Biological Invaders in Inland Waters

BIOLOGICAL INVADERS IN INLAND WATERS:
PROFILES, DISTRIBUTION, AND THREATS

INVADING NATURE -
SPRINGER SERIES IN INVASION ECOLOGY
Volume 2
Series Editor: JAMES A. DRAKE

University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, TN, U.S.A.
Biological invaders in inland
waters: Profiles, distribution,
and threats
Edited by
FRANCESCA GHERARDI
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Contents
Contributors xi
Foreword xxiii
Preface xxv
Introduction 1
1 Biological invasions in inland waters: an overview 3

Francesca Gherardi
Distribution of invaders 27
2 Invasive crustaceans in European inland waters 29

David M. Holdich and Manfred Pöckl
3 Non-indigenous freshwater crabs in France: a new occurrence

of a potamid near Nice 77
Pierre Y. Noël and Danièle Guinot
4 Status and ecosystem interactions of the invasive Louisianan

red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii in East Africa 91
John Foster and David Harper
v
vi Contents
5 Non-indigenous freshwater molluscs and their distribution

in Italy 103
Simone Cianfanelli, Elisabetta Lori, and Marco Bodon
6 Non-indigenous animal species naturalized in Iberian

inland waters 123
Emili Garcı́a-Berthou, Dani Boix, and Miguel Clavero
7 An overview of the natural history of non-indigenous

amphibians and reptiles 141
Riccardo Scalera
8 The red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans)

in Asia: a review 161
Neil F. Ramsay, Pek Kaye Abigayle Ng, Ruth M. O’Riordan,
and Loke Ming Chou
9 Semiaquatic mammals introduced into Italy: case studies

in biological invasion 175
Sandro Bertolino and Piero Genovesi
10 Invasions by plants in the inland waters and

wetlands of Africa 193
Geoffrey W. Howard and Florence W. Chege
11 Non-indigenous aquatic and semiaquatic plant

species in France 209
Gabrielle Thiébaut
Profiles of invaders 231
12 Ecological traits of aquatic NIS invading

Austrian fresh waters 233
Leopold Füreder and Manfred Pöckl
Contents vii
13 Growth and reproduction of the goldfish Carassius auratus:

a case study from Italy 259
Massimo Lorenzoni, Massimiliano Corboli, Lucia Ghetti, Giovanni Pedicillo,
and Antonella Carosi
14 Epigenetic context in the life history traits of the round goby,

Neogobius melanostomus 275
Mária Balážová-L’avrinčı́ková and Vladimı´r Kováč
15 Growth and life history traits of introduced pumpkinseed

(Lepomis gibbosus) in Europe, and the relevance to its
potential invasiveness 289
Gordon H. Copp and Michael G. Fox
16 The biological flexibility of the pumpkinseed: a successful

colonizer throughout Europe 307
Jozef Tomeček, Vladimı´r Kováč, and Stanislav Katina
Patterns and pathways of invasions 337
17 Marine vs. freshwater invaders: is shipping the key vector

for species introductions to Europe? 339
Stephan Gollasch
18 Modeling biological invasions of inland waters 347

Hugh J. MacIsaac, Leif-Matthias Herborg, and Jim R. Muirhead
19 Biomonotony: definition and assessment for

macroinvertebrates in European running waters 369
Jean-Nicolas Beisel and Simon Devin
20 Genetics and invasion biology in fresh waters: a pilot study

of Procambarus clarkii in Europe 381
Silvia Barbaresi, Francesca Gherardi, Alessio Mengoni,
and Catherine Souty-Grosset
viii Contents
21 Do estuaries act as saline bridges to allow invasion of new

freshwater systems by non-indigenous fish species? 401
J. Anne Brown, Dawn M. Scott, and Rod W. Wilson
22 Which factors determine non-indigenous fish dispersal?

A study of the red piranha in tropical Brazilian lakes 415
Anderson O. Latini and Miguel Petrere Jr.
23 The relationship between biodiversity and invasibility in

central Swedish lakes invaded by Elodea species 423
Daniel Larson and Eva Willén
Impacts of invaders 435
24 Measuring the impact of freshwater NIS: what are we missing? 437

Francesca Gherardi
25 Invasion of the Baltic Sea basin by the Ponto-Caspian

amphipod Pontogammarus robustoides and its ecological impact 463
Ke˛stutis Arbačiauskas and Simona Gumuliauskaite_
26 Changes in the aquatic systems of north-eastern Europe after

invasion by Gmelinoides fasciatus 479
Nadezhda A. Berezina
27 The predatory impact of Dikerogammarus villosus on fish 495

Sandra Casellato, Alessandra Visentin, and Giovanni La Piana
28 Understanding the impact of invasive crayfish 507

Francesca Gherardi
29 Predation of invasive crayfish on aquatic vertebrates:

the effect of Procambarus clarkii on fish assemblages in
Mediterranean temporary streams 543
Maria Ilhéu, João Manuel Bernardo, and Sı´lvia Fernandes
Contents ix
30 Assessing the trophic ecology of crayfish: a case study of the

invasive Procambarus clarkii 559
Marı́a Crehuet, Paloma Alcorlo, Miguel Angel Bravo-Utrera,
Angel Baltanás, and Carlos Montes
31 Introduction and spread of crayfish (Parastacidae)

in Western Australia and their potential to displace
indigenous species 577
Jessica Lynas, Andrew Storey, and Brenton Knott
32 The zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha:

reproduction and competition with the sponge
Ephydatia fluviatilis 597
Tisza Lancioni and Elda Gaino
33 Seasonal effects on the antioxidant response and metal

accumulation of Dreissena polymorpha 613
Antonia C. Elia, Ambrosius J. M. Dörr, Marino Prearo,
and Maria C. Abete
Managing invasions 625
34 Towards a European strategy to halt biological invasions

in inland waters 627
Piero Genovesi
35 A risk assessment of biological invasions in the inland

waterways of Europe: the Northern Invasion Corridor
case study 639
Vadim E. Panov, Yury Yu. Dgebuadze, Tamara A. Shiganova,
Andrew A. Filippov, and Dan Minchin
36 Logistics of shipboard and dockside testing of ballast water

treatment systems in the United States 657
David A. Wright
x Contents
37 Virtues and shortcomings of EU legal provisions for

managing NIS: Rana catesbeiana and Trachemys scripta
elegans as case studies 669
Riccardo Scalera
38 Problems and opportunities managing invasive Bullfrogs:

is there any hope? 679
Michael J. Adams and Christopher A. Pearl
Concluding remarks 695
39 A role for scientists 697

Francesca Gherardi
Index 703
General keywords 703

Families, orders 711
Geographical names 713
Taxa common names 721
Species index 725
Contributors
Maria C. Abete
Experimental Zooprofilactic Institute of Piedmont, Liguria and Valle d’Aosta,
Via Bologna 148, 10154 Torino, Italy
[email protected]
Michael J. Adams
USGS Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 3200 SW Jefferson Way,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
[email protected]
Paloma Alcorlo
Department of Ecology, Autonomous University of Madrid, c/ Darwin 2, 28049
Madrid, Spain
[email protected]
Ke˛stutis Arbačiauskas
Institute of Ecology, Vilnius University, Akademijos 2, LT-08412 Vilnius-21,
Lithuania
[email protected]
Mária Balážová-L’avrinčíková
Comenius University, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Ecology,
Mlynská dolina B-2, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
[email protected]
xi
xii Contributors
Angel Baltanás
Madrid, Spain
[email protected]
Silvia Barbaresi
Department of Animal Biology and Genetics, University of Firenze, Via Romana
17, 50125 Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Jean-Nicolas Beisel
LIEBE, CNRS, Campus Bridoux, Paul Verlain University, Metz, Avenue du
Général Delestraint, 57070 Metz, France
[email protected]
Laboratory of Freshwater and Experimental Hydrobiology, Zoological Institute,
Russian Academy of Sciences, Universitetskaya emb. 1, 199034 St. Petersburg,
Russia
[email protected]
João M. Bernardo
Department of Ecology, University of Évora, Colégio Luis Verney, Rua Romão
Ramalho, 7000-671 Évora, Portugal
[email protected]
Sandro Bertolino
DI.VA.P.R.A., Laboratory of Entomology and Zoology, Via L. da Vinci 44,
10095 Grugliasco, Italy
[email protected]
Marco Bodon
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Siena, Via Mattioli 4,
53100 Siena, Italy
[email protected]
Contributors xiii
Dani Boix
Institute of Aquatic Ecology, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, 17071
Girona, Spain
[email protected]
Miguel Angel Bravo-Utrera

Biological Reserve of Doñana, 21760, Matalascañas, Huelva, Spain
[email protected]
J. Anne Brown
School of Biosciences, Hatherly Laboratories, Prince of Wales Road, University
of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4PS, UK
[email protected]
Antonella Carosi
Department of Cellular and Environmental Biology, University of Perugia, Via
Elce di Sotto, 06123 Perugia, Italy
[email protected]
Sandra Casellato
Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/BIG, 35121
Padova, Italy
[email protected]
Florence W. Chege
Eastern Africa Regional Programme, IUCN – The World Conservation Union,
P.O. Box 68200, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya
[email protected]
Loke Ming Chou

Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science
Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
[email protected]
xiv Contributors
Simone Cianfanelli
Museum of Natural History, Zoological Section ‘‘La Specola’’, University of
Firenze, Via Romana 17, 50125 Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Miguel Clavero
Girona, Spain
[email protected]
Gordon H. Copp
Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Salmon &
Freshwater Team, Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, NR33 0HT, UK
[email protected]
Massimiliano Corboli
[email protected]
Marı́a Crehuet
Madrid, Spain
[email protected]
Simon Devin
[email protected]
Yury Yu. Dgebuadze

Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Science,
Leninsky Prospect 33, 117071 Moscow, Russia
[email protected]
Ambrosius J. M. Dörr
Contributors xv
Antonia C. Elia
[email protected]
Sı´lvia Fernandes
Department of Ecology, University of Évora, Colégio Luis Verney, Rua Romão
[email protected]
Andrew A. Filippov
Faculty of Biology and Soil Science, St. Petersburg State University, Universi-
tetskaya nab. 7-9, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
[email protected]
John Foster
Environment Agency, Saxon House, Little High Street, Worthing, West Sussex,
BN11 1DH, UK
[email protected]
Michael G. Fox
Environmental and Resource Studies Program and Department of Biology,
Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, K9J 7B8, Canada
[email protected]
Leopold Füreder
River Ecology and Freshwater Fauna Laboratory, Institute of Ecology, Leopold-
Franzens University, Technikerstr. 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
[email protected]
Elda Gaino
[email protected]
Emili Garcı́a-Berthou
Girona, Spain
[email protected]
xvi Contributors
Piero Genovesi
National Institute of Wild Fauna (INFS), Via Ca’ Fornacetta 9, 40064 Ozzano
Emilia, Italy
[email protected]
Francesca Gherardi
[email protected]
Lucia Ghetti
Umbria Region, Servizio Programmazione Forestale, Faunistico-Venatoria ed
Economia Montana, Via M. Angeloni 61, 06124 Perugia, Italy
[email protected]
Stephan Gollasch
GoConsult, Grosse Brunnenstr. 61, 22763 Hamburg, Germany
http://www.gollaschconsulting.de
Danièle Guinot
National Museum of Natural History, Department of Habitats and Aquatic
Populations, P.O. Box 53, 57 rue Cuvier, F-75231 Paris cedex 05, France
[email protected]
Simona Gumuliauskaite_
Centre for Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Vilnius University, Čiurlionio
21/27, LT-07119 Vilnius-10, Lithuania
[email protected]
David Harper
Department of Biology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1
7RH, UK
[email protected]
Contributors xvii
Leif-Matthias Herborg
Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Wind-
sor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada
[email protected]
David M. Holdich
East Midlands Environmental Consultants, The Old Ragged School, Brook
Street, Nottingham, NG1 1EA, UK
[email protected]
Geoffrey W. Howard
Eastern Africa Regional Programme, IUCN – The World Conservation Union,
P.O. Box 68200, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya
[email protected]
Maria Ilhéu
Departament of Ecology, University of Évora, Colégio Luis Verney, Rua Romão
[email protected]
Stanislav Katina
Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Depart-
ment of Probability and Mathematical Statistics, Mlynská dolina, 84248 Brati-
slava, Slovakia
[email protected]
Brenton Knott
School of Animal Biology (M092), The University of Western Australia, 35
Stirling Highway, Crawley, W.A. 6009, Australia
[email protected]
Vladimı´r Kováč
[email protected]
xviii Contributors
Tisza Lancioni
[email protected]
Giovanni La Piana
Padova, Italy
[email protected]
Daniel Larson
Department of Environmental Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, P.O. Box 7050, 75007 Uppsala, Sweden
[email protected]
Anderson O. Latini
UNILESTEMG, University Centre of Eastern Minas Gerais, CCB Campus Bom
Retiro, Rua Bárbara Heliodora, 725 Bairro Bom Retiro, Ipatinga, 35160-215
MG, Brazil
[email protected]
Massimo Lorenzoni
[email protected]
Elisabetta Lori
Museum of Natural History, Zoological Section ‘‘La Specola’’, University of
Firenze, Via Romana 17, 50125 Firenze, Italy
[email protected]
Jessica Lynas
[email protected]
Contributors xix
Hugh J. MacIsaac
[email protected]
Alessio Mengoni
[email protected]
Dan Minchin
Marine Organism Investigations, 3 Marina Village, Ballina, Killaloe, County
Clare, Ireland
[email protected]
Carlos Montes
Madrid, Spain
[email protected]
Jim R. Muirhead
[email protected]
Pek Kaye Abigayle Ng

Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
[email protected]
Pierre Y. Noël
National Museum of Natural History, UMR CNRS-UPMC-MNHN 5178, Depart-
ment of Habitats and Aquatic Populations, P.O. Box 53, 57 rue Cuvier, F-75231
Paris cedex 05, France
[email protected]
xx Contributors
Ruth M. O’Riordan
Drive 4, 117543, Singapore & Department of Zoology, Ecology and Plant
Science, University College Cork, Distillery Fields, North Mall, Cork, Ireland
[email protected]
Vadim E. Panov
Faculty of Biology and Soil Science, St. Petersburg State University, Universi-
tetskaya nab. 7-9, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
[email protected]; [email protected]
Christopher A. Pearl
USGS Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 3200 SW Jefferson Way,
Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
[email protected]
Giovanni Pedicillo
[email protected]
Miguel Petrere Jr
São Paulo State University, Júlio de Mesquita Filho, UNESP, Biosciences Insti-
tute, Av. 24 A n.1515, Bela Vista, P.O. Box 199, Rio Claro, SP, 13506–900,
Brazil
[email protected]
Manfred Pöckl
Vienna Ecology Centre, Department of Freshwater Ecology, University of
Vienna; State Government of Lower Austria Landhausplatz 1, 3109 St. Pölten,
Austria
[email protected]
Marino Prearo
Experimental Zooprofilactic Institute of Piedmont, Liguria and Valle d’Aosta,
Via Bologna 148, 10154 Torino, Italy
[email protected]
Contributors xxi
Neil F. Ramsay
Drive 4, Singapore 117543 & Department of Zoology, Ecology and Plant Sci-
ence, University College Cork, Distillery Fields, North Mall, Cork, Ireland
[email protected]
Riccardo Scalera
Via Torcegno 49 V1 A2, 00124 Roma, Italy
[email protected], [email protected]
Dawn M. Scott
[email protected]
Tamara A. Shiganova
Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Science, 36 Nakhi-
mov Avenue, 117997 Moscow, Russia
[email protected]
Catherine Souty-Grosset
UMRCNRS 6556 Génétique et Biologie des Populations de Crustacés, University
of Poitiers, 40 Avenue du recteur Pineau, 86022 Poitiers cedex, France
[email protected]
Andrew Storey
[email protected]
[email protected]
xxii Contributors
Jozef Tomeček
[email protected]
Alessandra Visentin
Padova, Italy
[email protected]
Eva Willén
Department of Environmental Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, P.O. Box 7050, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
[email protected]
Rod W. Wilson
[email protected]
David A. Wright
University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Science, Chesapeake Bio-
logical Laboratory, Solomons, MD 20688, USA
[email protected]
Foreword
Q: Why are some environments more vulnerable to invasion than others?

A: Environments? In the first volume of this series you asked which species traits
coincide with good invaders . . . now environments!
Q: Sure, if traits are not terribly powerful predictors alone, I thought that
perhaps species traits and kinds of systems might somehow covary. What do
you think?
A: Well that depends.
Q: Depends on what?
A: That depends too.
Freshwater environments are islands of sorts. Lakes, rivers, streams and wet-
lands are uniquely bounded and discrete at one readily apparent scale of
observation, the basin or channel boundary. It comes as no surprise, then,
that ecological thought has been so strongly influenced by research conducted
within the confines of systems so easily circumscribed. Yet, aquatic and terres-
trial habitats are inexorably coupled such that this boundary, while substantial
at some scales or levels of organization, vanishes at others. This fact is well
illustrated by the cascading or indirect effects induced by non-native species that
readily traverse the interface between land and water.
Biological invasions represent the latest threat to the integrity of freshwater
ecosystems worldwide, systems that are already impacted in massive fashion by
human activity. Based on the number of documented and potential extinctions,
the freshwater fauna of North America are experiencing an extinction rate that
is five times that of the terrestrial environment.i While unrelenting habitat modi-
fication and resource exploitation directly accounts for many of these species
losses, exotic species have surely played a role in what is an unprecedented
i
Ricciardi, A. and J.B. Rasmussen. 1998. Extinction rates of North American Fresh-
water Fauna. Conserv. Biol. 13: 1220–1222.
xxiii
xxiv Foreword
episode of extinction in real time. Humans, however, are not safe in their role as
the dominant purveyors of extinction. Ecosystem modification is often accom-
panied by increased susceptibility to invasion, and once established, exotic
species are fully capable of changing all the rules driving system organization.
This is a broad-based volume, crafted with the widest possible brush strokes.
Francesca Gherardi set out to create a volume that not only addressed the
phenomenon of biological invasions in freshwater systems, but that also reflects
the very breadth of contemporary approaches employed to understand the
threats posed by the global movement of species. Here, the reader will find
specificity and generality, application as well as theory, along with the socio-
political implications and response to a global crisis. In a very real sense, this
volume represents everything invasions.
James Drake
Series Editor
Preface
Nowadays we live in a very explosive world, and while we may not know where or
when the next outburst will be, we might hope to find ways of stopping it or at any
rate damping down its force.
Charles Elton 1958
In the past few decades, it has become clear to scientists and policy-makers that
the human-mediated introduction of species – meaning the deliberate or acci-
dental introduction into the wild of microbes, fungi, plants, and animals,
including genetically modified organisms (GMOs) outside their natural range
of distribution – is the main driver of biodiversity change (Sala et al. 2000).
Acting often in concert with other anthropogenic alterations to the environ-
ment, such as changes in land use, climate, nitrogen deposition, and atmos-
pheric CO2 , the effects on global biodiversity are expected to increase quickly
with time in both extent and intensity.
Changes in the natural distribution of species should not, in general, be
viewed as abnormal events (Lodge 1993). They are commonplace in nature,
often occurring over the course of geological times in association with climate
change (Graumlich and Davis 1993). But only rare events, usually associated
with unusual climatic conditions such as storms, may induce the dispersal of
species to habitats previously beyond their natural dispersal capabilities (MacI-
saac et al. 2001). Human actions are more frequent and powerful. Such actions
have greatly increased the temporal rate at which species disperse and the
distances they traverse, accomplishing in a few decades something that could
have never been accomplished by the means of natural events alone (Lodge
1993).
Since their earliest migrations, humans have contributed to the spread of
organisms, always carrying them and their propagules over long distances. But
the frequency of human-induced introductions of species and the consequent
xxv
xxvi Preface
risks associated with them have augmented exponentially in the recent past in
concert with the fast growth of the human population and with the rapid
escalation of our potentials to alter the environment. Large numbers of people
are today traveling faster and farther, and more and more goods and materials
are being traded among nations and continents (Pimentel et al. 2002), creating
a ‘‘New Pangaea’’ (Mooney 1998 cited by Rosenzweig 2001). All these factors
combined have produced burgeoning rates of non-indigenous species (NIS) in
every ecosystem that has been monitored. Over 480,000 NIS have been intro-
duced into the varied ecosystems on earth (Pimentel et al. 2002) and have come
to dominate about 3% of the ice-free surface over the last 500 years (Mack
1985). Their prevalence is exacerbated by climatic changes that in their turn
favor the natural spread and proliferation of NIS (Dukes and Mooney 1999,
Carlton 2000, Cowx 2002). The combined effect of the spread of cosmopolitan
species and the extinction or range contraction of regional and endemic indi-
genous organisms often results in the ‘‘mingling’’ of the taxonomic composition
of once disparate biota (Olden et al. 2004). This phenomenon is inevitably
leading to the ‘‘homogenization’’ (McKinney and Lockwood 1999) or ‘‘McDo-
naldization’’ of the biosphere (Lövei 1997) that will characterize, it has been
said, the forthcoming ‘‘Homogocene’’ era (Orians 1994 cited by Rosenzweig
2001).
Indeed, several introduced species have been beneficial to humans; species
such as corn, wheat, rice, plantation forests, domestic chicken, cattle, and
others provide now more than 98% of the world’s food supply (Ewel et al.
1999, Pimentel et al. 2002). Many cause minimal environmental impact, as
predicted by the oft-cited ‘‘tens rule’’ (Williamson and Fitter 1996). So, the
fraction of the introduced species that cause problems is small, but their impact
could be very serious. These species have the potential of becoming numerically
and ecologically prominent; they spread from the point of introduction and are
often able to dominate indigenous populations and communities (Kolar and
Lodge 2001); they may profoundly and adversely affect indigenous species,
ecosystem processes, economic interests, and public health (e.g. Ricciardi et al.
1998). In sum, they may turn out to be invasive. Their effects that justify alarm
include biodiversity loss at the level of species, large reduction in the lower
(genetic) and higher (generic) levels of biodiversity, changes in ecosystem
functions, alteration of the ecosystem services provided to humans, aesthetic
modifications of landscapes, direct costs to industries, damage to crops and
forests, and the spread of human diseases, such as HIV and West Nile virus
(Mack et al. 2000). Also, deliberate introductions made to solve local or regional
problems may be responsible for serious ecological and economic consequences,
the so-called Frankenstein Effect (Moyle et al. 1986). The costs they inflict form
a hidden but onerous ‘‘tax’’ on many goods and services and the damages they
cause are often irrevocable: biological invaders act as biological pollutants that,
unlike chemicals, reproduce and spread autonomously, over great distances,
Preface xxvii
and can adapt to changing conditions. Their impacts may be continuously

increasing over time, even when their introduction ceases.
Since the 1980s, studies of NIS have expanded greatly, resulting in a flood of
scientific publications and in the foundation of two invasion-focused journals,
Diversity and Distribution (Blackwell Publishing) in 1998 and Biological Invasions
(Kluwer-Springer) in 1999, this growth reflecting the rise in popularity that the
discipline of invasion biology has gained as an appealing area of research
among ecologists. The overall number of published articles appears, however,
to be significantly biased towards terrestrial invaders; invasive events occurring
in freshwater systems have been most often neglected or analyzed in a few
regional contexts or for a small number of paradigmatic species.
In this book, the identity, distribution, and impact of freshwater NIS will be
examined, as well as the dynamics of their invasion. Rather than providing a
broad and comprehensive review of the issue, Biological Invaders in Inland Waters
focuses on old and new invaders and also raises questions and opens perspec-
tives that will be of stimulus for further research. Inland waters will be taken
here as meaning rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Coastal lagoons, saline lakes,
estuaries, and low salinity seas such as the Baltic, will be mentioned when
appropriate.
The ultimate, ambitious purpose of the book is to help define a more general
framework for our knowledge of invasions in fresh waters. Such a framework
will be indispensable to the planning of a science-based management program.
Inspiration for this effort came from the International Workshop, ‘‘Biological
Invasions in Inland Waters’’ (INWAT), held in Florence (Italy) between 5 and 7
May 2005 and made possible by support from Ente Cassa di Risparmio di
Firenze, the Italian Ministry of University and Scientific Research (MIUR), the
University of Florence, the Provinces of Arezzo, Firenze, Grosseto, Pisa, and
Pistoia, and the International Association of Astacology. The INWAT Workshop
was a necessary addendum of the final meeting (Florence, 2–5 May 2005) of the
European network CRAYNET (‘‘European crayfish as keystone species – linking
science, management and economics with sustainable environmental quality’’,
coordinator Catherine Souty-Grosset) (Fifth EU Framework).
This volume benefited greatly from the collaboration – and patience – of the
authors and the numerous reviewers. Heartfelt thanks are directed to Jim Drake,
who was the first supporter of the project, to Geoff Sanders for his careful
linguistic revision, to Claudia Angiolini for her editorial help, and to Suzzanne
Mekking and Martine van Bezooijen at Springer for their ability to transform a
dream in a printed volume.
F.G.
Florence, Italy
November 2006
xxviii Preface
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Preface xxix
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F.G. wishes to thank the friends and colleagues who acted as reviewers:
Michael Adams, Angelo Antonio Agostinho, Carles Alcaraz, Fernando Alonso

Gutiérrez, Giorgio Bavestrello, João Bernardo, Roberto Berti, Giuseppe Boitani,
Loı̈c Bollache, Marco Bologna, Hugo Coops, Gordon Copp, Stephen Corn, Clau-
dia Corti, Alan Covich, Ian Cowx, Bill Daniels, Jaimie Dick, Natham Dorn, Cédric
d’Udekem d’Acoz, Frauke Ecke, Jim Fetzner, Jordi Figuerola, John Foster, Mi-
chael Fox, Emili Garcia-Berthou, Cristina Giacoma, Folco Giusti, Stephan Gol-
lasch, Joanna Grabowska, Michal Grabowski, Manuela Gualtieri, Joseph Heller,
David Holdich, Pierre Horwitz, Jeoffry Howard, Mark Hutchinson, John Jackson,
Krzysztof Jazdzewski, Ladd Johnson, Frank Kligenstein, Vladimı́r Kováč, Daniel
Larson, Thomas Lauer, Erni Leppäkoski, Sandro Lovari, Luca Luiselli, Hugh
MacIsaac, Alexandra Marçal Correia, Tracy McCollin, Marit Mjerde, Noel Mor-
rissy, Ilona Musko, Erin Muths, Stefan Nehring, Annamaria Nocita, Francesco
Nonnis-Marzano, Sergej Olenin, Vadim Panov, Gad Perry, George Phiri, Man-
fred Pöckl, Mark Ponniah, Giovanni Principato, Wolfang Rabitsch, Philip Rain-
bow, Sanjeevi Rajagopal, Julian Reynolds, Nicoletta Riccardi, Karl-Otto
Rothhaupt, Jordi Sala, Giuseppe Simone, Patrik Stenroth, Gabrielle Thiébaut,
Pietro Giorgio Tiscar, Marco Vannini, Marcel Veldhuis, Karen Veverica, Anna
Vila-Gispert, Hartwell Welsh, Dudley Williams, Sergio Zerunian.
Introduction
We must make no mistake: we are seeing one of the great historical convulsions in the
world’s fauna and flora.
Charles Elton (1958)
Chapter one
Biological invasions in
inland waters: an overview
Francesca Gherardi
INTRODUCTION
The value of inland waters to humankind is obviously infinite and the induced
changes in the goods and services they provide have a strong impact on
human welfare. Lakes/rivers and wetlands currently contribute 20% to the
estimated annual global value of the entire biosphere amounting to US$33
trillion per year (Costanza et al. 1997). These elevated numbers may justify
the present general concern about the increasing degradation of freshwater
systems, associated with the rapid extinction rate of their biodiversity – in
some cases even matching that of tropical forests (Ricciardi and Rasmussen
1999).
Together with other anthropogenic sources of disturbance, such as the
impoundment of rivers (e.g. dams and weirs, water removal), water quality
deterioration (e.g. pollution, eutrophication, acidification), habitat degrada-
tion and fragmentation (e.g. channelization and land use change), and over-
exploitation, the introduction of non-indigenous species (NIS) into fresh waters
is today regarded as the main driver of biodiversity change (Millennium Eco-
system Assessment 2005). The effects of such a driver has been estimated to
be greater in freshwater than in terrestrial ecosystems (Sala et al. 2000).
This is particularly apparent in lakes where biological invaders have
been recognized as one of the greatest causes of species extinctions (Lodge
2001).
3
Francesca Gherardi, Biological invaders in inland waters: Profiles, distribution, and threats, 3–25.
ß 2007 Springer.
4 Francesca Gherardi
THE VULNERABILITY OF INLAND WATERS TO INVASIONS
Inland waters have been the theatres of spectacular biological invasions. Well-
known cases are the introduction of the Nile perch Lates niloticus (Linnaeus) into
Lake Victoria followed by the elimination of about 200 species of haplochromine
cichlids (Craig 1992), the alteration of the Laurentian Great Lakes communities
and ecosystems by sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus Linnaeus, zebra mussel
Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas), and other invaders (MacIsaac et al. 2001), and the
complete domination of lowland rivers in the western USA by non-indigenous
fish and invertebrates (Moyle and Light 1996a). In several freshwater systems,
other less celebrated dramas are however ongoing with the intervention of
several, previously unsuspected actors, such as Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus)
(Chapter 15) and Carassius auratus (Linnaeus) (Chapter 13) among fish, Diker-
ogammarus villosus (Sowinsky) (Chapters 12 and 27), Gmelinoides fasciatus (Steb-
bing) (Chapter 26), and Pontogammarus robustoides (Sars) (Chapter 25) among
crustaceans, and Rana catesbeiana Shaw among amphibians (Chapters 7 and
38). This confirms that invasions by NIS are pervasive and highly diffused
phenomena in fresh waters but also that our predictive ability may be weak.
Meanwhile, other apparently harmless NIS are spreading (see potamid crabs in
southern France, Chapter 3).
The reasons that freshwater systems are vulnerable to NIS are several,
including the higher intrinsic dispersal ability of freshwater species compared
with terrestrial organisms (Beisel 2001). Lakes and some streams are compa-
rable to islands in that their geographic isolation has led to local adaptation
with the evolution of many endemisms and sometimes to a low biodiversity
(Lodge 1993). The extensive introduction of organisms in inland waters, either
inadvertent (e.g. via ship ballast, artificial/natural canals, or estuarine saline-
bridges, Chapters 17, 21, and 22; as parasites of other introduced species, such
as the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci, Chapter 6) or deliberate (e.g. stocking of
fish and crayfish, Chapters 20 and 31; intentional releases of pets or farm
organisms, Chapters 8 and 9), is a direct consequence of the intensity with
which humans utilize these systems for recreation, food sources, and commerce
(Rahel 2000, Ricciardi 2001). Human-mediated dispersal of crustacean zoo-
plankton, for instance, might exceed the natural rate by up to 50,000-fold
(Hebert and Cristescu 2002). And the frequency of species invasions in fresh-
water systems is likely to continue to grow commensurate with enhanced global
commerce and human exploitation of these communities.
Finally, freshwater systems are subject, especially at higher latitudes, to
altered seasonal temperature regimes due to global climatic warming and,
especially in developed countries, to strong human disturbance. In fact, many
NIS are migrating to new areas where the climate has warmed, such as some
introduced warm-water fish [e.g. Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède), Lepomis
macrochirus Rafinesque, and Lepomis cyanellus (Rafinesque)] that are spreading
in North America into higher latitudes and altitudes (Eaton and Scheller 1996,
Bioinvasions in inland waters 5
Chapter 35). Disturbed ecosystems and communities attract biological invasions

more than pristine systems; disturbance results in the resharing of space and
energy resources that are available to indigenous and non-indigenous species
and may open new vacant niches for the most adaptable and tolerant invaders
(Ross et al. 2001).
The vulnerability of inland waters to biological invasions is a cause of the
complete domination of vast waterscapes in certain regions by NIS, such as
water hyacinth [Eichornia crassipes (Martius) Solms] in many tropical lakes and
rivers (Chapter 10) and the red swamp crayfish [Procambarus clarkii (Girard)]
in several waterbodies of southern Europe (Gherardi 2006, Chapter 2). Xeno-
diversity may be extraordinarily high in, for instance, large rivers of developed
countries that usually host dozens to hundreds of NIS (Mills et al. 1996,
Chapter 12). The Hudson River, for instance, contains more than 100 species
of non-indigenous fish, vascular plants, and large invertebrates, a considerable
fraction of which are ecologically important – such as Eurasian watermilfoil
(Myriophyllum spicatum Linnaeus), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria Lin-
naeus), zebra mussel (D. polymorpha), Atlantic rangia (Rangia cuneata Gray),
and common carp (Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus) (Strayer et al. 2005). Some taxa
are particularly affected by species introductions: the New Zealand fish fauna
contains 30 NIS (53% of the total) (Vitousek et al. 1997); isolated islands often
have more non-indigenous than indigenous fish species (Hawaii: 19 vs. 6),
but also continental areas have relatively large numbers of non-indigenous
fish species (California: 42 vs. 76, Brazil: 76 vs. 517; references in Vitousek
et al. 1996); at least 76 fish species belonging to 21 families have been intro-
duced into European fresh waters (Lehtonen 2002), of which 51 have become
established.
Species originating from diverse biogeographical areas now coexist in several
basins; in the Rhine, indigenous crustaceans [Gammarus pulex (Linnaeus)] occur
with North American species [Gammarus tigrinus Sexton and Orconectes limosus
(Rafinesque)], Mediterranean species (the freshwater shrimp Atyaephyra desmar-
esti Millet), and Ponto-Caspian species [Gammarus roeseli Gervais and Dikero-
gammarus villosus (Sowinsky)] (Beisel 2001). Biotic homogenization is
constantly increasing; freshwater fish similarity among the States of the USA
amounts today to 7% (Rahel 2000) and some of them, such as Arizona and
Montana, which previously had no fish species in common, now share more
than 30 species. National borders are obviously irrelevant and they provide no
barrier to the natural dispersal of NIS: the Nile perch released in Tanzania
spread to other countries bordering Lake Victoria (Welcomme 1988) and
P. clarkii introduced into Spain invaded Portugal via the common hydrographic
basins (Gherardi 2006).
Some freshwater systems function as ‘‘hotspots’’ where NIS accumulate.
The Great Lakes system contains over 145 non-indigenous invertebrates,
pathogens, algae, fish, and plants, with approximately 75% originated from
Eurasia of which 57% are native to the Ponto-Caspian region (Mills et al. 1993,
Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1998, MacIsaac et al. 2001). These species include
a wide array of taxa, such as mussels [D. polymorpha, Dreissena bugensis
(Andrusov)], amphipods (Echinogammarus ischnus Stebbing), cladocerans
[Cercopagis pengoi (Ostroumov)], harpacticoid copepods [Nitocra incerta (Richard)
and Schizopera borutzkyi (Monchenko)], and fish [Neogobius malanostomus
(Pallas)], Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pallas), Gymnocephalus cernuus (Linnaeus)].
It has been ascertained that Ponto-Caspian species reach the Great Lakes in
ballast along five shipping ‘‘corridors’’ (MacIsaac et al. 2001). Four of these
corridors require the first transfer of species via rivers and canals to ports in the
North and Baltic seas that, in their turn, function as ‘‘hubs’’, acting as the donor
for other ships that transport these species in secondary invasions to ports in
North America and, potentially, in East Asia, San Francisco Bay, and Australia
(e.g. Cohen and Carlton 1998, Ruiz et al. 2000).
Finally, many freshwater invaders are moved among biogeographic regions
within continents and are transported among continents in association with
economic activity and trade globalization that benefit millions worldwide (Lodge
and Shrader-Frechette 2003). The inevitable tension between two often com-
peting goals – increasing economic activity and protecting the environment
from invasive species – make it difficult to justify the need for decision-makers to
contain the spread of these species and to mitigate the environmental risks they
pose. For instance, a number of issues has been raised in favor of the outcomes
of introducing crayfish (Gherardi 2006, Chapter 28). First, in the absence of
indigenous species, invasive crayfish were claimed to occupy vacant niches,
constituting the unique large macro-consumer within polluted or eutrophicated
waters, where the native fauna has already been severely decimated (Gherardi
et al. 2000). The second claim is that they constitute abundant prey for rare or
threatened birds and mammals, like several Ardaeidae and the otter (e.g.
Barbaresi and Gherardi 2000, Rodrı́guez et al. 2005). Third, from a socioeco-
nomic perspective, introduced crayfish have contributed to: (1) the restoration
of traditional habits, e.g. by crayfishing in Sweden and Finland (Kirjavainen and
Sipponen 2004); (2) economic benefits for local crayfishermen, e.g. the Spanish
netsmen; (3) diversification of agriculture to include astaciculture, e.g. by
crayfish farmers in Britain and in Spain; and (4) increased trade between
countries inside Europe as well as between European and extra-European
countries (Ackefors 1999).
THE CURRENT STATE OF RESEARCH
Studies on the identity, distribution, and impact of freshwater NIS and on the
dynamics of their invasion have increased exponentially since the 1990s,
resulting in a flood of publications particularly abundant in the last decade
(Fig. 1). This pattern of growth in the literature is a reflection of the rise in
popularity that invasion biology has gained as an appealing area of research
Fig. 1 Cumulative number of publications dealing with non-indigenous species (total

number ¼ 502). Papers were identified via keywords from Biosis analyzed between 1967
and December 2005.
among ecologists (Kolar and Lodge 2001). The overall number of published
articles is, however, significantly biased towards terrestrial invaders (Fig. 2).
This is not surprising: terrestrial systems are the most visible and accessible
habitats for humans and, as such, have received the preponderance of ecolo-
gical attention.
The majority of studies of freshwater invaders has been conducted in North
America, and mostly in the Great Lakes (Fig. 3A), and centered on animals
(74%) more than on plants (20%), whereas a small fraction (6%) analyzed both
kingdoms simultaneously. Of all the animal taxa, fish, particularly salmonids,
have received the greatest scientific attention (Fig. 3B), as the result of their
Fig. 2 Frequency distribution of research articles published in the journal Biological

Invasions (Springer) since 1999 distinguished among habitats (total number ¼ 354).
A
Central
South America Asia
World America
Oceania
Europe
North America
B
Other
Mammals Crustaceans
Mollusks
Fish
Fig. 3 Frequency distributions of research articles published in the journal Biological

