Forage and Grasses PDF

FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES 1353
37. Forage Crops and Grasses
Agriculture and animal husbandry in India are interwoven with the intricate fabric of
the society in cultural, religious and economical ways as mixed farming and livestock
rearing forms an integral part of rural living. Although the contribution of agricultural
sector in the Indian economy is steadily declining (from 36.4% in 1982-83 to 18.5%
in 2006-07), the agriculture and livestock sector still provides employment to 52% of
the work force.
Livestock provides draught power, rural transport, manure, fuel, milk and meat.
Most often, livestock is the only source of cash income for subsistence farms and also
serves as insurance in the event of crop failure. Further, global energy crisis will lead
to utilization of livestock-based bioenergy as well as waste recycling for organic manure
and organic forage production for quality animal products.
India supports nearly 20% of the world livestock and 16.8% human population on
a land area of only 2.3%. It is leader in cattle (16%) and buffalo (55%) population and
has world’s second largest goat (20%) and fourth largest sheep (5%) population.
The 17th Livestock Census (2003) has placed the total livestock population at 485
million and that of poultry birds at 489 million. Total population is expected to grow
1.23% in the coming years. The livestock population in terms of million adult cattle
units is presented in Table 37.1.
Table 37.1 Projected livestock population estimates (million adult cattle units)
Year Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Equine Camel Total
1995 180.5 82.8 4.0 9.2 0.5 0.9 278.0

2000 187.1 87.7 4.1 9.9 0.4 1.0 290.0
2005 192.2 92.6 4.2 10.5 0.3 1.0 301.0
2010 197.3 97.5 4.3 11.2 0.3 1.0 312.0
2015 202.3 102.4 4.4 11.8 0.1 1.1 322.0
2020 207.4 107.3 4.5 12.5 0.1 1.1 333.0
2025 212.5 112.2 4.6 13.2 0.1 1.1 344.0
Source: Based on X Five Year Plan Document, Government of India.
There is a shift in composition of livestock towards small ruminants due to natural

resource degradation in arid and semi-arid regions and high growth in meat sector.
Buffalos and goats are becoming more important in India.
Demand for livestock products

India’s milk production has grown from 43 million tonnes in 1983 to 101 million
tonnes in 2006-07. India stands first in milk production besides being self-sufficient
in meat and poultry, the livestock productivity is low, providing limited resource returns.
Further, the consumption of milk, meat and eggs on a per capita basis is still below the
recommendations of World Health Organization (WHO).The availability of milk per
1354 HANDBOOK OF AGRICULTURE
head per day in the country in only 178 g against the norm of 250 g. Similarly, the
consumption of eggs and meat is only 35 and 800 g per head per year against the norm
of 180 eggs and 11 kg respectively. Compared to productivity in other parts of the
world, India’s livestock sector offers considerable scope for enhancement. Our cattle
and buffalo produce less than 1,000 kg of milk per lactation as compared to 4,500 kg
in Europe, more than 7,000 kg in the United States and 10,000 kg in Israel. The low
productivity of livestock is a matter of concern. This is mainly due to inadequate
supplies of quality feeds and fodder.
Global trend in animal production indicates a rapid and massive increase in the
consumption of livestock products. It is predicted that meat and milk consumption
will grow at 2.8 and 3.3% per annum, respectively, in developing countries like India
where the whole system of rural economy has revolved around livestock production.
In the 11th Five-Year Plan (2007-2012), targeted growth in milk, meat and egg
production has been projected at the rate of 5, 6 and 12%, respectively, to produce 130
million tonnes milk, 7 million tonnes meat and 95 billion eggs by 2012. In 2006-07,
this sector contributed 101 million tonnes of milk, 51 billion eggs, 45 million kg wool
and 2.3 million tonnes of meat.
The human population in India is expected to reach over 1,400 million by 2025.
The 27.8% urban population is poised to increase by over 58% by 2025. Urbanization
has brought a marked shift in the lifestyle of people in feeding habits towards milk
products, meat and eggs with resultant increase in demand of livestock products. Peri-
urban livestock farming and emerging fodder markets are indicators of fast changing
economic scenario in livestock sector.
Forage and feed – demand and supply scenario

The data/estimates of fodder production in the country vary widely. Fodder
production and its utilization depend on the cropping pattern, climate, socioeconomic
conditions and type of livestock. The cattle and buffaloes are normally fed on the
fodder available from cultivated areas, supplemented to a small extent by harvested
grasses and top feeds. Grazing and harvested grasses are the chief fodder source for
equines, while camels usually subsist on top feeds, either browsed or lopped from
shrubs and trees. The three major sources of fodder supply are crop residues, cultivated
fodder and fodder from common property resources like forests, permanent pastures
and grazing lands.
At present, the country faces a net deficit of 61.1% green fodder, 21.9% dry crop
residues and 64% feeds. Supply and demand scenario of forage and roughage is
presented in Table 37.2. The deficit and supply in crude protein (CP) and total digestible
nutrients (TDN) are given in Table 37.3.The situation is further aggravated due to
increasing growth of livestock particularly that of genetically upgraded animals. The
available forages are poor in quality, being deficient in available energy, protein and
minerals. To compensate for the low productivity of the livestock, farmers maintain a
large herd of animals, which adds to the pressure on land and fodder resources.
Due to ever-increasing population pressure of human beings, arable land is mainly
used for food and cash crops, thus there is little chance of having good-quality arable
land available for fodder production, unless milk production becomes remunerative
to the farmer as compared to other crops. To meet the current level of livestock
production and its annual growth in population, the deficit in all components of fodder,
dry crop residues and feed has to be met from either increasing productivity, utilizing
untapped feed resources, increasing land area (not possible due to human pressure for
food crops) or through imports.
Table 37.2 Supply and demand scenario of forage and roughages (1995 - 2025)
(in million tonnes)
Year Supply Demand Deficit as% of demand
(as actual)
Green Dry Green Dry Green Dry
1995 379.3 421 947 526 568 (59.95) 105 (19.95)

2000 384.5 428 988 549 604 ( 61.10) 121 (21.93)
2005 389.9 443 1,025 569 635 ( 61.96) 126 (22.08)
2010 395.2 451 1,061 589 666 ( 62.76) 138 ( 23.46)
2015 400.6 466 1,097 609 696 ( 63.50) 143 ( 23.56)
2020 405.9 473 1,134 630 728 (64.21) 157 (24.81)
2025 411.3 488 1,170 650 759 (64.87) 162 (24.92)
Source: Based on X Five Year Plan Document, Government of India. Figures in parentheses
indicate the deficit in percentage
Table 37.3 Projected availability, requirements and deficit of CP and TDN (million tonnes)
including CP and TDN from concentrates
Year Requirement Availability Deficit (%)

CP TDN CP TDN CP TDN
2000 44.49 321.29 30.81 242.42 30.75 24.55

2005 46.12 333.11 32.62 253.63 29.27 23.86
2010 47.76 344.93 34.18 262.02 28.44 24.04
2015 49.39 356.73 35.98 273.24 27.15 23.41
2020 51.04 368.61 37.50 281.23 26.52 23.70
2025 52.68 380.49 39.31 292.45 25.38 23.14
CP, Crude protein; TDN, total digestible nutrients.
Regional imbalances in fodder availability

The regional deficits are more important than the national deficit, especially for fodder,
which is not economical to transport over long distances. The pattern of deficit varies in
different parts of the country. For instance, the green fodder availability in Western
Himalayan, Upper Gangetic Plains and Eastern Plateau and Hilly Zones is more than
60% of the actual requirement. In Trans Gangetic Plains, the feed availability is between
40 and 60% of the requirement and in the remaining zones, the figure is below 40%. In
case of dry fodder, availability is over 60% in the Eastern Himalayan, Middle Gangetic
Plains, Upper Gangetic Plains, East Coast Plains and Hilly Zones. In Trans
Gangetic Plains, Eastern Plateau and Hills and Central Plateau and Hills, the availability
is in the range of 40-60%, while in the remaining zones of the country the availability is
below 40%.
Role of coarse grain cereals as crop residues

In animal feed supply, coarse cereals have a major role and four major cereals, viz.
maize, barley, sorghum and pearl millet, account for about 44% of the total cereals.
Production of these cereals is stagnating at around 30 million tonnes. Of the total
coarse cereals, maize accounts for almost three-fourths and barley accounts for 15%.
Sorghum and millets account for 11%. India’s production of these cereals is stagnating
around 30 million tonnes, which is less than 3% of the world’s production. Most of
the coarse cereals in the developed countries are mainly used for cattle feed and some
of the cereals like barley are used in breweries. However, in India their use is mainly
for direct consumption mostly by poor in the villages. Many minor millets, viz. finger
millet / ragi (Eleusine coracana), little millet (Panicum miliare), kodo millet (Paspalum
scrobiculatum), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), barnyard millet (Echinochloa
frumentacea), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), and savan millet (Echinochloa
colona), are also important for fodder. The role of food grains and especially of the
coarse cereals in providing the balanced nutrition to the livestock for ensuring higher
productivity needs no emphasis.
Area under fodder production

Fodder crops are the plant species that are cultivated and harvested for feeding the
animals in the form of forage (cut green and fed fresh), silage (preserved under
anaerobic condition) and hay (dehydrated green fodder). The total area under cultivated
fodders is 8.3 million ha on individual crop basis. Sorghum amongst the kharif crops
(2.6 million ha) and berseem (Egyptian clover) amongst the rabi crops (1.9 million
ha) occupy about 54% of the total cultivated fodder cropped area (Table 37.4). The
area under permanent pastures has been declining over the years and the trend could
well continue in the future. Due to overgrazing, the productivity of the pastures has
been declining too. The area under fodder crops has almost remained static for the last
Table 37.4 Forage crops grown and their area and productivity in India
Crop Botanical name Area Green fodder

(’000 ha) productivity
(tonnes/ha)
Berseem (Egyptian clover) Trifolium alexandrinum 1,900 60–110

Lucerne (Alfalfa) Medicago sativa 1,000 60–130
Senji (Sweet clover) Melilotus indica 5 20–30
Shaftal (Persian clover) Trifolium resupinatum 5 50–75
Metha (Fenugreek) Trigonella foenum-graecum 5 20–35
Lobia (Cowpea) Vigna unguiculata 300 25–45
Guar (Clusterbean) Cyamopsis tetragonaloba 200 15–30
Rice bean Vigna umbellata 20 15–30
Jai (Oat) Avena sativa 100 35–50
Jau (Barley) Hordeum vulgare 10 25–40
Jowar/Chari (Sorghum) Sorghum bicolor 2,600 35–70
Bajra (Pearl millet) Pennisetum glaucum 900 20–35
Makka (Maize) Zea mays 900 30–55
Makchari (Teosinte) Zea mexicana 10 30–50
Chara sarson Brassica pekinensis 10 15–35
(Chinese cabbage)
3-4 decades. This is mainly for want of proper land cover data reporting. However,
the area under fodder crops has increased in peri-urban areas that have developed as
milk sheds under intensive dairy production systems during the past years
Sizeable amount of fodder demand is fulfilled through vast grasslands and
rangelands (Table 37.5). Any positive or negative change in its position will have
impact on several environmental issues. Similarly, the increase in livestock population
will also affect the availability of organic wastes which in turn can boost the agricultural
production.
Table 37.5 Grazing resources in India (2000 – 2001)
Resources Gross area Percentage

(million ha)
Forests 69.41 22.70

Permanent pastures/grazing lands 10.90 3.60
Cultivable wastelands 13.66 4.50
Fallow lands 24.99 8.10
Fallow land other than current fallows 10.19 3.30
Barren uncultivable wastelands 19.26 6.30
Total common property resources other than forests 54.01 17.70
Biodiversity in forage resources

Indian sub-continent is one of the world’s mega centres of crop origin and crop
plant diversity, as it presents a wide spectrum of eco-climate ranging from humid
tropical to semi-arid, temperate to alpine.
The Indian gene centre possesses a rich genetic diversity in native grasses and
legumes. There are reports of 245 genera and 1,256 species of Gramineae of which
about 21 genera and 139 species are endemic. One-third of Indian grasses are considered
to have fodder value. Most of the grasses belong to the tribes Andropogoneae (30%),
Paniceae (15%), and Eragrosteae (9%). Similarly, out of about 400 species of 60 genera
of Leguminosae, 21 genera are reported to be useful as forage. The main centers of
genetic diversity are peninsular India (for tropical types) and North-Eastern Region
(for sub-tropical types) besides some micro-centres for certain species.
Major forage genera exhibiting forage biodiversity include legumes like Desmodium,
Lablab, Stylosanthes, Vigna, Macroptelium, Centrosema, etc.; grasses like
Bothriochloa, Dichanthium, Cynodon, Panicum, Pennisetum, Cenchrus, Lasiurus, etc.
and browse plants such as Leucaena, Sesbania, Albizia, Bauhinia, Cassia,
Grewia, etc. These genera besides many others form an integral part of feed and fodder
resources of the country. The country is further endowed with the rich heritage of
traditional know-how of raising, maintaining and utilizing forage, feed and livestock
resources.
Forage crop improvement

The opportunity for area expansion under fodder crops seems to be very remote
and the fodder yields have reached a plateau in most of the fodder crops. However, a
great scope exists to increase forage availability through strengthening research and
development activities in grasslands/grazing lands/rangelands. The future strategies

should focus on developing dual type grain-cum-fodder crop varieties, stay green
QPM maize varieties, application of biotechnology to evolve genetically engineered
improved varieties tolerant to abiotic and biotic stresses and enhancing forage
productivity in berseem (Egyptian clover), lucerne, oat, forage sorghum, range grasses
and legumes as well as fodder trees, processing and nutrient enrichment of low quality
roughage and designing economic feeding systems for different categories of livestock
under different rearing systems.
Forage crop improvement requires a long-term and multidisciplinary
approach involving several disciplines, viz. plant breeding, genetics, agronomy,
pathology, nematology, entomology, physiology, biotechnology and animal nutrition,
etc. A thorough understanding of species relationships, chromosomal constitution,
genome structure, putative parentage and extent of possible gene exchange/
recombination and nature of polyploidy is also required for the breeding programme.
The strategy for various crops varies as per the problems encountered in particular
species.
Breeding objectives
The major breeding objectives include: (i) high dry matter yield (ii) better quality
components– crude protein content, in-vitro dry-matter digestibility, low percentage
of neutral detergent fibre and toxicity, (iii) high response to inputs, (v) tolerance to
adverse soils- acidic/saline soils, tolerance to extreme weather conditions – high rainfall/
low moisture regime, (v) resistance to diseases and insect-pests, (vi) greater persistence-
summer persistence in annual multicut forages, e.g. berseem and exploitable
regeneration ability in perennial multicuts e.g. lucerne, (vii) greater aggressiveness/
fast growth and competing ability or complementation with the companion crop, for
example, oats competes well in an intercropping of oats + berseem and yield better in
early cuts or first cut and subsequently it allows berseem to flourish over and above its
own production potential.
Limitations/constraints
Forage crop improvement has its own limitations. Many aspects related to forage
breeding, plant genetic resources, plant-protection measures, forage quality, palatability
and seed production need to be appropriately addressed adopting an integrated
approach. Some of the general constraints/limitations in forage crop improvement
and production are as follows:(i) non-availability of sufficient quantity of quality fodder
seeds as the crop for fodder is harvested before seed set and also the non-availability
of dual-purpose varieties, (ii) non-synchronous flowering /anthesis and spikelet
maturity, abscission of spikelets after maturity in grasses and the presence of large
number of sterile glumes in grasses, (iii) overlapping of vegetative and reproductive
growth phases, uneven pod setting, non-synchronous maturity and seed shattering in
forage legumes and (iv) apomictic nature of most of the tropical forage grasses that
limits their genetic improvement
Biotechnological approaches of forage crop improvement

Tremendous technological development in the recent past has equipped the plant
scientists with enormous options to tailor the plants according to need. The
improvement of forage crops through biotechnological approach has started in late
eighties has made remarkable headway at the global level. The various biotechnological
tools include molecular techniques for understanding the genetic structure of the plants,
inserting foreign genes directly into the plant genome, in-vitro regeneration of plants
from any plant part.
A number of techniques such as embryo rescue, micro-propagation, androgenic
haploid plant production and creation of novel variations help at one or more
steps involved in conventional breeding methods. These techniques save time
and energy required for conventional methods. Further, the plants developed
through these techniques do not attract attention of those who are against the
genetically modified organisms. The embryo-rescue technique has well been
exploited in Lolium-Festuca complex for production of hybrids. Lolium-
Dactylis hybrids and many interspecific hybrids in Trifolium have also been developed
by this method. Progress in developing interspecific hybrids of berseem at the Indian
Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) has also been made. Regeneration
of the plantlets from reproductive parts such as anther results in haploid plant
production.
Hence, the process is very effective in developing plants with double set of genome
in the otherwise tetraploid tropical grasses.
Biotechnological approach offers opportunities for creation of novel variations in
forages which as such are not possible through conventional methods. The various
means of creating variation in forage grasses and achievement are somaclonal variation,
somatic hybridization, genetic transformation, etc. Artificial introduction of some
foreign gene in the plant genome is genetic transformation. Insertions of genes may
be by chemical, electrical, physical or micro-projectile transfer. In grasses, the success
achieved so far has been limited and successful transformation has been reported only
in a few perennial grasses, viz. Lolium, Festuca, Agrostis , Dactylis, Paspalum and
Dichanthium species.
There are several molecular techniques, viz. restriction fragment length
polymorphism (RFLP), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and isozymes that may be used from time to
time for characterization of germplasm, cultivar identification, detection of hybrids
and genetic mapping, quality trait loci (QTL) identification and gene tagging. The
molecular characterization of agriculturally important plants including forage crops
and weeds is equally important because, through the transformation techniques, the
genes identified from any plant or living organism can be transferred to the
target species on account of similarity in DNA sequence across various species
and genera. Characterization of germplasm is one of the most important
aspects, especially in the context of the changing scenario with regard to Plant
Biodiversity Act. Presently, forage germplasm characterization is mainly on isozyme
basis. There is a need to classify forage germplasm for the two objectives – firstly for
developing DNA fingerprints and secondly for identifying the duplicates in the
germplasm.
It is desirable that the forage crop varieties are also subjected to molecular
characterization in order to avoid any dispute regarding use of germplasm in the coming
years. The major problem encountered with these molecular markers of the forage
species is that most of the cultivars are synthetic populations and variability exists
within the population. However, the efforts have been made for characterizing the
varieties based on RAPD, RFLP markers and discrimination between the varieties
can be based on gene frequencies.
Genetic mapping and gene tagging in forage species have not been attempted much.
For single gene control traits, gene tagging is important but in case of forages most of
the desirable agronomic traits are multi-genic and hence are difficult to tag. There are
also opportunities for improving the amino acid balance of the plants used in intensive
feeding production systems. At the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Organization (CSIRO), Australia, incorporation of gene normally expressed in
sunflower for sulfur amino acid to lupin (deficient in sulfur amino acid) increased
sulfur amino acid content of transgenic lupin grain, resulting into higher animal
productivity through usage of lupin meal.
Another important area needing attention of biotechnologist is the development
of stress tolerance, both biotic and abiotic, in fodder crops and range species
through gene pyramiding of identified QTLs. Encouraging results have been
obtained in different crops in identifying the genes and regulatory elements.
Selection of germplasm for salinity tolerance is very important for efficient
utilization of such degraded lands. The germplasm can be screened in vitro
at two levels: (i) seedling level and (ii) tissue or cell level. In-vitro studies have
shown significant interspecific and intraspecific variation among legumeand
clover species for salt tolerance. Intracultivar variation had been identified in
lucerne (Medicago sativa) and white clover (T. repens). In case of post-
fertilization incompatibility barriers, embryo rescue is most effective and successful
technique.
In grass breeding, identification of genes controlling apomixis is an area that
can pay good dividends. Identification and cloning of these genes can well be
patented and can also be used in transferring in other cross-pollinated crops for
fixing heterosis and thus save on the cost on account of producing hybrid seeds
every year. Although this aspect is receiving global attention, success has been
very limited till date. Another important aspect is the identification of sexual lines in
grasses. There is need to develop reliable molecular techniques for screening of the
grass species for the presence of sexuality, as it would accelerate the breeding process
in such grasses as many of these plants could be used in crossing. The plants with
better agronomic traits and apomixis can be selected and advanced for developing
better varieties.
Improved varieties
Systematic forage crop breeding programmes at the research institutions under the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the State Agricultural Universities
(SAUs) have led to the development and release of a large number of improved varieties
in different forage crops suitable for different agro-ecological zones. These varieties
resulted in substantial increase in the productivity and production of forages in the
country. The improved varieties released/notified during the past three decades are
given in Table 37.6.
Table 37.6 Forage crop varieties released/notified during 1974-2008
Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

release/ responsible for
notification the development
Cultivated fodder - legumes

