the use of the S. I, units with special new units for radiation quantities - the
Becquerel, gray, Sievert - but these are not yet much used in industrial radiography. Table 2. Shows
the relationships of these new units to the older units.

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Table 2. Radiological units
Designation of quantity Old Units SI Units
Designation Value Designation Value Designation
Becquerel
Activity of a radioactive substance curie (Ci) 1 Ci = 3,7.1010/s 1 Bq =1/s
(Bq)
roentgen
ionization dose 1 R = 2,58.10-4 C/kg — C/kg
(R)
Absorbed energy dose rad (rad) 1 rad = 1/100 J/kg Gray (Gy) 1 Gy = 1 J/kg
Equivalent dose rem (rem) 1 rem = 1/100 J/kg Sievert (Sv) J/kg
1 roentgen/s 2,58 x 10-4 C/kg.s

Radiation intensity roentgen/s —
1 R/s unit = A/kg = C/kg.s
Definitions
Radioactivity
When a radioactive substance is used as source of radiation, its activity is equal to the number of
radioactive disintegrations per second. The S.I. unit is the Becquerel (Bq) and corresponds to 1
disintegration per second. The Becquerel is too small to be used as a unit in industrial radiography.
The unit that has been used up to now, the Curie (Ci), is 3.7 x 1010 times larger.
Source strengths are therefore quoted either in Ci or MBq or GBq (giga-Becquerels).
Giga = 109.
Ionization dose
The older unit of dose is the roentgen (R, mR), which is still widely used. In the S.I. system the
dose of radiation is indirectly defined by the amount of ionization that this dose would generate in 1
kg of air. The S.I. unit is coulomb per kilogramme (C/kg) and has no special designation.
The relation is 1R = 2.58x10-4 coulomb per kilogramme or 1C/kg 4000 R.
The output of an X-ray set is generally quoted in R/minute measured at 1 metre distance
(sometimes abbreviated to Rmm), and rarely in S.I. units.
Absorbed energy dose

The radiation energy that is absorbed is expressed in joules per kilogramme (J/kg). The SI-unit is
called gray (Gy). The unit that has been used so far is the Rad (Radiation absorbed dose) and
corresponds to an energy absorption of
1 J / kg = 1 Gy
100 100
Equivalent dose
The Sievert (Sv) is the new unit that is used for the biological effect of ionizing radiation upon
man. It corresponds to the product of the energy dose gray (Gy) with a factor that has been
experimentally determined and that indicates the relative biological effect of the ionizing radiation.
For X-radiation this factor is equal to unity, so that the Sv corresponds to the gray.

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Geometric Principles
x-ray or gamma-ray beam, between the tube anode and the film or between the source of gamma
radiation and the film. It naturally follows, therefore, that the appearance of an image thus recorded
is materially influenced by the relative positions of the object and the film and by the direction of
the beam. For these reasons, familiarity with the elementary principles of shadow formation is
important to those making and interpreting radiographs.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Since x-rays and gamma rays obey the common laws of light, their shadow formation may be
explained in a simple manner in terms of light. It should be borne in mind that the analogy
between light and these radiations is not perfect since all objects are, to a greater or lesser degree,
transparent to x-rays and gamma rays and since scattering presents greater problems in radiography
than in optics. However, the same geometric laws of shadow formation hold for both light and
penetrating radiation.
Suppose, as in Figure A below, that there is light from a point L falling on a white card C, and that an
opaque object O is interposed between the light source and the card. A shadow of the object will be
formed on the surface of the card.
This shadow cast by the object will naturally show some enlargement because the object is not in
contact with the card; the degree of enlargement will vary according to the relative distances of the
object from the
card and from the light source. The law governing the size of the shadow may be
stated:
The diameter of the object is to the diameter of the shadow as the distance of the light from the
object is to the distance of the light from the card.
Mathematically, the degree of enlargement may be calculated by use of the following

equations:
S D S D
° = ° or ° = S1 °
S D D
1 1 1
where S is the size of the object; S is the size of the shadow (or the radiographic image); D the
distance from source of radiation to object; and D the distance from the source of radiation to the
recording surface (or radiographic film).
The degree of sharpness of any shadow depends on the size of the source of light and on the position
of the object between the light and the card--whether nearer to or farther from one or the other.
When the source of light is not a point but a small area, the shadows cast are not perfectly sharp (in
Figures B to D) because each point in the source of light casts its own shadow of the object, and
each of these overlapping shadows is slightly displaced from the others, producing an ill-defined
image.
The form of the shadow may also differ according to the angle that the object makes with the
incident light rays. Deviations from the true shape of the object as exhibited in its shadow image
are referred to as distortion.

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Figures A to F shows the effect of changing the size of the source and of changing the relative
positions of source, object, and card. From an examination of these drawings, it will be seen that the
following conditions must be fulfilled to produce the sharpest, truest shadow of the object:
1. The source of light should be small, that is, as nearly a point as can be obtained. Compare Figures A and C.
2. The source of light should be as far from the object as practical. Compare Figures B and C.
3. The recording surface should be as close to the object as possible. Compare Figures B and D.
4. The light rays should be directed perpendicularly to the recording surface. See Figures A and E.
5. The plane of the object and the plane of the recording surface should be parallel. Compare Figures A and F.

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Illustrating the general geometric principles of shadow formation as explained in these
sections.
RADIOGRAPHIC SHADOWS
The basic principles of shadow formation must be given primary consideration in order to assure
satisfactory sharpness in the radiographic image and essential freedom from distortion. A certain
degree of distortion naturally will exist in every radiograph because some parts will always be
farther from the film than others, the greatest magnification being evident in the images of those
parts at the greatest distance from the recording surface (see the figure above).
Note, also, that there is no distortion of shape in Figure E above--a circular object having been
rendered as a circular shadow. However, under circumstances similar to those shown, it is possible
that spatial relations can be distorted. In the figure below the two circular objects can be rendered
either as two circles (A) or as a figure-eight-shaped shadow (B). It should be observed that both
lobes of the figure eight have circular outlines.
Two circular objects can be rendered as two separate circles (A) or as two overlapping circles (B),
depending on the direction of the radiation.
Distortion cannot be eliminated entirely, but by the use of an appropriate source-film distance, it can be
lessened to a point where it will not be objectionable in the radiographic image.

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APPLICATION TO RADIOGRAPHY
The application of the geometric principles of shadow formation to radiography leads to five
general rules. Although these rules are stated in terms of radiography with x-rays, they also apply
to gamma-ray radiography.
1. The focal spot should be as small as other considerations will allow, for there is a definite
relation between the size of the focal spot of the x-ray tube and the definition in the
radiograph. A large-focus tube, although capable of withstanding large loads, does not
permit the delineation of as much detail as a small-focus tube. Long source-film distances
will aid in showing detail when a large-focus tube is employed, but it is advantageous to
use the smallest focal spot permissible for the exposures required.
B and H in the figure below show the effect of focal spot size on image quality. As the focal
spot size is increased from 1.5 mm (B) to 4.0 mm (H), the definition of the radiograph starts
to degrade. This is especially evident at the edges of the chambers, which are no longer sharp.
The distance between the anode and the material examined should always be as great as is
2.
practical. Comparatively long-source distances should be used in the radiography of thick
materials to minimize the fact that structures farthest from the film are less sharply recorded
than those nearer to it. At long distances, radiographic definition is improved and the image
is more nearly the actual size of the object. A to D in the figure below show the effects of
source-film distance on image quality. As the source-film distance is decreased from 68
inches (A) to 12 inches (D) the image becomes more distorted until at 12 inches it is no
longer a true representation of the casting. This is particularly evident at the edges of the
casing where the distortion is greatest.
3. The film should be as close as possible to the object being radiographed. In practice, the
film--in its cassette or exposure holder--is placed in contact with the object.
In B and E of the figure below, the effects of object-film distance are evident. As the object-
film distance is increased from zero (B) to 4 inches (E), the image becomes larger and the
definition begins to degrade. Again, this is especially evident at the edges of the chambers
that are no longer sharp.
4. The central ray should be as nearly perpendicular to the film as possible to preserve
spatial relations.
5. .As far as the shape of the specimen will allow, the plane of maximum interest should be
parallel to the plane of the film.
Finally, in F and G of the figure below, the effects of object-film-source orientation are
shown. When compared to B, image F is extremely distorted because although the film is
perpendicular to the central ray, the casting is at a 45° angle to the film and spatial
relationships are lost. As the film is rotated to be parallel with the casting (G), the spatial
relationships are maintained and the distortion is lessened.

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These graphics illustrate the effects on image quality when the geometric exposure factors are
changed.

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CALCULATION OF GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS
The width of the "fuzzy" boundary of the shadows in B, C, and D in the above figure is known as
the geometric unsharpness (Ug). Since the geometric unsharpness can strongly affect the
appearance of the radiographic image, it is frequently necessary to determine its magnitude.
From the laws of similar triangles, it can be seen (in the figure below) that:
U t U t
= or °= F
F D D
0 0
where Ug is the geometric unsharpness, F is the size of the radiation source, Do is the source-object
distance, and t is the object-film distance. Since the maximum unsharpness involved in any
radiographic procedure is usually the significant quantity, the object-film distance (t) is usually
taken as the distance from the source side of the specimen to the film.
Geometric construction for determining geometric unsharpness (Ug).
Do and t must be measured in the same units; inches are customary, but any other unit of length--
say, centimetres--would also be satisfactory. So long as Do and t are in the same units, the formula
above will always give the geometric unsharpness Ug in whatever units were used to measure the
dimensions of the source. The projected size of the focal spots of x-ray tubes are usually stated in
millimetres, and Ug will also be in millimetres. If the source size is stated in inches, Ug will be in
inches.
For rapid reference, graphs of the type shown in the figure below can be prepared by the use of the
equation above. These graphs relate source-film distance, object-film distance and geometric
unsharpness. Note that the lines of the figure are all straight. Therefore, for each source-object
distance, it is only necessary to calculate the value of U for a single specimen thickness, and then
draw a straight line through the point so determined and the origin. It should be emphasized,
however, that a separate graph of the type shown in the figure below must be prepared for each size
of source.

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Graph relating geometric unsharpness (Ug) to specimen thickness and source-object distance,
for a 5-millimetre source size.

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UNSATISFACTORY RADIOGRAPHS
This Table lists many of the faults encountered in unsatisfactory radiographs, their probable causes, and the
required corrective actions.
DEFECT PROBABLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

HIGH DENSITY OVEREXPOSURE VIEW WITH HIGHER INTENSITY ILLUMINATION
CHECK X-RAY TIMER AND METERS; IF
CORRECT, REDUCE EXPOSURE 30%OR MORE.
OVERDEVELOPMENT CHECK DARKROOM TIMER
CHECK FOR HIGH DEVELOPER TEMPERATURE
FOG AS INDICATED LATER
LOW DENSITY UNDEREXPOSURE CHECK X-RAY TIMER AND METERS;IF
CORRECT, INCREASE EXPOSURE 40% OR MORE.
UNDERDEVELOPMENT CHECK DARK ROOM TIMER.
CHECK FOR LOW DEVELOPER TEMPERATURE
CHECK FOR WEAK (DEPLETED)DEVELOPER
MATERIAL BETWEEN SCREEN AS INDICATED
AND FILM
HIGH CONTRAST HIGH SUBJECT CONTRAST. INCREASE KILOVOL TAGE.
HIGH FILM CONAST USE FILM WITH LOWER CONTRAST
CHARACTERISTICS
LOW CONTRAST LOW SUBJECT CONTRAST REDUCE KILOVOLT ACE
LOW FILM CONTRAST USE FILM WITH HIGHER CONTRAST
CHARACTERISTICS
UNDERDEVELOPMENT CHECK DARKROOM TIMER
CHECK FOR LOW DEVELOP£R TEMPERATURE
CHECK FOR WEAK (DEPLETED) DEVELOPER
POOR DEFINITION OVERLONG SPECIMEN-TO- IF POSSIBLE, DECREASE SPECIMEN-TO-FILM
FILM DISTANCE DISTANCE; IF NOT, INCREASE SOURCE-TO.FILM
DISTANCE.
TOO SHORT SOURCE-TO- FILM INCREASE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE
DISTANCE
TOO LARGE FOCAL SPOT USE TUBE WITH SMALLER FOCAL SPOT OR
INCREASE THE TUBE-TD-FILM DISTANCE.
TOO LARGE GAMMA RAY USE SMALLER GAMMA RAY SOURCE OR
SOURCE INCREASE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE
SCREENS AND FILM NOT IN AS INDICATED
CLOSE CONTACT
FILM GRAININESS USE FINER GRAINED FILM
CIRCULAR OR DROP FILM SPLASHED WITH WATER AS INDICATED
SHAPED LIGHT OR FIXER PRIOR TO
PATCHES DEVELOPMENT
SHARPLY OUTLINED NON-UNIFORM DEVELOPMENT AGITATE FILM DURING DEVELOPMENT
LIGHT OR DARK AREAS

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ARTIFACT PROBABLE CAUSE REMEDYS
Fog Light leaks in darkroom With darkroom unlighted, turn on all

lights in adjoining rooms,
Exposure to safelight. Seal any light leaks noted.
Check safelight filters. Check
safelight lamps for correct wattage
Stored film not protected from Attach a strip of lead to a loaded
radiation. film holder and place in film storage
bin. Develop the film after 2 or 3
weeks. If image of strip is evident,
improve protection in storage area
Exposure to heat, humidity, or Store film in cool, dry place away from
gases.
gases and vapors
Over development. Check darkroom timer.
Check for high developer
temperature.
Developer solution. Check developer solution for
incorrect mixing or contamination.
Replace if necessary.
Exposure during processing Do not inspect film during
processing until adequately fixed.
Finely mottled fog Stale (old) film
Fog on edge or corner. Defective cassette or film

holder.
Yellow stain. Depleted developer. Replace developer solution.
Failure to use stop bath or Use stop bath or rinse thoroughly

rinse.
Depleted fixer. Replace fixer solution.
Dark circular marks. Film splashed with developer Use care in immersing film
prior to immersion. in developer.
Dark spots or marble like areas Lack of fixation. Use fresh fixing solution and correct
fixing time.
Dark branched lines and spots. Static discharge. Remove film slowly and care fully
from wrapper. Avoid friction. Avoid
clothing that produces static
electricity.
Dark fingerprints. Touching undeveloped film AS INDICATED
with chemically contaminated
fingers.
Dark spots or streaks. Film contamination by Ensure that developer solution
metallic salts. is not contaminated by container.
Contaminated hangers. Ensure that wash water covers hangers

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ARTIFACT PROBABLE CAUSE REMEDYS

Uneven development. Agitate film at regular intervals.
Crescent-shaped dark are as. Film crimps after exposure. Handle film carefully.
Crescent-shaped light areas. FAULTY FILM HANDLING KEEP FILM FLAT DURING HANDLING.
Film crimps before exposure. USE ONLY CLEAN, DRY FILM
HANGERS.
Handle film carefully.
Light circular patches. Air bubbles on film during Agitate immediately upon
development. immersion of film in developer.
Pressure points or blows to Avoid excessive pressure or the

film before exposure. dropping of objects on film or film
holder.
Light fingerprints. Touching undeveloped film AS INDICATED

with oily or greasy fingers.
Well-defined circular light Splashes of stop bath or fixer Avoid splashing of solutions. Keep
spots. prior to development. film clean and dry before
development.
Light spots or areas. Dust or other foreign matter Keep screens clean.
between screens and film.
Wavy marble like marks. Non-uniform development. Agitate film at regular intervals
during development.
Reticulation. (Leather grain Temperature differences in Maintain all processing solutions at

appearance) processing solutions. some constant temperature.
Filling (loosening of film Overly warm processing Maintain recommended temperature

emulsion from film base). solutions. range.
Exhausted fixer solution Replace fixer solution frequently.

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SENSITIVITY
RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
Radiographic sensitivity can be defined as the ability of a radiographic system to reveal

small changes in section thickness. It may also be defined as the ability of a radiographic
technique to reveal the smallest possible flaw. True radiographic sensitivity is a difficult
quantity to measure.
CONTROLLING RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
Prior to interpretation of a radiograph it is necessary to establish adequacy of the radiographic

technique used. National codes and standards describe devices known as 'Image Quality
Indicators' (IQIs). Occasionally the word 'Penetrameter' is used when referring to the IQI. It is
very important to realise IQI sensitivity is not a direct measure of radiographic sensitivity
per se. Good IQI sensitivity does not necessarily indicate good radiographic sensitivity, but it
does to some extent prove the quality of the radiographic technique in a general sense.
These days the type of IQI most commonly in use is the wire type but other types exist, two
examples being the plaque type and the step hole type.

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BS EN 462-1 WIRE TYPE IQIs
BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs each consist of 7 wires taken from a list of 19 wires. Four
standard wire groupings are available, designation '1', wires 1 to 7, designation '6', wires
6 to 12, designation '10', wires 10 to 16 and designation '13', wires 13 to 19. Each of
these groupings is available in any of 4 types of material; steel, designated 'FE', copper,
designated 'CU', aluminium, designated 'AL' and titanium, designation 'TI'.
EN 462-1 wire type IQIs
Designation Diameter
W1 3.2
W2 2.5
W3 2.0
W4 1.6
W5 1.25
W6 1.0
W7 0.8
W8 0.63
W9 0.5
W10 0.4
W11 0.32
W12 0.25
W13 0.2
W14 0.16
W15 0.125
W16 0.1
W17 0.08
W18 0.063
Wig 0.05
BS EN 462-1 wire diameters

Note that it is fairly easy to remember the wire diameters: if you can remember the diameters of the first three, 3.2,
2.5 and 2.0 mm you can arrive at all other wire diameters by halving as shown just below.