Invasions (Springer) since 1999 dealing with inland waters distinguished among contin-
ents (A) and animal taxa (B) (total number ¼ 69).
perceived ecological role in aquatic food webs and their economic importance to
humans. In the other taxa, dreissenids among mollusks and crayfish among
crustaceans had been most often studied. Only recently has been the taxonomic
coverage of freshwater invaders broadened. New privileged study animals have
been Eleotridae and Poeciliidae among fish (e.g. Bedarf et al. 2001, Laha and
Mattingly 2006, Pusey et al. 2006); the Asian clam [Corbicula fluminea (Mul-
ler)], the golden mussel [Limnoperna fortunei (Dunker)], and the golden apple
snail [Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck)] among mollusks (e.g. Darrigran 2002,
Carlsson and Lacoursière 2005, Boltovskoy et al. 2006, Oliveira et al. 2006,
Yusa et al. 2006); and the spiny waterflea (Bythotrephes longimanus Leydig) and
cladocerans among crustaceans (e.g. Çelik et al. 2002, Shurin and Havel 2002,
Branstrator et al. 2006).
ARE GENERALIZATIONS POSSIBLE?
A consequence of the concentrated interest on terrestrial biomes and of the

limited geographic and taxonomic breadth in fresh waters is that traditional
invasion paradigms have been mostly derived from terrestrial studies and
have been rarely tested in aquatic organisms (Beisel 2001). However, a
number of generalizations about freshwater invasion is emerging today. They
derive from two main approaches (Moyle and Light 1996b): the first analyzes
case studies of invaders and their distribution (e.g. P. clarkii, Chapter 4; mol-
lusks, Chapter 5; amphibians and reptiles, Chapter 7; plants, Chapter 11),
whereas the second approach aims to extend recent developments in ecological
theory to freshwater invaders (e.g. Chapters 19 and 23), in which the focus has
been mainly directed to the interaction between the invader and the target
community and to the biological characteristics of both the invading species
and the ecosystem being invaded. Based on the examples provided by the
recent literature, a list of 15 general statements characterizing some of
the known events of biological invasion in inland waters can be drawn, as
follows.
(1) The establishment and spread success of freshwater NIS often

exceeds the 10% value predicted by the ‘‘tens rule’’
(Williamson 1996).
This is seen in the results obtained by Jeschke and Strayer (2005), who analyzed
the introductions of vertebrates between Europe and North America (USA
and Canada). Using corrected data for unrecorded introductions, the authors
showed that, of the 220 and 713 fish species native to Europe and North America
respectively, 11% and 6% have been introduced into Europe and North America,
respectively, and 36% and 49% have become established after slightly longer
than a decade, while 56% and 63% of the established fish had spread and become
invasive. On a more global scale, Ruesink (2005) used a database of 1,424
intentional international transfers of freshwater fish and found that up to 64%
of the introduced fish became established and 22% of the established cases had
exerted a documented impact (i.e. changes in food availability, habitat structure,
nutrient dynamics, or top-down trophodynamics).
(2) Propagule pressure is often a major predictor of the

establishment of freshwater organisms.
Recent findings showed that the large number of propagules present in an

inoculating population, such as the thousands of zebra and quagga mussels
carried in the ballast of cargo ships, and the frequencies of sequential inocula-
tions, such as multiple introductions of ‘‘desired’’ species, are positively corre-
lated with invasion success (Lonsdale 1999, Kolar and Lodge 2001, Mack et al.
2000, Ricciardi 2001). For instance, as showed by Ruesink (2005), introduced
fish species were more likely to establish when humans intended their estab-
lishment (76%) rather than when fish were cultivated or used with no explicit
desire for naturalization (57%).
(3) The often elevated propagule pressures may explain the

several instances in which introduced populations appear to be immune from
bottlenecks – usually depleting genetic variation (the ‘‘genetic paradox’’).
Aquatic organisms introduced in large numbers via ballast or subject to mul-

tiple introductions can carry a large fraction of the genetic variability of their
source populations or bring genetic races from different parts of their native
range (Stepien et al. 2002). Hence, many colonizers arrive with a high phenotypic
and genetic diversity. This adds to other features that may favor their adapt-
ability to the recipient areas, such as the fast acquisition of genetic variability
after their arrival that results from such sources as hybridization with closely
related organisms, epistasis (i.e. an interaction in which one gene influences the
expression of another), or the potential for chromosomal restructuring by
inversion, translocation, or duplication (Cox 2004).
(4) Failures of NIS to establish derive most often from their inability to
meet the ‘‘environmental resistance’’ on the part of the recipient
community – the different regimes of temperature, current,
water chemistry, or abiotic resources.
Several examples from different taxa support this statement. Moyle and Light
(1996a), for instance, showed that freshwater fish invading North American
basins are likely to become established when abiotic conditions are appropriate,
regardless of the biota already present. The narrow thermal tolerance of
C. fluminea may explain its absence from most of the Great Lakes system
(Ricciardi 2001), whereas salinity of that system was too low to allow for the
successful reproduction of the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (Milne
Edwards), notwithstanding the frequent introductions of this latter species
over the past decades in ship ballast (MacIsaac 1999). The general harshness
of the environment may reduce the ability of non-indigenous fish to invade. An
example is Eagle Lake, California, which is a highly alkaline (pH: 8–9) terminal
lake containing only four indigenous fish species (Moyle and Light 1996b). Any
attempt to introduce fish failed in the long term, including the introduction in
the early 20th century of the largemouth bass, M. salmoides.
(5) As a consequence of (4), success in the establishment of freshwater

invaders may depend on a close match between their physiological
requirements and the environmental characteristics of the
system being invaded.
Species from nearby areas are more likely to be successful invaders than those
from more distant locations, as found for fish species in North America that are
most likely to be successful if they are adapted to the local, highly seasonal,
hydrological regime of the recipient environment (Moyle and Light 1996b). For
instance, two species of Cyprinidae introduced into the Pecos River, Texas, USA
from nearby areas became established because the artificial flow regime of the
recipient river closely resembled that of their native streams (Bestgen et al.
1989). Convergent salinity conditions in donor and recipient ecosystems played
a key role in the success of invaders in the Great Lakes (MacIsaac et al. 2001).
An additional prerequisite for successful invasion that allows a species to
survive transportation (e.g. in ballast; Bailey et al. 2004) and to become estab-
lished in a recipient area is its euryoeciousness, i.e. its ability to tolerate wide
environmental conditions (Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1998). For instance, the
range of salinity in which a species can live and reproduce provides a reliable
basis for discrimination between invasive and non-invasive North American
and East European gammarid amphipods (Devin and Beisel 2007). In general,
areas with a wide salinity gradient, like the Baltic Sea, may offer a range of
hospitable conditions for invaders, functioning as hot spots of xenodiversity
(Leppäkoski et al. 2002). Finally, the increased ionic content of large European
rivers as the result of pollution has allowed salt tolerant species to spread in new
river basins in recent decades (Ketelaars et al. 1999).
(6) Demographic factors (sexual precocity, fecundity, and

number of generations per year; Lodge 1993, Chapter 12), biological
plasticity (Chapters 14 and 16), and/or the ability to overcome the biotic
resistance posed by the recipient community (the complex of native
predators, parasites, pathogens, and competitors, and previously
introduced species) may be neither essential nor sufficient for freshwater
species to become invasive.
Usually, r-selected crayfish (e.g. P. clarkii) rather than K-selected species [(e.g.
Austropotamobius pallipes (Lereboullet)] have a high probability of spreading. But
fecundity and number of generations per year often are not sufficient to explain
why the amphipod G. pulex has invaded the streams in Northern Ireland where
it outcompetes G. duebeni Liljeborg (Devin and Beisel 2007). Often, the magni-
tude of an invader’s impact may be predicted by its ‘‘taxonomic distinctiveness’’
within the recipient community (Ricciardi and Atkinson 2004). Indeed, the lack
of evolutionary experience with the invader – meaning the absence of competi-
tors, predators, or parasites and the inability to respond to them with an
appropriate behavior – may predispose communities to be altered by invasions
(e.g. Diamond and Case 1986). For instance, eliminations of indigenous species
by D. polymorpha have rarely been reported from the invaded European lakes
whose native fauna was previously exposed to Dreissena during the Pleistocene
era (Ricciardi et al. 1998). Similarly, the introduced tilapiine species, Oreochro-
mis niloticus (Linnaeus), is one of the few fish species to persist in Lake Victoria in
large numbers in face of the Nile perch invasion as the result of its past
evolutionary experience with similar predators (Moyle and Light 1996b). Some-
times, the interaction between two species that do not share an evolutionary
history leads to the positive outcome for one of the two in a form of ‘‘evolu-
tionary release’’ (Schlaepfer et al. 2005). For instance, indigenous prey (e.g.
anuran tadpoles and metamorphs) may be unable to recognize introduced
predators (e.g. the introduced R. catesbeiana in the western USA; Rosen and
Schwalbe 2002) and their style of preying. As a result, the naı̈ve predators are
released from the difficulties of finding a prey (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997);
they may dispose of a high availability of food during the establishment phase
of their invasion, which is a precondition of their fast spread. The phenomenon
of evolutionary release might explain the paradox of why invasive species
sometimes enjoy a competitive advantage over locally adapted species, although
there would be a priority effect for residents (e.g. Shea and Chesson 2002,
Schlaepfer et al. 2005). Also a reduced attack from natural enemies (predators
and parasites) encountered outside their natural range gives some species the
ability to spread and to become invasive, as predicted by the ‘‘enemy release
hypothesis’’ (ERH) (e.g. Torchin et al. 2003). However, generalizations about
the role of the naı̈veté of introduced species and of their potential lack of enemies
in the recipient community may not be possible in freshwater systems. Several
examples, in fact, provide contrasting evidence. The sea lamprey, P. marinus,
eliminated large fish from Lake Michigan even if some of these species [e.g. the
lake trout Salvelinus namaycush (Walbaum)] coexisted with the lamprey in other
lakes where the species have been together for thousands of years (Moyle
1986). In addition, the ERH has been verified in relatively few organisms
and subject to limited criticism (Colautti et al. 2004), being only one of the
several hypotheses that can explain the abundance and/or the impact of a
given invader (Enemy Inversion Hypothesis, climatic variables, selection for
‘‘invasive’’ genotypes, human disturbance, etc.).
(7) In fresh waters, species-rich communities may be as vulnerable

to invasion as less speciose, less biologically
‘‘sophisticated’’ communities.
This statement contrasts with one of the most well-established generalizations

in the invasion literature since Elton (1958), i.e. that communities with high
diversity and complexity are the least susceptible to invasion because of the
strength of the community interactions (e.g. Lodge 1993, Levine and D’Antonio
1999, Kennedy et al. 2002, Shea and Chesson 2002). Numerous examples at
both the global and local levels demonstrate that often the opposite occurs in
freshwater systems (Moyle 1986, Ross et al. 2001). Jeschke and Strayer (2005),
for instance, showed that there is no clear difference in the probability of fish
species becoming established and spreading once introduced from Europe to
North America and vice versa, suggesting that, at the global level, the biota of
North America do not offer more resistance to invaders, notwithstanding that it
is less disturbed by humans and species-richer than Europe. At a local level,
Lake Victoria, which once contained the richest endemic fish communities on
the planet, was devastated by a single invader, the Nile perch L. niloticus,
because it encountered neither predation nor competition from indigenous
fish (Goldschmidt et al. 1993). Mississipi River, once the most speciose of all
temperate rivers, has been invaded by several non-indigenous fish, including
common carp C. carpio, goldfish C. auratus, grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella
(Valenciennes), striped bass Morone saxatilis (Walbaum), rainbow smelt
Osmerus mordax (Mitchill), rainbow trout Oncorhyncus mykiss Walbaum, and
white catfish Ictalurus catus (Linnaeus) (Burr and Page 1986). Similarly,
the zebra mussel has become established at high densities throughout the
Mississippi River basin, which contains the world’s richest endemic assemblage
of freshwater mussels (Ricciardi et al. 1998).
The above examples, however, contrast with the results obtained by employ-
ing disturbance treatments in pond zooplankton communities (Smith and
Shurin 2006). Shurin (2000) found that reducing the abundance of indig-
enous species allowed four times as many invaders to establish and to obtain
16 times greater total abundance, therefore showing that in some instances
local interactions may be strong enough to exclude a large fraction of potential
invaders.
(8) Often, freshwater NIS, instead of interfering with one another, facilitate
each other’s establishment and/or continued existence, and therefore
increase the likelihood and the magnitude of their ecological impact,
as predicted by the phenomenon of ‘‘invasional meltdown’’ (Simberloff
and Von Holle 1999, Simberloff 2006).
Invasive species may facilitate further invasions by direct effects – providing

benefits to another invader – and indirect effects – reducing an invader’s
enemies or enhancing its prey (Ricciardi 2001). Strong experimental evidence
was provided by Adams et al. (2003), who showed that introduced fish facili-
tated invasion by the bullfrog (R. catesbeiana) in western North America by
preying on native macroinvertebrates (such as dragonfly nymphs) that other-
wise precluded establishment or severely limited the numbers of frogs. In the
Great Lakes, mutualistic, commensal, and asymmetric exploitative interactions
facilitated the survival and population growth of many invaders (Ricciardi
2001). Dreissena polymorpha facilitated colonization by several invertebrate
NIS (Ricciardi et al. 1998) because it increased the surface area and spatial
heterogeneity, creating settling sites, providing refuge, and trapping sediment
and biodeposits. Additionally, Dreissena generates filtration currents that
are exploited by other invertebrates (Stewart and Haynes 1994) and it is
a food source for several introduced fish, i.e. white bass [Morone chrysops
(Rafinesque)] and round goby [Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas)] (French
1993). Its invasion also increased the spread of Eurasian watermilfoil
(MacIsaac 1996). The reduction of piscivores by the parasite sea lamprey was
an indirect effect that paved the way for invasion by the planktivore alewife
[Alosa pseudoharengus (Wilson)] followed by Oncorhynchus spp. (Moyle 1986).

Finally, sequential invasions by Ponto-Caspian species completed the life cycle
of parasitic organisms, such as the trematode Bucephalus polymorphus (Baer)
of western Europe origin. The introduction of the first intermediate host
(the zebra mussel) of the trematode and its definitive host [the pikeperch
Stizostedion lucioperca (Linnaeus)] allowed it to spread, causing high mortality
in its secondary intermediate hosts, the indigenous cyprinids (Combes and
Le Brun 1990).
(9) There is still a poor state of knowledge of whether

invasive species are the ‘‘drivers’’ of the extinction of indigenous
populations or species, or merely the ‘‘passengers’’ along for the
environmental ride (MacDougall and Turkington 2005).
Local and global extinctions frequently overlap invasions in space and time. For
instance, the loss of genetically distinct populations of unionids in North
America has been accelerated by a factor of 10 after the invasion of zebra
mussels (Ricciardi et al. 1998). Of the 40 fish species known to have become
extinct since 1890 in North America, 27 were negatively affected by the
introduction of NIS (Wilcove and Bean 1994). However, the dominance of
NIS might be an indirect consequence of habitat modifications that by them-
selves lead to both indigenous species loss and NIS invasion (Gurevitch and
Padilla 2004, Didham et al. 2005). For instance, the unionid declines began
before the introduction in the mid-1980s of zebra mussels and were caused by
several stressors, such as habitat destruction and deterioration resulting from
water diversion, erosion, an increase in eutrophication (which causes periods
of anoxia), pesticides, loss of host fish for parasitic unionid larvae, historic
harvesting for the button industry and harvesting for the pearl industry
(reviewed in Gurevitch and Padilla 2004). In some instances, successful fresh-
water invaders have been integrated without eliminations of species from the
communities being invaded. In Lake Malawi, East Africa, 12 species of bottom-
feeding haplochromine cichlids from one part of the lake were introduced into
another part of the lake in which they were absent without any apparent
changes in the abundance of the local species (Trendall 1988). After the
completion of the Panama Canal in 1914 and the consequent creation of a
freshwater corridor between the Rio Chagres on the Caribbean slope and
the Rio Grande on the Pacific slope of the Isthmus of Panama, the freshwater
fish assemblages of previously isolated drainage basins were enabled to inter-
change. However, no cases of local extinctions were recorded but species
richness increased by 10% in the Rio Chagres and 22% in the Rio Grande
(Smith et al. 2004). And there are documented cases (see statement 15)
of indigenous species that, given enough time, learn or evolve the ability to
escape the ‘‘evolutionary trap’’ caused by an invasive species (Schlaepfer et al.
2005).
(10) Among the diverse ways that introduced species threaten the
existence of indigenous species (e.g. predation, parasitism,
vectoring of pathogens, and competition; Mack et al. 2000),
the most underestimated is hybridization with
indigenous species (Olden et al. 2004).
Hybridization is thought to alter the integrity of the endemic gene pools of

unionids, crayfish, and fish; it produces hybrid swarms that eliminate indig-
enous taxa often in a very short time frame (Perry et al. 2002). Examples are
several, especially in fish. Within a 4-year period following its introduction, the
non-indigenous pupfish, Cyprinodon variegates Lacépède, was involved in a
large-scale introgressive hybridization event with the endemic Cyprinodon peco-
sensis Echelle and Echelle in New Mexico, USA (Echelle and Connor 1989).
Similarly, anadromous populations of wild brown trout (Salmo trutta Linnaeus)
were highly introgressed by stocking with hatchery fish and eventually reduced
their fitness (Hansen 2002).
(11) Introduced species have effects at multiple ecological levels in

freshwater systems (Simon and Townsend 2003, Chapter 24), but a few
studies, mostly focused on salmonids (Simon and Townsend 2003),
have analyzed this multifaceted impact
(Parker et al. 1999).
At the level of individual organisms, invaders may alter the behavior of native
species, influencing habitat use and foraging. At the population and community
levels, they may induce changes in the abundance or distribution of other
species and affect both direct and indirect interactions among populations,
respectively. Finally, at the ecosystem level, invaders may change the pathways
and magnitude of movements of energy and nutrients.
(12) A first strong danger posed by freshwater invaders to native biota

arises if they are either macro-enemies (predators or grazers) or
micro-enemies (pathogens or parasites) (Williamson 1996).
Specifically, the NIS posed on the top of the food web or those that are gener-
alized predators (Williamson 1996) are likely to produce marked effects on
ecosystem processes (see the case of P. clarkii; Chapters 29 and 30) because
their impact can ‘‘cascade’’ through the entire food web, altering both ecosystem
processes and the behavior of the indigenous species (Townsend 1996). This is
especially true in aquatic systems, in which trophic cascades appear to be more
common than in terrestrial biomes (Strong 1992). For instance, in California
the most successful fish invaders have been piscivores and omnivores (Moyle
and Light 1996a), while detritivorous fish seemed to have little effect on
indigenous fish assemblages (Power 1990).
(13) A second strong danger posed by freshwater invaders to

native biota is their role of ‘‘ecosystem engineers’’, i.e. species
that ‘‘directly or indirectly control the availability of resources
to other organisms by causing physical state changes in biotic
or abiotic materials’’ ( Jones et al. 1994).
Engineering organisms may cause physical modifications to the environment

and influence the maintenance or creation of habitats. Their ecological effects
on other species occur because of physical state changes caused, either directly
or indirectly, by the engineer, and because, as engineers, they affect the control
and use of resources by other species. Zebra mussels have all the properties of
ecosystem engineers. They change the characteristics of biotic and abiotic
environments by their presence and activities, especially their feeding and
filtering. These changes are system-wide, affecting species composition, species
interactions, community structure, and ecosystem properties (Karatayev et al.
2002, Chapters 32 and 33).
(14) In freshwater systems, as in other biomes, invaders may be subject to

evolutionary changes that influence several life history
characteristics (Cox 2004).
Once established, NIS are freed from the constraints of the gene flow from their
parent population and from the biotic pressures of former enemies, they are
subject to altered selection pressures, and they impose strong new evolutionary
pressures on the indigenous species. Substantial evolution may take place over
relatively short timescales (Carroll and Dingle 1996). For instance, following its
introduction to Pacific rivers in North America, the American shad, Alosa
sapidissima (Wilson), evolved geographic changes in its life history patterns in
less than a century (summarized in Dingle 1980). In its native rivers in eastern
North America, fecundity and the yearly number of spawns vary as a function
of latitude, with reduced clutch size and increased repeat spawning more
prevalent in northern versus southern rivers. Fish from Pacific rivers are
32–77% (vs. 20–40% from Atlantic rivers) repeat spawners; their age at maturity
varies from 3.3 to 3.8 years for males (vs. 4 years) and from 4 to 4.5 years for
females (vs. 4.6 years), and their mean lifetime fecundities range from 321,000 to
500,000 eggs (vs. 300,000–350,000). These variations are a function of latitude
and water temperature, reflecting rapid post-invasion evolution under selection
by local environmental conditions. The western mosquitofish [Gambusia affinis
(Baird and Girard)] native to North America has shown rapid genetic changes in
several locations into which it has been introduced (references in Cox 2004); a
period of about 70 generations was sufficient to induce adaptive changes in
the life history of the populations introduced into Hawaii, whereas, in the
populations introduced into thermal springs in Nevada, changes in body fat
content and size at maturity required about 110–165 generations.
(15) In freshwater systems there is growing evidence for adaptive evolutionary

responses by indigenous species to NIS and for the influence of
such responses on the community dynamics (Lambrinos 2004).
Declines in native populations may be ephemeral if indigenous species are

genetically variable in their susceptibility to NIS and can evolve in response to
invasion. Alternatively, lack of the ability to evolve in the face of strong selection
from invaders can cause extinction (see statement 9). For instance, in 70 years
Rana aurora Baird and Girard has acquired the ability to recognize the chemical
cues emitted by its new predator, the introduced bullfrog R. catesbeiana, and
behaves accordingly, by reducing their foraging activity and increasing their
refuge use, whereas frogs from uninvaded ponds do not change their behavior
when presented with bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997). Evolutionary
adaptation may also involve habitat and resource use, leading to the phenom-
enon of character displacement (i.e. increased difference in quantitative char-
acters of two or more species in areas of syntopy compared to areas of allopatry)
(Strauss et al. 2006). In the Great Lakes, the bloater [Coregonus hoyi (Milner)] is
one of the indigenous fish that survived competition with the introduced alewife
for zooplankton. Following the explosion of the alewife populations in the
1960s, the bloater shifted its diet from small zooplankton to larger benthic prey
(Crowder and Binkowski 1983, Crowder and Crawford 1984). In less than
20 years, this shift was accompanied by an adaptive change of its feeding
apparatus that showed a decrease by about 15% in the number of gill rakers
(Crowder 1984). Similarly, in North American lakes where bluegill sunfish
(L. macrochirus) have been absent, the pumpkinseed (L. gibbosus) exhibits pelagic
and littoral ecotypes as adaptations to the diet of zooplankton (for pelagic forms)
and of benthic arthropods and mollusks (for littoral forms). In the lakes where
bluegills have been introduced, the pumpkinseed populations exhibited exclu-
sively littoral ecotypes, thus restricting its feeding activity to littoral areas in
response to the competition with the dominant newcomer (Robinson et al. 2000).
CONCLUSIONS
In recent years, a rising awareness of the economic and ecologic costs caused by
invasions in fresh waters has encouraged more proactive research and this has
increased our understanding of invasive processes in aquatic systems. Notwith-
standing some obvious limitations derived from the relatively small taxonomic
coverage of invasion studies and the prevailing focus on certain systems, some
general issues regarding freshwater invaders can be raised. First and foremost,
predicting the likelihood of the success of a freshwater invader or predicting the
invasibility of an aquatic system depends on a detailed understanding of the
characteristics of the invader and of the system that is being invaded (Moyle and
Light 1996b). But both are likely to be idiosyncratic and complex at the local
level, which makes it difficult to apply some generalized theories of invasion

biology. As observed by Simberloff (2006), this is part of the larger problem that
‘‘ecology is fundamentally an idiographic science’’ (p. 917): we will need a large
catalogue of case studies in order to generate the level of understanding required
to deal with many of the environmental problems (Simberloff 2004).
The ‘‘tens rule’’ does not hold for invasion processes in fresh waters. Intro-
duction is a critical step, so the most effective means of minimizing the adverse
impact of freshwater invaders is to prevent species transport in the first
place. Once introduced, several species have a high potential to establish, and,
once established, eradication is often impossible and mitigation and control
are difficult and expensive, if possible at all (Chapters 34, 36, 37, and 38).
The successful establishment of a species is positively related to propagule
pressure (Chapter 18). A consequence is that the probability of establishment
might be lessened by reducing both the number of individuals accidentally
released via commerce-related activities and the frequency of such releases.
The importance of propagule pressure also alerts us about the need to construct
effective legislative barriers against the introduction of ‘‘desirable’’ species that
might turn out to be ‘‘Frankensteins’’ (Moyle et al. 1986).
The most likely ‘‘monsters’’ in fresh waters are those species whose physio-
logical requirements closely match with the environmental characteristics of
the recipient system or those species able to tolerate a wide range of environ-
mental conditions. With some exceptions, the biotic resistance exerted by the
recipient community, including its richness in species and complexity, seems to
be less effective in countering the establishment of freshwater invaders, while an
r-selected strategy is only in some cases a prerequisite for a species to become
invasive. Similarly, the naı̈veté of introduced species and the assumed lack of
enemies in the recipient community cannot explain per se freshwater invasions.
Most freshwater communities are not saturated with species (Cornell and
Lawton 1992), but instead are capable of supporting greater numbers of them
if the pool of potential colonists and the rate of colonization from the pool is
increased (Gido and Brown 1999). Introduced species, in fact, often facilitate
each other’s establishment and/or their continued existence, therefore increas-
ing the likelihood and the magnitude of the global ecological impact inflicted by
biological invasions.
NIS exert multiform effects on the recipient community, most often acting
simultaneously at multiple ecological levels. They may pose threats to indig-
enous species, populations, and genes, and may induce changes to individuals,
populations, communities, and ecosystems. The most dangerous species are
parasites but also predators or omnivores that may produce trophic cascades
in the recipient community, and ecosystem engineers that may cause physical
modifications of the environment and may influence the maintenance or cre-
ation of habitats. All these recognized impacts of invaders represent, however,
only the ‘‘tip’’ of an ecological and evolutionary iceberg (Palumbi 2001). In
inland waters, as in the other biomes, the introduction of species may interact
with habitat destruction and degradation, overexploitation of plants and ani-

mals, and global climate change to create an ‘‘evolutionary revolution’’ (Cox
2004). And empirical data and theories are urgently needed to enable predic-
tion, understanding, and management of the acute and chronic effects of species
invasions (Strayer et al. 2006).
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Distribution of invaders
Since the Age of Exploration began, there has been a drastic breaching of biogeographic
barriers that previously had isolated the continental biota for millions of years. We are
now developing a whole new cosmopolitan assemblage of organisms across the surface
of the Earth with large consequences not only for the functioning of ecosystems but
also for the future evolutionary trajectory of life.
Harold Mooney and Elsa Cleland (2001)
Chapter two
Invasive crustaceans in
European inland waters
INTRODUCTION
At least 52,000 species of crustaceans have been described, although many

more probably exist (Martin and Davis 2001). They are amongst the most
prolific macroinvertebrates in the aquatic environment, both in terms of
numbers and species diversity, but they do not usually cause public concern
unless they are large and become invasive, e.g. the red king crab, Paralithodes
camtschaticus Samouelle, in Norway, the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis,
in Germany and the UK, and the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, in
African lakes (Chapter 4).
The Global Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg.org/database) lists
three crustaceans in its world’s worst 100 invasive non-indigenous species
(NIS), i.e. the green crab, Carcinus maenas Linnaeus; the fishhook waterflea,
Cercopagis pengoi; and the Chinese mitten crab, E. sinensis. However, in the
‘Global Strategy on Invasive Alien Species’ (McNeely et al. 2001) crustaceans
are not dealt with, save for a brief mention of non-indigenous crayfish escaping
from a London fish market.
Many aquatic crustaceans produce planktonic larvae or resistant propagules
(Panov et al. 2004) and consequently can be moved great distances, either
naturally or by human-mediated means, e.g. they are the commonest faunal
component in ballast water of ships (Panov et al. 2004). Some attach them-
selves to solid surfaces or construct tubes on such surfaces, which may then
become mobile, e.g. ships’ hulls and oil platforms, whilst others burrow into
softer materials such as wood – these habits can result in the crustacean being
transported outside its home range, and even transcontinentally. Others have
29
ß 2007 Springer.
30 David M. Holdich and Manfred Pöckl
been translocated for economic reasons such as aquaculture and to enhance

fish production, and for the pet and restaurant trades, and have subsequently
become established in the wild. The majority of crustacean introductions have
been recorded for the marine and estuarine environments, and these have been
well documented (e.g. Carlton 1996, Ruiz et al. 1997, Rodrı́guez and Suárez
2001); in general less attention has been paid to introductions into inland
waters (Welcomme 1988, Gherardi and Holdich 1999, Leppäkoski et al.
2002b), with the exception of fish (Welcomme 1991, Lehtonen 2002).
Despite the large number of crustacean species present in the aquatic environ-
ment, relatively few have become established outside their natural range due to
accidental or deliberate introductions into European waters. Most of those that
have become established occur in the marine and estuarine environments, but a
growing number of species are becoming established in inland waters, mainly
amphipods from the Ponto–Caspian basin and North America, and crayfish
from North America. In this review, details are given of invasive crustaceans
that have become established in European inland waters in recent times.
Although all groups are dealt with, particular attention is given to
the amphipods and decapods as they are currently having the most impact.
In total, three species of Branchiopoda, four species of Copepoda, one species
of Branchiura, and 46 species of Malacostraca (5 Mysida, 21 Amphipoda,
4 Isopoda, and 15 Decapoda [two Caridea (prawns), six Brachyura (crabs),
and nine Astacida (crayfish)]) are listed in Tables 1–3. In the majority of cases
it is difficult to assess whether or not an invasive species is having a high impact,
but when this is known then it is highlighted in the tables.
In this review, inland waters will be taken as meaning rivers, lakes, and
reservoirs. Coastal lagoons, saline lakes, estuaries, and low salinity seas, such as
the Baltic, will be mentioned as appropriate. Although the Baltic is, to quote
Leppäkoski et al. (2002a), ‘‘a sea of invaders’’, particularly for invasive crusta-
ceans, it has been well covered elsewhere, e.g. Jaźdźewski and Konopacka
(2002), Leppäkoski et al. (2002a, b, c) and Telesh and Ojavear (2002). How-
ever, the following facts are of interest. The Ponto–Caspian branchiopod, Evadne
anonyx Sars, is widespread in the Baltic but cannot tolerate freshwater (V. E.
Panov 2006, personal communication) so is unlikely to invade inland waters.
The North American copepod, Acartia tonsa Dana, is widespread in Europe,
particularly in the Baltic, but does not appear to have entered inland waters.
The New Zealand barnacle, Elminius modestus Darwin, is also widespread in
coastal waters, but does not occur in inland waters.
The classification of Crustacea used in this review is mainly based on that of
Martin and Davis (2001). However, the higher taxonomic categories other than
family have not been given a name, e.g. class, infraorder, order, etc., as in many
cases there still seems to be disagreement over the correct terminology. For
example, some workers refer to the Cladocera as a suborder (Martin and Davis
2001), whilst others call them a superorder (V. E. Panov 2006, personal com-
munication). Many workers still use the term Mysidacea, whilst Martin and
Table 1 Non-indigenous Amphipoda in European inland waters (those with a þ are considered to be highly invasive).
Scientific name, authority, family Natural range Introduced range
Malacostraca, Amphipoda
þChelicorophium curvispinum (G. O. Sars) (Corophiidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Widespread in western Europe, including
British Isles
Chelicorophium robustum (Bousfield and Hoover) Ponto–Caspian basin Poland, Germany
(Corophiidae)
Corophium sowinskyi Martynov (Corophiidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Poland, Czech Republic
þCrangonyx pseudogracilis Bousfield (Crangonyctidae) USA British Isles, The Netherlands
Dikerogammarus bispinosus Martynov (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Hungary, Austria, (poorly known?)
Dikerogammarus haemobaphes (Eichwald) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Hungary, Austria, Germany, Poland
þDikerogammarus villosus (Sowinsky) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Hungary, Austria, Germany, The Netherlands,
France, Italy
Echinogammarus berilloni (Catta) (Gammaridae) Iberian Peninsula France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany,
The Netherlands
þEchinogammarus ischnus (Stebbing) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Poland, Germany, The Netherlands, Austria,
Hungary
Echinogammarus trichiatus (Martynov) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Bavarian Danube, Rhine, Austr. Danube
Echinogammarus warpachowskyi (G. O. Sars) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Ukraine, Lithuania, Poland
þGammarus pulex (Linnaeus) (Gammaridae) Most European countries New water bodies within Europe, including
Ireland
Gammarus roeseli Gervais (Gammaridae) Balkan Penins, Asia Minor Central Europe, France, Germany
Invasive freshwater crustaceans in Europe
þGammarus tigrinus Sexton (Gammaridae) USA British Isles, Germany, The Netherlands,
southern Baltic
þGmelinoides fasciatus (Stebbing) (Gammaridae) Russia (Lake Baikal) Lakes Ladoga, Onega, Peipsi, R. Neva and
Neva estuary
Hyalella azteca (Saussure) (Hyalellidae) USA Not yet self-established, high risk
Obesogammarus crassus (G. O. Sars) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Lithuania, Poland
þObesogammarus obesus (G. O. Sars) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Austrian and Bavarian Danube
31
Orchestia cavimana Heller (Orchestidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Widespread, including England

þPontogammarus robustoides (G. O. Sars) (Gammaridae) Ponto–Caspian basin Poland, Germany
32
Table 2 Non-indigenous Decapoda (Pleocyemata) in European inland waters (those with a þ are considered to be highly invasive).
Scientific name, authority, family Natural range Introduced range
Malacostraca, Caridea
Atyaephyra desmaresti (Millet) (Atyidae) Southern Europe France (1843), Belgium (1888), The Netherlands (1916),
Germany (1932), R. Main (1983), Main-Danube Canal
(1990), Bavarian Danube (1997), Austrian Danube (1999)
Palaemon macrodactylus Rathbun (Palaemonidae) North-east Asia England (2004)
Malacostraca, Brachyura
Callinectes sapidus M.J. Rathbun (Portunidae) USA Widespread (France, 1901)
þEriocheir sinensis H. Milne Edwards (Varunidae) SE Asia Widespread (Germany, 1912)
Potamon sp. (Potomidae) Unknown France (1985)
Potamon fluviatile (Herbst) (Potomidae) Italy, Balkans, Greece France (early 19th century)
Potamon ibericum tauricum (Czerniavsky) (Potomidae) Turkey France (1960s)
Rhithropanopeus harrisii Maitland (Xanthidae) USA Widespread (The Netherlands, 1874)
Malacostraca, Astacida
þAstacus leptodactylus Eschscholtz (Astacidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Widespread
Cherax destructor Clark (Parastacidae) Australia Spain (Spain, 1983), possibly Switzerland
Orconectes immunis (Hagen) (Cambaridae) USA Germany (Germany, 1997)

þOrconectes limosus (Rafinesque) (Cambaridae) USA Widespread (Germany, 1890)
þOrconectes rusticus (Girard) (Cambaridae) USA France (France, 2005*)
þOrconectes virilis (Hagen) (Cambaridae) North America The Netherlands (The Netherlands, 2005*)
þPacifastacus leniusculus (Dana) (Astacidae) North America Widespread (Sweden, 1960s)
þProcambarus clarkii (Girard) (Cambaridae) USA Widespread (Spain, 1970s)
þProcambarus sp. (Cambaridae) USA Germany, The Netherlands (Germany, 2003)
* reported in that year but probably present earlier

Table 3 Other non-indigenous crustaceans in European inland waters (those with a þ are considered to be highly invasive).
Scientific name, authority, (family in brackets) Natural range Introduced range
Branchiopoda, Cladocera
þBythotrephes longimanus Leydig (Cercopagididae) Widespread in Europe Widespread – further invasions in Europe
þCercopagis pengoi (Ostroumov) (Cercopagididae) Ponto–Caspian basin Widespread, including Baltic Sea
Cornigerius maeoticus (Pengo) (Podonidae) Ponto–Azov Widespread, including Baltic Sea
Copepoda, Calanoida
þAcanthocyclops americanus (Marsh) (Cyclopoida) North America Britain (19th century), now widespread in Europe
Apocyclops panamensis (Marsh) Central America Italy (1990s)
Boeckella triarticulata (G. M.Thompson) (Calanoida) Australia Italy (1992)
Eudiaptomus gracilis (G. O. Sars) (Calanoida) Europe, but not Italy Italy (late 1980s)
Branchiura, Arguloida
Argulus japonicus Thiele (Argulidae) South-east Asia Spain (1921), Germany (1935), France, Italy,
Poland, UK (1990)
Malacostraca, Isopoda
Asellus communis Say (Asellota) USA England
Invasive freshwater crustaceans in Europe
þJaera istri Veuille (Asellota) Ponto–Caspian basin Austrian Danube (1934), Bavarian Danube (1967),
Main–Danube Canal (1993), R. Main (1994),
R. Rhine delta (1997), R. Rhine (2003), R. Elbe (1999)
Proasellus coxalis (Asellota) Southern Europe Widespread
Proasellus meridionalis Racovitza (Asellota) Southern Europe Widespread
33
34
Table 3 Continued.
Scientific name, authority, (family in brackets) Natural range Introduced range
Malacostraca, Mysida
þHemimysis anomala G. O. Sars (Mysidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Baltic Sea countries (1990s), The Netherlands (1998),
Austrian Danube (1999), Belgium (2000), England (2004),
Germany (2004), France (2006)
þKatamysis warpachowskyi G. O. Sars (Mysidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Hungarian, Slovakian and Austrian Danube (2001)
þLimnomysis benedeni Czerniavsky (Mysidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Budapest (1947), Vienna (1973), Bavarian Danube (1993),
Main–Danube Canal (1998), R. Rhine (1998), R. Rhine
delta (1998)
Paramysis intermedia (Czerniavsky) (Mysidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Baltic countries
Paramysis lacustris (Czerniavsky) (Mysidae) Ponto–Caspian basin Baltic countries
Invasive freshwater crustaceans in Europe 35
Davis (2001) call them the Mysida. Martin and Davis (2001) discussed the
conflicting views about the terminology used for crayfish and admit that the one
they have used is misleading, i.e. Superfamilies Astacoidea and Parastacoidea in
the Infraorder Astacidea, as the crayfish are now considered to be monophyletic
(Crandall et al. 2000, Scholtz 2002) and yet the two superfamilies are given
equal rank with the three other superfamilies in the infraorder. K. Crandall
(2006, personal communication) is of the opinion that the crayfish should not
be elevated to their own infraorder, e.g. the Astacida, as suggested by Scholtz
and Richter (1995) (see also Scholtz 2002 and Taylor 2002), until more studies
are carried out, and that the original classification of H. H. Hobbs Jr (see, e.g.
Hobbs Jr 1988) should be retained for the time being. However, in this review
the classification used by Taylor in Holdich (2002a) is used, i.e. the crayfish are
in the Infraorder Astacida with two superfamilies as noted above. Ahyong
(2006) in a recent analysis of homarid phylogeny also places the crayfish in
the Astacida.
INVASIVE CRUSTACEANS – ORIGINS, SPREAD, AND IMPACT
Background
The invasion of European inland waters by crustaceans has been mainly on

three fronts: introductions (a) from North America, Australia, and Asia; (b) from
one European region to another; and (c) from the Ponto–Caspian Basin by three
routes. These are: (1) northern invasion corridor – Volga–Baltic inland water-
way; (2) central invasion corridor – Dnieper–Vistula–Oder–Elbe–Rhine; and (3)
southern invasion corridor – the Danube River connection with the Rhine basin
(Fig. 1). Many of the species using these invasion corridors have become
established in the low salinity Baltic Sea and its associated gulfs, but have
moved by natural diffusion or aided by ships through these freshwater corridors
to get there.
Invasive crustaceans have either been introduced intentionally or uninten-
tionally, or in some cases have made their own way from one region to another
via canals and rivers, and during floods. Van der Velde et al. (2000) and
Bernaurer and Jansen (2006) note that the River Rhine has many invasive
crustaceans (e.g. mysids, amphipods, isopods, and decapods) that have migrated
there via the Main–Danube Canal from the River Danube, which itself contains
a number of Ponto–Caspian species. Anthropomorphic effects in the R. Rhine
has raised salt and temperature levels, thus making conditions favourable for
species that originally lived in estuarine or brackish water. However, Kelleher
et al. (2000b) point out that water quality in the lower R. Rhine has in fact
improved since the restoration plan initiated after the Sandoz chemical spill in
1986, and whilst this is making conditions favourable for the return of some
indigenous species, it is also attracting increasing numbers of NIS. Similarly, the
36
30 Lake
Fig. 1
50
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1 Mittelland Canal
MED
ITER 2 Dortmund–Ems Canal
Ponto–Caspian species. (Redrawn from Jazdzewski 1980, Bij de Vaate et al. 2002)
RAN
EAN
SEA 3 Main–Danube Canal
4 Canal between Bug and Prypjet
Map of Europe showing the main inland waterways (rivers and canals), and the
three main migration corridors (arrows), i.e. northern, central, and southern, used by
ability of many freshwater crustacean species, including crayfish (Firkins and

Holdich 1993, Holdich et al. 1997), to tolerate elevated temperature and salt
levels increases their chances of becoming established in new areas. Jaźdźewski
and Konopacka (2002) suggest that the recent massive invasion of Ponto–
Caspian species into central and western Europe may be due to the increasing
ionic content of large European rivers, caused by agricultural and industrial
inputs.
Intentional introductions include those for aquaculture (e.g. crayfish),
human food (e.g. crabs and crayfish), fish food (e.g. mysids, amphipods, cray-
fish), pet trade (e.g. crayfish), management (e.g. crayfish for weed clearance),
and stock enhancement (e.g. crayfish). Unintentional introductions have
occurred via ballast water (e.g. branchiopods, copepods, isopods, amphipods,
mysids, decapods), stocking of fish (e.g. branchiurans, decapods), attachment to
mobile surfaces such as ships’ hulls (e.g. tube-dwelling amphipods), entangle-
ment in nets (e.g. decapods), floating weed and fouled mobile surfaces (a possible
route for many species), fish bait (e.g. decapods), dumping of pets or excess stock
(e.g. decapods), and perhaps even via predators such as birds, including water-
fowl (Niethammer 1950, Segerstrale 1954). Anglers often use invasive crayfish
species as bait and this can result in what is known as ‘bait-bucket’ introduc-
tions, which is a particular problem in North America, where the invasive rusty
crayfish, Orconectes rusticus, has been spread northwards into Canada by this
means, displacing indigenous crayfish species along the way (Lodge et al.
2000a, b). In Europe recreational anglers sometimes introduce crayfish such
as the North American spiny-cheek crayfish, Orconectes limosus, in the belief
that it will increase fish production (Holdich and Black 2007). This may be the
case, but after a time the presence of large numbers of crayfish can have a
detrimental impact on the fishing activity itself as well as on the freshwater
environment (see below). Examples of those making their own way can be
found in most of the invasive crustacean groups, but because they are relatively
large, perhaps most noticeable are the decapods (e.g. the Chinese mitten crab,
E. sinensis, and the narrow-clawed crayfish, Astacus leptodactylus).
Many other accidental introductions must also have occurred, but they have
either not become established, or not had any noticeable impact. In some cases
the introduction becomes established, but remains very localized, even though it
may have been present for decades, as in the case of the North American isopod,
Asellus communis, which only occurs in one isolated lake in England (Gledhill
et al. 1993, Harding and Collis 2006). The situation is very fluid, with new
records for non-indigenous invasive species being discovered on a frequent
basis. For example, the Ponto–Caspian mysid, Hemimysis anomala, which has
been introduced into a number of European countries as fish food, has suddenly
appeared in central England (Holdich et al. 2006). Also, populations of the
North American crayfish, Orconectes virilis, have been found recently in the
Netherlands, and populations of O. rusticus have appeared in one region of
France (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006).
Some crustaceans introduced via the various routes mentioned above have
done equally well or better in their new environments, once they have become
established. In some cases there have been positive effects through aquaculture,
stock enhancement, and recreational activities (e.g. crayfish, see Ackefors 1999,
Westman 2002), and this has encouraged secondary introductions (e.g. the
North American red swamp crayfish, P. clarkii, and signal crayfish, Pacifastacus
leniusculus). In others there have been negative effects through competition with
indigenous species (e.g. branchiopods, copepods, mysids, amphipods, crayfish),
transmission of disease (e.g. crayfish plague), and physical damage to the fresh-
water environment and its biota (e.g. crabs and crayfish, see Holdich 1999).
The majority of crustacean groups have invasive representatives in European
inland waters, although amphipods provide the greatest number. In terms of pub-
lications, the majority are on amphipods and branchiopods ( J. T. A. Dick 2006,
personal communication), although invasive brachyuran crabs and crayfish have
attracted a lot of attention in recent years (Gherardi and Holdich 1999, Gollasch
1999, Herborg et al. 2003). In their review of the anthropogenic dispersal of
decapod crustaceans in the aquatic environment, Rodrı́guez and Suárez (2001)
list 58 marine species that have been dispersed from their natural distribution
areas, with 51 of these occurring in European waters. They list an additional
eight freshwater and estuarine non-crayfish decapod species, only two of which
(E. sinensis and Rhithropanopeus harrisii) have become established in European
waters. They also list 20 crayfish species, including six that have become estab-
lished in Europe, although this number has now increased (Souty-Grosset et al.
2006).
Taxonomic survey
Amphipoda (Table 1)
During the last few decades, numerous previously unrecorded amphipod species
have been observed in European inland waters, but there is not enough space in
this book to give all the immigration details for each of these species. Therefore
only those that have had major effects in their new territories, by displacing
indigenous species and/or changing the aquatic community including food web
interactions, are dealt with below.
Amphipods have been introduced deliberately to boost secondary produc-
tivity and hence yields for the fishing industry. Leppäkoski et al. (2002a, b)
state that more than 30 amphipod species from the Caspian complex have been
introduced for this purpose. Especially in the former Soviet Union, new reser-
voirs, lakes, and any kind of waterbody were inoculated with species that
promised high reproductive capacity. Canals that connected previously sepa-
rated catchments offered an opportunity to invade new territories by passive
and active anthropogenic vectors like navigation and transport in ballast water
tanks. Some amphipods can leave the water and migrate at least a short
distance over land (e.g. Gammarus duebeni Lilljeborg, Gledhill et al. 1993), like
invasive North American crayfish in Europe. Nevertheless, the occurrence of
amphipod species in many isolated waterbodies had been a mystery until
Niethammer (1950) and Segerstrale (1954) proved the role of waterfowl in
the transport of gammarids and other freshwater invertebrates. The latter
showed experimentally that Gammarus lacustris Sars could become attached to
the plumage and feathers of a mallard and remained in this position even after
the wing has been taken out of the water. The attachment is mainly effected by
pereopods 3–7, the last, claw-like segment of which is hooked into the plumage.
The curved position, typical of the amphipod when out of water, prevents rapid
desiccation of the gills. Thus, it may be possible for amphipods to be carried huge
distances over land by this means and reach isolated bodies of water.
Most of the non-indigenous amphipod species in Continental Europe originate
from the Ponto–Caspian basin. However, two well-established species in western
Europe, Gammarus tigrinus and Crangonyx pseudogracilis, originated from the
USA. A third species complex, the Mexican freshwater shrimp, Hyalella azteca,
from the USA, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, is sold intensively in
the aquarium trade: it is kept by many aquarists and in garden ponds (Proßeckert
2001), and it is just a matter of time before it establishes self-sustaining popula-
tions in the wild. In Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, Lake Peipsi, and the Neva estuary
(Russia), Gmelinoides fasciatus from the Siberian Lake Baikal established dense
populations as a result of introduction trials that had been very common in Soviet
Fisheries management programmes. Gammarus roeseli that originates from the
Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor invaded larger rivers of the lower parts of
central Europe, its western border being the eastern parts of France. Echinogam-
marus berilloni originated from the Iberian Peninsula and has invaded France,
Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Germany.
Although Gammarus pulex is indigenous to Europe, it has a very wide geo-
graphical range, stretching from eastern Siberia and China westwards to the
British Isles, although it is absent from Norway (Pinkster 1972) and parts of
Scotland (Gledhill et al. 1993). It has been introduced into some waters in
Northern Ireland (where it is not indigenous) and more widely in Britain,
supposedly to stock angling waters to enhance fish production (Strange and
Glass 1979). It has also recently been introduced to the Irish Republic
(McLoughlin et al. 2000). At several sites on the western seaboard of Britain,
the indigenous Gammarus duebeni celticus Stock and Pinkster was supposed to
have been displaced by competition with incoming G. pulex (Hynes 1954), but
Sutcliffe (1967) found no evidence to support this. In Germany, fishery man-
agers favoured the spreading of G. pulex (Haempel 1908) and Gammarus fos-
sarum Koch (which had been regarded as a subspecies of G. pulex by many
workers at these times) in any suitable body of water. Lough Neagh in Northern
Ireland has been invaded by three non-indigenous amphipods: G. tigrinus and
C. pseudogracilis from North America, and G. pulex from Europe, which have
come into contact with the sole indigenous species, G. duebeni celticus, that is still
present. Various studies have shown that G. pulex in Ireland is capable of

