Ijphcs: A Comparison of Hiv/Aids Health Policy in Selected Developed and Developing Countries

IJPHCS International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences
Open Access: e-Journal e-ISSN : 2289-7577. Vol. 3:No. 3

May/June 2016
A COMPARISON OF HIV/AIDS HEALTH POLICY IN

SELECTED DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Kaur K. K.1, Kay T.1, Auwal S. G.1, Salma A. M.1, Kamal A. I.1, Panmial P.
D1., Majed E. A1., Almaliki A.A.G1., Emran A.A1., Faisal I2., Rosliza A.M.2*
1
Postgraduate students, Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti
Putra Malaysia
2
Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia
*Corresponding author: Rosliza Abdul Manaf. Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Background: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection and Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) continue to be major global public health issues.
Approximately 34 million have died since the first five cases were described in 1981 and
currently, 36.9 million are estimated to be living with the disease. New HIV infections
globally have declined by 35% since 2000 and this can be attributed to the HIV/AIDS health
policies and prevention programmes by various countries. Health policy refers to decisions,
plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific health care goals within a society.
This article aims to compare the HIV/AIDS policies of three developed (the United States of
America, United Kingdom and Australia) and three developing (Nigeria, India and Sudan)
countries and their impact on HIV/AIDS epidemic.
Materials and Methods: A comprehensive review of literature and country reports on

HIV/AIDS policies and prevention programmes in the above mentioned developed and
developing countries were performed.
Result: While all the six countries that were reviewed have their own health policy in the
prevention and control of HIV/AIDS, it was observed that a more prompt decline in HIV
infection was in the economically buoyant countries compared to the developing countries.
Conclusion: Attributing factors to the different outcomes of the HIV/AIDS prevention

programmes can be listed as difference in the policy statements, timing of their
implementations, commitments of the governments, financial and political stability of the
government, healthcare infrastructure & delivery system and also the involvement of the
international and national Non Profit Government Agencies (NGOs).
Keywords: HIV, AIDS, Health Policy, USA, UK, Australia, Nigeria, India, Sudan
Kaur K. K., Kay T., Auwal S. G., Salma A. M., Kamal A. I., Panmial P. D., Majed E. A., 45
Almaliki A.A.G., Emran A.A., Faisal I., Rosliza A.M.
May/June 2016
1.0 Introduction
In 1981, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported the cases of unusual
clusters of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and Kaposi’s sarcoma in gay men in several parts
of the United States of America (USA). These were the first reported cases of AIDS. Since
2000, 38.1 million people have become infected with HIV and 25.3 million people have died
of AIDS-related deaths (UNAIDS 2015). By the end of 2014, an estimated 36.9 million
people are living with HIV globally compared to 28.6 million people in 2000. The new HIV
infections have decreased by 35% since 2000 as only 2.0 million people became newly
infected with HIV in 2014 compared to 3.1 million in 2000. There is a 42% decrease in
AIDS-related deaths since the peak in 2004, 58% decrease in the new HIV infections among
children since 2000 and an 84% increase in access to antiretroviral therapy since 2010
(UNAIDS 2015). From many aspects, the global HIV/AIDS epidemic is an enormous
tragedy for human-kind. Sub-Saharan Africa is the most affected region, with 25.8 million
people living with HIV in 2014. Sub-Saharan Africa also accounts for almost 70% of the
global total of new HIV infections. It is estimated that currently only 54% of people with HIV
know their status. Between 2000 and 2015, new HIV infections have fallen by 35% and AIDS
related deaths have fallen by 24% (WHO 2015).
Health policy and planning involves series of activities with a common goal to improve the
health outcomes, efficiency of health services provision or both. Despite the environmental,
political issues, media headlines and public pressures and expectations; a well designed health
policy and planning process can be tenacious enough to withstand the pressures and seize the
opportunities therein to go forward and improve the health care provision and health
outcomes of the population it serves (Buse, Mays & Walt, 2012). The aim of this article is to
understand the HIV/AIDS policies and their impact on HIV/AIDS epidemic in the three
developed (the USA, United Kingdom and Australia) and three developing (India, Nigeria
and Sudan) countries by reviewing the literatures and country reports comprehensively.
2.0 Overview of the countries and HIV/AIDS epidemic