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W1=3.2; W4=1.6; WI=0.8; W10=0.4; W13=0.2; W16=D.1; W19=0.05

W2=2.5; W5= 1.25; W8=0.63 W11=0.32; W19=0.16 W17=0.08
W3=2.0 W6=1.0 W9=0.5 WI2=0.25 W15=0.125; W18=0.063
Remembering the EN 462-1 wire diameters
Looking along each row the wire diameters are successively halved, e.g. 3.2, 1.6, 0.8….
The EN 462-1 material groupings are as follows:(the FE designated Us are made

from low alloy steel and cover all ferrous materials the CU designated IQIs are made from
copper and cover copper, tin, zinc and their alloys; the AL designated IQIs are made from
aluminium and cover aluminium and its alloys; the Ti designated IQIs are made from
titanium and cover titanium and its alloys. Special IQIs can be used for materials lying
outside these 4 groups, or the contracting parties could agree to use one of the four normal
designations.
OTHER WIRE TYPE IQIs

Several other wire type IQIs are in common usage. Amongst these are the BS 3971, the
DIN 54 109 and the ASTM E 747. The BS3971 series consisted of 21 wires where wire number 21
was the thickest at 3.2 mm and wire number 1 was the thinnest at 0.032 mm, the order of
numbering was basically the reverse of that used by EN 462-1 with wire number 11
being the same diameter in both series (0.32 mm).
W21=3.2; W18=1.6; W15=0.8; W12=0.4; W9=0.2; W6=0.1; W3=0.05

W20=2.5; W17=1.25; W14=0.63; W11=0.32; W8=0.16 W5=0.08; W2=0.04
W19=2.0; W16=1.0; W13=0.5; W10=0.25; W7=0.125; W=0.063; W1=0.032
BS 3971 wire diameters
The DIN 54 109 series consisted of 16 wires corresponding exactly to the first 16 wires in
the EN 462-1 series. The ASTM E 747 series consists of 21 wires ranging from 0.08 mm to
8.1 mm in diameter; there are 4 overlapping groups of 6 wires, each designated by a letter
(A, B, C or D), see table below, and a large number of material groupings each designated
by a number with ferrous being '1'.
IQI Designation WIRE DIAMETERS
A 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25
B 0.25 0.33 0.4 0.5 0.63 0.81
C 0.81 1.0 1.27 1.6 2.0 2.5
D 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.1 6.3 8.1

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ASTM E 747 wire diameters
BS EN 462-2 STEP-HOLE TYPE IQIs
BS EN 462-2 IQIs consist of stepped blocks of material with each step having a through
drilled hole or pair of through drilled holes. Step thicknesses of 0.8 mm or less have two
drilled holes, while the thicker steps have a single hole. In each case the step thickness and the
hole diameter are equal
BS EN 462-2 step hole IQIs

These IQIs are supplied encased in plastic complete with lead number identification similar to that used in EN 462-1
wire type IQIs)
ASTM E 1025 PLAQUE TYPE PENETRAMETERS
ASTM E 1025 describes plaque type 'penetrameters' (penetrameter is just another

word meaning IQI). When using this type of IQI the required sensitivity is typically
specified as '2-2T', '1-2T' or perhaps '2-4T'. The number '2' or '1' indicates that the IQI
thickness is 2% or 1 % the thickness of the component under test. Where the component is a weld
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the reinforcement should be taken into consideration when choosing the IQI. '2T' or '4T' indicates
the diameter of the drilled hole that must be clearly visible in the radiographic image if
the radiograph is to be considered acceptable. The 2T hole has a diameter equal to 2
times the plaque thickness, the diameter of the 1T hole is equal to the plaque thickness
while that of the 4T hole is 4 times the plaque thickness. Penetrameters up to 160
thousandths of an inch thick are rectangular and contain 1T, 2T and 4T holes. Thicker
penetrameters are circular and contain 1T and 2T holes. Each rectangular penetrameter
carries lead markers indicating its thickness in thousandths of an inch. Each circular
penetrameter is identified by lead markers placed alongside which indicate its
thickness in thousandths of an inch. A total of 8 material groups are identified by adding notches
to the edges of the penetrameter.
ASTM E 1025 IQIs
IQI SENSITIVITY
IQI sensitivity is usually defined as the thickness of the thinnest wire, plaque or step that is visible on
the radiograph expressed as a percentage of the specimen thickness. Exactly what is meant by
specimen thickness varies from standard to standard and from technique to technique.
BS EN 1435 contains tables of 'essential wires' for class A and class B techniques for IQI
placed source or film side. ASME V article 2 glso permits the use of wire type IQIs and takes a
similar 'essential wire' approach. BS EN 1435 bases its requirements on nominal thickness while
ASME V article 2 bases its requirements on the actual weld throat thickness.
It used to be common good practice to place the IQI in the least favourable position
within the diagnostic area of the radiograph. This would usually have meant placing the IQI
upon the source side of the specimen and towards the extremities of the diagnostic area because
this is where the contrast and definition would tend to be at their least favourable (highest
value of geometric unsharpness and lowest film density)
Nowadays, when performing radiography of a weld in accordance with BS EN 1435 the wire
type IQI must be placed preferably source side, possibly film side, in an area of uniform film
density. This usually means on the parent material and at the centre of the area of interest. The
wires may or may not be visible in the image of the weld for double wall single image (DWSI)
or single wall single image (SWSI) radiography but they shall be placed at 9011 to the weld axis
and at least a 10 mm length of wire shall appear on the parent material in an area of uniform
film density. For double wall double image (DWDI) radiography the wires shall not be visible in the
image of the weld. The IQI shall be placed with its wires parallel to the weld axis on the
parent material adjacent to the weld. The requirement for visible wire length remains
unchanged.
In the past it was not uncommon for national codes or standards to specify an overall
requirement for (a radiographic sensitivity of 2% pr better. This was easy to achieve on
thicker sections but often impossible to achieve on thinner sections of material. Modern
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radiographic standards take account of the fact that the best achievable sensitivity for a given
situation and technique is not a fixed quantity but a variable which depends upon such
factors as the type of radiation source, the technique and the thickness of the
specimen. Such standards specify a minimum sensitivity that should be achievable using a
good quality radiographic technique.
One such standard is BS EN 1435. The table below gives some BS EN 1435
requirements for single wall single image (SWSI) radiography with source side IQI
placement, double wall single image (DWSI) radiography with film side IQI placement and
double wall double image (DWDI) radiography with source side IQI placement

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BS EN 1435 Sensitivity requirements for wire type IQIs.

IQIs

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Special Processing Techniques
There are a number of special techniques useful in the processing of x-ray films. Some are
applicable to both manual and automatic processing and others only to manual. Certain
radiographic installations may use one or more of these routinely; others may employ them as
circumstances warrant.
INTENSIFICATION OF UNDEREXPOSED RADIOGRAPHS
Every industrial radiographic department occasionally encounters a radiograph that has been
underexposed, either through an oversight or because of insufficient machine capacity. If the
radiograph cannot be repeated because the time required for proper exposure would be prohibitively
long, or if the item is no longer available, the underexposed negative can in many cases be salvaged.
Chemical intensification of the completely processed film may, under certain circumstances, result
in a speed gain of a factor of 5 to 7, while still retaining acceptable radiographic quality.
Films may be intensified immediately after fixation, or after they have been fully washed and dried.
In either case, the films are washed in running water for 5 to 10 minutes, hardened in KODAK
Special Hardener SH-1 (formula given below), and again washed for 5 minutes.
KODAK Special Hardener SH-1
Avoirdupois, U.S. Liquid Metric
Water 16 fl oz 500 mL
KODAK Formaldehyde, about 37% solution by weight 2 /2 fl oz 10.0 mL
KODAK Sodium Carbonate (Monohydrated) 90 grains 6.0 grams
Water to make 32 fl oz 1.0 litre
They are then treated, one at a time, for up to 10 minutes in KODAK Intensifier In-6. The working
intensifier is mixed from the stock solutions (formulas given below) by taking one part of Solution
A, and adding in succession two parts of Solution B, two parts of Solution C, and finally one part of
Solution A. The order of mixing is important and should be followed. The hardening and
intensification can conveniently be done in trays. The film should be agitated frequently during
intensification, after which it is washed for 20 to 30 minutes in running water and dried normally.
Warning
Always add the sulfuric acid to the water slowly, stirring constantly, and never the water to the
acid; otherwise, the solution may boil and spatter the acid on the hands and face, causing serious
burns.
The water used for mixing the solutions for the intensifier should not have a chloride content
greater than about 15 parts per million (equivalent to about 25 parts sodium chloride per million);
otherwise, the intensification will be impaired. If in doubt as to chloride content, use distilled water.

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KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifier In-6

Solution A
Sulfuric acid (concentrated) 4 fl oz 30.0 mL
KODAK Potassium Dichromate (anhydrous) 3 ounces 22.5 grams
Water to make 1 gallon 1.0 litre
Solution B
KODAK Sodium Bisulfite (anhydrous) / ounce
1 2 3.8 grams
KODAK Hydroquinone 2 ounces 15 grams
KODAK PHOTO-FLO 200 Solution / fl oz
1 2 3.8 mL
Solution C
KODAK Sodium Thiosulfate (Hypo) 3 ounces 22.5 grams

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KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifier In-6

The intensification may be carried out in room light. During treatment, the film may be viewed on
an illuminator and the process stopped at any time that the results suit the operator. Intensification
in In-6 produces a rather grainy, yellowish image, which is not quite as permanent as a properly
fixed and washed silver image. However, sufficient improvement is made in the radiographic
sensitivity of underexposed radiographs to make these drawbacks relatively minor.
Because the intensified image is destroyed by acid hypo, under no circumstances should the
intensified negatives be placed either in a fixing bath or in wash water contaminated with fixing
bath. Films to be intensified should be handled as little as possible, and then only by the edges or
corners.
The stock solutions from which the intensifier is mixed will keep in stoppered bottles for several
months, and the mixed intensifier is stable for 2 to 3 hours. The bath should be used only once and
then be discarded because a used bath may produce a silvery scum on the surface of the image.
CORRECTION OF LOW DENSITY

Film having too low a density is corrected in the following way. The film is hardened, fixed and
washed as in the correction of high density. Then the film is immersed in a bleach until the image
becomes completely white (for about 3 minutes). It is washed in water again for 5 minutes and
developed again in a 1:1 diluted solution of Fuji Hi-Rendol 1 for about 5 minutes. The film is fixed in
a fresh fixer solution for 5 minutes, washed in water and dried.
It should be noted that the grain quality of the film is adversely affected after this
process. Use care with this treatment, as it involves the use of poisonous chemicals.
Treatment Solution Formulas e Hardener solution
Water 700 ml
37% formalin 10 ml
Sodium carbonate 6 grams
Water to make 1000 ml
Water 700 ml
Bleach solution
Potassium bichromate 9 grams
Concentrated sulfuric acid 6 ml
Water to make 1000 ml
Developer: Use a 1:1 diluted solution of Fuji Hi-Rendol 1at Steps in the Correction of Low
Density

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Hardening 3 min.
Fixing 5 min.
Washing 5 min.
Bleaching 3 min.
Washing 5 min.
Development 5 min.
Fixing 5 mm.
Washing 10 min.
Drying
CORRECTION OF HIGH DENSITY
Film having too high a density is corrected in the following manner. First the firm is immersed in a
hardener for about 3 minutes so as to harden the emulsion layer and avoid damage to the image. The
film is then immersed in a fixer solution for about 5 minutes and briefly washed, in water. Then the
film is immersed in a reducer and the density of the image gradually decreased. When a desired
density is obtained, the film is taken out of the reducer solution and immersed in a fresh fixer solution
for 5 minutes then washed in running water for about 10 minutes and then dried. Use care in this
treatment, at it involves the use, of poisonous chemicals.
Treatment Solution Formulas
Hardener solution
Water 700 ml
37% formalin 10ml
Sodium carbonate 6 grams 1000
Water to make ml
Reducer solution
Water 700 ml
Potassium 0.1 gram
permanganate 22.5 grams
Ammonium per 4 ml
sulfate 10% dilute 1000 m
sulfuric acid
Water to make

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Steps in the Correction of High Density
Hardening 3 min.
Fixing 5 min.
Washing 5 min.
Reducing 1 to 3 min.
Washing 2 min.
Fixing 5 min.
Washing 10 min.
Drying

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REMOVAL OF FIXING AGENTS
When, in manual processing, the capacity of the film washing tanks is insufficient, when time
must be conserved, or when, as in field radiography, the water supply is limited, the use of
KODAK Hypo Clearing Agent between fixation and washing is advantageous. This material
permits a reduction of both the time and the amount of water necessary for adequate washing.
After fixation, the excess fixer is removed from the film by a 30-second rinse in water. It is then
immersed in KODAK Hypo Clearing Agent solution for 1 to 2 minutes, with agitation. With this
procedure, the capacity of the Hypo Clearing Agent bath will be about 750 to 1000 films (8 x l0-
inch) or 250 to 330 films (14 x 17-inch) per 5 gallons of solution. If no rinse is used after fixation,
the capacity of the bath will be reduced to about 200 to 300 films (8 x 10-inch). The bath should be
considered exhausted when that number of films has
been processed, or sooner if a precipitation sludge appears. It must then be replaced, not
replenished.
After treatment with the Hypo Clearing Agent, films should be washed for 5 minutes, using a water
flow which will give a complete change of water 4 to 8 times per hour. However, if water supplies
are severely limited, films may be washed in standing water, rather than running water, by soaking
for 10 minutes with occasional agitation. The water in the wash tank should be replaced after 10
films (8 x 10-inch) per gallon have been washed.
The effectiveness of the washing procedure and the capacity of the Hypo Clearing Agent bath may
be checked by testing a processed film for fixer removal as described in the following section.
TESTING FOR FIXER REMOVAL
Fixing chemicals not adequately removed from films by washing will, over a period of time, cause
staining of the film and fading of the developed image. When it is known that films must be
preserved indefinitely or when there is doubt as to the adequacy of the washing procedures, the
amount of fixing chemicals remaining in the film after washing should be determined. This can be
done in one of two ways.
ARCHIVAL WASHING
Film of archival interest--and this includes the majority of industrial radiographs for code work--
should
remain unchanged for long periods of time under good storage conditions (American National
Standard Practice for Storage of Processed Safety Photographic Film, PH1.43-1979. Published by
American National Standards Institute, Inc., New York, NY). Archival washing for this indefinite
preservation of films is defined by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) documents in
terms of the concentration of residual thiosulfate in the film. Acceptable methods for
measurement are described in ANSI PH4.8-1971, "Methylene-Blue Method for Measuring
Thiosulfate, and Silver Densitometric Method for Measuring Residual Chemicals in Film, Plates
and Papers." (Available from American National Standards Institute, Inc., 1430 Broadway, New
York, NY 10018) The methylene-blue method described in this document measures directly the
concentration of thiosulfate iron. The silver-densitometric method measures thiosulfate as well as
other residual chemicals and requires that a calibration curve be used relating the silver density
produced to the thiosulfate content as measured by the methylene-blue method.

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For test films or any other films intended for archival keeping, the method for determining residual
thiosulfate should be chosen from those covered in the ANSI standard mentioned above. Note that
while KODAK Hypo Estimator and KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2 (the HT-2 test) provide a
quick, convenient means for estimating the amount of hypo (thiosulfate ion) retained in the
emulsion, they cannot be used to determine the concentration of residual thiosulfate in terms of
archival washing standards.
The methylene-blue method measures only thiosulfate. The technique is complex, and the sample
must be tested within two weeks of processing. The silver densitometric method measures
thiosulfate and other residual chemicals. The technique is simpler, and the results are not affected
as much by the length of time between processing and testing. Like the HT-2 test, the silver
densitometric method lacks sensitivity at low levels of thiosulfate. It is not sensitive enough to
measure thiosulfate reliably below about 0.9 µg per square centimetre. The two procedures for the
methylene-blue method described in ANSI PH4.8-1978 cover the range of 0.1 to 45 µg of
thiosulfate ion (S2O3--) per square centimetre of the test sample. This is the only method ANSI
considers sufficiently reliable for determining such a low concentration as 0.7 µg of thiosulfate ion
per square centimetre.
METHYLENE-BLUE METHOD
Two variations of this method for measuring the concentration of residual thiosulfate are described
in detail in ANSI PH4.8-1978. One covers a range of 0.1 to 0.9 µg of thiosulfate ion per square
centimetre; the other, a range of 0.9 to 45 µg of thiosulfate ion per square centimetre. If the film is
double coated, the residual thiosulfate ion is assumed to be divided equally between the two sides.
Therefore, the concentration per square centimetre of emulsion is one-half of the total determined
by either variant of the methylene-blue method. The maximum permissible concentration of
residual thiosulfate ion for coarse-grain films, such as industrial x-ray films, is 3 µg of thiosulfate or
2 µg of thiosulfate ion per square centimetre.
Either way, testing must be done within two weeks of processing. Both require several reagents, a
photometer or a spectrophotometer, and a calibration curve. Tests are conducted as
follows:
Residual thiosulfate is extracted from a test sample and reduced to a sulfide. The sulfide reacts with
test reagents to form methylene blue. The absorbance or the transmittance of the blue color is then
measured with a photometer or a spectrophotometer, and the thiosulfate level is read from a
calibration curve.
The methylene-blue method is a complex multi-step procedure that requires special materials and
equipment and specialized analytic techniques not readily available to most industrial
radiographers. Complete step-by-step directions for both procedures, including preparation of the
test sample (which must be taken from an area of minimum density--preferably an unexposed but
processed area), the various reagents, and the calibration curve, as well as information on the
interpretation of results, are given in ANSI PH4.8-1978.

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Development
Developer Solutions
Prepared developers that are made ready for use by dissolving in water or by dilution with water
provide a carefully compounded formula and uniformity of results. They are comparable in
performance and effective life, but the liquid form offers greater convenience in preparation, which
may be extremely important in a busy laboratory. Powder chemicals are, however, more
economical to buy.
When the exposed film is placed in the developer, the solution penetrates the emulsion and begins
to transform the exposed silver halide crystals to metallic silver. The longer the development is
carried on, the more silver is formed and hence the denser the image becomes.
The rate of development is affected by the temperature of the solution--as the temperature rises, the
rate of development increases. Thus, when the developer temperature is low, the reaction is slow,
and the development time recommended for the normal temperature would result in
underdevelopment. When the temperature is high, the reaction is fast, and the same time would
result in over development. Within certain limits, these changes in the rate of development can be
compensated for by increasing or decreasing the time of development.
The time-temperature system of development should be used in all radiographic work. In this system,
the developer temperature is always kept within a small range and the time of development is
adjusted according to the temperature in such a way that the degree of development remains the same.
If this procedure is not carefully observed, the effects of even the most accurate exposure
technique will be nullified. Films cannot withstand the effects of errors
resulting from guesswork in processing.
In particular, "sight development" should not be used; that is, the development time for a
radiograph should not be decided by examining the film under safelight illumination at intervals
during the course of development. It is extremely difficult to judge from the appearance of a
developed but unfixed radiograph what its appearance will be in the dried state. Even though the
final radiograph so processed is apparently satisfactory, there is no assurance that development was
carried far enough to give the desired degree of film contrast. (See "EFFECT OF DEVELOPMENT
TIME ON SPEED AND CONTRAST".) Further, "sight development" can easily lead to a high
level of fog caused by excessive exposure to safelights during development.
An advantage of standardized time-temperature processing is that by keeping the degree of

development constant a definite check on exposure time can always be made. This precludes many
errors that might otherwise occur in the production of radiographs. When the processing factors are
known to be correct but the radiographs lack density, underexposure can be assumed; when the
radiographic image is too dense, overexposure is, indicated. The first condition can be corrected by
increasing the exposure time; and the second, by decreasing it. The methods for calculating the
required changes in exposure are given in detail.

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Control of Temperature and Time
Because the temperature of the processing solutions has a decided influence on their activity,
careful control of this factor is very important. It should be a rule that the developer be stirred and
the temperature be checked immediately before films are immersed in it so that they can be left in
the solution for the proper length of time.
Ideally, the temperature of the developer solution should be 68°F (20°C). A temperature below
60°F (16°C) retards the action of the chemical and is likely to result in underdevelopment, whereas
an excessively high temperature not only may destroy the photographic quality by producing fog
but also may soften the emulsion to the extent that it separates from the base.
When, during extended periods, the tap water will not cool the solutions to recommended
temperatures, the most effective procedure is to use mechanical refrigeration. Conversely, heating
may be required in cold climates. Under no circumstances should ice be placed directly in
processing solutions to reduce their temperature because, on melting, the water will dilute them and
possibly cause contamination.
Because of the direct relation between temperature and time, both are of equal importance in a
standardized processing procedure. So, after the temperature of the developer solution has been
determined, films should be left in the solution for the exact time that is required. Guesswork
should not be tolerated. Instead, when the films are placed in the solution, a timer should be set so
that an alarm will sound at the end of the time.
Agitation
It is essential to secure uniformity of development over the whole area of the film. This is achieved
by agitating the film during the course of development.
If a radiographic film is placed in a developer solution and allowed to develop without any
movement, there is a tendency for each area of the film to affect the development of the areas
immediately below it. This is because the reaction products of development have a higher specific
gravity than the developer and, as these products diffuse out of the emulsion layer, they flow
downward over the film surface and retard the development of the areas over which they pass. The
greater the film density from which the reaction products flow, the greater is the restraining action
on the development of the lower portions of the film. Thus, large lateral variations in film density
will cause uneven development in the areas below, and this may show up in the form of streaks.
The figure below illustrates the phenomena that occur when a film having small areas whose
densities are widely different from their surroundings is developed without agitation of film or
developer.

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An example of streaking that can result when a film has been allowed to remain
in the solution without agitation during the entire development period.
Agitation of the film during development brings fresh developer to the surface of the film and
prevents uneven development. In small installations, where few films are processed, agitation is
most easily done by hand. Immediately after the hangers are lowered smoothly and carefully into
the developer, the upper bars of the hangers should be tapped sharply two or three times on the
upper edge of the tank to dislodge any bubbles clinging to the emulsion. Thereafter, films should be
agitated periodically throughout the development.
Acceptable agitation results if the films are shaken vertically and horizontally and moved from side to
side in the tank for a few seconds every minute during the course of the development. More
satisfactory renewal of developer at the surface of the film is obtained by lifting the film clear of
the developer, allowing it to drain from one corner for 2 or 3 seconds, reinserting it into the
developer, and then repeating the procedure, with drainage from the other lower corner. The whole
cycle should be repeated once a minute during the development time.
Another form of agitation suitable for manual processing of sheet films is known as "gaseous burst
agitation." It is reasonably economical to install and operate and, because it is automatic, does not
require the full-time attention of the processing room operator. Nitrogen, because of its inert
chemical nature and low cost, is the best gas to use.
Gaseous burst agitation consists of releasing bursts of gas at controlled intervals through many
small holes in a distributor at the bottom of the processing tank. When first released, the bursts
impart a sharp displacement pulse, or piston action, to the entire volume of the solution. As the
bubbles make their way to the surface, they provide localized agitation around each small bubble.
The great number of bubbles, and the random character of their paths to the surface, provide
effective agitation at the surfaces of films hanging in the solution (See the figure below.)

