Child and Adolescent Emotion Regulation: The Role of Parental Emotion Regulation and Expression

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Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212

DOI 10.1007/s10567-011-0092-5

Child and Adolescent Emotion Regulation: The Role of Parental


Emotion Regulation and Expression
Emily Bariola • Eleonora Gullone •

Elizabeth K. Hughes

Published online: 19 March 2011


Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Abstract This paper reviews current literature relating to Keywords Emotion regulation  Emotional expression 
parent and child emotional functioning, specifically their Adolescents  Parents
emotion regulatory skills and emotional expression.
Included are considerations regarding theoretical, meth-
odological, and sampling strengths and weaknesses of This paper will review theory and empirical research on
existing literature. On the basis of the review, several parent emotion regulation (ER), parent emotional expres-
directions for future research are proposed. First, it is sion and child ER. Deficits in emotion regulatory abilities
argued that consistency in the measurement of emotion are known to contribute to the manifestation of external-
regulation is necessary, including assessment of more izing and internalizing psychological disorders (Southam-
refined theoretical conceptualizations of regulatory types, Gerow and Kendall 2002; Yap et al. 2007). Indeed, poor
skills, or strategies. Second, it is argued that emotion reg- regulation of emotions is implicated in more than half of
ulation developmental research examining the post-early the Axis I disorders included in the Diagnostic and Sta-
childhood period is necessary in order to contribute to a tistical Manual of Mental Disorders and all of the Axis II
more comprehensive understanding of youths’ emotion disorders (Gross and Levenson 1997). Therefore, identi-
regulation. Finally, it is argued that greater examination of fying factors that influence the development of ER may be
paternal influences on child emotional functioning, in integral to the prevention and treatment of psychopathol-
addition to maternal influences, is required. Consideration ogy. In this regard, it is noteworthy that parenting and
of these issues in future emotion regulation research will family experiences have been documented to play a
ideally contribute to a greater understanding of the mech- fundamental role in children’s emotional development
anisms involved in child and adolescent development of (Repetti et al. 2002). As the review will demonstrate,
optimal regulatory capacities. however, very few studies have examined the associations
between child ER and key parental factors such as parent
emotional functioning, emotional expression, and ER.
The review begins with a discussion of the ER construct,
its definition, conceptualization and measurement. There is
E. Bariola  E. Gullone (&)  E. K. Hughes a particular focus on Gross’ (1998b) widely accepted model
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, of ER, its proposed ER strategies and associated etiological
Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia and outcome factors. This discussion is followed by reviews
e-mail: Eleonora.Gullone@monash.edu
of (1) the role of parental socialization factors in relation to
E. K. Hughes child ER developmental outcomes, and (2) associations
Centre for Adolescent Health, Royal Children’s Hospital, between parental ER and emotional expression and child
Melbourne, Australia ER. The review concludes with consideration of the main
limitations of the reviewed research, along with several
E. K. Hughes
Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, recommendations for future research and their associated
Australia implications for this field of psychological inquiry.

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Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212 199

The Construct of Emotion Regulation that the processes of emotion recognition and regulation
are independent. In contrast, Campos et al. (2004) present a
Conceptualization and Measurement one-factor model and argue that emotion and ER occur
concurrently, since emotions regulate behavior as they are
Two major schools of thought have emerged from emo- simultaneously being regulated. Counter to both models,
tions research: (1) emotions can be interpreted as irrational Kagan (1994) has argued that the incompleteness of our
or unreasonable, reflecting and causing destruction within knowledge of emotions is such that we cannot separate
our thought processes and concurrent behavior (Young emotions from regulation.
1943), and (2) emotions can be interpreted as mechanisms Further to these conceptualization issues, there have
of adaptation that help us identify what is detrimental or been significant inconsistencies in the measurement of ER
helpful to our well-being and general functioning (Lazarus across studies. For example, researchers have examined ER
1991). Both schools of thought have gained merit (John as both a state and a trait (Cole et al. 2004), as the venting
and Gross 2004). However, more recently the former per- of frustration (Calkins and Johnson 1998) and as the pro-
spective has largely fallen out of favor, and it is now pensity of toddlers to engage in self-soothing behavior
generally accepted that emotions serve a functional pur- (Garner 1995). Some researchers have conceptualized
pose by assisting in the initiation, maintenance, modifica- optimal ER with a sole emphasis on decreasing negative
tion, and termination of relationships between an individual affect (Garner and Power 1996) while others have main-
and their environment (Campos et al. 1994). tained that they have assessed ER though measures of
Over the last three decades, awareness of the functional coping strategies (Contreras et al. 2000). At variance again,
role that emotions play in developmental trajectories has the functionalist perspective conceptualizes ER in terms of
stimulated a burgeoning amount of empirical research in the utilization of various cognitive and behavioral strate-
the emotions domain. This research has contributed to the gies (Thompson 1994).
understanding that it is often necessary to exercise a degree
of management or control over our emotions (Gross Gross’ (1998b) Process-Oriented Model of ER
1998b). Emotion management facilitates healthy and
adaptive psychosocial and emotional functioning (Bridges Inspired by the functionalist perspective, Gross’ (1998b)
et al. 2004). Recognition of the importance of emotion developed a process-oriented model of ER. According to
management processes has given rise to the development the model, at the beginning of the emotion production
of the emotion regulation (ER) construct defined as process, an individual evaluates cues from emotion-elicit-
involving ‘‘extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for ing situations or stimuli, and these evaluations lead to
monitoring, evaluating and modifying emotional reactions, response tendencies of a behavioral or physiological nature
especially their intensive and temporal features, to which ultimately contribute to either adaptive or mal-
accomplish one’s goals’’ (Thompson 1994, pp. 27–28). It is adaptive responses to the situation or stimulus. Of theo-
generally accepted that regulatory processes can be both retical emphasis is the proposition that these response
automatic and controlled (Gross 1998b; Valiente and tendencies can be manipulated to change the trajectory and
Eisenberg 2006), and that ER incorporates management of final outcome of the emotional response (Gross 1998b,
both positive and negative emotions (Parrot 1993). As an 2001).
example of regulating a negative emotion, consider the In the model’s broadest conception, ER strategies are
grief experienced over the loss of a family pet. In such proposed to fall within two major categories: (1) anteced-
circumstances, one could continue to wallow in sadness or ent-focused strategies and (2) response-focused strategies.
one could find contentment in memories of good times The former change the response tendency by occurring
spent together. In contrast, inhibiting or controlling the prior to its complete activation, thus influencing the entire
expression of excitement when one is dealt a good hand in emotion-generative process. In contrast, response-focused
a card game is an example of regulating a positive emotion. strategies occur subsequent to the emotion response ten-
Due to the infancy of this field of research, there remains dency, thereby limiting their impact. In addition, given
limited consensus regarding the conceptualization and, to a their late occurrence in the temporal process, they require
related degree, the operationalization of the ER construct. some degree of effort in controlling the continual occur-
For example, there is a longstanding debate over whether a rence of response tendencies (John and Gross 2004).
one- or two-factor model best represent ER processes. Within these two broad conceptual classes of strategies
Advocates of the two-factor model argue that emotion is are two that have been operationalized and have conse-
conceptually different to ER because emotions can have a quently received a substantial amount of research attention
different impact on behavior depending on how they are (Gross and John 2003). They are (1) the antecedent-
regulated (Cole et al. 2004). These authors also maintain focused strategy of cognitive reappraisal and (2) the