In this article, the health policy on HIV and AIDS between three developed countries which
include the USA, United Kingdom (UK), Australia; and three developing countries, i.e.,
Sudan, Nigeria and India are being reviewed and compared. This comparison was based on
the framework of Walt and Gilson (1994) to explore on the emphasis made by the countries in
different levels of HIV/AIDS prevention. These countries were grouped to “developed” and
“developing” nation based on the World Bank income classification by Gross National
Income (GNI) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
2.1 Developed Countries
The USA has the largest population of 318.9 million as compared to the UK and Australia but
Australia had the highest life expectancy of 82 years at birth and UK has the highest health
system ranking index of 18 by WHO as shown in Table 1. The United States is categorised as
having a concentrated or low-prevalence epidemic.
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Table 1: General overview of the countries reviewed

Country Population in GNI per capita Life expectancy Health system ranking
2014 (million) (USD) at birth (years) (WHO index)
Australia 23.5 64, 540 82 37
USA 318.9 55, 200 79 32
UK 64.5 43, 430 81 18
Nigeria 177.5 2,970 52 187
India 1,295 1,570 68 112
Sudan 39.4 1,710 63 134
2.2 Developing Countries
Among the developing countries being reviewed, India is most populous with the population
of 1.29 billion and had the maximum life expectancy of 68 years at birth with highest health
system ranking index of 112 compared to Nigeria and Sudan (Table 1). A third of the total
population of Sudan, i.e., 17 million people are living in the conflict-affected areas.
2.3 HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the selected developed and developing countries
A generalised HIV epidemic is seen in Nigeria which is predominantly caused by

heterosexual transmission, and with a population prevalence of over 1% of the population. In
contrast, a concentrated HIV epidemic with overall population prevalence of HIV of less than
1% is reported in the USA, UK, Australia, India and Sudan which predominantly affected
particular groups such as gay men, men who have sex with men (MSM), people who inject
drugs (PWID) and sex workers (UNAIDS 2015).
While having a concentrated epidemic, India, being among the most populous country, have
the largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHIV) in Asia and the second largest
in the world. The estimated HIV prevalence among the age group of 15 to 49 years was
0.35% (NACO 2015). Overall, India’s HIV epidemic is declining, with a 19% reduction in
new HIV infections and a 38% decline in AIDS-related deaths between 2005 and 2013.
Despite, this 51% of deaths in Asia are in India (UNAIDS 2014).
Nigeria still has the second highest HIV/AIDS burden in the world with an estimated
3,391,546 PLHIVs. However, estimates show that new infections have declined from an
estimated 316,733 in 2003 to 239,155 a decade later in 2013. A total of 174,253 died from
AIDS related cases in 2014 which is lower than 210,031 people in 2013. Key drivers of the
HIV epidemic in Nigeria include low personal risk perception, multiple concurrent sexual
partnerships, transactional and inter-generational sex, ineffective and inefficient services for
sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and inadequate access to quality healthcare services.
According to UNAIDS 2015 Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 6 Report, among the
countries which reversed the spread of HIV (more than 20% decline in HIV Infections from
2000 to 2014) are India and Nigeria, whereas the ones which managed to halt the spread of
HIV ( -20% to + 20% change in the HIV Infections) is the USA. The countries which showed
increasing trends of HIV Infections (increase of 20% or more) are Australia, Sudan and the
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UK. The long and devastating civil war in the south Sudan has resulted in the worst internal
displacement problem in the world. The United Nations estimated that there are four million
internally displaced people. Displacement increases the number of vulnerable groups, and has
an adverse effect on HIV/AIDS control especially when coming from high HIV/AIDS
prevalence countries. Table 2 shows the comparison of HIV prevalence rate, AIDS –related
deaths, Key affected people (KAP) and also the percentage of financial commitment of the 6
mentioned countries
Table 2: Overview of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the selected countries
Country HIV AIDS- Key Affected people (KAP) Financial

Prevalence related Resources
rate (%) deaths Self Donors
USA 0.38 5 380 MSM (67%), IDU 100% -
(6%),Heterosexual
(25%)and others
UK 0.28 530 MSM (43%), 100% -
IDU (2%),
Heterosexuals(52%)
Australia 0.10 10 000 MSM (73%), IDU(3%), 100% -
Heterosexuals (15%) and
others
India 0.38 130 000 Heterosexuals (87%); 90% 10%
Transgender, Female Sex
workers, IDU(1.6%); MSM
(1.3%) and bridge
populations.
Nigeria 3.20 170 000 Heterosexuals (80%). 5% 95%
MSM (11%), IDU (9%)
Sudan 0.24 2 900 Mainly MSM and Female 10% 90%
Sex Workers
3.0 HIV/AIDS Health Policy Statements