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Distribution manifold for gaseous burst agitation.
If the gas were released continuously, rather than in bursts, constant flow patterns would be set up
from the bottom to the top of the tank and cause uneven development. These flow patterns are not
encountered, however, when the gas is introduced in short bursts, with an interval between bursts to
allow the solution to settle down.
Note that the standard sizes of x-ray developing tanks will probably not be suitable for gaseous
burst agitation. Not only does the distributor at the bottom of the tank occupy some space, but also
the tank must extend considerably above the surface of the still developer to contain the froth that
results when a burst of bubbles reaches the surface. It is therefore probable that special tanks will
have to be provided if the system is adopted.
Agitation of the developer by means of stirrers or circulating pumps should be discouraged. In any
tank containing loaded film hangers, it is almost impossible to prevent the uniform flow of
developer along certain paths. Such steady flow conditions may sometimes cause more uneven
development than no agitation at all.
Activity of Developer Solutions
As a developer is used, its developing power decreases, partly because of the consumption of the
developing agent in changing the exposed silver bromide to metallic silver, and also because of the
restraining effect of the accumulated reaction products of the development. The extent of this
decrease in activity will depend on the number of films processed and their average density. Even
when the developer is not used, the activity may decrease slowly because of aerial oxidation of the
developing agent.
Some compensation must be made for the decrease in developing power if uniform radiographic
results are to be obtained over a period of time. The best way to do this is to use the replenisher
system, in which the activity of the solution is not allowed to diminish but rather is maintained by
suitable chemical replenishment.
In reference to the replenisher method or replenishment, the following should be understood. As

used here, replenishment means the addition of a stronger-than-original solution, to revive or
restore the developer to its approximate original strength. Thus, the replenisher performs the double
function of maintaining both the liquid level in the developing tank and the activity of the solution.
Merely adding original-strength developer would not produce the desired regenerating effect;
development time would have to be progressively increased to achieve a constant degree of
development
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The quantity of replenisher required to maintain the properties of the developer will depend on the
average density of the radiographs processed. It is obvious that if 90 percent of the silver in the
emulsion is developed, giving a dense image over the entire film, more developing agent will be
consumed. Therefore, the developer will be exhausted to a greater degree than if the film were
developed to a low density. The quantity of replenisher required, therefore, depends on the type of
subject radiographed. In the processing of industrial radiographs that have a relatively large
proportion of dense background, some of the original developer must be discarded each time
replenisher is added. The exact quantity of replenisher can be determined only by trial and by
frequent testing of the developer.
The replenisher should be added at frequent intervals and in sufficient quantity to maintain the
activity reasonably constant for the types of radiographs processed. It is obvious that if replenisher is
added only occasionally, there will be a large increase in density of the film after replenishing. By
replenishing frequently, these density increases after replenishing are kept at a minimum. The
quantity of the replenisher added each time preferably should not exceed 2 or 3 percent of the total
volume of the developer in the tank.
It is not practical to continue replenishment indefinitely, and the solution should be discarded when
the replenisher used equals two to three times the original quantity of the developer. In any case,
the solution should be discarded after three months because of aerial oxidation and the buildup of
gelatin, sludge, and solid impurities.
Arresting Development
After development is complete, developer remaining in the emulsion must be deactivated by an

acid stop bath or, if this is not feasible, by prolonged rinsing in clean running water.
If this step is omitted, development continues for the first minute or so of fixation and, unless the
film is agitated almost continuously during this period, uneven development will occur, resulting in
streakiness.
In addition, if films are transferred to the fixer solution without the use of an acid stop bath or
thorough rinsing, the alkali from the developer solution retained by the gelatin neutralizes some of
the acid in the fixer solution. After a certain quantity of acid has been neutralized, the chemical
balance of the fixer solution is upset and its usefulness is greatly impaired--the hardening action is
destroyed and stains are likely to be produced in the radiographs. Removal of as much of the
developer solution as possible before fixation prolongs the life of the fixer solution and assures the
routine production of radiographs of better quality.
Stop Bath
A stop bath consisting of 16 fluidounces of 28 percent acetic acid per gallon of bath (125 mL per
litre) may be used. If the stop bath is made from glacial acetic acid, the proportions should be
41/2 fluidounces of glacial acetic acid per gallon of bath, or 35 mL per litre.
Warning
Glacial acetic acid should be handled only under adequate ventilation, and great care should be
taken to avoid injury to the skin or damage to clothing. Always add the glacial acetic acid to the
water slowly, stirring constantly, and never water to acid; otherwise, the solution may boil and
spatter acid on hands and face, causing severe burns.
When development is complete, the films are removed from the developer, allowed to drain 1 or 2

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seconds (not back into the developer tank), and immersed in the stop bath. The developer draining
from the films should be kept out of the stop bath. Instead of draining, a few seconds' rinse in fresh
running water may be used prior to inserting the films in the stop bath. This will materially prolong
the life of the bath.
Films should be immersed in the stop bath for 30 to 60 seconds (ideally, at 65 to 70°F or 18 to
21°C) with moderate agitation and then transferred to the fixing bath. Five gallons of stop bath will
treat about 100 14 x 17-inch films, or equivalent. If a developer containing sodium carbonate is
used, the stop bath temperature must be maintained between (65 and 70°F or 18 to 21°C);
otherwise, blisters containing carbon dioxide may be formed in the emulsion by action of the stop
bath.
Rinsing
If a stop bath cannot be used, a rinse in running water for at least 2 minutes should be used. It is
important that the water be running and that it be free of silver or fixer chemicals. The tank that is
used for the final washing after fixation should not be used for this rinse.
If the flow of water in the rinse tanks is only moderate, it is desirable to agitate the films carefully,
especially when they are first immersed. Otherwise, development will be uneven, and there will be
streaks in areas that received a uniform exposure.
Fixing
The purpose of fixing is to remove all of the undeveloped silver salt of the emulsion, leaving the
developed silver as a permanent image. The fixer has another important function--hardening the
gelatin so that the film will withstand subsequent drying with warm air. The interval between
placing the film in the fixer solution and the disappearance of the original diffuse yellow milkiness is
known as the clearing time. It is during this time that the fixer is dissolving the undeveloped silver
halide. However, additional time is required for the dissolved silver salt to diffuse out of the
emulsion and for the gelatin to be hardened adequately. Thus, the total fixing time should be
appreciably greater than the clearing time. The fixing time in a relatively fresh fixing bath should,
in general, not exceed 15 minutes; otherwise, some loss of low densities may occur. The films
should be agitated vigorously when first placed in the fixer and at least every 2 minutes thereafter
during the course of fixation to assure uniform action of the chemicals.
During use, the fixer solution accumulates soluble silver salts which gradually inhibit its ability to
dissolve the unexposed silver halide from the emulsion. In addition, the fixer solution becomes
diluted by rinse water or stop bath carried over by the film. As a result, the rate of fixing decreases,
and the hardening action is impaired. The dilution can be reduced by thorough draining of films
before immersion in the fixer and, if desired, the fixing ability can be restored by replenishment of
the fixer solution.
The usefulness of a fixer solution is ended when it has lost its acidity or when clearing requires an
unusually long interval. The use of an exhausted solution should always be avoided because
abnormal swelling of the emulsion often results from deficient hardening and drying is unduly
prolonged; at high temperatures reticulation or sloughing away of the emulsion may take place. In
addition, neutralization of the acid in the fixer solution frequently causes colored stains to appear on
the processed radiographs.

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Washing
X-ray films should be washed in running water so circulated that the entire emulsion area receives
frequent changes. For a proper washing, the bar of the hanger and the top clips should always be
covered completely by the running water, as illustrated in the figure below.
Water should flow over the tops of the hangers in the washing compartment. This avoids
streaking due to contamination of the developer when hangers are used over again.
Efficient washing of the film depends both on a sufficient flow of water to carry the fixer away
rapidly and on adequate time to allow the fixer to diffuse from the film. Washing time at 60 to 80°
F (15.5 to 26.5° C) with a rate of water flow of four renewals per hour is 30 minutes.
The films should be placed in the wash tank near the outlet end. Thus, the films most heavily laden
with fixer are first washed in water that is somewhat contaminated with fixer from the films
previously put in the wash tank. As more films are put in the wash tank, those already partially
washed are moved toward the inlet, so that the final part of the washing of each film is done in
fresh, uncontaminated water.
The tank should be large enough to wash films as rapidly as they can be passed through the other
solutions. Any excess capacity is wasteful of water or, with the same flow as in a smaller tank,
diminishes the effectiveness with which fixer is removed from the film emulsion. Insufficient
capacity, on the other hand, encourages insufficient washing, leading to later discoloration or
fading of the image.
The "cascade method" of washing is the most economical of water and results in better washing in
the same length of time. In this method, the washing compartment is divided into two sections. The
films are taken from the fixer solution and first placed in Section A. (See the figure below.) After
they have been partially washed, they are moved to Section B, leaving Section A ready to receive
more films from the fixer. Thus, films heavily laden with fixer are washed in somewhat
contaminated water, and washing of the partially washed films is completed in fresh water.
Schematic diagram of a cascade washing unit.

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Washing efficiency decreases rapidly as temperature decreases and is very low at temperatures
below 60°F (15.5°C). On the other hand, in warm weather, it is especially important to remove
films from the tank as soon as washing is completed, because gelatin has a natural tendency to
soften considerably with prolonged washing in water above 68°F (20°C). Therefore, if possible the
temperature of the wash water should be maintained between 65 and 70°F or 18 and 21°C).
Formation of a cloud of minute bubbles on the surfaces of the film in the wash tank sometimes
occurs. These bubbles interfere with washing the areas of emulsion beneath them, and can
subsequently cause a discoloration or a mottled appearance of the radiograph. When this trouble is
encountered, the films should be removed from the wash water and the emulsion surfaces wiped
with a soft cellulose sponge at least twice during the washing period to remove the bubbles.
Vigorous tapping of the top bar of the hanger against the top of the tank rarely is sufficient to
remove the bubbles.
Prevention of Water Spots
When films are removed from the wash tanks, small drops of water cling to the surfaces of the
emulsions. If the films are dried rapidly, the areas under the drops dry more slowly than the
surrounding areas. This uneven drying causes distortion of the gelatin, changing the density of the
silver image, and results in spots that are frequently visible and troublesome in the finished
radiograph.
Such "water spots" can be largely prevented by immersing the washed films for 1 or 2 minutes in a
wetting agent, then allowing the bulk of the water to drain off before the films are placed in the
drying cabinet. This solution causes the surplus water to drain off the film more evenly, reducing
the number of clinging drops. This reduces the drying time and lessens the number of water spots
occurring on the finished radiographs.
Drying
Convenient racks are available commercially for holding hangers during drying when only a small
number of films are processed daily. When the racks are placed high on the wall, the films can be
suspended by inserting the crossbars of the processing hangers in the holes provided. This obviates
the danger of striking the radiographs while they are wet, or spattering water on the drying surfaces,
which would cause spots on them. Radiographs dry best in warm, dry air that is changing
constantly.
When a considerable number of films are to be processed, suitable driers with built-in fans, filters,
and heaters or desiccants are commercially available.
Marks in Radiographs
Defects, spots, and marks of many kinds may occur if the preceding general rules for manual
processing are not carefully followed. Perhaps the most common processing defect is streakiness
and mottle in areas that receive a uniform exposure. This unevenness may be a result of:
• Failure to agitate the films sufficiently during development or the presence of too many
hangers in the tank, resulting in inadequate space between neighboring films.
• Insufficient rinsing in water or failure to agitate the films sufficiently
before fixation.
• The use of an exhausted stop bath or failure to agitate the film properly in
the stop bath.
• In the absence of satisfactory rinsing--insufficient agitation of the films on first immersing
them in the fixing bath.

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Other characteristic marks are dark spots caused by the spattering of developer solution, static
electric discharges, and finger marks; and dark streaks occurring when the developer-saturated film
is inspected for a prolonged time before a safelight lamp. If possible, films should never be
examined at length until they are dry.
A further trouble is fog - that is, development of silver halide grains other than those affected by
radiation during exposure. It is a great source of annoyance and may be caused by accidental
exposure to light, x-rays, or radioactive substances; contaminated developer solution; development
at too high a temperature; or storing films under improper storage conditions (see "STORAGE OF
EXPOSED AND PROCESSED FILM") or beyond the expiration dates stamped on the cartons.
Accidental exposure of the film to x-radiation or gamma radiation is a common occurrence because
of insufficient protection from high-voltage tubes or stored radioisotopes; films have been fogged
through 1/8 inch of lead in rooms 50 feet or more away from an x-ray machine.
AUTOMATED FILM PROCESSING
Automated processing requires a processor (see the figure below), specially formulated chemicals
and compatible film, all three of which must work together to produce high-quality radiographs.
This section describes how these three components work together.
An automated processor has three main sections: a film-feeding section; a film-processing

section (developer, fixer, and wash); and a film-drying section.
Processing Control
The essence of automated processing is control, both chemical and mechanical. In order to develop,
fix, wash, and dry a radiograph in the short time available in an automated processor, specifically
formulated chemicals are used. The processor maintains the chemical solutions at the proper
temperatures, agitates and replenishes the solutions automatically, and transports the films
mechanically at a carefully controlled speed throughout the processing cycle. Film characteristics
must be compatible with processing conditions, shortened processing times and the mechanical
transport system. From the time a film is fed into the processor until the dry radiograph is
delivered, chemicals, mechanics, and film must work together.
Automated Processor Systems
Automated processors incorporate a number of systems which transport, process, and dry the film
and replenish and recirculate the processing solutions. A knowledge of these systems and how they
work together will help in understanding and using automated processing equipment.

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Transport System
The function of the transport system (see the figure below) is to move film through the developer
and fixer solutions and through the washing and drying sections, holding the film in each stage of
the processing cycle for exactly the right length of time, and finally to deliver the ready-to-read
radiograph.
The roller transort system is the backbone of an automated processor. The arrangement and
number of its components vary, but the basic plan is virtually the same.
In most automated processors now in use, the film is transported by a system of rollers driven by a
constant speed motor. The rollers are arranged in a number of assemblies--entrance roller assembly,
racks, turnarounds (which reverse direction of film travel within a tank), crossovers (which transfer
films from one tank to another), and a squeegee assembly (which removes surface water after the
washing cycle). The number and specific design of the assemblies may vary from one model of
processor to another, but the basic design is the same.
It is important to realize that the film travels at a constant speed in a processor, but that the speed in
one model may differ from that in another. Processing cycles--the time interval from the insertion
of an unprocessed film to the delivery of a dry radiograph--in general range downward from 15
minutes. Because one stage of the cycle may have to be longer than another, the racks may vary in
size--the longer the assembly, the longer the film takes to pass through a particular stage of
processing.
Although the primary function of the transport system is to move the film through the processor in a
precisely controlled time, the system performs two other functions of importance to the rapid
production of high-quality radiographs. First, the rollers produce vigorous uniform agitation of the
solutions at the surfaces of the film, contributing significantly to the uniformity of processing.
Second, the top wet rollers in the racks and the rollers in the crossover assemblies effectively
remove the solutions from the surfaces of the film, reducing the amount of solution carried over
from one tank to the next and thus prolonging the life of the fixer and increasing the efficiency of
washing. Most of the wash water clinging to the surface of the film is removed by the squeegee
rollers, making it possible to dry the processed film uniformly and rapidly, without blemishes.

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Water System
The water system of automated processors has two functions - to wash the films and to help
stabilize the temperature of the processing solutions. Hot and cold water are blended to the proper
temperature and the tempered water then passes through a flow regulator which provides a constant
rate of flow. Depending upon the processor, part or all of the water is used to help control the
temperature of the developer. In some processors, the water also helps to regulate the temperature
of the fixer. The water then passes to the wash tank where it flows through and over the wash rack. It
then flows over a weir (dam) at the top of the tank and into the drain.
Sometimes the temperature of the cold water supply may be higher than required by the processor.
In this situation, it is necessary to cool the water before piping it to the processor.
This is the basic pattern of the water system of automated processors; the details of the system may
vary slightly, however.
Recirculation Systems
Recirculation of the fixer and developer solutions performs the triple functions of uniformly mixing
the processing and replenisher solution, maintaining them at constant temperatures, and keeping
thoroughly mixed and agitated solutions in contact with the film.
The solutions are pumped from the processor tanks, passed through devices to regulate
temperature, and returned to the tanks under pressure. This pressure forces the solutions upward
and downward, inside, and around the transport system assemblies. As a result of the vigorous flow in
the processing tanks, the solutions are thoroughly mixed and agitated and the films moving through
the tanks are constantly bathed in fresh solutions.
Replenishment Systems
Accurate replenishment of the developer and fixer solutions is even more important in automated
processing than in manual processing. In both techniques, accurate replenishment is essential to
proper processing of the film and to long life of the processing solutions; but, if the solutions are
not properly replenished in an automated processor, the film may swell too much and become
slippery, with the result that it might get stuck in the processor.
When a film is fed into the processor, pumps are activated, which pump replenisher from storage
tanks to the processing tanks. As soon as the film has passed the entrance assembly, the pumps
stop--replenisher is added only during the time required for a sheet of film to pass through the
entrance assembly. The amount of replenisher added is thus related to the size of the sheet of film.
The newly added replenisher is blended with the processor solutions by the recirculation pumps.
Excess processing solutions flow over a weir at the top of the tanks into the drain.
Different types of x-ray films require different quantities of processing chemicals. It is, therefore,
important that the solutions be replenished at the rate proper for the type or types of film being
processed and the average density of the radiographs.

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Replenishment rates must be measured accurately and checked periodically. Overreplenishment of
the developer is likely to result in lower contrast; slight underreplenishment results in gain of speed
and contrast, but severe underreplenishment results in a loss of both. Severe underreplenishment of
developer can cause not only loss of density and contrast but also failure of the film to transport at
any point in the transport system. Overreplenishment of the fixer does not affect good operation,
but is wasteful. However, underreplenishment results in poor fixation, insufficient hardening,
inadequate washing, and possible failure of the film to be transported in the fixer rack or at any
point beyond.
Dryer System
Rapid drying of the processed radiograph depends on proper conditioning of the film in the
processing solutions, effective removal of surface moisture by the squeegee rollers, and a good
supply of warm air striking both surfaces of the radiograph.
Heated air is supplied to the dryer section by a blower. Part of the air is recirculated; the rest is
vented to prevent buildup of excessive humidity in the dryer. Fresh air is drawn into the system to
replace that which is vented.
Rapid Access to Processed Radiographs
Approximately twelve or fourteen minutes after exposed films are fed into the unit, they emerge
processed, washed, dried, and ready for interpretation. Conservatively, these operations take
approximately 1 hour in hand processing. Thus, with a saving of at least 45 minutes in processing
time, the holding time for parts being radiographed is greatly reduced. It follows that more work
can be scheduled for a given period because of the speed of processing and the consequent
reduction in space required for holding materials until the radiographs are ready for checking.
Uniformity of Radiographs
Automated processing is very closely controlled time-temperature processing. This, combined with
accurate automatic replenishment of solutions, produces day-after-day uniformity of radiographs
rarely achieved in hand processing. It permits the setting up of exposure techniques that can be
used with the knowledge that the films will receive optimum processing and be free from
processing artifacts. Processing variables are virtually eliminated.
Small Space Requirements
Automated processors require only about 10 square feet of floor space. The size of the processing
room can be reduced because hand tanks and drying facilities are not needed. A film loading and
unloading bench, film storage facilities, plus a small open area in front of the processor feed tray
are all the space required. The processor, in effect, releases valuable floor space for other plant
activities. If the work load increases to a point where more processors are needed, they can be
added with minimal additional space requirements. Many plants with widely separated exposure
areas have found that dispersed processing facilities using two or more processors greatly increase
the efficiency of operations.

