MILLING

Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create
a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process
requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter. The workpiece is a piece of pre-
shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to a platform inside the
milling machine. The cutter is a cutting tool with sharp teeth that is also secured in the
milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By feeding the workpiece into the rotating cutter,
material is cut away from this workpiece in the form of small chips to create the desired
shape.

Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many
features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three dimensional surface contours. Parts that
are fabricated completely through milling often include components that are used in limited
quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another
application of milling is the fabrication of tooling for other processes. For example, three-
dimensional molds are typically milled. Milling is also commonly used as a secondary
process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process.
Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal for adding
precision features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed.
Capabilities

Typical Feasible

Shapes Solid: Cubic Flat

Solid: Complex Thin-walled: Cylindrical
Thin-walled: Cubic
Thin-walled: Complex
Solid: Cylindrical
Part Size Length: 0.04 - 72 in
Width: 0.04 - 72 in
Materials Metals Ceramics
Alloy Steel Composites
Carbon Steel Lead
Cast Iron Nickel

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 Stainless Steel Tin
Aluminum Titanium
Copper Elastomer
Magnesium Thermoplastics
Zinc Thermosets
Surface finish – Ra 32 - 125 μin 8 - 500 μin
Tolerance ± 0.001 in. ± 0.0005 in.
Max wall thickness 0.04 - 40 in. 0.04 - 72 in.
Quantity 1 - 1000 1 – 1000000
Lead time Days Hours
Advantages All materials compatible
Very good tolerances
Short lead times
Disadvantages Limited shape complexity
Part may require several operations and machines
High equipment cost
Significant tool wear
Large amount of scrap
Applications Machine components, engine components

Process Cycle
The time required to produce a given quantity of parts includes the initial setup time and the
cycle time for each part. The setup time is composed of the time to setup the milling machine,
plan the tool movements (whether performed manually or by machine), and install the fixture
device into the milling machine. The cycle time can be divided into the following four times:
1. Load/Unload time - The time required to load the workpiece into the milling machine and
secure it to the fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part. The load time can
depend on the size, weight, and complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of
fixture.
2. Cut time - The time required for the cutter to make all the necessary cuts in the workpiece
for each operation. The cut time for any given operation is calculated by dividing the total
cut length for that operation by the feed rate, which is the speed of the cutter relative to
the workpiece.

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3. Idle time - Also referred to as non-productive time, this is the time required for any tasks
that occur during the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and therefore
remove material. This idle time includes the tool approaching and retracting from the
workpiece, tool movements between features, adjusting machine settings, and changing
tools.
4. Tool replacement time - The time required to replace a tool that has exceeded its lifetime
and therefore become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically not performed in
every cycle, but rather only after the lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining
the cycle time, the tool replacement time is adjusted for the production of a single part by
multiplying by the frequency of a tool replacement, which is the cut time divided by the
tool lifetime.

Following the milling process cycle, there is no post processing that is required. However,
secondary processes may be used to improve the surface finish of the part if it is required.
The scrap material, in the form of small material chips cut from the workpiece, is propelled
away from the workpiece by the motion of the cutter and the spraying of lubricant. Therefore,
no process cycle step is required to remove the scrap material, which can be collected and
discarded after the production.

Cutting parameters
In milling, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters.
These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool
material, tool size, and more.
 Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one
revolution of the spindle and tool, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some
operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the
tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured
in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool.
 Cutting speed - The speed of the workpiece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool
during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM).
 Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and tool in revolutions per minute
(RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of
the tool.

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 Feed rate - The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the workpiece as the tool
makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of
the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM).
 Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its axis in the workpiece as it makes a cut.
A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load
on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several
passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.

 Radial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its radius in the workpiece as it makes a
cut. If the radial depth of cut is less than the tool radius, the tool is only partially engaged
and is making a peripheral cut. If the radial depth of cut is equal to the tool diameter, the
cutting tool is fully engaged and is making a slot cut. A large radial depth of cut will
require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool
life. Therefore, a feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over the
step-over distance, and makes another cut at the radial depth of cut.

Peripheral cut

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 Slot cut
Operations
During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the workpiece to yield
the desired part shape. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used
and the path of that cutter to remove material from the workpiece.
 End milling - An end mill makes either peripheral or slot cuts, determined by the step-
over distance, across the workpiece in order to machine a specified feature, such as a
profile, slot, pocket, or even a complex surface contour. The depth of the feature may be
machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut
and making multiple passes. An operation in which an end mill makes either peripheral or
slot cuts across the workpiece, determined by the step-over distance, in order to machine
a specified feature. The depth of the feature may be machined in a single pass or may be
reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes. For a
rough operation, the recommended cutting speed and feed are selected for a peripheral or
slot cut. A finish operation will lower the cutting feed according to the finish
requirements.