Policy statements made by the selected countries regarding HIV and AIDS are presented in
Table 3. It can be observed that the policy statements of the developed countries reflect on
improving the quality of life and treatment of those suffering from HIV/AIDS whereas the
policy statements of the developing countries reflect upon the elimination of stigma and
discrimination of those infected with HIV/AIDS and also improve the access to health care
services.
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Table 3: Policy statements on HIV and AIDS

Country's policy Policy Statements
United States of “The United States will become a place where new HIV infections are
America rare, and when they do occur, every person, regardless of age, gender,
race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, or socio-economic
circumstance, will have unfettered access to high quality, life-extending
care, free from stigma and discrimination” (White House Office of
National AIDS Policy, 2010).
United Kingdom The UK, Government’s 2001 National Strategy for Sexual Health and
HIV outlined policies “To reduce levels of unsafe sex, new HIV
diagnoses, and undiagnosed HIV, via investing in prevention, improving
outreach services, coordinating initiatives and extending information
campaigns” (HIV in United Kingdom 2007).
Australia “Australia will work towards achieving the virtual elimination of HIV
transmission in Australia by 2020, while aiming to reduce the morbidity
and mortality caused by HIV and minimising the personal and social
impact of the disease” – 2014.
India India’s policy states that “Every person living with HIV has access to
quality care and is treated with dignity. Effective prevention, care and
support for HIV/AIDS is possible in an environment where human rights
are respected and where those infected or affected by HIV/AIDS live a
life without stigma and discrimination” (National AIDS Control
Organisation (NACO), 2014 – 2015).
Nigeria Nigeria’s policy states that “To make Nigeria a nation of people with
functional knowledge of HIV/AIDS, who provide care and support to
individuals, families and communities confronted with the epidemic” (
National Agency for Control of AIDS (NACA), 2014 – 2015).
Sudan's Sudan’s policy states that “To maintain HIV prevalence at levels below
1%, to reduce morbidity and mortality due to HIV/AIDS through
capacity building, political commitment, patient care and treatment and
to eliminate stigma and discrimination against people infected with HIV”
(Federal Ministry Of Health (FMOH), 2014).
4.0 Health Policy framework

4.1 Actors
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State actors in the developed countries (USA, UK and Australia) constitute a central
coordinating national body that oversees the HIV policy planning, development and
implementation. In the USA, the Office of National AIDS Policy (ONAP) which is directly
under the White House is the main state actor while in the UK and Australia, state actors
composed of Departments of Health and Federal Government Agencies. In developing
countries (India, Nigeria and Sudan) the authorities mainly consist of Ministries of Health,
National Agencies & State action committees. In addition, state actors in India and Sudan also
include non-health sector ministries (Youth, Defence, Labour, Railways and Education).
The developed countries have local organisations including businesses, faith communities,
educational institutions and more importantly, people living with HIV/AIDS as non-State
actors. In the UK, in addition to these, there are a few international organisations involved.
Non-state actors in the developing countries are largely international donor organisations such
as the WHO, UNAIDS and the World Bank and few local civil society organisations. There is
a weak participation of key affected people in the developing countries (White House Office
of National AIDS Policy; 2010, Australian Sixth National HIV strategy 2010-2013, NACO,
2014/2015). Table 4 shows the state and non state actors involved in the HIV/AIDS health
policy in the mentioned six countries.
Table 4 Actors of the selected countries

Country State actors Non state actors
United The White House Office of Businesses, faith communities, philanthropy,
States of National AIDS Policy scientific and medical communities,
America (ONAP) educational institutions, people living with
HIVand others whose commitment and
contributions will help in the successful
implementation of the policy and achieving
its target objectives
United The Government, Department House of Lords Committee, national

Kingdom of Health organisations, local organisations,
international organisations
Australia Australian Federal The Australian Federation of AIDS