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Chemistry of Automated Processing
Automated processing is not just a mechanization of hand processing, but a system depending on
the interrelation of mechanics, chemicals, and film. A special chemical system is therefore required to
meet the particular need of automated processing.
When, in manual processing, a sheet of x-ray film is immersed in developer solution, the exposed
silver halide grains are converted to metallic silver, but, at the same time, the emulsion layer swells
and softens. The fixer solution removes the underdeveloped silver halide grains and shrinks and
hardens the emulsion layer. Washing removes the last traces of processing chemicals and swells the
film slightly. Drying further hardens and shrinks the emulsion. Therefore, the emulsion changes in
thickness and in hardness as the film is moved from one step to the next in processing. In manual
processing, these variations are of no importance because the films are supported independently and
do not come in contact with other films or any other surfaces.
Automated processing, however, places an additional set of demands on the processing chemicals.
Besides developing and fixing the image very quickly, the processing chemicals must prevent the
emulsion from swelling or becoming either slippery, soft, or sticky. Further, they must prepare the
processed film to be washed and dried rapidly.
In automated processors, if a film becomes slippery, it could slow down in the transport system, so
that films following it could catch up and overlap. Or it might become too sticky to pass come point
and get stuck or even wrap around a roller. If the emulsion becomes too soft it could be damaged
by the rollers. These occurrences, of course, cannot be tolerated. Therefore, processing solutions
used in automated processors must be formulated to control, within narrow limits, the physical
properties of the film. Consequently, the mixing instructions with these chemicals must be followed
exactly.
This control is accomplished by hardener in the developer and additional hardener in the fixer to
hold the thickness and tackiness of the emulsion within the limits required for reliable transport, as
well as for rapid washing and drying.
It is also desirable that automated processing provide rapid access to a finished radiograph. This is
achieved in part by the composition of the processing solutions and in part by using them at
temperatures higher than those suitable for manual processing of film.
The hardening developer develops the film very rapidly at its normal operating temperature.
Moreover, the formulation of the solution is carefully balanced so that optimum development is
achieved in exactly the time required for the hardener to harden the emulsion. If too much hardener
is in a solution, the emulsion hardens too quickly for the developer to penetrate sufficiently, and
underdevelopment results. If too little hardener is in the solution, the hardening process is slowed,
overdevelopment of film occurs, and transport problems may be encountered. To maintain the
proper balance, it is essential that developer solution be replenished at the rate proper for the type or
types of film being processed and the average density of the radiographs.

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Because washing, drying, and keeping properties of the radiograph are closely tied to the
effectiveness of the fixation process, special fixers are needed for automatic processing. Not only
must they act rapidly, but they must maintain the film at the proper degree of hardness for reliable
transport. Beyond this, the fixer must be readily removed from the emulsion so that proper washing
of the radiograph requires only a short time. A hardening agent added to the fixer solution works
with the fixing chemicals to condition the film for washing and for rapid drying without physical
damage to the emulsion.
Experience has shown that the solutions in this chemical system have a long life. In general, it is
recommended that the processor tanks be emptied and cleaned after 50,000 films of mixed sizes
have been processed or at the end of 3 months, whichever is sooner. This may vary somewhat
depending on local use and conditions; but, in general, this schedule will give very satisfactory
results.
Film-Feeding Procedures
Sheet Film
The figure below shows the proper film-feeding procedures. The arrows indicate the direction in
which films are fed into the processor. Wherever possible, it is advisable to feed all narrower films
side by side so as to avoid overreplenishment of the solutions. This will aid in balanced
replenishment and will result in maximum economy of the solutions used.
Care should be taken that films are fed into the processor square with the edge of a side guide of the
feed tray, and that multiple films are started at the same time.
In no event should films less than 7 inches long be fed into the processor.
Film-feeding procedures for KODAK PROFESSSIONAL INDUSTREX

Processors.

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Roll Film
Roll films in widths of 16 mm to 17 inches and long strips of film may be processed in a KODAK
PROFESSSIONAL INDUSTREX Processor. This requires a somewhat different procedure than is
used when feeding sheet film. Roll film in narrow widths and many strips have an inherent curl
because they are wound on spools. Because of this curl, it is undesirable to feed roll or strip film
into the processor without attaching a sheet of leader film to the leading edge of the roll or strip.
Ideally, the leader should be unprocessed radiographic film. Sheet film that has been spoiled in
exposure or accidentally light-fogged can be preserved and used for this purpose.
The leader film should be at least as wide as, and preferably wider than, the roll film and be a
minimum of 10 inches long. It is attached to the roll film with a butt joint using pressure-sensitive
polyester tape, such as SCOTCH Brand Electrical Tape No. 3, one inch in width. (Other types of
tape may not be suitable due to the solubility of their bases in the processing solutions.) Care
should be taken that none of the adhesive side of the tape is exposed to the processing solutions.
Otherwise, the tape may stick to the processor rollers or bits of adhesive may be transferred to the
rollers, resulting in processing difficulties.
If narrow widths of roll or strip films are being fed, they should be kept as close as possible to one
side guide of the feed tray. This will permit the feeding of standard-size sheet films at the same
time. Where quantities of roll and strip films are fed, the replenisher pump should be turned off for a
portion of the time. This will prevent overreplenishment and possible upset of the chemical
balance in the processor tanks.
FILING RADIOGRAPHS
After the radiograph is dry, it must be prepared for filing. With a manually processed radiograph,
the first step is the elimination of the sharp projections that are caused by the film-hanger clips. Use
of film corner cutters will enhance the appearance of the radiograph, preclude its scratching others
with which it may come in contact, facilitate its insertion into an envelope, and conserve filing
space.
The radiograph should be placed in a heavy manila envelope of the proper size, and all of the
essential identification data should be written on the envelope so that it can be easily handled and
filed. Envelopes having an edge seam, rather than a center seam, and joined with a nonhygroscopic
adhesive are preferred, since occasional staining and fading of the image is caused by certain
adhesives used in the manufacture of envelopes. Ideally, radiographs should be stored at a relative
humidity of 30 to 50 percent.
Process Control
Users of industrial radiography must frequently meet requirements of density and sensitivity set
forth in inspection specifications. They must also keep the radiograph rejection rate to a minimum.
Control of variability in both exposing and film processing is essential if these requirements are to
be met. Although exposure and processing are the most frequent sources of significant variations,
other factors, such as intensifying screens and film, also contribute to radiographic variability.

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The exposure of industrial x-ray film to energy in the visible spectrum is not a reliable indicator of
the process level or the repeatability of exposures to x-radiation. Therefore, exposure of the control
film to white light is not a satisfactory tool for controlling process variability in industrial
radiography. In the procedure for controlling either the exposing unit or the film processing, or
both, described here, x-radiation is used to expose the control film.
The data obtained from exposures to x-radiation can be utilized in many ways. The procedure is
simple and not only reveals both exposing and processing variations but also differentiates between
them. It can be customized to fit specific requirements; a few suggestions for doing so are
presented later. No attempt has been made to list all the measures available for reducing variations in
density inasmuch as the procedures required for adequate process control depend on the conditions
in the laboratory and production specifications.
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
Most of the equipment and the material needed to set up a meaningful program of process control is
readily available to industrial radiographers. The key items are:
Electronic Direct-Reading Densitometer

Accurate, precise densitometers capable of measuring diffuse density are available from dealers in
photographic supplies.
Calibrated Film Strip
The strip is used to check the precision of the densitometer. If one is not available, a control strip on
which previous readings have been recorded will suffice.
Stepped Wedge
The wedge should be made of steel or the material most often tested. One step should be thick
enough to permit the passage of radiation sufficient to produce a density of 0.6 to 1.0, another step
should be thin enough to permit passage of twice as much radiation to produce a density of 2.0 or
higher. Although not essential, it is helpful if the difference in the density produced by adjacent
steps is uniform.
Film
A box of industrial x-ray film of the type most frequently used in the normal production operation
should be reserved for the control program. Before all the film in this box has been used, a new box
should be reserved for the same purpose and the necessary data on the response of the new film
should be obtained.
Refrigerator
After exposure, control strips must be stored at 40°F (4.5°C) or lower. When the stock of control
film exceeds a six-week supply, the unexposed film should be stored in a refrigerator and no more
than a one-week supply should be removed at any one time. When the temperature and the
humidity are high (more than 75°F or 24°C and 50 percent relative humidity), unexposed film
should be refrigerated regardless of the size of the stock.
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Cassette
One cassette or film holder for each exposing unit in the operation should be reserved for exclusive
use in exposing control film in that unit.
Intensifying Screens
If lead intensifying screens are used in the normal production operation, one set should be reserved
for exclusive use in exposing control film.
Electronic Thermometer with Submersible Stainless Steel Probe
This is an essential item if two or more automatic processors are operated at a common density aim
that has close tolerances. It is also helpful in reducing variations in density attributable to
processing in an automatic processor.
GENERAL ASPECTS
The information that follows pertains to the central system as a whole. Specific details of exposing,
processing, use of data accumulated, and the like are presented later.
Procedure
Establish a specific exposure technique for each x-ray unit in the control system. A separate
technique for each unit is essential because of variability in units of the same design and variations
among units of different designs. Each time control film is exposed in a unit, the technique
established for that particular unit must be followed exactly.
Routinely check the accuracy and the precision of the densitometer using the calibrated film strip or a
control strip on which previous readings has been recorded.
Maintain a separate process control chart for each exposing unit in the control system.
Maintain a separate process control chart for each processor in the control system unless two or
more processors are kept operating at a common level.
Expose control film each day in a designated unit. The exposed film is cut into enough strips to
provide a minimum of two strips for each processor in the operation. More than the minimum
number of strips are cut if possible.
Identify each strip.
Place half of the strips in an airtight, lighttight container; put the container in a moistureproof bag
(a bag made of polyethylene, for example); and place the package in the refrigerator to minimize
fading of the latent image. The strips are kept in the refrigerator for processing with freshly
exposed strips the following day. (A freshly exposed control strip is always processed with a
refrigerated control strip exposed in the same unit the previous day.)
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Tape the control strips to a leader if they are to be processed in an automated processor. This will
provide better transport. If they are to receive rack-and-tank processing, it may be necessary to
make a special strip hanger or to adapt a standard film hanger in order to hold the strips securely.
The control strips should always be processed with the high-density end down.
Maintain an accurate, up-to-date log containing all information that could affect process control.
The following should be included in the log:
1. Maintenance data and changes resulting from readjustment of an exposing unit, including
the supply of
electrical current to the unit and any significant changes in line
voltage.
2. Maintenance data and changes resulting from readjustment of a
processor.
3. Age of the developer replenisher.
4. Replenishment rate of the developer.
5. Age of the developer.
6. Temperature of the developer at the time control strips are being
processed.
7. Comments on fixer and wash and their replenishment rates. (Although
the condition of the fixer and the wash does not noticeably affect the
variability of film densities, the condition of each does have an effect on
the physical quality of processed film.)
Process Control Charts

Two steps on the control strip are selected for measurement. One step should have a density of 0.6
to 1.0; the other, 2.0 or higher. A specific area of the step is selected for measurement, and that
same area on each of the two steps is measured to obtain a high-density value and a low-density
value. From the first day on, four values are obtained--the value of the high-density step and the
value of the low density step on the fresh control strip and the values of the corresponding steps an
the control strip exposed the preceding day--always in the same area on each step.
The upper and the lower control limits for the process density aim can be assigned arbitrarily on the
basis of acceptable tolerances in the process operation (2.0 ± 0.2, for example). Sometimes it is
desirable to calculate more precise control limits, however, and a statistical method, such as the
standard deviation of density values with three sigma control limits, can be used to determine the
limits. If the standard deviation with three sigma control limits is used, 95 percent of all data
collected should be within the limits.
When a new box of control film is introduced into the operation, control exposures are made on
both the old and the new stock for four days and a temporary process density aim is computed on
the basis of the average densities obtained during the four-day period. After 10 days, the process
density aim, or the mean density, is recomputed on the 10-day average.
The process density aim is reestablished whenever changes are made within the operation. Such
changes as the introduction of a new control film and alterations to the exposing unit, for example,
make it necessary to reestablish the aim.
Control limits for variables of the exposing unit and the film processing are wider than if either
were monitored individually.
The densitometric data obtained from the control strips can be utilized in several ways. The table
below shows densitometric readings for a 10-day period. Some of the data in the table are plotted
on one process control chart (see the second table below) to show variations in exposure and
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processing; some are plotted on another process control chart (see the third table below) to indicate
changes in contrast.
Densitometric data for process control in industrial radiography accumulated in accordance with the
procedure described in the text. In each of the two pairs of figures shown for each day except the first
and the weekend, the top figure is the reading determined from the control strip exposed one or three
days before--the latent-image control strip. The bottom figure is the reading determined from the
control strip exposed and processed that day--the fresh-image control strip. In this example, the
density difference is the difference between the high- density reading and the low-density reading of
the fresh control strip. Latent-image control strips serve equally well for determining density
difference.

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Densitometric Data for Industrial X-ray Process Control

Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.
High-density reading 1.95 2.12
1.90 1.85
2.15 2.00
1.70 1.80
1.95 -- -- 1.85
2.05 2.00
1.95 1.80
1.90 1.95
2.05 1.95
2.00
Low-density reading 0.82 0.91
0.71 0.74
1.03 0.90
0.61 0.64
0.80 -- -- 0.80
1.01 0.97
0.92 0.72
0.80 0.88
0.95 0.75
0.80
Density difference 1.13 1.19 1.12 1.09 1.15 -- -- 1.04 1.03 1.10 1.10 1.20
Control chart below for one exposing unit and one processor showing variations in exposure and
processing. The control limits are wider than if either exposure or processing were monitored
individually. Plot all the high- density readings, but connect only the readings from control strips
exposed at the same time. The connecting lines represent the day-to-day repeatability of film
processing; the difference between point plots on a given day represents the repeatability of exposure.
Process Control Chart--Exposure and Processing Variations
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri.
Upper control limit 2.15
Process density aim 1.95
Lower control limit 1.75

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Process Control Technique
Certain measures can be taken to reduce radiographic process variability, but they depend largely
on the conditions and the requirements of the individual user. This is particularly true with respect
to variations introduced by the exposing unit. Obvious causes of exposure variability, such as
fluctuations or changes in line voltage, must first be eliminated, of course. The following may be of
help in reducing variations in density attributable to processing of the film in an automated
processor.
Use the electronic thermometer with the submersible stainless steel probe to set the temperature of
the developer. Use it to check for fluctuations in developer temperature; the thermostat for the
developer may allow the temperature to vary by 2°F. Procedures and thermostats that will hold the
temperature of the developer to ±1/5°F are available.
Use a graduate frequently to check and to maintain the developer replenisher rate at that
recommended for the average film density in the process.
Keep processing of completely exposed film or completely unexposed film to a minimum. Developer
that is overreplenished generally causes an increase in film densities; developer that is
underreplenished generally causes a decrease in film densities. When the stage of
underreplenishment reaches a certain point, the rate at which film densities decrease may become
quite rapid.
Never permit the developer replenisher to age beyond its recommended storage life. If the
developer replenisher exceeds its storage life, the storage tank should be emptied and rinsed and a
fresh solution should be prepared. Do not mix fresh developer replenisher with a solution that is
near the limit of its recommended storage life.
Do not replenish with developer replenisher that is past its recommended storage life. Do not
replenish with oxidized developer replenisher. The results of these practices can be losses in
density, a shift in contrast, or both.
Use fresh solutions at the time a process control system is initiated to reduce the possibility of
establishing a process density aim base on a process that is abnormal.
When the processed control strips indicate an out-of-control condition, check for an obvious error,
such as the temperature of the developer (if a film processing error is indicated), or the technique
used to set up the exposing unit (if an exposure error is indicated), or poor densitometry. If an
abnormal process is indicated, process another set of control strips. (It is for this purpose that more
than the minimum of two strips for each processor is advisable.)
When an out-of-control condition does exist that is the result of a film processing variation and not
an obvious testing error, the process should be restarted with fresh solutions. Adding chemicals to
the developer is frequently unsuccessful, is more time consuming, and is more expensive in the end
than restarting the process. Contamination of the developer (1 mL of fixer in a gallon of developer
can be detected in film densities) and underreplenishment of the developer are examples of
conditions that indicate the process should be restarted with fresh solutions.

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TECHNIQUE
Exposure of Control Film

Load the cassette with a sheet of control film. (If the control film has been refrigerated, be sure to
allow enough time for the film to reach room temperature before handling.) If lead intensifying
screens are used in the normal production operation, use the set reserved for process control.
Carefully set up the x-ray exposure unit for the exposure technique. The cassette and the stepped
wedge must be positioned identically each time control film is exposed.
Cut the exposed film into a minimum of twice the number of processors in the control system. If
possible, cut more than the minimum, but do not make duplicate exposures and assume they are
identical. Each exposure of control film must be considered a complete control.
Identify the strips as to date and exposing unit.
Place half or the exposed control strips in an airtight, lighttight, and moistureproof wrapper and
store them in the refrigerator. Remove the moistureproof package of control strips exposed in the
same unit the previous day. When these latent-image control strips are at room temperature, they
can be handled and processed.
Processing of Control Strips
Process the freshly exposed control strips and the strips exposed in the same unit the previous day
in the corresponding processor (or processors).
If the strips are less than 21/2 inches wide, tape them to a leader. If a leader is not used, process a
cleanup sheet before processing the control strips.
Always process a fresh control strip exposed in a designated unit with a control strip exposed in
that same unit the previous day.
Record in the log the temperature of the developer at the time the strips are in the processor. Record
in the log any other information pertinent to process control.
Densitometry
Check the accuracy and the precision of the densitometer each time before it is used to obtain the
numerical density values from the control strips.
Determine the density value of each of the two steps selected for measuring density on the freshly
exposed and processed control strip and the density of the two corresponding steps on the latent-
image control strip. (Once these steps have been selected, the density of the same area on each of
the steps is used every time control strips are measured.)
Record the densitometric readings and plot them on the process control charts.

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DISCUSSION
Densitometric data and process control charts for one exposing unit and one processor are
presented as the three tables here. The process density aim (the mean density) and the upper and
lower control limits on the charts (the table immediately above and the one below) were computed
from the densitometric data for the 10-day period shown in the first table above. As stated earlier,
the control limits on both charts are wider than would be the case if either the exposing unit or the
processor were monitored individually. Although two control charts are illustrated, they can be
combined into one for convenience.
Exposure and Processing Variations
Variations in both exposure and processing are reflected on the process control chart reproduced as
the table above. All the high-density readings are plotted, but only the readings from control strips
exposed at the same time are connected. The lines represent the day-to-day repeatability of film
processing, the difference between the point plots on a given day represents the repeatability of
exposure.
Control chart for one exposing unit and one processor indicating changes in contrast. Plot the
difference between the high-density reading and the low-density reading of the fresh-image control
strips, and connect the plots. A decrease in density difference from the process density aim, or the
mean density, indicates lower contrast; an increase indicates higher density
. Process Control Chart--Changes in Film Contrast
Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. Mon. Tues. Wed.
Thurs. Fri.
Upper control limit 1.30
Process density aim 1.10
Lower control limit 0.90
There will be a slight density loss of the latent image on the control strips processed one to three
days after exposure even though they are refrigerated. However, this small difference in density is
no cause for concern with the type of control chart shown as the middle table above. If the density
of the refrigerated control strip is always slightly lower (0.03 to 0.04) than that of its corresponding
fresh control strip, the process is repeating identically.
Contrast Variations
Variations in film contrast are reflected on the control chart reproduced as the table immediately
above. The difference between the high-density reading and the low-density reading of the fresh-
image control strips is plotted on this chart. (Latent-image control strips serve equally well for
determining density difference.) A decrease in density difference from the mean density, or the
process density aim, indicates lower contrast, an increase in density difference indicates higher
contrast.
The Processing Room

The location, design, and construction of the x-ray processing facilities are major factors in the
installation of adequate radiographic services. These facilities may be a single room, or a series of

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rooms for individual activities, depending an the amount and character of the work performed.
Because of the special importance of these rooms for the handling, processing, and storing of x-ray
films, both their general and detailed features should be most thoughtfully worked out. When
planning reflects care and foresight, the effort expended is soon offset by ease of operation,
improved production, and lowered costs of maintenance.
The flow of x-ray films from the radiographic room, through the processing facilities, to the
viewing room should be a simple yet smooth operation requiring the fewest possible steps. The
routine can be expedited by proper planning of the location within the department of the room or
rooms devoted to processing, and by efficient arrangement of the equipment.
Ideally, processing rooms should be supplied with filtered air, at a pressure above that of the
outside. This is particularly important when the outside air is likely to be contaminated with sand,
dirt, or other airborne particles.
PROCESSING AREA
The volume of films to be handled in the department, and the importance of rapid access to the
finished radiographs, will determine whether manual or automatic processing will be used.
Manual Processing
If the work load is small or intermittent, a single room containing all of the facilities can be used
(see the figure below). However, if the volume of manual processing is relatively high, production
can be expedited by dividing the operations among three areas: A room for loading and unloading
cassettes; a processing room with a through-the-wall tank; and a washing and drying room.
In general, the manual processing room should be large enough to hold all the necessary equipment
without crowding. However, there is no advantage in having excessive floor space, although need
for future expansion should be anticipated. The room shown in the figure below will permit the
processing of more than 200 films a day, and can be constructed in a floor space 91/2 x 15 feet.
It is most efficient to have the processing area adjoin the exposure room. However, in departments
where highly penetrating radiation is used, the amount of radiation shielding needed to protect
personnel and film may be prohibitively expensive, in which case the processing room must be
located at a safe distance.
Loading Bench
Basically, operations performed in the processing areas should be separated into parts--the "dry"
and the "wet." The dry activities--such as the handling of unprocessed film, loading and unloading of
cassettes and exposure holders, and the loading of processing hangers--are all done at the loading
bench. This may be either opposite the processing tanks in the same room or in a separate adjacent
room. Where a cassette-transfer cabinet is used, it should open onto the loading bench, which
should provide facilities for storage of processing hangers and other items, and a lighttight film bin.
Items such as the transfer cabinet, film storage bin, and processing hanger brackets are
commercially available.