Berseem / Egyptian clover
Mescavi 1975 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire growing area
BL 1 1980 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab, H.P., Jammu
Wardan 1981 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire growing area
Jawahar Berseem 1 (JB 1) 1981 JNKVV, Jabalpur Central India
JB 2 1982 JNKVV, Jabalpur Central India
JB 3 1983 JNKVV, Jabalpur Central India
BL 22 1987 PAU, Ludhiana Sub-temperate, hill regions
of North India
BL 2 1989 PAU, Ludhiana Northern India
UPB 110 1993 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar Southern zone
Bundel Berseem 2 1997 IGFRI, Jhansi North-west zone
Bundel Berseem 3 2000 IGFRI, Jhansi North-east , Eastern region
BL 42 2003 PAU, Ludhiana North-west India
HFB 600 2004 CCS HAU, Hisar North-west India
BL 180 2006 PAU, Ludhiana North-west India
Hisar Berseem 1 (HFB 600) 2006 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
Lucerne
GAUL 1 (Anand 2) 1975 GAU, Banaskantha Gujarat, Rajasthan, M.P.
Chetak (S 244) 1975 IGFRI, Jhansi Central Zone
T 9 (Type 9) 1978 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire growing area
GAUL 2 (SS 627) 1980 GAU, Banaskantha Gujarat
CO 1 1980 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu , Karnataka
LLC 3 1985 PAU, Ludhiana Entire growing area
LLC 5 1987 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Anand 3 1991 GAU, Banaskantha H.P.
RL 88 1991 Rahuri, MPKV Entire country
Senji / sweet clover
HFWS 55 1989 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
Shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum)
Shaftal 48 1991 PAU, Ludhiana H.P.
SH 69 1995 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
SH 48 1987 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Cowpea
Kohinoor (S 450) 1975 IGFRI, Jhansi Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat,
U.P.
HFC 42-1 (Hara Lobia) 1976 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana, Punjab
GFC 1 (Gujarat 1979 GAU, Banaskantha Gujarat
Forage Cowpea 1)
Forage Cowpea 2)
Forage Cowpea 4)
UPC 5286 1981 GBPUA.&T, Pantnagar Whole country
Forage Cowpea 3)
CO 5 1986 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
UPC 5287 1986 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar North India
Sweta (No. 998) 1987 MPKV, Rahuri Maharashtra
(Contd . . .)
(Table 37.6 continued)

Charodi 1989 GAU, Anand Gujarat

UPC 287 1989 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar Entire country
Gujarat Cowpea 3 1990 GAU, Anand Gujarat
UPC 4200 1991 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar North-east zone
Cowpea 88 1992 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Bundel Lobia 1 (IFC 8401) 1992 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire country
Bundel Lobia 2 (IFC 8503) 1993 IGFRI, Jhansi North-west zone
UPC 8705 1996 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar Entire country
DFC 1 1996 UAS, Dharwad Maharashtra
CS 88 (Haryana Lobia 88) 1996 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
UPC 9202 1999 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar Central zone
UPC 618 2006 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar North-west India
CL 367 2006 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
UPC 622 2006 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar North-west, North-east Hill
Zone
Guar/ clusterbean
FS 277 1974 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire guar-growing tract
HG 75 1981 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
HFG 119 1981 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire guar-growing tract
HG 182 1982 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
HFG 156 1987 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire growing tract
Guara 80 1990 North Zone Punjab
Bundel Guar 1 1993 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire growing tract
(IGFRI 212-1)
Bundel Guar 2 1994 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire growing tract
(IGFRI 2395-2)
Bundel Guar 3 1999 IGFRI, Jhansi Arid and semi-arid regions
(IGFRI 1019-1)
Lablab bean
Bundel Sem 1 (JLP 4) 1993 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire country
Rice bean
BL 1 1997 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Bidhan 1 (BC 15/ K1) 2000 BCKV, Kalyani North-east zone
KRB 4 2000 BCKV, Kalyani
Cultivated fodder - cereals

Jowar
SSG 59-3 1977 CCS HAU, Hisar Sorghum-growing areas in
North
Jawahar Chari 6 1978 JNKVV, Jabalpur M.P. (medium & heavy soils)
Jawahar Chari 69 1979 JNKVV, Jabalpur M.P.
Pusa Chari 6 1979 IARI, New Delhi Sorghum-growing areas in
North
Ruchira 1982 MPKV, Rahuri Maharashtra
HC 136 1982 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire Country
UP Chari 1 (IS 4776) 1983 GBPUA.&T, Pantnagar U.P.
GFS 3 1984 GAU, Banaskantha, Gujarat
North
Rajasthan Chari 1 1984 MSUAT, Udaipur Rajasthan
UP Chari 2 1984 GBPUA.&T, Pantnagar U.P.
(Contd . . .)


North
PCH 106 (Hybrid) 1985 PAU, Ludhiana Sorghum-growing areas in
North
MP Chari 1985 JNKVV, Jabalpur Entire country
Rajasthan Chari 2 (SU 45) 1986 RAU, Udaipur Rajasthan
HC 260 1987 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire country
HC 171 1987 CCS HAU, Hisar Entire country
Gujarat Forage Sorghum 1989 GAU, Anand Gujarat
(AS 16)
Gujarat Fodder Sorghum 4 1990 GAU, Anand Gujarat
Pant Chari 3 (UPFS 23) 1991 GBPUA.&T, Pantnagar U.P.
CSH 13 R Hybrid 1991 NRC Sorghum, Maharashtra
Hyderabad
Proagro Chari (SSG 988) 1991 Pro Agro Seed Co Entire country
Aurangabad
CSV 15 1992 NRC Sorghum, Maharashtra
Hyderabad
GFSH 1 1992 GAU, Banaskantha Gujarat
MFSH 3 1993 Maharashtra Hybrid Entire country
Seed Co.
Punjab Sudex Chari 1994 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
1 (LX250)
Harasona 855 F 1995 Pro Agro Seed Co Sorghum growing areas in
Aurangabad North
HC 308 1996 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
SPV 669 1998 PRKVP, Akola Maharashtra
Safed Moti (FSH 92079) 1999 Pro Agro Seed Co; Sorghum Tract in South &
Aurangabad North
SSV 74 2000 UAS, Dharwad South Zone
COFS 29 2001 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
HJ 523 2004 CCS HAU, Hisar North-west India
Pusa Chari Hybrid 2005 IARI, New Delhi North India
109 (PCH 109)
CSH 20 MF (UPMCH 1101) 2005 GBPUA&T, Pantnagar North India
Bajra /pearl millet
Giant Bajra 1980 Rahuri, MPKV Entire country
FBC 16 1990 PAU, Ludhiana North-west India
Raj Baira Chari 2 1990 Jobner, RAU Entire growing area
PCB 164 1991 PAU, Ludhiana North-west India
CO 8 1992 TNAU, Coimbatore Entire growing area
TNSC 1 1995 TNAU, Coimbatore Entire growing tract
APFB 2 1997 ANGRAU, Hyderabad South Zone
GFB 1 2005 AAU, Anand North-west India
Avika Bajra Chari (AVKB 19) 2006 IGFRI-RRS, Avikanagar Entire growing tract
Maize
African tall 1981 MPKV, Rahuri Whole country
J 1006 1993 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
APFM 8 1997 ANGRAU, Hyderabad South Zone
(Contd . . .)

Teosinte
Improved Teosinte 1987 CCS HAU, Hisar North, North-west & central
TL 1 1994 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Barley
Azad 1979 CSAUT, Kanpur North, North-east & central
VLB 1 1995 VPKAS, Almora Hill Zone
Oat
HFO 114 (Haryana Javi 114) 1974 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
Palampur I 1980 CSK HPKV, Palampur Hill Zone
OS 6 1981 CCS HAU, Hisar Whole country
OS 7 1981 CCS HAU, Hisar Whole country
UPO 94 1981 GBPUA.&T, Pantnagar Whole country
Bundel Jai 822 1989 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire country
OL 9 1990 PAU, Ludhiana North, North-west and south
hills
UPO 212 1990 GBPUA.&T, Pantnagar Entire Country
OL 125 1995 PAU, Ludhiana Entire Country
HJ 8 1997 CCS HAU, Hisar Haryana
SK0 7 (SABZAAR) 1997 SKUA&T, Srinagar Hill Zone
Bundel Jai 851 1998 IGFRI, Jhansi Northern & North-west
regions
Bundel Jai 99-2 (JHO 99-2) 2002 IGFRI, Jhansi North-east & North-west
Bundel Jai 2004 2004 IGFRI, Jhansi South, North-west & Hill
Zones
JO 1 2004 JNKVV, Jabalpur Central Zone
Harita (RO 19) 2005 MPKV, Rahuri Entire country
Bundel Jai 99 1 (JHO 99-1) 2007 IGFRI, Jhansi North-east, Central &
North-west
Cultivated fodder - grasses

Napier x Bajra Hybrid
CO 1 1982 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Gujarat
Hybrid Napier 3 (Swetika) 1983 IGFRI, Jhansi North & Central Zone
NB 21 1987 New Delhi, IARI Whole of India & tropics
Yeshwant (RBN 9) 1987 MPKV, Rahuri Maharashtra
PBN 83 1989 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Pusa Giant 1990 New Delhi, IARI Whole of India & tropics
CO 2 1991 TNAU, Coimbatore Entire Country
NB 37 1994 PAU, Ludhiana North-west
CO 3 1996 TNAU, Coimbatore South Zone
KKM 1 1999 TNAU, Coimbatore South Zone
APBN 1 2001 Hyderabad, ANGRAU North-west India
Guinea grass
PGG 1 1982 PAU, Ludhiana Hill, North, North-west &
central India
PGG 9 1986 PAU, Ludhiana Hill, North, North-west &
central India
PGG 13 1987 PAU, Ludhiana Central India & Hills
PGG 14 1988 PAU, Ludhiana Entire country
(Contd . . .)

PGG 19 1989 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab

Haritha 1990 KAU, Vellayani Kerala
Marathakam 1993 KAU, Vellayani South Zone
Bundel Guinea 1 2004 IGFRI, Jhansi North-west & Hill Zone
(JHGG 96-5)
Bundel Guinea 2 2008 IGFRI, Jhansi All India
Dinanath grass
Jawahar Pennisetum 12 1974 JNKVV, Jabalpur Central Zone
Bundel 1 1987 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire Country
Bundel 2 1990 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire Country
TNDN 1 1996 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
IGFRI 4-2-1 1987 IGFRI, Jhansi Whole country
IGFRI 43-1 1988 IGFRI, Jhansi Whole country
Range species - Legumes
Stylo (Stylosanthes scabra Vog.)
Stylosanthes scabra 1991 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
RS 95 2004 MPKV, Rahuri Western Region
White clover
Palampur Composite-1 1986 CSK HPKV, Palampur H.P.
Red clover
PRC 3 2003 CSK HPKV, Palampur Hill Zone
Range species - grasses

Dharaf grass
GAUD 1 1979 GAU, Banaskantha Gujarat, Central & western
India
Marvel grass
GMG 1 (Gujarat Marvel 1980 GAU, Banaskantha Gujarat, Central & western
Grass 1) India
Setaria grass
PSS 1 1989 CSK HPKV, Palampur Sub-temperate hill region
S 92 2003 CSK HPKV, Palampur Hill Zone
Anjan grass
Bundel Anjan 1 1989 IGFRI, Jhansi Arid & Semi-arid regions
CO 1 Neela Kalu Kattai 1991 TNAU, Coimbatore Tamil Nadu & other semi-
arid areas
Bundel Anjan 3 2006 IGFRI ,Jhansi North-west, West & South
Fescue grass
Hima 1 1998 CSK HPKV, Palampur H.P.
Hima 4 2003 CSK HPKV, Palampur Hill Zone
Sain Grass
Bundel Sen Grass 2007 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire growing area in the
(IGS 9901) country
(Contd . . .)
(Table 37.6 concluded)

Dhawalu grass
Bundel Phulkara Ghas 1 2007 IGFRI, Jhansi Entire growing area in the
(IGC 9903) country
Other forages
Gobhi sarson
GSL 1 (Gobhi Sarson 1986 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Ludhiana 1)
Sheetal (HPN 1) 1995 CSK HPKV, Palampur H.P.
Fenugreek
T8 1989 AAU, Anand Gujarat
ML 150 1995 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab
Job’s tears
KCA 3 2004 BCKV, Kalyani Asom, Orissa, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Bihar
KCA 4 2005 BCKV, Kalyani Asom, Orissa, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Bihar
H.P., Himachal Pradesh; M.P., Madhya Pradesh; U.P., Uttar Pradesh
Fodder production systems

Intensive irrigated systems
Efficient utilization of limited land resources and other agricultural inputs for
obtaining the best from the harvest in the form of herbage per unit area and time is the
primary objective of intensive forage production system. An ideal system, besides
giving higher yields and making the maximum use of available resources, must have
favourable effect on soil productivity and provide sustainability to the production
system. In fact, intensive cropping is the only alternative to boost forage yield from
irrigated lands and overall productivity which covers about 30% of the cultivated area
in the country. The multicut nature and flexibility in manipulating the duration for
several forage species are desirable traits to increase cropping/harvesting frequency.
Multiple cropping
It consists of growing 3 - 4 appropriate annual forage crops as sole crops in mixed
stands (graminaceous and leguminous) in a calendar year to improve herbage quality
substantially and to enhance forage productivity per unit area. It also helps maintain
soil fertility over long period due to addition of root organic matter. The degree of its
success depends upon agro-climatic conditions, crop and soil management practices
followed and availability of inputs. Selection of appropriate crops/varieties and adoption
of scattered sowing and harvesting schedules ensure the regular supply of the quality
forage.
Year-round forage production through combination of perennial and annual

forages
Overlapping cropping systems developed at the Indian Grassland and Fodder
Research Institute (IGFRI), Jhansi, to fulfill the needs of dairy farmers for green fodder
throughout the year and for small farmers requiring maximum forage from a piece of
land. It consists of raising berseem, inter-planted with hybrid Napier in spring and
intercropping the inter-row spaces of the grass with cowpea during summer after the
final harvest of berseem (Table 37.7). This system was found superior to multiple
crop sequences both in terms of production and economic returns. The hybrid Napier
could be successfully replaced with relatively soft and palatable perennial grasses
like Setaria and guinea grass and berseem with lucerne wherever required.
Table 37.7 Round-the-year fodder production systems
Crop sequence Green fodder yield

(tonnes/ha/year)
Napier x Bajra hybrid + Cowpea - Berseem 260

Maize + Cowpea – MP Chari + Cowpea – Berseem + Japanese rape 197
MP Chari + Cowpea – Berseem + Japanese rape 184
Cowpea – MP Chari + Cowpea – Berseem + Japanese rape 176
Napier x Bajra hybrid + Cowpea – Berseem – Cowpea 255
Association of perennial grass and legume components

Attempts were made to select suitable ideotypes of perennial grass and forage-
legume components in order to reduce the necessity of repeated sowing and tillage
and to economise the use of irrigation water in the system. This resulted in the
identification of an erect, leafy and compact hybrid napier-IGFRI No. 3 and K 8 variety
of subabul (Leucaena leucocephala). These crops when grown together in alternate
paired rows (2:2) yielded around 200 tonnes of nutritious green forage/ha/year.
Such types of system are less sensitive to fluctuations in soil moisture and are more
suited to southern region where both the components grow throughout the year.
The associated legumes improve the herbage quality in terms of protein and minerals
and help to economise on the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Moreover, such production
systems are less expensive and offer continuous employment potential. The component
crops of the system can be changed depending upon inputs availability and yield indices
of the crops in a region. Similarly, cultural management practices like crop geometry,
spacing, planting pattern, etc. could be adjusted to facilitate use of appropriate farm
machinery and effective utilization of irrigation water.
Intensive forage sequences recommended for different regions

The intensive cropping systems when managed properly using modern techniques
of soil and crop management are able to yield 180 - 300 tonnes of green fodder (30 -
55 tonnes dry fodder) per ha/year. Some of the intensive cropping systems have been
suggested for different regions.
North Zone
• Maize + Cowpea – Sorghum + Cowpea (two cuts) – Berseem + Mustard.
• Sudan grass + Cowpea – Maize + Cowpea – Turnip – Oats (two cuts).
• Hybrid Napier or Setaria inter-planted with cowpea in summer and Berseem in

winter (9 -10 cuts/year).
• Teosinte + Cowpea (two cuts) – Carrot – Oats + Mustard/Senji (two cuts).
Western and Central Zone
• Bajra + Guar (Clusterbean) (two cuts) – Annual Lucerne (6 cuts).
• MP Chari + Cowpea (2 cuts) – Maize + Cowpea - Teosinte + Cowpea (2 cuts).
• Hybrid Napier or Guinea or Setaria grass inter-planted with Cowpea in summer
+ Berseem in winter (8-9 cuts/year).
• Hybrid Napier or Guinea or Setaria grass interplanted with Lucerne (8-9 cuts/
year).
Southern Zone
• Sorghum + Cowpea (3 cuts) – Maize + Cowpea – Maize + Cowpea.
• Hybrid Napier or Guinea or Setaria grass inter-planted with Lucerne (8-9 cuts)
or Hybrid Napier + Subabul / Sesbania (9-11 cuts/year).
• Sudan grass + Cowpea (3 cuts) – M.P. Chari + Cowpea (three cuts).
• Para grass + Centro (Centrosema pubescens) (9-11 cuts/year).
Eastern Zone
• Maize + Cowpea – Teosinte + Rice bean (2 cuts) – Berseem + Mustard (3 cuts).
• M.P. Chari + Cowpea – Dinanath grass (2 cuts) – Berseem + Mustard (3 cuts).
• Para grass + Centrosema pubescens (8-9 cuts/year).
• Hybrid Napier or Setaria grass inter-planted with Subabul or Common Sesban
(Sesbania sesban) (9-10 cuts/year).
Principles and practices of growing important irrigated fodder crops

Crop production is concerned with the utilization of plant morphological and
physiological responses within an agro-climatic environment to produce maximum
yield per unit area and time. The development of crop production technologies is the
master key to unlock the yield potential of crops. Fodders as a group of crops differ
from food and commercial crops in several aspects; the principles and practices of
their cultivation vary accordingly.
Water is the most important input for crop production especially in fodder crops
where the maximum vegetative growth is desired within a short period of time.
Provision of irrigation allows the maximum utilization of resources for intensive forage
production, which is very important in our country with small land holdings. There
are certain fodder crops like berseem, lucerne, turnip, etc. which, can be grown with
adequate moisture while in others the production potential can be realized fully with
irrigation.
A combination of diversified soil types, wide range of climatic conditions (cloudy
to sunshine, hot to cold, dry to rainy) and a large group of forage species suited to
different agro-ecological conditions and input situations, makes a congenial
environment for intensive forage production programme in our country. The cultivated
fodder crops can be grouped as follows:
Cereal fodders: Cereals are the crop plants belonging to grass family Gramineae
and grown for their edible starch seeds botanically known as ‘caryopsis’. Cereal fodders
and grasses are characteristically determinate in growth habit and their herbage
quality starts deteriorating after flowering. Cereal fodders like maize, sorghum,
pearl millet and oats provide energy-rich herbage to livestock. These have wider
adaptability and variability in terms of growth, regeneration potential, yield and quality
of herbage.
Legumes: The word legume is derived from the Latin word “Legre” (to gather)
because the pods have to be gathered or picked by hand as distinct from ‘reaping’ the
cereals. The plants belong to family Leguminoseae and having nitrogen fixing nodules
on their roots. Legumes by and large are indeterminate in growth and thus, maintain
quality traits over longer periods. The leguminous fodders have special significance
because of high herbage protein and partial independence from soil for their nitrogen
needs.
Other crops: Besides these important groups of fodders, root crops (turnips, carrots
and fodder beets), Brassica spp. and vetches are used as supplementary source of feed
to the livestock. Due to early bulking capacity and short duration, these are often
gown as catch crops.
Salient features of forage crops

The knowledge of salient features of forages would be useful in understanding
the techniques of their management and tailoring the cultural and fertilizer
schedules for increased forage production. The important characterstics are: (i)
short growth period, (ii) grown in closer spacing with high seed rate, (iii) dense stand
to smother weeds and prevent soil erosion, (iv) improve soil health through addition
of higher amounts of organic residues in the soil, (v) crop duration can be adjusted
and risk due to aberrant weather conditions minimized, (vi) high persistency and
regeneration capacity reduce the need for frequent sowing and tillage, (vii) crop
management differs with the purpose of growing forages and mode of their utilization,
(viii) wider adaptability with capacity to grow under stress conditions, (ix) high
nutrient and water requirement under intensive cropping, (x) multicut nature
with capacity to provide regular income and employment, (xi) economic
viability depends on secondary production (livestock products), (xii) storage, transport,
processing and conservation are cumbersome, (xiii) shy seed producer, poor harvest
index and narrow seed multiplication ratio, and (xiv) the cost of cultivation goes down
in subsequent cuts in case of multicut and/or perennial forages as well as in forage-
cum-seed crops.
Package of practices
The forage production per unit area is a consequence of the interactions between
genotypes and environment. A crop environment may be regarded as having two
components, the gross environment, which takes into account the environmental factors
affecting crop growth, and the current environment, which takes into account the general
soil and atmospheric conditions outside the crop and also the changes caused by the
plant community. However, the phenomenal increase in productivity is possible mainly
through better varieties, seeds, fertilizers and agronomic technology. The package of
practices of some important fodder crops (rainy season, winter season and perennials)
are elaborated in Table 37.8.
Table 37.8 Packages of practices of some important fodder crops
Crop Seed Inter- Sowing Irrigation Harvesting GFY Seed

rate row time interval and schedule (tonnes/ha) (tonnes/ha)
(kg/ha) spacing numbers (days)
(cm)
Sorghum 12-15 40-50 June- Depending on 70-75 35-40 1-1.2