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200 Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212

response-focused strategy of expressive suppression. who reported high levels of depressive symptomatology
Reappraisal involves redefining an emotionally eliciting also reported more suppression use and less reappraisal use
situation such that its emotional impact is modified, and as compared to adolescents who reported low levels of
suppression involves the inhibition of emotion expression depressive symptomatology.
(Gross 1998b). Beyond suppression and reappraisal use, a great deal of
research has examined ER more generally with findings
Functionality of Emotion Regulation Strategies that implicate its role in many facets of normative social,
emotional, and psychological functioning and development
In terms of their functional or adaptive nature, Gross and (Zeman et al. 2006). For example, within a middle child-
colleagues have identified divergent physiological, affec- hood sample, McDowell et al. (2002) found that ER
tive, social, and cognitive consequences for these two strategy use was related to children’s social competence.
particular strategies (Gross 1998a; Gross and John 2003; Specifically, girls who were rated by their teachers as
Richards et al. 2003; Richards and Gross 1999; Richards socially avoidant exhibited less reasoning and more sad
and Gross 2000; Srivastava et al. 2009). Utilizing a self- responses (interpreted as maladaptive ER strategy use),
report measure (i.e., the Emotion Regulation Question- while girls rated as positive in social situations exhibited
naire, ERQ; Gross and John 2003), empirical research has fewer nervous responses to negative emotion-eliciting
supported the general conclusion that reappraisal is an vignettes (interpreted as adaptive strategy use) (McDowell
adaptive strategy while suppression is a maladaptive et al. 2002).
strategy (John and Gross 2004). Moreover, dysregulated emotions have been associated
Evidence has indicated that suppressors generally with both externalizing and internalizing problems in early
express less positive emotion, have low self-esteem, low childhood through to adolescence (Buckner et al. 2003;
life satisfaction and greater depressive symptomatology Eisenberg et al. 2001a; Sheeber et al. 2000; Silk et al.
than do reappraisers (Gross and John 2003). Nevertheless, 2003). This is not surprising given that many psychopath-
it is important to note that the maladaptive consequences of ological disorders are characterized by the presence of
suppression may be contextually relative. For example, emotion-related symptoms including inappropriate affect,
both reappraisal and suppression use are positively asso- worry, elation, dejection, predominance, or absence of
ciated with perceptions of successful regulation (Gross and particular emotions and constant negative affect (Cole et al.
John 2003). Additionally, maladaptive consequences of 1994).
suppression use may be culturally relative. For example,
among collectivist cultures, freely expressed emotion The Etiology of ER Competencies
(especially negative emotion) is often discouraged as it is
thought to disrupt group cohesiveness and social harmony The important role played by ER, as documented across
(Stephan et al. 1996). Providing empirical support for this, the normative to clinical spectrum, provides strong
Butler et al. (2007) found that suppressers who held rationale for examining the etiology of individual differ-
Western-European values had poorer social outcomes ences in ER strategy utilization. Indeed, many intrinsic
during interpersonal interactions than did suppressers who mechanisms have been identified as being influential to
held Asian values. Thus, despite suppression as a habitual the development of skills necessary to effectively regulate
response style typically being found to be maladaptive, the one’s emotions. These include neurological (Fox 1994;
consequences of different ER strategies may be both cul- Porges et al. 1994; Quirk 2007; Stansbury and Gunnar
turally and contextually relative, and this should be an 1994), genetic (Goldsmith et al. 1997; Hariri and Forbes
important consideration during research design. 2007), and temperamental influences (Calkins 2004).
Although the reappraisal and suppression strategies have A potential exogenous factor contributing to the devel-
predominantly been researched in adult populations, a opment of ER during childhood and adolescence that has
small number of recent studies have examined their use in gained a great deal of empirical support is social context
children and adolescents. These studies provide further (Campos et al. 1989; Cole et al. 2004; Thompson 1994). A
support for the more functional nature of reappraisal range of social factors have been proposed to be linked to
compared to suppression demonstrated with adult samples. ER development, including interactions with parents,
For example, Hughes et al. (2010) reported that children teachers, and peers, as well as more distal societal influ-
aged 10–14 years who engaged in school refusal behavior ences such as culture and the media (Eisenberg and Morris
and were diagnosed with at least one anxiety disorder 2002; Klimes-Dougan et al. 2007; Morris et al. 2007;
reported more suppression use and less reappraisal use Thompson 1994). Indeed, Thompson (1994) suggested that
compared to their non-clinical counterparts. Additionally, the adaptability and effectiveness of ER processes depend
Betts et al. (2009) found that adolescents aged 12–16 years on both social setting demands and on interactions with