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Processing Tanks
Processing the films, which involves the wet activities of developing, stopping, fixing, and
washing, should be carried out in an area separate from the loading bench. This arrangement is
designed to avoid splashing solutions on screens, films, and loading areas and, in general, to
prevent interference with loading-bench operations.
The tanks must be constructed of a corrosion-resistant material. The majority are now being
fabricated of AISI Type 316 stainless steel with 2 to 3 percent of molybdenum. Special techniques
must be employed in the fabrication of these tanks to avoid corrosion in the welded areas.
The film capacity of the entire processing area is determined by the size of the insert tanks. Based
on a 5-minute development time, a 5-gallon developer tank can handle 40 films an hour with four
hangers being handled simultaneously, and allowing for the time during which the hangers are
removed and inserted in the stop bath. The capacity of the stop bath tank should be equal to that of
the developer tank, and the fixer tank should be at least twice as large as the developer tank. The
washing tank should hold at least four times the number of hangers accommodated in the developer
tank.
Plan of a manual x-ray processing room.
Film Dryers
One of the important considerations in designing the processing area is the film dryer. It should be
fast-acting without overheating the film. Hot air, infrared, and desiccant dryers are commercially
available. Whenever possible, a filter should be inserted in the airtake. This may, however, create
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such a resistance to the airflow as to require a fan of larger capacity than would be needed without
the filter. A removable drip pan beneath each film compartment or drawer is useful as an aid in
keeping the dryer clean. As a precaution, heating elements should be connected in the fan circuit so
that heat cannot be turned on without turning on the fan.
Automated Processing
The chief difference between processing rooms for manual and automated processing is the
absence of the space-consuming processing tanks. The only part of the automated processor that
need be in the processing room is the film-feeding station, and this is quite small. The plans can
follow the general form of the figure below. Note the provision in the outer (light) room for mixing
and storing processing chemicals and washing processor components.
In planning a new processing room for an automated processor, early consideration should be given
to providing the water, electrical, drainage, and exhaust facilities required by the processor.
A schematic diagram of an automated processing darkroom and adjacent light-room area.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
There are a number of considerations that apply to all processing rooms, whether for manual or
automatic processing.
Entrances
Three general types of entrances are used for the processing room: The single door, the light lock
(double or revolving doors), and the labyrinth or maze. The single door is shown in the figure
immediately above and a double-door light lock in the figure way above.
Which is best suited to a particular installation is determined largely by the traffic in and out of the
processing room and by the amount of floor space available. The single door equipped with an
inside bolt or lock is most economical of floor space and is practical where one employee handles
the processing. However, in most cases a labyrinth, or a vestibule with two interlocking doors, is
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generally employed. Plans for the double-door and revolving door light locks, as well as a
labyrinth, are shown in the figure below.
Light locks (left and right) and maze (center) allow continuous access to the processing room.
Wall Covering
The walls of the processing room can be of any pleasing color. A cream or buff will give maximum
reflectance for safelight illumination. A good semigloss paint is satisfactory for any wall where
chemicals are not likely to be spattered. The best protective materials for walls near the processing
tanks in a manual processing room or in a chemical mixing area are ceramic tile, structural glass
sheets, or stainless steel. Care should be taken in choosing tile since there have been instances when
radioactive material has been incorporated in the glaze of the tile. Corrosion- and stain-resistant
paints are available but do not have the permanence of stainless steel, tile, or structural glass.
Floor Covering
The ideal floor is resistant to chemical corrosion and staining, of waterproof installation, of a
suitable color, and free from slipperiness. Porcelain and the natural clay tiles are satisfactory, as are
the darker asphalt tiles. Linoleum, and plastic and rubber tiles are less desirable because they may
be stained or pitted by the processing solutions.
Plumbing
In drainage lines, the greatest problem encountered is corrosion. Stainless steel, glass, chemical
stoneware, and anticorrosion iron are usually satisfactory. Galvanized steel may be used when
waste solutions do not remain in pipes. Under no circumstances should two metals be used, such as
copper pipe with galvanized steel fittings, because of the likelihood of corrosive electrolytic action.
Plastic fittings will eliminate this problem.
Lines carrying processing or replenisher solutions from storage tanks must be of stainless steel,
glass, plastic, or other inert, corrosion-resistant material.
Illumination
The processing area must be provided with both white light and safelight illumination. White light is
desirable for many activities, including cleaning and maintenance. Since excessive exposure of film
to safelight illumination will result in fog, the arrangement of the safelight lamps must be carefully
considered. A manual processing room should be divided into three zones of safelight intensity:
The brightest, in which the films are washed and placed in the dryer; the medium zone, where films
are developed and fixed; and the dimmest zone, where loading-bench activities are carried on.
Only one level of illumination is usually provided in a processing room for automatic processing,
since the manipulation of unprocessed film is reduced to a minimum.
The "safeness" of processing room illumination depends equally on the use of the proper safelight
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filter, the use of the proper wattage of bulb, the proper placement of lamps with respect to film, and
not exceeding the maximum "safe" time of exposure of the film to safelight illumination.
Exposed films are more sensitive to fogging from the safelight illumination than are unexposed
films. Hence, it is especially important to guard the exposed films against prolonged exposure to
safelight illumination. Note that the screen-type films are more sensitive to fogging by safelight
illumination than direct-exposure films.
A simple method of checking the safelight of illumination is to test it with the fastest film used in
the laboratory, as follows: An exposure is made of a stepped wedge. In the processing room, the
holder is unloaded and the film placed in the area where it is normally handled. Part of the film is
covered with opaque paper. The remainder is exposed to the safelight illumination for the
maximum time normally needed for handling. The test film is then given standard processing. If no
density shows on the uncovered part that received the safelight exposure, as compared with the
covered part, the lighting may be assumed to be safe.
Storage Conditions
The residual fixer concentration for commercial use can generally be tolerated in areas where the
average relative humidity and temperature in the storage space are not excessive. These quantities
may, however, be excessive when storage conditions are worse than average for temperature and
humidity. Archival processing should be the rule whenever it is known that relative humidity and
temperature are likely to be constantly excessive, as is the case in tropical and subtropical areas.
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ABC OF FILM PROCESSING
Stir Solution Check Temperature

Stir developer and Check temperature of
fixer solution to solutions with
equalize their accurate
temperature. Use thermometer. Rinse
separate paddle for off after each solution
each to avoid before checking next
contamination one. Adjust to 68°F
(20°C)
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TIME - TEMPERATURE DEVELOPMENT CHART (may vary for other films)
KODAK INDUSTREX Films KODAK Medical X-ray Films

Temperature
of Developer
AA, T, M, R (Double Coated)* BLUEBRAND
R (Single Coated)* No-Screen
Minutes Minutes
of °C
Normal Maximum Minutes Normal Development

Development Development †
60 (15.5) 9 15 8½
65 08.5) 6 10 6
6\8(21.J 4 8 5
70 (21) 75 4¼‡ 7 4¼‡
(24) 3‡ 5 3¼ ‡
* Without agitation other than tapping hangers lightly immediately after immersion to dislodge air bubbles.
† Applies also to no screen films
‡ Development time required at these temperature. However development time less than 5 minutes in a tank may produce
poor uniformity. Where possible it is preferable to avoid them.
Note:
1. For uniform development always stir developer solution before use. Then check the temperature of
the solution. For best results , keep temperatures of remaining solutions close to developer temperature.
2. Replenishment: Maintain the chemical activity of the solution and the solution level in the tank by
frequent additions of small quantities of replenisher.
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES (FOR WELDS IN PLATE AND PIPE)
Three basic techniques are used for the radiography of butt-welds in pipe, these being
the 'single wall single image (SWSI)', 'double wall single image (DWSI)' and 'double wall
double image DWDI' techniques. All radiographs of butt-welds in plate will in general be
single wall single image.
Each of these techniques is discussed below, paying particular respect to the extent of the
diagnostic area, the minimum source to film distance, the placement of location markers
and the placement of IQIs.
IQI TYPE AND PLACEMENT
It is important that IQIs are placed source or film side and at a position within the diagnostic
film length (DFL) in accordance with the requirements of the contract specification.
As a general rule, wherever possible, the IQI should be placed source side. IQIs placed
source side are affected both by radiographic contrast and by geometric unsharpness. Film
side IQIs indicate radiographic contrast only, thus source side IQIs give a more accurate
measure of the overall radiographic quality.
It used to be standard good practice to place wire type IQIs towards the end of the diagnostic
area, with the thinner wires toward the outside of the DFL; the wires were invariably
placed across the weld and sensitivity was assessed on the weld allowing for any weld
reinforcement present. This way of working would still meet ASME V article 2 requirements,
although this document does not specify where within the DFL the IQI should be placed. In
Europe matters are different. When working in accordance with BS EN 1435 sensitivity
should generally be assessed at the centre of the DFL on the parent material.
Plaque type and step hole type IQIs should (preferably) always be placed at the centre of the
diagnostic area on the parent material. Should the image of these IQI types encroach on the weld
area the radiograph should be re-taken.
If working with a wire type IQI in accordance with ASME V article 2 sensitivity would probably be
measured on the weld. ASME V article 2 then has a requirement that the film density through
the diagnostic length shall not vary by more than + 30% or 15% from that measured at the
IQI. The same allowable density variation applies to plaque type IQIs, but these, of course,
must be placed alongside, not on the weld. Plaque type IQIs may be shimmed to compensate
for any weld reinforcement. If a technique produces a wide range of film density the
placement of several IQIs may be necessary in order to meet the allowable density variation
requirement.
BS EN limits the diagnostic film length (DFL) by specifying that the penetrated thickness at the
ends of the DFL shall not exceed 44W6 (class B' techniques) or - % (class 'A'
techniques) of the thickness penetrated at the centre of the DFL.
LOCATION MARKERS
All national codes and standards require the use of location markers, usually in the form of lead
letters or numbers that appear in the radiograph as a radiographic image. It is very important
that the markers are placed in such a way as to prove coverage of the weld where a
multiple exposure technique is used. Three general rules apply:
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• When performing radiography of welds in flat plate location markers must be
placed source side. Film side markers will not prove coverage because of
parallax.'
• When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location markers should

be placed on the convex surface for all techniques where the source or focus to
film distance is equal to or exceeds the radius of curvature.
• When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location markers should

be placed source side for all techniques where the source or focus to film distance is
less than the radius of curvature.
IDENTIFICATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
All national codes and standards require unique and permanent identification of radiographs. In
general this can be applied by any suitable means although in some cases identification
using lead numbers that appear as radiographic images is required. Where not
prohibited by the contract specification `flashing' the radiographic identification is a good
method. he required identification is written on a scrap of white paper, the radiograph is suitably
masked and the scrap of paper is placed on the unmasked area. The radiograph is then flashed
with a suitable light source and the identification becomes visible during subsequent film
processing. Exactly what constitutes an acceptable unique identification varies widely
from specification to specification, but the minimum is a unique number, ASME V
article 2 requires a unique weld number, the date and the manufacturer's name or
symbol. Most codes require radiographs of repair welds to be marked with R1, R2, R3
etc depending on the number of repair attempts. RW is commonly used to identify a
complete re-weld. Items such as heat treatment condition, welder number and welding
procedure reference may also be required.
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RADIATION ENERGY
BS EN 1435 specifies the maximum x-ray tube voltage that may be used based on the component
thickness (see the figure in section 5.1.5.1above). BS EN 1435 also specifies the minimum
and maximum thickness on which each type of gamma ray isotope may be used (see table
just below). ASME V article 2 specifies a recommended minimum steel thickness for
iridium 192 of 19 mm and a minimum of 38 mm for cobalt 60, a minimum of 63 mm of
aluminium is specified for iridium 192.
SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE
The minimum source to film distance for BS EN 1435 is calculated using the formula: f/d s kb2/3
where f is the source to object distance, d is the effective source or focus size, b is the object to film
distance and k is a constant equal to 7.5 for class A techniques and 15 for class B. BS EN 1435
also includes a nomogram for the less mathematically minded. The first figure in section
8.4.1.1.1 above shows the BS EN 1435 requirements graphically.
ASME V article 2 limits the minimum source or focus to film distance by specifying
maximum geometric unsharpness, 0.51 mm for component thickness up to 50.8 mm, 0.76
mm for component thickness greater than 50.8 & up to 76.2 mm, 1.0mm for component
thickness greater than 76.2 and up to 101.6 mm and 1.78 mm for component thickness
exceeding 101.6mm
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SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE FOR PLATE
The figure above shows a typical set-up for exposure of a butt weld in flat plate. The captions
refer to BS EN 1435 requirements. The source should be positioned on the centre line of the weld,
directly above the centre of the diagnostic area.
SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: SOURCE INTERNAL, PLACED

CENTRALLY (PANORAMIC TECHNIQUE)
Single wall single image `panoramic' technique (BS EN 1435)

Required number of exposures = 1 (see figure further below for BS EN 1435 requirements)
This technique is commonly used for pipeline welds where specially designed, remotely operated,
devices known as crawlers are often used. These machines can travel distances of up to
several kilometres along the inside of the pipeline in order to reach the desired position to
radiograph a particular weld. The typical battery life for an x-ray crawler will usually
allow about 100 exposures to be made between successive battery charges. Gamma ray
crawlers are also used.
This technique may also be used for examining girth welds in cylindrical pressure
vessels. Using Thulium 170 isotopes boiler tube welds which may have an outside diameter of
only 40 mm are occasionally examined by this technique.
The major advantage of this technique is that it can radiograph an entire girth weld in a single
exposure. With this technique location marker placement is not critical, but it usually
more convenient to place the markers film side. In most cases it will be impractical to place the
IQI source side for this technique, although source side IQIs would be preferred if access is
not a problem. Film side IQIs are therefore generally used. Comparitor radiographs having
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IQIs placed source and film side can be used to establish sensitivity requirements for film
side IQIs. In most cases three IQIs are placed at 120°intervals around the
circumference, although some specifications require more or less than this. The
radiograph may consist of a number of overlapping films or it may be a single length of 'rollpack'
film. Identification of the film may be included as a radiographic image but it may also be added
later. Where several overlapping films are used each film must be uniquely and permanently
identified.
SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: SOURCE INTERNAL OFFSET.
Single wall single image source internal & offset technique (BS EN 1435)
Required number of exposures: see figure next page for BS EN 1435 requirements
In some cases it may not be possible to satisfy the requirements of the applicable
specification for geometric unsharpness if the panoramic technique is used. Where this is the
case it may be possible to achieve a satisfactory geometric unsharpness by offsetting
the source towards the inner wall of the pipe. Location markers should be placed film
side if the SFD or FFD is longer than the radius of curvature of the test item. If the
converse of this is true (as may be the case for a large diameter pressure vessel) then the
location markers should be placed source side.
SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: FILM INSIDE, SOURCE OUTSIDE
Single wall single image film inside, source outside
(BS EN
1435)
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This is a rather unpopular technique because a large number of exposures (usually 8 or

more) are required in order to cover the entire circumference of the weld. In general it will
only be used when an acceptable radiograph cannot be achieved using either of the two
single wall techniques described in section 10.6.2 and 10.6.3 above and can also not be
achieved using the double wall techniques described below. Location markers
MUST be placed source side. The IQI should always be placed source side, there is no
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excuse for using a film side IQI when using this technique. Identification of the films
may be included as radiographic images (although it will probably impractical to use
long identifications due to the limited amount of area available on the film) but may also
be added later.
DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
Where there is no access to the inside of a pipe double wall techniques have to be
employed.
In the double wall single image technique the source of radiation is usually placed at the
minimum possible distance from the film. The reason for this is that as the source to film
distance increases so does the number of exposures needed to cover the entire
circumference of the weld. In addition, any improvement in image quality due to the
reduced geometric unsharpness associated with an increase in SFD or FFD has to be offset
against a reduction in image quality due to increased scatter.
Geometric unsharpness limitations permitting gamma sources can be placed almost in

contact with the outside surface of the pipe. In many cases this reduces the required
number of exposures to just three (see 2nd figure below for BS EN 1435 requirements).
X-ray tubes are bulky and the minimum achievable FFD will usually be about 125 mm plus
the outside diameter of the pipe. A minimum of 4 exposures per weld is therefore required when
using an x-ray source for this technique.
Being able to place the source of radiation in close contact with the pipe gives gamma ray
techniques another significant advantage over x-ray techniques particularly on
smaller pipe diameters. Less offset is needed with gamma ray sources in order to ensure
that the image of the source side portion of the weld is not superimposed upon the film
side part of the weld. This can increase the chance of finding vertical defects such as lack of
root fusion in the weld being radiographed.
As the wall thickness to diameter ratio increases the double wall single image technique
becomes increasingly difficult to apply, the number of exposures required increases and the
quality of the radiographs produced diminishes. For these reasons double-wall-double-image
(superimposed) techniques tend to be preferred for heavy wall small diameter pipes.
Because in general there will be no access to the inside of the pipe when this technique is
employed the location markers and IQI are always placed film side.
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OUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
DOUBLE WALL .DOUBLE IMAGE (ELLIPTICAL)
Double wall double image technique (elliptical)
In accordance with BS EN 1435 this technique is limited to girth welds in pipe having an
outside diameter of less than 100 mm. In accordance with ASME V article 2 welds in pipe
of up to 3% inch nominal diameter ( OD about 101.9 mm, this is slightly outside the BS EN
1435 requirement) may be radiographed using DWDI. For pipes with a wall thickness to
outside diameter ratio in excess of about 0.15 the double-wall-double-image (superimposed)
technique is to be preferred. The minimum number of exposures required by both BS EN and
American standards is two at 90° to each other.
Long source to film distances are needed because the minimum value of object to film
distance is equal to the outside diameter of the pipe. Exposure times for this technique
therefore tend to be rather long especially in the case of gamma ray techniques. A
single location marker on each exposure is generally sufficient, although some
specifications require pitch markers (A to B, B to C, C to D and D to A etc). Location markers
may be placed source side or film side. Us should always be placed source side.
BS EN 1435 requires wire type IQI s to be placed on the parent material with their wires
parallel to the weld axis (see previous figure above). Special BS EN 462-1 having wires
just 10 mm long are available for this purpose. Working in accordance with ASME V
article 2 standard wire type IQIs should be placed with their wires across the weld at 90° to
the weld axis. In the double wall single image technique the film is wrapped around the
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pipe so as to remain as close as possible to the weld. Conversely, in the double wall
double image technique the film should be kept as flat as possible (see previous figure).
DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE (SUPERIMPOSED)