(single cut) July rains (in dry
spell- 10-12
days)
Sorghum 20-25 40-50 March- Summer 1st : 55-60 80-90 -
(multicut) April 5-6 monsoon subsequent
depending 35-40
upon rains
Pearl millet 8-10 40-50 June – depending on 60-70 40-45 1-1.5
spell- 10-12
days)
Pearl millet 10-15 40-50 March- Summer 4-6, 50-55 90-100 -
(multicut) April monsoon subsequent
depending 30-35
upon rains
Oat 60-70 25-30 October- 7-8 1st 65, 50-55 2-2.5
(multicut) Last Nov. subsequent
30-40
Oat (single 60-70 25-30 October – 3-4 75 40-45 2-2.5
cut) Last Nov.
Teosinte 15-20 40-50 June – Depending on 100-135 80-85 20-30
spell- 8-10
days)
Teosinte 35-40 25cm March- Summer 75-80, 80-85 -
(multicut) April 7-8, monsoon subsequent GFY
depending 35-40
upon rains
Cowpea 20-25 40-50 June- Depending 60-65 30-35 0.8-1.0
(rainy crop) July upon rains
Cowpea 20-25 40-50 March- Summer 6-7 70-75 30-35 0.8-1.0
(summer April
crop)
Lucerne 10-15 30-35 September – 10-14 1st 60-65, 75-80 10-12
October (12-15) subsequent
30-35
Berseem 20-25 20-25 2nd 8-12 1st 50-55, 100-120 0.8-1.0
fortnight (12-15) subsequent
of October 30-35
Maize 50-60 25-30 March – Summer 7-8 60-75 35-45 3-5
(single cut) April Monsoon
June – depending on
July rains (in dry
spell- 8-10 days)
Oat (Avena sativa)

Oat is one of the most important cereal fodder crops of rabi season in North, Central
and West Zone of the country. It provides soft and palatable fodder rich in crude
protein (10-12%). The chemical composition of green fodder varies with the stage of
harvest. Oat is also used as straw, hay or silage. Its grain makes a good feed particularly
for horses, sheep and poultry.
Climatic requirement: Oats are well adapted to cooler environment. Its optimum
growth is attained in sites with 15-25° C temperature in winter with moist conditions.
Although, it can tolerate frost up to some extent but its fodder yield and quality is
reduced due to hot and dry conditions.
Soil: Oat grow the best in loam to clay loam soil with adequate drainage. They
produce satisfactory yields on heavy or light soils with proper moisture. It can be
grown under moderate acidic or saline conditions also.
Seed rate and sowing: A seed rate of 60-70 kg/ha is recommended for uniform
stand in oats. Low tillering varieties should be sown with 20-25 cm row spacing while
higher tillering type should be sown 30 cm apart. Sowing of seed should preferably be
done in line with seed drill or pore/kera behind the plough. Sowing time varies from
one location to other. Normally, oat sowing should be started in early October to end
of November in North-West to East Zone of the country. For regular supply of fodder
from December to March, scattered sowing is also advocated.
Manures and fertilizers: The requirement of oats for manures and fertilizers is
less as compared to other rabi cereals. It depends upon number of cuts taken. In general,
addition of 20-25 tonnes of farmyard manure (FYM) before 10-15 days of sowing
with the application of 80 kg N, 40 kg P2O5/ha to single cut and a dose of 120 kg N, 40
kg K2O/ha to multicut varieties attains good crop growth. In double and multicut
varieties, top-dressing of 40 kg N/ha after first cut and two equal split doses of 40 kg
N/ha after first and second cut should be done respectively.
Irrigation: Oats require 4-5 irrigations including the pre-sowing irrigation.
If soil is dry, first irrigation is given before preparing the seedbed. Subsequent
irrigations are given at intervals of about one month mostly after each cut.
Timely irrigation improves the tillering remarkably, which contributes to higher forage
yield.
Weed control: Oat is infested with winter season grassy and broad-leaved weeds
mostly found as in wheat. Effective control of weeds in oats can be obtained with
weeder cum mulcher at 4 week crop stage followed by application of 2, 4-D @ 0.37
kg a.i./ha at 6 weeks crop stage.
Harvesting: Proper stage of harvesting determines the herbage yield and quality of
Oat. The harvesting of single cut oat varieties is done at 50% flowering (about 50-55
days of sowing). In double cut varieties, first cut should be taken at 60 days followed
by second cut at 50% flowering stage. However, in multicut varieties, first cut is
recommended at 60 days, second cut at 105 days and third cut at 50% flowering. For
seed production, the crop should be left for seed after the first cutting, which should
be taken 50-55 days after sowing. For good re-growth, first cut should be taken 8-10
cm above the soil surface.
Yield: The average green fodder yield from single, double and multi-cut varieties
of oat ranges from 30-45, 40-55 and 45-60 tonnes/ha respectively. If crop is left for
seed, 25 tonnes/ha green fodder from first cut and 2.0-2.5 tonnes/ha seed and 2.5-3.0
tonnes/ha straw is obtained.
Sorgum (Sorghum bicolor)

Sorghum as a green foliage is very popular in most parts of north India and nearly
2.5 million ha area is planted during kharif. In summer, under irrigated conditions,
multicut sorghum is very popular. Forage sorghum is characterized by quick growth,
high biomass accumulation, and dry matter content and wide adaptability beside
drought withstanding ability. It is also suitable for silage and hay making.
Varieties: There are improved varieties and hybrids capable of yielding on an average
50 tonnes/ha in single cut varieties and up to 70 tonnes/ha in multi cut varieties. The
dual-purpose varieties and hybrids, CSV 15 and CSH 13 are suitable for both forage
and grain production. A promising dual-purpose kharif variety SPV 1616 was released
as CSV 20 for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh and parts of Gujarat. It has distinct superiority in fodder yield.An
early high-yielding hybrid SPH 1290 has been released as CSH 23 for kharif season
for the Zones 2 and 3 during 2005. This hybrid matures early (103 days) and is superior
to the early checks, CSH 14 and CSH 17 for grain and fodder yields. It is also relatively
less susceptible to shoot fly, stem-borer and grain mold compared to the checks. A
forage sorghum hybrid CSH 20 MF was released in 2005 by GBPUA&T, Pantnagar,
for tan, dark green heavy foliage with green midrib. This has medium thick juicy stem
and resistant to foliar diseases.
Field preparation and sowing: Normally 2-3 harrowing are required before taking
up planting as rainfed crop and sown with the onset of monsoon. Seed rate of 12-15
kg/ha for singlecut and 20-25 kg/ha for multicut sorghum is required. Optimum spacing
is 45 cm between rows for multicut sorghum and 30 cm for single cut sorghum. As
regards fertilizer application 100 kg N and 60 kg P2O5/ha for multicut sorghum and 80
kg N and 40 kg P2O5 /ha for single cut sorghum is recommended. In forage sorghum,
the mixed cropping is also practiced with fodder legumes, viz. cowpea and cluster-
bean, in 2:1 ratio to improve fodder yield and quality.
Harvesting: Since HCN is present in sorghum especially in early stages up to 40-
50 days, proper care has to be exercised during harvesting for avoiding HCN poisoning.
Single cut varieties are harvested at 50% flowering to full bloom stage and in multicut
varieties the first harvest is taken at 55 days after sowing and subsequent cuts at 40
days interval.
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Pearl millet is the fourth most important grain crop next to rice, wheat and sorghum.
The crop is cultivated for grain as well as fodder in the semi arid tropical regions of
Africa and Asia including India. In India, annual planting area is around 10 million ha
producing nearly 7.5 million tonnes of grains. It is grown mainly in Rajasthan,
Maharastra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.
Pearl millet traditionally is an indispensable component of dry farming
system. With the advent of pearl millet hybrids in mid sixties, its cultivation
doubled. The crop is mainly confined to low fertile water deficit soils. Because of its
remarkable ability to withstand and grow in harsh environment, reasonable and assured
harvests are obtained. The crop responds to nitrogen, cultural management, and water
harvesting.
Soil and climate: The crop is mostly grown in kharif season from June to October.
Crop grows on a wide range of soils from very light soils from sand dunes in Rajasthan
to red loams of Karnataka and Maharatsrta.
Seed rate and sowing: The recommended spacing is 45 cm between rows and 10-
12 cm between plants within row. The seed rate of 8-10 kg/ha for single cut and 12-15
kg/ha for multicut is required to obtain desired yields.
Manures and fertilizers: It responds well to applied nutrients. Besides recommended
dose of fertilizers, application of 8-10 tonnes of FYM is also helpful as it conserves
moisture. An application of 20-40 kg N/ha in 2 split doses is recommended in Rajasthan,
while in Gujarat, Haryana and Maharatstra, 60-80 kg N/ha is recommended as optimum.
Application of 20 kg ZnSO 4/ha enhanced grain and fodder yields. Also foliar
application of ZnSO4/ha at tillering and pre-flowering stage increased grain and fodder
yield. Maximum grain yield was recorded in plots of dust mulching when trial was
conducted to mitigate the adverse effect of drought stress under rainfed condition.
Spray of 0.1% thiouorea at tillering and flowering stages also helped to mitigate drought
stress.
Inter-cultivation and weed management: The fields should be maintained free
from weeds for the first 30 days as it is very important to ensure good crop growth.
Two inter-cultivation and one hand weeding is necessary to minimize weed competition.
Chemical weed control with Atrazine @ 0.5 kg ai/ha given as pre-emergence spray is
also useful.
Diseases and pest management: Crop is comparatively less prone to pests and
diseases. However, downy mildew among diseases, shoot fly and root grub among
pests are prevalent in many states. Choice of diseases resistant variety is an important
step in effectively managing the diseases. A seed treatment with Apron 35 SD @ 2 g ai
/kg seeds followed by Ridomil 25 WP (1,000 ppm) spray 20-25 days later will effectively
check the disease. Rotation of different varieties and hybrids in alternate years is also
effective in arresting spread of downy mildew. Seed treatment with neem oil 5 ml/kg
seed + spray of 5% (neem-seed-kernel extract (N.S.K..E.) at 50% flowering was found
effective in controlling pests. Plant-protection measures are essential for white-grub
and shoot fly. White-grub infestation is managed by mixing of Phorate 10 G or
Quinalophos 5G @ 12 kg /ha with seed and applying in furrows at sowing. Four
varieties, MH 1336, MH 1364, MH 1392, and Pusa 383, were found to be resistant to
smut ergot and blast.
Pearl millet-based cropping systems: In Rajasthan, intercropping of pearl millet
with clusterbean or moth bean or cowpea or greengram in 2: 1 proportion is followed.
This not only covers the risk due to failures of monsoon but also provides the grain
legumes which help in better nutritional security and as source of additional income.
In most parts of north India, Andhra Pradesh, Maharatsrtra, Tamil Nadu , and Karnataka,
intercropping of pearlmillet with pulses is followed, viz. red gram/ green gram/ cowpea/
horsegram/ clusterbean.
Harvesting and storage: When grain moisture is around 20%, pearl millet is
harvested as the grains are prone to spoilage during storage. It is very important to
bring down moisture to 12% or less for safe storage. Improved storage structures, viz.
metal bins made out of GI sheets, are suitable for safe storage of grains. The stover is
a valuable feed for cattle.
Maize (Zea mays)

Maize in India ranks fifth in total area and third in total production and productivity.
The level of production has to be raised because of substantial demand as food, feed
and poultry feed. Maize can successfully be grown as kharif, rabi and zaid crop.
Presently, the maize crop is grown in 20-30% irrigated conditions only.
Varieties: Mostly maize is grown during rainy season. Some cultivars require 60-
70 days to mature; others require 100-110 days to mature. Grain colour also varies
from yellow to orange to white. Mainly flint types are preferred.
Soil: Very sandy soils rapidly respond to management practices than those that are
fine textured. Intermediate texture of loam to silt loam in surface horizon and little
higher content of clay as silt loam to silty clay loam in subsoil is the most ideal. Soil
pH of 7.5-8.5 supports good crop growth, as the crop is grown under rainfed conditions
it is important that soil must have good water holding capacity, with proper drainage
system to avoid waterlogging conditions.
Seed rate and sowing time: About 50-60 kg seed would be needed to sow one
hectare. Seed should be grown 5 cm deep into soil for good germination, seedling
growth and vigour. Transplanting should be avoided as the plant cannot cope up with
main crop stand. It is preferred to sow 10-15 days before start of rain which will give
15% higher yield.
Manures and fertilizers: A balanced application of 60-12 kg N, 40-60 kg P and
40kg K/ha is recommended. Early maturing varieties require less quantity than full
season maturity crops. It is also advisable to apply 20 kg zinc sulphate /ha along with
basal dose of fertilizer. One-fourth of nitrogen and entire quantity of phosphorus,
potassium and zinc should be applied 5-7 cm deep before sowing. The rest of the
doses are applied at knee-high stage and after emergence of flag leaf but before tassel
emergence.
Plant population: A population of 65,000-70,000 plants /ha at harvest is optimum
for realizing higher yields. For attaining desired level of plant density, a row to row
and plant to plant spacing of 75 cm × 18 cm or 60 cm × 22 cm should be maintained.
Irrigation: To ensure high and stable yield, it is desirable to give 1 or 2 irrigations
at critical stages. Flowering and grain-filling stages are most critical; the crop should
be irrigated at these stages, if rain fails.
Intercropping: Short-duration varieties of pulse crop, oilseed crop and vegetable
can successfully be grown as intercrop. A ratio of 2 rows of maize with 1 row of other
desired crop can be adopted.
Harvesting: In absence of irrigation, crop can be harvested at any stage, at pre-
flowering it can be used as fodder and at dough stage green ear and stover may be
used for cattle. For fodder purpose, the milk to early dough stage is preferred for
higher yield and protein content. For silage, late dough stage is preferred.
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum )

Berseem is the prominent legume fodder crop of rabi in entire North West, Zone,
Hill Zone and part of Central and Eastern Zone of the country. Berseem makes most
digestible and palatable green fodder to the cattle and especially milch animals are
very much benefited with berseem. It provides fodder with high tonnage over a long
period from November to May in 5 - 6 cuts. It has 20-24% crude protein and 70% dry
matter digestibility. It is very good soil builder and adds about 0.38-0.46% organic
carbon, 15 -26 kg available phosphorus and 45 kg available nitrogen to the soil.
Climatic requirements: Berseem prefers dry and cool climate for its proper growth.
Best productive crop can be obtained between 15-25° C temperatures. Its regenerative
growth is retarded during severe cold or frosty period or at temperature above 40°C. It
can be grown successfully in areas which receive annual rainfall of 150-250 cm or
even lower but the irrigation must be assured.
Soil: Berseem can be grown on all types of soils except very light sandy soils.
Well-drained clay loam soils rich in calcium and phosphorus are ideally suited for its
cultivation. The crop can be grown successfully on alkaline soils having good water
retention capacity. The crop can tolerate mild acidity also.
Field preparation: The seeds being very small, berseem requires a fine seedbed.
One deep ploughing with soil turning plough and 2 harrowings are essential. The field
may be laid out in to smaller beds of convenient size according to topography and
source of irrigation water.
Sowing time: After the arrest of rains, sowing of berseem can be done from last
week of September to first week of December in North West to Eastern and Central
India. The time of sowing berseem is ideal when mean day temperature is 25° C,
which is recorded mostly in the first to third week of October in north India.
Seed rate: The optimum seed rate is 25 kg/ha, which may be increased up to 35 kg
in early or late sown conditions. For yield compensation in first cutting, 1.5 kg mustard
should be sown along with berseem. For elimination of chicory weed (kasani), the
seed should be poured in 1% common salt. Floating chicory seed should be taken out
and remaining seed of berseem should be sown.
Seed treatment: Seed treatment with Rhizobium culture is essential, when the
berseem crop is to be grown first time in the field. Before treating the seed, it should
be first soaked into fresh water for about 8-12 hours. For better sticking of culture
with seed, the culture is prepared with jaggery. About 1.5 litres of water is mixed with
150 g of jaggery and boiled. After cooling, 2.5 packets of berseem culture are mixed
with it and then seed is well mixed and dried in a cool shady place.
Sowing method: There are two methods for sowing of berseem i.e. dry and wet
bed. For satisfactory germination and good plant stand, wet method is better. Seed
should be sown in beds of convenient size by broadcast method after flooding the
beds with 5-6 cm deep water. Before sowing seeds, the water in the beds should be
stirred thoroughly with the help of puddler or rake so as to break the clods and capillary
to avoid leaching during successive irrigations. The crop should be re-irrigated after
5-6 days of sowing when germination is complete.
Manures and fertilizers: Berseem, being a legume crop, requires less nutrient
replenishment in the soil. For obtaining good yield, 20 kg N and 80 kg P2O5/ha should
be applied as basal dose. In saline or light textured soil, addition of 20 tonnes of well-
decomposed FYM is beneficial. FYM may be excluded if the previous crop of the
rotation was liberally manured and fertilized.
Irrigation: The depth and frequency of irrigation is decided by soil type, number
of cuttings and nature of berseem crop, i.e. sole or mixed. First two very light irrigations
(4-6 cm depth) should be given at 5-6 days interval. Subsequent irrigations may be
given at an interval of 10 days in October, 12-15 days in November to January, 10-12
days in February-March and 8-10 days in April-May. Thus, about 12-15 irrigations
will be needed during the entire crop season. Normally the crop should be irrigated
after each cutting.
Weed control: Chicory, the associated weed of berseem should be eliminated
for higher herbage and good quality fodder. Application of Fluchloralin @ 1.2 kg
a.i./ha at pre planting stage controls the chicory and other weeds effectively.
However, floating of berseem in 10% common salt is effective against chicory
only.
Harvesting: The first cutting should be taken at 50-55 days after sowing
of crop. The subsequent cuttings should be taken at 25-30 days interval. The
number of cuts depends upon rate of growth and temperature during the life cycle of
the crop.
Yield: A good berseem crop can give 100-120 tonnes/ ha green fodder and 15-20
tonnes/ha dry fodder.
Lucerne (Medicago sativa)

Lucerne is a valuable leguminous forage and hay crop which is generally grown in
areas where water supply is inadequate for berseem. Its deeper root system makes it
very well adaptable to dry areas with irrigation facility. It grows well as rainfed or
unirrigated crop in high water table areas. It is an important winter fodder crop
in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and in Leh area of Laddakh.
It is perennial (3-4 years), persistent, productive and drought tolerant forage
legume which contains 15% crude protein with 72% dry matter digestibility. It sup-
plies green fodder for a longer period (November - June) in comparison to berseem
(December - April).
Climatic requirements: Lucerne is adapted to relatively dry conditions and it may
tolerate heat as well as cold. It can not be grown under humid conditions with high
temperature. It has wide ecological amplitude and can grow at 2,500 m asl to hot
summer with 49°C with adequate moisture available in the soil.
Soil: Lucerne needs sandy loam to clayey soil but heavy soils need an
efficient drainage system as the crop does not tolerate waterlogging. It cannot
thrive on alkaline soils but can be grown on acid soils with liberal application of lime.
Lucerne prefers a fertile soil which is rich in organic matter, calcium, phosphorus and
potash.
Field preparation: Like berseem, lucerne also needs very fine seedbed, as the
seeds are very small. One deep ploughing with 2-3 harrowings followed by planking
is sufficient.
Sowing time: The best sowing time of the crop is mid-October to early
November. However, sowing date may spread from early October in the North to late
December in the East and South Zone. In the temperate zone, spring sowing is done in
March.
Seed rate and seed treatment: The seed rate depends upon method of sowing and
type of the crop, i.e. pure or mixed stands. In case of broadcast method, a seed rate of
20-25 kg/ha should be used while line sowing needs only 12-15 kg/ha but in case of
intercropping, it requires only 6-12 kg/ha. Like berseem, seed treatment with Rhizobium
culture is beneficial.
Method of sowing: Line sowing is preferred over broadcasting. Like berseem, 10–
20 m long beds should be made along with slope with irrigation channels 4-5 m apart.
Water-soaked seed is sown in shallow furrows at row distance of 30 cm by seed drill
or kaira at sufficient soil moisture.
Manures and fertilizers: Lucerne being a leguminous crop requires less nitrogen.
However, due to perennial nature of the crop, it is beneficial to add well-decomposed
FYM @ 20-25 tonnes/ha before sowing in the first year. Normally, 20 kg N and
100 kg P2O5/ha should be applied as basal dose for good harvest. Application of
molybdenum and boron may be done based on soil test. In subsequent years, annual
supplementation of 80 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha should be done.
Irrigation: To attain good germination, pre-sowing irrigation is essential.
The crop needs very frequent irrigation during its early growth period at an interval
of about one week but once the plants are established, subsequent irrigations are
provided at an interval of 15-20 days during winter and 10-12 days during spring and
summer seasons. Proper drainage should be ensured to avoid waterlogging in rainy
season.
Weed control: Lucerne takes a long time to establish and therefore heavy
weed infestation occurs up to first cutting. The sowing in lines makes weeding
easier.Trifluralin, @ 4 kg/ha should be applied before sowing for good harvest. The
akasbel (Cuscuta reflexa) should be removed from the field and burnt. The akasbel
should not be allowed to set seed in any case.
Harvesting: The first cut should be taken at 55-65 days after sowing and the
subsequent cuts may be taken at 30-35 days interval. In general, annual lucerne gives
4-5 cuts while in the perennial crop, 7-8 cuts can be taken.
Yield: Annual lucerne yields green fodder to the tune of 65-80 tonnes/ha while
perennial crop may provide 80-1,100 tonnes/ha.
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata )