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 Chamfer milling - A chamfer end mill makes a peripheral cut along an edge of the
workpiece or a feature to create an angled surface, known as a chamfer. This chamfer,
typically with a 45 degree angle, can be machined on either the exterior or interior of a
part and can follow either a straight or curved path. An operation in which a chamfer mill
makes a peripheral cut along an edge of the workpiece or a feature to create an angled
surface, known as a chamfer. It is assumed that the angle of the chamfer is 45 degrees, so
that the chamfer width is equal to its height. The chamfer length can be the complete
perimeter of a workpiece or feature, just one side, or even a part of a side. Also, a chamfer
can be machined on either the exterior or interior of a part and can follow either a straight
or curved path.

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 Face milling - A face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in order to provide a
smooth finish. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single
pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple
passes. An operation in which a face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in
order to provide a smooth finish. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be
machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut
and making multiple passes. For a rough operation, the recommended cutting speed and
feed for face milling are used. A finish operation will lower the cutting feed according to
the finish requirements.

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 Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that
of the tool. A drilling operation can produce a blind hole, which extends to some depth
inside the workpiece, or a through hole, which extends completely through the workpiece.
An operation in which a drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter
equal to that of the tool. On a milling machine, an end milling operation is required to
produce a hole with a tool smaller than the hole diameter. A drilling operation typically
produces a blind hole, which extends to some depth inside the workpiece, measured to the
point made by the tool or to the end of the full diameter portion. On a milling machine, a
hole that extends completely through the workpiece (through hole) can also be drilled.

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 Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along an internal surface to
form different features. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to
cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly
performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise
dimensions. An operation in which a boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts
along an internal surface to form different features. The boring tool is a single-point
cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring
head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter
or obtain more precise dimensions. On a turning machine, a variety of features can be
formed, including steps, tapers, chamfers, and contours. These features are typically

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machined at a small radial depth of cut and multiple passes are made until the end
diameter is reached. For a finish turning operation, the cutting feed is calculated based on
the desired surface roughness and the tool nose radius.

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 Counterboring - An counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top
portion of an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is often performed

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 after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to sit below the
surface of a part. The counterboring tool has a pilot on the end to guide it straight into the
existing hole. An operation in which a counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and
enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is
often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to
sit below the surface of a part. The counterboring tool has a pilot on the end to guide it
straight into the existing hole.

 Countersinking - A countersink tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top
portion of an existing hole to a cone-shaped opening. Countersinking is often performed
after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with
the workpiece surface. Common included angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90,
100, 118, and 120 degrees. An operation in which a countersink tool enters the workpiece
axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to a cone-shaped opening.
Countersinking is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a
fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Common included
angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90, 100, 118, and 120 degrees.

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 Tapping – A tap enters the workpiece axially and cuts internal threads into an existing
hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the requird tap drill size that will
accommodate the desired tap. Threads may be cut to a specified depth inside the hole
(bottom tap) or the complete depth of a through hole (through tap). An operation in which
a tap enters the workpiece axially and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The
existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the
desired tap. On a milling machine, the threads may be cut to a specified depth inside the
hole (bottom tap) or the complete depth of a through hole (through tap).

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 Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an existing hole to the
diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often
performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal
finish. An operation in which a reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an
existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material
and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a
smoother internal finish. A finish reaming operation will use a slower cutting feed and
cutting speed to provide an even better finish.

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Equipment
Milling machines can be found in a variety of sizes and designs, yet they still possess the
same main components that enable the workpiece to be moved in three directions relative to
the tool. These components include the following:
 Base and column - The base of a milling machine is simply the platform that sits on the
ground and supports the machine. A large column is attached to the base and connects to
the other components.
 Table - The workpiece that will be milled is mounted onto a platform called the table,
which typically has "T" shaped slots along its surface. The workpiece may be secured in a
fixture called a vise, which is secured into the T-slots, or the workpiece can be clamped
directly into these slots. The table provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the
X-direction by sliding along a platform beneath it, called the saddle.
 Saddle - The saddle is the platform that supports the table and allows its longitudinal
motion. The saddle is also able to move and provides the horizontal motion of the
workpiece in the Y-direction by sliding transversely along another platform called the
knee.
 Knee - The knee is the platform that supports the saddle and the table. In most milling
machines, sometimes called column and knee milling machines, the knee provides the
vertical motion (Z direction) of the workpiece. The knee can move vertically along the
column, thus moving the workpiece vertically while the cutter remains stationary above
it. However, in a fixed bed machine, the knee is fixed while the cutter moves vertically in
order to cut the workpiece.