This technique has the same range of application as the elliptical technique, but is preferred
when the thickness to outside diameter ratio exceeds 0.15. Welds having difficult
geometry that may prevent them from being radiographed using the elliptical technique can
generally be radiographed successfully using this technique. As the image of the source side
part of the weld is superimposed on the image the film side part of the weld it is often not
possible to accurately locate a weld defect when using this technique. This is not usually much
of a handicap because small diameter welds tend to be cut-out and re-welded rather than being
repaired locally.
A single location marker per exposure is usually sufficient when using this technique and it
may be placed either source or film side. IQIs should always be placed source side.BS
EN 1435 and ASME V article 2 both require a minimum of 3 exposures at 1200 to
spacing (or 3 at 600 spacing for difficult access situations) for this technique. The double
wall double image superimposed technique may be more likely (than the elliptical
technique) to successfully detect lack of root fusion due to the more favourable angle of incidence
of the primary beam.
DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE (SUPERIMPOSED)
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INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
INTRODUCTION
Competent interpretation of radiographs is a skill which can only be gained through long
experience. This chapter is intended to give the reader a guide to radiographic interpretation
and should be regarded as a base upon which to build.
The interpretation of a radiograph should not be confused with the acceptance or rejection
of a component. The radiograph must first be interpreted and any defects observed assessed
against applicable standard. A weld or casting must be accepted on its merits or rejected for its
faults and should neither be accepted nor rejected due to difficulties encountered in the
interpretation of radiographs. Any radiograph not meeting code requirements with regard to
radiographic quality must be rejected.
In circumstances where there is doubt as to the nature of a radiographic image it is often
necessary to visually inspect the component or to cross check the radiographic results
using another NDT method.
VIEWING CONDITIONS
The success or failure of radiographic interpretation is highly dependent upon the film
viewing conditions. The eye is very sensitive to small variations in film density once it has
developed `night vision'. Anyone carrying out radiographic interpretation should
therefore not begin to view radiographs until `night vision' has developed. Since this
cannot be achieved in a brightly lit room it is important that the films are viewed in low
ambient light. `Night vision' takes several minutes to develop and so the films should not be
viewed immediately upon entering the viewing room. Five minutes is the recommended
period that should elapse before critical interpretations are made. It is also important that
film is properly masked on the viewer so that the light falling on the eye comes from the
radiograph only. If the film is not adequately masked the eye will be blinded by the bright
light coming from around the film.
Radiographs are easily damaged, therefore the viewing room must be clean and dry
and the radiographs must be handled with care. The viewer should be mounted on a table
or bench large enough to allow the films to be spread out without the danger of them failing to
the floor. A well shielded reading lamp will allow reports to be read or notes to be made,
without unduly increasing the overall ambient lighting.
The radiographs should be viewed at a normal reading distance (normally less than 400 mm). A
low power magnifier (2 or 3X) may occasionally be helpful, but it should not be necessary
for routine examination. In accordance with PCN requirements the visual acuity of the
radiographic interpreter must be J1 in at least one eye (corrected or uncorrected).
The viewing of radiographs is often undertaken in the dark room where the film was
processed. This is satisfactory provided that the viewing bench or table is clean and well
away from the processing tanks. Under normal circumstances films should NEVER be viewed
whilst wet. There are two reasons for this:
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(a) The film emulsion is swollen with water and the images are not as clear as when the
film is dry.
(b) The emulsion is very delicate and any attempt to mask the film will result in
scratches or marks on the film, effectively ruining it.
National standards generally require that the illuminance of a radiographic film viewer be
sufficient to produce a transmitted light intensity of at least 30 and preferably
300candela per square metre (cd/m2). This means that a viewer suitable for viewing
radiographic film with a density of 3.0 must have an illuminance of at least 30,000cd/m2
with as much as 300,000cd/m2 being desirable. BSEN 25580 requirements for
radiographic film viewers are given by the table below. Note that these are minimum
requirements.
Film Density Minimum Screen Transmitted Light

Illuminance (cd/m2) Illuminance (cd/m2)
1.0 300 30.0
1.5 1000 31.6
2.0 3000 30.0
2.5 10000 31.6
3.0 10000 10.0
3.5 30000 9.5
4.0 100000 10.0
4.5 300000 9.5
BSEN 25580 requirements for radiographic film viewers

REPORTING
The initial interpretation of a radiograph should always be undertaken by the manufacturer or

his designated representative. Other interested parties should be presented with a
report which includes an interpretation of each film. It is their job to check this and to agree
or disagree with it. The radiographic report should contain the following information as a
minimum:
(i) Identification of the item radiographed.
(ii) The date of manufacture.
(iii) The date of radiography.
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(iv) Exposure details including the type of equipment used and the tube voltage for
x-ray techniques and the type of isotope for gamma ray techniques.
(v) The type of film used.
(vi) The type and thickness of the intensifying screens used.
(vii) Geometric details, particularly the FFD or SFD and the effective focus or source
dimension.
(viii) Details of the component being radiographed, including the type of material and
method of manufacture, the thickness, the heat treatment condition and the repair status.
(ix) The method of film processing.
(x) The film density achieved.
(xi) The radiographic sensitivity achieved.
(xii) The technician's name, signature and date.
(xiii) The interpreter's name, signature and date.
(xiv) An interpretation of each film and a statement of the component's acceptability
or not.
(xv) The code or standard applicable to the radiographic technique. (xvi) The acceptance code
or standard.
(xvii) Reference to a written procedure or technique sheet.
FILM QUALITY
The success of radiographic interpretation is dependent upon the quality of the film presented. If
the film does not meet the minimum applicable standards for quality then it should be rejected
and reshot. The manufacturer's interpreter may, for economic reasons, not be inclined to
reject radiographs which do not meet the minimum quality standards. Therefore any third party
viewing the radiographs should be extremely careful to correctly assess the quality of the
radiographs prior to endorsing the relevant report. Otherwise the third party will be open to
criticism should the film become the subject of any subsequent legal inquiry. When assessing a
film for quality a number of items must be considered. These are discussed below.
COMPONENT IDENTIFICATION
All radiographs must be permanently and uniquely marked with sufficient

information so as to permit their identification with the component radiographed at a later
stage. It is often useful to include such items as the date of test and heat treatment
or repair status of the component in the identification. Radiographic identification
could appear on the radiograph as a radiographic image but there is usually no reason why it
should not be added by any other suitable means. A written procedure should be in force
describing the standard method to be used for identifying radiographs.
LOCATION MARKERS
Location markers on a radiograph serve two functions: they permit the radiograph
to be identified with the area of the component radiographed and they serve to prove that the
component has been fully covered by the technique used. Refer to the sections above on
radiographic techniques for details. Wherever possible location markers should
permanently identify the radiograph with the area radiographed. Items such as pressure
vessels are usually hard stamped with a permanent radiographic datum. A written
procedure should be in force which describes the standard method used for the placement
of location markers.
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FILM DENSITY
It is important that the film density is within the specified range since a film having low film
density will also have inferior film contrast. BS EN 1435 requires a minimum film density of 2.0
for class A radiography and a minimum of 2.3 for class B. ASME V Article 2 requires a minimum
of 1.8 for x-ray techniques and minimum of 2.0 for gamma ray techniques. In most cases
(including BS EN 1435 and ASME V article 2) the minimum figures for film density apply to
the area of interest (the diagnostic area) on the radiograph. In weld radiography, for example,
film density should generally be measured on the weld area between the location markers (which
identify the ends of the diagnostic film length).
Density can be assessed either by comparison with a calibrated density strip (which
preferably should have been made using film identical to that of the radiograph)
or by using a measuring device known as a densitometer. Anyone accepting
radiographs which do not meet the applicable density requirements is open to criticism at a
later stage should litigation follow a component failure.
ASME V article 2 requires that the film density within the area of interest must not vary by
more than minus 15% or plus 30% from the value measured through the body of the IQI.
If necessary additional IQIs can be used in order to satisfy this requirement for
exceptional areas.
Occasionally an upper limit is specified for film density. ASME V article 2, for example, specifies
an upper limit of 4.0.
RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
Radiographic sensitivity is not directly related to the minimum detectable defect size. However, a
radiograph that meets the applicable code requirement for radiographic sensitivity is much
more likely to provide good defect sensitivity than a radiograph which fails to meet the code
requirements.
The sensitivity of a radiograph depends upon the parameters chosen to produce that radiograph
(see the section above on the production of a radiograph). If any of the relevant parameters are
altered the sensitivity will be affected. It is therefore essential to use Image Quality
Indicators (IQIs) in order to prove that adequate radiographic quality has been
attained. Except in the case of the `panoramic technique', which has been described
above, at least one IQI should generally appear each radiograph.
Anyone viewing radiographs should be careful to check that the radiographic sensitivity
meets the requirements of the applicable code. Anyone who fails to do is open to criticism
should litigation follow a component failure.
ARTEFACTS AND OTHER UNWANTED IMAGES
In film radiography an artefact can be defined as àny image resulting from a cause that
is not directly associated with the object that has been radiographed.
Artefacts can be produced by mechanical or chemical damage to the film and by damaged or
dirty intensifying screens. Sometimes radiographic images may be formed by things
such as debris on the internal of a pipe. These images, while they are strictly speaking not
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artefacts, can also interfere with the proper interpretation of the radiograph.
When radiographs are being produced on a commercial basis it is not possible for every film to be
free from all artefacts. An artefact only becomes significant when it cannot be identified as being
an artefact or when it hinders the interpretation of the film. These two factors are rather
subjective but if any doubt exists then the interpreter should call for a repeat radiograph. A
list of possible artefacts is given in the next section.
INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGES

There are three types of images that may appear on a radiograph:
(i) Images due to artefacts.

(ii) Images due to surface irregularities in the component.
(iii) Images due to internal discontinuities in the component.
Every image within the diagnostic area of a radiograph must be identified as one of
these three. It is not permissible to reject a component simply because an image
appearing within the diagnostic area cannot be interpreted. Similarly it is not permissible to
reject a radiograph for artefacts which are not within the diagnostic area. The following
sections attempt to give a description the various types of image that may be seen on a
radiograph. The ability to successfully identify all radiographic images is a skill that can only be
perfected with time and experience.
ARTEFACTS
PRESSURE MARKS (CRIMP MARKS)
These are produced by careless film handling. If the film is crimped or buckled either before or after
exposure crescent shaped images in the processed radiograph will result. Light marks indicate
crimping before exposure. Dark marks indicate crimping after exposure but before film
processing.
It is usually possible to identify crimp marks by viewing the film in reflected light. They
should appear as indentations in the surface of the film. Lead screens that have been
crimped should be discarded.
SCRATCHES: ON THE FILM
Radiographic film emulsion is delicate, it is easily damaged if handled carelessly

at any stage during the production of a radiograph. Areas used for film handling must
be free from dust and films must be handled carefully at all times.
Depending upon how severe and when or how formed film scratches may produce either light
or dark images. Film scratches can usually be identified using reflected light.
SCRATCHES: ON LEAD INTENSIFYING SCREENS
These may appear as either light or dark images that cannot be seen in reflected
light. If the intensifying screens used to make the radiograph can be positively identified
then it may be possible to trace the shape and position of such an image to a scratch on
the screens. Even if this can be done it will probably be necessary to re-shoot the
radiograph. Scratched lead screens should be discarded.
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DIRT: ON THE FILM OR SCREENS
Dirt which finds its way between the film and the screens will in general produce a
light image on the resultant radiograph which is not visible in reflected light.
Greasy fingers will produce dark marks on a finished radiograph that can easily be seen in
reflected light. Greasy fingers before development produce light marks.
STREAKINESS OR MOTTLING: POOR DEVELOPMENT
This is usually caused by insufficient agitation in the early stages of development and
is due a process known as 'bromide streaming'. Reaction products from the chemical interaction
of the developer with the silver halides in the film emulsion tend to build up around high
film density zones. These reaction products slow down the action of the developer. Since
they are relatively heavy they will tend to flow down the surface of the film leading to a
light coloured streak in the finished radiograph. Under or over development usually
leads to a mottled effect on the finished radiograph. A similar effect will be produced by
developer that has passed the end of its service life. In less severe cases such artefacts
may not be a cause for rejection of the radiograph but darkroom procedures should be
reviewed in order to prevent a recurrence or a further deterioration in radiographic quality.
DEVELOPER SPLASHES
These will appear as dark spots on the film and indicate poor dark room practice. Such marks
are usually visible in reflected light,
FIXER SPLASHES
These will appear as light spots on the film and again indicate poor dark room practice. Such
marks are usually visible in reflected light.
WATER SPLASHES
These may appear as either light or dark images on a radiograph. Water splashes before
exposure tend to cause light marks. Water splashes after exposure tend to cause dark
marks. Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
WATER MARKS
These are easily seen on the radiograph in both transmitted and reflected light and are due
to uneven drying. They commonly occur where a dry or partially dry film is wetted locally either by
splashing or by excess water running down from a film clip. The appearance of water marks
can be reduced or eliminated by the use of a squeegee to remove excess water or by the use
of a final wash that contains a small amount of detergent (i.e. a wetting agent).
AIR BELLS
These are light marks caused by air bubbles adhering to the film in the early stages of
development. They will not occur if the film is properly agitated.
DIFFRACTION MOTTLING
This can be a problem when x-rays are used to radiograph large grained material, one example
being cast austenitic steels. Diffraction is an apparent bending of a beam of radiation that is
due to ìnterference.' Diffraction occurs when radiation passes through a grating that has a
spacing approximately equal to one wavelength. The spacing of atoms in a metallic
crystal is about 0.1 nanometres. This corresponds to x-ray radiation with a photon
energy in the region of 10 keV. If low energy components are removed from the x-ray beam
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by filtration the problem with diffraction mottling will disappear. Diffraction mottling does
not occur in gamma radiography because of the absence of low energy beam
components. Diffraction can be used to advantage. It is the basis for the study of metal
crystals by x-ray crystallography.
STATIC MARKS
Penetrating radiation is by definition ìonising'. It always causes the build up of an electric

charge on the film during exposure but under normal circumstances this is not a problem
because the charge quickly flows to earth. In dry climates, however, a static charge may
remain on the film up to the point where it is unloaded in the darkroom, whereupon it
flows to earth suddenly in a manner that could be painful for the radiographer. Such a
sudden dissipation of electrical energy leads to the emission of a sudden burst of light.
This light produces dark tree-like marks on the finished radiograph. Static marks can be
avoided by careful film handling.
DICHROIC FOGGING
Radiographs affected by dichroic fog will appear reddish when viewed using transmitted light
and greenish in reflected light. Dichroic means two-coloured. This artefact is caused
when the development process continues during the fixing process. It happens when the
fixer solution has become insufficiently acidic to stop the development process. The
use of an acidic stop bath between the development and fixing processes will in general
prevent the occurrence of this seldom seen artefact.
RETICULATION
This artefact appears on the radiograph as an orange peel like mottling effect. It is caused
when the film emulsion is subjected to a temperature shock at any stage during the film
processing. A sudden change in temperature causes the film emulsion to wrinkle. It will
not generally occur as long as the sudden change in temperature is less than 10°C.
FILM FOGGING BY X OR GAMMA RAYS
If radiographic film is not stored well away from sources of ionising radiation then it is
likely to become `fogged.' Films that have been fogged in this way will produce reduced
radiographic contrast (fogging has much the same effect as scattered radiation
which is explained in a section above). If it is suspected that the film is fogged then the
fog level can be checked by processing a piece of unexposed film. Film with a density due to
fogging of 0.3 or more is not suitable for use in high quality industrial radiography.
LIGHT FOGGING
Exposure to light other than that from darkroom safe-lights (actually prolonged exposure to
safe-lights will cause also fogging) at any stage prior to fixing the film will cause the film
to become fogged. Such fogging may be localised or general. Localised fogging is not a
problem unless it encroaches onto the diagnostic film area. General fogging by light has the
same effect as fogging due to exposure to ionising radiation.
FILM FOGGING DUE TO INADEQUATE STORAGE CONDITIONS
Film stored at too high a temperature or which has been exposed to chemical fumes
may become fogged. The fog level of all film increases with age, even under ideal
storage conditions, therefore all film boxes are marked with an expiry date. High-speed
films deteriorate more quickly than do slower films.
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SOLARISATION
Image reversal due to extreme over exposure to x or gamma rays or caused by exposure to
light during film development.
A FINAL WORD ON ARTEFACTS
It should be stressed again that artefacts are cause for rejecting the film only if they
interfere with interpretation. A large number of artefacts present on the radiographs indicate
poor practice and the interpreter should take time to inspect the radiographic facilities and
review darkroom procedures.
INTERPRETATION OF WELD RADIOGRAPHS
RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS DUE TO SURFACE
GEOMETRY
It is usually possible to successfully interpret radiographs of welds in the as welded condition.

Experience will help the interpreter to identify the sort of surface marks that are normal for a
particular welding process and technique. Where there is doubt it a visual examination of the
weld will often help. Where it is felt that an indication resulting from surface geometry could mask
a significant defect indication, or where visual examination proves inconclusive, it may be
necessary to dress the weld to a smooth contour and re-shoot the radiograph.
The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or undercutting is difficult to
judge using radiographic evidence alone. Wherever possible defects of this type should be
judged for acceptability by visual means. Listed below are some of the common surface
conditions that can produce radiographic images.
EXCESSIVE ROOT PENETRATION
This is excess weld material protruding through the root of a single sided fusion weld. It
appears in the radiograph as a continuous or intermittent light irregular band within the
image of the weld. Common causes of excessive penetration are no root face, root gap too
wide, excessive amperage, travel speed too slow and incorrect polarity.
ROOT CONCATIVITY
This takes the form of shallow groove that may occur in the root of a single sided weld. It
appears in the radiograph as a series of dark areas along the centre of the weld varying
in density according to the depth of imperfection. It is often seen in welds made with the
use of a backing gas. The pressure of the backing gas can cause the weld root to collapse
during welding of the first subsequent weld run (hot-pass). Other possible causes are no
root face, travel speed too slow on the hot pass, amperage too high on the hot pass,
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incorrect polarity on the hot pass, excessive pre-heat and root gap too narrow.
INCOMPLETELY FILLED GROOVE (LACK OF FILL)
This is a continuous or intermittent channel along the edge of the weld, due to insufficient weld
material. Incompletely filled groove is a fusion defect and should not be confused with lack
of reinforcement or undercutting. It produces an image in the radiograph of a straight edged
(on one side at least) dark band. Incompletely filled groove is caused by poor welding
practice.
LACK OF REINFORCEMENT
This is a concave area of the weld cap where the weld is locally thinner, sometimes
thinner than the parent material, In the radiograph it appears as a dark area towards the
centre of the weld which has diffuse edges. Lack of reinforcement is caused by poor
welding practice.
UNDERCUT
This is an irregular groove at the toe the weld in the parent material due to burning
away during welding. It appears in the radiograph as a dark I irregular /intermittent
band in a position adjacent to either the cap or root weld toe or between adjacent capping
runs. It may therefore appear inside or outside the weld image on the radiograph. The major
causes of undercutting are excessive amperage and poor welding technique. Welds in the
vertical or horizontal - vertical position tend to be prone to undercutting.
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SPATTER
Spatter consists of globules of molten filler metal expelled during arc welding on to the surface of
the parent material or weld. Spatter appears in the radiograph as small light spots. The
major causes of spatter are incorrect polarity and welding current too high. Spatter
particularly affects MIG, MAG, MMA and FCAW, spatter is highly unlikely to be seen in
association with welds made by TIG or SAW. In pipe welding spatter is possible on both the
external and internal surfaces.
EXCESSIVE DRESSING / GRINDING MARKS
This is a reduction in material thickness caused by the removal of the surface of a weld and
adjacent areas to below the surface of the parent material. Excessive dressing appears
as a dark area with diffuse edges. A grinding mark appears as a dark area that will usually
have clearly defined edges. Caused by poor practice or poor access for welding
HAMMER MARKS (TOOL MARKS)
These are indentations in the surface of the parent material or of the weld resulting from the
application of a tool, for example a chipping hammer. They usually appear in a radiograph
as dark half moon shaped areas usually having clearly defined edges. Caused by poor
fabrication practice, they often result from attempts to correct welding distortion.
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TORN SURFACE
This is a surface irregularity due to breaking off of temporary attachments. The

radiographic indication produced has a shape corresponding to that of the affected area
which may be may be either light or dark depending on whether part of the
attachment has remained or whether parent material has been torn away. Caused by poor
fabrication practice. often seen in association with storage tank or ship hull welds.
SURFACE PITTING
This is a surface imperfection, usually of the parent material but also the weld metal
where a component has been in service. It usually takes the form of small
depressions resulting from localised corrosion. Pitting appears in a radiograph as
small dark rounded images. It is possible to mistake this for a welding defect, its appearance
in the radiograph can be identical to that of porosity.
INTERNAL DEFECTS
CRACKS
In weld radiography four basic types of crack are sometimes detected by
radiography. These are:
i. Centreline cracks (shrinkage cracks).
ii. Transverse cracks (including chevron cracks).
iii. Heat affected zone cracks or toe cracks.
iv. Crater cracks.
A crack is a linear discontinuity produced by a fracture. In association with welding,

cracks can occur at a time after the completion of welding, during the deposition of
subsequent welding runs or at the point of solidification. Cracking can affect both the weld
deposit and the parent material.
Cracks are often invisible on radiographs but when they are detected they appear in
the radiograph as dark, fine often branching lines which are usually diffuse or discontinuous.
The ability of the radiographic technique to detect a crack is dependent on the
crack's orientation relative to the direction of the radiation. The figure below shows how
even a slight deviation from the optimum orientation will greatly reduce the change in section
thickness that the radiation experiences due to a planar defect such as a crack. In the case
shown a variation from optimum incidence of just ± 10 will reduce the change in
penetrated thickness from 10 mm to 1 mm for a planar defect measuring 10 mm by 17 0m.
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Centreline cracks (also called shrinkage or solidification cracks)
Centreline cracks are caused by excessive restraint or the deposition of too large an
amount of weld metal in a single pass. Too large an amount of weld metal can result
from excessive amperage or travel speed too slow. Centreline cracks are possible for
all arc welding methods. Centreline cracks occur at the point of solidification
when the weld metal has a very low tensile strength. They are the welding
equivalent of a hot tear. Of all the types of crack that can affect welds centreline
cracks are probably the easiest to detect by radiography. They tend to be much wider than
other types of crack and because of this their detectability is less strongly affected by changes in
the direction of the primary beam.
Transverse cracks & chevron cracks
Any crack that lies across the weld axis is called a transverse crack. Basically there are two
distinct types of transverse crack. Both types usually occur when the compressive strength of
the parent material is significantly greater than the tensile strength of the weld metal.
The first type is a shrinkage or solidification crack. Cracks of this type usually occur at 90°
to the weld axis, often affecting the root pass of single sided welds. In nature they are very
similar to centreline cracks, but the source of restraint is different. They are relatively easy to detect
by radiography.
The second type is a chevron crack. This type of crack occurs at an angle of about 45°
to the weld axis, usually at some time after the completion of welding. Chevron cracks
are a special type of hydrogen induced crack; the stress that causes the crack being due to an
excessive amount of dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal. They are sometimes detected by
radiography, but in situations where there is a known problem, other NDT methods with a
higher probability of detection should be used.
Heat affected zone cracks & toe cracks