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Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212 201

social partners given their importance for goal gain an understanding of others emotional expression
achievement. (Halberstadt et al. 1995). Halberstadt et al. (1999) differ-
Consequently and not surprisingly, there has been an entiated between two conceptualizations or ways of
emphasis placed on the importance of the parental role in indexing parental emotional expression in the family: (1)
children’s developing ability to self-regulate their emotions the frequency and valence of parental emotional expression
(Denham 1998; Holodynski and Friedlmeier 2006; Kopp directed at a particular family member and (2) parents’
1989; Thompson 1990). A plethora of empirical research propensity to generally express positive and/or negative
implicates the important contribution of many parental emotions in the family. The latter conceptualization of
emotion socialization factors to children’s developing emotional expression is referred to as ‘‘the predominant
ability to regulate their emotions. Included, but not style of exhibiting nonverbal and verbal expression within
restricted to, are parental responsiveness to children’s a family’’ (Halberstadt et al. 1995 p. 93). Darling and
displays of emotion (Cassano et al. 2007; Eisenberg et al. Steinberg (1993) argued that this general means of exhib-
1999; Yap et al. 2008), parenting styles that are controlling iting emotion in the family context contributes to an overall
or hostile versus warm and caring (Jaffe et al. 2010; affective environment that may mediate or facilitate the
McDowell et al. 2002; Morris et al. 2002) and of particular relations between parent emotionality and their child’s
significance to the current review is the increasing empir- emotionality.
ical interest in the role of parent emotional expression and The frequency, intensity, and valence of parental emo-
parent emotion regulation (Morris et al. 2007). tional expression in the family context have been related to
Table 1 summarizes characteristics of 29 key studies many aspects of child and adolescent emotional and social
that have examined associations between the parental development (Eisenberg et al. 1998). For example, Fosco
emotion socialization factors and child ER reviewed and Grych (2007) found that children aged 8–12 years
herein. A comprehensive review examining the plethora of whose parents’ expressed more frequent negative emotion
existing research that has examined parental influences on and less frequent positive emotion were more likely to
their children’s ER development is considered to be attribute self-blame for the conflict present in their parents’
beyond the scope of this review (refer to Morris et al. 2007 relationship. Additionally, parental emotional expression
for a more comprehensive review), thus the studies inclu- was found to moderate the relationship between the degree
ded in Table 1 were selected on the basis of their focus on of inter-parental conflict and the child’s level of malad-
the parental socialization factors that relate most closely to justment. That is, inter-parental conflict was associated
the focus of this review. The studies included have with greater child externalizing and internalizing problems
examined parental contingent responses to children’s dis- when combined with less positive or more negative emo-
plays of emotion, parenting styles, parental emotional tional expression.
expression, and parental emotion regulation. What is most Despite several studies examining relationships between
evident from the reviewed studies is that the samples parental emotional expression and child ER, the vast
investigated have been mainly non-clinical, within the majority have been restricted to toddlers and young chil-
early childhood period of development and have examined dren and have only examined the influence of maternal,
predominantly maternal socialization factors. ER has and not paternal, expression. For example, in a couple of
mostly been assessed by the one index of amount or degree studies, it was found that mothers who frequently expres-
of regulation; however, there is significant variability in the sed positive emotion had toddlers and preschool-aged
assessment methods across studies. children who exhibited more ER (Garner 1995; Garner and
Of specific relevance to the review is the growing Power 1996). In these studies, ER was indexed by
empirical interest in the association between parental engagement in self-soothing behavior, whereby more ER
emotional expression and child ER. was interpreted as more adaptive (Garner 1995) and
degree/type of emotion expressed during a disappointment
inducing task (Garner and Power 1996). Consistent with
Parental Emotional Expression and Child Emotion theoretical expectations, in both studies, mothers who fre-
Regulation quently expressed negative emotion had children who
exhibited poor ER. Congruent support was provided by
Parents’ emotional expression has long been considered by Eisenberg et al. (2001b) who found that mothers who
developmental psychologists as integral to a child’s reported expressing frequent positive emotion and infre-
developing emotional and social competence (Dix 1991). quent negative emotion toward their child, rated their 4.5-
Parental emotional expression within the family context is to 8-year-old children as using more ER. The researchers
of particular importance as this is the primary context in concluded that mothers who frequently express negative
which children first learn about emotional display rules and affect may themselves have poor regulatory abilities and

123
Table 1 Summary of key studies examining parental emotion socialization factors and child ER
202

Authors Age of child Clinical status Conceptualization of child ER Assessment method of child Parental socialization factor Assessment method of Parent
sample of sample ER parental socialization (s) sample

