TN12 04exc
TN12 04exc
TN12 04exc
A source of optical radiation with characteristics calculable on the basis of fundamental physical laws
makes possible calibration of radiometers, spectroradiometers, radiation thermometers, and other
radiometric equipment. From theoretical point of view, a perfect blackbody is the most suitable object
for this purpose. If its thermodynamic temperature is known, spectral characteristics of blackbody
radiation can be computed using Planck’s law; the Stefan‐Boltzmann law determines total radiation
characteristics. However, a perfect blackbody is a physical abstraction that does not exist in real world.
The perfect blackbody conditions are approximately realized inside an isothermal cavity with opaque
walls. Radiation escaping a cavity through a tiny opening very closely imitates radiation of a perfect
blackbody. In order to employ an artificial blackbody as a standard reference source, it is necessary to
know how large are differences in radiation characteristics of a cavity and those of a perfect blackbody
due to geometry of a cavity, actual temperatures of its walls and optical properties of their material.
There are two different objects referred in literature as “blackbody”:
1. A theoretical object that completely absorbs all radiation incident upon it. Blackbody emits
maximal amount of radiant energy at given wavelength and given temperature in comparison
with all other radiating bodies.
2. An artificial source of optical radiation designed to simulate characteristics of a perfect
blackbody and used as a reference source with calculable radiation characteristics.
In order to differentiate them, we shall use the term “perfect blackbody” for a theoretical object,
keeping the term “blackbody” for an artificial source.
Quantitative measure of the difference in radiation characteristics between an artificial blackbody and a
perfect blackbody is the effective emissivity. The qualifier “effective” is used due to the effect produced
by multiple reflections. Unlike a flat sample, outgoing radiation of an element of a cavity wall consists
not only of its own thermal radiation, but also of radiation falling from other surface elements and
reflected by the element under consideration. The effective emissivity is determined by the cavity
geometry, optical properties of the cavity walls, viewing conditions, i.e., geometry of collecting the
cavity radiation, and the temperature distribution over the radiating surface.
Generally speaking, effective emissivity is the ratio of a radiometric quantity (usually, radiance or
spectral radiance) that characterizes a blackbody radiator at a certain temperature to the same quantity
of a perfect blackbody with the same temperature. However, real‐world cavities are always
nonisothermal. To avoid ambiguity in temperature assigned to the perfect blackbody in the effective
emissivity definition, the reference temperature Tref has to be introduced and assigned to the perfect
blackbody. Tref itself has no specific physical meaning; its choice, in general, is arbitrary. Depending on
the Tref choice, the spectral effective emissivity of a nonisothermal blackbody can take any positive
value, even be greater than unity. This means that the spectral radiance of a nonisothermal source is
greater than that of a perfect blackbody at the reference temperature, the same wavelength, and under
other equal conditions. If some areas of radiating surface has temperatures greater than Tref , the
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effective emissivity can exceed unity. Practically, in order to keep effective emissivity of the
nonisothermal blackbody comparable with those for the isothermal one, the temperature measured by
a contact temperature sensor is commonly used for Tref . Effective emissivity of a nonisothermal cavity
depends on the wavelength even if the cavity internal surface has wavelength‐independent optical
characteristics.
The quantities characterizing blackbody radiation sources are usually defined for the non‐refracting,
non‐absorbing, non‐scattering, and non‐emitting environment (i.e., vacuum at 0 K). It is also supposed
that optical properties of cavity walls do not depend on temperature. The effect of background
radiation will be considered later.
Spectral Local Directional Effective Emissivity
The primary characteristic of an artificial blackbody is the spectral local directional effective emissivity
e . It is defined by the following equation:
L , ξ, ω
e , ξ, ω, Tref
L ,bb , Tref
, (1)
where L is spectral radiance (in W∙m‐3∙sr‐1) of the radiation coming from a point on blackbody wall at a
particular wavelength , with coordinates specified by the vector ξ , and the direction in which the
radiation is emitted specified by the vector ω ; L , bb is spectral radiance of a perfect blackbody at a
reference temperature Tref and the same wavelength .
The numerator in Eq. (1) refers to the sum of own thermal radiation of the surface element and
radiation that is falling from all possible directions and is reflected by this element in the direction ω .
Denominator in Eq. (1) is expressed by the Planck law:
L ,bb , Tref c
c1
, (2)
5 exp 2 1
Tref
where c1 = 3.74177153 × 10‐16 W∙m2 and c2 = 1.4387770 × 10‐2 m∙K are the 1st and 2nd radiation
constants, respectively [1].
2
Radiation characteristics of a blackbody with inhomogeneous temperature can differ significantly from
those of the isothermal blackbody. As it was already mentioned, the effective emissivity of a
nonisothermal radiator can take any positive value, depending on the reference temperature choice.
However, the spectral radiances of a blackbody do not change their values at any choice of Tref . If Tref
are two reference temperatures, then
and Tref
c
exp 2 1
T
e , ξ, ω, Tref e , ξ, ω, Tref . (3)
ref
c
exp 2 1
T
ref
Bandlimited and Total Local Directional Effective Emissivities
Integration of Eq. (1) over the entire spectrum together with the relative spectral responsivity r of a
detector, gives the bandlimited local directional effective emissivity:
r L , ξ, ω d
e , ξ, ω, Tref 0
. (4)
r
0
L , ξ,
,bb ω , T d ref
Integration over the entire spectrum for r 1 reduces Eq. (4) to a ratio of radiances. The Stefan‐
Boltzmann law allows defining total local directional effective emissivity:
Lξ, ω
e ξ, ω, Tref , (5)
Tref
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where L is radiance (in W∙m‐2∙sr‐1) of the cavity wall and = 5.670400 × 10‐8 W∙m‐2∙K‐4 is the Stefan‐
Boltzmann constant [1].