Cowpea is native to Africa and Asia and is now cultivated throughout the tropics
and sub tropics. It is used as pulse, vegetable fodder and green manure. It is of
considerable importance in dryland farming.
Soil and climate: It is adapted to variety of soil types, viz. red loam, black clay
loam, coarse gravel, sandy loam, light sandy soils. It is also grown in sloppy land in
hilly tracts and heavy loam soils. It is more tolerant to heavy rainfall than any other
pulse crop. It suffers from water stagnation and heavy drought. It thrives well under
the temperature range of 21- 35°C.
Cropping system: The crop is usually grown as dryland kharif crop and can also be
grown as pre-monsoon and late monsoon crop. It is also grown as second crop during
rabi after rice in southern parts of country.
Cultivation: Fields should be prepared well for sowing. The crop is sown in the
first week of July in the hills and in the second fortnight of March in lower hills and in
October in plains. One hand weeding or hoeing 30-35 days after sowing or application
of weedicide Pendimethalin @ 1.0-1.5 kg a.i /ha immediately after sowing helps in

control of weeds. The crop requires adequate moisture. In plains, 3-4 irrigations are
required. About 120 kg N and 80 kg P/ha are recommended. Half the nitrogen is
applied as basal dose and half for top dressing. The crop matures in 120-125 days. The
row to row spacing is 30-45 cm. The recommended seed rate is 20-25 kg/ha. Seed
yield up to 1.0 tonnes/ha is obtained.
Integrated nutrient and pest management

The fertilizer management strategies in fodder crops aim at increasing the herbage
production per unit area and time along with improvement in forage quality parameters
and maintenance of soil health. The requirement of fodder crops for nutrients
particularly nitrogen is comparatively higher.
Chemical fertilizers have played a significant role in increasing crop productivity.
But, for sustainable production from arable lands, it is important to prepare a balance
sheet of nutrients depleted and nutrients supplemented. Majority of the soils at present
are rich in potassium but continuous cropping without application of potash over the
years may turn them to be deficient. On an average, perennial grass removes 9.40 kg
N, 1.45 kg P, 14.2 kg K, 4.61 kg Ca, 2.65 kg Mg and 1.85 kg S per tonnes of dry
herbage production.
Biofertilizers, the products containing living cells of different types of
microorganisms, play important role in enhancing fodder production and also cutting
down the usage of chemical fertilizers. Different types of biofertilizers include nitrogen
fixers (symbiotic and nonsymbiotic bacteria) Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum,
Azolla and blue green algae, Phosphate solubilizers (bacteria and fungi)- Bacillus
polymyxa, Pseudomonas and Aspergillus etc. , Mycorrhizal fungi –VAM (Vesicular
arbuscular mycorrhizae), Sulphur and iron oxidizing bacteria, etc., PGPR (Plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria) are available now. Studies have shown that a saving of 20 kg
N/ha may be achieved with application of Azotobacter/Azospirillum in cereal fodder
crops. Similarly, increase in forage yield due to Rhizobium inoculation to legume
forages ranged between 14 and 46%. Seed inoculation of berseem with phosphate
solubilizer significantly increased the green fodder (103.6 tonnes/ha), dry matter (16.19
tonnes/ha) and crude protein (3.20 tonnes/ha) yields over the control. Integrated use
of organic, inorganic and biofertilizer sources of nitrogen in sorghum + cowpea–
berseem cropping system led to over 25% saving in N through use of Rhizobium and/
or Azotobacter. However, a reliable system of quality control and efficient system of
storage, transportation and management of biofertilizers is required for its wider
applicability.
The requirement of fodder crops for nutrients particularly nitrogen is comparatively
higher. This is due to the fact that fodder crops are desired to produce luxuriant
vegetative growth with succulent and nutritive herbage in a short period. Thus, the
fertilizer management strategies in fodder crops aim at increasing the herbage
production per unit area and time along with improvement in quality parameters. Based
on the experimental evidences at the IGFRI, Jhansi, the fertilizer recommendations
for important fodder crops have been worked out (Table 37.9). Recommended doses
of NPK with S and Zn increased grain yield significantly over NPK by 17.9 and
15.9% respectively. The nutrient-use efficiency can be improved by balanced fertilizer
Table 37.9 Fertilizer requirement of different fodder crops
Crop Nutrient requirement Basal dose Top dressing Time of top

((kg/ha) (kg/ha) of nitrogen dressing
(kg/ha) (days after
N P2 O5 K 2O N P2 O 5 K2O sowing)
Sorghum (SC) 90 30 - 60 30 - 30 40
Sorghum (2-cut) 120 30 - 70 30 - 50 After 1st cut
Sorghum (4-cut) 210 60 60 60 60 60 50+50+50 After 1, 2 &
3rd cut
Maize 120 40 - 80 40 - 40 40
Teosinte 130 30 - 50 30 - 40+40 After 35 & 60
Oat (SC) 90 30 - 60 30 - 30 40
Oat (2-cut) 120 40 - 80 40 - 40 After 1st cut
Oat (MC) 180 60 40 60 60 40 40+40+40 After 1, 2 &
3rd cut
Berseem 20 80 - 20 80 - - -
Lucerne 20 120 40 20 120 40 - -
Cowpea 20 60 - 20 60 - - -
SC, Single cut; MC, multicut.
application, based on soil test values, at right times, through best source, along with
other management practices like irrigation, use of amendments and other agro-
chemicals, etc.
Organic manure-induced improvement in soil physical, chemical and biological
properties is well established. Build up of secondary and micronutrients, counteracting
deleterious effects of soil acidity, salinity and alkalinity and sustenance of soil health
are the key beneficial effects associated with organic manure application. Use efficiency
of N fertilizers is improved in the presence of FYM. The major contributors of organic
source of nutrients are animal dung, crop residues and sewage sludge, etc. The use of
organic and inorganic forms of P in 50:50 ratio could perform better in solubilizing
and mobilizing more P for producing higher crop yield and better quality of produce.
Crop residues are good source of plant nutrients and are important components of
integrated nutrient management. In regions where mechanical harvesting is done,
sizeable quantities of residues are left in the field. Major portion of the residues is
used as animal feed and about 33% of these residues are available for direct use. The
leguminous plant residues are degraded at a faster rate than wide C: N ratio of cereal
crop residues. The uses of residues are generally most effective for water conservation
when managed as surface mulch. The most effective and environmentally sound
methods of organic manuring offer an opportunity to cut down the dose of chemical
fertilizers. Green manuring provides organic source of N and organic matter in the
soil. Sesbania spp. and Crotolaria juncea are more popular leguminous crops. Amongst
trees, subabul, Casuarina, Gliricidia moculata, Pongamia and Calotropis, etc. grown
on bunds and wastelands for utilizing their vegetative parts are used for green manuring
of soils, besides cowpea, urd bean, mung bean, etc. About 200 million tonnes of crop
residues are produced from different crops annually. The potential of these has been
estimated to be around 100 million tonnes annually for recycling in agriculture.
Integrated pest management is emphasized these days in order to reduce the use of
chemicals. The population of the three major pests, namely leaf hoppers, lucerne weevil
and aphids, can be managed effectively by growing of least susceptible variety of
cowpea, IGFRI 450 in first week of July with fertilizer application of 30 kg N, 100 kg
P2O5, 80 kg K2O per hectare and if required berliner @ 0.84 kg/ha may be applied. In
cowpea, the damage due to major pests like, leafhoppers, semilooper, tobacco caterpillar
and grasshopper can be managed without using insecticides by planting the least
susceptible variety in the first week of July, using an optimal fertilizer combination of
30 kg N, 100 kg P2O5, 40 kg K2O per hectare with two weedings at 15 and 30 days
crop growth stages. However, use of bio-pesticides is desirable to ensure the products
with least residues cycled through livestock.
Water management
Scientific water management will hold the key to intensive agriculture in the years
to come. Irrigated agriculture and water management aim to provide suitable moist
environment to the crops to obtain optimum yields, commensurate with maximum
economy in irrigation water and maintenance of soil productivity. The limited
availability of water enables only 30% of country’s cropped area under irrigation and
that too lion’s share goes to food/cash crops. In view of mounting human and livestock
population pressure, the forage farming is faced with twin problems of meager
allocation of land and water resources. However, water is required in huge quantities
for producing high tonnage succulent biomass of forage species. Moreover, the
interacting processes involved in crop growth, water use and mineral composition of
forages are complex and do not easily lend themselves to quantification in soil-water-
plant-atmosphere continuum. It is in this context that irrigation management requires
entirely different approaches in forage production systems.
Proper irrigation schedules

Development of suitable irrigation schedules offers an important approach to water
saving because timely supply of water to crops in adequate quantity is the crux of the
efficient water management for ensuring optimum yield and quality of produce. The
suitable soil moisture environment for forage crops where objectives tend to be luxuriant
vegetative growth, higher dry-matter yield and better forage quality have been worked
out and given in Table 37.10. The optimum soil moisture regime for berseem, oat,
maize, teosinte, sorghum, hybrid Napier and cowpea has been found to be 75% available
soil moisture (ASM). Lucerne, clusterbean and barley may be irrigated at 50% ASM,
Table 37.10 Soil moisture requirement of important cultivated fodder crops
Crop Optimum soil Irrigation No. of Irrigation Water-use

moisture regime interval irrigations requirement efficiency
for irrigation (days) (delta of (kg dm/ha/mm)
(% ASM) water, mm)
Berseem 75 10-12 16-18 710 22

Lucerne 50 14-18 11-13 600 14
Oat 75 12-14 6-8 340 32
Sorghum 75 9-12 8 380 30
Teosinte 75 9-12 8 380 20
Cowpea 75 9-12 8 380 18
whereas triticale can be grown at 25% ASM with acceptable yield.

The following inferences could be drawn from the experimental results:
• The irrigation at 25, 50 and 75% ASM corresponds to 10-12, 14-18 and 26-30
days intervals, respectively, in medium-textured soils under the agroclimatic
conditions of Bundelkhand region. Under a particular moisture regime, the
irrigation interval needs to be advanced during summer and delayed during rainy
months by 3-5 days due to variation in evaporative demand and associated
environmental conditions.
• The total number of irrigations for particular crop depends upon interval of
irrigation and duration of crop. The irrigation requirement in terms of total delta
of water is a function of amount of water at each scheduling and number of
irrigations needed.
• Thus, soil-moisture characteristics, atmospheric evaporative demand and crop
characteristics are taken into account for developing technically sound,
economically feasible, socially desirable and culturally compatible irrigation
schedules.
Forage production from rainfed areas

Drylands are those regions where rainfall is scanty (less than 750 mm) and different
aspects of rainfall like amount, duration, intensity and distribution are uncertain. In
the absence of irrigation facilities, crop production depends on moisture conserved
regimes. These uncertainties are highly unstable and lead to low productivity, no income
and employment opportunities ultimately resulting in poverty and poor civic amenities
and degradation in living standards of the people.
To ensure certain degree of stability to agricultural production, soil and crop
management practices are to be adopted. Among the crops, coarse grains, legumes,
oilseeds and grasses are better suited for growing under moisture-stress situations.
Besides, rain water-conservation techniques and soil fertility management are also
required since the soils are not only thirsty but hungry also. In addition to arable
farming, alternate farming systems like agroforestry having perennial forage trees,
bushes and grasses are essential to provide sustainability to the production system.
The following soil and crop-management techniques will be beneficial for optimum
forage production, which is a key factor for successful livestock production.
Management practices
The areas of light soils with poor water retention are utilized for raising crops
during rainy season while medium and heavy textured soils with high moisture-holding
capacity and poor workability are used for growing crops both with rain water during
rains and on conserved water during the season when there is no rain. The important
crop-management practices for cultivation of forage crops under dryland conditions
are given in Table 37.11.
The soil-management practices are discussed here.
Bunding: To retain rainwater in the soil, at least 30 cm high bunds are needed. On
light soils, grasses should be planted on bunds to make them stable. On sloppy lands,
bunds are formed along the contour or across the slope.
Tillage: On sandy and other light-textured soil cultivation should be limited to the
Table 37.11 Package of practices for cultivation of forage crops under dryland conditions
1382
Crop Varieties Soil Sowing time Seed rate Fertilizer nutrients (kg/ha) Harvesting Green fodder
(kg/ha) and Basal Standing crop time (days yields
spacing after sowing) (q/ha)
Pearl millet Rajko, J.B., Well-drained Beginning of 10 kg/ha N 40 N 20, 5 weeks 60-65 300 – 350
PSB 2 sandy and rains 30 cm P2O5 25 after seeding
sandy loams
Sorghum Meethi Sudan, Medium- Beginning of Sudan types N 50 N 20,5 weeks 65-75 250-300
Nilwak Vidisha textured with rains 25 P2O5 25 after seeding
60-1 provision of Sorghum
drainage 35-40
30 cm
Maize VL 71, Light to medium Beginning of 50-55 N 20 - At testing 200-250

Jaunpuri, textured with rains 30 cm P2O5- 40 stage 50-60
Manjari good drainage
Cowpea C 26, N.P.30, Well-drained Beginning of 35-40 N 20 - Pod-formation 200-250

JFC 42-1 medium soils rains 30 cm P2O5 30 stage 50-60
HANDBOOK OF AGRICULTURE
Guar (cluster- Durgapura Sandy and Beginning of 25-30 N 20 - Flowering to 200-225

bean) Safed, H.F.G. sandy loams rains 30 cm P2O5 30 pod formation
119, Mazu Guar with adequate 60-70
drainage
Field bean JLP 4 and Sandy loam and Beginning 25-30 N 15 - 80-120 150-200
dual-purpose loams of rains 50 cm P2O5 30
vegetable types
extent essential for weed control and optimum tilth for seeding. Light cultivation with
about 15 cm depth is enough. On heavy soils, deep ploughing once in three years
helps to improve water infiltration. Cultivation should be done across the slope on
sloppy lands.
Manuring: An amount of 10-15 tonnes FYM or compost/ha should be applied
every year along with appropriate doses of chemical fertilizers depending on crops
under cultivation and season. Fertilizers are placed 2-3 cm below the seed line with
the help of seed-cum-fertilizer drill or other equipment. Spray fertilization is also
important in dryland areas.
Sowing: In dryland areas, the crop should always be grown in rows to facilitate
inter cultivation for checking weed growth and mulching to prevent water loss from
the soil. The plant population should be about 25% less to ensure better utilization of
limited moisture. In sloppy fields crop rows should be along the contour. Depending
on field conditions, ridge and furrow method and-strip cropping can also be employed.
Choice of forage species: Forages are better suited to moisture- stress situations
since the duration of crop harvest can be adjusted. Pearl millet, sorghum, maize, barley,
cowpea, clusterbean and field beans are ideally suited for drylands. Stay green types
of these crops can also be utilized for forage after maturity of grains.
Weed control: Weeds should be checked from the very beginning through pre-
emergence use of herbicides, clean and pure seeds and inter cultivation practices to
save the moisture and nutrients for crop plants only.
Mulching: Different types of mulches could be used to conserve moisture in the
soil especially in widely spaced row crops.
Integration of forage production with food and other crops

An important aspect of fodder production is to adjust the cultivation of fodder
crops with that of main crops and harvest as per the need arises. This can be easily be
practiced by all classes of farmers both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. The
appropriate forage crops can be included in the crop-production programme of the
farmers in the following ways:
Inclusion of forages in crop sequences

On medium and heavy soils in rainfed areas, only rabi crops are taken on conserved
moisture through fallowing in the rainy season. In this situation, short duration forage
crops like cowpea, rice bean, and pearl millet can be taken. This will conserve soil and
suppress weeds besides providing forage. Under irrigated conditions inclusion of fodder
crops in sequences improves the soil productivity due to dense canopy and addition of
large amounts of stubble biomass. Leguminous forages enrich the soil nitrogen also
by utilizing nitrogen fixing bacteria like Rhizoctonia and Azotobactor. Successful
examples are: paddy – berseem; maize + cowpea (fodder) – wheat/potato.
As catch crops
Short duration forages can be adjusted in gap periods of main season crops and
grown on residual moisture. Example: maize + cowpea/sorghum/pearl millet after
harvest of rabi season crops and before planting of rainy season crops. Similarly,
turnips, carrot and mustard can be taken as catch crops after the harvest of early rainy
season crops. Leguminous forages like horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), moth

bean (Vigna aconitifolia) and grasspea (Lathyrus sativus) are suitable for cultivation
on residual moisture after the harvest of late paddy.
As intercrops in widely spaced row crops

Cotton, sugarcane and grain crops of maize and sorghum offer scope for growing
short statured forage crops like cowpea, moth bean and guar (clusterbean)
in the interspaces without affecting their yields. Besides fixing the nitrogen, some
of these forages benefit the main crop indirectly, for example, moth bean reduces root
rot disease while cowpea controls spotted bollworm. Similarly, cultivation of pangola
grass (Digitaria decumbens) in tobacco has been reported to control root knot nematode.
Through ratooning
Crops like pearl millet (BJ 104) and barley (DL 36, DL 157, DL 457) have good
regeneration capacity. These crops can be harvested 40-50 days after sowing to harvest
green forage yields (100-150 q/ha) without adversely affecting the grain yields.
Likewise, maize (grain) can be planted at 30 cm spacing, alternate rows may be
harvested for forage 45-50 days after planting to get around 20 tonnes/ha green forage.
Dual-purpose crops
These crops give forage as byproduct. Preference must given by farmers to such
crops in their cropping schemes so as to get substantial amounts of forage along with
main product (grain). Among vegetables, turnip, carrot, pea, cauliflower, cowpea,
guar, etc. are the important examples while in commercial crops, maize for cobs and
sugarcane are important. These crops besides main product yield 9-20 tonnes/ha green
fodder for animal feeding.
Mixed intercropping system of forage production

It consists of growing together two or more plant species with different growth
habit, canopy structure, rooting pattern and offering little or no mutual competition.
Mixed cropping of cereals/grasses and legumes is commonly practiced to improve
herbage quality, increase biomass production and economize on fertilizer usage.
Besides, it also ensures efficient land utilization, suppression of weeds and insurance
against aberrant weather conditions.
In India with warm climate, most of the grasses and cereals do not have
enough protein to support animal growth and production. It was found that
by associative cropping of graminaceous and leguminous forages the nutritive
value of the mixed herbage could greatly be improved. Thus, besides enriching
the soil productivity and ensuring better utilization of plant nutrients from
different soil layers, mixed cropping produces nutritious herbage since the
legume component contains higher amounts of protein, calcium and phosphorus.
Investigations on intercropping systems showed that sorghum/maize/Pennisetum
pedicellatum/ pearl millet with cowpea/rice bean (Vigna umbellata) and oat with
Melilotus alba/pea in paired rows (2:2) recorded good forage yields along with higher
forage protein (Table 37.12).
Table 37.12 Fodder and crude protein yield under intercropping
Crop/ crop combination Fodder yield (tonnes/ha)

Green Dry matter Crude protein
Sorghum (sole) 49 10.2 0.69

Sorghum + cowpea (fodder) 49 10.1 1.02
Maize (sole) 44 9.3 0.72
Maize + cowpea (fodder) 45 9.3 1.05
Pearl millet (sole) 37 8.2 0.63
Pearl millet + cowpea (fodder) 43 8.9 0.97
Oat (sole) 43 9.0 0.56
Oat + senji 41 8.8 1.03
Oat + pea 40 8.6 1.07
Bajra pure 37 8.2 0.63
Bajra + cowpea 43 8.9 0.97
Integration of perennial forages on bunds and boundaries

Bunds around fields are a common feature on cultivated lands and occupy 2-10%
of the cultivated area. Bunds are formed to demarcate field boundaries, conserve water
and soil and to use as pathways. If not properly protected, the bunds are eroded by
rains and damaged by animals. Growing of appropriate forages/bushes stabilizes the
bunds through protective cover and soil binding action of roots, besides providing
considerable amount of forage for feeding animals. Experiments conducted at the
IGFRI, Jhansi, showed that in rice fields, Sesbania grown on field boundaries yielded
maximum forage among perennials. Similarly, under rainfed conditions planting of
hybrid Napier + stylo along with fruit trees like aonla (Indian gooseberry), ber (Ziziphus
spp.) and karonda recorded maximum forage yields.
Tips for efficient cultural management and production optimization