Various mechanisms can lead to cracking in the heat affected zone of a weld. Heat affected zone
cracks will often start at or run to the toe of the weld since there is always a high stress
concentration at this point. In ferrous welds the hardest, most martensitic, most brittle
microstructure is usually to be found in the heat affected zone. It is this `susceptible grain
structure' that makes the heat affected zone a prime site for cracking.
Heat affected zone cracks are usually caused by one of two mechanisms.
The first of these involves dissolved hydrogen. Molten iron has a very high solubility for
hydrogen while solid iron has a very low solubility. Thus as the metal freezes hydrogen will
attempt to leave solution and escape from the weld pool but this process is slow compared to the
process of freezing, therefore most of the hydrogen becomes trapped in the solidified metal. The
trapped hydrogen then diffuses through the metal crystals and begins to build up an internal
pressure at points of weakness, usually the grain boundaries. In some cases the
internal pressure exceeds the strength of the material and hydrogen cracking occurs.
Hydrogen induced cracking may occur at any time up to 48 hours after welding. Where
ferrous materials operate in a hydrogen rich environment, for example in sour gas service,
hydrogen cracking can occur as an in-service defect. High strength, high carbon
equivalent steels are the most prone to hydrogen cracking. The presence of trace elements,
especially sulphur and phosphorous can make hydrogen cracking much more likely to occur.
Hydrogen induced cracks are not likely to be detected by radiography and other
methods such as ultrasonic testing should be used in any situation where there is a high
probability of occurrence.
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A second type of cracking that can occur in the heat affected zone of a weld is sometimes called
weld decay. This type of cracking can affect stainless steels and is caused by the
precipitation of brittle material at the grain boundaries. The brittle material is
chromium carbide. All stainless steels contain a small proportion of carbon which is
generally held in solution within the austenitic grains. The heat from welding can cause
this carbon to combine with the chromium which is present forming chromium
carbide which is an extremely brittle material. Weld decay can be avoided by reducing the
carbon content of the parent material and filler wire. Cracking caused by weld decay is
unlikely to be detected by radiography.
Crater cracks
This type of crack occurs when the heat source is removed too suddenly at the end of a
weld run. The cracking mechanism is the same as that for centreline cracking. The major
dimension of a crater crack is usually less than 5 mm. They often have a star shaped
appearance in a radiograph and they are relatively easy to detect. Many welding
standards will permit this type of cracking provided that it does not exceed a specified
maximum dimension.
Typical radiographic appearance of a crack
LACK OF FUSION
Lack of fusion in welding can occur either between the weld deposit and the parent
material or between successive layers of weld material. Lack of fusion may also occur
due to lack of fill (see 11.6.1.3 above) or due to lack of penetration (see 11.7.2.3 below).
Lack of fusion is an area where the solid material immediately adjacent to the molten weld
pool failed to become molten during the welding process leading to a lack of union between
the molten weld material and the adjacent solid material. The ability of radiographic
techniques to successfully detect lack of fusion is strongly dependent on the orientation
of the defect with respect to the incident beam of radiation (see figure in section
11.7.2.1). Given favourable orientation lack of fusion with the parent material will
appear in the radiograph as a fine dark straight line which may be continuous or
intermittent. Unfavourably orientated lack of fusion with the parent material may
sometimes still be detected due to the presence of associated slag inclusions or porosity.
A slag inclusion with a straight edge normally indicates lack of fusion and gas escaping from an
area lack of fusion during the deposition of a subsequent welding run may lead to a line of
`linear porosity'.
Lack of fusion between subsequent layers of weld material will generally not be detected by
radiography unless it is associated with some other type of defect such as slag.
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Types of Lack of Fusion
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INCOMPLETE ROOT PENETRATION
This can be described as the failure of the weld material to extend into the root of a joint.
Incomplete penetration is a fusion defect, not to be confused with root concavity (see
section 11.7.1.2 above).
Incomplete root penetration appears in a radiograph as a dark continuous or intermittent linear

shadow, the edges of which will usually be straight. Where welds are deposited without a
root gap lack of penetration may appear as a single continuous or intermittent dark line. It
should be noted that root gaps frequently close during welding so even in cases where there
should have been a root gap lack of penetration may appear in the radiograph as a single dark line.
NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS
These are usually formed by slag, but occasionally by other foreign matter such as wind
blown sand may become entrapped within the molten weld material. Slag inclusions are
irregularly shaped, they may be either rounded / isolated or linear / elongated. Linear slag
inclusions with a straight edge often indicate lack of fusion. Sometimes linear slag will appear on
the radiograph as two parallel lines. This type of slag inclusion is often referred to as 'tram lines' or
'wagon tracks'.
Most welding slag and other possible sources of non-metallic inclusions are
radiographically much less absorbing than the surrounding metallic material, therefore they
appear in the radiograph as dark images.
Although very rarely used, some types of covered welding electrode have a high
barium content in the flux coating. These electrodes produce a slag which is
radiographically denser than steel. In this case, therefore, a slag inclusion may appear as a light
image.
METALLIC INCLUSIONS
Dependent upon the nature of the welding process it is possible for foreign metallic
material to become entrapped within the molten weld material. Associated with the gas
tungsten arc welding process, tungsten inclusions are probably the most commonly
encountered form of metallic inclusion. They are caused by the break-up of the non-
consumable tungsten electrode during welding. Since tungsten has a melting point well in
excess of 3000°C particles of tungsten falling into the weld pool do not become molten.
Tungsten is radiographically extremely dense, therefore tungsten inclusions always
appear as bright light images which tend to be angular. They are usually quite small -
typically around 0.5 mm. Copper inclusions can occur particularly with the submerged arc
or other welding process where the consumable electrode is fed through a copper contact. If
the copper contact gets too near to or if it touches the weld pool molten copper (melting
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point about 900°C) will become included in the weld pool. Copper is radiographically
more absorbing than most other materials including steel so copper inclusions may produce
light rounded images with extremely diffuse edges. Copper inclusions in ferritic steel welds
usually cause severe transverse cracking.
Metallic inclusions are quite common in aluminium welds, where such welds are not
properly segregated from their steel counterparts. Aluminium melts at around 660°C, so
particles of steel or iron oxide falling into the weld pool will not become molten (the
melting point of steel is about 1400°C). Contamination can easily occur if tools such as
grinding disks which have been used for steel are used on aluminium. Steel inclusions in
aluminium appear as very bright angular shapes with sharp edges.
GAS PORES: POROSITY
The solubility for gas of the molten weld material is many times that of the solid weld
material, thus as the material freezes there is a tendency for any dissolved gases to
precipitate from solution causing gas pores or porosity in the finished weld. Gas pores
are extremely easy to detect by radiography since they are not sensitive to the direction of
radiation and the gas which fills them is many times less radiographically dense than the
surrounding material. Gas pores appear on a radiograph as sharply defined dark
circular spots. They may be isolated, grouped or evenly distributed. Aligned porosity is
usually an indication of lack of fusion (see 11.7.2.2 above). Evenly distributed porosity
generally indicates that the electrode was in some way faulty, group porosity usually occurs at
restarts and is due to poor welding technique.
ELONGATED CAVITIES (HOLLOW BEAD)

These will generally only occur in the root run of welds deposited by manual metallic arc.
Welds deposited using cellulosic coated electrodes (AWS E6010, 7010 etc.) are more
likely to suffer from this defect than welds deposited with other types of electrode. Hollow
bead can be caused by holding the arc at too shallow an angle with respect to the work
piece or by a strong draught of air along the inside of the pipe during welding. On the
radiograph it has the appearance very similar to that of slag.
The radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and it is always situated along the centre
of the root bead.
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WORM HOLES
These are gas pores which have become frozen in the weld pool while attempting to
migrate to the surface of the weld pool. In addition to occurring due to an excess of dissolved
gas in the weld pool wormholes sometimes occur due to laminations in the parent
material which extend to the weld face. Lack of fusion contains a small amount of
entrapped air and this can cause wormholes in a similar way.
Wormholes appear on the radiograph as a dark shadow the shape of which depends on the
orientation of the defect. If the wormhole is end on to the radiation a very dark rounded
shadow is formed. If the wormhole is side on then the appearance is somewhat like a
tadpole. Where a lamination in the parent material or a lack of fusion is the source of
wormholes they are often apparent in the radiograph in a herringbone like array.
CRATER PIPES & CRATER CRACKS
These occur due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run where the source of heat was
removed too suddenly causing the weld pool to freeze too rapidly. This defect is quite
common when the welding process is gas tungsten arc but it may also occur with shielded
metallic are and other welding processes.
A crater pipe will appear in the radiograph with an image very similar to that of a
wormhole. It can only be distinguished from a wormhole by its position in the weld. Crater
cracks are shrinkage cracks and as such have a relatively greater volume than do most other
cracks. They often have a star like appearance in a radiograph. Their radiographic image
rarely measures more than 3 or 4 mm.
INTERPRETATION OF CASTING RADIOGRAPHS
Five groups of defect images may be seen in radiographs of metal castings,these being:
(i) Voids.
(ii) Cracks.
(iii) Cold Shuts.
(iv) Segregation.
(v) Inclusions.
VOIDS
Voids in castings are formed by gases dissolved in the molten material precipitating
from solution during the solidification process or by shrinkage caused by inadequate feeding.
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MACROSHRINKAGE
This is a large cavity formed during the solidification process that occurs to lack of
sufficient feed material. With good mould design macroshrinkage (also called piping)
should be confined to the feeder heads. Macroshrinkage appears on the radiograph as a
dark continuous or semicontinuous area of varying film density with diffuse edges.
FILAMENTARY SHRINKAGE (ALSO CALLED SPONGINESS)
This is a coarse form of shrinkage that has smaller physical dimensions than a
macroshrinkage cavity. These cavities may be extensive and branching in nature.
Filamentary shrinkage occurs at the point in a casting that freezes last. Theoretically this
should always be at the centre of a section but this is not always the case. On some occasions
the defect may actually extend to the surface of the casting.
Filamentary shrinkage has diffuse branched appearance on the radiograph of variable film
density,
MICROPOROSITY I MICROSHRINKAGE
This is a very fine form of filamentary shrinkage due to lack of sufficient feed metal or gas or
both, in which numbers of cavities occur either round the grain boundaries or between
the dendrite arms (a dendrite is a material crystal which in the initial stages of growth is
tree-like). These cavities tend to link up in a three dimensional network throughout the
material.
In the radiograph the images of these cavities are superimposed and generally produce a mottled
or cloudy effect. In non-ferrous alloys, particularly magnesium based alloys, microshrinkage
may occur in layers and produce dark streaks in the radiograph.
PINHOLE POROSITY
Pinhole porosity consists of small cavities less than 1.5 mm diameter which are formed due
to the evolution of gas from the molten material The defect may be evenly distributed
throughout the casting or localised to a particular area. When it occurs local to the surface of
the casting, due to gas evolved at the mould face, it is known as subcutaneous pinhole porosity.
The defect appears in the radiograph as an assemblage of small, rounded, widely

distributed dark images. This condition is distinguished from microporosity by the size and also by
the rounded nature of the images that do not show the same tendency to interconnect. This defect
can arise from the accidental injection of air during pressure die casting.
GASHOLES
A gashole is a discrete cavity greater than about 1.5 mm diameter caused by gas
evolved from the material as it freezes. It may also arise from gas evolved from the core
or mould (in which case the defects are called blowholes).
The radiographic image appears as a dark area of smooth outline that may be circular
or elongated and can be associated with pinhole porosity. Gasholes occasionally
become elongated as they try to rise to the surface of the molten material during cooling, in
this form they are known as wormholes. The radiographic image of a wormhole may vary from a
circular to an extremely elongated image depending upon the angle of view.
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AIRLOCKS (ENTRAPPED AIR)
These are cavities formed by air that has been trapped in the mould by the material
during pouring. The defect appears in the radiograph as dark area with an outline which
is generally smooth but which may have irregularities. An airlock cannot always be
distinguished radiographically from a gas hole but a helpful guide to identification is
the shape, size and position in the casting.
In pressure die casting air may be injected with the material. In this instance the defect is
usually more severe in the runners and may assume an angular form. In pressure and
gravity die castings this defect may occur in clusters or as strings of small voids. In
investment casting it may appear as small rounded voids.
CRACKS
Cracks are discontinuities caused by fracture of the material at the point of

solidification or at some time thereafter. Cracks appear on the radiograph as one or more dark
lines. The width and form of the indication depends on the type of crack and on the radiographic
technique used.
HOT TEARS
These are discontinuities of a decidedly ragged form resulting from stress developed
near the solidification temperature when a material has low mechanical strength. These
stresses usually arise when the natural contraction of the casting is restrained by the
mould or core. The defect occurs mainly at or near to a change of section. The defects are not
necessarily continuous, they may exist in groups and will often terminate at the surface. Hot
tears may sometimes be referred to as a pulls. Radiographically hot tears are revealed as
wavy, ragged dark lines which are often discontinuous, with areas appearing as
approximately parallel dark lines which may possibly be overlapping. Generally the ends of
the indication taper to become fine.
STRESS CRACKS
These are well defined and approximately straight cracks formed after the material has
become completely solid, quite large stresses being required to cause
fracture. Distinctions are sometimes drawn between types depending upon the time at which
fracture occurred. In the radiograph stress cracks are often revealed as clearly defined
smooth dark lines thus differing from the ragged appearance of a hot tears.
COLD SHUTS
These are discontinuities caused by the failure of a stream of molten material to unite with either a
confluent stream, or solid material, such as a chaplet or internal chill or pouring splash. In the
radiograph these defects usually appear as a dark lines. They may be difficult to distinguish
from a hot tears except by the typical involute appearance of the end of the defects. The
shape of an unfused chaplet or unfused chill in a radiograph is dependent upon
orientation of the beam. A cold shut resulting from a splash may appear as a dark
crescent or circle.
INCLUSIONS
These consist of foreign matter entrapped in the casting. This may be of many types
including san
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d, slag, flux, or dross.

As an inclusion may be of greater or less opacity then the surrounding material it may
appear radiographically as a light or dark area (e.g. a sand inclusion will appear dark in
steel and light in aluminium). Slag usually gives a rounded image whereas material
included in the casting as a solid (e.g. dross and sand), will give an irregular shape. If dross
is trapped as an oxide film it will often produce a characteristic folded appearance in the
radiograph. Inclusions may in many respects resemble voids in radiographic appearance
but they will generally exhibit a greater variation in density.
SEGREGATIONS
These result from local concentrations of any of the constituents of an alloy.

They may be classified as general, localised or banded. Detection of such defects by
radiography depends upon the segregating constituents producing a local variation in the
absorption of the radiation.
Radiation Safety
UNITS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
IONISATION (EXPOSURE)
The quantity of ionising radiation can be measured in terms of its ionising effect or exposure on air at
standard temperature and pressure (STP). The SI unit of ionising effect is the 'coulomb per
kilogram', the quantity of ionising radiation that produces a total electric charge of 1 coulomb per kilogram
-1
(Ckg ) of air at STP.
The centimetre-gram-second (cgs) unit of ionising effect is the 'roentgen' (R), the quantity of
ionising radiation that produces an electric charge of 1 electrostatic unit (esu), which is equivalent to 2.08 x
109 ion pairs, per cubic centimetre of air at STP. One cubic centimetre of air at STP weighs 0.001293
grams.
-10
One esu is equal to 3.336 x 10 coulomb so:
-4 -1
1 R = 2.58 x 10 Ckg
or
-1
1 Ckg = 3876 R
ABSORBED DOSE
The SI unit of absorbed dose is the 'gray' (Gy). The gray is defined as the quantity of ionising
radiation which releases 1 joule of energy per kilogram of absorber. The cgs unit of absorbed
dose is the 'roentgen absorbed dose' (rad). The rad is defined as the quantity of ionising radiation
which releases 100 ergs of energy per gram of absorber.
I Gy = 100 rad
The units of radiation absorbed dose can be approximately related to the units of ionising effect as
follows:
1R= 0.88 rad
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-1
1 Ckg = 3411 rad = 34.11 Gy
The conversions above are approximate since the relationship between the roentgen and the
rad or the coulomb per kilogram and the gray varies to some extent with radiation energy.
MAN MAMMAL EQUIVALENT or RADIOBIOLOGICAL EQUIVALENT
The effect which ionising radiation has on our bodies varies with the type of radiation and also, to
some extent, with radiation energy. In order to compensate for this quality factor (QF) is
introduced. Quality factors for several types of ionising radiation are listed in table below.
Type of Radiation Quality Factor (QF)
x-rays 1.0
gamma rays 1.0
beta particles 1.0*
alpha particles 20
thermal neutrons** 2
fast neutrons*** 10
protons 10
heavy ions 20
* may in some cases exceed 1.0
** energy < 10keV
*** energy> 10keV
Quality factors
In the cgs system multiplying the dose in rad by the appropriate quality factor gives the dose in
'roentgen equivalent man' (Rem) where 1 Rem is the amount of ionising radiation which has the
same biological effect as 1 rad of x-rays.
In the SI system multiplying the dose in gray by the appropriate quality factor gives the dose in
'sievert' (Sv) where 1 Sv is the amount of ionising radiation which has the same biological effect as 1 Gy
of x-rays.
Thus:
1 Sv = 100 Rem
or
1 Rem = 0.01 Sv
DOSE RATE
Dose rate in the SI system is generally measured in microsieverts per hour (CISv/h), but may also be
measured in millisieverts (mSv) or sieverts (Sv) per hour. Alternatively dose rate can be expressed in
micrograys (mGy), milligrays (mGy) or grays per hour
In the cgs system dose rate is generally measured in millirem per hour (mRem/h) but may be
measured in Rem per hour (Rem/h).
1mRem/h = 10 ❑Sv/h
or
1mSv/h = 0.1 mRem
SOURCE STRENGTH OR ACTIVITY
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For radioactive sources the source strength or activity is the number of disintegrations occurring
each second. This is proportional to the number of active atoms present in the source.
The cgs unit of source strength or activity is the curie (Ci). One curie is equal to 3.7 x 1010
disintegrations per second.
The SI unit of source strength or activity is the becquerel (Bq) or the gigabecquerel (GBq).
One becquerel is equal to one disintegration per second; one gigabecquerel is equal to 109
disintegrations per second.
I Ci = 37 GBq
or
1GBq = 0.027 Ci
SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
The specific activity of a radioactive source is equal to the source activity divided by the weight of
the source. In the cgs system it is expressed in 'curies per gram' (Ci/g) while in the SI system it is
expressed in 'becquerels per gram' (Bq/g) or 'gigabecquerels per gram' (GBq/g).
OUTPUT
The output of a source of ionising radiation is the dose rate per hour at some fixed distance, usually 1
metre, from the source. For radioactive isotopes it is useful to state output in grays, sieverts, rads or Rems
per hour per curie at one metre. Table below gives some examples.
ISOTOPE NAME OUTPUT