Hemispherical and Integrated Effective Emissivities
Integration of Eq. (1) over a hemispherical solid angle transforms the spectral local directional effective
emissivity e , ξ, ω, Tref to the spectral hemispherical effective emissivity e,h ,ξ, Tref and the term
for spectral radiance L to that for spectral radiant exitance M . According to Lambert’s law, spectral
radiance of the perfect blackbody does not depend on the angle of observation and can be expressed
through the spectral exitance M (surface density of the emitted radiant power):
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The spectral, bandlimited, and total hemispherical effective emissivities are defined by the following
three equations:
M , ξ M , ξ
e, h , ξ, Tref
M ,bb , Tref
L ,bb , Tref
, (7)
r M , ξ d
r M , ξ d
e,h , ξ, Tref 0
1
, (8)
r M , T d r L , T d
,bb ref ,bb ref
0 0
M ξ M ξ
e, h ξ, Tref
M bb Tref
Tref
4
. (9)
Often, it is needed to know the spectral integrated effective emissivity. This quantity, e,c , is the ratio of
the spectral radiant flux falling onto the detector from a blackbody to the spectral radiant flux
,bb falling from a perfectly black surface, that replaces a blackbody aperture and has the temperature
Tref :
e,c , Tref
,bb , Tref
. (10)
The bandlimited and total integrated effective emissivities can be expressed as:
r d
e,c , , Tref 0
. (11)
r
0
, T d
,bb ref
e,c Tref
bb Tref
. (12)
Depending on particular viewing conditions used for various types of radiometers, radiation
thermometers, etc., one can define appropriate types of effective emissivities by averaging local
directional effective emissivity over a visible part of cavity’s internal surface and an appropriate solid
angle.
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Effect of Background Radiation
All previous definitions have been done for a non‐radiating background environment while the real
environment may have temperature greater than absolute zero. Thermal radiation from the
surrounding environment falls onto the aperture of a blackbody and can irradiate detector after
multiple reflections inside the cavity. The simplest case of isotropic radiation of a perfect blackbody with
the background temperature Tbg is usually considered. The effect of background radiation is taken into
account by the second term in the Eq. (13):
c
exp 2 1
Tref
e , ξ, ω, Tref , Tbg e , ξ, ω, Tref 1 e , ξ, ω , (13)
c
exp 2 1
Tbg
where e , ξ, ω, Tref , Tbg is spectral effective emissivity of a nonisothermal blackbody taking into
account background radiation; e , ξ, ω, Tref does not include this correction; e , ξ, ω is spectral
effective emissivity of an isothermal blackbody.
The bandlimited and total effective emissivities of a nonisothermal blackbody with the account of the
background radiation can be defined by equations:
r , ξ, ω,T
e ref , Tbg d
e , ξ, ω, Tref , Tbg
0
r , ξ, ω, T
0
e ref , Tbg L ,bb , Tref d
c , (14)
r 1 e , ξ, ω exp 2 1
Tref
e ξ, ω, Tbg d
c
exp 2 1
0
Tbg
4
T
e ξ, ω, Tref , Tbg e ξ, ω, Tref 1 e ξ, ω bg . (15)
Tref
Correction for the background radiation can be neglected if Tbg Tref .
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Radiometric Temperatures
Radiance temperature TS is defined [2] as temperature of a perfect blackbody, for which the spectral
radiance at the given wavelength has the same value as for thermal radiator under consideration.
Radiance temperature is sometimes called brightness temperature in such areas as remote sensing,
astrophysics, etc. The radiance temperature TS is defined by the equation:
L , ξ, ω L ,bb , TS . (16)
For an artificial blackbody, the radiance temperature can be expressed through the spectral effective
emissivity:
1
c
exp 2 1
Tref
TS , ξ, ω c2 ln 1
e
. (17)
, ξ, ω, Tref
Eqs. (16) and (17) are also written for zero background radiation. Note that the radince temperature
does not depend on Tref but depends on wavelength and viewing conditions.
Radiation temperature TR is defined [2] via the Stefan‐Boltzmann law:
TR ξ, ω Tref 4 e ξ, ω, Tref . (11)
The practical radiation thermometers do not measure the radiance (monochromatic), or the radiation
(total) temperature. If r is the relative spectral responsivity of the radiation thermometer ( r is
determined by the spectral transmittance of optical components, spectral sensitivity of the detector,
and by other factors), certain “effective” values will be registered. The bandlimited radiance
temperature TS can be found from the equation
which has be solved numerically.
It should be noted that terms and definitions of bandlimited values are absent in standards and
regulations [2, 3] as well as in other normative documents. This fact does not prevent researchers to use
them (see, e.g., [4, 5]).
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References
1. P. J. Mohr, B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, “CODATA recommended values of the fundamental
physical constants: 2010,” http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Preprints/lsa2010.pdf.
2. International Lighting Vocabulary. 4th Edition. CIE Publication No. 17.4 (1987) /International
Electrotechnical Vocabulary. Chapter 845: Lighting – International Electrotechnical Commission.
Publication 50(845), 1987, Geneva, Switzerland.
3. Nomenclature and Definitions for Illuminating Engineering. American National Standard –
Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. ANSI/IES RP–16–1986
(ANSI Standard Z7.1–1967).
4. Y. Ohwada, “Numerical calculation of bandlimited effective emissivity,” Appl. Optics 24, 280‐283
(1985).
5. V. B. Khromchenko, S. N. Mekhontsev, and L. M. Hanssen, “Design and Evaluation of Large‐
Aperture Gallium Fixed‐Point Blackbody,” Int. J. Thermophys. 30, 9‐19 (2009).