123
Calkins et al. 2 years Non-clinical Emotional reactions (aggression, Behavioral observation and Maternal inter-active style Behavioral observation Mothers
(1998) distraction, object focus) to psycho physiological (negative controlling and
emotionally salient tasks & vagal measurement positive guidance)
tone
Cassano et al. 6–11 years Non-clinical ER strategy use (inhibition, Parent report Parental contingent responses Parent report Mothers
(2007) dysregulation and coping) to their children’s displays and
of emotion fathers
Cole et al. 3–5 years Non-clinical ER strategy generation and Behavioral observation Parental contingent responses Behavioral observation Mothers
(2009) recognition (self-focused internal to their children’s displays
& external, of emotion
problem-focused)
Del Vecchio 2–4 years Non-clinical Presence/absence of misbehavior Behavioral observation Parenting styles (mothers’ lax Behavioral observation Mothers
and Rhoades and frequency of negative or over reactive discipline)
(2010) affective displays
Eisenberg M ages: 58, Non-clinical A composite index of ER Parent report Parental contingent responses Parent report Mothers
et al. (1999) 88, 107 & capturing amount of ER to their children’s displays of and
132 months emotion fathers
Eisenberg 6.5–10 years Non-clinical A composite index of ER Mother and teacher report Maternal emotional expression Mother report and Mothers
et al. (2003) capturing amount of ER and behavioral behavioral observation
observation
Eisenberg M ages: 9.3, Non-clinical Use of effortful control Parent and teacher report Parental propensity to be warm Behavioral observation Mothers
et al. (2005) 11.4 & (capturing amount of ER) and behavioral and
13.4 years observation fathers
Eisenberg and 4–6 years Non-clinical ER strategy use (attentional Mother and teacher report Parental contingent responses Mother report Mothers
Fabes control, negative affect, and behavioral to their children’s displays
(1994) escape and vent) observation of emotion
Eisenberg 8-13 years Non-clinical Coping strategy use (constructive Mother and teacher report Parental contingent responses Parent report Mothers
et al. (1996) coping and avoidance coping) to their children’s displays and
of emotion fathers
Eisenberg 4.5–8 years Non-clinical A composite index of ER Mother and teacher report Maternal emotional expression Mother report and Mothers
et al. capturing amount of ER and behavioral behavioral observation
(2001b) observation
Garber et al. 8–13 years Clinical (mothers Number and quality of ER Responses to hypothetical Maternal ER: number and Responses to hypothetical Mothers
(1991) with major strategies used emotion scenarios and quality of ER strategies emotion scenarios and
depressive then judged by then judged by
disorder) independent raters independent raters
Garner (1995) M age: Non-clinical Engagement in self-soothing Behavioral observation Maternal emotional expression Mother report Mothers
17.7 months behavior (capturing amount
of ER)
Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212
Table 1 continued
Authors Age of child Clinical status Conceptualization of child ER Assessment method of child Parental socialization factor Assessment method of Parent
sample of sample ER parental socialization (s) sample

Garner and 4–5 years Non-clinical Degree/type of emotion expressed Behavioral observation Maternal emotional expression Behavioral observation and Mothers
Power during a disappointment mother report
(1996) inducing task
Graziano et al. 2, 4.5 & Non-clinical A global index of ER capturing Mother report Maternal behavior (sensitivity/ Behavioral observation Mothers
(2010) 5.5 years amount of ER, use of effortful responsiveness, overcontrol/
control and reactive control intrusiveness, warmth/
positive affect)
Greenberg 1st grade Clinical (child An index of ER capturing amount Teacher report Parental emotional expression Parent report Mothers
et al. (1999) children conduct of ER and
problems) fathers
Jaffe et al. 9–12 years Non-clinical ER strategy use (reappraisal and Child report Parental propensity to be caring Child report Mothers
Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212

(2010) suppression) or overprotective and


fathers
Karreman 3 years Non-clinical Use of effortful control (capturing Behavioral observation and Various parenting styles Behavioral observation and Mothers
et al. (2008) amount of ER) parent report (e.g. Positive control, parent report and
negative control and warmth). fathers
McDowell M age: Non-clinical Coping strategy use (anger, sad, Child responses to Parental interactive style Behavioral observation Mothers
et al. (2002) 10.03 years nervous, reasoning responses) vignettes, then judged by and
raters fathers
Morris et al. M age: Non-clinical Use of effortful control and Mother report Maternal negative parenting Child report Mothers
(2002) 7.6 years irritable distress (capturing (hostility and control)
amount of ER)
Ramsden and 4th grade Non-clinical A composite index of ER Mother and teacher report Maternal emotional expression Mother report Mothers
Hubbard children capturing amount of ER
(2002)
Robinson 1–3 years Non-clinical Affect intensity and use of Behavioral observation Parental positive affect Behavioral observation Mothers
et al. (2009) effortful control intensity and parental anger and
intensity fathers
Sheeber et al. 12–19 years Clinical Duration of negative affective Behavioral observation Maternal facilitation of Behavioral observation Mothers
(2000) (adolescent behavior adolescent depressive
unipolar behavior
affective
disorder)
Shipman et al. 6–12 years Non-clinical ER styles (adaptive ER & lability/ Mother report Parental contingent responses to Behavioral observation Mothers
(2007) negativity their children’s displays of
emotion
Silk et al. 4–7 years Clinical (mothers ER strategy use (waiting passively Behavioral observation Maternal depression Clinical diagnosis Mothers
(2006) with and engaging in distraction)
childhood-
onset
depression)
203

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204 Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212

(s) sample
that their child’s persistent exposure to this may lead to

fathers

fathers
Mothers

Mothers

Mothers

Mothers

Mothers
Parent internalization and modeling (Eisenberg et al. 2001b).

and

and
In a follow-up study, Eisenberg et al. (2003) investi-
gated whether there was stability in the observed rela-
tionships over time. They reported that while the positive
Behavioral observation

Behavioral observation

Maternal negative and positive Behavioral observation


Assessment method of

relationship between maternal positive emotional expres-


parental socialization

and parent report


sion and maternal-rated child ER remained stable, a con-
tradictory relationship was found, whereby more frequent
Mother report
Parent report

maternal negative emotional expression was related to


children’s greater use of ER as reported by the children’s
teacher. Similarly, Greenberg et al. (1999) found that self-
reported frequent parental emotional expression, irrespec-
Parental emotional expression
Parental contingent responses

Parental contingent responses


tive of valence, was a significant predictor of children’s use
(responsiveness and power
to their children’s displays

to their children’s displays


Assessment method of child Parental socialization factor

of more ER as reported by teachers in a sample of children


in 1st grade. On the basis of these findings, Greenberg et al.
argued that regardless of valence, greater communication,
affect displays
Parenting styles

and emotional expression in the family contributes to a


of emotion

of emotion

more socially and emotionally adept child, as such an


assertion)

environment provides children with more opportunities to


regulate and observe regulation practices.
Several explanations have been ascribed to the incon-
sistencies found between parental negative expressivity
Mother and teacher report

Child report & behavioral

Child report & behavioral


Child report (diary data)
Behavioral observation

and child ER across studies. For example, Halberstadt et al.