The following important points need to be given due consideration while adopting
appropriate cultural practices aimed at higher forage production:
• Efficient forage crops of the area should be identified and grown on properly
prepared seedbeds well in time. Timely sowing is very important in forage crops,
as these have very limited growth period.
• Since forage crops need higher amounts of seeds and/or planting materials, these
should be obtained from reliable sources and germination should be tested before
sowing.
• The seed rate and spacing need to be adjusted depending upon the purpose and
growing conditions. For instance, higher seed rates are used when the crop is
raised for hay or the field is likely to be infested with weeds.
• During rainy season, sometimes, it becomes difficult to re-sow the field due to
incessant rains and wetting of the soil. Under such conditions, multicut forage
crops can be sown in the beginning for continuous supply of green forage
throughout summer and rainy seasons. Moreover, growing of multicut forage
crops/varieties results in the saving of seeds, fertilizers and tillage operations.
• Mixed cropping of graminaceous and leguminous fodder crops is better from
the viewpoint of herbage quality and maintenance of soil fertility. Both the crop
components of the system should be of similar duration to facilitate harvesting

at one time.
• Maximum crop-weed competition occurs up to 4-5 weeks in most of the seasonal
forages. Weed menace should be checked from very beginning through proper
land preparation, use of clean seed and well decomposed FYM, pre-emergence
application of herbicides, careful crop rotation and growing of intercrops that
smother the growth of weeds.
• Nutrient management practices should always be based on soil test values and
cropping systems being followed. The fertilizer recommendations are of general
nature. Use of bulky organic manures @ 15-20 tonnes/ha takes care of soil health
and micronutrient deficiencies to a large extent. Economy in nutrient use can be
ensured though efficient weed management, use of biofertilizers and inclusion
of legumes in crop sequences.
• Irrigation management practices vary with season, soil type, and crop growth
stage and fertilizer practices. Water requirement of fodder crops is usually greater
because of dense stand and higher vegetative growth in a short period. Similarly,
adequate drainage is important for crops like maize, pearl millet and cowpea,
etc. grown in the rainy season. Forage crops respond well to sewage irrigation.
• For controlling insect-pests and diseases, it is better to avoid the use of chemicals
particularly when the harvesting is due. However, if any pesticide is applied on
the crop, the forage should not be harvested for 3-4 weeks to avoid the risk of
residual toxicity in animals.
• Cutting management influences not only the yield but also the forage quality.
The fodder crops should, therefore, be harvested at appropriate growth stage to
obtain adequate fresh fodder with acceptable dry matter and nutrients particularly
the crude protein.
• Multicut forages especially those regenerating from auxiliary buds should be
harvested on time leaving 8-10 cm stubbles to promote quick regeneration and
adequate stand of the ratoon crop.
Grassland and silvipasture management
Grazing resources
Since ancient times, cattle breeding and milk production have been the important
professions in India. Free grazing was practiced and it became a way of life. Presently
also, livestock production is primarily based on rangeland grazing. The grazing activity
is mainly dependent on the availability of the grazing resources from pastures and
other grazing lands viz. forests, miscellaneous tree crops and groves, cultivable
wastelands and fallow land. Such lands are about 40% of the total geographical area
of the country. Vast area in the country (about 157 million ha) is classified under
various types of degraded land where one or more limiting factors render the cultivation
of crops economically unviable. The grazing intensity in the country is as high as 12.6
adult cattle units (ACU)/ha as against 0.8 ACU/ha in developed countries. Therefore,
the task to deal with such situation is two-fold (i) improvement of pastures, and (ii)
judicious implementation of grazing management.
Since India is characterized by tropical monsoon climate and active growth in
grazing lands occurs only during monsoon months, there is surplus fodder available
during rainy months and deficits of various levels in other months. The natural
calamities like drought and flood that affect some or the other parts of the country
creates imbalances in fodder supplies
The total potential area of grazing lands in India is 85.9 million ha. Considering the
total arable lands to be 147.38 million ha and calculating that croplands one-tenth of
its organic produce as fodder, total arable land can be put as equivalent to 14.73 million
ha of grazing lands bringing up total to 100.3 million ha. Taking average potential
above ground net primary productivity as 500 g/m2/year, the total fodder production
will come down to 501.5 million tonnes of dry fodder per year with a total bovine
population of 239.09 million, excluding sheep, goats, horses, camels and donkeys and
also assuming that a normal healthy cattle consumes 7 tonnes dry herbage per year,
the normal annual consumption will come to 1,673 million t/year. Thus, the net primary
production level of grasslands in India is far below the total requirements. The
overgrazing and continuous degradation of grazing lands along with loss of fertility is
further decreasing their productivity. The problems of grazing lands are related to
ecological and socio-economic causes. In arid areas, water is the limiting factor, in
semi-arid areas, proper land utilization and excessive grazing are the main problems
and in high rainfall zones, it is the lower nutritive value of the herbage. Another serious
problem is low proportion of legume component in the herbage.
In India, grazing based livestock husbandry continues to play an important role in
rural economy of the country as around 50% animals depend on grazing in forests and
other grazing areas in many parts of the country. Total area available for grazing in the
country is in the range of about 40% of the land area. Pasturelands constitute the main
grazing resources of the country, available over an area of 12 million ha (3.94% of the
geographical area). There is a lot of difference in the extent of grazing lands in various
states. In some states, namely Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya,
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, the grazing land availability is as high as 70%. The
distribution of pasture lands are mostly noticed in the states like Himachal
Pradesh (36.44%), Sikkim (13.31%), Karnataka (6.54%), Madhya Pradesh (6.35%),
Rajasthan (5.39%), Maharashtra (5.11%) and Gujarat (4.49%). The northern region
has pasture lands in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. This
region has a potential resource in the form of green meadows and pasture, which at
some places are mixed with the forests. The alpine meadow has an important economic
value, providing pasture for the sheep and goats. In Rajasthan, the available grazing
land is over 40% and in Gujarat, the area is about 30%. The land under permanent
pasture is about 5.4% in Rajasthan and 3.5% in Gujarat, providing good quality fodder
for livestock.
Nearly 30 pastoral communities in northern and western parts of the country depend
on grazing based livestock production. Based on the practice followed by these pastoral
communities in various regions, the grazing systems may be categorized either on the
basis of methods of grazing or patterns of migration. Considering methods of grazing
the pastoral communities change the site of grazing after its utilization. The example of
such type of grazing system is Kharak in Uttarakhand and Goals in the desert area of
Rajasthan. Based on migratory habits, the nomadic tribes are classified in 4 groups, viz.
(i) total nomadism, (ii) semi- nomadism, (iii) transhumance, and (iv) partial nomadism.
The grass cover of India

A reconnaissance survey of grasslands of India conducted from 1954 to 1962
revealed 5 major grass covers based on distribution. The distribution of grasses is
primarily governed by climatic factors, chiefly by latitudinal influence followed by
altitude and topography particularly the soil moisture relationship. The five grass covers
identified are: Sehima-Dichanthium type, Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type,
Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type, Themeda-Arundinella type, and Temperate
Alpine type.
Sehima-Dichanthium type: This cover type is spread over the whole of Peninsular
India, including the central Indian plateau, the Chhota Nagpur Plateau and the Aravali
ranges with a coverage of approx. 1,740,000 km2 between 8° and 28°N and between
68° and 87° E. The cover is also found in the coastal region. Dominant perennial grass
species are Dichanthium annulatum, Sehima nervosum, Bothriochloa pertusa,
Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, Iseilema laxum, Themeda triandra,
Cynodon dactylon, Aristida setacea, Cymbopogon spp.etc. Important associated species
are Apluda mutica, Bothriochloa intermedia, Arundinella nepalensis, Desmostachya
bipinnata, Eragrostis and Eragrostiella spp.
Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type: This type is associated with sub-tropical
arid and semi-arid regions comprising the northern portion of Gujarat, the whole of
Rajasthan, excluding the Aravalli ranges in the south, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and Delhi State with a coverage of more than 436,000 km2 between 23 o and
32o N and 68o and 80oE. The principal perennial grass species are Cenchrus ciliaris, C.
setigerus, D. annulatum, Cymbopogon jawarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine
compressa, Lasiurus sindicus, Sporobolus marginatus, Dactyloctenium sindicum,
Desmostachya bipinnata etc. Important associate species are: Chloris, Desmostachya,
Heteropogon contortus, Saccharum bengalense, Vetivaria zizanioides, etc.
Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type: This grass cover occurs throughout the
Gangetic Plain, the Brahmaputra valley and extends westwards into the plains of Punjab
between 26° and 32°N and 74° to 96oE. The area comprises approx. 2,800,000 km2 in
north-eastern states, W Bengal, Bihar, UP, Punjab and Haryana. Principal perennialest
species in drier regions are: Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum arundinaceum, S.
spontaneum, Phragmites karka, Desmostachya bipinnata. Other important species of
this grass cover are: Bothriochloa intermedia, Vitevaria zizanioides, Imperata
cylindrica, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Panicum notatum, etc.
Themeda-Arundinella type: This grass cover occurs in the entire northern and
north western mountain tract, on an area of approx. 230,000 km2 in the north-eastern
states, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Preadesh and Jammu
and Kashmir. In the west, this type is found approximately between 29° and 37°N,
and between 73° and 81°E, and in the east approximately between 22° and 28.5°N,
and 88° and 97°E. This type is associated with undifferentiated forest and hill soils,
and also with undifferentiated forest sub-mountain regional soils. The principal species
of this grass cover are represented by Arundinella benghalensis, A. nepaolensis,
Bothriochloa intermedia, Chrysopogon fulvus, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Cynodon
dactylon, Heteropogon contortus, Themeda anathera, Euloliopsis binata, Ischaemum
barbatum. Associated perennial species are: Apluda mutica, Arundinella khaseana,
Pennisetum flaccidum, Chloris, Desmostachya, etc.
Temperate Alpine type: This cover type occurs on the high hills of Uttarakhand,
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and North-eastern regions. The
tract lies approximately between 29° and 37°N, and between 73° and 81°E in the
western part of the country. On eastern side, it is situated approx. between 27° and
29.5°N, and 88° and 97°E. It essentially occurs at higher elevation, beyond timberline,
approximately above 3,000 m in the west and above 2,000 m in the east. The principal
perennial species are: Agropyron conaliculatum, Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylis
glomerata, Danthonia cachemyriana, Phleum alpinum, Carex nubigena, Poa pratensis,
and Stipa concinna. Associated species are: Poa alpina, Festuca lucida, Eragrostis
nigra, Bromus ramosus, etc.
Rangeland restoration
Rangeland includes grasslands and regions where even woody vegetation is
dominant. It is important from the viewpoint of livestock production and it also serves
as a habitat for wildlife. Productivity of grazing lands has declined to a great extent,
one-sixth of that on the ancient lands of civilization, on account of demographic
pressures. So the efforts in restoring the rangeland productivity and arresting land
degradation are very important.
The restoration package may be worked out as per the intended major use. If it is
livestock production, productivity per unit of land is to be increased. In order to increase
the pasture productivity in dry areas, it is essential to replace low yielding annual
grasses with high yielding perennial grasses that are adaptable to the prevailing
conditions of that region. As the use of fertilizers in these lands is of little practical
value on account of high costs, introduction of suitable pasture legumes is one of the
best ways to improve the quality.
Under poor soil, water and nutrient situations where cropping is not possible,
silvipasture systems integrating woody perennials and pasture species, can serve the twin
purpose of forage and firewood production and ecosystem conservation. It has been
possible to increase land productivity from 0.5-1.5 tonnes/ha/year to about 10 tonnes/
ha/year on a rotation of 10 years through such interventions on degraded rangelands.
The concept of hortipasture, utilizing land in the orchards by developing pasture stands,
is also finding applicability with the farmers to have forage for the livestock. The
additional forage availability through such systems is likely to reduce grazing pressure.
Similarly, if it is wildlife conservation, protection and creation of wildlife habitats and
development of water and food resources for particular wildlife communities are required.
Provision of forage during lean period

The surplus production from rangelands during rainy season is to be carefully
preserved in various forms to meet the forage requirements of the lean periods. Leaf meal
of the leguminous woody perennials and herbaceous plants such as Leucaena
leucocephala and stylo should be developed and strengthened for meeting the
lean period deficit. The post-harvest technologies such as biomass processing, enrichment
and densification appear to be the key for better animal husbandry in the deficit zone.
Amelioration of environment
In the present scenario, land degradation due to over-grazing and illicit tree felling
is a major environmental issue. Excessive run-off leading to soil erosion and nutrient
loss could be effectively checked by development/restoration of degraded rangelands.
Many studies have supported this view that grasses, legumes and trees in a silvipastoral
system provide effective land cover as well as produce nutritious fodder for livestock,
sequester carbon and upgrade the environment. The success behind any grazing
management practice depends on the accurate stocking rates considering the condition
of the rangeland. Moderate and conservative stocking rates sustain returns on a long-
term basis as compared to heavy stocking rate.
Major cultivated grasses and legumes

There are about 620 and 650 genera and 10,000 and 18,000 species of grasses
(Poaceae) and legumes (Leguminoseae) respectively, in the world. Of these, only about
40 grasses and legumes are used to appreciable extent in the establishment of sown
pastures. Moreover, it has been found that livestock prefer indigenous forage species
in comparison to selected varieties of grasses and legumes despite the fact that
indigenous species may be low in productivity and nutritive value.
On the basis of following characters, the grasses are considered suitable as forage
plants for grazing/mowing and soil and water conservation: (i) grasses should have
wider range of adaptability from humid tropics, arid areas and alpine peaks, (ii) species
those are able to reproduce fresh shoots by tillering and able to withstand / recover
from grazing or cutting, (iii) grasses that maintain continuous vegetative growth even
during drought or cold, (iv) grasses that spread by rhizomes or stolons, which readily
form adventitious roots and give rapid ground coverage and soil and water conservation
in terms of sustainability point of view, (v) the root system binds the soil particles
together forming a sod and brings to the surface layer nutrients, which have been
leached into the subsoil by heavy rainfall, and (vi) in addition to above, the pasture
species should possess the qualities of higher productivity, palatability, high nutritive
value and adaptation to local soil and climatic conditions. The important grasses and
legumes grown in India are given in Table 37.13.
Table 37.13 Important grasses and legumes grown in India
Grass/Legume Botanical name Area Productivity

(‘000 ha) of green
forage
(tonnes/ha)
Napier grass (Elephant grass) Pennisetum purpureum 100 70-100

Guinea grass (Green panic) Panicum maximum 100 70-140
Setaria grass Setaria anceps 40 50-95
Deenanath grass Pennisetum pedicellatum 20 50-90
Para grass (Angola grass) Bracharia mutica 100 100-190
Ruzi grass (Congo signal grass) B. ruziziensis 15 70-90
Signal grass (Palisade grass) B. brizantha 10 50-80
Dharaf grass (Goria) Chrysopogon fulvus * 30-50
Anjan grass (Buffel) Cenchrus ciliaris 200 15-40
Yellow anjan grass (Birdwood) Cenchrus setigerus 30 10-30
Sewan grass Lasiurus hirsutus 100 7-25
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana * 20-35
(Contd . . .)
Grass/Legume Botanical name Area Productivity

(‘000 ha) of green
forage
(tonnes/ha)
Marvel grass (Karad grass) Dichanthium annulatum * 20-35

Sabai grass (Little para grass) Urochloa mosambicensis * 40-60
Sudan grass Sorghum sudanense 100 50-80
Lablab bean Lablab purpureus 10 15-30
Kulthi (Horsegram) Dolichos biflorus 10 15-25
Moth bean Vigna aconitifolia 10 15-30
Subabul Leucaena leucocephala * 60-120
Shevri (Common sesban) Sesbania sesban * 50-110
Agathi Sesbania grandiflora * 40-60
Dasrath grass (Hedge lucerne) Desmanthus virgatus * 50-90
Aparjita (Butterfly pea) Clitoria ternatea * 30-50
Siratro Macroptilium atropurpureum * 15-25
Stylo Stylosanthes hamata * 30-55
Brazilian lucerne S. guianensis * 30-55
S. humilis S. humilis * 40-50
Axillaris Macrotyloma axillare * 25-40
Desmodium (green leaf) Desmodium intortum * 25-45
Silver leaf D. uncinatum * 25-35
Centro Centrosema pubescens * 15-35
Glycine Glycine wightii * 20-35
*Area not known.
Techniques for nursery raising

The seed is the prime material for establishing the grasslands /pastures. In forage
species particularly grasses, the seed production varies from species to species. When
seed becomes a limiting factor; seedlings/ rooted slips are the only alternate source
for establishing the pasture. These seedlings are raised in nursery. The raising of grass
seedlings is best done in the middle of May. However, it may differ depending upon
the onset of monsoon in the particular area.
After well preparation of land, seedbeds (6 m × 6 m) are prepared. The beds are
ploughed thoroughly and 30 kg farmyard manure (FYM) + 25 g urea + 75 g of single
super phosphate are to be mixed in each bed. The bed is watered 4-6 days before
sowing and germinated weeds are to be removed. Grass seeds are sown @ 40-50 g/
bed at 0.4-0.8 cm deep in lines at 10 cm apart. About 2 g Bavistin is mixed with sun-
dried seeds. Beds are watered using a rose can and covered with wet gunny bags till
the seeds germinated (3-4 days). Gunny bags are removed soon after germination
particularly in the evening time.
Germination of dehusked seeds is recorded as 94-98% as compared to husked seeds,
which is 35-42%. The stored seeds showed better germination as compared to freshly
collected seeds. Twelve beds are required to provide seedlings for one hectare land.
Grass seedlings will be ready for transplanting after 4-6 weeks when they attain 15-25
cm height.
Seedlings/rooted slips are transplanted in well-prepared field immediately after
the onset of monsoon. The nursery beds are watered copiously before pulling out the
seedlings. The seedlings are pulled out with ease and without damage to their root
systems. Two seedlings are transplanted per hill. The soil around the seedlings needs
to be pressed gently. Weeding and hoeing is essential during the initial year of
establishment; gap filling to be performed for maintaining optimum plant population.
Some of the important forage grasses, viz., napier, para grass, are suitable for
cultivation with fairly better moisture conditions, while anjan grass and range legumes
like stylo and siratro are suitable for rainfed conditions both as cultivated fodder and
pasture grass.
Package of practices for some important grasses and range legumes
Napier × bajra hybrid (Pennisetum glaucum × P. purpureum)

Napier - Bajra hybrids, often also referred as Bajra-Napier hybrids, N-B Hybrids,
King grass, Elephant millet, Cumbu-napier hybrids, are tall growing (200-300 cm),
erect, stout, deep rooted, perennial hybrid grass derived from inter specific cross
between Pennisetum glaucum and P. purpureum. The hybrid is a triploid and hence
sterile. They spread by short, stout rhizome to form large clumps or stools up to 1 m
across and are propagated by two nodded stem cuttings or by division of rootstock.
Among grasses, N-B hybrids are the highest green forage yielder in a unit time and
space. It is vigorous, nutritious, succulents, palatable and responds to heavy nitrogenous
fertilization. Young leafy fodder is highly palatable and possesses a fairly good quality,
but mature grass has large portion of stem and hence not considered of good quality.
It grows well on deep, retentive soils of moderate to fairly heavy texture and also
grows on light textured with sandy loam to loamy soils. For better response to
management, loamy soils with good drainage are preferred.
One rooted slip or stem cutting is planted at a depth of 3-5 cm on one side of the
ridge at 75 × 30 cm spacing at the rate of 40,000 rooted slips or stem cuttings/ha in the
month of mid-February to July. In irrigated situation, it can be planted throughout the
year.
A basal dose of 5 tonnes of FYM/compost: nitrogen: 50 kg/ha (urea 110 kg);
phosphorus 50 kg/ha (super phosphate 310 kg); potassium 40 kg/ha (muriate of potash
65 kg) should be applied followed by a top dressing of 50 kg N/ha after each cut. The
basal application should be repeated once in a year for sustained higher yields. The
fields should be irrigated 3rd day after planting and as and when required thereafter.
The irrigations need to be frequently applied especially during spring and summer.
First cut should be taken 60-75 days after planting and subsequent cuts once in 45
days. The normal yield levels range from 150-160 tonnes/ha/year. Co 2 variety yielded
300-350 tonnes green fodder/ha in southern India when cut at 10-15 cm from the
ground at regular intervals of 45 days.
Anjan grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)