Government, Political Organisations (AFAO), National Association
agencies, Medicare National of People Living with HIV/AIDS (NAPWA),
Insurance system, National AIDS Treatment Project Australia (ATPA),
HIV/AIDS Advisory Scarlet Alliance, AIVL - Australian Injecting
Structures and Illicit Drug Users League Inc.
India Ministry of Health and Family The Joint United Nations Programme on
Welfare, National AIDS AIDS (UNAIDS), Community Based
Committee, National AIDS Organisations(CBO), Global Fund to Fight
Control Organisation AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFATM),
(NACO), National Council on Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF),
AIDS, Ministry of Road International Labor Organisation (ILO),
Transport and Highways, Civil society organisations, United Nations
Department of agencies (UNAIDS, UNICEF,
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Telecommunications and UNDP,WHO,UNODC and UNFPA), World

Department of Electronic and Bank, British AID (DFID), Australian AID
Information and Technology, (AusAID), Clinton Foundation (CF),
State AIDS Control Societies, USAIDS
District AIDS Prevention and
Control Units
Nigeria Federal Ministry of Health International NGO - Aids Prevention

(FMOH), National Agency Initiative in Nigeria (APIN), Bill and Melinda
for the Control of Aids Gates Foundation, Action Aid Nigeria,
(NACA), State Action Management Sciences for Health (MSH).
Committee on Aids (SACA), Local NGOs - Association for Reproductive
Local Action Committee on and Family Health (ARFH), Society for
Aids (LACA). Family Health (SFH), Centre for Integrated
Health Programs (CIHP), USAID, PEPFAR,
CIDA
Sudan Federal Ministry of Health WHO, World Bank, UN agencies(UNAIDS,

(FMOH),The national UNDP, UNICEF, WHO and UNFPA) Civil
assembly, and various society: is weak and not well organized.
Ministries (Finance, Defence, NGOs , Faith based organisation and
Internal Affairs, Youth, Community based organisation
Information, High education, The national health insurance fund
Social welfare, Guidance,
Justice)
4.2 Contextual factors
4.2.1 Situational context

Increased incidence of HIV cases and development of new control strategies influenced all
countries and prompted a renewed commitment to fight the epidemic in all of the countries.
For instance, in the US, the increase in number of people living with HIV (PLWHIV) that
reached an all-time high of 1.1 million in 2010 prompted the renewed interest in new HIV
policy and similar patterns were also observed in India. A change of government and the
death of a prominent musician prompted new HIV/AIDS policies in Nigeria while in Sudan,
secession of the southern part stimulated new policy reforms targeting HIV/AIDS.
4.2.2 Structural context
In the US, the political agenda of the newly elected Democrats was in line with prioritizing
the welfare of ethnic minorities; as such HIV/AIDS policies became the centre of the agenda.
In the UK economic reasons where the main structural factors that led to government interest
because at the time Gross expenditure on HIV/AIDS became more than 50% within 4 years
between 2006-2007 and 2009-2010 from £500m to more than £760 million and the number of
those accessing care have trebled since 2000. Media attention focus on the HIV epidemic in
most developing countries especially India and Nigeria and in Sudan, there was significant
economic downfall during the period due to falling oil prices, trade embargo and loss of
revenue from South Sudan.
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4.2.3 Cultural context
In the US, the culture of social liberalism, widely popular at the beginning of Obama
administration gave rise to many gay rights movement with specific emphasis on sexual
freedom and welfare of minorities. In Sudan and Nigeria, HIV/AIDS organisations were
engaging religious leaders as key stakeholders; this led to increased HIV/AIDS awareness and
community participation among the respective followers. The existent Sudanese national laws
criminalize FSW and MSM practices and therefore interventions targeting these hidden
populations require much advocacy and coordination between government officials and
regulatory bodies. Building trust between the implementers mainly the elderly in civil society
and the key affected populations is one of the biggest challenge (SNAP 2014). In Sudan, even
though no laws or regulations are in place to prohibit condom use, condoms remain a “taboo”
issue among policy makers and decision makers probably because of the influential Islamic
leaders’ anti-condom position (SNAP 2014). In India, the Supreme Court re-criminalised
adult consensual same sex sexual conduct in December 2013 after the Delhi High Court
decriminalised it in 2009. This action has raised fears about access to HIV prevention and
treatment for MSM (UNAIDS 2009; UNAIDS 2013).
4.2.4 International context
In the developed countries, no discernible exogenous influence could be identified in the