replacing G. duebeni by competitive exclusion (Dick et al. 1990a, b, 1993, Dick
1996, MacNeil et al. 1999, McLoughlin et al. 2000, J. D. Reynolds 2006, personal
communication). Gammarus duebeni is also common in parts of NW France, but is
now extinct in Normandy due to interactions with the expanding G. pulex (Piscart
et al. 2006). In Brittany, a recent study has revealed a decline of the endangered
G. d. celticus since 1970 due to changes in environment and interference from
indigenous G. pulex, which is expanding its range (Piscart et al. 2007).
Since its discovery in the London area in the 1930s, C. pseudogracilis has
become widespread in most of England and Wales, and has spread northwards
into Scotland (Gledhill et al. 1993). Similarly, since C. pseudogracilis was
recorded from a pond in Dublin (Holmes 1975), it has become widespread in
both Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic (Dick et al. 1999). It was discov-
ered in the Netherlands in 1979 (Platvoet et al. 1989). It is likely that it will
spread further in continental Europe – it was discovered in the R. Rhine in 1992
(Bernaurer and Jansen 2006). Notes on the ecology of this species are given in
Gledhill et al. (1993). The species inhabits any kind of waterbody, from fresh to
brackish and clean to organically enriched.
Gammarus tigrinus, which originates from the Atlantic seaboard of North
America, was introduced by unknown means into Britain, perhaps early in
the 20th century (Sexton 1939), where it thrived in areas where the water was
salty due to mining pollution. In 1957, specimens from Wyken Slough near
Coventry were deliberately introduced into the Rivers Weser and Werra (also
the Elbe, Ems, and Schlei) in Germany where indigenous gammarids have
disappeared due to pollution (Bulnheim 1985). Gammarus tigrinus thrives in
polluted, slightly saline waters and is a source of food for fish. By 1964 it
had become common in the IJselmeer and northern parts of the Netherlands
(Pinkster et al. 1977). It is now widespread throughout the lowlands of western
Europe and has become one of the dominant macroinvertebrates in many
catchments, where it has outcompeted indigenous species (Fries and Tesch
1965). It is also known from coastal lagoons in the southern Baltic (Leppäkoski
et al. 2002a). Its distribution in Britain is summarized by Gledhill et al. (1993),
and its spread through the Netherlands is documented by Pinkster et al. (1977,
1980, 1992), Pinkster and Platvoet (1983), and Platvoet et al. (1989). During
rapid colonization in the 1960s and 1970s, G. tigrinus displaced the indigenous
G. pulex from many freshwater habitats, and the indigenous G. duebeni and
Gammarus zaddachi Sexton from brackish water habitats. When the salt-
enriched River Erewash was breached near a series of water-filled gravel pits
in the English Midlands in the 1980s to allow further gravel extraction,
G. tigrinus quickly colonized the gravel pits and became the dominant macro-
invertebrate amongst the marginal vegetation for a number of years. However,
due to a decline in the coal mining industry in the area, the river became less
saline and so did the gravel pits, resulting in a dramatic (although not complete)
decline in the NIS (D. M. Holdich 1995, personal observation).
Fig. 2 The tube-dwelling Ponto–Caspian amphipod, Chelicorophium curvispinum, from

the Morava River, the border stream of Austria and Slovakia, between Zwerndorf and
Baumgarten, Lower Austria. (Photo: W. Graf and A. Schmidt-Kloiber)
The tube-dwelling amphipod Chelicorophium curvispinum (Fig. 2) originates

from large rivers discharging into the Black and Caspian seas, e.g. Volga,
Dnieper, Dniester, Danube, etc., and clearly dispersed through the central
corridor into the Baltic and North Sea drainage systems. The earliest report
(1912) of the corophiid outside its natural range was from the Spree–Havel
system near Berlin where it was described as Corophium devium (Wundsch
1912). It was also found in the Mittelland Canal and Dortmund–Ems Canal in
1956 and 1977, respectively (Van den Brink et al. 1989). Chelicorophium
curvispinum was first recorded in Britain in the early 1930s by Crawford
(1935) from the River Avon at Tewkesbury, and from then onwards it was
reported widely as occurring in the interconnected canals and rivers of the
English Midlands, as well as in other river systems, e.g. the R. Stour in
SE England (Buckley et al. 2004). It was most likely introduced to Britain by
ships sailing from ports of the Elbe estuary (Harris 1991). It is now present in
Ireland in the R. Shannon and R. Erne systems (Lucy et al. 2004). In the
Austrian Danube it has been known at least from the 1960s as far as the
German border at Passau (Vornatscher 1965). The Main–Danube Canal
where it was found in 1993 has been colonized by C. curvispinum from two
directions, i.e. from the rivers Rhine (1987) and Main (1988) and from the
Upper Danube (1959). The adults range in length from 2.5 to 7.0 mm. They
filter suspended particles from the water column for the construction of tubes on
solid substrates in which they live, giving them some shelter against predation.
Soon after being recorded in the middle and lower Rhine in 1987 (Van den
Brink et al. 1989, Schöll 1990a), its numbers have increased explosively, and
densities of well above 100,000 m2 (maximum approximately 750,000 m2 )
have been recorded, which is much higher than numbers recorded in other
rivers. The overgrowth of stones by the tubes of these animals can bind mud
with a dry weight of up to 1:044 g m2 and thus completely change the habitat
(Van der Velde et al. 1998), causing direct environmental impacts over a
distance of 200–500 km in the Rhine (Van den Brink and Van der Velde
1991) due to: (a) competition for space; (b) competition for food; and (c)
changes in food web interactions. Larva of the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha
Pallas, also a successful invader from the Ponto–Caspian basin, need bare
hard substrates on which to settle, which may not be available because of
the tube-building activities on such surfaces by the corophiid invader. Other
filter feeders, such as the invading D. polymorpha and the indigenous species
such as Hydropsyche contubernalis McLachlan (a caseless caddisfly larvae),
chironomid larvae, and zooplankton species may be outcompeted. Eel and
perch were found to shift their diet because of the invasion by C. curvispinum,
which provided a new source of food (Kelleher et al. 1998). Dutch workers
have found that C. curvispinum breeds from April to September, producing
three generations a year – one more than related corophiid species (Rajagopal
et al. 1998).
Specimens of Chelicorophium robustum were sampled in the R. Main in 2003 in
the States of Bavaria and Hessen, being the first records of this species in Germany
(Bernerth and Stein 2003, Berthold and Kaiser 2004). It was also recorded in the
R. Rhine in 2004 (Bernaurer and Jansen 2006). Compared with C. curvispinum,
the newly recorded species is easily detected by the large body size of adult
specimens, i.e. 9 mm. A further spread in European inland waters is expected.
Migration patterns of Corophium sowinskyi are unclear because it is difficult to
distinguish it from C. curvispinum. The species originates from the Danube,
Dnieper, Volga, Don, and Dniester rivers (Mordukhai-Boltovskoi 1979). Records
of this species in the Czech Republic indicate that the southern corridor could
become the most obvious route for its range extension.
Dikerogammarus haemobaphes, originating from the Ponto–Caspian basin,
was reported in the early 1960s from the Austrian Danube near Vienna by
Vornatscher (1965) and in 1992 for the Bavarian stretch of the Danube
(Tittizer 1996). During the 1980s it was the most abundant species in stony
sediments (Pöckl 1988, 2002). It was probably the first amphipod species to
invade the R. Rhine system via the southern corridor (Schleuter et al. 1994).
For the first time in the Baltic Sea basin, the species was recorded in Poland in
1997, and its range expansion was reported by Jaźdźewski and Konopacka
(2000). Its life history is presently being studied in the Vistula River where it
is multivoltine, with three generations per year and high fecundity (Bacela and
Konopacka 2005b).
Specimens of Dikerogammarus villosus (Fig. 3), which can reach a male
maximum length of almost 30 mm, were not found in the Austrian Danube
Fig. 3 The Ponto–Caspian amphipod, Dikerogammarus villosus, from the Austrian

Danube at Linz, Upper Austria. Although this species dominates the community by
number and biomass, other amphipod species do occur. (Photo: W. Graf )
before 1989 (Nesemann et al. 1995), and examples for different colour variants
in live animals are given in that paper. It was demonstrated, however, that the
different colour types cannot be differentiated at the allozyme level (Müller et al.
2002). The species was not found in the Bavarian Danube before 1992. It used
the southern corridor and was sampled from the lower Rhine in the Netherlands
(Bij de Vaate and Klink 1995). Dikerogammarus villosus is reported to be a
successful invader by competition and predation: D. haemobaphes is rarely
found in the Rhine system since the arrival of D. villosus, which has successfully
invaded via the Rhône system (Müller and Schramm 2001) and the large rivers
in northern Germany (Grabow et al. 1998), as well as the Moselle and other
French hydrosystems (Devin et al. 2001). Dikerogammarus haemobaphes on the
other hand is actively expanding in Poland (Jaźdźewski and Konopacka 2000).
In the Netherlands, Dick and Platvoet (2000) have found that D. villosus is
having a marked impact on the indigenous G. duebeni, as well as the
non-indigenous G. tigrinus, and they predict that it will further reduce amphi-
pod diversity in a range of freshwater habitats in Europe. Dikerogammarus
villosus also occurs in several lakes, e.g. Traunsee and R. Traun, Austria
(O. Moog 2003, personal communication), Lake Constance, Germany (K. O.
Rothhaupt 2003, personal communication), Lake Garda, Italy (Casellato et al.
2005), where it is partially replacing the indigenous Echinogammarus stammeri
(Karaman). Dikerogammarus villosus preys heavily on other amphipod species,

which it is thought to replace, as well as on Asellus aquaticus Linnaeus, insect
larvae, and fish eggs (Chapter 27), and even small fish are reported to be attacked
(Dick et al. 2002, La Piana et al. 2005). However, Platvoet (2005) also showed
that the species is able to nourish itself by a wide range of feeding methods, such
as shredding, grazing, collecting micro- and macro-algae, coprophagy, and
carnivory, and that the feeding habits are dependent on water temperature
and the micro-distribution of food organism. Dikerogammarus villosus is appar-
ently less predatory when a population is well established in comparison to the
phase when it is rapidly increasing its individual numbers in a new habitat
(Van Riel et al. 2005). The life history and population dynamics of D. villosus
have been studied intensively by one of us (M. Pöckl) in the Austrian Danube
during 2002–2004, where the variability in life history and reproductive output
with a mean fecundity of 43 eggs and a maximum of almost 200 were found to be
unique in freshwater amphipods (Pöckl 2007). The reputation given in the
literature of D. villosus as a ‘‘killing machine’’ was not confirmed by these studies.
Oxygen consumption, temperature, and salinity tolerance of the invasive amphi-
pod D. villosus have been studied in the laboratory by Bruijs et al. (2001), who
found that the species has wide capacities for adaptation and could possibly
survive ballast water exchange and thus develop large populations in temperate
areas on a global scale.
Müller and Schramm (2001) reported that a third riverine Dikerogammarus
sp., D. bispinosus, has colonized the middle and upper R. Danube (Austrian
stretch at Linz from 1998). Their genetic analyses demonstrate the clear species
status of this taxon, which formerly had been described as a subspecies of
D. villosus by Martynov (1925) from the lower Dnieper. The lack of hybrid
genotypes indicates a reproductive isolation among D. haemobaphes, D. villosus,
and D. bispinosus in a syntopic population from the Hungarian Danube near
Szob (Müller et al. 2002). The dispersal behaviour of D. bispinosus may be
species-specific as with D. haemobaphes and D. villosus.
Echinogammarus ischnus belongs to the group of Ponto–Caspian amphipods
that have advanced farthest north-westwards, reaching the systems of the
North and Baltic seas. In 1928, it was recorded for the first time from the
Vistula below Warsaw (Jarocki and Demianowicz 1931), and has probably
passed through the Rivers Dnieper, Pripet, the Pripet-Bug Canal, and the
R. Bug. Using a similar pathway, the Neman–Pripet canal, E. ischnus had
reached the lower R. Neman by about 1960 (Gasjunas 1965, 1968 in
Jaźdźewski 1980). Herhaus (1978) discovered the species in the Dortmund–
Ems canal. The well-developed canal systems joining the Vistula, Oder, Elbe,
and Weser rivers seem to have been its most probable route (Jaźdźewski
1980). Between 1979 and 1981 specimens of E. ischnus were sampled in the
Mittellandkanal (Herbst 1982). In the late 1980s the species was observed
from the Rhine–Herne Canal and the Weser–Dattel Canal (Schöll 1990b). At
about the same time, E. ischnus was also found in the Mecklenburgian and
Pommeranian lakes (Jaźdźewski and Konopacka 1990, Köhn and Waterstraat
1990), indicating that in western Europe it is colonizing habitats that

are comparable to those of its natural Ponto–Caspian distribution area, where
it occurs in several inshore Black Sea lakes (Jaźdźewski 1980). From the
lower Rhine in Germany, a density of 100 m2 of hard substrate has been
reported (Schöll 1990b), and in 1991 and 1992 specimens were recorded from
the lower Rhine delta in the Netherlands (Van den Brink et al. 1993). The
development of a dense population of E. ischnus in the Rhine may have been
hindered by G. tigrinus, as well as the mass abundance of C. curvispinum and
D. villosus. In the Austrian stretch of the Danube, E. ischnus had not been
reported to occur in the 1960s (Vornatscher 1965), but during the 1980s
dense populations were encountered on stony substrate (Pöckl 1988). Via the
Bavarian Danube (1989) the species migrated to the Main–Danube Canal
(1995) (Van der Velde et al. 1998). Köhn and Waterstraat (1990) suggested
that E. ischnus is closely associated with clumps of D. polymorpha in Lake
Kummerow, Germany.
Echinogammarus berilloni originates from Mediterranean rivers, and adult
males can reach a body length of 22 mm. When true estuarine species are
absent (e.g. G. zaddachi, Gammarus chevreuxi Sexton), as in north-western Spain,
it is able to penetrate into estuarine regions. According to Pinkster (1993), it is a
typical species of middle courses of streams and rivers, and has never been found
in the upper reaches. It is an active migrant, which has made use of canals to
reach a large area of western Europe. Presently, it is found in the Rhine from
Düsseldorf to Basel where it occurs in low densities, and in the Mosel (Moselle), a
tributary of the Rhine. Meyer et al. (2004) reported that in temporary waters of
a karstic system in western Germany, Gammarus species dominated, but in
permanent downstream sections E. berilloni almost completely replaces G. pulex
and G. fossarum. The occurrence of E. berilloni in the estuarine parts of some
river systems in north-western Spain indicates that the species can stand high
salinities as well as considerable changes in salinity. It also can withstand a
high amount of organic pollution and high temperatures, and has been sampled
in some parts of Spain at temperatures of up to 318C (Pinkster 1993).
Outside its original natural distribution area in the Ponto–Caspian basin,
Echinogammarus trichiatus was recorded for the first time in 1996 in the
Bavarian Danube (Weinzierl et al. 1997), and three years later at a distance of
120 km from the first record in the Upper Danube. In 2000 and 2001, the species
was sampled in the Upper and Lower Rhine, respectively (Podraza et al. 2001),
which means that it must have spread through the Main–Danube Canal, using the
southern invasive corridor. In 1998, E. trichiatus was also found in the Austrian
Danube (H. Nesemann 1999, personal communication), which is later than the
German record. Distribution with the stream flow is obviously easy, but the
distribution of this species is still largely unknown and may be scattered.
Echinogammarus warpachowskyi originates from the brackish parts of the
Caspian Sea and the deltas and estuaries of many Ponto–Caspian rivers. Some
40 years ago the species became one of the main objects of Soviet acclimatiza-
tion enterprises. It was introduced into reservoirs and lakes in the Ukraine, and
in Lithuania in the Neman River drainage area (Kaunnasskoe Reservoir). It

penetrated into artificial reservoirs in the Dnieper River and into the Kuronian
Lagoon (Jaźdźewski 1980). This small species (adult males reaching a max-
imum of 6.5 mm) is very tolerant to both varying salinity and temperature
conditions and has spread over large parts of eastern Europe.
Since 1994, the stout and small Obesogammarus obesus from the Ponto–
Caspian basin, which swims in an upright position (it is not laterally compressed
like most gammarids), is known to occur in the Austria Danube, and has in
some parts developed high densities (M. Pöckl 1994, personal observation),
occupying a position after C. curvispinum, D. villosus, and E. ischnus in abun-
dance. In 1995 it was recorded from the Bavarian Danube (Weinzierl et al.
1996), and an estimated density of 3,300 m2 was reported. The invasion of
the R. Rhine is expected to occur via the Main–Danube Canal in the near future.
In October 2004, the species was recorded in the R. Rhine near Koblenz,
Germany. The sampling site was located approximately 0.5 km away from
the main river, quite close to a sports boat marina. Additional records from the
same location in 2005 and 2006 indicate that this species may have become
established in the central section of the R. Rhine (Nehring 2006). It can be
speculated that O. obesus will extend its range within the European river and
canal system in the near future.
Obesogammarus crassus was intentionally introduced in the 1960s into the
Kaunas Reservoir (Lithuania), in the Neman River, and in several aquatic
habitats along the Baltic coast of the former Soviet Union (Jaźdźewski 1980).
From the Neman River, the species colonized the Kuronian Lagoon. Recently,
O. crassus was observed from the Vistula Lagoon (Jaźdźewski et al. 2002).
Westward dispersal has been the result of offshore transportation (in ballast
water) via the Baltic Sea, indicating the northern dispersal route. However, part
of the central corridor is considered to be a potential second corridor.
The first record of Pontogammarus robustoides in Germany dates from 1994
when it was found in the Peene (Rudolph 1997). From there it may have used the
Hohenstaaten–Friedrichthaler Wasserstraße, the R. Oder, the Oder–Havel Canal,
the Havel Canal, and the R. Elbe to reach the Mittellandkanal where it was
sampled at Wolfsburg in 1998 (Martens et al. 1999, Tittizer et al. 2000). Like
the other Ponto–Caspian species, C. curvispinum, E. ischnus, and P. robustoides
probably also used the central corridor to penetrate westwards, and clearly not
the southern one via the R. Danube. The average body length of mature speci-
mens was 11.15 mm, ranging from 4.5 to 21.0 mm, and the smallest ovigerous
females were 8.5 mm long. The mean brood size for all gravid females was 64.5
and varied from 11 to 185, and the egg number was exponentially correlated to
female body length. These traits in life history determine the success of
P. robustoides as a potential invader (Bacela and Konopacka 2005a).
Before the 1960s, the distribution area of the Baikalian amphipod, G. fascia-
tus, was limited to basins of Siberian Rivers (Angara, Lena, Yenisay, Irtysch,
Pyasina, Tunguska, Selenga, Barguzin). In the former Soviet Union it was
considered to be a suitable species for intentional introduction to enhance fish

production in lakes and reservoirs, because of its high environmental plasticity
and general high abundances within its native range. During the 1960s and
1970s, hundreds of millions of G. fasciatus specimens were introduced into 22
lakes and reservoirs outside its native range in Siberia and European Russia
(Panov and Berezina 2002). In European Russia, G. fasciatus was introduced
intentionally into Gorkovskoe Reservoir in the R. Volga basin, several Karelian
Isthmus lakes located close to the western shore of Lake Ladoga, and Lake
Ilmenin in the Lake Ladoga basin. Gammarus fasciatus invaded the western
and northern shores of Lake Ladoga, some 18,400 km2 in area, in the late
1980s (Panov 1996) and by the 1990s it had successfully colonized the whole
littoral zone of this largest European lake. In the 1990s, from Lake Ladoga via
the R. Neva, G. fasciatus penetrated into the Neva estuary, the largest estuary
in the Baltic Sea (3,600 km2 ). In 1996, the species was found in the Neva Bay
and by 2001 it had established successfully in the coastal zone of the estuary
(Berezina and Panov 2003). In 2001, G. fasciatus established self-sustaining
populations along the western shore of Lake Onega. Berezina (Chapter 26)
discusses the changes in the littoral communities of large lakes caused by intro-
duction of G. fasciatus. In Lake Peipsi, G. fasciatus was introduced accidentally at
the beginning of the 1970s during several attempts to enrich the native popula-
tion of G. lacustris G.O. Sars by addition of specimens of this species from Siberian
populations. These introductions were ‘‘contaminated’’ because the material
released (several million specimens) contained a mixture of G. fasciatus (1–2%
in density) and G. lacustris. The accidentally introduced G. fasciatus survived and
were first observed in Lake Peipsi in 1972. By 1990 it had become established in
the whole littoral zone of this lake (Berezina 2004). Two decades ago, the indig-
enous amphipod species G. lacustris was common in Lakes Ladoga and Onega as
well as the freshwater parts of the Neva estuary. After invasion by the Baikalian
amphipod, the indigenous G. lacustris has disappeared from many habitats.
Moreover, the density of the freshwater isopod, Asellus aquaticus, was found to
be dependent on the density of the Baikalian amphipod, decreasing significantly
at localities with more than 500 G. fasciatus m2 .
Astacida (crayfish) (Table 2)
Approximately 600 species of freshwater crayfish belonging to three families

(Astacidae, Cambaridae, and Parastacidae) have been described and new
species are being described on a regular basis, particularly from the Americas
and Australasia (Taylor 2002, Fetzner 2005). However, there are only five
indigenous crayfish species in Europe, all belonging to the Astacidae (Holdich
2002b, 2003, Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). After the last glaciation some 10,000
years ago, these crayfish species gradually colonized Europe by natural diffu-
sion, either from glacial refugia or from the Ponto–Caspian basin. Subsequently,
at least four of the five species have been translocated by man, or have migrated
via man-made structures such as canals, to an extent that often makes it

difficult to determine their origins. However, molecular genetic studies are
being used to gradually unravel their origins, and what some countries consider
to be their indigenous species appear to have been probably introduced. For
example, the white-clawed crayfish, Austropotamobius pallipes (Lereboullet) sensu
lato, in England and Ireland has been introduced on several separate occasions
from France (Grandjean et al. 1997, Gouin et al. 2003), and the same species
was introduced into Spain from Italy (Machino and Holdich 2006). When these
events occurred, however, is not known, though probably in the last 1,000
years. Similarly, the noble crayfish, Astacus astacus (Linnaeus), which is now a
treasured gastronomic icon, was introduced into Sweden and Norway in the
Middle Ages (Machino and Holdich 2006).
When these species were introduced into the fresh waters of new areas and
became established they must have been invasive and had an impact on the pre-
existing biota. This is often a fact that is overlooked and is particularly relevant
to such a keystone species as a crayfish, which can have a considerable impact
when introduced into a waterbody that has not experienced it before. A case in
point is A. leptodactylus sensu lato, which is indigenous to the Ponto–Caspian
basin, but which has spread naturally via rivers and canals into northern and
eastern Europe, and has been introduced into western Europe for commercial
purposes. This crayfish is highly fecund and can grow to a very large size (up to
500 g wet weight) and reach very high densities. As a consequence of this, it
can become the dominant animal in a waterbody, displacing other crayfish
species if they are present (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). As with other European
crayfish it does not carry crayfish plague, but is susceptible to it (see below).
From the middle of the 19th century, a disease now commonly known as
crayfish plague entered the waters of the Po Valley in Italy and gradually spread
throughout Europe, killing off many populations of indigenous crayfish (Holdich
1999, 2003). The ranges of indigenous crayfish such as A. astacus and
A. pallipes in western Europe were particularly affected and are still being
compromised today (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). Crayfish plague is indigenous
to North America, and all those North American crayfish that have been
studied are carriers of the oomycete causing it.
As crayfish were a valuable commodity in Europe in the 19th century, to boost
European stocks steps were taken to introduce a North American crayfish species
that was immune to the disease, i.e. O. limosus (see below). Two further species, i.e.
P. leniusculus and P. clarkii, were introduced in the 1960s and 1970s respectively,
to improve stocks further (see below). Their spread throughout Europe (see below)
has only made the situation worse for the indigenous species, particularly as they
are superior competitors (Holdich 1999), although there have also been some
commercial, management, and recreational benefits (Ackefors 1999). These
three species are further dealt with below as they have the widest distribution of
invasive crayfish occurring in European inland waters. The Australian crayfish,
Cherax destructor, was also introduced for commercial purposes in the 1980s, but
it is restricted to Spanish waters, although it is imported live for restaurants in

other countries and is cultivated in Italy (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006).
A second wave of crayfish introductions occurred in the late 20th and early
21st centuries (see Table 2), but unlike the four species mentioned above it
seems likely that most were imported for the pet trade, and were subsequently
released or escaped into natural waters. At the present time, although they can
be considered invasive, their range is very limited (see Souty-Grosset et al. 2006
for further details). Of particular concern is the marbled crayfish, Procambarus
sp., of unknown origin and species, which has been made widely available
through the aquarium trade in recent years, and which now occurs in the
wild in Germany and the Netherlands. This crayfish is parthenogenetic and can
produce large numbers of offspring in a short space of time (Vogt et al. 2004,
Seitz et al. 2005, Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). Considering the number of crayfish
species available through the aquarium trade this source of invasive crayfish is
likely to be a continuing problem as owners want to get rid of their pets as they
grow too large or breed too rapidly.
As mentioned above, the first non-indigenous crayfish to be introduced into
Europe from another continent was O. limosus (Fig. 4). After its introduction to
Germany in 1890, secondary introductions were made into other parts of
Germany and into Poland and France, in an attempt to make up for losses of
Fig. 4 The North American spiny-cheek crayfish, Orconectes limosus, and its burrows.
This has become well-established in continental Europe since its introduction into
Germany in 1890, but has only recently invaded England. Adults from Clifton Pond,
Nottingham, England. (Photo: J. Black)
A. astacus through crayfish plague (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). It also spread

naturally through rivers and canals and is now probably the commonest
crayfish in continental Europe, occupying at least 20 countries. Out of 300
lakes recently examined in NE Germany, 214 were found to have O. limosus. In
Poland, populations of O. limosus increased from 57 in 1959 to at least 1,383 by
2004. It is gradually spreading eastwards in Europe and recently has been
found in Croatia (Maguire 2003) and Serbia (Karaman and Machino 2004);
it is likely to spread into Bulgaria, Romania, and the Ukraine via the R. Danube
before long (Machino and Holdich 2006). It has been implicated in the demise of
indigenous crayfish populations through competition and crayfish plague. Its
large numbers and burrowing activity are likely to have a marked effect on the
freshwater environment. However, O. limosus has never fulfilled its role as a
replacement for A. astacus from the gastronomic point of view, as other species
are much preferred. It is commonly used as fish bait and this has led to its
introduction into new sites and countries such as England, where it has built up
large populations in a short space of time (Holdich and Black 2007).
As indicated by the number of contributions relating to its biology in this
volume, P. clarkii attracts a lot of attention because of its invasive capabilities. It
was introduced to southern Spain in 1973 for aquacultural purposes but soon
became widely established in the wild and is now present in 13 European
countries, including islands in the Azores and Canaries (Holdich 2002b,
Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). Although it has brought undoubted benefits to the
Spanish economy through its harvesting and export, mainly to Scandinavian
countries (Ackefors 1999), its environmental impact caused by burrowing and
high consumption of both plant (including rice seedlings) and animal matter
can be striking. For example, prior to 1996, Chozas Lake in NW Spain used to
harbour a rich community in its clear, shallow waters. Procambarus clarkii was
then introduced and its activities caused the waters to become turbid (Rodriguez
et al. 2005). This was followed by a 99% reduction in plant cover, 71% loss of
macroinvertebrates, 83% reduction in amphibian species, 52% reduction in
waterfowl, and plant-eating birds such as ducks were also reduced by 75%.
However, carnivorous birds increased their presence after the introduction of
the crayfish. In addition to such effects, P. clarkii is also a carrier of crayfish
plague and is thought to be responsible for the decline in indigenous crayfish
species in a number of countries, e.g. Italy and Spain.
Pacifastacus leniusculus, is the only member of the Astacidae to be introduced
into Europe (Lewis 2002). As the indigenous crayfish fauna in Europe all belong
to this same family, many aspects of their biology are similar. Pacifastacus is the
only genus of the Astacidae in North America, but like members of the other
family, the Cambaridae, it too carries crayfish plague. Pacifastacus leniusculus
was first released into Swedish waters in 1960, to replenish stocks of crayfish
with an ecological and gastronomic homologue replacing A. astacus, which had
been badly affected by crayfish plague. It soon became a popular species for
stocking and culture, and as a result of secondary introductions (both from
Sweden and North America) had become established in 24 European countries,
from the UK across to eastern Europe by 2005, making it the most widespread
non-indigenous crayfish (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006). In most of the countries
into which it has been introduced, it has become established in the wild either as
a result of escapes or deliberate seeding of waters. Pacifastacus leniusculus is most
established in Sweden where it occurs in approximately 3,000 localities. Al-
though it was welcomed in many countries by aquaculturists, particularly in
Sweden and Finland, conservationists were concerned about the dangers of
introducing a large, aggressive, highly fecund, fast-growing species into the
freshwater environment, especially where indigenous crayfish, which are sus-
ceptible to the effects of crayfish plague, were still present. The fears of conser-
vationists have proved true, whilst P. leniusculus has not provided the huge
improvement in stocks that was predicted. Ironically, it is in the UK, which does
not have a modern tradition for eating crayfish and which had good healthy
stocks of its so-called (see above) indigenous species, A. pallipes, where problems
are most acute since the introduction of P. leniusculus for aquacultural purposes
in the 1970s. Despite a raft of legislation being drafted to protect the indigenous
species and measures taken to try and stop the spread of the NIS, A. pallipes may
well become extinct in a few decades (Sibley 2003, Holdich et al. 2004, Holdich
and Pöckl 2005). This is due to a combination of the effects of crayfish plague
and the superior competitive abilities of P. leniusculus. In addition, the burrow-
ing activity (Fig. 5) of P. leniusculus, coupled with its insatiable appetite, is
Fig. 5 River bank collapse caused by the burrowing activities of the North American
signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus, in the Gaddesby Brook, Leicestershire, England.
(Photo: P. J. Sibley)
having both a physical and biological impact on both lentic and lotic environ-
ments (Guan and Wiles 1997, Sibley 2000). Attempts at eradicating
P. leniusculus have so far proved futile despite the removal of many thousands
of adults at a number of sites, e.g. in Scottish rivers (Collins 2006). As Holdich
et al. (1999) predicted in their review of eradication methods, the only sure way
is to use biocides, and this method has been successfully trialled in the UK, but it
is only of use in enclosed waterbodies (Peay et al. 2006).
Caridea (Table 2)
Van der Velde et al. (2000) note that the freshwater river prawn, Ataephyra
desmaresti (Atyidae), which originates from southern Europe, has spread widely
throughout Europe via canals that connect European river basins. It was first
observed in 1843 near Paris, 1888 in Belgium, 1916 in the Netherlands, 1925
in Metz, and 1929 in Strasbourg (Thienemann 1950). The first German record
dates from 1932, from a backwater of the Lower R. Rhine near Rees. There-
after it occurred at several sites of the dense canal network in north-western
Germany, and after passing the Mittellandkanal it was found near Hannover in
1936. Several records were noted from the Rhine–Rhône Canal, the R. Saar
at Saarbrücken, and the R. Mosel at Merl (summarized by Kinzelbach 1972). It
was observed in the Lower R. Main in 1983 (Nesemann 1984), from where
it migrated upstream in this river, entered the Main Canal (Heuss et al. 1990),
passed the highest point of the Main–Danube Canal (Wittmann 1995), went
downstream, was recorded in 1997 in the Bavarian Danube (Weinzierl et al.
1997), and in 1998 in the Austrian Danube (Moog et al. 1999). It therefore can
be expected to occur in Slovakia, Hungary, and further downstream in the
R. Danube in the near future. It feeds on micro-organisms, algae, plants,
detritus, live and dead animals. Ataephyra desmaresti has a wide tolerance to
temperature and salinity ranges, and lacks planktonic larvae, which are all
useful attributes to possess when colonizing new habitats (Steffen 1939, Fidalgo
1989b). Adult males can reach a body length of 16–27 mm, females a maxi-
mum of 35 mm. The number of eggs is reported to vary between 100 and 1,400
(Fidalgo 1989a, b). Normally, the lifespan is 12–14 months, but under
unfavourable conditions juveniles grow at a slower rate, reach sexual maturity
in the second year and can live for three years. It is not known how many
successive broods can be produced by an individual female.
The first record for the oriental prawn, Palaemon macrodactylus (Palaemoni-
dae), for Europe was reported by Ashelby et al. (2004). Although this introduced
species is widespread in the western USA, it has only colonized one location in
Europe so far. It is thought to have been introduced into the R. Orwell estuary
on the eastern coast of England some time between mid-2000 and late-2001,
where it is now common and breeding. Transport in ballast water seems the
most likely route of its introduction. It has since been found in the adjacent
R. Stour estuary (Ashelby et al. 2004). Palaemon macrodactylus is extremely
hardy and is known to live in salinities as low as 1.0 ppt in California. It is

probable that aided by shipping this species will spread in European coastal
waters and could enter inland waters.
Brachyura (Table 2)
The indigenous freshwater crab, Potamon fluviatile, occurs in Italy, the Balkans
and Greece. Its behaviour has been studied by Italian workers (Barbaresi and
Gherardi 1997, Gherardi et al. 1999). In competitive situations with the white-
clawed crayfish, A. pallipes, it is usually the crab that wins as it has higher levels
of aggression and strength. At present the two species have mainly different
distributional ranges but where these overlap they never share the same water-
body. They may have had a common distribution in the past, but competitive
exclusion by the crab has meant that the crayfish has been pushed into less
favourable habitats (Barbaresi and Gherardi 1997). The same may happen
with some populations of indigenous crayfish species in France, where three
non-indigenous Potamon species (see Table 2) have been introduced and become
established there, one since the early 19th century (see Chapter 3).
The catadromous North American blue crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, is
euryhaline and eurythermic, and in its natural range migrates down rivers to
reproduce in the sea. It was introduced into the Netherlands in 1932, probably
in ballast water (Adema 1991). It has been recorded in a number of other
European countries, e.g. France (Goulletquer et al. 2002), and is breeding in the
eastern Mediterranean (Froglia 2005). It has also been recorded in the Marmara
(Ozturk 2002), Black and Azov seas (Gomoiu et al. 2002). It does not appear to
have extended its range into inland waters very far. Often, only single specimens
are found, e.g. one was recorded from a river on the eastern coast of England in
1982 (Gledhill et al. 1993).
One of the commonest non-indigenous crab species is the North American
mud crab, R. harrisii, which is found in a number of estuaries and coastal
lagoons throughout Europe, including in the Mediterranean and Adriatic
(Froglia 2005), as well as the Black and Azov seas since 1932 (Gomoiu et al.
2002), and also the Caspian Sea (Aladin et al. 2002). It is also present in Wales
(UK) (Minchin and Eno 2002). It is thought to have been introduced via ballast
water into the Netherlands in the 19th century (Adema 1991). It has been
recorded in the lower R. Rhine, but only in low numbers (Van der Velde et al.
2000). In Poland, Jaźdźewski and Konopacka (2000) noted that this species
attained very high densities in brackish waters in the 1950s and 1960s and
became a major component of the zoobenthos, although its numbers decreased
after that time. It does not appear to penetrate far into inland waters.
The most invasive of the non-indigenous crabs is the catadromous Chinese
mitten crab, E. sinensis (Fig. 6), from SE Asia, where it has been recorded as far
as 1,400 km upstream in China (Gollasch 1999). It is considered a delicacy in
the Far East where it supports a billion dollar industry (Herborg et al. 2005), but
Fig. 6 An ovigerous female Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis, from the River
Thames (November 2005), London, England. Eriocheir sinensis was first recorded in
Germany in 1912 and is now widely spread in European inland waters and estuaries.
(Photo: P. Hurst)
in Europe it only tends to be eaten by Chinese immigrants. It is thought to

have reached Europe via ballast water and was first recorded in the River Aller
(a tributary of the R. Weser in Germany) in 1912 (Peters and Panning 1933,
Gollasch 1999). Like the blue crab it migrates down rivers to breed after which
it dies, and then as juveniles migrates upstream again in large numbers, taking
3–5 years to become sexually mature in Europe (Schubert 1935 in Herborg et al.
2005). In its migrations it can move across land to get around weirs (Rettig
2000 in Puky et al. 2005, Herborg et al. 2003). It is euryhaline and eurythermic
and is capable of moulting in freshwater.
Despite being introduced in 1912, the range expansion of E. sinensis was not
reported until 1927 when it migrated from Germany via the Kiel Canal into the
Baltic Sea (Peters 1938 in Herborg et al. 2003), from where it reached Russia and
Finland by 1933. It reached the Netherlands in 1929 and spread throughout the
country (Van der Velde et al. 2000), France in 1930, Belgium in 1933, and
England in 1935. It had migrated 700 km up the R. Elbe to Prague and 512 km
along the R. Rhine by 1932, and by 1934 it occurred 464 km up the R. Oder as far
as Breslau (Robbins et al. 2000, Herborg et al. 2003). Although it was known from
the French coast as far as Le Havre in 1943, there appears to have been a
secondary introduction, probably via ballast water or associated with oyster
cultivation, to the R. Gironde region (1954–1960), from where E. sinensis reached
the Mediterranean coast via canals in 1959 (Herborg et al. 2003). It is known from
the Austrian (Rabitsch and Schiemer 2003) and Serbian (Karaman and Machino
2004) stretches of the Danube and has recently (2003) been found in the
Hungarian part (Puky et al. 2005). It has also been reported from the White Sea
(Berger and Naumov 2002) and the first record for Europe’s largest lake, Lake
Ladoga in Russia, was found in 2005 (Panov 2006). It was discovered in the Black
Sea (Gomoiu et al. 2002) and Azov Sea in 1997 (Murina and Antonovsky 2001 in
Herborg et al. 2003), and from the River Tazeh Bekandeh that drains into the
Caspian Sea, Iran in 2002 (Robbins et al. 2006). Recently, in the west, it has
been found in Waterford Harbour on the south-eastern coast of the Irish Republic
( J. D. Reynolds 2006, personal communication).
According to Jaźdźewski and Konopacka (2000), E. sinensis is less of a
problem in most of Europe than it used to be in the 1920–1940s. In the
1930s and 1940s lack of competition and an abundant food supply led to
them becoming so abundant in Germany that millions of juveniles were caught
during their upstream migration in 1936, but subsequently pollution led to a
reduction in the crab’s food supply and the crab itself (Gollasch 1999). Due to
recent improvements in the water quality and a consequent increase in food
supplies of some European rivers, E. sinensis is becoming abundant again and, in
1998, 75,000 crabs were taken by hand in only two hours in the River Elbe,
where it is once again causing problems due to its migratory habit (Gollasch
1999, S. Gollasch 2006, personal communication). The main problems associ-
ated with E. sinensis are its burrowing habit that may endanger flood defences,
and the fact that it reaches high densities, thus competing with indigenous
species for food, including crayfish (Robbins et al. 2000), as well as endangering
navigation. It also interferes with recreational and commercial fishing by taking
bait and interfering with nets (Herborg et al. 2003, 2005).
Recent studies have mainly dealt with its spread in the UK, where it was first
observed in the River Thames in 1935 but remained at low numbers until the
1990s when numbers escalated (Robbins et al. 2000), possibly as a result of
improving water quality (Herborg et al. 2005). In England, E. sinensis spread
along the coasts at an average rate of 78 km per year in the period 1976–1999,
but this increased dramatically to 448 km per year in the period 1997–1999,
which is similar to the rate of spread along the Baltic coast in 1928–1935
(Herborg et al. 2005). The upstream spread was 16 km per year in 1973–1998
with a marked increase to 49 km per year in 1995–1998. There are concerns
about the impact that it will have on the structure of river banks and the
indigenous fauna, including crayfish.
Other taxa (Table 3)
Space does not permit a full review of the other taxa of Crustacea that
have invaded European inland waters, but brief details are given below and a
tentative list is given in Table 3.
Branchiopoda. The spiny water flea, Bythotrephes longimanus, is indigenous to

lakes throughout the Palearctic, ranging from the British Isles to the Bering Sea.
Sikes (2002) has summarized what is known of this species as an invader.
Bythotrephes longimanus has been found in areas where it was not previously
known, including the North American Great Lakes in 1982, where it is thought
to have been introduced with ballast water from a transoceanic ship originating
from St. Petersburg harbour (Russia), where it is common in the nearby Lake
Lagoda. Bythotrephes longimanus reproduces rapidly by parthenogenesis and its
ability to produce sexual eggs allows it to survive adverse environmental
conditions. It is a dominant predator of zooplankton in the summer months.
Van der Velde et al. (2000) have found that B. longimanus is common in water
storage reservoirs, lakes, and rivers in the Netherlands, and that it has a marked
effect on other zooplankton. They also mention that it is found in the catchment
area of the R. Rhine in the Alps, north-eastern Germany, Poland, Belarus, the
Baltic States, Scandinavia, and the British Isles. They suggest that it has reached
the Netherlands and other countries by long distance dispersal through the
transport of resting eggs by rivers and/or birds. Panov et al. (2006) stated that
the predatory Ponto–Caspian cladocerans, C. pengoi, E. anonyx, and Cornigerius
maeoticus have moved through to the Baltic via the Volga–Baltic waterway
(northern invasion corridor), probably in ships’ ballast water, and that,
although they are warm-water species, they have the potential to become
established in a wide range of inland and coastal water ecosystems in temperate
zones. Rodionova and Panov (2006) noted that E. anonyx increased ten fold in
the eastern Gulf of Finland between 2000 and 2004. Litvinchuk and Maximova
(2005) have studied the biology of E. anonyx and Cornigerius maeoticus maeoticus
Pengo in the Baltic Sea and found them living with the indigenous branchiopod
fauna. Cercopagis pengoi and C. maeoticus are known to occur in freshwater
reservoirs in the Ponto–Caspian basin as well as those associated with the
R. Volga, and it is probably only a matter of time before they are recorded
from similar habitats further west. According to Panov et al. (2006), most
Ponto–Caspian onychopod cladocerans are euryhaline and can survive in
relatively high salinities as well as in freshwater (with the exception of
E. anonyx). The invasion of the Baltic by these species has been helped by climate
changes and the intensive shipping activity along the corridor. They suggest that
Ponto–Caspian cladocerans should be considered as ‘‘high risk’’ invasive species
because of their potential for range expansion and the impact they have on
the recipient ecosystem. Indeed, Telesh and Ojaveer (2002) have found that
C. pengoi in the Baltic Sea has a marked impact on the zooplankton community
as well as pelagic food webs involving planktivorous fish species. They suggest
that the dietary overlap with young planktivorous fish may lead to a decline in
food sources for fish such as herring and sprat, although this is compensated to
some extent by the fact that the fish can feed on the branchiopod.
Copepoda. Until recently few invasive Copepoda had been reported, but
N. Riccardi and G. Rossetti (2006, personal communication) have found the
calanoid, Eudiaptomus gracilis, in lowland waters of northern Italy. Although this