Anjan grass is also commonly known as buffel grass and African foxtail grass. It is
a perennial, tufted grass, 0.3-1.2 m tall; leaf blade linear, 2.8 - 24.0 cm long and 2.2 -
8.5 mm wide; inflorescence dense, cylindrical, 2.0-12.0 cm long; seed count 450,000-
703,000/kg. Seeds remain viable for 2 - 3 years. In India, it is a natural species largely
found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat and parts of western Uttar Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu state.
It grows well in rainfall zones ranging between 125 and 1,250 mm in arid and
semi-arid regions of the country. It comes up best on well drained, light (red coloured)
to medium textured soils and calcareous in nature.
It can withstand drought and can also grow very well under irrigation. It is an
excellent grazing grass for hot, dry areas in tropics and sub-tropics. The rhizomatous
drought resistant plants are dormant during summer months and with the arrival of
rains they regenerate quickly and produce enough canopy to cover the soil. It is a
good soil binder and hence used as a cover crop on bunds for soil and water conservation
purposes.
In well-levelled land, the sowing is to be done in lines using 4 - 5 kg seeds/ha after
first shower in monsoon at very shallow depth (0.5-1.0 cm). Rooted slips or six weeks
old seedlings can also be transplanted in a drizzly day at 50 cm row spacing and 30 cm
plant spacing. Thus, about 33,000 seedlings or rooted slips are required for one hectare
area with 2 seedlings at each spot.
In the first year, a basal application of 5 tonnes of farmyard manure (FYM) along
with 40 kg N and 20 kg P2O5/ha is to be mixed thoroughly in the soil at land preparation.
Afterwards, 20 kg N/ha is top-dressed at one-month crop stage. However, in subsequent
years 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5/ha needs to be top-dressed as a single dose at the onset of
monsoon. For higher tonnage, another dose of 20 kg N/ha may be applied after the
first harvest.
In the first year of establishment, only one cut is to be taken in mid-October. From
first year onward, this grass gives 2-3 cuts. The first cutting should be taken at 60 days
and subsequent cuttings at 30 45 days intervals depending on the rainfall. Cutting
height may be kept 5-10 cm from ground level to ensure good regrowth in the following
years. The pasture is more productive during 2nd to 4th year; afterwards the pasture
should be burnt moderately or ploughed between the lines for its sustained production.
Depending on rainfall, the yield varies greatly and in arid tract with less than 300
mm rainfall a well-established pasture produces 90-110 tonnes/ha green matter. For
seed production, 75 cm spacing is advocated from line to line in order to avoid
overcrowding through self-seeding. A well-established pasture yields around 125 kg
seeds/ha. The grass is relished by all classes of livestock. It contains 11.0% crude
protein at young stage with suitable ratio of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P).
The grass is mostly used as cut and carry fodder but also well suited to grazing.
This provides very good hay since it retains its nutritive value even when ripe fully.
For silage the grass should be harvested at flowering or seeding stage. Cultivars S 262
and S 358 are found suitable for soil conservation purposes also.
Dinanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum)

The grass is good for monsoon season or kharif season in tropical and semi-arid
areas. Optimum temperature for growth is 30-35°C. Optimum rainfall for proper growth
is 500-650 mm but can grow well and produce seed in even less rainfall. It grows well
on fertile loam soil but with manuring can be grown in sandy soils. The grass can
tolerate both acidic and alkaline soils; however it has little frost tolerance. It responds
well to added nitrogenous fertilizers. It is one of the fastest maturing grasses. It has
good compatibility with legumes like Vigna mungo and Melilotus alba.
It needs a well-prepared moist seedbed. Seed is broadcast or drilled at 1 cm in rows
40-50 cm apart. Sowing is usually done just before rainy season when one or two
good showers are received. The seed rate is 1-2 kg/ha, a basal application of 5 tonnes
of farmyard manure (FYM) along with 40 kg N and 20 kg P2O5/ha is to be mixed
thoroughly in the soil at land preparation. Afterwards, 20 kg N/ha is top-dressed at
one-month crop stage It can withstand several cuts per year for green fodder production.
The grass has good ability to spread naturally by self seed set; regenerating each year
and therefore has a tendency to become a notorious weed in certain areas.
It has good quality forage with production up to 45 tonnes/ha under medium to
high rainfall conditions. The crop can be grown under both rainfed and irrigated
conditions. Although it was reported to be growing wild in Chota Nagpur and Gaya
districts of Bihar and other parts of peninsular India such as Ganjam district of Orissa.
The grass is mostly used as cut and carry fodder. It is also very good for hay making.
Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)

Para grass is also commonly known as buffalo grass, California grass, giant couch
grass, water grass and pani wali ghas. It is an exotic, hairy and perennial grass, spreading
rapidly by surface runners, profusely rooting at nodes. Stems rhizomatous with
ascending branches; culms hollow, succulent and glabrous with hairy internodes; leaf
blade linear, dark green, 30 cm long and 6-16 mm broad; inflorescence open panicle
and 6-20 cm long.
It is native to Brazil and was introduced to India in 1894 at Pune. It grows well in
waterlogging conditions on river and canal banks and can withstand prolonged flooding.
This grass is more suited for water-inundated conditions and sewage farms. It is a
grass of tropical climate and grows well in warm humid situations of high rainfall
areas but in protected areas, it can persist with rainfall as low as 900 mm per year.
It performs well in moist clayey/silty/peaty/sewage farm soils and waterlogged
soils. It is highly profitable to grow on submerged or low lying as well as saline soils
where nothing else survives. The grass performs well with legumes like Centrosema,
Calpogonium, Lotononis sp., Vicia and Aeschynomene.
In a well prepared and levelled field, shoot bits of 30 cm length each with 2 3 nodes
are planted in lines at about 50 cm distance; under irrigated conditions best time of
planting is in March while under rainfed conditions at the onset of monsoon. 40,000
rooted slips are required to plant one hectare of land. A basal dose of 5 tonnes of
FYM/compost is given with 40:50:50 kg NPK/ha followed by a top-dressing of 40 kg
N/ha after each harvest.
Generally, the first cut is taken in 3 months from planting and subsequent cuts at
monthly intervals. The green forage production ranges 130-140 tonnes/ha. The grass
is less nutritive with 7% crude protein, 0.76% calcium and 0.49% phosphorus.
The grass is used as green fodder, soiling and even for hay. It can withstand moderate
grazing. It should not be grazed too closely and first grazing should be deferred till the
grass attains the height of 30-60 cm and is well established. Controlled/ light grazing
ensures rapid growth.
Stylo (Stylosanthes hamata)

This is also known as Caribbean stylo and Verano stylo.It is herbaceous and
dichotomously branched perennial. It attains a height of 1.2 m; leaves trifoliate, leaflets
lanceolate, acute, and glabrous with 4-6 pairs of veins; rachis 4-6 mm long
and bidentate; stipules adnate to the base of the petiole with hairs on the sheath
and teeth. The inflorescence is an oblong spike with 8-14 yellow flowers on a
long stem. The pods or so-called seeds are medium to dark brown in colour, 2-2.5 mm
long asymmetrical by reniform, radical ends fairly prominent and beak is
slightly coiled. Actual seed comes after removing the brown covering and is light
yellow in colour.
It is a native of the islands of West Indies and found generally adjacent the coastal
regions of North and South America, and introduced in many tropical regions of
Australia, Burma and India. It thrives well in the areas receiving annual rainfall from
500 to 1,270 mm with a pronounced dry season. It is adapted to a wide range of soil
types and is drought resistant.
In a well prepared field the seeds are broadcast or sown in line at 50 cm apart @ 5-
6 kg/ha in pure and 3-4 kg/ha in mixed pasture during the early rainy season. Before
sowing, the seeds should be scarified or treated with hot water for 1 1.5 minutes. During
the establishment year, 1-2 weedings and interculturing are required for better growth.
At the time of field preparation and before sowing 5-8 tonnes/ha FYM + 20 kg N
and 40 kg P2O5/ha and 40 kg K2O/ha are applied. From second year onwards, 30 kg
P2O5 and 15 kg N/ha are sufficient. It may be mixed with Cenchrus, Dichanthium,
Heteropogon, Sehima, Chrysopogon, sabai grass and blue panic.
During establishment year (first year), it should not be allowed to be grazed at all
but should be harvested at the height of 10 cm from ground level after four months of
sowing. From second year onwards, it may be grazed or harvested 2-3 times. Rotational
grazing is preferred for higher production. The green forage production ranges from
20 - 30 t/ha, while the dry forage is 6-10 tonnes/ha. It generally produces 350 - 400 kg
seeds/ha but from well-managed pasture seed production reaches up to 1000 kg/ha. It,
contains 12 18% C.P., 0.61 - 1.72% Ca, 0.10 0.12% P and 7.0 -14.2% ash.
Being nutritive and palatable, it is used as feed for all types of animals in the form
of hay, silage. Among the species of Stylosanthes, S. hamata and S. viscosa lines were
found rich in crude protein and lower in fibre contents as compared to S. scabra and S.
sebrana lines.
Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum)

Siratro is a deep-rooted perennial herb and has trailing habit. Stem is hairy and
roots readily at the nodes. Leaves are trifoliate, dark green and silvery slightly hairy
on upper and very hairy on lower surface. Leaflets are somewhat oval shaped but the
lateral ones are unevenly lobed. Inflorescence is raceme; peduncle 10-30 cm
long with a cluster of 6-12 flowers, often paired deep purple in colour. Pods are straight,
cylindrical, pointed, 7-9 cm long many seeded. Pods dehisce violently when ripe.
Seeds are flattened, brown to black in colour and 4 cm × 2.5 cm × 2 mm in size. The
species is native to Central and South America and is now distributed to Australia,
South East Asia and Pacific Islands. In India, it is found in semi-arid regions.
It is adapted to subtropical to tropical climates and is found in areas of 615 - 1,800
mm rainfall and 26.5 - 30°C temperature. It thrives well on wide range of soils from
light-textured sandy soils to heavy clays with good drainage. It grows over a range of
pH from 4.5 - 8.0 and even in moderately saline soils.
For natural grassland or already established pasture, the seeds should be sown after
inter-culturing at the onset of rains. For pure pasture, the recommended seed rate is 12
kg/ha but for mixed pasture, the seed rate is 6 kg/ha. Seeds are sown in July after first
heavy shower either in line at 50 cm space or broadcast. Sowing depth is 1.0 - 1.5 cm.
During monsoon, one interculturing or weeding improves the crop performance. In
the beginning, 10 cart loads of FYM is thoroughly mixed in soil followed by 20 kg N
and 40 kg P2O5/ha. In subsequent years, 40 kg P2O5/ha is broadcast at the onset of
monsoon. The average green fodder yield ranges from 15 to 20 tonnes/ha and dry
fodder from 3 to 5 tonnes/ha. It produces the seeds two times in a year- i.e. October
November and April May. The total seed production is 50-100 kg/ha. It gives high
yields of palatable protein rich fodder with 16.8% crude protein, 33.4% crude fibre
and 9.8% ash.
It fixes nitrogen very effectively and can be grown with a wide range of grasses
such as Rhodes, Setaria, green panic and guinea grass. It is utilized as hay and for
grazing purpose and is persistent under heavy grazing when the plants are well
established. It is also used for silage. Due to heavy and fast leaf fall, it helps in improving
the soil and is also used for checking the soil erosion.
Grass-legume mixtures
Grass-legume mixtures have been used in many countries for realizing higher total
herbage yield by growing them in association, rather than in individual swards where
no fertilizer N is applied. The legumes in the pasture may also increase N content and
digestibility of the herbage. In the diet of animals, grasses and legumes have also
greater beneficial associative effect through rumen than when they are fed separately.
Further, the adopted legumes in the mixture provide a simple and practical means of
meeting the nitrogen need of the associated grasses as most of the legumes fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
The plant interaction in the mixtures often becomes competitive for available water,
nutrients and light, thus affecting the overall yield. Studies conducted at the IGFRI,
Jhansi, have shown the nitrogen equivalence of legume to the tune of 40-60 kg N/ha
when introduced in natural grasslands. This means that 40-60 kg N/ha can be added to
the grassland soil as microbial fertilizer manufactured by legumes. Besides being a
substitute and a cheap source of nitrogenous fertilizers, legume also influence total
dry, matter production and crude protein yield.
Grassland improvement/rangeland restoration techniques

Concerted research efforts in various research institutions have resulted in
the development of technologies for restoration / improvement of rangelands/ grasslands.
Grassland improvement techniques for forage production are based on various ecological
approaches, e.g. protection of grassland for vegetation recovery, removal of unwanted
bushes, re-seeding of grasslands with perennial and productive species of grasses and
legumes, application of fertilizers for higher productivity and subsequently utilization
of grassland either through cutting or grazing in a suitable manner. Considerable emphasis
needs to be given on the important components given here for grassland improvement/
rangeland restoration: (i) protection, (ii) soil and water conservation, (iii) bush cleaning,
(iv) re-seeding, (v) fertilization, (vi) cutting management, and (vii) grazing management.
Protection from grazing

Overgrazing results in degradation of grasslands leading to dominance of unpalatable
and noxious vegetation. Protection from grazing through fencing leads to remarkable
recovery of vegetation status. Grazing lands can be protected through barbed/ woven/
chain links supported by angle iron/cement/stone/wooden poles or through fencing
using unpalatable bushes. Live hedge fencing was found low-priced and most effective
for protecting large areas. For live hedges, the suitable species are Pithecolobium
dulce, Lantana camara, Carissa carandas, Agave sislana, Agave americana, Opuntia
ficus-indica, Ziziphus nummularia, Jatropha curcus, Palensoria aculata, Lawsonia
inermis, etc.
For grazing lands in hills, 5 years protection is recommended in order to improve the
degraded low altitude grazing areas. Closure of these grazing lands not only improves
forage quantity but also its quality. A stonewall fencing (1 m high and 45 m wide)
supported by live hedges of Agave americana, Barberis and Yucca sp. were found
economically and ecologically viable. Studies conducted at the IGFRI, Jhansi revealed
increase in the herbage yield from 0.1 to 3.5 tonnes/ha within 3 years of protection of
degraded grazing lands with increase of plant population of desired perennial grasses.
Soil and water conservation

Soil-and-water conservation measures are extremely important for range and pasture
management especially in dry areas and on sloppy degraded lands.
Bunding: This is quite effective in sloppy and undulating lands. Along the contour
lines and periphery, various types of bunds are made depending upon the topography
of the area. In dry degraded areas, bunds are required to be stabilized with suitable
grass species. In areas having better soil and rainfall, technique of graded bunds along
with grassed waterway and drop structure for safe disposal of water has been found to
be better than contour bunds.
Water storage/discharge structures: These are extremely useful in ravines and
watersheds, water storage/ discharge structures, viz. checkdams, anne-cuts and
embankments of desired engineering specifications, are constructed for efficient
conservation and utilization of already scarce water resources in dry areas. In some
ravinous and hilly areas, gully plugging may also require erecting structure of various
engineering specifications.
Biological measures: Various grass and legume species are known to play an
important role in soil and moisture conservation by reducing run-off and soil loss. In
excessive windy areas, a combination of trees may be planted as wind/shelter belt, in
specific designs, to check wind impact. The spreading of dry grasses or shrubby material
on bare ground along the contours or terraces has been found to check soil and water loss.
Bush cleaning
Heavy infestation of bushes in grazing lands not only adversely affects the
availability of open space for growing grasses but also forage production. The standard
practice of bush cleaning includes either manual or mechanical felling or removal of
stumps, or application of selective weedicides on the cut stumps to kill them to stop
coppicing. Leaf fodder-yielding stumps, however, should be maintained in the grazing
lands as these provide fodder during lean period or drought.
Re-seeding
For the improvement of productivity of deteriorated rangelands, it is essential to
replace low yielding annual grasses by re-seeding with high yielding perennial grasses,
which are adaptable to the prevailing condition of the region.
Suitable species for re-seeding have been identified at the IGFRI, Jhansi and
elsewhere. Species choice depends upon the condition of site, soil type and intended
use. For arid and semi-arid zones, the most suitable grasses are Cenchrus ciliaris, C.
setigerus for sandy-loam soils, Chrysopogon fulvus for red gravelly and sloppy lands,
Lasiurus sindicus (particularly for extreme arid conditions), Panicum turgidum (for
sand dunes), Dichanthium annulatum for loamy soils of better moisture status and
Iseliema laxum and Panicum maximum for clay soils with higher moisture status.
D.annulatum and C. ciliaris are two versatile grasses possessing adaptability over a
wide range of climate and soil and are suitable for sandy or sandy loam soils in the
areas having rainfall uptown 750 mm. Under such situation, suitable legumes for re-
seeding are Stylosanthes hamata, Siratro, Alysicarpus rugosus, Lablab purpureus,
etc.
Pre-monsoon broadcasting of Stylosanthes seeds was found best for legume
establishment. Use of pelleted seeds also gave good establishment.
Fertilizer application
Application of fertilizer has positive effect on increasing the productivity of
grasslands. The response is best in case of nitrogen followed by phosphorus. Studies
conducted at the IGFRI, Jhansi revealed that application of 40-60 kg N/ha and 20-30
kg P2O5/ha increased pasture production by 50-100% in majority of grasses besides
increasing crude protein content considerably.
Cutting management
Proper cutting and harvesting mmanagment is vital for the grassland management.
Cutting at suitable interval promotes tillering and increases the basal area of the tussocks
of perennial grasses. It also promotes tillering and more effective seed formation as
well as vegetative growth. In case of fodder trees also suitable pruning and lopping
management is essential for desired growth and canopy formation.
Grazing management
The greatest single factor, which causes deterioration of grasslands, is overgrazing.
During the course of grazing certain grasses are preferred while others are avoided.
On account of this, selective grazing, desirable species tend to get depleted in grasslands
much faster than undesirable species. In most perennial grasses, utilizing the reserve
food material that is stored in the underground parts produces new shoots. Due to
over-grazing, the reserve food material is lost faster and perennial grasses are unable
to re-generate due to continuous drain on food reserve. Therefore, certain period of
rest is essential for the perennial grasses to recoup and rejuvenate. Based on these
considerations, the following types of grazing systems are practiced: (i) continuous
grazing, (ii) deferred grazing, (iii) rotational grazing, and (iv) deferred-rotational
grazing. In the continuous grazing system, the grassland is not divided into
compartments or paddocks and animals move in the whole area. Long period of
continuous grazing often leads to deterioration in composition and production of good

forage grasses and increase in unpalatable ones. It also affects soil fertility levels and
exposes the habitat to rain beating leading to runoff and soil loss. In the deferred
system, the grazing area is divided into compartments and at least one of those rested
until seed setting. In the rotational grazing, no compartment is rested and so all of
them are grazed in rotation of specific duration. The deferred rotational grazing system
is a mix of above two types and is considered the best system of grazing because of
the following benefits: (a) more number of grazing days from the same grassland used
otherwise, (b) maintenance of proper vegetation composition through self seeding,
(c) health of sward is maintained as the optimum utilization of biomass takes place
and a period of rest is available to grasses, (d) soil fertility level is maintained, and (e)
erosion hazards are avoided.
In Sehima dominated grasslands at Jhansi, deferred rotational grazing system was
found superior as compared to continuous system. For arid rangelands, it was found
to increase the dry matter yield of Cenchrus species by 22% under deferred-rotational
grazing compared to continuous grazing. In the Lasiurus-dominated grasslands in
western Rajasthan, the deferred-rotational grazing system was superior in terms of
average body weight gain of Tharparker breed of heifers over continuous grazing
system. The calving of animals was also higher (26%) in deferred rotational grazing
system than continuous system.
Under different pasture utilization systems, viz. rotational, deferred rotational,
continuous and cut and carry system, the highest run-off and soil loss was
recorded in continuous system while minimum run-off was recorded in rotational
system. However, the minimum soil loss was recorded in cut and carry system. The
observations showed that improved practices of pasture establishment, contour bunding,
grazing management reduced soil loss, made more water available and improved the
soil conditions. Out of the four systems of grazing management, relatively higher
values of organic carbon and available nutrients (N, P, K) and lower average loss of
nutrients were observed in deferred rotational system, indicating its superiority over
other pasture utilization systems.
Silvipasture management
Considering the continuous pressure on cultivable lands and deterioration
already set in on the grazing lands, it is imperative to look for alternate land
use systems that integrate the concerns for productivity, conservation of
resources and environment and profitability. Agroforestry technologies such as
silvipasture, hortipasture, etc. hold promise not only for bioremediation of degraded
habitats but also for forage production to meet the demands of livestock and
environmental security.
Silvipastures integrate pasture and/or animals with trees. Woody perennials,
preferably of fodder value, are introduced deliberately and systematically and
managed scientifically. This system aims at optimizing land productivity,
conserving plants, soils and nutrients and producing forage, timber and firewood on a
sustainable basis. It involves replantation, substitution or intervention in the existing
vegetation by desirable species. The tree selection is based on its easy regeneration
capacity, coppicing ability, fast growth, nitrogen-fixing ability, palatable leaves (fodder),
high nutritive value and less toxic substances, short rotation and high fuel value. The
grasses and legumes should have easy colonizing ability, high production efficiency
and high nutritive value.
The biodynamics of silvipastoral systems involves four major distinct life forms,
viz. the herbaceous vegetation (mostly grasses and legumes), the woody foraging
component (fodder trees), the domesticated animals surviving on the vegetation, and
the man who controls the other three components. In addition, soil and climate have
their own roles to play and compliment the diversity. Since these systems are close to
nature, they offer an ecologically viable and sound approach. The tree loppings/
prunings are also used as top feeds.
It has been possible to increase land productivity from 0.5-1.5 tonnes/ha/year to >
10 tonnes/ha/year (10-year rotation) by developing silvipastures. Now, the concept of
hortipasture is also gaining popularity with the farmers for utilizing their degraded
lands. The additional forage availability through such systems is likely to reduce grazing
pressure and thus have important environmental implications. Efforts to design
silvipasture systems to produce > 15 tonnes/ha/year through species introduction,
planting geometry, canopy manipulation and sustainable management through in-situ
grazing or cut and carry system are continuing.
The grasses have a lot of conservation benefits in reducing soil and water loss to a
great extent. Average soil loss from deforested land is reported to be 12-43 tonnes/ha
in black soil and 4-10 tonnes/ha in red soils whereas soil loss from natural grassland
has been only 3.2 tonnes/ha from a protected site. Silvipastures are still better for soil
conservation and the soil loss from these areas has come down to 0.9 tonnes/ha. Grasses
and legumes are primarily valued as forage and their value in checking soil erosion is
often less viewed. There are specific recommendations for a particular type of soil
and rainfall. For example, Dichanthium annulatum is best in reducing soil loss from
20.5 tonnes/ha to 1.5 tonnes/ha on sandy-loam soil (2% slope) in 790 mm rainfall
situation. Adoption of silvipasture system on marginal rainfed lands was tested on the
Institute research farm. Based on land holdings of the farmers around Jhansi, allocated
lands were subjected to appropriate combination of trees – grasses and legumes (Table
37.14). The production after 10 year cycle showed higher production on small holdings
compared to medium and large holdings.
Table 37.14 Silvipasture systems design for different land holdings on rainfed farmlands
Large holding Medium holding Small holding
Area allocated (ha) 1.6 0.6 0.3