(1999) asserted that the discrete subtypes of negative
emotion need to be specified as they may have differential
observation

observation

effects on childhood developmental outcomes. Indeed, in


one study with a sample of children aged between 7 and
12 years, it was shown that maternal expression of negative
ER

dominant emotion (such as anger and hostility) had an


inverse relationship with their child’s ability to cope with
Coping strategy use (constructive

Maladaptive ER strategy use &

Maladaptive ER strategy use &


Ability to down-regulate anger
Conceptualization of child ER

stress, whereas maternal expression of negative submissive


frequency and valence of

frequency and valence of

emotion (such as sadness) was unrelated to the child out-


capturing amount of ER
A composite index of ER
and non-constructive)

come (Valiente et al. 2004).


An alternative explanation for the inconsistencies found
affective displays

affective displays

between parental negative expressivity and child ER is that


there may be a curvilinear relationship between negative
expressivity and child ER, whereby a moderate degree of
negative expression may provide an optimal environment
for children to learn effective coping and regulatory skills
(Halberstadt et al. 1999). It has also been argued that the
Clinical status

conceptualization and measurement of ER in a more multi-


Non-clinical

Non-clinical

Non-clinical

Non-clinical

Non-clinical
of sample

faceted way (e.g., by examining different ER strategies) may


provide less equivocal findings regarding the impact nega-
tive emotion expression has on the many different compo-
nents of a child’s ER (Halberstadt et al. 1999). However, no
Age of child

11–13 years

11–13 years
Valiente et al. 7–12 years

Altan (2010) 5.2 years

research to date has confirmed these hypotheses. Finally, as


6 years

Table 1 demonstrates, there is significant diversity in the


Yagmurlu and M age:
sample

measurement of ER across studies of parental emotion


Table 1 continued

socialization and child ER. Thus, increased consistency in


Snyder et al.

the way ER is conceptualized and measured may provide


Yap et al.

Yap et al.

greater congruence in future research findings.


(2003)

(2004)

(2008)

(2010)
Authors

As is also evident from the studies presented in Table 1,


a range of parental emotion socialization factors are

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Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212 205

associated with child ER development. Of particular similar strategies when confronted with their own emo-
interest is the association between parental ER and child tionally eliciting situations.
ER. Within the context of pathological development and
consistent with a modeling hypothesis, Cole et al. (1994)
proposed that children develop similar ER strategies as
Parent Emotion Regulation and Child Emotion their parents via means of internalization. They argued that
Regulation parents experiencing psychopathology may have dysregu-
lated emotions and therefore lack the skills necessary to be
It has been argued that for a parent to be an effective and adequate models for their children. They also argued that
adequate emotion socialization agent for their child, they parental affective displays reflect parents’ own ER. That is,
must have sufficient emotional understanding as well as the displays of frequent positive affect may be a reflection of
ability to effectively and adaptively manage their own parents’ use of adaptive and effective ER strategies, while
emotions. Indeed, parental dysregulated emotions may frequent expression of negative affect may reflect dysreg-
contribute to inappropriate emotional expression or expe- ulated emotions resulting from the utilization of ineffective
rience, which may, in turn, contribute to poor emotion ER.
developmental outcomes for children as well as deficits in Only two known studies have been conducted to test this
the parent–child relationship (Dix 1991). Several research posited model of imitation or internalization of ER
studies have provided support for this hypothesis. For capacities. In a study of mothers with childhood-onset
example, parents’ inappropriate contingent responses to depression and mothers with no depression, distress was
their child’s emotional displays and parental difficulty in induced in their 4- to 7-year-old children via experimental
reverting back to a positive emotional state during family manipulation (Silk et al. 2006). Examination of children’s
conflict are considered to be indicative of dysregulated regulatory styles in response to distress indicated that
emotions. Such interactions have been associated with poor children of depressed mothers were more likely to engage
social, behavioral, and emotional competence in children in the regulatory strategy of waiting passively (interpreted
(Carson and Parke 1996; Compton et al. 2003; Denham as a maladaptive style of ER) rather than actively engaging
et al. 1997). However, it is noteworthy that, to the authors’ in distraction (an adaptive style of ER) than children of
knowledge, there is no extant research examining the direct non-depressed mothers. Silk et al. (2006) proposed that
relationships between parental ER and child emotional or maladaptive ER strategies utilized by depressed mothers
social outcomes. The examination of differential child create a negative or punitive emotional climate within
outcomes as dependent on parental use of suppression as which the child develops maladaptive ER strategies. It is
compared to reappraisal, for example, would be an noteworthy, however, that maternal regulatory styles were
important and germane addition to this field of not actually assessed. Rather, it was simply assumed that
investigation. the depressed cohort utilized maladaptive ER strategies.
Based on the substantial amount of evidence implicating In a second study involving older children (aged
parental emotion socialization factors as integral to a 8–13 years), there were congruent findings with the addi-
child’s developing ER capacities, it has been posited by a tional methodological advantage of assessing maternal
number of prominent ER theorists that children imitate strategy use (Garber et al. 1991). Specifically, depressed
their parents’ modes of ER through the pathways of and non-depressed mothers and their children were
modeling and social referencing (Bridges et al. 2004; administered sadness-eliciting vignettes and asked to report
Denham 1998; Morris et al. 2007; Thompson 1994). In the ER strategies they would use in the provided hypo-
their seminal review, Morris et al. (2007) proposed an thetical emotional situations. The number and quality of
observational learning paradigm, arguing that parents ER strategies reported by the participants to regulate their
provide models of emotion displays (inclusive of regula- negative emotion were assessed by independent raters. It
tory strategies) that are subsequently imitated by their was found that depressed mothers and their children
children. The authors theorized that parental ER facilitates reported significantly fewer and poorer quality ER strate-
an affective environment through which children learn the gies, as compared to non-depressed mothers and their
appropriateness of emotional expression in terms of its children.
valence, duration, and intensity. Thompson (1994) pro- Given that only two known studies have examined the
vided the example of a child’s constant exposure to a associations between parent ER and child ER, it is clear
caregiver’s suppression of their emotions to illustrate the that many important gaps of knowledge exist in this liter-
modeling hypothesis. He argued that constant exposure to ature. For example, the mechanisms through which the
this style of ER may lead the child to imitate their parents’ relationship between parent and child ER manifests have
way of managing their emotions, ultimately utilizing not been directly investigated. Modeling hypotheses have