species is indigenous and widespread in Europe, it was not known in Italy until the
1980s and it now appears to be having an adverse effect on the indigenous
Eudiaptomus padanus Burckhardt in northern Italy at least. Ferrari et al. (1992)
have recorded the Australian calanoid, Boeckella triarticulata, from fishponds in
northern Italy, and Baldaccini et al. (1997) have reported the occurrence of the
Central American cyclopoid, Apocyclops panamensis, from Lake Massaciuccoli
(a brackish shallow lake) in Tuscany (Italy). Alekseev et al. (2002) have reported
that a cyclopoid, Acanthocyclops americanus, now occurs in Belgium at densities of
40,000 m2. They mention that this species rapidly expanded across Europe
and Asia in the 20th century after its introduction from North America into Britain
in the 19th century. It is now found as far east as reservoirs on the Rivers Volga
and Dnieper, where it is the dominant pelagic animal in the summer months
(Alekseev and Kosova 1977 in Alekseev et al. 2002).
Branchiura. The fish-louse, Argulus japonicus, has a worldwide distribution
having being moved with farmed fish stocks, e.g. koi carp, Cyprinus carpio
Linnaeus from the Orient (Rushton-Mellor 1992, Lester and Roubal 1999). It
is common wherever goldfish are found. Its distribution overlaps that of Argulus
foliaceus Linnaeus but generally occurs in warmer water. Argulus japonicus
was first discovered in Europe in 1921 (Spain) and has since been found in
Germany, France, Italy, Poland, and Slovakia (G. Boxshall 2006, personal
communication) on many fish, including species Carassius, Cyprinus, Esox,
Perca, Tinca, and Scardinius. The first record for the UK was in 1990 on koi
and mirror carp in English ponds (Rushton-Mellor 1992), and it has since
spread to indigenous fish populations in southern England (G. Boxshall 2006,
personal communication).
Isopoda. Only isopods belonging to the Asellota have invaded European inland
waters. Asellus communis from North America was mentioned earlier. Proasellus
coxalis, originating from the western Mediterranean, southern Italy, Sicily, and
the Aegean Sea, reached the R. Rhine via southern France, through the Rhône,
Saône, Doubs, and the Rhine-Rhône Canal. It is chiefly distributed in streams
and rivers of northern Germany: Ems, Saale, Ruhr, Weser, Aller, and Elbe. It is
seldom found in the upper Rhine in southern Germany. Proasellus meridionalis
was previously distributed in western Europe, and was recorded in the 1930s
and 1940s in France and England. It made use of the Rhône-Saône-Seine Canal
and the Rhine-Rhône Canal for its further spread. The density of this isopod in
the Rivers Saar and Rhine, however, is not high. Van der Velde et al. (2000) list
P. coxalis and P. meridionalis as having invaded the R. Rhine in the Netherlands.
The isopod genus Jaera Leach (Family Janiridae) has been revised by Veuille
(1979) who described Jaera istri as a new species using morphological charac-
ters. The type locality was near Kladovo on the R. Danube near the Iron Gate.
At that time, J. istri was endemic to the R. Danube from Romania to the
Austrian–German border. The distribution of Jaera sarsi (Valkanov) is limited
to brackish waters in Bulgaria, where it colonizes the supra-littoral zone of the
Black Sea and adjacent areas. It has been described from Lake Gebedze and Lake
Schabla. The literature before the revision of Veuille (1979) has obviously listed
only J. sarsi but it is certain that the purely freshwater populations from the
middle and upper stretches of the R. Danube can be referred to as J. istri. The
oldest Austrian record of the species is from the R. Danube in Vienna, dating
back to the year 1934 (Strouhal 1939). In the Bavarian section of the
R. Danube, J. istri was observed in 1967 (Kothé 1968). After the opening of
the R. Danube-Main-R. Rhine Canal, thus joining two previously separated
catchments to create a new navigation route between the North Sea and the
Black Sea in 1992, J. istri has taken the southern corridor to invade many
waters in the west of the European Continent. Muskó et al. (2005) stated that
the littoral zone of Lake Balaton in Hungary has been invaded by J. istri. It was
found in 1993 in the Main-Danube Canal (Tittizer 1997), in 1994 in the
R. Main (Schleuter and Schleuter 1995), and in 1996 in the middle section of
the R. Rhine (Schöll and Banning 1996). The Rhine delta was colonized in
1997 (Kelleher et al. 2000a), where this lithophilous isopod species inhabits
solid substrates. In 1999, J. istri was found in the R. Elbe, having used the
central corridor for further range extension into the north-eastern part of
Europe (Schöll and Hardt 2000). The species, which is salt tolerant, may be
spread by means of vessels. The food of this small (1.98 mm) isopod, which can
reach mean densities of 2,814 m2 , and highest maximum densities of 5,110 m2
(Kelleher et al. 2000b), consists of algae, plant remains, and detritus. Its abundance
on all sides of a stone, either sheltered or unsheltered, is fairly similar, in contrast
to amphipods such as E. ischnus and D. villosus, which are found mainly on
more sheltered areas and crevices of stones. The life history and reproductive
behaviour have not been studied.
Mysida. Species belonging to the mysid genera, Hemimysis, Limnomysis and
Paramysis are amongst those crustaceans that have been deliberately intro-
duced from the Ponto–Caspian basin to eastern European countries as fish
food (Borodich and Havlena 1973, Ketelaars et al. 1999, Arbaciauskas 2002).
Limnomysis benedeni is a euryhaline mysid species and tolerates a salinity of
6.5‰. Lentic environments with aquatic vegetation and tree roots are pre-
ferred. Originally, the species was endemic to the coastal waters of the Black and
Caspian seas and can be found several hundred kilometres upstream in rivers
discharging into both seas. The species have been intentionally introduced into
several habitats along the Baltic coast of the former Soviet Union, and in Lake
Balaton, Hungary, for the enhancement of fish production (Bij de Vaate et al.
2002). However, Muskó et al. (2005) noted that it is only found sporadically in
that lake. In 1947, L. benedeni was found in the R. Danube in the vicinity of
Budapest (Dudich 1947), in 1973 in an ox bow lake of the Austrian Danube
near Schönau (Weish and Türkay 1975), in 1993 in the Bavarian Danube
(Wittmann 1995), and in 1998 in the Main–Danube Canal (Reinhold and
Tittizer 1998). However, by 1998 the species had already reached the middle
R. Rhine and the Rhine delta (Kelleher et al. 1999, Ketelaars et al. 1999). This
Fig. 7 The Ponto–Caspian mysid, Hemimysis anomala. Widely spread in continental

Europe as a result of stockings to enhance fish production since the middle of the 20th
century, but a recent invader in central England. Specimen figured taken from a large
swarm in the National Water Sports Centre, Holme Pierrepont, Nottingham, England.
(Photo: M. Winter and L. Rippon)
well documented immigration clearly indicates the southern corridor of the

migration route for the westward range extension of L. benedeni. As Wittmann
(1995) has most frequently caught the species in harbours, he suggests that the
major vector of migration is shipping. Hemimysis anomala (Fig. 7) is a euryhaline
mysid from the coastal regions and lagoons associated with the Black, Azov, and
Caspian seas, as well as extending upstream into rivers. In the middle 20th
century it was introduced into a number of reservoirs in the former USSR, and
from these to Lithuania from where it spread to the Baltic Sea (Ketelaars et al.
1999). Subsequently, it was recorded from the R. Rhine catchment in 1997,
then in the R. Main in 1998. In 1999, it was recorded from the R. Danube
(Wittmann et al. 1999). It reached the Netherlands via the Main–Danube Canal
or invaded from the Baltic via ballast water (Faasse 1998, Van der Velde et al.
2000). It has also been recorded in Belgium (Verslycke et al. 2000) and most
recently in France (Dumont 2006) and Germany (Bernauer and Jansen 2006).
It is a voracious predator and also an omnivorous feeder, and its adverse impact
on zooplankton and algae in a freshwater storage reservoir in the Netherlands
has been documented by Ketelaars et al. (1999). This species has made a sudden
appearance in central England, although it is not known how it entered the

country. It is presently most common in a large recreational lake that hosts
international rowing events (Holdich et al. 2006). In 2001, Katamysis warpa-
chowskyi, a further mysid shrimp from the Ponto–Caspian basin, was recorded
for the Hungarian, Slovakian, and Austrian stretches of the R. Danube
(Wittmann 2002). Although the relict mysid, Mysis relicta Lovén, is indigenous
to Europe it was introduced into lakes in Norway and Sweden as fish food.
Subsequently, in Swedish lakes many cladocerans disappeared and this led to
reduced growth of Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus Linnaeus) (Langeland et al.
1991 in Ketelaars et al. 1999). The dramatic impact that the stocking of
M. relicta in Flathead Lake (North America) has had at all trophic levels,
including top carnivores, is provided by Spencer et al. (1991).
CONCLUSIONS
As noted by Aladin et al. (2002) in relation to the Caspian Sea, all resident
species can be described as invaders, the only difference being the time of
introduction, with the most ancient invaders now being regarded as indigenous.
The same can be said for the inland waters of Europe, which were invaded by a
wide variety of species after the last glaciation some 10,000 years ago or were
colonized by glacial relics. In this review of invasive crustaceans, only recent
invaders are considered. Leppäkoski et al. (2002a) noted that the ‘‘North
American’’ barnacle, Balanus improvisus Darwin, was first recorded in Europe
in 1844, although P. Rainbow (2006, personal communication) doubts that it
is a North American species, but occurs naturally on both sides of the Atlantic.
The Chinese mitten crab, E. sinensis, is considered to be the first recorded case
(1912) of a species being transported between continents in ballast water
(Carlton 1985). The narrow-clawed crayfish, A. leptodactylus, might well be
the first recorded case of a Ponto–Caspian crustacean invading northern
Europe. Huxley (1881) stated that, ‘‘the invading Astacus leptodactylus is every-
where overcoming and driving out Astacus nobilis in the struggle for existence,
apparently in virtue of its more rapid multiplication.’’ He was referring to the
displacement of A. astacus in the White Sea region of Russia, and the fact that
A. leptodactylus had probably reached this region via canals connecting its rivers
to the R. Volga. The spiny-cheek crayfish, O. limosus, introduced into Germany
in 1890, is certainly the first example of a crustacean being introduced from
North America for stocking purposes (Holdich 2002b, Machino and Holdich
2006, Holdich and Black 2007).
Introductions usually increase biodiversity, but this can be at a cost to the
indigenous fauna. For example, the UK had a single indigenous species of
crayfish before the 1970s, but by 2004 there were five other established
crayfish species, imported deliberately for aquaculture, restaurant, bait, and
pet trades, and all with the potential to harm the indigenous species through
competition, and transmission of disease in the case of North American species

(Holdich et al. 2004, Holdich and Pöckl 2005). Many countries associated with
the R. Danube and R. Rhine and their various connecting canals, have seen a
large increase in the number of mostly Ponto–Caspian species, particularly
amphipods, cladocerans and mysids, inhabiting their inland waters over the
last few decades, e.g. the Netherlands and Germany (Van der Velde et al. 2000,
Bernauer and Jansen 2006), which have been found to have an adverse impact
on the indigenous biota. However, there can also be benefits, e.g. Kelleher et al.
(2000b), pointed out that many non-indigenous amphipods in the R. Rhine
now form a large part of the diet of macrozoobenthivorous fish. These invaders
have either diffused naturally or been aided by human activities such as
shipping and inoculation of waters to enhance fish production.
For crustaceans, the trends outlined in this review are set to become worse.
A case in point is the R. Rhine, which amongst European rivers is probably
the best documented (see above). Most recently, Bernauer and Jansen (2006)
reported that NIS made up 74% of the total number of organisms collected
from ship-based samples and 85% from cooling water intake (of which 64%
were D. villosus). They recorded 17 species of non-indigenous crustaceans in the
upper R. Rhine, which was just over 50% of the non-indigenous macroinverte-
brate species found there. It is thought that most of these species have made
their way into the R. Rhine via the Main–Danube canal, which first opened in
1992. Bernauer and Jansen (2006) have shown that the macroinverebrate
community of the upper R. Rhine has been severely altered by the invasion of
several highly successful NIS (mostly crustaceans) that has resulted in the
elimination or population decline of some of the indigenous species.
The largest crustacean invaders, the Chinese mitten crab and the North
American crayfish, still have parts of Europe to conquer. The former is gradually
moving round Britain, and has recently entered Irish waters, as well as spread-
ing into eastern Europe and the Near East, whilst the latter is moving into
eastern Europe, often aided by humans with aquacultural interests. Ireland
is of particular interest when considering invasive species ( J. D. Reynold
2006, personal communication). It was cut off from continental Europe before
9000 BP, and as a consequence freshwater species had special difficulties in
bridging the more saline seas. The amphipod G. duebeni perhaps invaded from
the sea in peri-glacial times of low salinity to become widespread in freshwaters,
with G. lacustris invading large lakes. Most of the invasive species in continental
European inland waters have yet to arrive in Ireland, and for larger species
such as crayfish this is in part due to strict legislation on imports (Reynolds
1997).
It is virtually impossible to eliminate an established non-indigenous aquatic
macroinvertebrate in anything but a small, enclosed waterbody (Holdich et al.
1999, Peay et al. 2006). The aim of eradication is to completely remove the
invasive species, whereas control aims for its reduction over time. Eradication is
best attempted in the early stages of invasion. However, many invasive species
are not noticed until they become established, e.g. the case of the crayfish,
O. virilis, in the Netherlands (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006) and the mysid,
H. anomala, in England (Holdich et al. 2006). Unless an invasive species can
be seen by the relevant authorities to be causing economic or physical harm to
the aquatic environment, then they are unlikely to be prepared to spend large
sums of money on eradication programmes. Control is also very difficult if only
trappable crustaceans are removed as the lack of large individuals may result
in smaller cohorts growing more rapidly. Hundreds of thousands of non-
indigenous crayfish have been removed from some rivers in Britain at great
expense but this has had little impact (Collins 2006). No amount of legislation
(Holdich and Pöckl 2005) will prevent a child tipping a pet crayfish into a lake
after it has outgrown its tank. If such a crayfish is parthenogenetic, as has been
found in the case of Procambarus sp. (Scholtz et al. 2003, Vogt et al. 2004, Seitz
et al. 2005), then it only needs one individual to start a population. It is also
very difficult to get the message over to recreational anglers that introducing
live non-indigenous crustaceans as food to increase fish production is not a good
idea. One huge problem concerns the pet trade, which some European countries
appear unwilling to do anything about (Holdich and Pöckl 2005). Extensive
lists of North American crayfish are available to European aquarists. Potentially
invasive crustaceans are even traded on eBay!
As pointed out by Gollasch and Leppäkoski (1999), all invasive species should
be treated as ‘‘guilty until proved innocent’’, as there is no way of exactly
predicting how a NIS will behave in a new habitat (Leppäkoski et al. 2002b).
However, it seems to be the case that the majority of introduced crustaceans
have some of the characteristics of r-selected species (short life cycles, high
fecundity, fast growth), whilst the established indigenous species are more
K-selected (Lindqvist and Huner 1999, Van der Velde et al. 2000). Hopefully,
continued education, vigilance, and prosecutions may eventually lead people to
realize the dangers of intentional introductions of invasive species, but uninten-
tional introductions will be impossible to stop. All that can be hoped for is that
education will lead to increased vigilance, so that when NIS are reported to the
relevant authorities they may try and do something about them rather than
procrastinating for years until it is too late, as is usually the case (Holdich and
Pöckl 2005). Certainly, in the UK, press and TV coverage have raised public
awareness of the dangers of introduced crustacean species. In recent years, the
UK attention has been on crayfish, but currently it has become focused on
the Chinese mitten crabs with headlines such as ‘‘Crab that eats riverbanks
brings flood threat’’ (Daily Mail, 17 November, 2005).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Christopher Ashelby, Roger Bamber, Geoff Boxshall,
Keith Crandall, Jamie Dick, Leonor Fidalgo, Stephan Gollasch, Elisabeth Licek,
Vadim Panov, Philip Rainbow, Julian Reynolds, Nicoletta Riccardi, Roni

Robbins, David Sutcliffe, and Karl Wittman for providing useful information
for this review; the following for permission to use the photographs: W. G. Graf
and A. Schmidt-Kloiber (Fig. 2), W. Graf (Fig. 3), John Black (Fig. 4), Peter
Sibley (Fig. 5), Natural History Museum Photo Unit, London (Fig. 6), and Lesley
Rippon (Fig. 7); and Julian Reynolds and David Sutcliffe for critically reading the
manuscript.
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Chapter three
Non-indigenous freshwater
crabs in France:
a new occurrence of
a potamid near Nice
Pierre Y. Noël and Danièle Guinot
INTRODUCTION
The presence of a crab in the Cagne River, in south-eastern France near

Nice (Alpes-Maritimes), has been known since about 1985 (M. Pascal 2000,
personal communication). A brachyuran crab of the genus Potamon Savigny,
family Potamidae Ortmann, referred to by locals as the ‘‘blue crab’’, was first
observed in 2000 ( J.-L. Teyssié 2002, personal communication) and then
collected in this river in 2000 and the following years. The occurrence of the
crab was confirmed in 2005 by new field observations by one of us (P. Noël) and
also documented by canyoning enthusiasts and fishermen (Barla 2005, Teyssié
2005). This crab is totally dependent on freshwater, even if it is located not very
far from the sea (about 10 km); it shows a direct development without free-
swimming larvae and has no recognizable close relatives in the sea.
The species has been presumably introduced with Turkish imported crayfish,
Astacus leptodactylus (Eschscholtz) in the 1960s and 1970s, but its precise origin
in Turkey is unknown. There is no doubt that the crab introduced into France
belongs to the genus Potamon (type species: Potamon fluviatile Savigny, junior
subjective synonym of Cancer potamios Olivier; nec Cancer fluviatilis Herbst), the
only genus which occurs around the Mediterranean Basin, in North Africa and
77
ß 2007 Springer.
78 Pierre Y. Noël and Danièle Guinot
in the Middle East. It is widely accepted that two species of freshwater crabs of
the genus Potamon occur in the Mediterranean region. The first species, Potamon
(Eutelphusa) fluviatile (Herbst), has been known since antiquity and occurs in the
western Mediterranean: Italy, Greece, Macedonia to the northern Peloponnese,
western Ionian and Aegean Islands, Dalmatia, Montenegro, Albania, and Malta
(d’Udekem d’Acoz 1999). The Italian specimen figured by Rondelet (1555: 208)
was selected as lectotype by Holthuis (1962: 238). The second species, Potamon
(Potamon) potamios (Olivier), is present in eastern Europe and the Near East: SE
Balkans, Greek mainland and south-eastern Aegean Islands, S Russia, Turkey to
Iran and Sinai Peninsula, Egypt (Holthuis 1962, Bott 1967, 1970). A specimen
collected in 1980 from the Golan Heights was subsequently designated by
Pretzmann (1983b: 380) as the neotype to be in concordance with a possible
topotypic region along the route followed by Olivier during his travels (Olivier
1804).
The specific identification of the Cagne crab was difficult because several
Potamon species, subspecies, and even infrasubspecific categories are present
in Turkey (Pretzmann 1962, 1984), in Greece (Pretzmann 1980, 1988), and in
the eastern region. Brandis et al. (2000) demonstrated the high variability of the
species. The Cagne crab is provisionally assigned with reservation to Potamon
(Pontipotamon) ibericum (Bierberstein). Potamon aff. ibericum is very close to
another French introduced crab found in the Hérault River in the 1990s
(Charmantier 1992, 1993a, b, Defontaines and Bayle 1993).
The material examined and used for identification is deposited in institutions
abbreviated as follows: MNHN, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris;
NHMW, Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. The abbreviations used are as
follows: G1, first male pleopod or gonopod; G2, second male pleopod or gono-
pod; Mxp3, third maxilliped; P1, cheliped; P1–P5, first to fifth pereopods (P2–
P5, walking legs). Measurements given are carapace length carapace width
(CW), in millimetres (mm), and indicate the maximum dimensions.
Material examined from the Cagne River
– Potamon (Pontipotamon) aff. ibericum, Alpes-Maritimes, Cagne River, near

Lubiane tributary, coll. August 2000, C. Jourdain and E. Vigneux
leg.17.11.2000: 1 male 30.2 38.0 mm (MNHN-B 29917).
– Potamon (P.) aff. ibericum, Alpes-Maritimes, Cagne River, ‘‘Le Poutaou-
choun’’, Michel Pascal coll. November 2000 and leg. 21.11.2000: 1 male
30.3 38.0 mm (MNHN-B 29915).
– Potamon (P.) aff. ibericum, Alpes-Maritimes, Cagne River, ‘‘Le Poutaouchoun’’,
Michel Pascal coll. 2003 and leg. 08.09.2003: 1 male 36.2 45.5 mm,
1 female 29.7 37.4 mm (MNHN-B 29916).
– Potamon (P.) aff. ibericum, M. Pascal coll. 2003 and leg. October 2004: 4
males 35.2 43.3 mm, 32.0 40.0 mm, 28.1 35.7 mm (plus one not
measured), 2 females 31.9 39.1 mm, 31.7 40.3 mm (MNHN-B 29618).
A non-indigenous potamid crab in France 79
– Potamon (P.) aff. ibericum, P. Noël coll. and leg. 21.07.2005: 3 males 15.7
19.6 mm, 15.6 19.4 mm, 15 18.8 mm, 2 females 24.4 31.3 mm,
1 juv. soft, damaged (MNHN-B 29918).
Material examined from the Hérault River
– Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum tauricum (Czerniavsky), Hérault River,

St-Guilhem-le-Désert, G. Charmantier coll. 07.10.1991/01.02.1992, det.
and leg.: 2 males 26.1 31.3 mm, 25.1 30.4 mm, 1 female 25.3
31.5 mm (MNHN-B 22365).
– Potamon (P.) ibericum, Hérault River, St-Guilhem-le-Désert, G. Charmantier
coll., det. and leg. 26.03.1994: 1 male 26.9 33.2 mm, 1 female 29
31 mm (MNHN-B 27888).
– Potamon (P.) ibericum, Hérault River, St-Guilhem-le-Désert, P. Noël coll.
28.04.1992 and det. and leg.: 1 female (MNHN-B 29914).
Comparative material
– Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum tauricum, Turkey, Smyrne [Izmir] region,

Mélès River, on banks and under stones, Mission zoologique H. Gadeau de
Kerville, May 1912, G. Pretzmann det. 1964: about 50 specimens (MNHN-B
5131 and B 5189); Turkey, Smyrne [Izmir] region, Mélès River, Mission
zoologique H. Gadeau de Kerville, May 1912, G. Pretzmann det. 1964:
about 10 specimens (MNHN-B 5184).
– Potamon (P.) ibericum, Bulgaria, J.P. Gasc coll. May 1970, D. Brandis det.
1996: 3 specimens (MNHN-B 26939).
– Potamon (P.) ibericum tauricum Natio bithynensis, Türkei, W. Gerede (38 km
NW Kizilcalium), Pretzmann, Radda & Konetschnig leg. 1967, Pretzmann
det. 1976 (NHMW 3971 pro parte) [Brandis et al. (2000). det. P. (P.)
ibericum].
– Potamon (P.) ibericum tauricum Natio cappadociensis, Turkey, Hynat-Deres,
Bach estl. Ordu, Pretzmann leg. 1967 and det. 1976 (NHMW 3990 pro
parte) [Brandis et al. (2000). det. P. (P.) ibericum].
– Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum meandris Pretzmann, ‘‘Cotypus’’, Meandre,
Pretzmann det. 1963 (NHMW 3244) [Brandis et al. (2000). det. P. (P.)
ibericum].
– Potamon (Potamon) potamios hippocratis Ghighi, Turkey, zwischen Kale und
Mugla, Quellen vor Paß NW Mugla, Pretzmann leg. 1969 and det. 1976
(NHMW 4093) [Brandis et al. (2000) det. Potamon (Potamon) rhodium
(Parisi)].
– Potamon (Potamon) potamios hippocratis Natio antalyensis, Turkey, 30 km NW
Antalya, Pretzmann leg. 1969 and det. 1976 (NHMW 4103) [Brandis et al.
(2000) det. P. (P.) potamios].
– Potamon (P.) potamios hippocratis Natio egerdiri, Turkey, SW Burdur, Pre-

tzmann leg. 1965 and det. 1976 (NHMW 4111 pro parte) [Brandis et al.
– Potamon (Potamon) potamios karamani Pretzmann Natio karamani, Turkey,
Tschagat-Tichai, Taurus, coll. Fahringer 1922 (NHMW 3138) [Brandis et al.
– Potamon (Centropotamon) hueceste hueceste Pretzmann, Turkey, Sereflikochi-
sar, O.Zufluß zum Tuz Göl [W.Tuzgöl?], Pretzmann leg. 1972 and det. 1976
(NHMW 4133).
– Potamon (Centropotamon) magnum vangoelium Pretzmann, Turkey, Cucurca
(Vil.Hakkari), 1600 m, Eiselt & Bilek leg. 1968, Pretzmann det. 1976
(NHMW 3885) [Brandis et al. (2000) det. Potamon (Orientopotamon) persicum
Pretzmann].
In addition to the collected material, videos by P. Noël and colour photographs
were examined for some of the descriptions given below.
The Cagne River and crab localization
The Cagne River is a coastal, 24.6 km long river that flows on limestone from
the slope of the Cheiron Mountain near Coursegoules at 950 m altitude. It
follows some narrow canyons and ends in the Mediterranean, not very far
from Nice. The upper and lower part of the river can dry up, especially during
summer. The water quality is good in the higher part of the river (trout are
present in the brook part of the river). The calcium and carbonate content is
probably high, since gravels, rocks, and even crabs tend to be covered by. Water
quality worsens in the lower part, owing to the presence of a wastewater
treatment plan in Vence; bathing is forbidden in the lower river.
The Cagne crab population seems to be well established at present. A popu-
lation was first found near a place named ‘‘imprimerie Trulli’’ (J.-L. Teyssié 2000,
personal communication) in winter 1999–2000 and in April 2000. It was
previously recorded in the nineties from ‘‘Le Poutaouchoun’’ (P. Ponte 2000,
personal communication), upstream of an old bridge between Vence and La
Gaude (Fig. 1). Initial surveys have been limited to the portion from the bridge
to an ancient barrage, situated around 600 m upstream. A few surveys in the
upper waters first gave negative results. New investigations carried out on the
lower part of the canyon revealed the presence of the crab there. It appears that
the crab population is only located along some 4–5 km of the central part of the
river course between ‘‘Le Riou’’ (north) and ‘‘Les Salles’’ (south), where the river
rarely dries up.
Morphological description (Fig. 1)
Relatively large size. Carapace flat, smooth, lateral borders ornamented with a
few blunt, flat tubercules in some specimens. Frontal border slightly sinuous.
Fig. 1 (Upper-right) The Cagne River and the ancient bridge at the place called
‘‘Poutaouchoun’’. (Photograph P. Noël) (Lower-right) Potamon aff. ibericum female
in situ: the original specimen shows blue colour. (Photograph P. Noël) (Upper-left)
Potamon aff. ibericum: the original specimen shows dark brown carapace, bluish color-
ation on Mxp3 and greenish tints due to green algae. (Courtesy of M. Pascal) (Lower-left)
Potamon (Eutelphusa) fluviatile shown on the ‘‘Fontana del Porcellino’’ in Firenze. (Photo:
P. Noël) [Colour photographs available on the website: http://www.mnhn.fr/]
Orbital margins smooth or slightly toothed. Anterolateral borders relatively

short, regularly converging, only weakly and regularly serrated. Postfrontal
cristae moderately strong. Suborbital field varying from weakly to moderately
tuberculated. Chelipeds markedly heterochelous; larger chela (right) may be
stout; fingers elongated, variably gaping; cutting edges with several pointed
teeth separated by smaller interteeth. Pereopods 2–4 rather short and stout.
Male abdomen slenderly triangular; segment 6 short and wide; telson rather
short. G1 and G2 of the typical Potamon shape. Terminal joint of G1 spindle-like,
slender, its tip reaching button of abdominal maintaining apparatus (press-
button); flexible zone between subterminal and terminal joints broadened,
projecting toward sternum. G2 as long as G1.
The colour of specimens found in the wild matched perfectly with the sur-
rounding environment, the common name ‘‘blue crab’’ referring mostly to the
colour of adult P1, and the blue colour being noticed especially among large
crabs when wet or immersed in water. The blue colour is hardly seen when
crabs wander on river banks, outside water. Adults, i.e. specimens of CW from
15–20 mm, with a dark brown dorsal carapace; depressed zones lighter; ventral
surface pale cream, with brownish marks on abdomen (mostly proximal part).
Telson pale violet. Mxp3 dark in its flattened anterior half. Both chelipeds
markedly bluish-violet dorsally, fingers tips whitish; ventral side may be lighter
in colour. Walking legs dark brown, most distal part darker, with bluish tints in
some instances; a distinct pattern often present in small individuals (may vanish
with growth), with slightly marbled (alternate dark and light patches) walking
legs. No significant sex colour differences for individuals of similar size. Very
young individuals (CW less than 10–15 mm) paler, with translucent parts of
carapace. Tiny individuals almost colourless; recently moulted individuals with
bright colours. Colours fading with time due to the presence of epibiotes (micro-
scopic green algae, bacteria, etc.) on cuticle.
Some of the largest individuals show an unusual phenomenon giving them
a peculiar greyish coloration. Since these individuals live in water with a
high amount of carbonates and since they moult less often than younger
ones, patches of calcium carbonate tend to develop on their cuticules. When
these patches peel, the epicuticule is removed, giving the crab a diseased
appearance (leprosis).
Remarks
The Cagne crab belongs to Potamon (Pontipotamon) as recognized by Pretzmann

(1962: 228) and redefined by Brandis et al. (2000: 22, 55). It is closely
related to P. ibericum as shown by the gonopod morphology, i.e. G1 with a
spindle-shaped, elongated, terminal joint (Brandis et al. 2000: Fig. 6). A char-
acteristic, perhaps distinctive, feature is the markedly broadened extremity of
the subterminal joint on its mesial side (D. Brandis 2005, personal communi-
cation). We have not found definite characters distinguishing the Cagne and the
Hérault crabs, which suggests a common origin for both Potamon introduced
into France. Examination of more specimens seems necessary to exclude even-
tual morphological variations and to avoid the uncertainty surrounding the
status of the two introduced crabs. A Turkish origin is the most probable
hypothesis, in view of the morphological characters and available information.
It is worth noting that the 16S sequence of the Cagne crab was found to be
‘‘exactly the same as that of the Hérault crab, while there are few differences
from the P. ibericum group from Central Anatolia’’ (D. Brandis 2006, personal
communication). The identity of both introduced ‘‘French’’ freshwater crabs
deserves further investigation.
According to Brandis et al. (2000: 25), the indigenous P. ibericum, which
include P. ibericum tauricum, have constant gonopod characters from Greece to
the coastal regions of the Caspian Sea and show morphological structures
without intrapopulational or regional variations.
Colour photographs of the Cagne crab were published recently in newspapers

dealing with ‘‘la Cagne blue crab’’ (Barla 2005, Teyssié 2005). According to
Charmantier (1993a) P. (Pontipotamon) ibericum tauricum are dark brown on
carapace, brownish to pale yellow on ventral surface, violet on chelipeds and
partly on Mxp3. The colour (when including the species pattern range) is
viewed as a reliable criterion in the systematics of brachyuran crabs, but it is
not or rarely mentioned for freshwater crabs. Coloration of Potamon species has
rarely been reported, especially the blue colours, mainly because blue pigments
(carotenoproteins) are destroyed by ethanol. The colour of the cheliped tips,
used as a diagnostic character for two South African species of Potamonautes
(see Daniels et al. 1998), was later considered doubtful (Gouws et al. 2002). We
have nevertheless considered it useful to describe the colour of the ‘‘Cagne
crab’’, which is consistent in the available material and in both sexes.
Process of introduction
The origin of the newly discovered Potamon in France seems to be the fish
breeding installation (which is no longer working). The crab was presumably
imported together with the Turkish crayfish A. leptodactylus when small crabs
were observed in the crayfish lots that were imported (from Kerevitas, Istanbul)
between 1975 and 1983. The crab was not recorded in the fish inventories
of July 2004, made in the vicinity downstream from an ancient fish breeding
plan (at about 500 m). It is now known at the entrance of the gorges (about
6 km downstream from the fish breeding plan). A population of the indigenous
white-clawed crayfish, Austropotamobius pallipes Lereboullet spp. complex, is
present upstream.
Behaviour and ecology
At night, individuals of P. aff. ibericum wander on river banks for feeding; some,
especially large ones, can be caught by hand in the morning, facing the current
on the boulders. Usually at daylight, crabs shelter under stones, in crevices,
among submerged roots, or within decaying leaves. There is no evidence of
the digging of holes or burrows on the river banks. Mating seems to occur at the
end of August as observed in 2003 and 2004. Associated fauna includes fish
like the brown trout (Salmo trutta fario Linnaeus), Mediterranean barbel (Barbus
meridionalis Risso, now Barbus graellsii Steindachner), European eel (Anguilla
anguilla Linnaeus), amphibians (unidentified tadpoles), and many insects.
Taxonomy
It is commonly assumed that freshwater crabs show strong similarities

in carapace and pereopod shapes. Identification based on these external char-
acters is unreliable and unstable because of their high variability, even within
populations. Alternatively, freshwater taxonomists (Pretzmann 1962, 1980,

1982, 1983a, b, c, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1993, Bott 1967, 1970) have
focused their attention on the morphology of gonopods, because of the presum-
ably weak external selection pressure on these organs. Slight differences in G1
morphology have been used. For example, Pretzmann (1962, 1980, 1983a, b,
1993) described many subspecies with infrasubspecific forms (‘‘natio’’) in
P. potamios. These taxonomic categories have been considered to have a highly
questionable justification and therefore have been synonymized under P. pota-
mios, while waiting for morphometric and genetic results (Brandis et al. 2000:
3, 50, Table 1). Similarly, subspecies of Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum
(P. tauricum; P. meandris Pretzmann; P. albanicum Starobogatov and Vassilenko)
as well as its infrasubspecific categories (see Pretzmann 1983b, c, 1988) have
been synonymized with the nominal species (Brandis et al. 2000: 25, Table 1).
The topology of the gonopods could be markedly variable within high level
monophyletic groups (Rodrı́guez 1982, 1992, Ng 1988, Cumberlidge 1999).
The characters that are significant for the identification of freshwater crabs
and informative for phylogenetic reconstruction thus remain problematical.
Assigning an organism to a particular species is further complicated by the
occurrence of sibling species, expressing only limited discriminating morpho-
logical or genetic characteristics. Today, molecular sequences provide data for
the recognition of the genetic differentiation among distinct species and also
among populations, in particular for those that are geographically intermediate
(Daniels et al. 2003). It is increasingly clear that presumably ‘‘good’’ species
of freshwater crabs, at the moment insufficiently isolated, may continue to
exchange genetic material through hybridization (introgression) (Gouws et al.
2002, Daniels et al. 2002).
This is particularly true for the different lineages of freshwater crabs that
occupied the tropical and subtropical regions in the Upper Cretaceous and the
Paleogene. Potamon arrived from the east in central and southern Europe in the
Upper Miocene and established in the circum-Mediterranean region (Pretzmann
1972, 1982, 1983a, b, c, 1987, 1990). The present subgenera and species
developed as the result of isolation caused by the separation of islands. In
the Pleistocene, freshwater crabs survived in small refuges in southern Europe,
and the modern subspecies developed. During more humid periods, gene-
introgressions occurred, and interrupting gene-change caused different subse-
quent differentiations (Pretzmann 1987: 21, 22, Fig. 3).
The recent revision of Brandis et al. (2000) demonstrated the difficulties in the
identification of potamid freshwater crabs. Only the examination of considerable
material from different areas allows for the characterization of morphotypes,
features of carapace and chelipeds being variable. In the absence of any mor-
phological transition between the distinct morphotypes, each of these morpho-
types proved to be confined to a specific river system or geographic region, with
copulatory structures appearing to be the only stable characters (Brandis et al.
2000: 6, 50, Fig. 18; see also Brandis et al. 1999, von Sternberg et al. 1999).
In the new classification of the European and Middle East species proposed by
Brandis et al. (2000), Potamon was divided into four subgenera, each belonging
to a particular river drainage system: Potamon, Eutelphusa Pretzmann, Pontipo-
tamon Pretzmann, and Orientopotamon Pretzmann.
Freshwater taxonomists have to face many problems, including the unre-
solved question of the monophyly of the freshwater Brachyura and the higher
taxonomy (Martin and Davis 2002), as well as the delimitation of genera and
species with new, significant, and consistent morphological characters, such as
the thoracic sternum (Yeo 2000, Yeo and Ng 2004), the endophragmal system
(von Sternberg and Cumberlidge 1999), and the sternal button that holds the
abdomen (D. Guinot 2006, unpublished data).
Introductions of freshwater crabs into mainland France
Freshwater brachyuran crabs are not known as indigenous to France. Never-

theless, the present record in the Cagne River is the third occurrence of Pota-
midae in France.
The first case of a non-indigenous freshwater crab in France, which dates
back to the end of the 18th century, was not accidental and it concerned the
same region as the present species. The crab which has been deliberately
acclimatized in south-east France at this time was probably P. (E.) fluviatile.
This European freshwater indigenous species is found in Italy (less than 300 km
from Nice), where it is very common, and illustrated on a fountain in Florence
(Fig. 1). This crab is also found on the Greek mainland and in the Balkans. Risso
(1819: 504) first indicated that freshwater brachyuran crabs were acclimatized
in southern France and were used as food before the French Revolution (1789).
Nice (Nizza) was Italian until 1793. Risso’s record was mentioned by Desmarest
(1825: 127, 128, as Thelphusa fluviatilis Pretzmann), who wrote ‘‘Au rapport de
M. Risso, on avait transporté et acclimaté son espèce [the Italian Potamon] aux
environs de Nice, il y a trente ans environ’’, that corresponds to the end of the
18th century. Risso (1827: 14, as P. fluviatilis) also explained
Je ne cite ici cette espèce que pour engager les propriétaires du midi de la France qui ont
dans leurs jardins des ruisseaux ou des réservoirs d’eaux vives, d’acclimater ces crabes,
comme l’avait fait, il y a plusieurs années, le M. le comte Audiberti. Il les avoit tellement
multipliés en peu d’années, qu’on en rencontrait dans tous les endroits de son jardin, et
que ces potamophiles étaient devenus un assez bon comestible.
(see Holthuis 1977: 68). The origin of the crabs possessed by le Comte Audiberti is
not known, but it is obvious that these animals were introduced. The Italian
P. fluviatilis was known as source of human food for a long time, this edible crab
being sold in the markets in Rome (Aldrovandi 1606: 206, as Cancer fluviatilis
Matthioli; see Grmek and Guinot 1965: 55). It is not known if the acclimatized
freshwater crabs in south-east France were really used as food before the French
Revolution. Both mentions in the above text of ‘‘combustible’’ (combustible) and
‘‘comestible’’ (edible) are somewhat confusing. Perhaps the crabs were used both
for food and as combustible in a time of scarcity, unless these two different terms
may be the result of a typographical error. Bouvier (1940: 273, as Potamon edulis
Linnaeus) stated that freshwater crabs had not been recorded in France for a long
time.
The second record in France concerns the Hérault River near Montpellier.
The crab was identified as Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum (see Charmantier
1992) or P. (P.) ibericum tauricum (see Charmantier 1993a, b). Charmantier
(1992: 624) presented the possibility of a recent introduction with imported
Turkish crayfish. There is no recent evidence of the presence of this species so it
seems that it has recently become less common.
The third record is the present one in the Cagne River, at about 300 km from
the Hérault River. The hypothesis that some potamid species occur in other
French rivers but still undetected cannot be excluded. As far as we know, no
other similar introduction has been reported in Europe. In northern European
countries, where living crayfish could be imported for human consumption,
freshwater crabs could not become acclimatized to cold environments. It is
difficult to say if, in the long term, P. ibericum or related freshwater crabs
could spread in other rivers of France. The two instances in France (Hérault
and the Cagne River) are far from being invasive.
An invasive crab in France was Eriocheir sinensis H. Milne Edwards which
lives predominantly in freshwater but migrates seawards for the breeding
season. This species, however, belongs to the Varunidae H. Milne Edwards
and not to the Potamidae. After a period of invasion, its populations decreased
drastically in France where it seems to be rare at present.
Crab and crayfish interactions
Potamon fluviatile and the indigenous crayfish A. pallipes are found in different
distribution ranges but live sympatrically in Europe; a coexistence with com-
petitive interactions may have occurred during the Pleistocene (Pretzmann
1987, Laurent 1988). In Italian freshwater systems, P. fluviatilis and A. pallipes
never share the same stream or pond, suggesting a sharp segregation of the two
species (Barbaresi and Gherardi 1997). More recently, agonism and interference
competition was studied in freshwater decapods with a focus on an invasive
crayfish Procambarus clarkii Girard, and two indigenous species Austropotamo-
bius italicus Faxon, and P. fluviatile (Gherardi and Cioni 2004).
In southern France, A. pallipes and P. aff. ibericum share the same stream. The
introduced P. aff. ibericum is probably restricting the crayfish upstream where
it was and is still present, in areas isolated by waterfalls. This suggests competi-
tive exclusion (although the crab may not have been established in the Cagne
River for a long time). The potential problems to biodiversity deriving from a
non-indigenous freshwater crab in the two French rivers are not known. This
would need further investigation, as far as French populations are concerned.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are greatly indebted to Michel Pascal, head of Brigade départementale du

Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche, Nice, who collected most part of the material
studied here and provided many precious information. Thanks to Jean-Louis
Teyssié (Agence internationale de l’énergie atomique, Monaco) for earliest
information, and to Jean-Luc Cerutti, President of the Saumonnée Vençoise,
Vence. Special thanks are due to Peter C. Dworschak (Naturhistorisches
Museum, Vienna, Austria) for the loan of a part of the European freshwater
material deposited in his institution. We gratefully acknowledge the cooperation
of Dirk Brandis, specialist of the Potamidae, for his advice about the Cagne River
crab, in particular in providing preliminary results of DNA sequences. Thanks
also to Rémi Chappaz (Université Aix Marseille I, EA Evolution Génome Envir-
onnement), and to Peter Castro (California State Polytechnic University,
Pomona, California) who corrected our English text and contributed pertinent
suggestions. The authors would like to express their thanks to Cédric d’Udekem
d’Acoz and Francesca Gherardi for their valuable comments, and to Alain
Foubert for his help in preparing Fig. 1.
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Chapter four
Status and ecosystem

interactions of the invasive
Louisianan red swamp
crayfish Procambarus
clarkii in East Africa
John Foster and David Harper
INTRODUCTION
There are no indigenous crayfish in continental Africa although there are

indigenous crayfish on the island of Madagascar (Hobbs 1988). However,
various non-indigenous North American and Australian crayfish have been
introduced to continental Africa since the 1970s, notably the Louisianan red
swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard). This is a relatively large, prolific,
aggressive, burrowing crayfish (Hobbs et al. 1989 quoted in Holdich 1999) and
it is well documented as an invasive species worldwide (Holdich 1999). Concern
about the impact of exotic crayfish on aquatic ecosystems in South Africa
(Mikkola 1996) is mirrored for fresh waters in East Africa where P. clarkii has
established itself and is spreading (Howard and Matindi 2003).
The status of P. clarkii in Kenya and the Lake Victoria catchment was
determined by reference to the literature, Nairobi Museum Records, and per-
sonal communications from scientists and riparian owners. The actual or
probable impacts of P. clarkii in Kenya and the Lake Victoria catchment were
91
ß 2007 Springer.
92 John Foster and David Harper
ascertained from the literature, including field studies by the authors (Foster
and Harper 2006a, b).
UGANDA
Water bodies in Uganda are illustrated in Fig. 1. Procambarus clarkii was introduced
to Uganda in East Africa in the 1960s. In 1966, P. clarkii was cultured at Fisheries
Resources Research Institute/National Agricultural Research Organisation’s
Fig. 1 Map of Uganda. (from www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr2/case_studies/

img/uganda_big.gif )
The invasive crayfish Procambarus clarkii in East Africa 93
ponds at Kajjansi near Entebbe and Lake Victoria (Lowery and Mendes 1977)
where it is still present (W. Daniels 2006, personal communication).
The species is established in Lake Bunyonyi in SW Uganda where it is
exploited for the local restaurant trade. Lake Bunyonyi has no indigenous fish
species but was stocked over the years with numerous local and foreign species.
Lake Bunyonyi is a deep volcanic barrier lake which flows into the Ruhumba
river which, in turn, flows into the Ruhumba swamps (but not to Lake Victoria)
(Foster 2005). Water from Lake Bunyonyi flows through rock formations,
not as an overflow. Procambarus clarkii may be quite widespread but under
recorded in Uganda and may even have colonized the periphery of Lake Victoria
in Uganda (W. Daniels 2006, personal communication).
Furthermore, anecdotal records suggest that P. clarkii may be established
in the River Kagera which enters Lake Victoria on the Uganda–Tanzania
border. The river originates in up country Rwanda and Burundi close to the
Ruzizi River which flows into Lake Tanganyika (G. Howard 2005, personal
communication). This presents a possible colonization route for P. clarkii into
Lake Tanganyika in the long term.
KENYA
Water bodies in Kenya are illustrated in Fig. 2. Procambarus clarkii was

introduced from Uganda to various parts of Kenya including the eastern basin
of Lake Naivasha between 1966 and 1970 to enhance the commercial fisheries
in the lakes and dams (Parker 1974, Lowery and Mendes 1977, Mikkola 1996).
A commercial fishery was opened for P. clarkii in Lake Naivasha in 1975
(Mikkola 1996) and by 1977 the species was prevalent throughout the lake
(Oluoch 1990). The status of P. clarkii in Lake Naivasha has been reviewed by
Oluoch (1990), Harper et al. (2002), and Foster and Harper (2006a). The status
of P. clarkii in the Rivers Gilgil, Malewa, and Karati flowing into Lake Naivasha
from 1999 to 2003 is discussed by Foster and Harper (2006b).
Lake Naivasha (0845’S, 36820’E) is located in the Eastern Rift Valley at
1,890 m above sea level, approximately 100 km north-west of Nairobi. The
lake is freshwater with two main rivers, the Gilgil and the Malewa draining into
the northern perimeter of the lake in addition to the minor ephemeral River
Karati; the lake has a subterranean inflow and outflow (Ase 1987). The recent
biological history of the lake is reviewed by Harper et al. (1990).
The Naivasha Basin is bounded by the Aberdare Mountains to the east and
the Mau Escarpment to the west. About 90% of the discharge into Lake
Naivasha derives from the Malewa River (1,730 km2 catchment), which
receives its water from the Kinangop Plateau and the Aberdares. Much of the
remaining inflow is from the River Gilgil (420 km2 catchment) which drains the
Bahati Highlands to the north of the Elmenteita–Nakuru basin, although a
significant proportion of the Gilgil’s water is abstracted for irrigation (Barnard
Fig. 2 Map of Kenya. (from www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr2/case_studies/img/

kenya_big.gif )
and Biggs 1988). A map of Lake Naivasha is illustrated in Foster and Harper
(2006a), while a map of the rivers flowing into the lake is illustrated in Barnard
and Biggs (1988).
Although P. clarkii had colonized the entire area of Lake Naivasha by 1977
(Oluoch 1990), it was only recorded from the lower reaches of the Rivers Gilgil
and Malewa flowing into Lake Naivasha since 1999 (Foster and Harper 2006b).
There is also anecdotal evidence that the crayfish has been introduced to ponds
in the Malewa catchment to control leeches which feed on livestock and horses
(S. Higgins 2003, personal communication). In October 2005, P. clarkii and
guppies were recorded at the Njunu Springs at an altitude of about 2,300 m at
Lake Ol Bolossat near Nyahururu in the Aberdare Mountains (www.nature-
kenya.org 2006). Lake Ol Bolossat and its adjacent swamps (in the headwaters
of the Ewaso Narok which joins the Ewaso Ng’iro North River) have no
indigenous fish species.
Since 1974, P. clarkii has been recorded from the Athi/Galana river system
which flows into the Indian Ocean in Kenya (Lowery and Mendes 1977, Nairobi
Museum records) and was common in the Karen Pools in the suburbs of Nairobi
in 1973 (Nairobi Museum Records). It is established in the Nairobi River (K. M.
Mavuti, Nairobi University, 2003, personal communication) and in the Ewaso
Ng’iro river system flowing off Mount Kenya to the swamps of the arid zones of
northern Kenya (Lowery and Mendes 1977). Procambarus clarkii has been
introduced into various farm dams and into various ditches, streams, and rivers
draining these dams across Kenya (Lowery and Mendes 1977). The species is
also present in some small high altitude tropical man-made reservoirs in the
Kenyan Eastern Rift Valley (Mwaura et al. 2002), including Gathanje reservoir
which has a fairly reliable fishery for it (Mwaura 2006).
Prior to 1977, P. clarkii was introduced into the catchment area of the Nzoia
River draining to Lake Victoria from north-west Kenya (Lowery and Mendes
1977). In 1991, the species was recorded in abundance at Eldoret on the Eldoret
river system by Mr M. D. MacDonald (Nairobi Museum records) who noted:
This exotic was abundant in the rivers. While looking for amphibians there I saw one
hundred or so. Earlier whilst looking for Charmaeles ellioti some boys passed by and asked
me if I’d like to see some scorpions from the river. I told them scorpions didn’t live in the
river. It was only later that I realised that they had been referring to the crayfish.
The River Eldoret also flows into Lake Victoria from north-west Kenya.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SCHISTOSOMIASIS AND ANOPHELINE

MOSQUITOES BY CRAYFISH
Procambarus clarkii has been deliberately introduced to certain aquatic locations in

Kenya to combat the debilitating parasitic disease schistosomiasis by eating the
parasite’s snail vector (Mkoji et al. 1992); it may, in any event, inadvertently
control schistosomiasis if it colonizes a schistosomiasis infected water body. Under
certain environmental conditions, P. clarkii exerts a significant impact on the
transmission of human schistosomiasis at locations in Kenya (Mkoji et al. 1999a).
Laboratory studies have indicated that P. clarkii has the ability to consume
the aquatic life stages of the malaria-carrying anopheline mosquitoes and may
therefore cause decreases in pathogen-transmitting mosquito populations in

areas of Kenya where it has become established (Mkoji et al. 1999b). Thus
there may be an incentive to introduce P. clarkii to those areas of Africa where
schistosomiasis is endemic (such as the Sudan) in order to attempt to combat
the debilitating parasitic disease in the human population. However, Lodge
et al. (2005) noted that P. clarkii reduced populations of slow moving benthic
invertebrates including snails, chironomid larvae, and oligochaetes in labora-
tory mesocosms and that water lilies disappeared from a pond that P. clarkii
were introduced to. They state that, given the large impacts of freshwater
crayfish on indigenous aquatic invertebrate and macrophyte communities,
promotion of P. clarkii as a biological control agent should not proceed without
additional assessment of the risks posed to indigenous African biota including
fish. They conclude that, if freshwater crayfish colonized the large natural lakes
of East Africa, globally important freshwater biodiversity resources might be
at risk.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF PROCAMBARUS CLARKII
The ecological, economic, and social effects of the impacts of invasive species on
waters and wetlands can be dramatic. Two classic examples of this are the well
documented colonization of Lake Victoria by the exotic floating weed water
hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Howard and Matindi 2003) and the
deliberately introduced Nile perch Lates niloticus Linnaeus.
Some non-indigenous crayfish can profoundly impact aquatic ecosystems
(Hobbs et al. 1989, Holdich 1999, Lodge and Hill 1994, Chapter 28) and can
affect the dynamics and biodiversity of the invaded community (Gherardi and
Holdich 1999); such impacts may be negative and ecologically disastrous in the
long term. These effects may include displacement of indigenous crab (Foster
and Harper 2006b) and crayfish species. There may also be transfer of disease;
consumption of fish eggs, large quantities of aquatic macroinvertebrates and
macrophytes; damage to production in rice fields by eating rice shoots and
burrowing into the banks; displacement of amphibians and possible physical
damage to irrigation structures and banks of rivers and lakes by burrowing
crayfish species (Holdich 1999). The Kenyan rice growing agricultural sector
may be impacted by the spread of P. clarkii and its burrowing behaviour may
also cause adverse impacts within the country.
There is an inverse relationship between P. clarkii abundance and the distri-
bution and abundance of floating leaved and submerged aquatic plants in Lake
Naivasha (Harper et al. 2002) as well as a ‘special’ relationship between water
hyacinth E. crassipes and P. clarkii (Foster and Harper 2006a). Procambarus
clarkii has been observed at densities in excess of 500 m 2 (juveniles and adults)
in floating water hyacinth mats on Lake Naivasha (Harper et al. 2002). It is
likely that these water hyacinth mats, which normally fringe the papyrus reeds
at the edge of the lake, play an important role in P. clarkii recruitment and
population dynamics. Water hyacinth mats were abundant in the littoral zone
in 1999 as were P. clarkii. In 2001 and 2002, the water hyacinth mats were
extensively damaged by an non-indigenous coleopteran, Cyrtobagus eichhorniae
(Warner), which had been introduced as a biological control agent for
E. crassipes in 1995 (Harper and Mavuti 2004). Throughout 2001 and 2002,
adult C. eichhorniae were found in E. crassipes. The destruction and lack of
recovery of the water hyacinth mats, coupled with their importance to P. clarkii
recruitment may explain a P. clarkii population crash which occurred concur-
rently in Lake Naivasha (Foster and Harper 2006a).
The related dynamics of P. clarkii, floating leaved, and submerged aquatic
plants (notably the invasive E. crassipes which is abundant about the periphery
of Lake Victoria) may follow similar patterns to those observed in Lake Naivasha
if P. clarkii establishes itself in Lake Victoria or other East African lakes.
Periodic fluctuations in P. clarkii populations in Lake Naivasha may also
be related to periodic droughts which decimate key littoral habitat along the
lake shore (Foster and Harper 2006a) and floods which induce breeding in
P. clarkii. The droughts and floods are related to the ‘El Niño’ event and afflict
the East African highlands on a regular basis (Vincent et al. 1979, Hay et al.
2002).
The indigenous freshwater crab Potamonautes loveni (Colosi) was recorded
in the Rivers Gilgil and Malewa flowing into Lake Naivasha in the 1980s
(Barnard and Biggs 1988). In field studies from 1999 to 2003, P. loveni was
only recorded in these rivers in the absence of the invasive P. clarkii (Foster and
Harper 2006b). It may be that P. clarkii is eliminating P. loveni through some
mechanism when contact occurs. The possible impact of the non-indigenous
crayfish P. clarkii on indigenous freshwater crabs has worrying implications
for freshwaters in the rest of Kenya and in the Lake Victoria catchment where
P. clarkii has been introduced and where there were or are populations of
indigenous freshwater crabs, some of the species of which are still ‘‘new to
science’’.
The African clawless otter, Aonyx capensis (Davis), occurs in Kenya and in the
Lake Victoria catchment and will feed on both non-indigenous crayfish and
indigenous freshwater crabs. Procambarus clarkii has been observed in abundance
in the spraints of the African clawless otter at Lake Naivasha (J. Foster 1999,
personal observation). Interactions between the African clawless otter, crayfish,
and freshwater crabs in the Ewaso Ng’iro river system, Kenya have been studied
by Ogada (2006). Crayfish have supplanted the indigenous freshwater crabs in
the Ewaso Ng’iro river system. The crayfish are the primary food source of the
African clawless otter, but this resource varies seasonally due to the increased
exposure of crayfish to other predators such as baboons, genets, herons, and
monitor lizards. A stable prey for the African clawless otters (freshwater crabs)
has been replaced by an unstable prey (crayfish). This is leading to seasonal
variation in otter behaviour and a predicted local extinction of otters. A similar
situation is likely to exist in respect of the marsh mongoose, Atilax paludinosus

(Cuvier). Low ambient water temperature may be a limiting factor on the spread
of P. clarkii in the high altitude mountainous areas of East Africa.
Procambarus clarkii may have other impacts on river and lake ecology in East
Africa, including likely undocumented impacts on aquatic invertebrates. It is
exposed to a range of predator types such as aquatic invertebrates, predatory
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, and will interact with them
(Foster and Slater 1995). Procambarus clarkii is an important component of the
diet of American largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède), in Lake
Naivasha and it is also fed upon by cormorants, fish eagles, wading birds such as
ibises, and mammals such as the marsh mongoose (Harper et al. 2002). Crayfish
can have effects on food webs by direct and indirect trophic effects (Nyström
2002).
IMPACT ON COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
Procambarus clarkii detrimentally affected established commercial finfish fisher-

ies in Lake Naivasha by attacking fish caught in commercial nets and damaging
the nets by entangling their bodies in the mesh of the nets (Lowery and Mendes
1977). This scenario may be repeated in respect of the substantial commercial
finfish fisheries of Lake Victoria, if or when P. clarkii becomes established there.
It has been demonstrated that P. clarkii may out-compete tilapia for food, at least
under experimental conditions (Brummett and Alon 1994) and significant
potentially adverse impacts may occur in the two lakes.
Procambarus clarkii can form the basis of substantial new commercial fisheries
in its own right, as has been the case at Lake Naivasha since 1975, and may
become the case at Lake Victoria. Catches of several hundred tonnes per annum
of P. clarkii were exported live, mainly to Europe (predominantly Sweden and
Germany) until 1981 when catches peaked at 500 tonnes or about 19 million
adult crayfish. Then, the European Union imposed a temporary ban on the
import of live crayfish from Kenya due to fears concerning an outbreak of
‘cholera’ in East Africa (Foster et al. 2001).
This led to a collapse of the Lake Naivasha commercial crayfish fishery and
bankruptcy for some of the businesses involved. The internal Kenyan market for
crayfish is small and mainly limited to tourist outlets in the Naivasha and
Nairobi areas and some local consumption in the Naivasha area. Since 1981
catches have been well below observed potential maximum sustainable yields,
averaging about 20–60 tonnes per annum or about 0.75–2.25 million adult
crayfish per annum (Foster et al. 2001).
Despite this, efforts to establish commercial crayfish fisheries in Kenya have
been hampered by the fact that many Kenyans do not eat crayfish, nor do they
have economic or technical means to catch or export them properly (Mikkola
1996).
CONCLUSIONS
Procambarus clarkii is now abundant in freshwater bodies across Kenya and also
occurs in Uganda. It has impacted the aquatic ecology of those waters and it
may eliminate indigenous African freshwater crabs when it comes into compe-
tition with them. It supports a variable commercial fishery on Lake Naivasha
but does not seem to be exploited elsewhere in Kenya. It has been used, with
some success, as a biological control agent for the parasitic disease, schistosom-
iasis, in Kenya.
The crayfish has been recorded from the Nzoia and Eldoret rivers draining to
Lake Victoria from north-west Kenya (Lowery and Mendes 1977, Nairobi
Museum records) and it may already have escaped into Lake Victoria from
ponds at Kajjansi, Uganda (W. Daniels 2006, personal communication) The
colonization routes for P. clarkii into Lake Victoria clearly exist. Lake Victoria
may be subject to ecological perturbations and changes to its fisheries associated
with colonization by P. clarkii in the foreseeable future. The pattern and effects
of colonization of Lake Victoria by P. clarkii may be similar to that observed in
Lake Naivasha since 1970.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is part of a wider research project at Naivasha undertaken by

the Universities of Leicester, UK, and of Nairobi, Kenya. We are grateful to the
Office of the President of the Government of Kenya for permission to under-
take research. We wish to thank the Earthwatch Volunteers for their invaluable
assistance in survey work and the Nairobi Museum for permission to examine
their crustacean collection. The views expressed are those of the authors and
are not necessarily those of their parent organisations or employers.
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Chapter five
Non-indigenous freshwater
molluscs and their
distribution in Italy
Simone Cianfanelli, Elisabetta Lori, and Marco Bodon
INTRODUCTION
Since the second half of the 19th century, there have been reports of the
presence of non-indigenous freshwater molluscs in Italy, though they were
not yet recognized as ‘‘alien’’. Most species of molluscs were introduced into
Italy more recently, in the second half of the 20th century, as the result of the
development of commercial routes and the intensification of intercontinental
traffic (Fig. 1). A complete list of non-indigenous freshwater mollusc species was
not published until recently (Cianfanelli et al. 2007), though certain species
were already considered ‘‘alien’’ in the ‘‘Checklist delle specie della fauna
italiana’’ (Bodon et al. 1995, 2005a, 2005b; Castagnolo 1995; Manganelli
et al. 1995, 1998) and in other articles (Lori et al. 2005). Eleven species of
non-indigenous freshwater molluscs, differing in invasiveness (Fig. 2), are cur-
rently known (Table 1). Using data from the literature and unpublished records
from field research, we created a data bank that enabled mapping of the
distribution of non-indigenous molluscs. To show collection sites, UTM maps
(10 km grid) were used (Fig. 3a–h, Fig. 4a–d).
Invasiveness varies widely between mollusc species and depends on their
biology, vectors, availability of ecological niches, compatibility with new habi-
tats, and habitat integrity. It is almost impossible to eradicate invasive species
once they have successfully colonized a new environment. The best defence is
therefore prevention (Genovesi and Shine 2004). Our aim here is to contribute
103
ß 2007 Springer.
104 Simone Cianfanelli et al.
Fig. 1 Temporal trend in the number of non-indigenous freshwater mollusc species

introduced into Italy. Dates for each species denote the year of the first published report of
their occurrence.
to the knowledge of the Italian status and to suggest measures to prevent the
spread of the non-indigenous malacofauna.
NON-INDIGENOUS MOLLUSCS: STATE-OF-THE-ART
Some non-indigenous species (NIS), such as Melanoides tuberculata (O. F. Müller)

and Helisoma duryi (Wetherby), propagate slowly but their impact on the
ecosystem is only apparently negligible. Though these two species have been
reported in Italy for at least 10 years, their distribution still seems to be limited.
Their low invasiveness is probably due to environmental factors that prevent
their spread (Fig. 2).
Melanoides tuberculata is a large prosobranch (shell length up to about 5 cm)
from tropical and subtropical regions, introduced by the popularity of aquaria.
Found for the first time in Italy in 1984 in the marshes of Comacchio, its
distribution is currently limited to four sites in northern and central Italy
(Bodon et al. 1995, 2005b). In southern Tuscany (Fig. 3a), its high population
density (S. Cianfanelli, E. Lori, and M. Bodon 2005), that also derives from its
parthenogenetic mode of reproduction, is a threat for the Italian endemic
Melanopsis etrusca Brot, a species whose distribution is limited to a few sites
(Cianfanelli et al. 1991, Bodon et al. 2005b) particularly in hot springs (Man-
ganelli et al. 2000). The already critical status of M. etrusca is expected
to deteriorate irreversibly due to the competition with the NIS. Melanopsis
Non-indigenous freshwater molluscs in Italy 105
Fig. 2 Number of Italian regions in which non-indigenous freshwater molluscs are

present. The species, reported in chronological order of finding (top of columns), are
divided into four groups showing their current state of invasiveness in Italy (invasive, i.e.
NIS spreading from the point of introduction and becoming abundant; invasive but
introduced recently, i.e. from 1990 to 2000; relatively non-invasive; introduced very
recently, i.e. after 2000).
tuberculata has been reported in nine other European countries (Austria, France,
Germany, Hungary, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Slovak Republic, and Spain
including Canary Islands; Falkner et al. 2001, Girardi 2003, Piechocki et al.
2003, Bank 2005).
Helisoma duryi is a medium-sized pulmonate with planospiral shell (maximum
diameter: about 2.5 cm) from North America, first found in Italy in 1988 in the
Lake of Albano (Giusti et al. 1995, Manganelli et al. 1995, Alexandrowicz 2003,
Mienis 2004b). Today it is known in five sites between Liguria, Apulia, and
Sicily (Fig. 3g). Its presence is caused by release of aquarium specimens or
introduction of fish.
The North American Helisoma anceps (Menke), another planorbid (maximum
diameter of the shell: about 2 cm) similar to H. duryi, has been reported in Italy
(Fig. 3f). Considered congeneric with H. duryi (both are sometimes attributed to
the genus Planorbella Haldeman), it was identified in 1963 in a single site in
Tuscany, the River Frigido (Henrard 1968) (the snail reported by Zettler and
Table 1 List of freshwater molluscs introduced into Italy, with the date of the first collection in Italy, references to the published report
106
of their occurrence, and Italian regions where it occurs today.
Freshwater non-indigenous first first published

molluscs in italy collection report Current distribution
Melanoides tuberculata (O.F. Müller) 1984 Bodon et al. 1995 Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Latium
Potamopyrgus antipodarum ( J.E. Gray) 1961 Berner 1963 Piedmont, Aosta Valley, Lombardy, Trentino-Alto Adige,
Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Emilia-Romagna, Liguria,
Tuscany, Umbria, Marches, Latium, Abruzzo, Molise,
Campania, Apulia, Calabria, Sicily
Haitia acuta (Draparnaud) 1866 or Issel 1866 (as Physa Piedmont, Aosta Valley, Lombardy, Trentino-Alto Adige,
before pisana) Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Emilia-Romagna, Liguria,
Tuscany, Umbria, Marches, Latium, Abruzzo, Molise,
Campania, Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily, Sardinia
Pseudosuccinea columella (Say) 2004 This paper Liguria
Gyraulus (Gyraulus) chinensis 1983 or Meier-Brook 1983 Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Liguria,
(Dunker) before Tuscany, Umbria, Molise, Calabria
Helisoma duryi (Wetherby) 1988 Giusti et al. 1995; Liguria, Tuscany, Latium, Apulia, Sicily
Simone Cianfanelli et al.
Manganelli et al. 1995

Ferrissia wautieri (Mirolli) 1959 Mirolli 1960 Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Liguria,
Tuscany, Umbria, Latium, Campania, Apulia, Sardinia
Anodonta woodiana (Lea) 1996 Manganelli et al. 1998 Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany,
Umbria, Marches, Latium
Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) 1970 Giusti and Oppi 1973 Piedmont, Lombardy, Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto,
Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, Umbria, Molise
Corbicula fluminalis (O.F. Müller) 2004 Lori et al. 2005 Trentino-Alto Adige
Corbicula fluminea (O.F. Müller) 1998 Fabbri and Landi 1999 Piedmont, Lombardy, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna
Fig. 3 Distribution and shell of: a – Melanoides tuberculata, b – Potamopyrgus antipo-

darum, c – Haitia acuta, d – Pseudosuccinea columella, e – Gyraulus chinensis, f – Helisoma
anceps, g – Helisoma duryi, h – Ferrissia wautieri.
Fig. 4 Distribution and shell of: a – Anodonta woodiana, b – Dreissena polymorpha; the
picture with specimens on Microcondylaea compressa suggests the damage that D. poly-
morpha can cause when settled on unionids, c – Corbicula fluminalis, d – Corbicula
fluminea.
Richard 2003 from Siracusa was actually H. duryi). The fact that its determi-
nation has not been verified and its current absence from the site originally
reported made it impossible to include this species in the present list. Unlike the
congeneric H. duryi, which is found in 13 European countries (Austria,
Denmark, France including Corsica, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia,
Malta, Poland, Portugal [only Madeira], Spain including Balearic Islands and
Canary Islands, and United Kingdom; Giusti et al. 1995, Vimpère 2004, Bank
2005, Greke 2005), H. anceps has been reported from natural environments
only in Italy and very recently from Lake Prespa (Albania, Greece, Macedonia;
Eröss et al. 2005).
The pulmonate Pseudosuccinea columella (Say) and the bivalve Corbicula flumi-
nalis (O. F. Müller) have only recently been reported in Italy, whereas two other
bivalves, Corbicula fluminea (O.F. Müller) and Anodonta woodiana (Lea) (assigned
by some authors to the genus Sinanodonta Modell), have been known for about
10 years (Fig. 2). To judge by their success in other countries, the latest two
seem to be invasive (Malavasi et al. 1999, Hubenov 2001, Mienis 2004a). This
is confirmed by their rapid spreading in Italy into many degraded environments
in the north: if not contained, they are expected to spread further.
Pseudosuccinea columella has a fusiform shell of medium size (height up to
about 2 cm) and comes from North America (Zilch 1959). It has been intro-
duced into many European countries: Austria, Greece, Hungary, Spain includ-
ing Balearic and Canary Islands, and Switzerland (Turner et al. 1998, Falkner
et al. 2001, Anderson 2004, Reischütz and Reischütz 2004, Bank 2005). In
Italy, it was recorded for the first time in 2004 in a single site in Liguria
(Hanbury Botanical Gardens, Ventimiglia; Fig. 3d). Since the site was a botanic
garden, introduction was presumably associated to the importation of orna-
mental aquatic plants. The species has a rather limited distribution in Europe so
far, probably due to unfavourable environmental conditions. In fact, in warmer
climates it is known to spread rapidly and is now present in many other
countries of the new world, as well as in Australia (Smith and Stanisic 2006),
Cuba (Gutiérrez et al. 2001), and Hawaii (Cowie 1998).
Corbicula fluminalis is a medium-sized bivalve (valves up to about 2.5 cm long)
from South Asia, reported in Italy for the first and only time in 2004 (Lori et al.
2005) in the lake at the Passo di Lavazzè (Cavalese, Trentino) (Fig. 4c). The
limited European spread suggests that it is less invasive than the congeneric
C. fluminea. However, it has also been reported from eight other European coun-
tries (Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal,
and Switzerland; Swinnen et al. 1998, Turner et al. 1998, Csányi 1999, Falkner
et al. 2001, Araujo 2005), though some of these reports are dubious because of
the somewhat uncertain identity of the European populations.
Corbicula fluminea is similar to the latter in form and size (valves up to about
2 cm long); it is native to the south-eastern Asia and now widespread in
many European countries (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France,
Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Spain,
Switzerland, and United Kingdom) and in other continents (North, Central and
South America, and Hawaii) (Mouthon 1981, Mienis 1991, Swinnen et al.
1998, Turner et al. 1998, Csányi 1999, Beran 2000, Bij de Vaate and Hulea
2000, Falkner et al. 2001, Hubenov 2001, Vanden Bossche 2002, Chevallier
2003, Cadée and Soes 2004, Teodósio et al. 2004, Van Peursen 2004, Araujo
2005). First found in Italy in 1998 (Fabbri and Landi 1999), today it is present
in various sites in the Po basin, northern Italy (Malavasi et al. 1999, Nardi and
Braccia 2004, Bodon et al. 2005a; Fig. 4d). It is expected to spread further along
rivers, since in a few years it has appeared with large established populations in
many places where it was previously unknown.
Among the species recently introduced into Italy, A. woodiana is the largest
freshwater bivalve (valve length of up to about 30 cm) and the fastest spread-
ing. Indeed, since the first report in 1996, it has colonized eight Italian regions,
mainly the hydrographic basins of the Po, Adige, Piave, Reno, Arno, and Tiber
rivers (Manganelli et al. 1998, Bodon et al. 2005a, Solustri and Nardi 2006;
Fig. 4a). This rapid spread suggests that there will be population explosions in
many parts of northern and central Italy. Originally from East Asia, A. woodiana
is now found in 14 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech
Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak
Republic, Slovenia, and Ukraine (Petró 1984, Sárkány-Kiss 1986, Girardi and
Ledoux 1989, Guelmino 1992, Protasov et al. 1994, Košel 1995, Beran 1997,
Reischütz and Reischütz 2000, Tappenbeck 2000, Yurishinets and Korniushin
2001, Sablon 2002, Albrecht et al. 2006, Hubenov 2006). Indiscriminate
introductions of fish seem to be the main causes of its dispersal. The larval
forms (glochidia) of this species, like all the unionids, are parasites of fish gills
and the mollusc is therefore introduced together with fish restocking. Anodonta
woodiana could seriously threaten the survival of populations of some indi-
genous unionids, already threatened by pollution, excessive water intake, and
cementification of river banks. Competition with other indigenous species,
especially other Anodonta, some populations of which are already showing
disquieting signs of rarefaction (Fabbri and Landi 1999, Niero 2003), has
been observed. Recent reports of other NIS of Anodonta in Italy (Cisotto 2003)
have to be attributed to A. woodiana.
Other NIS with a large distribution in Italy and found in many collecting
sites include: Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray), Haitia acuta (Draparnaud),
Gyraulus (Gyraulus) chinensis (Dunker), Ferrissia wautieri (Mirolli), and Dreissena
polymorpha (Pallas) (Fig. 2).
Potamopyrgus antipodarum is a prosobranch gastropod with small conical shell
(height of up to about 7 mm), introduced into Europe from New Zealand at
the end of the 19th century. It was first reported in Italy in 1961 (Berner 1963)
and in about 40 years it has colonized all regions except Sardinia (Favilli et al.
1998, Bodon et al. 2005b; Fig. 3b). Various factors, such as euryoeciousness,
parthenogenetic reproduction, dispersal with fish restocking, and transport
during monitoring of water courses, have facilitated its fast spread. Population
densities of up to 800,000 m2 have been reported (Adam 1942, Lucas 1959,
Réal 1973, Falniowski 1987). It may cause the disappearance of other fresh-
water molluscs (Doby et al. 1966, Berner 1971, Albaret et al. 1981, Hershler
et al. 1994). In Europe, it is the most widespread non-indigenous prosobranch
species; only Iceland and some eastern countries (Albania, Bulgaria, and Former
Yugoslavia; Grossu 1986, Fischer 1994, Falkner et al. 2001, Bank 2005) have
escaped invasion. However, in the latter countries, presumed absence could be
due to a lack of recent field observations.
Haitia acuta, a basommatophoran pulmonate with medium-sized, sinistral,
ovate shell (height of up to about 17 mm), is common and abundant in lotic
and lentic environments. It was introduced into Europe from North America
(Taylor 2003); its first report in Italy dates back to Issel (1866), who described it
as Physa pisana. Perusal of historical malacological collections demonstrates
that its introduction was one of the causes of the gradual rarefaction of the
indigenous basommatophore Physa fontinalis (Linnaeus) (Manganelli et al.
2000). For example, the malacological collection of the Museum of Natural
History of Florence includes many shells of P. fontinalis collected since 1857
from areas where the species now no longer exists; after 1868, the first shells of
H. acuta appeared, becoming increasingly numerous and from many parts of
Italy. Haitia acuta is currently present in all 20 Italian regions, including highly
polluted water bodies, often forming large populations (Feliksiak 1939, Saraceni
1971, Moretti et al. 1979, Melone 1981; Fig. 3c). In Europe, it is found almost
everywhere, except in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Finland, Iceland, Norway,
Yugoslavia, and Baltic countries except Lithuania (Feliksiak 1939, Falkner
et al. 2001, Velkovrh 2001, Anderson 2003, 2005, Lobato Paraense and
Pointier 2003, Bank 2005, Kantor and Sysoev 2005, Zettler et al. 2005).
Absence from certain countries may be due to lack of recent data and lack of
careful field observations.
Gyraulus chinensis is a basommatophoran pulmonate with small planospiral
shell (max. diameter: about 5 mm) native to Asia. First reported in Italy by
Meier-Brook (1983), it has found a congenial environment in rice fields. It has
colonized north-western Italy where rice is cultivated intensively (Fig. 3e).
Its spread could be however underestimated because of its small size and its
similarity with some congeneres. In Europe, it has also been reported in Austria,
France, Germany, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain (Falkner et al. 2001,
Albuquerque de Matos 2004, Bank 2005).
Ferrissia wautieri is a small basommatophoran pulmonate with limpet-like
shell (length of up to about 4 mm), now widespread in much of Italy, with
populations that apparently do not cause impact to the environment. Its distri-
bution could be underestimated because its small size and mimesis make it
elusive. Hubendick (1972) suspects it to be a NIS accidentally introduced into
Italy, whereas Falkner et al. (2002) consider it cryptogenic. Ferrissia wautieri
is nevertheless an entity that has not yet been classified definitively. Some
authors proposed Ferrissia clessiniana ( Jickeli) as a senior synonym of F. wautieri
(Hubendick 1970, Falkner et al. 2002), while others used the synonym F. fragilis
(Tryon) for some East European populations (Walther et al. 2006). We prefer
conserving the name given by Mirolli, due to persisting doubts about the
identity of southern European populations. Identified for the first time in Italy
in 1959 from the lake of Mergozzo and in an aquarium supplied with water
from Lake Maggiore (Mirolli 1960), its distribution includes 10 continental
regions of Italy and Sardinia (Girod et al. 1974, Castagnolo et al. 1982, Talenti
and Cianfanelli 1989, Baldaccini and Papasogli 1990, Ferreri 1995, Manganelli
et al. 1995; Fig. 3h). It is frequent in lentic waters, often in contaminated,
dystrophic conditions. Its distribution includes other 20 European countries
(Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France including Corsica,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Ro-
mania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain including Balearic Islands, Switzerland,
Ukraine, and United Kingdom; Grossu 1987, Dhora and Welter-Schultes 1996,
Falkner and Proschwitz 1998, Hubenov 1998, Falkner et al. 2001, Anderson
2004, Bank 2005).
Dreissena polymorpha is a medium-sized bivalve with mytiloid shell (valve
length of up to about 4 cm) and with free larvae (veliger), of Ponto-Caspian
origin. It was first reported in Italy in 1970 in Lake Garda (Franchini 1976),
where it was almost certainly transported attached to the hulls of boats from
Germany (Giusti and Oppi 1973). It has so far been reported from 8 Italian
regions in 14 natural lakes, 6 artificial lakes, and 2 coastal wetlands (marshes of
Comacchio and Sacca del Canarin), where its colonization is only marginal
(Bodon et al. 2005a, Cianfanelli et al. 2007; Fig. 4b). It has already been
monitored in 21 natural and artificial riverine water courses, almost always
downstream of lentic environments. Most of the collection sites are in the north
(42 water bodies) and those in central Italy (5 water bodies) are limited to
Tuscany (Florence and Pistoia; Lori and Cianfanelli 2006), Umbria (Perugia),
and Molise (Campobasso). It is present in four northern hydrographic basins
(Po, Adige, Brenta, and Reno) and three in central Italy (Arno, Tiber, and
Biferno), but occupies vast areas only in the Po basin. The altitude of collecting
sites is between sea level and 842 m; sites above 500 m are almost all artificial
or artificially regulated lakes. Because of its invasiveness, the high economic
costs inflicted to several European countries and to the USA, and its property of
bioindicator (it accumulates and transfers micro-contaminants such as DDT,
heavy metals, PCBs, and other xenobiotics: Camusso et al. 2001, Binelli et al.
2004, Ricciardi et al. 2004), D. polymorpha is the most widely studied and
monitored non-indigenous mollusc. The chronology of its colonization of Italy
has been reconstructed from a number of reports (Cianfanelli et al. 2007): it
took 7 years for this species to conquer the hydrological network from Lake
Garda to the mouth of the Po and 30 years to populate nearly all of the lower Po
plain. In a few years, D. polymorpha will certainly spread to the Venetian part of
the same plain, especially the basins of the Adige and Brenta rivers. As in the
case of other particularly invasive species, future measures can only hope to
control and contain this expansion. The situation for central and southern Italy
is different, because there seems to be still time to act with success. The spread of
Dreissena in the rest of Italy could be prevented if correct plans of intervention

are adopted, and measures to avoid new introductions and possibly to eradicate
small populations are implemented. The species is found everywhere in Europe
except Cyprus, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, and Former Yugoslavia except
Macedonia (Zhadin 1952, Ghenciu et al. 1980, Maassen 1980, Milkov 1983,
Lyakhnovich et al. 1982, Brezeanu et al. 1986, Dhora and Welter-Schultes
1996, Hubenov 1998, Falkner et al. 2001, Korniushin et al. 2002, Araujo
2005, Kantor and Sysoev 2005).
CONCLUSIONS
In most cases, introductions of NIS are caused by man. They are nearly always
accidental, though there are some significant examples of introductions related
to commercial activity. This is the case of A. woodiana, introduced into Tuscany
not only unintentionally but also specifically for the production of artificial
pearls (Berni et al. 2004).
Measures to prevent deliberate introduction would be easy to develop case by
case, though local entrepreneurs and maximization of profits may be at odds
with correct management of the fauna. Measures to prevent accidental intro-
ductions seem, on the contrary, more difficult to be taken. Molluscs are largely
introduced through practices related to fish management and aquaria. First,
molluscs are introduced as temporary parasites of fish or as occasional guests of
containers for fish transport. It is therefore necessary to avoid introducing fish
from infested environments and prudentially also those from different hydro-
graphic basins. Second, molluscs are introduced into the natural environment
when aquaria are emptied. In aquaria, they are often raised as living filters (e.g.
bivalves such as Anodonta spp.) or as cleaners of algae growing on the aquarium
walls that gastropods, such as M. tuberculata and Helisoma spp., scrape with
their radula. Their spread into nearby environments may be rapid and may be
aided by natural factors. For example, it seems that specimens of P. antipodarum
and D. polymorpha ingested by birds or fish may go through the digestive tract
unharmed and are excreted elsewhere, or they may be transported in mud on
the feet or feathers of migratory birds (Haynes et al. 1985). Prevention is also
difficult in the case of introductions related to plant nurseries (P. columella) and
farming (G. chinensis), and dispersal may be rapid.
Another means of mollusc species dispersal is the lack of precise criteria for
the analysis of water. In order to limit further damage to the aquatic ecosystems
it is important to take all precautions to limit the spread of any NIS to other
hydrographic basins. Water body management should involve all possible
measures to avoid accidental introductions into uncolonized environments. It
is therefore necessary to avoid simultaneous monitoring of networks that
include infested and uninfested waters. Alternatively, measures should be
taken to prevent contamination, such as disinfection of equipment and personal
articles that come into contact with the waters or with the substrate (nets,
sampling instruments, boots), before entering other waters for monitoring
purposes. With regard to species considered good bioindicators or useful indi-
cators for monitoring water quality, such as D. polymorpha, all types of intro-
duction into adjacent environments should be avoided, including those for
study purposes. The only exception would be for environments already infested
with populations coming from the same water body. Transport of specimens of
NIS from a colonized basin may also be due to vectors such as recreational
boats. The practice of checking equipment and hulls is a rule that may lead to
positive effects (Minchin et al. 2002).
Protection of the biodiversity of indigenous species thus depends primarily on
careful precautions to prevent introduction of NIS and secondarily on efforts
to block their spread. Specific laws, kept up to date, are therefore necessary to
ensure and regulate conservation and detailed control. Most of all, an informa-
tion campaign should be directed to those who manage and enjoy water, at all
levels.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Folco Giusti and Giuseppe Manganelli for bibliographical research

and many helpful comments to improve this paper. We also thank Saulo Bambi
for technical assistance and Helen Ampt for the translation. This research was
partly financed by the University of Siena and by the Museum of Natural
History, Zoological Section ‘‘La Specola’’, University of Florence (Italy).
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Chapter six
Non-indigenous animal
species naturalized in
Iberian inland waters
Emili Garcı́a-Berthou, Dani Boix, and Miguel Clavero
INTRODUCTION
Invasions by human-introduced non-indigenous species (NIS) are one of the

main threats to biodiversity and a driving force of global change (Vitousek et al.
1997, Mack et al. 2000, Clavero and Garcı́a-Berthou 2005). The Iberian
Peninsula (IP) is a hotspot of biodiversity (Médail and Quézel 1999) and a
knowledge of the invasive species inhabiting it is essential for conservation
and environmental management. Naturalized vertebrates and plants in the IP
have received considerable attention (see e.g. Vilà et al. 2001, Pleguezuelos
2002, Sobrino et al. 2002, Lloret et al. 2004, Alcaraz et al. 2005), but its
invasive invertebrates are very poorly known. Although there are many records
of some invertebrate invasive species, particularly crustaceans, there are very
few available reviews of selected taxa of invertebrate invaders in the IP (e.g.
Espadaler and Collingwood 2001). The aim of this chapter is to review the
animal species naturalized in Iberian inland waters, including vertebrates and
free-living and parasitic invertebrates. As usual, the taxonomy and biogeog-
raphy of vertebrate species are much better known than for invertebrates, so
our data for invertebrates should be regarded as a preliminary check-list.
Similarly, the parasites of non-commercial aquatic species are poorly studied
and the data in the IP mostly come from studies of the eel, Anguilla anguilla
(Linnaeus), thus certainly underestimating the range of introduced parasites
(Blanc 1997, 2001). We feel, however, that it is important to provide such a
123
ß 2007 Springer.
124 Emili Garcı́a-Berthou et al.
first check-list because many of the invertebrates involved are nowadays com-
mon in the IP and for many of them it is largely unknown even by biologists
that they are not indigenous to the IP. Increasing the awareness on the
introduced status and current distribution of these species is essential to reduce
their spread and impact.
We compiled animal species cited (by March 2006) as currently naturalized
in Iberian inland waters from the scientific literature and unpublished Spanish
Ph.D. theses (http://teseo.mec.es/teseo/). We included species from estuaries
and saline coastal lagoons but excluded purely marine taxa and terrestrial
animal species not strictly linked to aquatic ecosystems. We list invertebrate
and vertebrate species introduced by humans and currently naturalized, i.e.
species that reproduce and sustain populations in the wild without human
intervention (see e.g. Richardson et al. 2000, Pyšek et al. 2004). A few uncer-
tain cases are listed in a separate table. The introduced origin of parasite
invertebrates is particularly uncertain but we followed Blanc (1997, 2001),
who has recently provided a comprehensive list of aquatic parasites introduced
to Europe, together with their native distribution.
NATURALIZED ANIMALS IN IBERIAN INLAND WATERS
The invertebrate and vertebrate species naturalized in Iberian inland waters are
listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. A few cases, for which it is not clear
whether the species is indigenous to the IP or whether they have established,
are listed in Table 3. We found 45 invertebrate and 28 vertebrate species
certainly naturalized at present in Iberian inland waters.
Among the 45 invertebrates, 12 were parasites (mostly Platyhelminthes
flatworms), mainly of freshwater fish and introduced to Europe from Asia
with common carp (Cyprinus carpio), goldfish (Carassius auratus), or Japanese
eel (Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel) (see Blanc 1997, 2001); several
of the parasites have now been recorded on fish species indigenous or endemic
to the IP (see references in Table 1). The remaining 33 invertebrates were
free-living species, mostly crustaceans (18 species) or molluscs (6 species).
Most of the 28 vertebrates were fish (23 species), and there was no aquatic
bird naturalized and only one amphibian and one reptilian species.
The continent of origin was significantly different between vertebrates and
invertebrates (independence test; x 2 ¼ 37:1, df ¼ 7, P < 0.0005) because most
naturalized vertebrates were native to the rest of Europe (43% of the 28 species)
or North America (29%), origins that in turn were rare among invertebrates
(0 and 12%, respectively), which predominantly came from Asia (38%). There
was no significant variation in origin between free-living and parasitic inverte-
brates (x2 ¼ 6:5, df ¼ 5, P ¼ 0.26) or between crustaceans and molluscs
(x2 ¼ 3:8, df ¼ 5, P ¼ 0.59).
Table 1 Non-indigenous invertebrate species naturalized in inland waters of the lberian Peninsula (IP). When a species is probably an
old introduction, but the introduction date is largely unknown, a question mark is given as the first record date. The habitats for non-
parasite species are coded as: 1, streams and rivers (excluding estuaries); 2, lakes and reservoirs; 3, ponds and pools; 4, rice fields; and 5,
estuarine or saline waters.
Indigenous First record Habitat/

GROUP Species distribution in the IP Parasite References for the IP Other references
CNIDARIA
Cordylophora caspia (Pallas) Ponto–Caspian 2001 1,2,5 Escot et al. 2003, Solà 2004 Schuchert 2004
Craspedacusta sowerbyi Lankester Asia 1968 1,2 Margalef 1974, Ferreira 1985
Haliplanella lineata (Verrill) Pacific coast 1996 5 Cuesta et al. 1996 Gollasch and Riemann-
Zürneck 1996
PLATYHELMINTHES TURBELLARIA
Dugesia tigrina (Girard) North America ? 1,2 Baguñà et al. 1980 Young and Reynoldson
1999
PLATYHELMINTHES MONOGENEA
Dactylogyrus anchoratus (Dujardin) Asia ? parasite Sánchez Suárez 2002 Blanc 1997, 2001
Gyrodactylus cyprini Diarova Asia ? parasite Lacasa Millán 1992 Blanc 1997, 2001
Gyrodactylus katharineri Malmberg Asia ? parasite Gutiérrez Galindo and Blanc 1997, 2001
Animal NIS in Iberian inland waters
Lacasa Millán 1999

Gyrodactylus salaris Malmberg Baltic ? parasite Bakke et al. 2002 Blanc 1997, 2001
Pseudodactylogyrus anguillae Asia and Australia ? parasite San Martı́n Outeiral 2004, Blanc 1997, 2001
(Yin and Sproston) Gómez-Juaristi and
Salvador 2006
Pseudodactylogyrus bini (Kikuchi) Asia and Australia ? parasite Orts Muñoz 1993, Gómez- Blanc 1997, 2001
Juaristi and Salvador 2006
125
Table 1 Continued.
126

PLATYHELMINTHES TREMATODA
Phyllodistomum folium (Olfers, 1816) Ponto–Caspian? 2004 parasite Peribáñez et al. 2006
PLATYHELMINTHES CESTODA
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi Yamaguti Asia ? parasite Lacasa Millán 1992 Blanc 1997, 2001
[¼ Bothriocephalus opsarichthydis
(Yeh)]
NEMATODA
Anguillicola crassus Kuwahara, Asia ? parasite Gallastegi et al. 2002, Blanc 1997, 2001
Niimi and Itagaki Maillo et al. 2005
MOLLUSCA GASTROPODA
Gyraulus chinensis (Dunker) Asia 1979 2,4 Brown et al. 1998 Anderson 2005
Physella acuta (Draparnaud) North America 1845 1,2,4 Vidal-Abarca and Suárez 1985 Anderson 2003
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray) New Zealand 1951 1,5 Vidal-Abarca and Suárez 1985 Paavola et al. 2005
[¼ P. jenkinsi (Smith)]
Emili Garcı́a-Berthou et al.
MOLLUSCA BIVALVIA
Corbicula fluminea (Müller) Asia, Africa, 1981 1,3,5 Vidal-Abarca and Suárez 1985, McMahon 2000
and Australia Escot et al. 2003
Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) Ponto–Caspian 1880 1,2 Vidal-Abarca and Suárez 1985,
Altaba et al. 2001
Mytilopsis leucophaeta (Conrad) Gulf of Mexico 1993 1,2,5 Escot et al. 2003 Laine et al. 2006
ANNELIDA
Branchiura sowerbyi Beddard Asia 1970s 1,2,5 Prat 1980 Brinkhurst and
Jamieson 1971
Xironogiton victoriensis Gelder and North America 1996 parasite Gelder 1999 Ohtaka et al. 2005
Hall
Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel) Indian Ocean 1924 5 Rioja 1924,
(¼ Mercierella enigmatica Fauvel) Fischer-Piette 1951
CRUSTACEA BRANCHIOPODA
Artemia franciscana (Kellog) North, Central, 1980s 5 Amat et al. 2005
and South America
Wlassicsia pannonica Daday Eurasia 1990s 4 Martinoy et al. 2006 Leoni et al. 1999
CRUSTACEA OSTRACODA
Dolerocypris sinensis Sars Asia 1986 3,4 Forés et al. 1986, Rossi et al. 2003
Baltanás et al. 1996
Ilyodromus viridulus (Brady) Australia and 1996 4 Baltanás et al. 1996 Rossi et al. 2003
New Zealand
Cypris sp. (¼ Cypris subglobosa America, Africa, 1986 2,4 Forés et al. 1986, Whatley et al. 2003
Sowerby) and Asia? Baltanás et al. 1996
Isocypris beauchampi (Paris) Africa 1976 2,4 Armengol 1976, Rossi et al. 2003
Stenocypris major (Baird) Asia 1986 3,4 Forés et al. 1986, Rossi et al. 2003
Strandesia vavrai (Müller) Africa 1983 4 Paulo and Moutinho 1983,
Strandesia vinciguerrae (Masi) Africa 1986 4 Forés et al. 1986,
Animal NIS in Iberian inland waters
Tanycypris sp. Asia 1988 3,4 Forés 1988, Rossi et al. 2003
CRUSTACEA COPEPODA
Acartia tonsa Dana North and 1990s 5 Sobral 1985, Frisch et al. 2005
South America
Lernaea cyprinacea Linnaeus Asia parasite Moreno et al. 1986, Gutiérrez- Blanc 1997, 2001
Galindo and Lacasa-Millán
2005
127
128
Table 1 Continued.