Main trees (4 m × 4 m) Sissoo Sissoo Sissoo
Subabul Neem Neem
Babul Subabul
Babul
Hedge species Subabul Subabul Subabul
(1 m apart)
Pasture species Anjan grass Natural stand of Napier x Bajra hybrid
Kail stylo stylo Guinea grass
(Stylosanthes hamata) Stylo
Suitable species
In order to improve the productivity of common lands/wastelands, it is essential to
replace low yielding annual grasses by seeding with high-yielding perennial grasses
that are adaptable to the prevailing conditions of that region. Similarly, introduction
of leguminous species, browse shrubs and top feeds is considered important from the
viewpoint of quality forage supply and grazing. The choice of suitable species shall
vary with agro-climatic conditions. Suitable species have been identified depending
on the site, soil type, micro-climate and need, etc. An account of promising forage
grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees for various agro-climatic regions of India is presented
in Table 37.15. The agronomic potential of different grass species is given in Table
37.16.
Table 37.15 Agronomic adaptations of some tropical grasses
Grass Common name Tolerance to Seed Min. rainfall

Frost Drought Water- rate (mm)
logging (kg/ha)
Brachiaria Signal grass Poor Fair Good 3-6 1,000 (high rain
documbens fall areas)
B. mutica Para grass Poor Fair V. good 2-5 1,250 (coastal
low land)
Cenchrus ciliaris Buffel grass Fair V. good Poor 1-4 350 (drier areas)
C. setigerus Birdwood grass Fair V. good Poor 1-4 200 (erosion
control)
Chloris gayana Rhodes grass Fair Good Fair 1-6 650 (saline soil)
Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass Fair Good Fair 1-3 600 (versatile)
Melinis minutiflora Molasses grass Poor Fair Poor 1-4 1,000 (high rain
fall areas)
Panicum coloratum Makarikari grass Good Fair Good 2-3 500 (cool
season)
P. maximum Guinea grass Poor Fair Fair 2-6 1,300 (high rain
P. maximum Green panic Good Good Poor 1-6 600 (shade
tolerant legume
companion)
P. antidotale Blue panic Poor Good Poor 2-6 400 (drier areas)
Digitaria Pangola grass Good Good Fair 1-4 1,000 (wet
decumbens tropics, high
sugar)
Paspalum dilatutum Dallis grass Good Fair Good 6-10 900 (best with
clover)
P. notatum Bahia grass Good Fair Good 2-5 750 (sandy light)
Pennisetum Kikui grass Good Fair Fair 1-2 850 (erosion
clandestinum control)
Setaria anceps Setaria grass Good Fair Good 2-5 750 (coastal belt)
Sorghum almum Columbus grass Fair Good Fair 1-10 450 (salt toler-
ance, cynide
problem)
Urochloa Sabai grass Fair Good Poor 1-6 400 (versatile)
morambicensis
Table 37.16 Suitable grasses, legumes and trees for different regions of India
1402
Grass Legume Shrubs or trees
Region 1: Western Himalayas, cold arid with shallow skeletal soils

Agrostis spp., Poa alpina, Trisetum spicatum Medicago sativa subsp. sativa and falcata Hippophae rhamnoides
Region 2: Western Plains and Kutch Peninsula, hot arid with desert and saline soils
Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus (sandy Casssia rotundifolia Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Ailanthus
plains); Lasiurus sindicus (sandy interdunal plains); excelsa, Dichrostachys cinerea,
Panicum turgidum (sand dunes); Chloris gayana, Prosopis cineraria, Ziziphus
Sporobolus marginatus (salt-affected lands) nummularia, Prosopis juliflora, Salvadora
oleoides, S. persica (saline soil)
Region 3: Deccan Plateau, hot arid with red and black,saline soils
Andropogon gayanus, Chrysopogon fulvus (red soil); Clitoria ternatea,Stylosanthes hamata, S. scabra Acacia nilotica, Albizia amara,
Dichanthium annulatum, Bothriochloa intermedia A.lebbeck, Desmenthus virgatus,
(black soil) Leucaena leucocephala, Tamarindus
indicus
Region 4: Northern Plains and Central Highlands including Aravallis, hot semi-arid with alluvium
Bothriochloa intermedia, Cenchrus ciliaris, Macroptelium atropurpureum, Stylosanthes Acacia nilotica, A.
Chrysopogon fulvus, Dichanthium annulatum, hamata, S. scabra holosericea,Albizia amara, A. lebbeck,

A.
Sehima nervosum procera, Azadirachta indica,
Dichrostachys cinerea, Hardwickia
binata, Leucaena leucocephala,
Sesbania grandiflora, S. sesban
Region 5: Central (Malwa) Highlands, Gujarat Plains and Kathiawar Peninsula, hot semi-arid with red loamy soils
Bothriochloa intermedia,Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus Arachis hagenbackii,Stylosanthes hamata, Albizia lebbeck,Artocarpus
ciliaris, Panicum maximum S. scabra lakoocha, Dendrocalamus strictus,
Gliricidia sepium, Faidherbia albida,
Holoptelia integrifolia, Pithecellobium
(Contd . . .)

dulce
Region 6: Deccan Plateau, hot semi-arid with shallow black soils
Bothriochloa intermedia, B. decumbens, Cenchrus Arachis hagenbackii,Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia nilotica, Albizia procera,
setigerus, Dichanthium annulatum, Pennisetum S. scabra Anogeissus pendula, Bauhinia
pedicellatum, Panicum maximum variegata, B. purpurea, Leucaena
leucocephala,Moringa oleifera,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Sesbania
sesban
Region 7: Deccan (Telangana) Plateau and Eastern Ghats, hot semi-arid with red and black soils
Andropogon gayanus, Bothriochloa intermedia, Atylosia scrabaeoides, Macrotyloma axillare, Albizia lebbeck, Gliricidia sepium,
Chrysopogon fulvus, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Stylosanthes Faidherbia albida, Holoptelia integrifolia,
Dichanthium annulatum scabra Leucaena leucocephala
Region 8: Eastern Ghats, TN Uplands and Deccan (Karnataka) Plateau, hot semi-arid with red and black soils
Brachiaria decumbens, B. ruiziensis, Cynodon dactylon, Arachis hagenbackii, A. glabrata,Stylosanthes Ailanthus malabarica, Albizia falcataria,
Dichanthium annulatum, Bothriochloa intermedia guinensis, S. hamata Erythrina variegata, E. poeppigiana
Region 9: Northern Plains, hot subhumid (dry) with alluvium-derived soils
FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES
Bothriochloa intermedia, Cynodon dactylon, Chloris Clitoria ternatea, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Albizia stipulata, Desmanthus virgatus,
gayana, Dichanthium annulatum, Pennisetum pedicellatum Stylosanthes hamata Azadirachta indica, Ficus racemosa,
Leucaena leucocephala
Region 10: Central Highlands (Malwa, Bundelkhand and Satpura), semi-arid with black and red soils
Andropogon gayanus, Pennisetum pedicellatum Atylosia scarabaeoides, Macroptelium Albizia amara, A. lebbeck, Anogeissus
(red soil), Bothriochloa intermedia, Chrysopogon fulvus, atropurpureum, Stylosanthes hamata, S. scabra latifolia, A. pendula, Dichrostachys
(Contd . . .)
1403
1404
Sehima nervosum, Dichanthium annulatum (black soil) cinerea, Hardwickia binata, Leucaena
leucocephala, Moringa oleifera
Region 11: Eastern Plateau (Chhattisgarh), hot subhumid with red soil
Bothriochloa intermedia, Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium Arachis hagenbackii, Stylosanthes hamata Bauhinia variegata, Dalbergia sissoo,
annulatum, Panicum maximum, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa
Setaria sphacelata oleifera
Region 12: Eastern (Chhotanagapur) Plateau and Eastern Ghats, hot subhumid with red and laterite soils
Andropogon gayanus, Bothriochloa intermedia, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Macroptilium Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. lakoocha,
Chrysopogon fulvus, Pennisetum pedicellatum, atropurpureum, Stylosanthes hamata Leucaena leucocephala,Moringa oleifera
Urochloa mosambicensis
Region 13: Eastern Plain, hot subhumid (moist) with alluvium-derived soils
Brachiaria brizantha, B. decumbens, B. mutica, Arachis glabrata, A. hagenbackii Bauhinia variegata, Dalbergia latifolia,
D.
Cynodon dactylon, Papsalum notatum sissoo, Pterocarpus marsupium,
Desmanthus virgatus
Region 14: Western Himalayas, warm subhumid with brown forest and podzolic soils
Dactylis glomerata, Festuca rubra, Lolium perenne, Trifolium pratense, T. repens, Lotus corniculatus Quercus incana, Robinia pseudoacacia,
Poa spp. Grewia optiva, Fagus sylvatica, Morus
alba
Region 15: Bengal and Asom Plains, hot subhumid (moist) to humid with alluvium-derived soils
Brachiaria decumbens, B. mutica, Paspalum notatum Desmodium uncinatum, D. heterophyllum Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. lakoocha,
Ficus hookeri, F. nemoralis, Parkia
roxburghii, Morus alba
Region 16: Eastern Himalayas, warm perhumid with brown and red soils
(Contd . . .)

Coix lacryma-jobi, Pennisetum clandestinum, Desmodium sp., Desmodium uncinatum Celtis australis, Ficus hookeri,
F.nemoralis,
Tripsacum dactyloides F. semicordata
Region 17: North-eastern Hills , warm perhumid with red and laterite soils
Brachiaria decumbens, Pennisetum clandestinum, Arachis sp.,Desmodium uncinatum Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Parkia
Tripsacum dactyloides roxburghii, Morus alba, Robinia
pseudoacacia
Region 18: Eastern Coastal Plain, hot humid, per humid laterite and alluvium-derived soils
Chloris gayana, Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium Stylosanthes guinensis Ailanthes malabarica,
annulatum, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Stenotaphrum Erythrina variegata, Ficus retusa
dimidiatum, Urochloa mosambicensis
Region 19: Western Ghats and Coastal Plain, hot humid, per humid laterite and alluvium- derived soils
Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium annulatum, Panicum Clitoria ternatea, Desmodium heterophyllum, Ailanthes malabarica, Erythrina variegata
maximum, Pennisetum clandestinum, P. polystachyon, Pueraria thunbergiana, Stylosanthes hamata,
Setaria sphacelata S. guinensis
Region 20: Islands of Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep, hot humid to per humid island with red loamy and sandy soils
FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES
Andropogon gayanus, Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus Centrosema pubescens, Clitoria ternatea, Bauhinia purpurea, Erythrina variegata,
ciliaris, Pennisetum pedicellatum, P. polystachyon, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Stylosanthes Leucaena leucocephala, Pithecellobium
Brachiaria ruziziensis, Tripsacum laxum guinensis, S. scabra dulce, Gliricidia sepium
1405
Forage conservation
India being a tropical monsoon bound country with unimodal rainy season, surplus
green herbage is available at the flush growth periods during kharif as well as rabi (in
irrigated areas). It is desirable that these are preserved /conserved with minimum loss
of nutrients. These can be conserved either as hay or silage or artificial dehydration
for feeding to livestock during lean periods when availability of fresh forage is meager
or negligible (mid October-mid December and mid April-June).
Ensilage has many advantages over the other methods of forage conservation. There
is high-energy output in high temperature dehydration. Hay making is difficult during
monsoon season because of unscheduled rainfall and little availability of sunlight in
addition to loss of nutrients due to leaching. Crops can be well conserved as silage but
it requires precautions as lack of understanding of the factors associated with ensiling
technique may produce silage of bad quality leading to poor animal performance or
even wastage of fodder.
Silage
Silage is the material produced by controlled fermentation of crops under anaerobic
conditions. This process is known as ensilage and the container used for the purpose is
known as silo. The fermentation process is governed by microorganisms present in
fresh herbage or by additives to maintain anaerobic condition. When herbage is placed
in an airtight container, naturally occurring bacteria ferment the carbohydrates (sugar)
present in the herbage to produce mainly the lactic acid. The aim is to achieve a
sufficient concentration of lactic acid to prevent other type of bacterial activity, i.e.
clostridia activity. The main requirements are the exclusion of air to maintain anaerobic
conditions and to discourage clostridial fermentation which leads to production of
carbon dioxide, ammonia, amines, butyric acid, etc.
Methods of controlling fermentation: There are several ways in which the clostridial
type fermentation can be checked. One of the commonly used practices is to increase
the dry matter of the herbage. In ensiled crops containing 30% or more dry matter,
crop ensile satisfactorily. Promotion of lactic acid fermentation is important pathway
for controlling clostridial growth. Other method of controlling fermentation is by
addition of preservatives and additives. Carbohydrates in the forages may be naturally
occurring or may be added as a separate ingredient such as molasses obtained as sugar
industry byproducts, which acts as a fermentable substrate.
Additives for effective ensiling of nutrients: Various types of additives can be
used to improve or inhibit the fermentation or supplement nutrients needed by ruminants
to be fed as silage. Propionic acid, formaldehyde, etc. have been used to increase the
rate of lactic acid fermentation and produce stable silage.
Carbohydrate sources such as molasses, whey, yeast and other energy-rich
ingredients have also been used as additives to increase the fermentation and feeding
value of silage. Urea @ 0.5-1.0% have been found to increase crude protein content
and also the lactic acid content of silage made from cereal fodders.
Microbial activity: As anaerobic conditions are achieved in silo, the species of
Escherichia, Bacillus, Clostridium, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus and Pediococcus
develop. Lactic acid bacteria (Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus and
Pediococcus) are the important organisms for preservation of silage of good quality.
Silos: The different types of silos generally used are: (i) pit silo, (ii) tower silo, (iii)
trench cum bunker, (iv) trenches, and (v) drum and PVC silo. The silo must provide a
solid surface to permit consolidation of the ensiled material and elimination of air. It
must protect the silage from water. In India, pit silo is the most common.
Techniques of silage making: (i) Dry matter: Dry matter should be above 30%.
Crops of high moisture should be ensiled with the addition of preservatives and
additives. In poor weather, wilting should be avoided and additive should be used for
good fermentation.
(ii) Stage of growth: Crops should be cut at a proper stage of maturity as it is the
most important factor for controlling the silage quality. The appropriate stage of growth
for cutting different fodder crops for silage making is given below:
Sorghum - Flowering to dough stage
Maize - Milk to dough stage
Oat - 50% flowering to dough stage
Grasses - Early flowering stage
(iii) Chopping: Crop should be chopped before ensiling. For good silage, the shorter
the chop length, the better is the quality. Chopped silage is more palatable to livestock
and has little chance of secondary fermentation.
(iv) Filling of silo: Silo should be filled rapidly and should not be left open. It
should be sealed as soon as possible. Packing is important to create anaerobic
conditions. It should be thoroughly pressed so that no air pocket is left in the silo
otherwise chances of mould formation will be there which will spoil the silage. After
filling, silo should be covered with polythene sheet followed by that of a layer of soil,
etc.
(v) Removal of silage: After 45 days of ensilage, the silage can be removed for
feeding to animals. Care should be taken in removing the silage from silo. It should
not be allowed to deteriorate after the silo is opened for feeding. Covers should be
kept firmly in place as long as possible and the minimum face should be exposed at
one time. The sugars, proteins and lactic acid present in the silage are subject to attack
by mould growth and oxidation as some air is allowed to fermentation and causes loss
of feeding value and intake by the animals.
(vi) Silage quality: Silage quality is determined mainly by the odour, physical
state, pH, ammonical nitrogen, volatile acids and lactic acid. For desirable fermentation,
the forage should be rich in water soluble sugar (more than 5% on dry-matter basis).
A good-quality silage should have the following characteristics: (i) pH 4.5-5.0, (ii)
ammonical nitrogen of total N – less than 10% of total N, (iii) butyric acid- less than
0.2%, (iv) lactic acid -3 to 12%, and (v) volatile acids, alcohol should below.
Hay making
Conservation of high-quality forages by drying is termed as hay making. The
principle of hay making is to preserve nutritional value of forages through drying it to
a level at which the activity of microbial decomposers is inhibited. In India, sunlight
is available in abundance, which enables farmers to dry the green forage in open
sunlight and thus making hay more economical. The hay making leads to reduction of
moisture content to 10-20%, which inhibits the enzyme activity in the plant to be
conserved. Thin stemmed cereal crops like sorghum, oat, guinea grass, range grasses,
range legumes particularly Sylosanthes, Siratro, lablab bean, and all the cultivated
legume fodders like berseem, lucerne, and cowpea are suitable for hay making.
Leguminous forages have high buffering action and high nitrogen content, and hence
are more suitable to be conveniently conserved as hay.
Hay making is relatively more convenient and easy for Indian farmers. It can be
done by sun drying. During inclement weather, hay making may be done by drying
under shade or artificial drying through solar energy. Harvested forage particularly
thick stemmed should be chopped and spread over the ground for sun curing and the
layers should be changed every day to prevent any sort of fermentation or bacterial
growth. After it is well dried (dry-matter content at the time of storing should be
around 85-90%), this can be stored for feeding during the lean periods. Thin stemmed
crops including legumes can be dried without chopping while thick stemmed fodders
like sorghum, maize and bajra (pearl millet) require chopping or crushing before they
are allowed to dry.
Factors affecting the quality of hay

The following factors affecting the quality of hay are important and should be
given due consideration: (i) plant species, (ii) stage of harvest, (iii) leaf : stem ratio,
(iv) chemical composition, (v) physical form, and (vi) deterioration during storage.
Bailing and densification

The transport of dry grass occupies voluminous space and takes lot of time to
transport resulting into higher costs. Bailing and densification of dry grass helps in
reducing the volume and could be transported economically and efficiently. By using
these techniques, the hay could be transported from excess producing areas to deficit
areas especially during the calamities of drought. Wheat straw (bhusa) could be added
with 20% molasses and then densified and bales can be prepared to increase the
digestibility of feed intake. Densified block of wheat straw, molasses and urea could
be developed through high density bailing machine. The average density of wheat
straw and stubble block obtained thus would be 398 kg/m 3 and 355.0 kg/m 3,
respectively. Moisture level of admixture was maintained at 20% for densification.
The optimum ratio of physical composition of straw block is 78:20:2 (wheat straw:
molasses: urea).
Production of complete feed blocks

Complete feed blocks could also be prepared by densifying machine. Nutritive
value of forage is enhanced through mixing with molasses and blending with
leguminous fodder, concentrate mixture, minerals and vitamin additives. The
composition of complete feed blocks included wheat straw (40%), molasses (20%)
dry leaves of berseem (20%), concentrate mixture (19%) and mineral mixture and
vitamin additives (1%).
Preservation in the form of leaf meal

Preparation of leaf meal out of top feeds and leguminous forages as an animal feed
stuff because of high concentration of protein of high biological value and other
nutrients such as carotene and minerals. There exists a big deficit of concentrate in the
country to the tune of 60% and this deficit can be partially bridged by replacing the
concentrate feeds by leaf meals. Leaf meal production technology is simple as well as
profitable enterprise for the farmers. Crude protein content (% DM basis) in leaf meals
of important forage crops are as follows – Leucaena leucocephala (18-21%), Sesbania
sesban (18%), lucerne (20-21%), Stylosanthes sp. (12-18%), Ziziphus nummularia
(13-16%). The leaf meal of leguminous forages are also known to have rich content of
essential amino acids such as lysine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, methionine,
cysteine, valine, histidine, and arginine.
A lot of scope exists in establishing a production, processing and marketing chain
for its popularization in different parts of the country. One lucerne leaf meal production
plant started in 1977 at Udmalpet near Coimbatore produces more than 15 tonnes of
leaf meal per month. The set-up consists of a chaff cutter feeding sun dried lucerne to
a powdering mill for grinding and collection of sieved leaf meal. Farmers around
Palladam (Tamil Nadu) have organized through a co-operative to grow and supply
lucerne to the leaf meal plant. The arrangement assures regular cash income for small
holder farmers through a well developed production, processing and marketing chain.
Furthermore, utilization of such meals has grain-saving effects.
Seed technology
Propagation of improved fodder production technologies specially the improved
varieties has not reached to the farmers mainly because of the non-availability of
good-quality seeds. The availability of good-quality seeds is estimated to be around
15-25% only for cultivated fodders. The productivity and availability of seed are vital
because the fodder crops have been bred for enhanced vegetative potential and as
such they are shy seeders with very low seed productivity.
Presently, the seed demand of cultivated forages, range grasses and legumes are
increasing tremendously. The grass seed production and distribution have remained
isolated. Recent estimates put the current demand for seeds of cultivated fodders at
355,000 tonnes/annum based on the area under cultivation (8.3 million ha) and a target
replacement rate of 10%. With the development of a number of improved and high-
yielding varieties in forage crops, it has become important that quality seed should be
readily available and supplied to the farmers at reasonable price. The present and
future projected demands for fodder seeds are given in Tables 37.17, 37.18.
Table 37.17 Estimated requirement of foundation seed in selected fodder crops
Crop Area Average seed Foundation seed