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been posited (Bridges et al. 2004; Denham 1998; Morris Emotion Regulation During Later Childhood
et al. 2007; Thompson 1994), proposing that parents’ fre- and Adolescence
quency, intensity, and valence of their emotional expres-
sion may be the mechanisms through which children learn The majority of studies that have examined child ER and
to model their parents ER (Morris et al. 2007). It has also overall parental influences have been based on samples
been proposed that exposure to a varying range of emotions within the infancy through early childhood developmental
elicited in a socially appropriate manner enables a child to periods (John and Gross 2004). These are important peri-
utilize adaptive and effective ways of regulating their own ods of emotional development to empirically examine as
emotions (Morris et al. 2007). It is argued herein that these are times when self-regulatory abilities first develop
examination of the above proposed inter-related associa- in accordance with cognitive, linguistic, and social matu-
tions between parental ER, parental emotional expression ration (Gullone et al. 2009; Kopp 1989; Thompson 1991).
and child ER would be an important addition to this body Additionally, the dominant parental role as primary
of research in order to provide a more complete under- socialization agent for emotional development during these
standing of childhood ER development. periods is well established (Eisenberg et al. 1998).
There are clearly many avenues for future research into However, with few exceptions (Gullone et al. 2009),
ER and its development. In undertaking this research, it there is a dearth of research on ER development and
will be necessary that salient limitations and gaps noted in parental influences in the post-early childhood period; that
previous research are addressed as recommended below. is from 8 years of age until the end of adolescence (John
and Gross 2004). This is a large limitation of current
research given that the development of regulatory capaci-
Recommendations ties is believed to continue throughout middle childhood to
late adolescence as ER strategies gain sophistication in
Multi-Faceted Measurement of Emotion Regulation concordance with neurological and cognitive growth and
psychosocial changes (Eisenberg and Morris 2002). Due to
As noted previously, underlying the inconsistent findings vast changes and growth that occur during these periods of
in this area may be the variance in conceptualization and development, they are considered to be incredibly sus-
assessment of ER in the studies reviewed herein. In ceptible to both risks and opportunities in terms of ER
general, the findings of several of the reviewed studies development (Steinberg 2005).
were based on the premise that more regulation is adap- The neurological maturation that occurs in the pre-
tive and healthy, and less regulation is maladaptive frontal cortex and the limbic system throughout middle
(Eisenberg et al. 2001b; Eisenberg et al. 2003; Garner childhood to adolescence (Spear 2000) is significant as
1995; Greenberg et al. 1999). Hence, these investigations these neurological substrates are known to be involved in
are limited to this rather gross index of ER. This was ER processes (Steinberg 2005). For example, Lamm and
highlighted by Bridges et al. (2004), as a major limitation Lewis (2010) examined 7- to 14-year-old children’s ability
of ER research. Importantly, Gross (1998b) has asserted to self-regulate their negative emotion and found that, when
that more regulation is not necessarily better. For exam- regulating their emotion, older children had decreased
ple, if unsuccessful strategies are adopted, this may lead movement in the ventral portion of their pre-frontal cortex
to emotional and behavioral inhibition as opposed to compared to younger children. These findings suggest that
adaptive outcomes. Instead of a focus on amount of ER, it as children mature, they have more efficient frontal cortical
has been posited that certain types, styles, strategies, or functioning resulting in more efficient ways of regulating
modes of ER may be more adaptive or effective and, their emotions.
furthermore, that the functionality of ER may differ Additionally, maturation of the prefrontal cortex con-
depending on the context. Clearly, the one index of tributes to more sophisticated abilities in abstract thinking,
amount of regulation is limited in examining conse- problem solving, and deductive reasoning. These are cog-
quences and individual differences in ER research nitive abilities that are considered to be important in the
(Bridges et al. 2004; Gross 1998b). successful and effective regulation of emotions (Steinberg
Another limitation of the studies that have examined 2005). As a consequence of the rapid cognitive and neu-
associations between parental emotional expression and rological growth that is characteristic of this stage of
child ER is their sole focus on early childhood (Eisenberg development, ER abilities are proposed to rapidly increase
et al. 2001b; Eisenberg et al. 2003; Garner 1995; Green- in number and in degree of sophistication during this time
berg et al. 1999), while later childhood and adolescent (Yap et al. 2007).
samples have been notably neglected in this field of psy- In addition to increasing ER abilities directly, the neu-
chological inquiry. rological and hormonal development that occurs