CRUSTACEA BRANCHIURA
Argulus japonicus Thiele Asia 1921 parasite http://www.fauna-iberica. Blanc 1997, 2001
mncn.csic.es/
CRUSTACEA MYSIDACEA
Synidotea laticauda Benedict North Pacific and 1996 5 Cuesta et al. 1996
South Atlantic coasts
CRUSTACEA DECAPODA
Cherax destructor Clark Australia 1983 5 Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1999
Eriocheir sinensis (Milne Edwards) Asia ? 5 Cuesta et al. 2006
Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana) North America 1974 1 Habsburgo-Lorena 1978
Palaemon macrodactylus Rathbun Asia 1999 5 Cuesta et al. 2004
Emili Garcı́a-Berthou et al.
Procambarus clarkii (Girard) North America 1974 1,2,4,5 Habsburgo-Lorena 1978

Rhithropanopeus harrisii (Gould) North-west Atlantic 1991 5 Cuesta et al. 1991
INSECTA
Aedes albopictus (Skuse) Asia 2004 3 Aranda et al. 2006 Eritja et al. 2005
Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal Asia 2003 1,2,4,5 Dana and Viva 2006
Trichocorixa verticalis (Fieber) Atlantic coast 1997 3,5 Günther 2004, Sala and Hutchinson 1931
of America Boix 2005
Animal NIS in Iberian inland waters 129
Table 2 Non-indigenous vertebrate species naturalized in inland waters of the

Iberian Peninsula (IP). The habitats are coded as: 1, rivers (excluding estuaries);
2, lakes and reservoirs; 3, rice fields; and 4, estuarine or saline waters.
Indigenous First record

GROUP Species distribution in the IP Habitat References for the IP
PISCES
Abramis bjoerkna (Linnaeus) Europe 1995 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Abramis brama (Linnaeus) Europe 2004 2 Benejam et al. 2005
Alburnus alburnus (Linnaeus) Europe 1992 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque) North America 1910 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Carassius auratus Linnaeus Asia 17th century 1,2,3 Doadrio 2002
Cobitis bilineata Canestrini Europe 2002 1 Doadrio 2002
Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus Eurasia 17th century 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Esox lucius Linnaeus Europe 1949 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Fundulus heteroclitus North America 1970 4 Doadrio 2002
(Linnaeus)
Gambusia holbrooki (Girard) North America 1920 1,2,3,4 Doadrio 2002
Herichthys facetum (Jenyns) South America 1985 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Hucho hucho (Linnaeus) Europe 1970 1 Doadrio 2002
Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus) North America 1910 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Micropterus salmoides North America 1955 1,2 Doadrio 2002
(Lacepède)
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) North America 19th century 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Perca fluviatilis Linnaeus Europe 1975 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Poecilia reticulata Peters South America 2000 1,4 Doadrio 2002
Pseudorasbora parva Asia 2001 1 Caiola and
(Temminck and Schlegel) Sostoa 2002
Rutilus rutilus (Linnaeus) Europe 1910 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill) North America 19th century 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Sander lucioperca (Linnaeus) Europe 1975 1,2 Doadrio 2002
Scardinius erythrophthalmus Europe 1910 1,2 Doadrio 2002
(Linnaeus)
Silurus glanis L. Europe 1974 1,2 Doadrio 2002
AMPHIBIA ANURA
Discoglossus pictus Otth Africa 1900 1 Pleguezuelos 2002
REPTILIA CHELONIA
Trachemys scripta (Schoepf ) America 1985 1,2,3,4 Pleguezuelos 2002
MAMMALIA
Mustela vison Schreber North America 1978 1,2,3,4 Ruiz-Olmo et al. 1997,
Palomo and Gisbert 2002
Myocastor coypus Molina South America 1970 1 Palomo and Gisbert 2002
Ondatra zibethicus (Linnaeus) North America 2002 1 Elosegi 2004
Table 3 Animal species possibly introduced to inland waters of the Iberian

Peninsula (IP), but with uncertain status. Some species are cryptogenic (Carlton
1996), i.e. it is very difficult to know whether they are indigenous or introduced; the
other species have been reported in the wild but it is uncertain whether they have
established permanent populations (naturalized).
Possibly
indigenous Uncertain
GROUP Species to the IP establishment References
MOLLUSCA GASTROPODA
Ferrissia wautieri (Mirolli) Anderson 2005
[¼ F. clessiniana (Jickeli)] yes no
CRUSTACEA DECAPODA
Austropotamobius italicus yes no Grandjean et al. 2001
(Faxon) / Austropotamobius
pallipes (Lereboullet)
PISCES
Acipenser baeri Brandt no yes Elvira and Almodóvar 2001
Aphanius fasciatus (Valenciennes) no yes Doadrio 2002
Ctenopharyngodon idella no yes J. M. Queral 2005, personal
(Valenciennes) communication
Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) no yes Doadrio 2002
Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum) no yes Doadrio 2002
Tinca tinca (Linnaeus) yes no Doadrio 2002
AMPHIBIA
Bufo mauritanicus Schlegel no yes Pleguezuelos 2002
Rana catesbeiana Shaw no yes Pleguezuelos 2002
Rana ridibunda, Rana kl. no yes Arano et al. 1995,
esculenta, Rana lessonae Garcı́a-Parı́s et al. 2004
REPTILIA CHELONIA
Pelodiscus sinensis (Wiegmann) no yes Pleguezuelos 2002
AVES
Aix galericulata (Linnaeus) no yes GAE 2006
Anser erythropus (Linnaeus) no yes GAE 2006
Branta canadensis (Linnaeus) no yes GAE 2006
Oxyura jamaicensis (Gmelin) no yes GAE 2006
MAMMALIA
Castor fiber Linnaeus yes yes Ceña et al. 2004
The main habitat also differed between vertebrates and invertebrates (inde-
pendence test; x2 ¼ 22:8, df ¼ 4, P < 0.0005), because the former were mostly
present in streams and rivers (26 of the 28 species were present in streams and
rivers) or lakes and reservoirs, whereas several invertebrates were only present
in estuaries/saline waters (e.g. several decapod crustaceans introduced into the
Guadalquivir River through ballast water) or in rice fields (namely ostracods).
The mechanism of introduction is obviously also different for invertebrates

and vertebrates, because most of the former are accidental introductions
(e.g. Asian ostracods in rice fields, ballast water, etc.), whereas most fish species
have been introduced intentionally (nowadays illegally). Therefore, naturalized
vertebrates and invertebrates showed opposite patterns, with the former (mostly
fish) intentionally introduced from the rest of Europe or North America to
Iberian streams and reservoirs and most invertebrates originating from Asia
and accidentally introduced to estuaries or rice fields.
UNCERTAIN CASES
We found four species for which it is uncertain whether the species is indigen-
ous to the IP and 13 species that they may not have established (Table 3). An
interesting case illustrating both the lack of knowledge on invasive species and
the power of modern genetic techniques is the crayfish of the Austropotamobius
pallipes species complex. Until the 1980s the populations in the IP were gener-
ally regarded as an endemic species or subspecies in strong decline due to the
introduction of the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci Schikora with North American
crayfish (Martı́nez et al. 2003). Grandjean et al. (2000) showed that two species
(A. pallipes and Austropotamobius italicus) could be distinguished within the
species complex and that Spanish populations were very close to some Italian
populations, so they might be of anthropogenic origin, as already proposed by
Albrecht (1983), and should be regarded as A. italicus. Grandjean et al. (2001)
demonstrated a drastic bottleneck in Spanish populations but discussed several
potential mechanisms alternative to the hypothesis of introduction by humans.
With further genetic analyses, Trontelj et al. (2005) supported the anthropo-
genic origin for the Spanish populations but did not find unequivocal separation
between A. pallipes and A. italicus (but see also Schulz and Grandjean 2005).
These genetic techniques might also prove useful for tench [Tinca tinca
(Linnaeus)] in the IP. Tench is indigenous to many parts of Europe but
considered introduced into Italy (Bianco 1998) and Portugal (Almaça 1995).
This latter country shares its largest river basins (Duero, Tajo, and Guadiana
rivers) with Spain. There are doubts about its indigenous status in Spain
(Doadrio 2002). In fact, Gómez Caruana and Dı́az Luna (1991) considered it
introduced into the IP around the 17th century. There are records of tench
stocking by monks in Spanish and Portuguese ponds several centuries ago
(Almaça 1995, Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000). As far as we
know, no phylogeographic study on tench has been performed, in contrast
to many other European cyprinids, although they could be most helpful in
clarifying its native distribution.
A similar, more solved example of ‘‘cryptogenic’’ species (see Carlton 1996)
is the case of the freshwater snail Physella acuta (Draparnaud). This species
was first described from Europe (Drapanaud, 1805), namely from the River
Garonne, near Bordeaux (France). This species is widely distributed in the IP

and the rest of western Europe (Vidal-Abarca and Suárez 1985) and inhabits all
types of fresh waters. It has been generally regarded as indigenous to contin-
ental Europe (Haas 1929, Germain 1930, Macan and Cooper 1977, Girod et al.
1980, Vidal-Abarca and Suárez 1985) and its presence in North America was
not reported until the 1990s (Wu et al. 1997). Nowadays, three types of
evidence indicate, however, that P. acuta is indigenous to North America and
not to Europe: (i) the lack of records of Physella shells from European sediments
older than the 18th century (Lozek 1964); (ii) recent studies using internal
morphology comparisons (Anderson 2003) and reproductive isolation experi-
ments (Dillon et al. 2002) showing that at least one Physella species from North
America [Physella heterostropha (Say)] is actually P. acuta; and (iii) some histor-
ical data of the cotton trade between France and the United States in the 18th
century that could explain the arrival of this species to the River Garonne,
where it was first observed (Anderson 2003).
The case of P. acuta illustrates the importance of historical data and the fossil
record as tools for the identification of old introductions by man. Fossil records
have been very helpful to establish the introduced nature of ostracods and
suggest that dispersal by man of many other invertebrates is very old and has
been generally neglected (McKenzie and Moroni 1986, Rossi et al. 2003).
The other group of species in Table 3 are species that have been reported in
the wild but it is uncertain whether they have established. There are several
other NIS that have been recorded in the wild (see e.g. Elvira and Almodóvar
2001, Pleguezuelos 2002) but have certainly not established permanent
populations.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT
The ecological impact of most of these NIS is largely unknown with a few
exceptions. The red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii, has altered the func-
tioning and structure of many aquatic ecosystems in the IP reducing macro-
phytes and associated species, among other impacts (Geiger et al. 2005,
Rodrı́guez et al. 2005, Chapter 28). The eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia
holbrooki) has been experimentally demonstrated to affect endemic cyprinodon-
tiform fishes [Aphanius iberus (Valenciennes) and Valencia hispanica (Valenci-
ennes)] by resource and interference competition (Rincón et al. 2002). The
zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is one of the best known invasive species
and, although it is a very old introduction into Portugal, only recently has
it been introduced to Spain through the Ebro River, where it is widespread
nowadays and might affect the endangered giant pearl mussel, Margaritifera
auricularia Spengler (Altaba et al. 2001). The zebra mussel is still not wide-
spread in the IP, but it will probably be fostered by the illegal, poorly
controlled introduction and translocations of fish that are still very frequent.
The polychaete Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel) is very abundant in some

Spanish coastal lagoons and probably profoundly affects its ecosystem function-
ing because it builds large reef-like aggregates (Schwindt and Iribarne 1998).
Many piscivorous fish have been introduced into the IP and some unique
ecosystems such as Lake Banyoles have been profoundly altered and are now-
adays completely dominated by NIS (Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich
2000).
The distribution, abundance, and impact of introduced parasites in the IP is
largely unknown but some species such as Lernaea cyprinacea are widespread
(Moreno et al. 1986, Gutiérrez-Galindo and Lacasa-Millán 2005) and several
of them have now been recorded on endemic fish species (see references in
Table 1). The swimbladder nematode Anguillicola crassus, which was transferred
from its indigenous host (the Japanese eel, A. japonica) to the European eel
(A. anguilla), can severely impair swimbladder function (and thus possibly
spawning migration) and has caused mortalities in both farmed and wild
populations in the presence of other stressors (Kirk 2003). Similarly to the
case of crayfish plague, Gozlan et al. (2005) have recently shown that the
topmouth gudgeon, Pseudorasbora parva, an Asiatic cyprinid highly invasive in
Europe and recently introduced to the IP, carries a pathogen that strongly
affects indigenous cyprinids.
Given the enormous impact of the few well-investigated invasive species, the
considerable number of introduced species, and the presence in the IP of many
endemic species of plants (Médail and Quézel 1999), freshwater fish (Doadrio
2002), and amphibians (Pleguezuelos et al. 2002), the overall potential impact
of these naturalized species is enormous and should be urgently investigated.
The room for management and educational improvement by public adminis-
trations to prevent further introductions and translocations and to reduce the
spread of invasive species is even larger. We hope this paper will contribute to
the improved understanding and control of invasive species in European waters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank J.F. Gutiérrez-Galindo, F. Padrós, and anonymous reviewers

for helpful comments. This study was financially supported by the Spanish
Ministry of Science and Technology (REN2003–00477) and the Ministry
of Universities, Research and Information Society (DURSI), Government of
Catalonia (Distinction Award for university research 2004 to EGB).
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Chapter seven
An overview of the natural

history of non-indigenous
amphibians and reptiles
Riccardo Scalera
INTRODUCTION
In his Naturalis Historia (77 AD), Pliny the Elder wrote: ‘‘Mirium rerum naturam
non solum alia aliis dedisse terris animalia, sed in eodem quoque situ quaedam aliquis
locis negasse’’ [It is a remarkable fact that nature not only assigned different
countries to different animals, but that, even in the same country, it denied certain
species to particular localities] (book VIII 83). Pliny the Elder, an erudite natural
philosopher and encyclopaedist, could not imagine that, as a side-effect of what we
currently call globalization, an ever increasing number of animals and plants
would have been moved from one place to another outside their natural range. It is
somehow an odd connection that ancient Romans were among the main early
actors in fostering the movement of species within the European and Mediterra-
nean regions. Besides several species of mammals and birds introduced for food or
hunting, Romans probably also contributed to the movement of reptiles. For
example, at that time, pond turtles (i.e. Emys orbicularis Linnaeus) were already
kept as pets, as were various land-dwelling tortoises, Testudo Linnaeus spp. Indeed,
ancient Romans were not the very first people contributing to the spread of
non-indigenous species, because many introductions are known at least since
the Neolithic (Kraus 2003), especially in the Mediterranean region (Pleguezuelos
2002). Thus, introductions probably started centuries before Pliny’s time, but
certainly since then, a growing number of species has been involved in this global
reshuffling. The result is that today about 270 species of amphibians and reptiles
141
ß 2007 Springer.
142 Riccardo Scalera
are known to exist in countries outside their natural range (Lever 2003) and an
unknown number has been subject to other small scale translocations.
In general, despite the increasing interest in non-indigenous amphibians
and reptiles (NIAR) (Lever 2003), these taxa have been subordinate in the
literature to other species, possibly because most of them are not perceived to
be as urgent a threat as others (Kraus and Campbell 2002). As held by Kiesecker
(2003), the main constraint in understanding the role of NIAR in the worldwide
decline of amphibians has been the lack of their recognition as an important
global problem. As a consequence, the long-term effects of the spread of NIAR
are largely neglected. Even the Global Invasive Species Database, developed
by the IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) and available at
www.issg.org/database, is not yet as exhaustive for amphibians and reptiles as
one would expect: it includes only four amphibians – the cane toad, Bufo marinus
(Linnaeus), Eleutherodactylus coqui Thomas, the American bullfrog, Rana cates-
beiana Shaw, and the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis (Daudin) – and three
reptiles – the brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis Merrem, the brown anole, Norops
sagrei Duméril and Bibron, and the red-eared slider, Trachemys scripta elegans
(Wied) – out of a total of 284 non-indigenous species introduced worldwide.
As shown on the following pages, besides the best known case studies of some
notable taxa like B. marinus, R. catesbeiana, and T. s. elegans, whose spread
represents a recognized threat at the global level, there is a number of local
situations that are greatly overlooked. This chapter aims at stimulating atten-
tion to the large number of worldwide introductions of herpetofauna. A special
emphasis is given to those amphibians and reptiles occurring in freshwater
ecosystems or somehow linked to inland waters, such as frogs, salamanders,
some snakes and lizards (e.g. monitors), and freshwater turtles.
ARE NIAR DISREGARDED?
At the global level, the main comprehensive review of NIAR is the recent book
by Lever (2003), which describes 83 species of amphibians and 185 species of
reptiles, providing information on relevant threats, taken from about 1,450
sources. It clearly represents the first reference book on this topic though, given
its ambitious scope, it has been criticized for not being fully exhaustive (Lovich
2005) and for not providing an analysis of the data reported (Hailey 2005).
Indeed, an exhaustive overview of the worldwide distribution of NIAR is not
easy: the real extent of their occurrence, considering both recent and ancient
introductions, still needs to be clearly evaluated, and the literature on the topic is
far from adequate. At a regional scale, other than North America, little attention
has been paid to them. Even in Australia (M. Hutchinson 2006, personal com-
munication) and in most European countries, where non-indigenous species are
clearly perceived as a major threat for both nature conservation and human
welfare, the current knowledge on these taxa is not exhaustive.
The natural history of non-indigenous herpetofauna 143
The areas primarily affected by the colonization of NIAR are quite scattered
throughout the planet, with an undoubted world ‘‘supremacy’’ held by North
America. In Florida alone some 40 naturalized species of amphibians and
reptiles are present (Meshaka et al. 2004, Smith 2006). In Europe, the number
of NIAR is likely to fall between the number of species established in North
America (more than 50; McCoid and Kleberg 1995, Lever 2003) and the five –
surprisingly few – occurring in Australia (Hutchinson 2001, Bomford 2003).
However, their exact number is not yet known because comprehensive studies
have never been carried out, notwithstanding the long history of introductions
in this region and the rich knowledge accumulated on its faunistic and
ecological features. The European situation is a good example with which to
highlight the general gap in information on NIAR. It is not clear why the
scientific community has the tendency to disregard the subject. For instance,
the main reference in Europe, the Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles (Gasc et al.
1997), treats all taxa at the same level, so that the American bullfrog,
R. catesbeiana, is described among the other species of the European fauna
without adequate emphasis on its ‘‘alien’’ status. Two other species, the
Mauritanian toad, Bufo mauritanicus Schlegel, and the red-eared slider,
T. s. elegans, are only mentioned in additional notes. Of course, the main aim
of the atlas was to show the state of the art concerning the distribution of
European species. But does this justify the lack of emphasis on NIAR?
In general, from a mere faunistic point of view, it seems that in Europe
comprehensive studies dealing with introduced species, or at least with those
considered invasive, have not been felt as a priority at either the continental or
the national level. Herpetofauna atlases for countries and islands of the Euro-
pean and Mediterranean regions only rarely include specific contributions
dedicated to NIAR. An exception is the Iberian Peninsula, which has produced
publications which integrate the typical distributional and taxonomical treatise
of an atlas with specific sections dealing with NIAR, both at the national
(Mateo 1997, Barbadillo et al. 1999, Pleguezuelos 2002) and the local scales
(i.e. Catalonia; Llorente et al. 1995).
The situation is similar for island ecosystems. Although indigenous species
are known to be particularly affected by the presence of introduced species,
special attention to NIAR has been paid only in the two Spanish archipelagos:
the Balearic Islands, which with 13 species introduced out of a total of 16, show
the highest degree of colonization of non-indigenous taxa, and the Canary
Islands, which host a rich herpetofauna composed of 14 indigenous and six
introduced species (Pleguezuelos 2002).
ON ‘‘THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES’’
The way species are actively or passively introduced beyond their natural range
through human agency is considered a main issue for the understanding of
biological invasions. A detailed analysis of the invasion patterns and main

pathways for NIAR, particularly those introduced into the USA, has been
carried out by Kraus (2003).
In general, species may be introduced either deliberately or unintentionally.
The importance of each pathway in herpetofauna introductions varies geo-
graphically and over the years (Kraus 2003). Also the origin of NIAR has
changed with time. In particular, there are regions where species which have
been subject to translocations in ancient times are often part of the indigenous
herpetofauna of neighbouring areas – as reported for Spain (Pleguezuelos
2002) – or nearby islands – as suggested for Florida (Butterfield et al. 1997).
In recent times, such local translocations have been supplemented by those
regarding species whose origin may be from other biogeographical regions.
Such introductions are mostly linked to the international food and pet trade.
A poor understanding of the distribution of the species and the unavailability
of a definitive assessment concerning their phylogeographic status might
explain why not much attention has been paid to NIAR so far. In particular, the
origin of species translocated in ancient times can be difficult to assess, espe-
cially in regions with a long history of the movement of people and goods, such
as the Mediterranean.
Today, the origin of species translocated in ancient times can be effectively
investigated through modern genetic analysis, using the same techniques that
are commonly used for the purpose of systematic and biogeographical studies.
The adoption of such techniques in NIAR research could help elucidate their
phylogeography. For instance, genetic analyses have been carried out for
Mediterranean freshwater turtles of the genus Emys Duméril A. (Fritz et al.
2005), which have been subject to translocations since ancient times, and to
confirm the status of the introduced viperine snake, Natrix maura Linnaeus in
Menorca, Spain (Guicking et al. 2006). In the latter case, molecular data
strongly support the evidence of its recent introduction from France, justifying
the implementation of strict management measures to reduce its impact on the
endemic midwife toad, Alytes muletensis (Sanchı́z and Adrover).
The results of these studies are thus quite encouraging and suggest the need
for increasing the use of genetic tests in the future, so as to rely on more
objective data for identification and assignment to likely sources of origin of
the introduced species and populations.
TRAVELLERS BY CHANCE
In 1998, the first amphibian species in the evolutionary history of the Galapa-
gos, the Fowler’s snouted tree frog, Scinax quinquefasciatus (Fowler), indigenous
to the Pacific lowlands of Colombia and Ecuador, started spreading on Isabela
(Snell and Rea 1999). Apparently, this small tree frog, now considered a leading
conservation problem for the survival of indigenous arthropods, reached the
archipelago accidentally, stowing away on cargo ships connecting the

Galapagos to the Ecuadorian coast. But is it only by chance that a brand new
class of vertebrate invaded Melville’s Enchanted Isles?
Since ancient times, non-indigenous species have been introduced uninten-
tionally around the globe as a consequence of the necessary movement of people
and goods. Indeed many species can disperse passively as ‘‘hitch-hikers’’, taking
advantage of the various means of transport put at their disposal by human
activities linked to international trade (McNeely 1997). Examples include ship-
ping containers, ships, planes, trains, trucks, and cars, where such species can
easily hide in commercial commodities, packing material, nursery stock, food,
wood, and other goods.
In general, such means of transport are not very suitable for sensitive animals
which may lack the basic needs to survive for long distances, as all those species
strictly linked to freshwater ecosystems, amphibians in particular. However,
there are a few notable exceptions, like S. quinquefasciatus, which managed to
reach the Galapagos after sailing for about 1,000 km in a ship’s cargo from
the Ecuadorian coast. Of course, travelling as stowaway is easier for species
whose adaptation to hostile environments makes travelling without food and in
extreme conditions more feasible (i.e. snakes, lizards, and geckos). For instance,
many non-indigenous snakes arrive continuously in Hawaii not only through
the smuggling of pet animals, but also introduced as cargo stowaways (Kraus
and Cravalho 2001).
Accidental introductions can also be linked to military activities. For example,
Bruno and Maugeri (1990) report that in ancient times snakes were used to
frighten enemies, i.e. during Roman assaults. Some introduced populations of
snakes in the Mediterranean islands could be linked to such events, as suggested
by Pleguezuelos (2002) for the origin of N. maura in the Balearic, Spain
(Guicking et al. 2006).
INTENTIONAL INTRODUCTIONS
Intentional introductions of herpetofauna have been linked to human activities

such as biological control, farming, aquaculture, and various ‘‘scientific’’ or
ornamental purposes. However, the purpose of a release could be sometimes
multifaceted, and the difference between intentional and unintentional trans-
port could be a mere shade of meaning. As a consequence, a certain degree
of uncertainty is possible on the reasons behind a species introduction. This
is especially true for ancient introductions where clues of active or passive
transport by human agency, such as fossil remains or historical documents,
are often unavailable.
Ranid frogs are typical edible species that have experienced several intro-
ductions throughout the world for human consumption, often linked to the
restaurant trade. The most common case is certainly the American bullfrog,
R. catesbeiana. A ‘‘gourmet’’ indigenous to North America, the bullfrog is

generally considered the most suitable for aquaculture and is frequently farmed
for commercial production in countries outside its native range. The species is
now spreading in several countries and islands worldwide (for a review see
IUCN et al. 2006), mainly as a consequence of escapes from breeding facilities
(but also from garden ponds), or following intentional releases aimed at estab-
lishing wild populations to be regularly harvested. However, several other
species have been introduced for the same purpose, though on a smaller spatial
scale. For example, the marsh frog, Rana ridibunda Pallas, an indigenous species
of eastern Europe and Asia, has been introduced into several European coun-
tries outside its natural range, including Italy (Sindaco et al. 2006), Switzerland
(Wittenberg 2005), the UK (Zeisset and Beebee 2003), France (Pagano et al.
2003), Belgium (Percsy and Percsy 2002), and a number of places in Asia
(Kuzmin 2006). Also Mediterranean islands have been affected by introductions
of frogs for human consumption. For example, the pool frog, Rana lessonae
Camerano, and the edible frog, Rana klepton esculenta Linnaeus, were translo-
cated from the Italian peninsula to Sardinia (Scalera 2003, Sindaco et al. 2006).
Biological control has been the main cause of introductions for the cane toad,
B. marinus, an indigenous species to South America wrongly considered effec-
tive in controlling insect pest on crops, and now established in several countries
throughout the world, notably Australia (Lever 2001, Kiesecker 2003). Unfor-
tunately, there is no evidence that B. marinus has successfully contributed
to pest control in Australia, and is now to be considered a pest itself in its
introduced range. Introductions carried out for pest control include the coqui
frog, E. coqui (Kraus and Campbell 2002), and the poison arrow frog, Dendro-
bates auratus (Girard), in Hawaii (Kraus et al. 1999), and the Iberian green frog,
Rana perezi Seoane, in the Balearics, Spain (Pleguezuelos 2002). Reptiles have
also been released as biological control agents. In the Marshall islands (north-
west equatorial Pacific), the mangrove monitor, Varanus indicus Daudin, which
is indigenous to nearby areas, was released to control populations of rats
Rattus Fischer sp. on military bases (Spennemann 1997). Also in Spain, the
Mediterranean pond turtle, Mauremys leprosa Schweigger, was introduced for
controlling slugs in gardens (see Pleguezuelos 2002).
Deliberate introductions occur particularly as a side-effect of the pet industry
(Kraus 2003). In this context, aquarium and vivarium hobbyists keeping
amphibians and reptiles in captivity play a major role in fostering the lucrative
trade of a growing number of species. Such movements carry the inherent risk of
escape or abandonment and the potential establishment of wild self-sustaining
populations of NIAR. The alarming successful establishment of naturalized
populations of red-eared sliders in several countries throughout the world is
clearly linked to: (a) the massive numbers produced in commercial farming
activities, both within and outside its native range; and (b) the huge trade of live
specimens aimed at supplying either the pet trade or the demand for human
consumption and traditional Chinese medicine (Hoover 1998, van Dijk et al.
2000; Chapter 8). Likewise, the pond turtle, E. orbicularis, has often been the
subject of scattered introductions in the European and Mediterranean regions,
as a consequence of being a popular pet since ancient times, besides being
consumed as food (Pleguezuelos 2002). As a consequence, its natural distribu-
tion pattern is clearly affected by introductions, as documented by Fritz et al.
(2005) in various parts of Italy.
The introductions carried out for research purposes are certainly the
most unusual. For instance, non-indigenous populations of the Ambrosi’s cave
salamander, Speleomantes ambrosii (Lanza), and the Italian cave salamander,
Speleomantes italicus (Dunn), were released in a cave outside their natural range
in northern Italy, to verify the possibility of interbreeding (Scalera 2001, Sindaco
et al. 2006). Similarly, cave salamanders, Speleomantes Dubois spp., are known to
have been introduced as an experiment in the French Pyrenees (Pascal et al. 2006).
Another peculiar case of introduction is related to the use of amphibians in
medicine: the African clawed frog, X. laevis, was used until recently as a test for
human pregnancy and is still common in biology research laboratories and in
the pet trade. Because of these uses, it has been introduced from its sub–Saharan
African range to the USA (McCoid and Kleberg 1995), Chile (Lobos and Measey
2002), and some European countries, such as the UK (Measey and Tinsley
1998), France (Pascal et al. 2006), and Italy (Sindaco et al. 2006).
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT
Although in most cases the adverse ecological effects of NIAR are not well
known or may be going unnoticed, mainly because of a lack of specific studies,
there is evidence of potential threats to indigenous species as a consequence of
competition for food and cover and as a result of predatory dynamics. Thus, the
occurrence of NIAR may lead to the loss of indigenous species, and changes
in community structures and function. Invasive NIAR are also considered as
one of the main factors explaining the global decline in many amphibian
populations (Kiesecker 2003).
Of course, the effects of species introduced recently can be more apparent
than for those of taxa introduced in ancient times, provided that specific
researches are envisaged and carried out (but, in general, the impact has been
mostly assessed on an empirical basis so far). Species naturalized in the distant
past are likely to be now in balance with the extant biological communities,
even though damage may well have occurred in the past, so that their impact is
not easy to assess.
In the recent years, particular attention has been paid to the process through
which regionally distinct, indigenous communities are gradually replaced by
locally expanding, cosmopolitan, non-indigenous communities. This process is
called biotic homogenization (sensu McKinney and Lockwood 1999) and is the
result of three interacting processes, the introduction of species, the extinction of
indigenous species, and the alteration of pristine habitats (Rahel 2002). On a

continental scale, in North America, the average homogenization level in
amphibians and reptiles is expected to be higher than in mammals and birds
(particularly in southern US) as reported by Olden et al. (2006) after investigat-
ing the quantitative relation between the biotic homogenization, human popu-
lation size, and urbanization. This evidence has been confirmed by Smith
(2006), who published the result of a specific study on NIAR in Florida.
The homogenization process is likely to be a very widespread phenomenon. In
Europe, for instance, there is a growing concern for the spread of the red-eared
slider, T. s. elegans, a freshwater turtle indigenous to North America currently
introduced in several countries, which is silently replacing the few remnant
populations of the European pond turtle, E. orbicularis. Some authors suggest
that such turtles may compete for food, nesting sites, and basking places (Cadi
and Joly 2003), although further studies are needed to confirm the impact of
such interactions (see Luiselli et al. 1997). However, T. s. elegans is also known
to endanger other species of turtles at the local level, like the Caspian pond
turtle, Mauremys caspica Gmelin, in Cyprus (Hadjichristophorou 1999).
Several naturalized species are opportunistic feeders with a wide trophic
niche, a feature that increases their fitness in a wide range of ecological
situations. This is clearly the case for the cane toad, B. marinus (Kiesecker
2003) and the American bullfrog, R. catesbeiana (Albertini and Lanza 1987),
whose diet seems to reflect habitat rather than food preference. The same applies
to R. perezi, an endemic of the Iberian peninsula, which has been introduced
both in the Balearic Islands, where it represents a threat for A. muletensis, and in
the Canary islands, where predation upon the endemic lizard Gallotia galloti
Oudart has been recorded (Pleguezuelos 2002). Moreover, studies have been
carried out on B. marinus (Smith 2005) and R. catesbeiana (Kupferberg 1997),
which show that even their larvae may adversely impact indigenous tadpoles as
a result of interspecific competition.
Non-indigenous snakes can be a major cause of extinction. For instance, in
the Balearic Islands, Spain, introduced N. maura is known to represent a serious
threat to the endangered endemic A. muletensis in Mallorca, and was probably
involved (with the support of introduced populations of E. orbicularis) in the
extinction of the endemic Alytes talaioticus (Sanchiz and Alcover) – now con-
sidered a synonym of A. muletensis (see Martı́nez-Solano et al. 2004) – in
Menorca (Pleguezuelos 2002).
Also non-indigenous monitors are considered dangerous predators for
indigenous wildlife, e.g. in Florida, where the Nile monitor, Varanus niloticus
Linnaeus, has been recently introduced (Enge et al. 2004).
Although some effects are obvious, others might be subtler, yet still of great
concern. In Australia, the cane toad, B. marinus, is known to poison indigenous
predators, besides competing for habitat and food resources with other reptiles
and amphibians. Phillips et al. (2003), analysing the potential impact of
B. marinus, determined that about 30% of terrestrial frog-eating snakes are
potentially at risk from ingestion of toad-toxins. The cane toad is also thought to
contribute to the spread of pathogens that could infect indigenous amphibians
(Kiesecker 2003). In North America, other interesting cases of ecologically
relevant interactions between indigenous species and NIAR have been reported.
Pearl et al. (2005) observed the occurrence of interspecific amplexus between
each of the two indigenous frogs, the red-legged frog, Rana aurora Baird and
Girard, and the Oregon spotted frog, Rana pretiosa Baird and Girard, and the
introduced R. catesbeiana, which could have negative demographic conse-
quences for the indigenous ranids (i.e. reducing numbers of males available
to couple with conspecifics during their breeding periods). On the other
hand, R. catesbeiana seems to benefit from the presence of some other NIAR
occurring in the same ecosystem. For instance, in western North America the
non-indigenous bluegill Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque is facilitating the inva-
sion of R. catesbeiana by lowering the abundance of indigenous dragonfly
nymphs, which are one of the few predators of the unpalatable bullfrog tadpoles
(Adams et al. 2003). As emphasized by Simberloff and Von Holle (1999), such
positive interactions between non-indigenous species should receive greater
attention, because they can be at least as common as detrimental ones.
Reporting some positive effects of introduced species could be misleading, but
it is worth mentioning that there are indigenous species, like some ground-
nesting birds, that may benefit from the B. marinus induced reductions in
the numbers of predators, both indigenous and non-indigenous (van Dam et al.
2002). Misunderstandings could arise if laypersons read this information with-
out taking into proper consideration the overall negative effects documented
for this and other NIAR.
GENETIC EFFECTS
The process of homogenization can extend across all levels of biological organ-
ization (Rahel 2002), including the genetic level. For example, non-indigenous
species may hybridize with closely related indigenous taxa. Hybridization may
cause loss of diversity in genetically different and locally adapted populations
and species through genetic introgression, and may interfere with the natural
evolutionary processes.
European waterfrogs are characterized by a complex hybridogenetic gameto-
genesis of the hybrids (Schultz 1969). They are currently receiving increasing
attention, especially in relation to the serious ecological and genetic conse-
quences which could negatively interfere with the clonal reproduction typical
of this group (Plenet et al. 2005). In general, in natural populations where
R. klepton esculenta is a natural hybrid between R. ridibunda and R. lessonae, the
proportion of parental species and hybrids seems to be dependent on the
environment (Uzzell and Berger 1975). Vorburger and Reyer (2003) have
documented a genetic mechanism of species replacement, according to which
the introduction of R. ridibunda could unbalance the proportion of the hybrids