(million ha) rate (kg/ha) required (q)
Maize 0.9 20 1,800

Jowar (sorghum) 2.6 10 2,600
Bajra (pearl millet) 0.9 10 1,120
Oat 0.25 75 9,375
Berseem 2.0 20 16,000
Lucerne 1.0 15 5,625
Cowpea 0.3 20 2,000
Guar (clusterbean) 0.2 20 890
Total 39,410
Table 37.18 Projected seed requirements of range grasses, legumes and fodder trees (‘000 tonnes)
Range grasses
Year Cenchrus Dichant- Laisurus Panicum Pennisetum Brachiaria Dactylus OthersTotal
sp. hium sp. sindicus maximum pedicellatum sp. sp.
2005-2010 4.50 1.50 6.00 2.25 5.50 2.25 3.50 4.00 2.95
2010-2015 4.67 1.56 6.22 2.33 5.70 2.33 3.63 4.15 3.06
Range legumes
Year Stylosanthes Styosanthes Desmanthus Trifolium Others Total
hamata scabra virgatus sp.
2005-2010 9.00 5.25 4.50 5.00 5.50 2.92

2010-2015 9.33 5.44 4.67 5.19 5.70 3.03
Fodder trees/shrubs
Year Leucaena Sesbania Gliricidia Grewia Miscellaneous Total
leucocephla sp. sp. sp. species
2005-2010 0.55 0.35 0.05 0.05 0.95 1.95

2010-2015 0.53 0.34 0.05 0.05 0.95 1.94
The nature of forage seed production is more complex and a number of

environmental and physiological factors have a significant impact on seed production
potential of a particular crop. By and large, forage crops are shy seed yielders. In
majority of forage crops, seed production depends on photoperiod, thermoperiod,
humidity, soil type and condition and the soil moisture. These crops can give better
seed yield if grown under ideal agro-climatic situations/sites. Each forage crop is,
therefore, suited to only specific area for
forage and/or seed production such as Table 37.19 Suitable regions for increased
berseem in the northern plains and lucerne seed productivity for different fodder crops
in the north-west India (Table 37.19).
Similarly, pasture grass like sevan grass is Crops Regions
best adapted and productive under low Sorghum South and south-west
rainfall situations of western Rajasthan and Cowpea North-west and south
Congo signal grass and guinea grass in the west
highly humid regions of Kerala. Hence, Dinanath grass East and central
Pearl millet North-west
there is a need to prepare a seed production Buffel grass Western, southern
atlas for the entire country for commercial Marvel grass Central, south central
seed production and marketing. In this Sain grass Central, south central
endeavour, disease free zones could also be Siratro Central, south central
Stylo Central, south central
identified and mapped. Rice bean East
The seed demand of Chrysopogon fulvus, Berseem Central and north-west
Pennisetum pedicellatum, cowpea, berseem, Lucerne West and south central
sorghum, and oat is increasing. Berseem, Oat North and north central
Guinea grass South and north-west
cowpea, sorghum, oat and Panicum
maximum produce higher seed in central tropical areas. Concerted efforts are, therefore,
required in this direction so that available technology could be passed on to the forage
and seed producing agencies and also to farmers for their eventual use in augmenting
forage resources.
Reasons for low production of seed in forage crops

The main reasons for low seed production in forage crops include: (i) low priority
of crops leading to poor allocation of resources and area, (ii) non-availability of quality/
certified seeds, (iii) indeterminate growth habit coupled with non-synchronous maturity
resulting in higher cost in collection of seeds, (iv) low seed productivity due to crops
being basically bred for herbage and the crop being harvested at vegetative stage and
not allowing to reach to seed stage, (v) low seed production due to seed dormancy,
seed shattering, blank/empty seeds, (vi) low multiplication ratio in most of the fodder
crops which is often not remunerative to the producing agency, (vii) lack of organized
seed outlets for marketing and uncertainty of seed demand, (viii) poor extension
machinery responsible for inadequate popularization of improved varieties, and (ix)
lack of policy support.
The need for seed production

With the development of improved and high-yielding varieties in forage crops, it
has been realized that truthful labelled (TFL) and certified seed should be supplied to
the farmers. Shortage of improved technologies in the field of seed production of
forage crops will have to be overcome by launching a participatory seed production
programme. Apart from the seed production techniques, seed processing and handling
techniques need to be developed for maintaining the quality of forage seeds. Sorghum,
maize, cowpea, guar (clusterbean), pearl millet, berseem, oat and lucerne are the
important cultivated fodder crops and Cenchrus, Panicum, Pennisetum, Brachiaria,
Chrysopogon, stylo, etc. are the important rangeland species covering the large acreage
under forage cultivation. The demand of quality seed of these crops is increasing day
by day. This can be achieved only through identification of high seed-producing forage
crop varieties and through sufficient production of quality seeds with the participatory
programme of researchers, farmers, NGOs, and seed growers/ farmers.
Participatory forage seed production

Availability of quality seed in adequate quantities is a key link in promoting forage
production and enhancing livestock productivity in the country. Large gap in
requirement and availability of forage seeds is one of the major constraints in
development of fodder resources in the country. The production and marketing of
forage seeds is an important strategic link in production and promotion of relevant
species and cultivars in larger areas. In India, there is no well established mechanism/
set-up for quality forage seed production and there is a very limited experience in this
field particularly with perennial grasses and legumes. As a result, supplies of good
quality seed of forages have often been insufficient to meet demand even for the better-
known species and cultivars.
Quality forage seed production is a specialized activity and is a relatively recent
phenomenon in India. Because of limited experience and expertise, organized forage
seed production and delivery systems are almost non-existent at the required niches.
Consequently, the supply of quality forage seed has been insufficient to meet the demand
of even better known species and cultivars that have originated through crop breeding
efforts.
Tips for successful operation of a participatory seed project

Based on the experiences of participatory seed project at the Indian Grassland and
Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, the following points are suggested for successful
operation of participatory seed project.
• The participating farmers must be selected after focused participatory rural
appraisal (PRA).
• Memoranda of understanding should be developed and agreed upon with the
participating farmers.
• The farmers should be selected keeping in view their progressive attitude and
interest in producing seed.
• The required resources to produce forage seed of a new activity should be made
availble.
• The production areas/sites should be in the proximity and easy access.
• Staff must give priority to their responsibilities and activities within the project.
• Training for the project staff in seed production, marketing and socioeconomic
aspects should be conducted where necessary.
• Regular review and planning meetings/workshops should be held at least on an
annual basis.
• Management of the revolving fund used to support such projects should also be
critically reviewed and discussed annually.
Some useful seed production technologies
Cultivation techniques for enhancing seed yield

• Setaria sphacelata intercropped with Desmodium tortuosum (IL 1568), Panicum
maximum intercropped with Stylosanthes hamata and Macroptilium
atropurpureum increased seed yield and saved 20-30 kg N/ha with additional
yield of leguminous fodder.
• Providing climbing support of Sesbania sesban increased the seed yield of
Macroptilium atropurpureum, (61.1 kg/ha) as compared to that produced without
any support (45 kg/ha).
Seed treatment
• Seed treatment with 100 ppm GA3, hydration for 18 hours + dry dressing of
Thiram and osmo-conditioning in PEG solution (-10 bars), increased seed
germination, field emergence and seed yield in Cenchrus ciliaris, Clitoria
ternatea, siratro, and stylo.
• Seeds of Clitoria, siratro and stylo soaked in hot water (60oC) for half an hour
gave maximum germination.
• Soaking of Cenchrus ciliaris seeds in fresh water from 8 - 10 hours before sowing
was found effective for improved germination.
• Pretreatment of seeds with 0.2% potassium nitrate (KNO3) has improved seed
germination in Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus and Panicum maximum.
• The treated seeds of lablab bean and maize with Bavistin and Malathion @
1g/kg seed (1:1) were stored safely up to 20 months in polythene bags without
any substantial loss in germination.
Foliar spray
• Foliar application of α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) along with K
and diammonium phosphate (DAP) at flower initiation stage increased panicle
length, seed setting, seed retention and seed yield in Panicum maximum,
Dichanthium annulatum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus setigerus and Stylosanthes
hamata.
• Foliar application of Tresol @ 2.5 litre/ha, significantly increased the seed yield
to 5.4 q/ha in berseem.
• Foliar application of KNO3 @ 4 kg/ ha in Clitoria, stylo, cowpea and berseem at
flowering initiation stage increased the seed yield by 20 –25% over the control.
Seed storage
Bavistin and Malathion, @ 1g/kg seed (1:1), treated seeds of lablab bean and maize
can be stored safely up to 20 months in polythene bags without loss in germination.
Among the botanicals, extract of Croton tiglium and Acorous calamas @ 1.0 ml/kg
seed used as seed treatment gave 100% protection against storage bruchid and
Trichoderma infestation.
Transfer of technology
Extension of developed technologies have an important role to play in evaluating
ex ante the benefits and costs of different technologies under various conditions and
on different farm types and, identifying appropriate uptake pathways for effective
dissemination of technologies. At this juncture, the natural resources accounting and
ecological economics will be most pertinent to identify sustainability parameters. These
challenges call for setting up the agenda for commitment in the area of research,
development and extension.
Participatory approach towards technology development and refinement

In traditional crop breeding programmes, scientists themselves visualize farmers’
problems and develop research programmes accordingly. Now the concept of crop
breeding based on participatory rural appraisal approach with farmers’ involvement
in identification of the problems and on-farm joint evaluation of research material is
gaining importance. The farmer who is also the actual user of the output has a vital
role in the selection of desired material from a spectrum of diverse lines. The crop
variety or the technology thus developed is better and more acceptable as it is developed
in a real farm situation than the one developed in sheltered/ protected environment at
the research farms.
Experience has shown that solutions imposed, implemented and policed from out
side almost always fail. Without the local community’s close involvement at all stages –
technology generation, planning and implementation, the adoption will be poor. This
is particularly true in most marginal areas where adoption of improved technology is

fairly slow. Evaluation of different research and development projects reveals that
most projects lack client orientation because insufficient attention is paid to farmer’s
needs and preferences. Participation of clients, end users and adaptive research will
increase the possibilities of land use technologies to be adopted for specific regions
and adopter for specific user groups.
Cost : benefit ratio of forage production technologies

The studies on cost : benefit ratio of forage production technologies revealed
that net returns by adopting different forage sequences ranged from 1.38 to 2.41
(Table 37.20). Many studies on silvipastoral systems have shown desirable benefit :
cost ratio and internal rate of return thus indicating its bankability for adoption
(Table 37.21).
Table 37.20 Cost: benefit analysis of different intensive forage production sequences
Crop sequences Green fodder Dry matter Cost of Ratio of net

yield yield production returns/
(tonnes/ha) (tonnes/ha) (Rs/ha) Rs invested
Berseem + mustard – hybrid 273.1 44.3 3.810 2.41

napier + cowpea
Berseem + mustard – cow- 171.0 30.2 3.187 1.55
pea – M.P. Chari + cowpea
Berseem + mustard – M.P. 172.1 32.3 2.982 1.94
Chari + cowpea
Berseem + mustard – maize 180.5 33.3 3.209 1.67
+ cowpea – M.P. Chari + cowpea
Oat – M.P. Chari – turnip 190.1 37.4 3.645 1.48
Oat – bajra + cowpea – 148.1 32.1 2.953 1.38
maize + cowpea
Table 37.21 Comparative economics of establishment of silvipastoral farms on degraded

lands in central India
S.No. Project time Benefit: cost Discount factor Internal rate of

(years) ratio (%) return (%)
1 10 2.56 11.0 -
2 10 1.68 20.0 34.0
3 10 1.21 20-30 21.21
4 10 1.05 20-30 12.67
5 10 1.05 20-30 10.99
6 10 1.16 20-30 17.64
7 12 1.83 8.0 -
8 12 1.71 10.0 18.16
9 12 1.60 12.0 19.89
10 12 1.45 15.0 21.95
11 12 1.32 18.0 24.12
12 12 1.25 20.0 25.63
13 12 0.97 30.0 29.06
Ecological economics
Value of vegetation in carbon sequestration cannot be underestimated. Due to varied
edaphic and vegetation conditions, the land productivity improved and the in situ
grazing although complicates measurements but edaphic enrichments do add to the
value of organic matter in soil are bonus and sustainability imperatives. The
economicimplications can be understood in terms of sustainability of nutrient transfer
and ecological economics in its temporal and spatial dimensions. Many of the fodder
and grassland related technologies prove highly positive on the ecological economics
test scales.
Such evaluation studies indicate the economic soundness of these technologies.
However, it could be improved further by inclusion of intangible benefits/costs. The
inclusion of important parameters/ indicators in arriving the economic imperatives,
viz. oxygen production/ carbon sequestration, edaphic enrichments conversion to
animal protein, recycling of water, microclimatic modification, hydrologic cycle–base
flow and water surplus irrigation adds a new dimension and the impact could be
evaluated in totality.
Meeting the challenge

The increasing demand for livestock products requires improved livestock and their
productivity. Under the present land use options driven by growing human population,
additional cropland area for forage production is not likely to be available. Thus,
newer avenues have to be searched for meeting this challenge of bridging the gap in
demand and supply. The areas and potentials are presented in Table 37. 22.
Table 37.22 Niches with possibilities for improved fodder production utilizing improved technolo-
gies and policy support
Areas which could be exploited Potential increase in production
Bringing larger areas under joint forest –Assuming the trend in expansion of area
management (JFM): under JFM continues, the area could be
About 10.25 million ha of forest area expected to increase by at least 15 million
is currently under JFM programmes in ha in the next 25 years. With participatory
the country being managed by the management and better technical support,
communities, after the government a dry grass production of 4 tonnes/ha can
notification in 1990. This trend is likely to be achieved. This will add about 60 million
continue in the coming years. Enhanced tonnes of dry fodder each year.
fodder and fuelwood availability is reported –Establishment of agro-ecologically suitable
from these communities from different silvi-pastoral systems in these forest areas
parts of the country where these will be beneficial both environmentally and
programmes are in operation. Currently, a economically. The involvement of
dry grass production of 1-2 tonnes/ha is communities and the modes of usufruct
estimated is these areas. sharing also augurs positively for social
equity.
Treatment of culturable wastelands and Appropriate technologies available if pro-

area under problem soils : moted during the efforts to regenerate these
About 13.94 million ha of the area in the areas will enhance fodder production and
country is under culturable wastes and an- also contribute to environmental regenera-
other 11 million ha is classified as problem tion and sustainability. Treatment of these
soils being plagued with salinity, alkalinity land classes say even on about 15 million
and waterlogging. (Contd . . .)
Areas which could be exploited Potential increase in production
ha with improved silvi-pastoral systems will

result in an annual fodder production of 90
million tonnes of dry matter/annum.
Promotion of intensive/improved fodder Even if improved technologies are adopted

production technologies in cultivated fod- only in the area currently under fodder culti-
der areas: vation, the production can be at least dou-
The area under fodder crops is reported to bled. An increase in green fodder produc-
be static for the last 2-3 decades. tion to the tune of 300-350 million tonnes/
annum is possible.
Scientific utilization of traditional pas- –If the fodder production from these pastures
tures: can be doubled using improved technologies
About 2.59 million ha is under pastures in and grazing management, there can be an
Western India in the states of Gujarat and addition of 36 million tonnes of fodder from
Rajasthan. In Himachal Pradesh, it is about these areas.
1.2 million ha, accounting for 35.5% of the –Regulating grazing in tune with the capaci-
total area in the state. These are especially ties will ensure the sustainability of these
important for the landless livestock keepers, pastures.
whose livelihoods depend on the health and – There is a need to upgrade information on
productivity of these pastures. grazing lands and grazing resources with the
help of remote sensing and GIS approach.
Table 37.23 Strategies for improving the efficiency of fodder supplies
Strategy Anticipated impact
Establishment of fodder banks -This should The resource poor livestock owners most
be the strategy for drought-and flood-prone often lose their livestock due to the fodder
areas of the country and should aim at scarcity caused by these natural disasters.
transporting economically baled dry fodder Establishment of fodder banks will serve the
from surplus areas in view of the fact 8 major purpose of easing these scarcities. In
river valleys spread over 40 million ha in the addition, the surplus forages produced in
country and 40 million population is affected other parts of the country, currently wasted
by floods annually and 74 districts in the will also be efficiently utilized and will
country in 14 states and 86 million people contribute to reducing regional imbalances.
are affected annually by droughts.
Conversion of fodder into feed blocks This will support the initiative of setting up
fodder banks and will facilitate the
economical transport of fodder from surplus
areas.
Enrichment of straw/stover with urea This will help in alleviating the nutritional
deficiencies to some extent in the absence
of availability of adequate quantities of fodder
to fulfill the nutritional requirements of the
livestock and contribute to increased
production and incomes of rural populace.
(Contd . . .)
Strategy Anticipated impact
Hay/silage demonstrations This will help in easing the fodder scarcities

during lean season and bring about an even
distribution of available fodder throughout the
year.
Use of chaff cutters This improves the nutritive value of the

available fodder and will reduce the wastage
currently experienced while feeding.
Fodder seed production – emphasis on seed Quality forage seed in adequate quantities
processing and storage facilities is the key to increasing fodder production in
India. This will help in making seed of new
cultivars available to the majority of people
and aid in extensive adoption of intensive
production technologies.
Watershed development programmes Most watershed programmes have a

component of pasture development. There
is a need for such programmes to liaise with
R&D institutions engaged in developing
technologies for silvipastoral development to
maximize the impact of such efforts.
In addition, some strategies are required to increase the efficiency of the supply of
fodder in the various regions of the country. Some of them are outlined in Table 37.23.
In comparison to land, livestock are controlled more by the poor. In India, marginal
farmers (less than 1 ha) and small farmers (less than 2 ha) are owners of about 45%
and 20% of the livestock, respectively. Animal husbandry provides job opportunities
to about 20 million people (principal status 11 million and subsidiary status 9 million).
Hence, ecofriendly fodder production system is of prime importance. The demand
will reach to 1,170 million tonnes of green fodder, 650 million tonnes of dry forage
and 152 million tonnes of concentrate feed. At the current level of growth in forage
resources, there will be 65% deficit in green fodder and 25% deficit in dry fodder.
Green forage supply situation has to grow at the rate of 3.2%. Diversion of crop residues
for packaging and other industrial requirement as well as incorporation of crop residues
into soil will worsen the demand and supply situation. There is need for policy for
utilization of crop residues for industrial and agricultural sectors allowing only non-
edible crop residues for packaging and other industrial use. On account of more
emphasis on food production at the national level the actual potential of quality fodder
production for animal feed has not yet been fully tapped in the country which needs to
be accomplished.

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FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES 1353

37. Forage Crops and Grasses

Year Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Equine Camel Total

1995 180.5 82.8 4.0 9.2 0.5 0.9 278.0

Source: Based on X Five Year Plan Document, Government of India.

There is a shift in composition of livestock towards small ruminants due to natural

Demand for livestock products

Forage and feed – demand and supply scenario

1995 379.3 421 947 526 568 (59.95) 105 (19.95)

Year Requirement Availability Deficit (%)

2000 44.49 321.29 30.81 242.42 30.75 24.55

CP, Crude protein; TDN, total digestible nutrients.

Regional imbalances in fodder availability

Role of coarse grain cereals as crop residues

Area under fodder production

Crop Botanical name Area Green fodder

Berseem (Egyptian clover) Trifolium alexandrinum 1,900 60–110

Resources Gross area Percentage

Forests 69.41 22.70

Biodiversity in forage resources

Forage crop improvement

development activities in grasslands/grazing lands/rangelands. The future strategies

Biotechnological approaches of forage crop improvement

Table 37.6 Forage crop varieties released/notified during 1974-2008

Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

Cultivated fodder - legumes

(Table 37.6 continued)

Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

Charodi 1989 GAU, Anand Gujarat

Cultivated fodder - cereals

(Table 37.6 continued)

Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

Pusa Chari 23 1984 IARI, New Delhi Sorghum-growing areas in

(Table 37.6 continued)

Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

Cultivated fodder - grasses

(Table 37.6 continued)

Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

PGG 19 1989 PAU, Ludhiana Punjab

Range species - grasses

(Table 37.6 concluded)

Crop/variety Year of Institution Area of adaptation

H.P., Himachal Pradesh; M.P., Madhya Pradesh; U.P., Uttar Pradesh

Fodder production systems

Year-round forage production through combination of perennial and annual

Crop sequence Green fodder yield

Napier x Bajra hybrid + Cowpea - Berseem 260

Association of perennial grass and legume components

Intensive forage sequences recommended for different regions

• Hybrid Napier or Setaria inter-planted with cowpea in summer and Berseem in

Principles and practices of growing important irrigated fodder crops

Salient features of forage crops

Table 37.8 Packages of practices of some important fodder crops

Crop Seed Inter- Sowing Irrigation Harvesting GFY Seed

Sorghum 12-15 40-50 June- Depending on 70-75 35-40 1-1.2

Oat (Avena sativa)

Sorgum (Sorghum bicolor)

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Maize (Zea mays)