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throughout adolescence may contribute to more frequent adolescents’ expression of positive affect and if they dis-
and intense experience of a range of emotions across the played aversive behavior during mother–child interaction.
positive to negative valence spectrum providing greater These findings provide support for the important role of
opportunity to utilize and hone ER skills (Silk et al. 2003). parental emotion socialization in child ER development
Indeed, research by Larson and colleagues’ indicated that and strategy use in the period post-early childhood. How-
the developmental period of adolescence, more than ever, the breadth of these findings is largely limited to
adulthood or childhood, is characterized by the experience maternal parenting given that the role of fathers remains
of more frequent and intense emotions (Larson et al. 1980; largely uninvestigated.
Larson and Lampmanpetraitis 1989).
This period of development is also characterized by The Role of Parent Gender
significant psychosocial changes that call for an increase in
sophistication of ER strategies (Steinberg 2005). Adoles- The few studies that have separately examined maternal
cents are faced with novel stressors associated with social and paternal roles in child regulatory outcomes have found
relationships, including pressures to conform to adult that mothers and fathers each contribute uniquely to child
expectations relating to maturity, educational achievement, ER development. For example, in a study of children aged
gender appropriate conduct, and other socially competent 6–11 years, Cassano et al. (2007) found that parental self-
behaviors (Yap et al. 2007). Additionally, adolescents have reported contingent responses to their children’s displays of
an increased orientation toward autonomy (Spear 2000), sadness were related to children’s parent-reported sadness
providing further impetus for the development of adaptive regulation (indexed as use of ER strategies: inhibition,
self-regulatory skills. dysregulation and coping with sadness). Differences
This increased orientation toward autonomy has led between mothers and fathers were such that fathers were
many theorists to propose that peers, media, and other more likely to respond to their child’s displays of sadness
extra-familial influences may be more influential as by minimizing the problem or encouraging inhibition of
socialization agents of ER during adolescence than are expression, whereas mothers were more likely to respond
parents (Eisenberg and Morris 2002; Klimes-Dougan et al. with problem-solving strategies and were more likely to
2007; Morris et al. 2007). However, other theorists have encourage the expression of sadness. Parental perceptions
argued that the salience of the parent–child relationship of their child’s dysregulated sadness displays were pre-
does not decline during adolescence, rather it undergoes dictive of their greater use of minimization responses. In
adaptation (Collins 1990). Thus, parents remain an contrast, parents’ perceptions of their child’s greater coping
important agent of emotional socialization during adoles- abilities were predictive of their greater use of problem-
cence, but due to the transformational nature of this period solving strategies. The use of contingent responses also
of development, modes of interaction and parental influ- varied depending on child gender with parents being more
ence may be different (Collins 1990). Indeed, it has been likely to encourage expression in their daughters than their
established that for the majority of adolescents, an affec- sons (Cassano et al. 2007).
tively positive relationship is maintained with their parents Of significance, Fivush et al. (2000) reported that during
(see Flannery et al. 1994; Steinberg 2001 for reviews). emotionally laden conversations with their children,
The few studies that have examined the influence of mothers were more likely to discuss the possible origins or
parental emotion socialization processes on adolescent ER causes of emotions than fathers. The researchers inferred
have reported some important findings. For example, from this finding that mothers are more likely to be
Sheeber et al. (2000) found that maternal facilitation involved in the development of children’s ability to cope or
of adolescent depressive behavior (i.e., making statements manage their emotional expression and experience (Fivush
of approval or affirmation that contribute to maintenance of et al. 2000). Providing further support for this, within a
their child’s depressive behavior) was predictive of their sample of children in 3rd and 4th grade, McDowell et al.
offspring’s poor ability to regulate their negative affect (as (2002) found that maternal variables had stronger rela-
indexed by the duration of their negative affective behav- tionships with child ER than did paternal variables. Spe-
ior). Eisenberg et al. (2005) found that adolescents’ ER cifically, parents who reported themselves to be less warm,
(assessed as greater use of effortful control) acted as a less positively responsive, and more controlling had chil-
mediator between parental propensity to be warm and dren who exhibited maladaptive ER strategies (indexed as
adolescents’ low externalizing problem behavior. Finally, negative responses to emotionally eliciting vignettes).
Yap et al. (2008, 2010) have found that adolescents reported Additionally, these relationships were stronger between
more frequent use of maladaptive ER strategies if their same-sex parent–child dyads than opposite-sex dyads.
mothers reported to use invalidating socialization processes These findings (Fivush et al. 2000; McDowell et al. 2002)
(i.e., discomfort or reprimand) in response to their suggest that mothers may play a more integral role in their

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208 Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212