policy formulation process. This is expected as these countries are self sufficient and were
leading the way in terms of innovative HIV/AIDS control strategies. To the contrary, in the
developing countries, international assistance in policy-making was quite significant,
especially from Global Funds, DFID, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and USAID.
4.3 Process
Different countries have different processes through which they developed their HIV policies.
The common practice starts with identification and assessment of the problem, based on the
prevalence of HIV epidemic in all these countries, people most affected, economic or political
reasons. Policy formulation in the developed countries involves public consultations, central
organizing body that organizes inter-agency meetings to formulate the policy. For example in
the USA Office of National AIDS Policy, a component of the Domestic Policy Council of the
White House held several inter-agency meetings to develop their policy. They draw ideas
from previous experience, new research findings, technical experts in the field of HIV/AIDS
and the academia. Similarly process of policy formulation is been observed in the UK and
Australia in which policy formulation involves a central coordinating body and both state and
non state actors.
In the developing countries with more decentralised health systems and poor participation of
key people involved, policy formulation follows federal coordinating body that formulates the
policy with the aid of international organisations, which is later being passed down to the
states and districts for implementation. Policy implementation is basically the same in both
developed and developing countries, in which the formulated policy is adopted and nationally
implemented at all tiers government levels.
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4.4 Content
The content of each country’s policy is tapered towards its main goals, strategies and
objectives to be achieved. It outlines clear goals and strategies to achieve them within a
reasonable time frame, in addition to detailed implementation guidelines.
5.0 Achievements of HIV/AIDS prevention and control

The HIV testing among eligible clients in the developed countries was highest in Australia
(80-90%), followed by USA (87%) and UK (69%). The Anti Retroviral Treatment (ART)
coverage was highest in UK (74%), followed by Australia (50-70%) and least in the USA
(36%). The prevalence of HIV among HRGs was highest in USA (1 in 5), followed by
Australia (1 in 7) and UK (1 in 20). The HIV Anti-discrimination Act was implemented in the
USA since 1990, in Australia since 1992 but in the UK only since 2010.
The HIV testing among eligible clients in the developing countries was highest in India
(64%), followed by Nigeria (42%) and least in Sudan (5% among MSM and 9% among
FSW). The ART coverage was maximum in India (36 %) followed by Nigeria (22%) and
Sudan only (5%). The prevalence of HIV among the KAP was highest in Nigeria (1 in 4),
followed by India ( 1 in 36 among FSW; 1 in 14 among IDU) and least in Sudan (1 in 40
among MSM; 1 in 60 among FSW). HIV Anti-discrimination Act was implemented in
Nigeria since 2015 but only the HIV Anti-discrimination Bill was passed in the parliament in
India in 2014 and only HIV discrimination Bill was drafted in Sudan.
6.0 Discussion
A comparison of the policy background and direction revealed that the developed countries
had high performing health systems whereas the developing countries had low performing
health systems. The onset of HIV epidemic in the developed countries was early and currently
had a low scale of the epidemic however the developing countries had a late onset of the
epidemic and the scale of the epidemic is currently high. The developed countries had a good
response to the epidemic in contrast with the poor response from the developing countries.
The key affected people (KAP) in the developed countries were men who have sex with men
(MSM) whereas in the developing countries it was female sex workers (FSW). The non-actors
were made up of local NGO’s in the developed countries whereas it was international NGO’s
in the developing countries. The participation of the KAP was higher in the developed
countries. The policy in the developed countries was aimed at disease elimination but in the
developing countries was aimed at disease control. The rationale of the policy in developed
countries was based on new research evidence whereas in the developing countries was based
on termination of old policies.
The resource allocation was strategic in developed countries but uniform in developing
countries. The political verbal commitment is not translated to action or financial support in
developing countries such as Sudan. The main prevention tool in the developed countries
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was medications (PreP and TAP) but in the developing countries was awareness (behaviour
and condom use). The problem with treatment in the developed countries was early initiation
and total coverage in the developed countries. Developed countries had interagency and inter-
sectoral collaboration but developing countries had mainly inter-sectoral collaboration.
Supportive HIV care was good in the developed countries but poor in the developing
countries. The undiagnosed cases were low in the developed countries and high in the
developing countries. Treatment coverage was high in the developed countries as compared to
the developing countries. The developed countries already had Anti-discrimination Acts
whereas the developing countries only had Anti-discrimination Bills except for Nigeria which
got the Anti-discrimination Act in 2014.
7.0 Recommendations
The developed countries should carry out extensive review of factual evidence with emphasis
on use of valid surveillance indicators, must ensure representativeness of all key actors and if
possible, include international/exogenous players, should involve rapid on-going data
gathering, based on valid and sensitive indicators that will guide implementation, must give
more emphasis to research for HIV vaccine/cure so as to end the epidemic, establish seamless
services that link patient to care, regardless of social status/viral load, and improve
surveillance, reporting and prosecution of discrimination cases. The developing countries
should have fact-driven agenda setting, must ensure inclusiveness of leaderships of the KAP
and high risk groups (HRGs), must have policy that takes cognizance of the need to perform
monitoring and evaluation that will inform effective implementation, identify the HRGs and
devise means to reach them through cost effective successful programmes, make provisions
for more HIV/AIDS treatment centres to address the huge gap in treatment coverage and
should scale up advocacy programmes and enact anti-discrimination laws.
8.0Conclusions
HIV/AIDS remains a global phenomenon which exerts huge health, social and economic
burden in many countries. While the countries may differ in the scale of their domestic
epidemics and capacities to mount an effective response, partnership and collaboration are
viable means to share experience and to develop potent action strategies. In order to succeed,
such actions must be evidence-based, cost-effective and sustainable, targeting key affected
populations, high risk groups and the general communities.
Acknowledgement
This review was carried out as part of an assessment in the Health Policy and Planning
course.
May/June 2016
Declaration
The authors have no competing interest to declare.
Authors contribution
Author 1: Development of the Framework, compilation and editing of the report
Author 2: Literature search on UK and drafting of manuscript
Author 3: Literature search on USA
Author 4: Literature search on Sudan
Author 5: Drafting of manuscript
Author 6: Literature search on Nigeria
Author 7: Literature search on Australia
Author 8: Literature search on India
Author 9: Drafting of manuscript
Author 10: Initiation of idea and editor of the report
Author 11: Initiation of idea, final review and chief editor of manuscript
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IJPHCS International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences

Open Access: e-Journal e-ISSN : 2289-7577. Vol. 3:No. 3

A COMPARISON OF HIV/AIDS HEALTH POLICY IN

*Corresponding author: Rosliza Abdul Manaf. Email: [email protected]

Materials and Methods: A comprehensive review of literature and country reports on

Conclusion: Attributing factors to the different outcomes of the HIV/AIDS prevention

2.0 Overview of the countries and HIV/AIDS epidemic

2.1 Developed Countries

Table 1: General overview of the countries reviewed

2.2 Developing Countries

2.3 HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the selected developed and developing countries

A generalised HIV epidemic is seen in Nigeria which is predominantly caused by

Table 2: Overview of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the selected countries

Country HIV AIDS- Key Affected people (KAP) Financial

3.0 HIV/AIDS Health Policy Statements

Table 3: Policy statements on HIV and AIDS

4.0 Health Policy framework

Table 4 Actors of the selected countries

United The Government, Department House of Lords Committee, national

Australia Australian Federal The Australian Federation of AIDS

Telecommunications and UNDP,WHO,UNODC and UNFPA), World

Nigeria Federal Ministry of Health International NGO - Aids Prevention

Sudan Federal Ministry of Health WHO, World Bank, UN agencies(UNAIDS,

4.2 Contextual factors

4.2.1 Situational context

4.2.2 Structural context

4.2.3 Cultural context

4.2.4 International context

In the developed countries, no discernible exogenous influence could be identified in the

5.0 Achievements of HIV/AIDS prevention and control

Enhancing Nigeria’s Response to HIV/AIDS Programme. (2009-2014). Recent Interventions

HIV Media Guide. (2014). HIV statistic in Australia.

WHO . Country Statistics : United Kingdom . Retrieved from:http://who.int/countries/gbr/en/

The World Bank(2012): HIV/AIDS in India. Retrieved from:

NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation) Annual Report 2013-2014

NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation) Annual Report 2014-2015

Skingsley A, Yin Z, Kirwan P, Croxford S, Chau C, Conti S, Presanis A, Nardone A, Were J,

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