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The above components of the milling machine can be oriented either vertically or
horizontally, creating two very distinct forms of milling machine. A horizontal milling
machine uses a cutter that is mounted on a horizontal shaft, called an arbor, above the
workpiece. For this reason, horizontal milling is sometimes referred to as arbor milling. The
arbor is supported on one side by an overarm, which is connected to the column, and on the
other side by the spindle. The spindle is driven by a motor and therefore rotates the arbor.
During milling, the cutter rotates along a horizontal axis and the side of the cutter removes
material from the workpiece. A vertical milling machine, on the other hand, orients the cutter
vertically. The cutter is secured inside a piece called a collet, which is then attached to the
vertically oriented spindle. The spindle is located inside the milling head, which is attached to
the column. The milling operations performed on a vertical milling machine remove material
by using both the bottom and sides of the cutter.

Milling machines can also be classified by the type of control that is used. A manual milling
machine requires the operator to control the motion of the cutter during the milling operation.
The operator adjusts the position of the cutter by using hand cranks that move the table,
saddle, and knee. Milling machines are also able to be computer controlled, in which case
they are referred to as a computer numerical control (CNC) milling machine. CNC milling
machines move the workpiece and cutter based on commands that are preprogrammed and
offer very high precision. The programs that are written are often called G-codes or NC-
codes. Many CNC milling machines also contain another axis of motion besides the standard

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X-Y-Z motion. The angle of the spindle and cutter can be changed, allowing for even more
complex shapes to be milled.

Tooling
The tooling that is required for milling is a sharp cutter that will be rotated by the spindle.
The cutter is a cylindrical tool with sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces
between the teeth are called flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the
workpiece. The teeth may be straight along the side of the cutter, but are more commonly
arranged in a helix. The helix angle reduces the load on the teeth by distributing the forces.
Also, the number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of teeth will provide a better
surface finish. The cutters that can be used for milling operations are highly diverse, thus
allowing for the formation of a variety of features. While these cutters differ greatly in
diameter, length, and by the shape of the cut they will form, they also differ based upon their
orientation, whether they will be used horizontally or vertically.

A cutter that will be used in a horizontal milling machine will have the teeth extend along the
entire length of the tool. The interior of the tool will be hollow so that it can be mounted onto
the arbor. With this basic form, there are still many different types of cutters that can be used
in horizontal milling, including those listed below.

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 Plane (helical) mill  Form relieved mill

 Staggered tooth mill  Double angle mill

Another operation known as a straddle milling is also possible with a horizontal milling
machine. This form of milling refers to the use of multiple cutters attached to the arbor and
used simultaneously. Straddle milling can be used to form a complex feature with a single
cut.

For vertical milling machines, the cutters take a very different form. The cutter teeth cover
only a portion of the tool, while the remaining length is a smooth surface, called the shank.
The shank is the section of the cutter that is secured inside the collet, for attachment to the
spindle. Also, many vertical cutters are designed to cut using both the sides and the bottom of
the cutter. Listed below are several common vertical cutters.

 Flat end mill

 Ball end mill
 Chamfer mill
 Face mill
 Twist drill

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 Reamer
 Tap

All cutters that are used in milling can be found in a variety of materials, which will
determine the cutter's properties and the workpiece materials for which it is best suited. These
properties include the cutter's hardness, toughness, and resistance to wear. The most common
cutter materials that are used include the following:

 High-speed steel (HSS)

 Carbide
 Carbon steel
 Cobalt high speed steel

The material of the cutter is chosen based upon a number of factors, including the material of
the workpiece, cost, and tool life. Tool life is an important characteristic that is considered
when selecting a cutter, as it greatly affects the manufacturing costs. A short tool life will not
only require additional tools to be purchased, but will also require time to change the tool
each time it becomes too worn. The cutters listed above often have the teeth coated with a
different material to provide additional wear resistance, thus extending the life of the tool.
Tool wear can also be reduced by spraying a lubricant and/or coolant on the cutter and
workpiece during milling. This fluid is used to reduce the temperature of the cutter, which
can get quite hot during milling, and reduce the friction at the interface between the cutter
and the workpiece, thus increasing the tool life. Also, by spraying a fluid during milling,
higher feed rates can be used, the surface finish can be improved, and the material chips can
be pushed away. Typical cutting fluids include mineral, synthetic, and water soluble oils.