children’s ER development than do fathers. Indeed, Pleck of a definitive conceptualization and assessment methods of
(1997) reviewed research findings spanning 1980–1990 that ER, with significant inconsistencies across studies (Bridges
examined maternal versus paternal involvement in child et al. 2004; Cole et al. 2004). While some studies concep-
development. On the basis of the review, it was concluded tualize optimal ER with a sole emphasis on decreasing
that fathers were much less accessible and engaged less with negative affect (Garner and Power 1996), others have
their children when compared to mothers. Of significance, operationalized ER as coping strategies (Contreras et al.
this difference was greater during adolescence than early 2000). Of significance is the predominance of studies that
childhood. It has been argued that a father’s unique contri- have conceptualized individual differences in ER in terms of
bution to his child’s emotional socialization may be more amount of regulation (Eisenberg et al. 1999; Eisenberg et al.
salient during infancy through early childhood when more 2001b; Eisenberg et al. 2003; Garner 1995; Greenberg et al.
frequent father–child interaction occurs during physical play 1999). It is argued that this one index of amount of regulation
(Lamb 2004; Parke 1994). does not comprehensively capture individual differences in
Despite the diverse roles played by mothers and fathers ER, given that different styles of ER may be more or less
in their child’s emotional and social development, there is a effective depending on the context (Bridges et al. 2004;
dearth of studies examining paternal influences in child and Gross 1998b). Thus, while there is a plethora of research
adolescent developmental psychopathology research implicating the parental role as being significant to the
(Phares and Compas 1992; Zimmerman et al. 2000). A lack development of children’s ER, in order to contribute to
of attention to the role played by fathers is also notable in greater scientific and methodological rigor, there is a need to
child ER development research. Given the few research empirically examine these relationships within a valid the-
studies that have provided evidence indicating that mothers oretical framework that conceptualizes ER in a multi-fac-
and fathers play differential roles in contributing to the eted way (Halberstadt et al. 1999). For example, utilization
socialization of their child’s ER development (Cassano of a model, such as Gross’ (1998b), would do good service to
et al. 2007; McDowell et al. 2002), inclusion of fathers in this weakness in the existing literature.
future research would greatly benefit this domain of psy- Another limitation of ER research is the relative neglect
chological inquiry. of examining parental contributions to child ER in the post-
A more practical implication of the inclusion of fathers in early childhood developmental period (John and Gross
ER research relates to the gender stereotypical belief that 2004). Middle childhood to adolescence is characteristi-
males have a tendency to be emotionally suppressive (Fabes cally a period of great transitional development in the
and Martin 1991). Although this belief is largely related to cognitive, emotional, psychosocial, and neurological
gender stereotypes, there is some supportive empirical evi- domains; all contributing to a more sophisticated ability
dence for such a belief. An example relates to the different and a greater need to utilize effective ER strategies
ways that men and women express their negative affect (Eisenberg and Morris 2002; Steinberg 2005). Moreover,
(Brizendine 2006). While more mothers have entered the the links between the ability to regulate one’s emotions and
work force and more fathers are choosing to be primary psychopathology during this period of development have
caregivers, the discrepancy between the maternal and been consistently demonstrated (Betts et al. 2009; Garber
paternal roles, although decreasing (Hosley and Montemayor et al. 1995; Silk et al. 2003; Yap et al. 2008). Indeed, this
1997) is unlikely to disappear. Consequently, although gen- period is considered to be ‘‘a critical or sensitive period for
der roles are undergoing changes within the context of a reorganization of regulatory systems, a reorganization
rearing and socializing children (Hosley and Montemayor that is fraught with both risks and opportunities’’ (Steinberg
1997), it is likely that fathers and mothers will continue to 2005, p. 73), thus providing a strong rationale for the
differentially influence their children’s socialization into the examination of the development of regulatory processes
future. Understanding these differences is essential for a during this neglected developmental period.
comprehensive understanding of the ways in which parents Additionally, previous research examining parental
socialize their children’s ER. influences on children’s ER development has focused pri-
The ER development research domain would benefit marily on maternal influences. The few studies that have
greatly from addressing these salient limitations, as just examined both maternal and paternal influences have
discussed, in future research. reported divergent ways in which mothers and fathers
influence child ER development (Cassano et al. 2007;
McDowell et al. 2002). Thus, future research is needed to
Summary and Directions for Future Research further investigate the potential differential relationships
between maternal and paternal emotionality and child ER.
In summary, developmental research in the emotion regu- In conclusion, future ER developmental research
lation domain is still in its infancy. A consequence is the lack examining the post-early childhood period is needed to

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Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev (2011) 14:198–212 209

contribute to a more comprehensive and complete analysis Calkins, S. D., Smith, C. L., Gill, K. L., & Johnson, M. C. (1998).
of youths’ ER strategy use and ER competency develop- Maternal interactive style across contexts: Relations to emo-
tional, behavioral and physiological regulation during toddler-
ment. Further research should aim to apply refined theo- hood. Social Development, 7, 350–369.
retical conceptualizations and consistency in assessment Campos, J. J., Campos, R. G., & Barrett, K. C. (1989). Emergent
methods of ER. Lastly, examination of both maternal and themes in the study of emotional development and emotion
paternal influences will contribute to a greater under- regulation. Developmental Psychology, 25, 394–402.
Campos, J. J., Frankel, C. B., & Camras, L. (2004). On the nature of
standing of the mechanisms involved in child and adoles- emotion regulation. Child Development, 75, 377–394.
cent development of optimal regulatory capacities. Campos, J. J., Mumme, D. L., Kermoian, R., & Campos, R. G. (1994). A
The extensive clinical implications of dysregulated functionalist perspective on the nature of emotion. Monographs of
emotions (Cole et al. 1994; Gross and Munoz 1995) pro- the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 284–303.
Carson, J. L., & Parke, R. D. (1996). Reciprocal negative affect in
vide strong impetus for examination of causal factors parent-child interactions and children’s peer competency. Child
associated with the development of adaptive ER. As Development, 67, 2217–2226.
illustrated by this review, there exists an extensive litera- Cassano, M., Perry-Parrish, C., & Zeman, J. (2007). Influence of
ture that has shown strong links between parental sociali- gender on parental socialization of children’s sadness regulation.
Social Development, 16, 210–231.
zation factors and child ER. Several theorists have Cole, P. M., Dennis, T. A., Smith-Simon, K. E., & Cohen, L. H.
proposed that children may imitate or internalize their (2009). Preschoolers’ emotion regulation strategy understanding:
parents’ styles of ER via modeling or social learning Relations with emotion socialization and child self-regulation.
mechanisms (Bridges et al. 2004; Denham 1998; Morris Social Development, 18, 324–352.
Cole, P. M., Martin, S. E., & Dennis, T. A. (2004). Emotion
et al. 2007; Thompson 1994). Furthermore, it has been regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges
proposed that the frequency, intensity, and valence of and directions for child development research. Child Develop-
emotion that is expressed by parents create a familial ment, 75, 317–333.
emotional climate where children may adaptively learn to Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. D. (1994). The development
of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective.
model their parents’ styles of ER (Morris et al. 2007). Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development,
These hypotheses are yet to be tested, and it is argued 59, 73–100.
herein that research designs focusing on parents’ own Collins, W. A. (1990). Parent-child relationships in the transition to
styles of ER and their emotional expression will comple- adolescence: Continuity and change in interaction, affect, and
cognition. In R. Montemayor, G. R. Adams, & T. P. Gullotta
ment and substantially add to the existing child ER (Eds.), From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period?
developmental literature. (pp. 85–106). California: Sage Publications, Inc.
Compton, K., Snyder, J., Schrepferman, L., Bank, L., & Shortt, J. W.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by an Australian (2003). The contribution of parents and siblings to antisocial and
Research Council Discovery Project grant [ARC DP0771180]. depressive behavior in adolescents: A double jeopardy coercion
model. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 163–182.
Contreras, J. M., Kerns, K. A., Weimer, B. L., Gentzler, A. L., &
Tomich, P. L. (2000). Emotion regulation as a mediator of
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