(mSv per Ci)
Thulium 170 0.026
1.25
Ytterbium 169
1.8
Selenium 75
4.8
Iridium 192
13.0
Cobalt 60
Output of various radioactive isotopes
The output of radiation from a typical 200 kV industrial constant potential x-ray machine is as much
as 1,000 mSv per milliampere of tube current at a distance of I metre from the focal spot.
RADIATION MONITORING DEVICES
Ionising radiation cannot be detected by human senses; it is extremely harmful to health, therefore it is
imperative that we have available to us reliable equipment that can measure radiation dose. Two basic types
of radiation monitoring device exist: (1) devices which give a read out of the current dose rate and (2)
devices which measure accumulated dose over a given period of time.
SURVEY METERS
Survey metres give a real time measurement of dose rate. They are of 5 basic types, ionisation
chambers, proportional counters, Geiger counters, scintillation counters and solid state devices.
Each of these is discussed and described in the sections below.
IONISATION CHAMBERS
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An ionisation chamber is part of the family of radiation detectors known as `gaseous detectors'. The
ionisation chamber can take many forms, but basically it consists of 2 electrodes separated by a
layer of gas. As ionising radiation interacts with the gas, causing ionisation, it becomes electrically
conductive and pulses of current flow as each photon of ionising radiation is received. Compared with the
other types of gaseous detector the ionisation chamber operates at low electrical voltage, see
first figure below. The actual voltage needed depends on the geometry and size of the ionisation
chamber, lonisation chambers can detect alpha, beta and gamma or x-ray radiation but they give
no information as to the photon energy of the radiation detected. Ionisation chambers are
occasionally used in conjunction with an electronic circuit that counts the current pulses but it is
more usual that the output is a reading of the average current flowing across the chamber.
The measurement range of ionisation chamber instruments is comparatively narrow and they
tend to be bulky and fragile when compared to the Geiger counter described in section 14.1.2
below. They are therefore seldom seen in industrial applications.
PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS
Neither the Geiger counter below, nor the ionisation chamber above can give any
information as to the photon energy of the ionising radiation received. The best that can be
achieved with these instruments is to shield the chamber such that alpha and beta radiation is
excluded from the measurement. The gas chamber used in a proportional counter often contains
multiple electrodes. Proportional counters operate in a voltage range intermediate between the ionisation
chamber and the Geiger counter. In addition to gauging radiation dose rate or intensity they are
able to give information as to the type and photon energy of the radiation received. They are also
able to determine the direction from which the radiation is coming. They are often used as fixed
monitoring instruments within and around nuclear installations, but are rarely seen in other
workaday industrial applications.
GEIGER COUNTERS
Geiger counters operate at higher voltages than the proportional counter; typical operating
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voltages vary from 400 to 1,000 volts or more dependent on the size and geometry of the gas
chamber. At such voltages the pulse size is very large and no amplification is needed. A The
original 1928 version of the Geiger tube contained a special self quenching gas mixture consisting
of an inert gas doped with a small amount of hydrocarbon (e.g. butane). This design was greatly
improved upon in 1947 when Liebson designed a tube containing inert gas with a small proportion of
halogen (e.g. bromine). All modern instruments follow the Liebson design. Geiger tubes can be made
very small, a cylinder of less than 6 mm diameter and length 25 mm is not untypical. Geiger tubes are
extremely durable and reliable. A Geiger tube constructed of a light metal such as aluminium will
detect only x or gamma rays. Tubes provided with a window made from thin glass will also detect beta
radiation while those having a similar window made from mica can detect alpha in addition to beta and
gamma. The measurement range of the instrument can be extended by shielding the tube.
Geiger tube instruments are otherwise insensitive to changes in photon energy. In general
Geiger counter instruments give little information as to the direction from which the detected
radiation is coming. Geiger counters may give a reading in counts per second, but usually the
average current flowing across the tube is measured with the ammeter scale being calibrated to read
microsieverts or millisieverts per hour. As radiation intensity increases to high levels a Geiger counter will
become increasingly inaccurate. This is because the instrument suffers from a short dead time
after a pulsing event has occurred - if another photon of radiation arrives during the dead time
it will not be detected. Some instruments will cease to function at all if exposed to a very high dose
rate.
SOLID STATE RADIATION DETECTORS
Solid state radiation detectors have been available since the 1950s. Various types of
semiconductor are available which begin to conduct electricity under the influence of ionising
radiation. Instruments based on this type of semiconductor are able to differentiate between different
photon energies. Thus in addition to measuring dose rate they can provide information as to the
spectrum of radiation that is present.
SCINTILLATION COUNTERS
Various materials known as phosphors will emit flashes of light when placed in a beam of ionising
radiation. Phosphors can be manufactured to respond to one or more types of ionising radiation.
The table just below lists some common phosphorescent materials. Many other phosphors exist,
including a number of organic liquids and solids.
Phosphors have been used as radiation detectors since the very early days of the discovery of
ionising radiation, both Roentgen and Becquerel used them. The amount of light produced
can be quite small so phosphors are always used in conjunction with a light amplification
system such as the photomultiplier tube. Modern instruments use `charge coupled devices' or CCDs
in conjunction with a radiation sensitive phosphor. A CCD is at the heart of any modern digital
camera. The CCDs used for radiation detection measure the intensity of light emitted from the
phosphorescent layer under the influence of ionising radiation. Whichever system is used
scintillation counters relate the intensity of light produced by the phosphor to the intensity of the
ionising radiation received. In general they give a reading in counts per second but occasionally
they will be calibrated to read directly in microsieverts or millisieverts per hour.
Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive, they can detect very low levels of ionising radiation.
They are direction sensitive instruments and are very useful when searching for radioactive
contamination. They are used in industrial radiography to check for leakage of fissile material from a
sealed source.
Phosphor (Activator) Sensitive to:

Sodium Iodide (Thallium) Gamma
Lithium Iodide (Europium) Gamma & Neutrons
Zinc Sulphide (Silver) Alpha
Bismuth Germanate (N/A) Gamma
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PERSONAL MONITORS
Survey meters, with a few exceptions, give a real time reading of dose rate but do not
integrate this to give a total dose received over a given period of time. Several types of device
exist which are capable of integrating the dose received over a period of time. One convenient
use of such a device is for monitoring the total dose that a person receives during the course of
his or her working day. When used in this way such devices are referred to as `personal monitors',
Four types of personal monitor are commonly used in industrial radiography.
FILM BADGES
The principle of a film badge is that when exposed to ionising radiation followed by developing under tightly
controlled conditions the film density produced can be related to the radiation dose received. Film
badges (as shown in figure 91) can be used to detect x, gamma and beta radiation. Coupled
with the right type of intensification screen radiographic film can be used to detect and measure
other types of ionising radiation.
The film badge of the type shown in the figure above contains a section of carefully manufactured
radiographic film having two emulsions, one fast and one slow. The use of two emulsions extends the
measurement range of the badge. The badge holder is equipped with various filters that extend the
range of measurement and additionally enable the badge to give some information as to the type
and photon energy of the ionising radiation received.
The film badge has in large part, been replaced by the thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) (see
below). This table gives a comparison of typical film badge and TLD specifications.
Film Badges
Radiation Type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring Range 10keV to 7keV 10keV to 7keV 700keV to 3.5MeV
(Photon Energy)
Measuring Range 0.1mSv to 10 Sv 0.1mSv to 400 mSv 0.1mSv to 10 Sv
(dose)
Typical period of use 2 to 4 Weeks
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
Radiation Type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring Range 10keV to 10MeV 10keV to 10MeV 700keV to 3.5MeV
(Photon Energy)
Measuring Range 0.05 mSv to 10 Sv 0.05 mSv to 10 Sv 0.05 mSv to 10 Sv
(dose)
Typical period of use 4 Weeks
Film badge & thermoluminescent dosimeter specifications
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THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETERS (TLD)
The thermoluminescent dosimeter or TLD offers several significant advantages over the film badge:
(a) A TLD is much less easily damaged than a film badge.
(b) The TLD has slightly wider measurement range than the film badge.
(c) The TLD is much less subject to possible errors or failures in processing - the
measurements obtained have a better degree of accuracy.
(d) The absorption characteristics of the TLD more closely resemble those of the
human body, thus dose calculations are simplified.
(e) The TLD can be reused many times.
Most TLD badges contain two or more discs of a thermoluminescent material. This material is
usually lithium fluoride but occasionally other materials are used. During exposure to ionising
radiation lithium fluoride stores energy. When subsequently heated to a temperature of around
250°C the stored energy is released as flashes of light. The number of flashes can be counted and
this is directly related to radiation dose received.
TLD badges are worn in specially designed plastic holders similar to those used for film badges. The
addition of plastic or aluminium filters extends the measurement range of the badge facilitates the
obtaining of information concerning the photon energy and type of radiation
THE QUARTZ FIBRE ELECTROMETER (PERSONAL DOSIMETER)
These devices are still widely used in the USA where in many states they are mandatory wear for
all personnel involved in working with ionising radiation. In the UK they used to be popular for use inside
nuclear power plants but they have now largely been replaced by more reliable, more accurate solid
state devices.
The quartz fibre electrometer (QFE) is a gaseous detector like the ionisation chamber,
proportional counter and Geiger counter described above. When raised to the light a scale like
the one on the left of figure above can be seen through the lens of the instrument. The vertical line
is the quartz fibre. When a static electrical charge is applied to the instrument the quartz fibre moves
to the zero point of the scale. As the gas inside the QFE becomes ionised the static charge is
gradually dissipated and the fibre begins to move to the right. The corresponding total dose
received can be read on the upper scale.
The QFE has quite a narrow measuring range, typically 0 to 50 mSv or less. The example
shown above has a measurement range of 0 to 200 mRem which is equivalent to 0 to 2 mSv. The
QFE is sensitive to x and gamma radiation in the photon
energy range 45 keV to 3.5 MeV. The QFE is a very convenient means for checking how radiation doses
are accumulating during a working day but it suffers from fragility and is very easily damaged.
SOLID STATE INTEGRATING DOSIMETERS
The QFE has largely been replaced by solid state integrating dosimeters.
These devices are extremely shock proof and have a wider measuring range than the
QFE. They are typically combined with an audible warning device which bleeps if the wearer unwittingly
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enters a high radiation area.
RADIATION SAFETY
All personnel working with ionising radiation should be aware that such radiation is
injurious to the human body (or any other biological tissue). Anyone
working at a place where radiography is carried out should make himself fully aware of the safety
procedures and regulations that are in force and take care observe all
warning barriers. lonising radiation cannot be detected by the five human senses. Ionising radiation
has cumulative effects upon the human metabolism. Ionising radiation causes genetic damage to the
human body the full effects of which may not be apparent until as much as 15-35 years after the initial
exposure. Regardless of any nominal safe limits it is always prudent to avoid
exposure to radiation whenever possible.
N.B. Where industrial radiography is concerned there is little or no danger from contamination
because all gamma sources in use are of the sealed variety. X or gamma rays are not capable of
producing any residual radioactivity in the items subjected to exposure.
PRECAUTIONS
EXPOSURE BOOTHS
At locations where a large volume of industrial radiography is carried out exposure booths of
various shapes and sizes will generally be available. These usually consist of enclosures having
lead lined walls. Some exposure booths have walls filled with spent casting sand or other radiation
absorbing material.
Such exposure booths should be regularly monitored to ensure that the radiation dose rate is within
safe limits in the areas outside the booth where personnel can move freely.
Safety switches are usually fitted to doors of exposure booths in order to prevent the operation of
x-ray sets or gamma ray equipment whilst the door is open. In cases where overhead cranes might
have to pass over an open topped exposure booth similar safety switches are normally installed so as
to trip out the x-ray set, or wind back the gamma ray source, should the crane encroach upon the
irradiated area during exposure.
In many countries (including Britain) it is a legal requirement that an audible warning is given
before any exposure takes place.
Exposure booths should be equipped with switches inside the x-ray compound which can be
operated in order to prevent the operation of the x-ray or gamma ray equipment should any personnel be
accidentally trapped inside.
Radiation detectors should be installed inside the exposure booth to indicate when gamma ray
sources are being used.
SITE WORK
A demarcation barrier is required showing the zone where radiation is in excess of the legally
permitted limit (in Britain this is 7.5 ❑Sv/hr). The barrier is usually consists of brightly coloured rope or
tape suspended at about 1 metre above the ground, with warning signs at 5 metre intervals.
Areas which will be irradiated at greater than the legal limit must be cleared of all non classified
personnel prior to any exposure. Audible and visible warnings must be given before any exposure
takes place.
The barrier should be monitored with an efficient radiation detector and should be guarded
by classified personnel during exposure.
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SCATTER
Personnel should be aware that radiation can be scattered by structures. Apparently safe
locations may be subject to stray scattered radiation.
EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR RADIATION WORKERS
In Britain classified workers are allowed to receive an accumulated dose of 20 millisieverts

(20 mSv) per year from the age of 18 yrs to 65 yrs. A formal investigation is required if a classified
worker receives a dose of 15 mSv or more within any single calendar year. The investigation has
to establish the source of the dose received. The investigation may or may not include a
thorough medical check for the person receiving the dose. These requirements are typical
for all countries within the European Union, but requirements in other countries may differ widely.
DOSIMETERS
For work in radioactive environments (i.e. nuclear reactors) personnel must be equipped
with direct reading dosimeters which will display immediately the accumulated dose received.
Personnel working in these locations must take particular care to avoid ingesting radioactive particles.
Tightly fitting breathing masks are required and protective clothing should be worn.
PERMITTED LEVELS
The figures given in the paragraphs below relate to Statutory Instrument 1999 Number 3232
Ìonising Radiation Regulations 1999'. These regulations exclude radiation doses received due to
medical reasons.
CLASSIFIED WORKERS
The maximum permitted dose rate for personnel equipped with film badges (or TLDs) is 20mSv per year.
This is approximately equivalent to a constant dose rate of 10 ❑Sv/hr for a 40 hour working week if a
48 working week year is assumed.
UNCLASSIFIED PERSONNEL, CONTROLLED & SUPERVISED AREAS
Controlled area
Unclassified personnel must be excluded from any area where radiation dose is deemed likely to exceed
three tenths of the annual allowable dose for a classified worker (6 mSv). The maximum permissible
dose rate at the boundary of a controlled area is 7.5 ❑Sv/hr.
Supervised area
A supervised area is defined as an area where the annual dose is expected to equal or
exceed 1 mSv. Such areas should be clearly signed. Unclassified persons are permitted to
pass through such areas but they must not remain in them for extended periods. Where
possible verbal warnings should be given by the radiographer.
‘SAFE’ WORKING DISTANCES
The dose rate from a source of ionising radiation reduces in proportion to the reciprocal of the
square of the distance from the source.
For any source of ionising radiation:
DOSE RATE =
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If the source of ionising radiation is x-ray then it will not be possible to calculate the dose rate
at one metre although the dose rate will be proportional to the tube current. Halving the tube
current at a given tube voltage will halve the radiation dose rate. If the source is gamma ray then
the dose rate at one metre can be calculated if the source strength (curies or gigabecquerels
and òutput' of the source are known. Output for any given isotope is the dose rate per curie or
gigabecquerel at one metre
from the source.
Thus:
DOSE RATE AT 1 METER = ( SOURCE STRENGTH) X (OUTPUT)
Output for the various radioactive isotopes used in industrial radiography is tabulated below:
If we take 7.5 ❑Sv/hr to be the 'safe' dose rate then we can calculate the `safe' distance using the formula
below:
The above formula can be simplified to:
Where 'C' is a constant for each isotope, For Thulium 170 C = 1.86, for Ytterbium 169 C = 12.91, for
Selenium 75 C = 15.49, for Iridium 192 C = 25.30 and for Cobalt 60 C
41.63.
SHIELDING
If shielding is introduced then the reduction in the minimum safe working distance can
be calculated if the magnitude of the `half value layer' or 'tenth value layer' of the shielding material
is known. The half value layer for any material is the thickness of material that will reduce the radiation
dose rate, for a given radiation energy, by a factor of two. The tenth value layer is similarly the thickness
of material that will reduce the dose rate by a factor of ten. For example the half value layer of lead for
cobalt 60 is about 12.5 mm while for iridium 192 it is about 4.8 mm. The tenth value layer of lead for
cobalt 60 is about 41.5 mm while for iridium 192 it is about 16 mm. If the shielding thickness is an
exact multiple of the half or tenth value layer then the dose rate after shielding can be found
simply by dividing the unshielded rate by two for each half value layer or by ten for each tenth
value layer. Where this is not the case the formulae given below can be used.
OR
Ru = the unshielded dose rate

RS = shielded dose rate
t = the thickness of shielding material
hvl = the half value layer
tvl = the tenth value layer
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Radiographic Testing Page 2

Radiographic Testing Page 3

DESTRUCTIVE AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Radiographic Testing Page 4

Figure: 1 - Basic set-up for conventional film radiography

Radiographic Testing Page 5

NATURE OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

Figure: 2 - Wavelengths of Electromagnetic radiation

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The main properties of X and γ - rays

Figure.:3 - X-ray spectrum

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Table 1: - Effects of KV and MA

LOW kV LOW INTENSITY SOFT XRAYS HIGH INTENSITY SOFT XRA YS

LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY

Table 2: - Fundamental Particles

A PARTICLE CARRYING A UNIT POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE. ITS MASS IS

X-ray and Gamma-ray Sources

THE X-RAY TUBE

Figure: 4 - Glass envelope X-ray tube

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Figure: 4a - Schematic diagram of an x-ray tube

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Figure: 5 - Effective focal spot size

FLASH X-RAY MACHINES

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Figure: 6 - Betatron, cross-section and "donut"

Figure: 7 - Linear Electron Accelerator (Linac)

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Table: 3 - Typical X-ray Machines and Their Applications

300 Lead foil 3-inch steel or equivalent.

Fluorescent 4-inch steel or equivalent.

400 Lead foil 31/2-inch steel or equivalent.

1000 Lead foil 5-inch steel or equivalent.

Fluorescent 8-inch steel or equivalent.

2000 Lead foil 8-inch steel or equivalent.

8 to 25 MeV Lead foil 16-inch steel or equivalent

Fluorescent 20-inch steel or equivalent.

Radiographic Testing Page 12

APPLICATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF X-RAY APPARATUS

The S.I. unit is rarely used for industrial equipment.

Natural radioactive sources

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The "half-life" of a radioactive source

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Activity (Source Strength)

Specific Gamma-ray Emission

In contradistinction to x-ray machines, which emit a broad band of wavelengths, gamma-ray

The gamma-ray spectra of these five radio-isotopes are:

cobalt-60 two lines of energies 1.17 and 1.34 MeV

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Table:4 - Radio-isotopes in common use for industrial radiography

Cobalt Co 60 5.3 years 1.30 1.17,1.33 13

Iridium Ir 192 74 days 0.50 0.13-0.9 4.8

Ytterbium Yb 169 31 days 0.125 0.06-0.31 0.88

Selenium Se 75 120 days 0.203 0.066, 0.401 1

The disadvantages of using gamma-rays are:

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