and even replace the indigenous waterfrogs, R. lessonae and R. klepton esculenta,
in several areas of central Europe. This threat may concern several populations
of waterfrogs throughout Europe: indeed, so far, non-indigenous populations
of R. ridibunda are known in Italy (Sindaco et al. 2006), Spain (Pleguezuelos
2002), Switzerland (Wittenberg 2005), and France (Plenet et al. 2005).
The potential effects of such introductions were clearly overlooked, perhaps
because there is uncertainty in whether genetic pollution represents an actual
risk for the survival of the affected species (Pagano et al. 2003). This might
explain why it is only recently that some populations introduced into Italy and
formerly considered to be R. ridibunda were recognized as being Rana kurtmuel-
leri Gayda, a species indigenous to the Balkans, south-eastern Europe (Scalera
2003, Sindaco et al. 2006). A similar situation is emerging also in France
where, as reported by Pagano et al. (2003), several other non-indigenous
waterfrogs have been introduced, but have not yet been identified.
Waterfrogs are not the only taxon affected by this problem. For example,
hybridization also occurs between the indigenous great crested newt, Triturus
cristatus (Laurenti), and the Italian crested newt, Triturus carnifex (Laurenti),
which has been introduced into Switzerland (Wittenberg 2005) and the UK
(Inskipp 2003). In Switzerland, the non-indigenous T. carnifex is also replacing
the other species, though the exact mechanism is not yet known (Wittenberg
2005). The possibility of genetic contamination has also been reported in some
populations of E. orbicularis in Italy, following the translocation of specimens
belonging to different subspecies (Fritz et al. 2005).
Evolutionary changes in introduced species are also being investigated and the
results are interesting from a conservation perspective. In France, Schmeller et al.
(2005) found a higher genetic variability in introduced populations of R. ridibunda
than in indigenous ones, due to the mixed origin of the populations. Similarly,
Zeisset and Beebee (2003), analysing the population dynamics and genetics of
the introduced populations of R. ridibunda in Britain, found that, despite starting
with few founders, significant bottleneck effects were undetectable, presumably
because of rapid population expansions immediately after translocations.
Evolutionary processes have also been invoked to explain genetic changes in
morphological features. The possibility of genetic drift in an introduced species
has been documented for B. marinus in Australia, where some westerly popu-
lations have longer legs than those distributed further east. This may be due to
natural selection for features that suit them for long-distance dispersal (Phillips
et al. 2006).
NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON ANIMAL AND HUMAN HEALTH
Other than inflicting ecological and genetic harm, NIAR may represent a
potential vector of new pathogens, some of which might even threaten
human health. The spread of new pathogens can affect indigenous species in
a way similar to that of non-indigenous predators. The introduction of NIAR
via farming and pet trade is considered the main vector of pathogens and
diseases among indigenous species, and is likely to be involved in the global
amphibian decline (Laurance et al. 1996, Kiesecker 2003).
Chytridiomycosis is one of the most alarming diseases. It is caused by the
zoosporic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis Longcore, Pessier and Nichols,
which has been associated with a number of amphibian declines and extinc-
tions in geographically disparate parts of the world (see Ron 2005). Strong
evidence linking this cutaneous fungal infection to species extinctions was
found for the Australian sharp-snouted day frog Taudactylus acutirostris
(Andersson) (Daszak et al. 2003, Schloegel et al. 2006). This disease is now
recorded in several regions throughout the world, except Asia, apparently as a
consequence of the spread of an increasing number of amphibians in trade,
which may act as a vector (see Weldon et al. 2004). The American bullfrog,
R. catesbeiana, is clearly among those species which could play a key role in
the global dissemination of this pathogen (Mazzoni et al. 2003, Hanselmann
et al. 2004). But infections of this chytrid fungus have also been found in
the invasive E. coqui in Hawaii (Beard and O’Neill 2005). This indigenous
species of Puerto Rico could therefore contribute to the spread of the chytrid
fungus to geographic areas where it does not yet exist. Outbreaks of
B. dendrobatidis are already implicated in an estimated 67% of about 110
species of Atelopus (Duméril and Bibron) that have disappeared in the American
tropics, and global warming is considered a key contributing factor (Pounds
et al. 2006).
But for humans one of the greatest health risks associated to amphibians and
reptiles is related to the fact that many species are known to be a vector of
Salmonella Lignieres, a genus of bacillus responsible for severe gastroenteritis,
typhoid, and septicaemia, often with serious complications including even
meningitis (Mermin et al. 2004). As documented by a rich medical literature
accumulated in the last 30 years on this topic, many species commonly kept as
pets could therefore place their owners, particularly children, at risk of danger-
ous illness following direct contact with infected animals. Mermin et al. (2004)
have assessed that reptile and amphibian exposure is associated with about 6%
of the approximately 1.24 million sporadic human Salmonella infections that
occur annually in the USA. As a preventive measure, since 1975, the USA
decided to ban the domestic trade of turtles with a carapace length of less than
four inches (see Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 – Sec. 1 240.62 Turtles
intrastate and interstate requirements. 21CFR1240.62). It is worth mentioning
that the ban did not affect the exports, and therefore USA bred turtles –
particularly T. s. elegans – have continued to be spread throughout the world,
as well with their questionable ‘‘shipment’’ of parasites. Of course, pets are not
the only source of contamination: free-ranging introduced species can also be a
significant vector of salmonellosis, especially when commonly associated with
human habitations, and are progressively extending their range, as shown by

specific surveys on B. marinus in Australia (O’Shea et al. 1990, Speare 1990).
Another aspect of the health risk posed by NIAR to human safety is linked to
the threat due to poisonous species. For example, the poisonous skin secretions
of B. marinus are known to be deadly to humans (Lever 2001) and household
pets (McCoid and Kleberg 1995). Another kind of health hazard associated with
cane toad regards the use of skin extract and toxin in traditional medicine and
as a drug (van Dam et al. 2002). Concern may also arise in relation to the spread
of the poison arrow frog D. auratus in Hawaii, an indigenous species from
tropical America whose extremely toxic skin secretions are considered lethal
also to humans (they are used to tip the hunting arrows of the indigenous
people). However, dendrobatids toxicity seems dependant on compounds
sequestered from arthropod prey in their native habitat, which are presumably
absent from Hawaii, and therefore the toxicity of the introduced populations is
likely to be greatly reduced compared to the toxicity of the founding individuals
(Wright 2001).
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACT
The ‘‘ecological homogenization’’ of the world, resulting in global McEco-

systems (Enserink 1999), is a side-effect of globalization. The introduction of
non-indigenous species is considered an externalized cost of international trade,
but nonetheless current economics rarely account for the long-term global
change it may cause (McNeely 1997). Only a minor percentage of all species
introduced beyond their natural range are likely to become naturalized, and in
turn only a few of them are likely to become invasive (Williamson 1996).
Nevertheless, once a species has become invasive, the relative economic impact
is likely to be considerable. The importance of assessing the actual or potential
economic impact of non-indigenous species relies on the fact that threats to
biodiversity overlapping with threats to human activities are more likely to be
taken seriously into consideration by the public opinion, thus fostering political
support for the implementation of proper management programmes.
But quantitative data concerning the cost of impacts and management of
NIAR are rare, and in general refer to local situations. The main available
figures only relate to the most renowned species, like B. marinus and R. cates-
beiana. In Australia, expensive initiatives which required precise cost/benefit
assessments have been planned or are being undertaken against B. marinus.
This species, besides the ecological impact, causes economic losses to some
human activity, like apiculture (for the species is a predator of the European
honey bee, Apis mellifera Linnaeus; Phillips et al. 2003). Although the economic
impact of cane toads has not been calculated, there are figures which might help
understand the problem. According to the Standing Committee on Agriculture
(2005) mapping the impacts of the cane toad on biodiversity in Kimberley
(Western Australia) would cost the government some AUS$ 600,000. Other
AUS$ 3 million were also allocated for finding a biological control solution to
toads, in addition to funding for other specific research programmes. On the
other hand, McLeod (2004) estimated that research cost is AUS$ 0.5 million
per annum, while figures on ordinary management cost (quarantine checks and
public awareness and response) are unavailable. It is also calculated that the
construction of a 6 km exclusion fence across the Cobourg Peninsula neck
(Northern Territory, Australia) would cost AUS$ 3.6–5.7 million, with an
additional expense for annual maintenance in the range of AUS$ 0.4–0.9
million (Brook et al. 2004).
In Europe, figures are only available for local attempts of species eradication.
For instance, Reinhardt et al. (2003) tried to determine the cost to control
R. catesbeiana in Germany. In this country the presence of the bullfrog was
limited to a few populations. However, the foreseen annual cost to implement
control measures on only five ponds (mainly by means of electrofishing) is
!270,000. Reinhardt et al. (2003) also underlines that the total cost would
rise to !4.4 billion (and obviously the ecological harm would likewise increase
commensurately) in the event that this species spreads throughout Germany. In
the UK, south-east England, early efforts to eradicate the first breeding bullfrog
population cost some US$ 29,000 (Inskipp 2003).
CONCLUSIONS
In 1839, Charles Darwin, reflecting on the creatures met in the Galapagos

islands being remarkably unafraid of humans, wrote in his Journal of
Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the various Countries Visited
by H. M. S. Beagle: ‘‘We may infer from these facts, what havoc the introduction
of any new beast of prey must cause in a country, before the instincts of
the indigenous inhabitants have become adapted to the stranger’s craft
or power’’. Darwin’s concern likely referred mostly to mammals, birds, and
invertebrates, the main taxa which at that time started the reshuffling process
which the peculiar Galapagos faunistic communities have been experiencing
so far. Of course, the man who so greatly contributed to the fame of the
‘‘enchanted islands’’ could not imagine that, not long after his visit, a small
tree frog would have spread in the Galapagos islands, ready to jeopardise
indigenous arthropods.
Something is happening to the evolutionary history of the world biota that we
cannot control and we are only beginning to understand. The introduction of
NIAR is altering the composition and the ecology of original biological commu-
nities in space and time. The alarming spread, particularly of cosmopolitan
species, and the naturalization of new taxa are expected to continue in the future
with an increasing trend towards globalization, possibly exacerbated by major
environmental perturbations. For instance, climate changes (Mooney 1996,
Bright 1998) were probably involved in the successful colonization of S. quin-

quefasciatus in the Galapagos (Snell and Rea 1999) and may be related to
outbreaks of chytridiomycosis in Central America (Pounds et al. 2006). Of
course, also minor environmental modifications (Kiesecker 2003) could provide
new opportunities to the spread of NIAR, for instance contributing to the
connectivity of distant places and creating a more homogeneous habitat.
Indeed, in Australia roads facilitate the dispersal of B. marinus (Seabrook and
Dettmann 1996). On the other hand, it is interesting to notice that, at least in
Florida, none of the colonizations that occurred so far originated in natural
habitats and most NIAR have remained only in disturbed sites (Butterfield et al.
1997).
The spread of NIAR has clearly been overlooked so far, but, following the
increased understanding of their negative effects, it is likely that the perception
will change and management strategies to deal with their presence and to
prevent further introductions, particularly those accidentally caused by keeping
so many species as pets, will be implemented. In this context, developing
adequate laws and regulations would be essential (see also Chapter 37).
From a conservation point of view, a proper knowledge of the origin of
a NIAR (particularly when confusion arises to whether it is actually introduced
or just overlooked autochthonous) can be very important, for instance when
planning a management strategy. The story of the pool frog, R. lessonae, in
Britain shows the implications of attributing a wrong status to a species from a
conservation perspective. This species was traditionally considered as occurring
in Britain only as a result of ancient introductions, but recent findings suggest
that indigenous populations also occurred, before disappearing in the 1990s
(Beebee et al. 2005). As a result, the conservation status of this species is
now totally overturned, R. lessonae being Britain’s most endangered amphibian,
currently targeted even by reintroduction programmes. This is not an isolated
case. In France there seems to be an analogous situation (Pagano et al. 2003).
Also in Switzerland, the reintroduction of E. orbicularis carried out with speci-
mens of unknown origin shows the high risk of genetic introgression which
might occur in areas occupied also by indigenous populations, when little
attention is paid on the choice of the taxa to be used (Wittenberg 2005).
It is clear that the scientific community should dedicate more efforts on
finding solutions to face the spread of NIAR. The stimulation of further studies
would certainly help find a solution for this global challenge. Focusing on
scientific research to mitigate the impact on indigenous species can give inter-
esting results. For instance, in the future it could be possible to reduce the
impact of chytridiomycosis through bacterial species recently isolated on
the skins of some Australian amphibians which inhibit the growth of fungi,
including B. dendrobatidis (Harris et al. 2006).
Dedicated communication campaigns and other measures aimed at raising
awareness in public opinion and among policy makers would certainly prevent
further introductions. The production of reader friendly publications on this
topic would involve academics and the general public in the process of clarifying
the geographical distribution of problem species, as well as in the work of early
detection of newly established species.
Meanwhile, waiting for an adequate reply from the scientific communities
and the competent authorities, nature is doing its best to overcome this threat.
For instance, in Australia both body size and toxicity of B. marinus – and
therefore its impact on indigenous predators – are considered to be decreasing
with time (Phillips and Shine 2005). On the other hand, there are indigenous
snakes in Australia, such as the keelback Tropidonophis mairii Gray, which seem
capable of adaptively responding to the toad invasion by increasing toxin
resistance (Phillips et al. 2004). Thus, although most introductions prove to
be irreversible, there are clues suggesting that some indigenous species are
learning to live with the threats posed by invasive species. From the perspective
of threatened indigenous species, this is clearly the best they can do, without
adequate human support.
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Chapter eight
The red-eared slider

(Trachemys scripta elegans)
in Asia: a review
Neil F. Ramsay, Pek Kaye Abigayle Ng, Ruth

M. O’Riordan, and Loke Ming Chou
INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews what is currently known about the status of red-eared
sliders in Asia, as well as the potential impact of this non-indigenous species
(NIS) on the native Asian biota. It includes published literature, information
from websites, as well as mentioning ongoing research where known.
The red-eared terrapin or slider, Trachemys scripta elegans (Wied) is native to
the south-eastern United States. Estimates of the annual trade in hatchlings
vary from 3–4 million (Platt and Fontenot 1992), 4–7 million (Warwick 1991),
8 million (Williams 1999), to 43.6 million from the USA between 1998 and
2002 and 52 million between 1989 and 1997 (Telecky 2001). The popularity
of this species has been influenced by crazes amongst children coinciding with
cartoons featuring Teenage Mutant Ninja (Hero in the UK) Turtles. Following
on from its popularity in the international pet trade, individuals have been
released (as discarded pets or for religious reasons) in many places outside
their natural range around the world, including a number of Asian countries.
Trachemys scripta elegans is in the list of the top 100 of the world’s worst invasive
NIS drawn up by the World Conservation Union IUCN (Global Invasive Species
Database, http://www.issg.org/database) and is considered a major threat to
161
ß 2007 Springer.
162 Neil F. Ramsay et al.
indigenous aquatic flora and fauna. In 1975, the US Food and Drug Adminis-
tration banned the domestic sale of terrapins less than four inches (12 cm) in
length (which some children put in their mouths) because they were causing an
estimated 300,000 cases of salmonellosis annually (Williams 1999). According
to Williams (1999), at that time most of the estimated 8 million hatchlings
annually exported to 60 nations were infected with salmonella (ranched terra-
pins are fed slaughterhouse offal rich in salmonella). Slider ranching is also an
important activity in countries other than the USA. A number of salmonella
infections in humans have been traced back to pet terrapins, most of which
were T. s. elegans. Several authorities believe that they should be considered to
be potential vectors of salmonellosis: care should be taken to prevent water in
which a pet terrapin has been kept from coming into contact with kitchen
utensils or food (Newbery 1984). In people, salmonella causes diarrhoea, fever,
and nausea, and can lead to more serious complications such as blood poison-
ing, meningitis, or death. The most serious cases are found in infants and people
with weak immune systems (Salzberg 2000). The importation of red-eared
terrapins into New Zealand was banned by the Department of Agriculture due
to the potential human health risk (Robb 1980). Conversely, concerns have
been raised regarding the depletion of T. s. elegans in their natural habitats in
southern Louisiana, due to over collection of adults as breeding stock for farms
(Warwick et al. 1990).
THE GLOBAL SITUATION
Introductions of red-eared sliders due to releases and/or escapes from the pet
trade have been reported in Guam (Mariana Islands), Taiwan, Korea, Japan,
Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, New Zealand, Israel,
Arabia, Bahrain, South Africa, Brazil, Panama, Bermuda, Italy, Spain, Britain,
France, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Martinique, Polynesia, and Reunion, as well as in
North America outside its natural range (Newbery 1984, Bouskila 1986,
Uchida 1989, Ernst 1990, McCoid 1992, Platt and Fontenot 1992, Daniels
1994, da Silva and Blasco 1995, Moll 1995, Ota 1995, Luiselli et al. 1997,
Servan and Arvy 1997, Chen and Lue 1998, Thomas and Hartnell 2000).
Although the red-eared slider is now found on every continent except
Antarctica (Salzberg 2000), the ecological effects of introductions of T. s. elegans
have been poorly documented (Platt and Fontenot 1992). Most research on its
ecology and biology has been in its native temperate regions (e.g. Cagle 1944a,
1944b, 1946, 1950). This species is generally diurnal, feeding mainly in the
morning and frequently basking on shores, logs, or while floating, during
the rest of the day (Morreale and Gibbons 1986). At night, it sleeps lying on
the bottom or resting on the surface near brush piles and hummocks (Ernst
and Barbour 1972); however males may move overland at night. Aggressive
interactions during basking among four species of emydid terrapins have been
The Red-eared Slider in Asia 163
observed (Lindeman 1999). Cagle (1946) correlated basking, feeding, and

courtship with temperature. It is thought that the terrapins do not feed beyond
the extremes of the temperature range of 10–37 8C and consequently do not
grow. Juvenile red-eared sliders are mainly carnivorous, eating tadpoles, insects,
snails, and spiders, but adults are opportunistic omnivores, consuming almost
any food item available, including small fish, amphibians, water plants, and
various molluscs (Newbery 1984, Parmenter and Avery 1990). They feed at
any time of the day but usually in the early morning and late afternoon
(Newbery 1984).
With its broad ecological tolerances, omnivorous diet, and dispersal ability,
there is the potential for establishing breeding populations in many areas of the
world but little research has been carried out yet. In some countries, where it
has been introduced, red-eared sliders have been said to compete with indige-
nous species for food and basking spots (Salzberg 2000). There is some prelimi-
nary evidence that introduced T. scripta, now common in Bermuda, are eating
mosquito fish (Gambusia) as well as a variety of local snails (Davenport et al.
2003). In almost all countries where they have been introduced, there are
already indigenous freshwater chelonians.
Before focusing on Asia, we will first briefly examine some of the research
on this species in areas where it has been introduced, which are pertinent to
the Asian situation.
RESEARCH OUTSIDE ASIA
Although there has been some research carried out on the possible impacts of
sliders in Europe, there is however to date no hard evidence of threats to the
indigenous species Emys orbicularis (Linnaeus), Mauremys leprosa (Schweigger),
and Mauremys caspica (Gmelin), or to freshwater ecosystems. However, in an
experimental set-up in France, Cadi and Joli (2003) found sliders outcompeting
E. orbicularis for basking sites. Again in France, Servan and Arvy (1997)
reported that T. scripta was widely distributed and reproducing in three regions
where the European pond turtle E. orbicularis occurred and Cadi et al. (2004)
confirmed production of both sexes from nests incubated in the wild. A com-
parison of biological parameters with E. orbicularis showed that the red-eared
slider was bigger, had a more precocious reproduction, the eggs were larger, the
young heavier, and the populations more numerous than those of the European
pond turtle (Servan and Arvy 1997). The minimum length of males of the
red-eared slider at maturity is less than that of the E. o. orbicularis, which
explains the precocious maturity of the red-eared slider: two to five years for
T. s. elegans (Cagle 1950) versus six to 16 years for E. o. orbicularis (Servan and
Arvy 1997). Morreale and Gibbons (1986) and da Silva and Blasco (1995)
suggested that breeding populations of T. scripta would become established in
south-western Spain, an area of habitats and climate similar to parts of its
native range, and so there is the potential for competition between T. scripta
and the indigenous species (M. leprosa and E. orbicularis). In Valencia there
is evidence of reproduction; nest sites and hatchlings (Sancho et al. 2005,
N. F. Ramsay and R. M. O’Riordan 2005, personal observation). In the
1990s, da Silva and Blasco (1995) warned that, if the range of T. scripta
expands, a displacement of the indigenous species can be expected and that
this event would have especially deleterious consequences for E. orbicularis, as it
is far more endangered and scarce in Estremadura than is M. leprosa (da Silva
1993). In 1997, the then 16-member European Union banned the import of
red-eared sliders on the grounds that they were having a deleterious effect on
the indigenous European pond terrapin (E. orbicularis).
In Israel, T. scripta is believed to compete with M. caspica (Bouskila 1986),
while in South Africa it is suspected that T. scripta has displaced the native range
of Pelomedusa subrufa (Lacépède) through competition. Sliders have adapted
completely to the seasonal changes. Instead of breeding between March and
September (the normal spring and summer months in North America), they
breed during the South African equivalent (late August to February). The
reproductive success of animals kept in large open pits on the Transvaal high
veldt has been very good, suggesting that reproductive success will also be good
for those individuals released into the natural environment. In Queensland,
Australia, the red-eared slider became a declared Class 1 pest species in
2003 [Queensland Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act
2002]. Class 1 pests are those species that have the potential to cause adverse
economic, environmental, or social impacts.
IN ASIA
Asia is the world’s most speciose region for tortoises and terrapins as well as
having the greatest percentage of threatened species, with more than 75%
Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable, and 91% on the IUCN Red
list (Turtle Conservation Fund 2002). For obvious reasons, research effort and
funding has focused on the indigenous species which are both often poorly
known and highly endangered due to habitat loss and overcollection, and for
aquatic species increasing industrial, agricultural, and domestic pollution of
waterbodies. The introduction of NIS, perhaps carrying novel diseases and
parasites, as well as being potential competitors, may pose another threat to
their already precarious survival. Little research has been carried out in Asia on
non-indigenous terrapins, including impacts of red-eared sliders on indigenous
species, although there is ongoing research in Singapore (see below).
Commercial farming of species, particularly Pelodiscus sinensis (Wiegmann),
can lead to other problems. When there is a slump in the market then farms go
out of business as in Thailand and Malaysia in 2000 (CITES 2003). It is perhaps
not unreasonable to assume that when a farm goes bankrupt unsold animals
are released. Unless there is effective bio-security, farms also act as reservoirs of
disease from wastewater, escapes, vermin, etc.
Unlike in the EU, where the import of the red-eared slider was banned in
1997, it is still imported into many Asian countries. Whereas the trade in live
freshwater and terrestrial chelonians in Europe and North America is almost
entirely driven by the demands of the pet trade, in Asia there are multiple
markets. There are the local traditional ones, for food especially the soft-shelled
Trionychidae species; medicine, e.g. Three-striped Box Terrapin Cuora trifasciata
(Bell) can fetch US$2,000 on the black market, with material from the plastron
of this species believed to be a cure for cancer (Guynup 2004); religious reasons
(release for karma); and a growing internal pet trade. Demands from all of these
potential markets within Asia are rising with a burgeoning middle class and
consumer-driven populace.
Singapore
The red-eared slider is the only reptile species legally sold in Singapore in the pet
trade, with the numbers imported peaking in 2005 at over 587,852 animals
in that year (Lye Fong Keng, Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority, Singapore,
2006, personal communication). Table 1 shows the total numbers of imports
and those from the United States of this species in the last few years, with a clear
increase after a drop in 2003. A number of other chelonian species have been
found illegally for sale in pet shops (ACRES 2005, Goh and O’Riordan 2007). In
the wild, in Singapore, at least 11 species of terrapins have been recorded, both
indigenous and NIS (Lim and Chou 1990, Lim and Lim 1992, Chou 1995, Teo
and Rajathurai 1997). One of the indigenous species, the Mangrove or River
Terrapin Batagur baska (Gray), is ranked as Critically Endangered by the IUCN
and was first on the list of the World’s Top 25 Most Endangered Turtles released
by the Turtle Conservation Fund in 2002, while two other species found in
Singapore, the Spiny or Spiny Hill Terrapin, Heosemys spinosa (Gray), and the
Giant Soft-shell Turtle, Pelochelys cantorii Gray, are categorized as Endangered.
Furthermore, about 5% of Singapore’s reptiles have become extinct over the last
183 years (Brooks et al. 2003). By far, the most frequently observed chelonian
in Singapore waterbodies is the red-eared slider. However, other NIS have also
been found in them, including the Chinese Striped-neck, Ocadia sinensis (Gray),
the Cooter, Pseudemys sp., Chinese Softshell, P. sinensis, and the Pig-nosed
or Fly river turtle, Carettochelys insculpta Ramsay (P.K.A.Ng 2005, personal
observation). The Chinese Softshell, P. sinensis, is the only species of terrapin
permitted for import into Singapore for food. So, as in many parts of Asia, in
Singapore there are three separate but sometimes overlapping trades in terra-
pins; the pet trade; for human consumption; and release for religious reasons. In
Singapore, releases of introduced terrapins have gone on for decades (Lim and
Lim 1992) for religious reasons, and when red-eared sliders become too large or
aggressive to be kept as pets.
Table 1 Numbers and origins of red-eared sliders imported into Singapore

(2001–2005).
Year Numbers from US Total Numbers
2001 284,000 301,245

2002 266,604 269,904
2003 147,363 149,863
2004 388,236 389,036
2005 522,502 587,852
(Source: Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority, Singapore)
Teo and Rajathurai (1997) mentioned 87 records of sliders in their survey of

the nature reserves of Singapore and noted that this species was well established
in the reservoirs and lakes of Singapore. They commented that fortunately
at that time it had not established itself in forest streams, but it is known that
red-eared sliders may move overland (Cagle 1944a) especially if a habitat
becomes unsuitable, if there is overcrowding, for mate-seeking, or for securing
food, and they may move up to 1.6 km from the nearest water to nest (Cagle
1950). Sulaiman (2002) noted that a major concern for conservationists in
Singapore was that sliders may outcompete local species, such as the Spiny
Terrapin and the Malayan box terrapin, Cuora amboinensis (Daudin). Sliders
have been recorded laying eggs in the Botanic Gardens (Teo and Rajathurai
1997) and nesting behaviour has been observed there (T. W. H. Tan 2003,
personal communication) and at the Night Safari of Singapore Zoological
Gardens (T. M. Leong 2003, personal communication), but it is unknown
whether the eggs were viable. In Singapore, there has as yet been no published
research to show if T. s. elegans and other introduced terrapins are successfully
reproducing in the wild and whether there are effects on indigenous species,
e.g. if the reproductive period of T. s. elegans overlaps with indigenous species,
there may be potential competition for nest sites. Sulaiman (2002) noted that a
female slider can produce up to a dozen eggs twice a year and may out-breed the
Malayan box terrapin that lays two eggs each time.
Since 2002, scientists at the National University of Singapore have been
undertaking a comprehensive research programme on the biology of red-
eared sliders in Singapore. The aspects under study are: (1) diet and whether
there is overlap with indigenous terrapins or other species; (2) surveys of
waterbodies for the presence and population size of both indigenous and
non-indigenous terrapins; (3) estimates of the population size and structure,
in particular for evidence of recruitment (habitat preferences of NIS are being
compared with those of indigenous species); (4) the activity patterns of red-
eared sliders are being examined and an ethogram determined (the occurrence
of courtship and nesting behaviour are being recorded and the timing of
reproduction and egg-laying, the number of eggs produced, and the site of
nesting are being examined; interactions with other species, terrapins and
others, including aggression, competition for food and basking sites and preda-
tion are recorded); (5) the parasite and disease status are also being examined;
(6) comparative studies of how red-eared sliders and two ‘‘local’’ species
respond to food items, accelerative ability and food capture/handling methods
by video-recording and kinematic analysis (c.f. Davenport et al. 1992) have
been completed (Davenport 2005, personal communication).
The aim at the end of the research programme is to establish if there is
an impact by sliders on the indigenous fauna and to provide a programme
for long-term monitoring. Data from this research will be of use for resource
management by the National Parks Board (the Singapore body responsible for
parks and catchment areas) and to educate the public with respect to the
potential problems that can result from releasing NIS into the environment.
Thailand
Adult sliders are abundant in all ponds in parks and temples in Bangkok
(Jenkins 1995, Cox et al. 1998), and have been released into reservoirs and
canals and captured in the wild, north of Bangkok (cited in Jenkins 1995). They
have also been described as ‘common’ in Lumphini Park in southern Thailand
(Ransdale 2001). There is also some commercial production and export of
sliders but this is not thought to be significant (CITES 2003).
China
In China, a range of North American species are being farmed largely for local
demand with 500,000 sliders being produced over three years. Recent exports
of sliders to China from the USA were 4.65 million in 1998, 4.71 million in
1999, and 7.5 million in 2000. China has now stopped the import of sliders less
than 10 cm long (CITES 2003). Surveys of some animal markets found sliders
for sale in Chengdu and Kunming. At Qingshiqiao, 740 individuals of 11 species
were recorded with sliders making up 95% (91% of these were hatchlings), at
Huaniao 529 ‘turtles’ were on sale with 98% being sliders (97% hatchlings)
(Shi 2000). A small number of sliders were on sale on Hainan Island in 2002
(Shi 2004).
Hong Kong
The presence of sliders in the wild has been recorded by the Hong Kong Reptile
and Amphibian Society (www.hkas.com). Surveys of Kau Sai Chau, Sai Kung
by Dahmer et al. (2001) found a new record for a slider in 2000 compared with
a 1993 survey (Lau and Dudgeon 1999).
Malaysia
Sharma (1994) reported that in Peninsular Malaysia T. scripta hatchlings are

commonly sold in pet shops in Penang, Perak (Ipoh and Taiping), Melaka,
Terengganu, and Kuala Lumpur. According to Lim and Das (1999), T. s. elegans
is widespread in the wild in both rural and suburban areas in Peninsular
Malaysia; however, these authors do not mention it occurring in Borneo (see
under Indonesia). At the Batu Caves near Kuala Lumpur, adult semi-captive
sliders have been seen in ponds (Jenkins 1995). The authors know that some
research is currently being undertaken on the sliders in Sabah.
Vietnam
Slider hatchlings have been seen on sale in Hanoi’s Dong Xuan Market for the
last few years, but have only recently been seen in the waterways. One was first
discovered in Hoan Kiem Lake in Hanoi in 1997 by Professor Ha Dinh Duc of
Hanoi University and, in 2003, more than a dozen juveniles and two adults
were observed (Turtle Conservation Indochina 2003). The red-eared sliders,
reportedly shipped in as hatchlings from Thailand, appear to have found their
way into the lake as releases for religious reasons. Perhaps a hundred or more
turtles are released into the lake by Hanoians each year as part of their tradition.
Prof. Ha Dinh Duc noted that the Buddhist tradition of releasing wildlife has
resulted in 12 species of turtles thus far being recorded in the lake, including
Indotestudo elongata (Blyth), Manouria impressa (Günther), Pyxidea mouhotii
(Gray), O. sinensis, and P. sinensis (Turtle Conservation Indochina 2003). In
2004, Prof. Ha Dinh Duc said that there had been no formal research into the
impact of the red-eared slider on Hoan Kiem Lake’s indigenous wildlife, but felt it
was clear that there would be negative consequences as water levels fall, and
called for detailed research into the consequences that NIS would have on
genetic diversity and the lake’s ecosystem. According to Turtle Conservation
Indochina (2003), there is no clear evidence that the red-eared sliders are eaten
in Vietnam or shipped to China, although larger individuals are occasionally
observed in Ho Chi Minh and Hanoi markets. Red-eared sliders are likely to
establish a foothold in Hoan Kiem Lake and possibly other places, as the lake
offers suitable nesting, and it is likely that releases will continue to augment
existing numbers in the future.
Republic of Korea
There are records of red-eared sliders from a number of areas of Korea. Sliders
were originally imported into Korea in the 1970s for Buddhist release cere-
monies and later as pets. There has been an estimate of 6.5 million animals
imported up until when their import was banned in late 2001(Soh Ji-young
2003).
Japan
Uchida (1989) wrote of the then current status of non-indigenous terrapins in

Japan. More recently, a survey of 802 sites in 46 prefectures, conducted by the
Nature Conservation Society of Japan in 2003, found 5,966 ‘turtles’ and 90% of
these were NIS, being mostly species common in Taiwan and North and South
America. Sliders made up 62% (3,708) of all turtle records (Turtle and Tortoise
Newsletter 2004, Templado 2005). There are also records from Okinawa (Ota
1995), while according to Brazil (2005) sliders can be found in every prefecture.
The Invasive Alien Species Act was enacted in Japan at the start of June 2005.
It prohibits the importation, sale, raising, and release into the wild of 37 NIS.
Included in the list is the North American snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina
Linnaeus), and pet owners had until 1 December 2005 to register their turtle
with the Environmental Ministry. However, the red-eared slider, of which up
to a million are imported into Japan each year, is not listed. According to
Templado’s (2005) article, fear of a mass slider release is one of the reasons
why this species was not included in the list.
Indonesia
The Asian Turtle Conservation Network has listed red-eared sliders from
Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan (Borneo), Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya (Hendrie and
Vazquez 2004). The Irian News reports that the WWF have an additional
record for Manokwari in Irian Jaya in 2004 (Irian News 2004).
Taiwan
Lue and Chen (1996) found T. scripta to be the second most abundant turtle of
all the rivers surveyed in Taiwan. Subsequently, these authors suggested that
the wide ecological tolerance and dietary habits of sliders may cause impacts
on indigenous chelonians in Taiwan (Chen and Lue 1998). Although the
introduction of sliders may unfavourably affect indigenous fauna, only limited
data are available regarding the status of its populations, as well as its relation-
ship with indigenous organisms in Taiwan. In the Taipei Botanical Garden,
released individuals of the sliders have almost eradicated the vegetation (water
lilies) in a pond. The release of non-indigenous freshwater chelonians is banned
in Taiwan, but the law is very difficult to enforce and some sliders are released
through Buddhist Mercy Ceremonies. Severinghaus and Chi (1999) commented
that in Taiwan prayer released birds are usually wild caught, while the turtles and
fishes tend to be captive bred NIS, such as T. scripta and carp. The import into
Taiwan of reptiles as pets is now banned by the government (Chen and Lue 1998).
We have not found any published information on red-eared sliders in India,

Cambodia, Lao PDR, or Myanmar. Except for the record of its occurrence
mentioned in Servan and Arvy (1997) we have no other data for Sri Lanka.
CONCLUSIONS
There is a growing awareness across much of Asia of the potential problems

of NIS as well as of the trade in wild-caught chelonians. There is however a lack
of research in most countries on any potential effects, negative or otherwise, of
sliders and other non-indigenous chelonians on indigenous species. Indeed, the
CITES (2003) report on the trade in chelonians has argued that since T. scripta
evolved in a region with a diverse range of other terrapin species sharing the
habitat, that although opportunistic, it generally does not exclude other species.
If there is competition with other terrapins, it is more likely to be in temperate
regions where basking becomes more important. The report suggested that it is
unlikely that sliders will establish dominant populations in hill or forest streams
nor in large rivers and reservoirs, but is more likely to establish in lowland,
vegetated, slow-moving, or static waterbodies, e.g. in canals, ponds, and lakes.
Luiselli et al. (1997) have emphasized that the introduction of NIS should
always be strongly discouraged and that severe preventative measures should
be adopted by each responsible government to reduce such activities. Releases
into the wild can have far-reaching and harmful consequences for natural
ecosystems (Newbery 1984) and it is necessary to educate the public about
the potential deleterious effects. In Spain, steps are being taken to eliminate
sliders (da Silva and Blasco 1995). Several Asian countries have now banned
the importation of red-eared sliders and/or have attempted to restrict the trade
in wild species. Unlike other tropical regions, there is a sizeable, local (i.e. Asian)
demand for chelonians. The cultural significance has to be treated sensitively to
avoid complaints of interference with religious beliefs and traditional medicine.
This demonstrates the need for local, culturally sensitive educators preferably
from the same communities in combination with scientific research. According
to Jenkins (1995) and to the Asian Turtle Trade Working Group (2000),
keeping chelonians as pets in South-east Asia was much less prevalent
than in Europe and North America, but is not uncommon and is increasing.
In the European Union, the banning of the sale of T. s. elegans has resulted in
the importation of another subspecies, T. s. scripta, the yellow-bellied slider. It is
therefore likely that a similar scenario of releases and escapes will result in
another slider in the wild, while there is still not enough research on the
potential impact of T. s. elegans. The CITES (2003) report commented that
only continued monitoring of non-indigenous ‘‘freshwater turtle distribution
combined with ecological studies of turtle communities in Asia and beyond
can provide answers and suggest methods for active management’’ of
non-indigenous freshwater turtle populations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority of Singapore

for providing the data on imports of red-eared sliders into Singapore, the
National Parks Board and Public Utilities Board of Singapore for access to the
various water bodies, as well as the National University of Singapore for funding
the ongoing research in Singapore.
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Chapter nine
Semiaquatic mammals
introduced into Italy: case
studies in biological
invasion
Sandro Bertolino and Piero Genovesi
INTRODUCTION
Several semiaquatic mammal species introduced into European freshwater

ecosystems are very successful colonizers and rapid invaders. There are four
species established in the regional wetlands: the coypu (Myocastor coypus
Molina), the muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus Linnaeus), the American mink (Mustela
vison Schreber), and the Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl). These species
were imported into Europe to be farmed or were intentionally released into the
wild with the aim of harvesting their furs. The Canadian beaver was errone-
ously released in Finland in an attempt to recover the extinct population of
European beavers exterminated by overhunting in the 19th century (Nummi
1996).
Three of them (coypu, muskrat, and mink) are present in Italy with a different
status and pose different and complex challenges for preventing further intro-
ductions, eradicating key populations, and mitigating the impact of the popu-
lations already established in the wild. The principles of a national strategy on
the non-indigenous semiaquatic species in Italy could thus provide examples for
addressing other species and countries.
175
ß 2007 Springer.
176 Sandro Bertolino and Piero Genovesi
Despite the wide differences in the ecological niches of the species considered
in this review (the mink is a strictly carnivore predator specialized for predation
on vertebrates; the muskrat and the coypus are grazers, feeding on several
aquatic plant species), all the species share several similar biological traits:
(1) all are strictly linked to aquatic habitats, are good swimmers and fast
colonizers, able to rapidly occupy vacant suitable habitats; (2) have a large
original range (American mink and muskrat inhabit most of North America; the
coypu is widespread in South America); (3) feeding niches are very broad, being
all able to adapt their diets to the local availability of prey/plants; (4) are larger
than most similar indigenous European species – American mink is larger than
the European mink Mustela lutreola (Linnaeus), while no medium-large aquatic
rodents are present in Italy and in southern Europe, since the beaver is extinct
in all this area.
On the basis of the biological traits and distribution of the species, and taking
into account the potential impacts they may cause, we discuss the main
elements for a national Italian policy on non-indigenous semiaquatic mammal
species.
THE SPECIES
The coypu is a rodent native to South America that has been imported for fur
farming to Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America (Lever 1985, Carter and
Leonard 2002). Individuals escaped from the farms or released into the wild
established populations along riverbanks and in wetlands of many countries. In
Europe, the coypu is widespread from Spain to Romania and from Italy to
Germany (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1999, Carter and Leonard 2002). The species
is considered a pest because of the damage produced by feeding on natural
vegetation and crops and for its burrowing activity that undermines riverbanks
and dikes (Table 1).
The muskrat is a rodent native to North America, extending its range from
Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, the Rio Grande, and Colorado. The present
distribution of muskrat outside its native range is the widest for any introduced
vertebrate, apart from commensal rats and mice; in Eurasia, the species now
ranges from Atlantic to Pacific coast (Long 2003). The introduction outside its
original range was a consequence of the release or escape of specimens from
breeding farms followed by their natural expansion.
The muskrat was first introduced into Czech Republic near Prague in 1905;
here five animals originated two million of individuals in 10 years (Nummi
2002). Its present distribution in Europe ranges from France to Russia and from
Italy and Romania to Scandinavia and Baltic countries. In some European
countries, the species is responsible for damage to riverbanks and to cereal
crops, and changes the composition of aquatic plants (Table 1) with significant
impacts on the invertebrate fauna (Nummi et al. 2006). There is also some
Semiaquatic mammals introduced into Italy 177
Table 1 Impacts of three introduced semiaquatic mammals on ecosystem and

human activities.
Introduced species Threats/damage Source
Damage to vegetation
Myocastor coypus Impact on natural aquatic Boorman and Fuller 1981,
vegetation by feeding Foote and Johnson 1993,
Bertolino et al. 2005
Ondatra zibethicus Effects on the abundance of some Danell 1996, 1977
plants and on species dominance
Threats to the indigenous fauna
Myocastor coypus Destruction of bird nests; Scaravelli 2002,
predations on eggs Tinarelli 2002
Ondatra zibethicus Impact on invertebrate fauna by Danell 1996,
changing vegetation structure; Nummi et al. 2006
competition with water vole;
suggested impact on freshwater
mussels and crayfish
Mustela vison Competition with European Sidorovich et al. 1999,
mink and polecat; negative Sidorovich and
impact on water vole, other Macdonald 2001,
rodents and ground-nesting Macdonald et al. 2002,
birds Nordström et al. 2002,
2003, Banks et al. 2004
Other impacts
Myocastor coypus Burrowing activity weakening Carter et al. 1999,
riverbanks and dikes Panzacchi et al. 2007
Ondatra zibethicus Burrowing activity weakening Danell 1996
riverbanks and dikes (low impact)
Mustela vison Predation on poultry, Harrison and Symes 1989,
reared game birds, and Moore et al. 2000,
fisheries Sheail 2004
evidence of competition with the water vole Arvicola terrestris (Linnaeus) and
negative impacts on other aquatic species.
The American mink is a predator native to North America, where it is broadly
distributed except in Mexico, southern areas of the USA, and north of the Arctic
Circle. The first American minks were imported to Europe for fur trade in the
1920s and at present breeding farms are located in various countries. In eastern
Europe this predator has also been intentionally released into the wild in the
1930s and 1940s to give rise to populations that could then be harvested for
the fur trade. Established populations of the species are present in most part
of Europe, especially in the north-eastern countries, in the British Islands, and

in the Mediterranean countries (Bonesi and Palazon 2007). The mink poses
severe impacts on a number of indigenous species, in particular the water vole,
ground-nesting birds, and waterfowl (Table 1). In some cases, its predation
caused the complete breeding failure of invaded colonies of terns and gulls
(Craik 1997). It is considered a major threat to the endemic European mink
(Sidorovich et al. 1999) and competes for space and food with the polecat
Mustela putorius Linnaeus. It also can cause significant damage to poultry
runs, reared game birds, and fisheries.
THE ITALIAN SITUATION
The distribution of the coypu in Italy (Fig. 1a) had a sharp increase in recent
years, passing from scattered to the present widespread range, with two more
or less separated populations: one in northern Italy – from the Po Valley
Fig. 1a Distribution of the coypu in Italy (Cocchi and Riga 2000).

and along the Adriatic coast as far as Abruzzo – and the second along the
Tyrrhenian coast of Tuscany and Latium. In southern Italy and in the major
islands, the presence of the species is still localized (Cocchi and Riga 2001),
although in southern Sardinia it is already quite widespread. The species range
is still in expansion where ecological and environmental conditions are favor-
able; on the basis of a suitability habitat model, the present range could further
increase in the future by 2.5–3.3 times (Ottaviani cited in: Panzacchi et al.
2007).
The coypu can compromise the integrity of the sloping embankments of
irrigation canals through its burrowing activity, and is suspected to have
contributed to the causes of flooding, with major economic losses (Panzacchi
et al. 2007). The species can also cause locally important economic damage
by feeding on crops, such as sugar beets and maize. The impact of the coypu
on wetlands through feeding on aquatic vegetation can be also severe
(Reggiani et al. 1993, Cocchi and Riga 2001, Bertolino et al. 2005).
It destroys nests and preys on eggs of several aquatic birds, including some
endangered species (Scaravelli 2002, Tinarelli 2002). It has been hypothe-
sized that the species has a role in the epidemiology of leptospirosis (Michel
et al. 2001), although it is less important for the spread of the bacteria in
the environment compared to other species as rats (V. Guberti 1999, personal
communication).
A recent national survey on the economic losses due to the coypu in Italy
showed that in 6 years (1995–2000) damage to the riverbanks exceeded !10
millions and impact on agriculture reached !935,138 (Panzacchi et al. 2007).
At present, the eradication from Italy is considered impractical, because the
population is well established and widespread, and permanent control is the
most common management policy. In the period covered by the survey
(1995–2000), control activities involved the removal of 220,688 coypus and
a cost of !2,614,408; however, this effort did not seem to have successfully
contained either the expansion of the rodent or its damage at a national
level (Panzacchi et al. 2007). However, local experiences indicated that
well-planned control programs can slow down coypu population increase or
manage to eradicate isolated populations (Velatta and Ragni 1991, Bertolino
et al. 2005).
The muskrat is confined to very few wetlands of north-eastern Italy. Cases of
natural expansion of the Slovenian population have been observed, causing the
establishment of the species in some localities of Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Lapini
and Scaravelli 1993). The present distribution in the country is still very limited
and no impacts are recorded so far (Fig. 1b).
The first breeding farms of American minks in the country were established
in the 1950s; nowadays there are less than 30 farms, mostly in central
and north-eastern Italy. Feral populations originated by individuals that
escaped from captivity or were released are recorded in four areas: Friuli
(Bon et al. 1995), Ronco River (Emilia-Romagna region; D. Scaravelli 2002,
Fig. 1b Distribution of the muskrat in Italy (Spagnesi and De Marinis 2002).
personal communication), Aniene valley (Latium region; Angelici et al. 1998),

and Flumendosa River (Sardinia Island; A. Deiana 2001, personal communica-
tion) (Fig. 1c). It is not yet clear which populations are self-sustaining (repro-
duction has only been observed in Latium), but data of its constant presence
reported for Sardinia and Ronco River seem to confirm that there are several
naturalized populations in the country.
Fur farms are often the objects of raids by animal liberation activists who
enter the captive-centers during the night, opening cages and releasing
the animals. In Italy, in the last 6 years more than 30,000 individuals were
released in this way in five areas (Table 2). Most of the animals died
from predation, starvation, or were killed by cars, killed illegally, or recaptured.
It is known that animals adapted to captivity usually show reduced fitness
under natural conditions (Tufto 2001); however, it cannot be excluded that
some of the released individuals gave rise to small populations that went
undetected.
Fig. 1c Distribution of the American mink in Italy (Andreotti et al. 2001).
Table 2 American mink released in Italy from fur farms by the animal liberation
activists in 2000–2005.
Province Region Year Animals released
Parma Emilia-Romagna (NE Italy) ? 5,000