Materials
In milling, the raw form of the material is a piece of stock from which the workpieces are cut.
This stock is available in a variety of shapes such as flat sheets, solid bars (rectangular,
cylindrical, hexagonal, etc.), hollow tubes (rectangular, cylindrical, etc.), and shaped beams
(I-beams, L-beams, T-beams, etc.). Custom extrusions or existing parts such as castings or
forgings are also sometimes used.

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 Rectangular bar Rectangular tube I-beam

Milling can be performed on workpieces in variety of materials, including most metals and
plastics. Common materials that are used in milling include the following:
 Aluminum
 Brass
 Magnesium
 Nickel
 Steel
 Thermoset plastics
 Titanium
 Zinc

When selecting a material, several factors must be considered, including the cost, strength,
resistance to wear, and machinability. The machinability of a material is difficult to quantify,
but can be said to possess the following characteristics:

 Results in a good surface finish

 Promotes long tool life
 Requires low force and power to mill
 Provides easy collection of chips

Possible Defects
Most defects in milling are inaccuracies in a feature's dimensions or surface roughness. There
are several possible causes for these defects, including the following:

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 Incorrect cutting parameters - If the cutting parameters such as the feed rate, spindle
speed, or axial depth of cut are too high, the surface of the workpiece will be rougher than
desired and may contain scratch marks or even burn marks. Also, a large depth of cut may
result in vibration of the cutter and cause inaccuracies in the cut.
 Dull cutter - As a cutter is used, the teeth will wear down and become dull. A dull cutter
is less capable of making precision cuts.
 Unsecured workpiece - If the workpiece is not securely clamped in the fixture, the friction
of milling may cause it to shift and alter the desired cuts.

Design Rules
Workpiece
 Select a material that minimizes overall cost. An inexpensive workpiece may result in
longer cut times and more tool wear, increasing the total cost
 Minimize the amount of milling that is required by pre-cutting the workpiece close to the
desired size and shape
 Select the size of the workpiece such that a large enough surface exists for the workpiece
to be securely clamped. Also, the clamped surface should allow clearance between the
tool and the fixture for any cuts
Features
 Minimize the number of setups that are required by designing all features on one side of
the workpiece, if possible
 Design features, such as holes and threads, to require tools of standard sizes
 Minimize the number of tools that are required
 Ensure that the depth of any feature is less than the tool length and therefore will avoid
the collet contacting the workpiece
 Lower requirements for tolerance and surface roughness, if possible, in order to reduce
costs
 Design internal vertical edges to have a corner radius equal to that of a standard tool. If
another component with an external sharp edge must fit, then drill a hole to provide a
relief area
 Avoid very long and thin features
 Use chamfers rather than a corner radius for outside horizontal edges
 Avoid undercuts

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Cost Drivers
Material cost
The material cost is determined by the quantity of material stock that is required and the unit
price of that stock. The amount of stock is determined by the workpiece size, stock size,
method of cutting the stock, and the production quantity. The unit price of the material stock
is affected by the material and the workpiece shape. Also, any cost attributed to cutting the
workpieces from the stock also contributes to the total material cost.
Production cost
The production cost is a result of the total production time and the hourly rate. The
production time includes the setup time, load time, cut time, idle time, and tool replacement
time. Decreasing any of these time components will reduce cost. The setup time and load
time are dependent upon the skill of the operator. The cut time, however, is dependent upon
many factors that affect the cut length and feed rate. The cut length can be shortened by
optimizing the number of operations that are required and reducing the feature size if
possible. The feed rate is affected by the operation type, workpiece material, tool material,
tool size, and various cutting parameters such as the axial depth of cut. Lastly, the tool
replacement time is a direct result of the number of tool replacements which is discussed
regarding the tooling cost.

Tooling cost
The tooling cost for machining is determined by the total number of cutting tools required
and the unit price for each tool. The quantity of tools depends upon the number of unique
tools required by the various operations to be performed and the amount of wear that each of
those tools experience. If the tool wear exceeds the lifetime of a tool, then a replacement tool
must be purchased. The lifetime of a tool is dependent upon the tool material, cutting
parameters such as cutting speed, and the total cut time. The unit price of a tool is affected by
the tool type, size, and material.

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