Forlı̀-Cesena Emilia-Romagna (NE Italy) 2001 3,000
Treviso Veneto (NE Italy) 2002 5,000
Ferrara Emilia-Romagna (NE Italy) 2003 20,000
Padova Veneto (NE Italy) 2005 200
THE REASON OF A SUCCESS
The three species here considered are among the most successful invaders
in Europe; the mink and the coypu are included in the IUCN list of the ‘‘100
worst alien species’’ (Lowe et al. 2000). According to Ehrlich (1989), successful
invaders are species able to cross major barriers – in this case with the help
of humans – rapidly establish viable populations and expand both in number
and range in the new habitats relatively quickly. There are several biogeo-
graphic, ecological, biological, physiological, and genetic attributes which
can be used to identify a potential invader. These were reviewed by Ehrlich
(1989) for vertebrates and applied to muskrat by Danell (1996). According
to Ehrlich (1989), successful invaders have broad ecological amplitude; this
assumption has also been supported by Vázquez (2005) who proposed a ‘‘niche
breadth-invasion success’’ hypothesis, suggesting that generalists are more
successful invaders than specialists. Non-indigenous species more adapted
to occupy human-modified habitats are more likely to establish into the wild
(Sol et al. 2002). Also r-selected species often make successful invaders (Saether
1988).
Coypu, muskrat, and mink have most of the attributes of successful invaders,
as they: (1) have large native ranges; (2) often present consistent populations;
(3) are rapid dispersers; (4) have broad diet and good behavioral flexibility;
(5) show short generation times; (6) are partially gregarious; (7) pregnant
females can colonize new areas; (8) have larger size than local congeneric;
and (9) are all able to colonize human-modified habitats (Table 3).
Table 3 Attributes of successful vertebrate invaders (adapted from Ehrlich 1989,

Danell 1996) and how these apply to the semiaquatic mammals introduced into Italy.
American
Attributes of successful invaders Muskrat Coypu mink
Large native range þ þ þ

Abundant in original range þ þ þ
Mobile þ þ þ
Broad diet þ þ þ
Short generation lines þ þ þ
Much genetic variability ?* ?* ?*
Gregarious þ þ
Female able to colonize alone þ þ
Larger than most relatives þ þ þ
Associated with man
Able to function in a wide range þ þ þ
of environmental conditions
Able to colonize human-modified habitats þ þ
* Founder animals originated from breeding farms; repeated releases may have avoided
decrease in genetic variability
CONTROL VS. ERADICATION
Eradication of non-indigenous species is globally acknowledged as a key man-

agement option for mitigating the impacts caused by biological invasions
(Wittenberg and Cox 2001, Genovesi 2005). Many invasive introduced species
have been eradicated worldwide, managing in this way to prevent the impacts
they cause to biological diversity and economy (Simberloff 2002, Genovesi
2005). However, eradication and control in freshwater ecosystems are often
much more difficult than in terrestrial environments, and in fact no eradication
of amphibians, reptiles, plants, or invertebrates have been completed so far in
Europe (Chapter 34).
The main – not to say the only – exception to the difficulty of controlling
non-indigenous species in aquatic environments is the removal of mammal
species, considering that several eradication projects of introduced semiaquatic
mammals have been successfully completed in Europe (Table 4), including the
eradication of the muskrat and the coypu from the UK and of the American
mink at the local scale, such as its removal from the island of Hiimaa, Estonia
(Genovesi 2005), and in the Outer Hebryds (Hebridean Mink Project 2006). The
eradication campaign against the coypus in England during the period
1981–1992 is considered one of the most successful eradication projects carried
out in Europe and the largest completed on mainland in this region (Gosling
1989, Genovesi 2005).
Eradication is most applicable when populations are still small, and thus is
more likely to succeed when realized within a short period after the introduction
(i.e. Bomford and O’Brien 1995). Once a non-indigenous species has widely
established in the wild and population size becomes large, eradication usually
becomes expensive and technically complex (Genovesi 2000). In this case, a
permanent control campaign is an alternative option, and in fact the three
mammal species here considered are controlled in many countries to reduce
Table 4 Eradication programs carried out in Europe on American mink, coypu, and
muskrat. (Sources: Gosling and Baker 1989, Genovesi 2005, Bonesi and Palazon 2007)
Species Country Region Year Outcome
Mustela vison Estonia Hiiumaa Island 1998–1999 Successful

Finland Islands in the 1993–2001 Successful
Baltic Sea
Great Britain 1964–1970 Not successful
Myocastor coypus Great Britain West Anglia 1981–1989 Successful
Ondatra zibethicus Great Britain Scotland, 1932–1937 Successful
Shropshire,
Sussex, Surrey
Table 5 European countries where the American mink and the coypu are controlled
or hunted. (Sources: Carter and Leonard 2002, Bonesi and Palazon 2007; Website:
http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/special/nutria/index.htm)
Species Country Method Year of starting
Mustela vison Belarus Control 1992

Iceland Hunting 1940s
Lithuania Hunting 1980s
UK – Itchen Control 1990s
UK – Thames Control 2002
UK – Western Isles Control/Eradication 2001
Myocastor coypus Austria Control 1935
France Control 1974
Germany Control/Hunting ?
Italy Control ?
The Netherlands Control ?
their impacts. In Table 5, a list of countries in Europe where mink and coypu are
controlled or hunted is reported from two recent reviews published on these
species (Carter and Leonard 2002, Bonesi and Palazon 2007).
However, permanent control can be very expensive, and the cost/benefit ratio
of this management option should be carefully evaluated before starting a
campaign. For example, in Italy the number of coypus removed during control
activities in the year 2000 alone (n ¼ 64,338) almost doubled the number of
animals removed in the entire eradication campaign in England (n ¼ 34,822).
The costs paid in Italy for the management (damage and control operations)
of the coypu in the year 2000 only, accounted for about 75% of the overall costs
of the eradication completed in England and the cost/benefits of the coypu policy
in Italy is thus debatable (Panzacchi et al. 2007). As a consequence, whenever it
is technically feasible, eradication is the best option in comparison to permanent
control, because it is definitive and does not require permanent removal efforts
and the standing costs of management.
TOWARD A NATIONAL STRATEGY TO PREVENT AND MITIGATE THE

IMPACTS OF SEMIAQUATIC MAMMALS IN ITALY
The best strategy for preventing the negative consequences caused by biologic
invasions is based on a hierarchical approach that comprises: (1) prevention of
non-indigenous species introduction; (2) in the case that prevention fails,
prompt eradication of the introduced species; and (3) when eradication is not
feasible, spatial containment and/or population control campaign (Wittenberg
and Cock 2001, Genovesi and Shine 2004). In the case of the semiaquatic
mammals introduced into Italy, prevention should be focused on (1) strictly

regulating the existing fur farm facilities, (2) banning farming in not yet invaded
areas, (3) rapidly respond to illegal releases, and (4) contain arrival through
spread of populations established in neighboring countries. Eradication cam-
paigns should become the key management option when prevention fails, or in
the case of isolated populations already established in the country. Large-scale
containment or a control campaign should be planned on solid science, only
after an in-depth analysis of the cost/benefit ratio.
Legal
All the considered species are automatically protected under the Italian legisla-
tion (Law 157/1992), which does not distinguish between indigenous and
non-indigenous species and does not include a clear reference to eradication.
The legal framework should be revised in order to ensure that legal status of
introduced species is compatible with rapid response and mitigation measures.
DPR 357 (modified and integrated by DPR 120) has introduced a general ban
on the release into the wild of non-indigenous species; however, the practical
interpretation of such ban remains unclear, and enforcement is very complex.
Clear guidelines for the implementation of this ban and for a clarification of the
responsibilities following the introduction of this legal tool are thus urgently
needed.
Prevention
The pathway of introduction for the three species is fur farming (both through
accidental escapes and intentional releases by animal liberation activists); pre-
vention should thus focus on stricter rules on farm facilities, in order to prevent
further escapes, and restrictions to farming in critical areas (most vulnerable
habitats, critical areas for expansion, isolated areas not yet invaded). Fencing
and security of existing farms should be verified and improved, and stricter
criteria of fencing should be imposed when issuing licenses to farms. It is critical
that authorization to farms is conditioned to the capacity of the competent
authorities (Provincial Administrations) to verify and periodically control the
adequacy of the facilities. Muskrats and coypus do not have any commercial
interest at present, and stricter rules for farming these rodents are thus not
a priority. The involvement of farmers is critical, and a voluntary code of
conduct should be developed. A memorandum of understanding with the
AIAV (Italian Association of Mink Breeders) should be established.
Rapid response
Rapidity and efficacy of response to new escapes can be increased by defining

clear protocols for the competent authorities in case of escapes or releases. Also
in this case, the involvement of farmers is an important element of a response

strategy; a system of rapid alert after escapes or attacks should be developed.
Lists of competent authorities and telephone numbers should be provided
to farmers. Decision process for response should be streamlined in order to
ensure that capture of animals is started within 2–3 h after escape. Competent
authorities in areas with mink farms should develop contingency plans and
collect basic equipments (traps, baits, transport cages, nets) for recapturing
animals and transporting these to the farms. Staff should be trained at trapping
and handling mink. Agreements with farmers should also include support
for careful evaluation of damage to fences and support for immediate repairs.
In order to set up a system of rapid alert in case of new introductions or of
expansions of the species into new areas, it would be important to involve key
groups (i.e. angling association, public fish departments, etc.), producing and
circulating informative documentations to enhance rapid identification of the
species and providing contacts for collecting and evaluating observation data.
Eradication
Priority should be given to eradicate populations more likely to expand into new
areas and to isolated populations. Particularly important should be the eradi-
cation of the small populations of the muskrat in north-eastern Italy, because
this could prevent very high costs in the future. Such eradication should then be
followed by a constant rapid detection and response system aimed at containing
new arrivals of muskrats from Slovenia.
Eradication of the mink population recently discovered in Sardinia is particu-
larly urgent, as the removal of this isolated population could prevent severe
impact to the biodiversity of the island that hosts many important bird nesting
areas and important endemic amphibian species. Mink populations recorded
in northern and central Italy have not yet started to expand and the feasibility of
local eradications should thus be evaluated by the competent local authorities
and then rapidly enforced when appropriate.
The widespread distribution of the coypu in Italy makes an overall eradica-
tion an impracticable option. However, similarly to the case of the American
mink, eradication of the isolated populations of Sardinia and Sicily is of critical
importance for preventing high costs and severe impacts to the wetlands of
these islands.
Control
When eradication is not feasible – as in the case of the coypu – the need and
efficacy of applying permanent control actions should be evaluated. Control
should not be started only as a response – because damage is recorded – prior to
assessing the cost/benefit ratio of the activities. Control policies should be
planned at an adequate, biologically sound spatial scale, taking into account
the potential counteracting effects of immigration. Efforts should be concen-

trated in the most vulnerable areas in terms of biodiversity and human activi-
ties. Limiting factors for the species in southern Europe should be identified and
management should be focused accordingly. Efficacy of management should be
constantly evaluated, with particular reference to cost/benefit, and activities
should be reviewed accordingly.
International cooperation
The case of the muskrat, colonizing Italy by its natural spread from the
neighboring Slovenia, shows the importance of international coordination and
cooperation. In parallel with the eradication of the Italian population, it would
be important that Slovenia controls the larger population living in its territory
and keep Italy informed on the expansion patterns occurring toward the border.
On the other hand, the technical experiences gathered in Italy – for example, on
the efficacy and cost/benefit of the coypu control – should be rapidly circulated
to the other European countries sharing similar problems, as for example Spain
(Panzacchi et al. 2007).
CONCLUSIONS
Freshwater ecosystems of Europe – hosting an important portion of the

regional biodiversity – are particularly vulnerable to biological invasions. The
implementation of more stringent policies for preventing and mitigating
the impacts caused by non-indigenous species in these ecosystems is urgent
and critical for preserving European biological diversity. Among freshwater
non-indigenous species, semiaquatic mammals are particularly harmful. In
this chapter, we have identified the main elements of a policy on the three
species present in Italy – the coypu, the muskrat, and the American mink – all
efficient invaders that threaten indigenous species and ecosystems, and affect
human activities.
Priority should be given to prevention, by revising and implementing the
legal framework, strictly regulating fur farms, banning farms in critical areas,
and imposing more efficient fencing devices on farmers. Prompt eradication in
case of escapees and removal of key isolated populations should be the basis of
management. Eradication of the muskrat before it starts to spread is a priority
for the near future. Involvement of the fur farmers is an important element for
prevention and rapid response for new invasions. A better coordination with
neighboring countries is another key element, as shown by the recommended
eradication of the muskrat in north-eastern Italy that could be undermined by
lack of action in Slovenia.
At the European level, it seems important to work toward a restriction of
import and trade of all the three species here considered, taking into account
that such a measure is legally justified on the basis of a science-based risk

assessment.
The case of the semiaquatic non-indigenous mammals present in Italy
provides a practical example of the elements to be developed in a national
strategy on invasive species. The general approach described for the three
non-indigenous mammals follows the guiding principles developed under the
Convention on Biological Diversity, and the approach defined by the European
Strategy on Invasive Alien Species: prevention of new unwanted introductions
should be the first line of defense; prompt identification and early eradication
are the best options when prevention fails; control or containment should only
be undertaken when eradication is impracticable or fails.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the editor for the invitation to contribute to this volume. Sandro
Lovari and two anonymous referees provided helpful comments on previous
drafts of the manuscript.
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Chapter ten
Invasions by plants in the

inland waters and wetlands
of Africa
INTRODUCTION
Africa is a large continent (near 30 million km2 ) with 53 countries including

several island States. There are many hundreds of small rivers and lake basins
within those countries, while most of the large drainage basins include at least
two countries – up to as many as 13 (UN/Water Africa 2006). Freshwater
wetlands are similarly widespread and variable in size with many of the larger
swamps and floodplains extended into at least two countries. A classic example
is the Nile River Basin, which encompasses parts of ten countries in eastern
Africa, the Horn of Africa, and northern Africa. It includes lakes and impound-
ments at all altitudes, and has a great variety of wetland types, many of which
stretch across those national boundaries (Howard 2007).
Most of Africa is tropical, being between the two tropics at 328 latitude North
and South. North African countries on the Mediterranean coast are more
temperate as are parts of South Africa and its near neighbours. Despite a
great variety of rainfall patterns and ecosystem types, there are very few natural
barriers to the movement of aquatic plant propagules between the States of
Africa (apart from the island States), which is significant when describing and
discussing the distribution and spread of invasive species. Some species of
tropical non-indigenous invasive plants have become widespread in the waters
and wetlands of Africa as a result of both natural and man-enhanced move-
ment. While introductions of non-indigenous species (NIS) to Africa have most
193
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194 Geoffrey W. Howard and Florence W. Chege
commonly been brought about by intentional imports, trade, travel, transport,

and tourism, their spread across Africa has often been by the natural movement
of aquatic plants within the major drainage basins – after interbasin transfers by
a variety of means. The political boundaries of nation States are hardly barriers
to this spread so that the likelihood of countries being able to prevent spread is
limited, once a potentially invasive freshwater species becomes established
within tropical Africa (Howard 2004). Temperate species are able to spread at
the northern and southern ends of the continent, but the mainly tropical areas
in between have kept these two extremes largely separate with regard to aquatic
plant invasions by mainly temperate species. However, climate change is
beginning to affect African aquatic systems such that temperate and tropical
areas are less separated – which increases the chances of colonization by
invasive species across previously separated systems.
This introduction describes the background to invasions by non-indigenous
plants in the fresh waters and wetlands of Africa in comparison to those in
Europe. Similar movement of species is enabled by drainage systems between
countries in Europe, but where water systems are more managed and where
species are seen as non-indigenous if they come from outside national borders.
The concept of ‘‘alien invasive species’’ in Africa is further confounded by
increasing examples of invasions by plants that are truly indigenous to the waters
and wetlands of some part or parts of Africa. These will be treated somewhat
separately below, but there is need for use of the concept of ‘‘nativeness’’ as
referring to an ecosystem or habitat rather than to a country within the waters
and wetlands of Africa. Increasingly of late, there are more examples of waters
and wetlands being invaded by plants that are indigenous to Africa – but not
necessarily indigenous to a particular country or ecosystem within Africa.
Within a country or even an ecosystem, it is clear that, when a system is modified
by human intervention or natural disaster, species that are indigenous to that
system can become invasive because of changes in the nature of that system.
Thus, when African water and wetland systems are significantly affected by
changes in water regime, changes in water quality, changes in vegetation and
herbivorous fauna, or changes in topography and landscape, plant species that
were previously indigenous and part of the native vegetation may react to the
disturbance and so become invasive. We will describe some examples of this later.
TYPES OF PLANTS THAT BECOME INVASIVE
The term ‘‘aquatic plants’’ is deliberately not used in this context as we wish to
place emphasis on the ecosystems invaded rather than on the taxonomy or
physiology of the plants concerned. Higher plants (Spermatophyta) that inhabit
fresh waters in tropical Africa range from facultative aquatics (hydrophytes)
that are totally dependent upon the presence of freshwater and are unable to
survive without it, to those that rely upon (or tolerate) inundation for some part
Invasive plants in African fresh waters 195
of the annual cycle. Thus, we have followed the system of Mitchell (1985a) and
divided the plants that are the subject of this discussion into three broad types:
floating plants, emergent plants, and submerged plants with the middle group
including some species that are occasionally dependent upon (or tolerant of )
inundation for their growth and spread. Few species are entirely limited to one
category as they often have habitat adaptations to allow survival with changing
water availability. For example, the notorious water hyacinth, while being
primarily a floating plant, can survive as a rooted plant in very shallow water
or with only subsurface inundation. These categories are more useful for the
consideration of detection and for the management of invasions than as tight
biological boundaries.
The range of species considered describes the range of macrophyte types,
situations, threats, and management challenges for species that invade the
waters and wetlands of Africa, and is not meant to be all-inclusive. Tables 1
and 2 list the species mentioned with some records of their range or potential as
invaders. Information about the plant species that invade African waters is
limited and skewed in distribution across species, countries, and ecosystems.
The most widespread invaders have an extensive literature that describes their
distribution and impacts and sometimes their control, while others are barely
known and so are infrequently mentioned. Some countries, notably South
Africa, have many data and publications about invasive plants with excellent
references for recognition and management. Other countries are beginning
to assemble national listings and distributions of invasive species but have
published little. Some information is available from international publications
and websites, but there are few that focus on the continent of Africa.
Information for Tables 1 and 2 and for the discussion has been derived mainly
from personal observations, records, and communications over the last 30
years. Additional information has been derived from Howard (1985), Mitchell
(1985a), Pieterse and Murphy (1990), Cronk and Fuller (2001), Henderson and
Cilliers (2002), Howard and Matindi (2003), Weber (2003), and the following
websites: Aquatic, Wetland and Invasive Plant Database, Global Invasive
Species Database, Global Invasive Species Information Network, Smithsonian
Environment Research Center – Aquatic Invasions Research Directory. These
tables include species that are regarded by the authors (and others) as invasive
and do not include all those that are known in Africa to be ‘‘aquatic weeds’’ in
general or in specific situations relating to agriculture, water management and
use, human health, and development.
FLOATING PLANTS
Mitchell (1985b) used the term ‘‘obligate acropleustopyhte’’ to typify the float-
ing water plants that cannot grow well in other situations and listed ten or
so species indigenous to Africa as well as four genera of the ‘‘duckweeds’’
196
Table 1 Major non-indigenous invasive species in the waters and wetlands of Africa. Data from listed websites, personal
communications, and observations, 1975–2006.
Records in Africa Recorded in Africa as

Invasive species and type Higher plant family Origin as invasive potentially invasive
Floating plants
Eichhornia crassipes Pontederiaceae South America Africa-wide
Pistia stratiotes Araceae South America Africa-wide
Salivinia molesta Pteridophyta South America Africa-wide
Salviniaceae
Azolla filiculoides Pteridophyta South America Africa-wide
Azollaceae
Emergent plants
Mimosa pigra Leguminosae Central and South Flood plains and Riverine habitats from where
Mimosoidea America riverine wetlands it can move to flood plains
in tropical Africa
Myriophyllum aquaticum Haloragaceae South America South Africa, Many wetlands and water
(Vell.) Verdc. (eastern Africa) gardens across Africa

Myriophyllum spicatum Linnaeus Haloragaceae Asia, Europe, North Africa South Africa Central Africa
Pontederia cordata Linnaeus Pontederiaceae North, central South Africa Southern and eastern Africa
South America
Sesbania punicea Leguminosae South America Southern Africa Eastern Africa
Papilionoidea
Arundo donax Linnaeus Poaceae Mediterranean South Africa Eastern Africa
Canna indica Cannacea Pan-tropical (Asia, South Africa Eastern and southern Africa
Americas now in Africa)
Ipomoea carnea fistulosa Convolvulaceae Central and South Africa
(Mart. Ex Choisy) D.F.Austin South America
Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum Brassicaceae Europe South Africa Central, eastern and
(L.) Hayek ¼ (Nasturtium southern Africa
officinale)
Submerged and floating-leaved
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae Asia, Americas, now Africa North and southern Africa
Hydrocleys nymphoides Butomaceae South America Eastern Africa
Ceratophyllum demersum Linnaeus Ceratophyllaceae Worldwide (Tropical and West, central, southern,
temperate) and eastern Africa
Invasive plants in African fresh waters
197
198
Table 2 Examples of indigenous African plants that are, or may become, invasive in the waters and wetlands of Africa. Data from
Henderson and Cilliers (2002), personal communications, observations and records 1975–2006.
Higher plant Records in Africa Recorded in Africa as

Species or genera and type family Origin as invasive potentially invasive
Floating plants
Lemna Linnaeus., Lemnaceae Africa Africa Africa
Spirodela Schleid, ‘‘Duckweeds’’
Wolffia Horkel ex Schleid
Pseudowolffia Hartog and Plas,
Wolffiella (Hegelm) Hegelm
Emergent plants
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L. f. Apiaceae Africa (naturalized Isolated invasions in Africa
(Umbelliferae) in USA and Europe) eastern and
southern Africa
Vossia cuspidata Poaceae Tropical Africa Tropical Africa
Typha spp Typhaceae Tropical and temperate Tropical and
Africa temperate Africa
Aeschynomene elaphroxylon Leguminosae Africa West Africa Africa
Papilionoidea
Ipomoea aquatica Convolvulaceae Pan-tropical Africa-wide Central, West, southern

and eastern Africa
Submerged plants
Najas horrida Najadaceae Africa-wide (Uganda) Southern and eastern Africa
(Lemnaceae). He also listed the four infamous pan-tropical invasive species

[Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Pistia stratiotes Linnaeus, Salvinia molesta
D. S. Mitch., and Azolla filiculoides Lam., see Table 1], which all probably origi-
nated in Central/South America. One of these, P. stratiotes, has been known in
Africa for centuries and has local names and traditional uses in some parts of
the continent (hence its occasionally-used common name of ‘‘Nile cabbage’’).
Nevertheless, P. stratiotes is regarded as an NIS in Africa and has spread across
the watery ecosystems of the continent as aggressively as the other three. All
four of these pan-tropical floating invasive plants are present in most of the
larger (and many of the smaller) river systems and lakes of Africa. However,
some water bodies are still free of all or some of these (e.g. the Okavango delta in
Botswana and, until very recently, Lake Tanganyika), so there is a need for
prevention of further spread of these four species. For many years, there was a
search for ‘‘who introduced water hyacinth’’, for example, to a particular
system such as the Congo River or Lake Victoria. Latterly, it is becoming clear
that most of these species have been on the continent for many decades and that
their spread can no longer be attributed to a person, a process, or a date. Low
density and isolated occurrences of these species have been noticed for many
years in the low nutrient waters of some wild rivers, crater lakes, and rift valley
lakes where they could not be regarded as invasive. But in the last few years,
with increased nutrient input from feeder streams and surface run-off, they
have become more obvious as they increase in density and impact – becoming
potentially invasive. Further, the growth of all of these species near human
habitation, towns, and cities has been enhanced by the entry of untreated (or
partly treated) sewage, industrial wastes, and urban run-off after storms which
have made the four infamous floating invasive species more noticeable.
For many years, the passage of floating E. crassipes and P. stratiotes plants
down the Zambezi River upstream of the Victoria Falls was part of the charm of
the scenery. The same is true of other African rivers, such as the Awash River in
Ethiopia and the Pangani and Rufiji Rivers in Tanzania. Now, these are seen
as sources of invasions downstream and of local infestations in backwaters
and slow-flowing tributaries which are ‘‘fuelled’’ by agricultural, urban, and
industrial wastes. Very few of the main river and lake systems in continental
Africa and its island States are free of all four of these species – and the same is
true of the larger wetlands. For example, in Somalia, P. stratiotes is present in
the two large rivers that flow from Ethiopia – the Shebelle and the Jubba, but
E. crassipes is not recorded in the most recent literature from that country
(Thulin 2006). However, E. crassipes is present in several lakes and wetlands
of Ethiopia and it is likely that it will be found in Somalia in the near future – as
it has been in so many other freshwater systems across Africa.
Indigenous floating plant species in Africa are few (although there are many
species of Lemnaceae in Africa, some of them pan-tropical) and most are small
compared to the size that can be attained by the four major ‘‘alien invasive
species’’ when conditions of temperature, humidity, and nutrients are in their
favour. For instance, G. Howard has recorded water hyacinth plants in a

nutrient-rich bay of Lake Victoria that were 2 m above water and 1 m below;
he also recorded water lettuce plants 60 cm in diameter in a nutrient-rich bay
of Lake Baringo in Kenya. Thus, in a sense, the floating water plant habitat/
niche is empty of large indigenous species and so most easily exploited by
non-indigenous plants – like the four mentioned above.
The impacts of the four main non-indigenous floating species are well-known
(e.g. Mitchell 1985a, Howard and Harley 1998, Howard and Matindi 2003)
as they affect previously open waters, often covering the surfaces of lakes,
ponds, dams, swamps, and even (slow-flowing) rivers with disastrous effects on
biodiversity, water use, and management and people’s access – as well as human
health and economies. The smaller, native floating plants can become weeds
under certain conditions (e.g. farm dams and irrigation run-off canals) and have
the potential to become invasive – but they have rarely done so to date (Table 2).
EMERGENT PLANTS - INCLUDING THOSE ON SEASONALLY-FLOODED

FLOOD PLAINS
This group of plants is very diverse in life form and size in Africa, ranging from
very small sedges (Cyperaceae) to very tall reeds, shrubs, and trees. All are
rooted in soil which is inundated, either above or below ground, at some time in
a year. As the name implies, emergent species have aerial parts that extend
beyond the water surface (Mesléard and Perennou 1996) (those that have leaves
that float on the water surface are considered in the next section). They include
herbs, grasses and sedges, reeds, shrubs, and trees, and occupy the margins of
lakes and rivers as well as forming swamps and marshes in many wetland types.
This group also includes those plants that are tolerant of seasonal flooding
and is made up of representatives of many different plant families. A description
of the range of plants in this group in Africa is given by Thompson (1985) and
the main NIS listed in Table 1, while those that are indigenous are in Table 2.
In this group, there is less impact and perhaps less severity of invasion
compared to the floating plants as the indigenous vegetation leaves little oppor-
tunity for the expansion of new species. However, the spread of catchment
mismanagement and other forms of habitat disturbance (water level and flow
changes, water quality changes, and wetland conversion) have led to several
indigenous and NIS becoming serious threats to biodiversity and development.
One non-indigenous flood plain and riparian shrub species is worthy of
mention as it is steadily spreading and creating serious problems in many
wetlands in Africa. This is Mimosa pigra Linnaeus (the ‘‘giant sensitive plant’’)
which originates from central and southern America but which has been
known in Africa for at least two centuries (and has local names and associated
beliefs in some areas). Mimosa pigra has been relatively widespread although in
low density in the past, but is now appearing as a serious invader of flood plains
and riverine wetlands in many parts of the continent. It develops dense thickets
that can cover both permanent and seasonal wetlands, as it has done in
northern Australia and South-east Asia (Julien et al. 2004, Triet et al. 2004),
and in doing so it excludes many large vertebrates (including livestock) and
most other wetland plants and completely impedes access and passage in former
open waters and plains.
The (four) indigenous species of Typha Linnaeus (Typhaceae, the Cattail
family, the bulrushes, or reed maces) are notable as they are also spreading
with disturbance and the development of water systems (water supply, irriga-
tion, and hydropower development) in previously dry areas. These reeds are
essentially swamp plants that are only otherwise found on the edges of lakes
and slow-flowing streams. However, they have the capacity to produce millions
of wind-dispersed seeds which can germinate and survive in even small sources
of water and then develop into one-species reed swamps as long as water is
available. Unlike most European reeds, bulrushes in tropical Africa grow
throughout the year and can have a great impact on other wetland vegetation.
Typha domingensis Pers. is capable of aggressive competition with other reeds
(such as papyrus, Cyperus papyrus Linnaeus, and Phragmites Adans. spp.) and
can dominate previously stable swamp communities as a result of water level or
water quality changes. It is very tolerant of increases in salinity and other
dissolved salts in freshwater as well as being able to withstand changes in
water levels – even to the point of becoming dried out for several months.
Other local species of reeds and other swamp and lake vegetation cannot compete
in such situations and so Typha tends to ‘‘take over’’, to the detriment of both
larger and smaller wetland plants as well as the fauna that depends on them.
Several species of non-indigenous stream-side and lake-side plants are able to
withstand flooding and so can become invasive as they can occupy a catena of
inundation from almost dry to almost completely submerged. Some of these are
often not seen as primarily wetland species but can nevertheless take on that
role under some circumstances and dominate other wetland and wetland-edge
vegetation. Examples are the non-indigenous wild canna (Canna indica
Linnaeus) and Sesbania punicea (Cav.) Benth., and the indigenous Aeschynomene
elaphroxylon (Guill. and Perr.) Taub. One tropical indigenous (and pan-tropical)
scrambling plant that can become invasive is Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. This
species is rooted in the soil and scrambles on other aquatic vegetation as well
as floating on and above the water surface. While it is seen as invasive in some
situations, it is prized in others as a valuable green vegetable.
SUBMERGED AND FLOATING-LEAVED PLANTS
Denny (1985) refers to this group of wetland plants as ‘‘euhydropytes’’ because

of their complete reliance on water and gives examples of the life forms and taxa
found in Africa. All are rooted or anchored in the substrate of a wetland, lake, or
river and may have leaves floating below or upon the water surface. They are
typified by the ‘‘pond weeds’’ and water lilies, although there are many species
in Africa from the algae, liverworts, mosses, ferns, and angiosperms. Many are
local weeds, especially in agricultural and water supply situations, but few
are invasive.
The NIS of Hydrilla Rich. and Ceratophyllum Linnaeus (see Table 1) are now
well-established in African waters; they can cause problems in both still and
running waters and can be regarded as invasive. A potential invasive species is
Hydrocleys nymphoides (Willd.) Buchen. (from South America), which has been
established as a horticultural decorative plant in some tropical water gardens
and which is occasionally used in constructed wetlands for wastewater treat-
ment. The local species of water lilies (Nymphaea Linnaeus spp., Nymphoides Hill
spp.) can cause local weedy problems but are not considered as invasive and are
valuable as both food and shelter for a wide range of wetland animals. A recent
report of the indigenous, submerged Najas horrida A. Braun and Rendle (Table 2)
becoming invasive in a lake and riverine situation in eastern Africa may require
further attention. A concern with the truly submerged plants is that they are
not noticed as much as others and often become problems that could have been
addressed if they had been identified sooner.
IMPACTS OF WETLAND/WATER INVASIONS BY PLANTS
Invasive species in freshwater ecosystems have negative impacts on biodiversity

as well as on human development and human well-being, including health. The
relationship between invasive plants in Africa and biodiversity in freshwater
ecosystems is quite complex, rarely researched, and so not well-understood.
Most available information is about the effects of aquatic ‘‘weeds’’ (e.g. Mitchell
1985a, Pieterse and Murphy 1990) on water and wetland systems, while
accounts of the impacts of invasive species on biodiversity are often anecdotal.
Floating species are accused of reducing light below them, reducing oxygen in
water, competing with other water plants for space, increasing evapotranspira-
tion from water bodies, altering water flows, and causing changes in wetland
vegetation communities (Howard and Harley 1998, Navarro and Phiri 2000,
Howard and Matindi 2003). All types are capable of changing the structure of
aquatic vegetation through competition above and below water, often to the
detriment of species diversity both of plants and the animals that depend on
them for food, shelter, and breeding sites.
Specific examples of changes include the alteration of vegetation patterns
following some invasions of water hyacinth and the other non-indigenous
floating species. There are situations where these invasive floating water plants
provide platforms for the growth of other plants that would otherwise not
be able to survive on the surface of open waters. Clumps of water hyacinth
can be bound together by semiaquatic sedges and grasses to form larger floating
mats upon which even terrestrial species can survive and spread as the mats
move with water currents and wind. Adams et al. (2002) described the forma-
tion of mats involving S. molesta and E. crassipes on Lake Naivasha in Kenya and
their association with other organisms. Similar mat formation is sometimes seen
with S. molesta and P. stratiotes and, in some situations, all three combine to
together to form multiple species floating mats.
There is a special relationship between water hyacinth and ‘‘hippo grass’’
[Vossia cuspidata (Roxb.) Griff], itself an occasional (indigenous) invasive species.
Vossia cuspidata is a widespread wetland species that is rooted at the edges of
lakes, rivers, and wetlands and which has stems that stretch out across the
water surface – floating as far as their buoyancy will allow. While V. cuspidata is
usually restricted in the distance over which its stems can reach, this changes
when E. crassipes forms mats that become ‘‘anchored’’ by the hippo grass,
which then uses their buoyancy to stretch further out into open water. This
has been seen in many situations, particularly at river edges, and can result in
a complete coverage of the water surface from one river bank to the other with
a mat that is anchored by the grass roots. This can then slow or block the river
flow as well as encouraging other plants to establish over the water surface and
change the flowing river to a slow-moving swamp or sudd. Waterbird, fish, and
aquatic invertebrate assemblages may be altered as a result and fisheries,
transport, and water use affected. Similar situations are possible with I. aquatica
and the floating water plants as well as with other emergent species. Often the
submerged plants are placed at a greater disadvantage by these combinations
than they are with one or the other invasive types. Changes in the vegetation
patterns of submerged species are even less well-documented (partly because
they are ‘‘out of sight’’). These can be altered by the floating invasive plants, by
the emergent plants, and by other submerged species. Changes in the sub-
merged and emergent vegetation of Lake Naivasha in Kenya over several
decades were described by Harper et al. (1990), who ascribed these changes to
(non-indigenous) invasive freshwater crayfish [Procambarus clarkii (Girard)] as
well as to an infestation of S. molesta and changes in climate. Together with
several species of introduced (non-indigenous) fish and coypu [Myocastor coypus
(Molina)], the crayfish and floating plants (including the more recent infes-
tations of water hyacinth) have wrought significant changes to the ecology
and utility of Naivasha as a centre of tourism, commercial fisheries, irrigated
agriculture, and conservation.
Other impacts of the range of invasive water plants on African waters and
wetlands are listed by, e.g. Howard and Harley (1998), Navarro and Phiri
(2000), Howard and Matindi (2003), and include:
Direct effects on water flows and availability – affecting water supply, hydro-
power generation, and irrigation
Changes in water quality with impacts on household, agricultural, and
industry water supply
Blockage of water supply and drainage channels, and alterations to water

storage facilities
Alteration of access of wildlife and livestock to water and water pastures
Blockage of peoples’ access to water and transport on water
Alteration of fisheries in diversity and yields
Encouragement of intermediate hosts of human diseases such as malaria and
schistosomiasis
Provision of habitats for venomous animals and predators such a crocodiles
In some cases, there are benefits to be gained from the presence of invasive
water plants in Africa (for human food, livestock food, mulch, biogas, fibre, fuel,
and, occasionally, enhanced fisheries). However, in most cases, the negative
impacts outweigh the benefits unless the introduced species can be proactively
managed to ensure the opposite.
There is a dearth of information and published accounts on the economic
impacts of invasive plants on the aquatic systems of Africa – apart from those
associated with water hyacinth (e.g. Goodland 1995). This arises partly from a
lack of awareness of the threats posed by invasive plants and partly from
available expertise and experience to make the necessary economic assess-
ments. Absence of this important information further holds back awareness
about the threat of invasive species by those decision-makers and policy devel-
opers who are likely to be influenced by economic arguments.
ADDRESSING THE IMPACTS AND THREATS OF INVASIVE

WATER PLANTS
Across Africa, there is a general lack of available information and awareness

products about invasive species in general. Water hyacinth is quite widely
known as are its threats and benefits, but other invasive water plants are hardly
known in most countries. Several countries have begun to address this at
national level, while there are emerging responses at regional levels. The New
Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) has developed a continent-wide
strategy to address environmental problems (NEPAD 2003), which includes a
sector specific to ‘‘alien invasive species’’ and their management (UNEP 2003).
This strategy is now being further expanded at sub-regional level with the
development of NEPAD Sub-regional Environment Actions Plans – each of
which in the five sub-regions of Africa has a section on invasive species. The
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(see IUCN 2004) is a recent revision of a 1968 agreement between African
States to conserve biodiversity: it has a specific paragraph on the strict control of
introduction of NIS and promotes the eradication of those that have become
established. International agencies, such as the Global Invasive Species Pro-
gramme, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), CABI Africa, and
IUCN are developing and distributing information and awareness materials, but
it will be some time before the whole continent is aware of the nature and extent
of the invasive species problem in fresh waters and has the information to
address it.
There are techniques available for the management of some of the invasive
plants in freshwater systems and this is being addressed in some countries at
national level. However, the distribution of large rivers, lakes, and wetlands, as
mentioned above, crosses many national boundaries. Thus there is need for sub-
regional and international cooperation in this endeavour and a network of
experts and expertise that can eradicate, control, or manage invasive plants in
these vast international ecosystems (the Nile, for example, is the longest river
in the world and its drainage basin covers ten countries). Here it is institutions
like the Africa Union and NEPAD, which can play a part as well as the five sub-
regions and their economic and development commissions. Basic to these
solutions, however, is the concept of the ‘‘ecosystem approach’’ to address the
threats of invasive species. This is beginning to take effect as proposed by
the Convention on Biological Diversity. The ecosystem approach is especially
helpful when deciding upon management actions across borders and in ecosys-
tems where the objectives for that management are the restoration of invaded
ecosystems rather than solely the eradication of the invasive species. Eradica-
tion of invasive water plants is especially difficult (if not impossible) as all
methods – apart from specific biological control – have impact on other organ-
isms and uses of the waters. Eradication is certainly not attainable where
invasive plants have become established in complex ecosystems that are part
of, or connected to, other similar habitats as in the water systems of Africa. In
these circumstances, only management (to reduce populations of invaders and
their impacts) is possible or feasible. Biocontrol is a useful tool (where available)
to manage invasions but it cannot be expected to eradicate invasive species
in the waters and wetlands of Africa or anywhere else. Mechanical control
is feasible in some situations as an option for management of invasive plants,
but the rate of growth and spread of many species in the tropics is so fast that it
is not usually a sustainable solution. Chemical control (using ‘‘weedicides’’)
is possible, but most often it has negative effects on non-target species and is
ineffective in large and moving water bodies because of dilution effects.
The spread of invasive species in water systems and wetlands in Africa can
be addressed by regional cooperation if there is agreement to try to prevent
‘‘out-of-basin transfers’’ of both water and species. Natural spread of invasive
species by water currents and winds within lakes and river systems is inevitable,
so different types of cooperation between States are necessary when they share a
river basin or a lake basin. Joint programmes for management of shared
ecosystems are becoming more possible as regionality is explored, so that
cooperation in addressing the management of invasive species in Africa’s waters
and wetlands should become more likely in the near future. At the same time,
research at government institutions and universities is now including the
dynamics and impacts of plant invasions – so there is hope for the future that
the knowledge gap will be narrowed, especially if support from such organisa-
tions as the European Commission becomes available.
CONCLUSIONS
Invasions by plants in the inland waters of Africa are a significant threat to

biodiversity and human development. Both non-indigenous and indigenous
species are involved in all aspects of the freshwater environment – both
above, upon, and below the water surface. Detailed information and research
is lacking in many cases and needs to be supported in the future so that the
species and their impacts are better known and so that the ecosystems affected
can be restored. Economic analyses of the impacts of invasive plants on bio-
diversity and development in Africa need to be developed, published, and
distributed, so that these threats can be appreciated by those who develop policy
and make national and regional decisions. Any such information needs to
be disseminated across Africa, so that international and drainage basin
cooperation can be enhanced in the management of invasive species – within
and between countries. The ecosystem approach to understanding the threats,
impacts, and solutions to freshwater invasions is likely to be the most fruitful
and can take into account the cross-border nature of many of the waters and
wetlands of the continent and their catchments. This must be enhanced,
however, by cooperation between the national, sub-regional, and continental
agencies of government and civil society to ensure that the spread and man-
agement of invasive water plants is effective. Europe has developed an invasive
species strategy and has many experts and much technical expertise: perhaps
there are grounds for more cooperation between Africa and Europe in this arena
of conservation and development. African institutions are trying to address this
problem and awareness is growing about freshwater invasions – but it may take
some time before continent-wide solutions are in place.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This review would not have been possible without the support of institutions
that allowed the authors to travel widely in Africa to see and understand
invasive plants in the waters and wetlands across the continent and in some
of its island States. These institutions include the University of Zambia in Lusaka
and the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The generous support of the orga-
nizers and sponsors of the International Workshop on Biological Invasions in
Inland Waters, especially Dr. Francesca Gherardi, are gratefully acknowledged
for encouraging these ideas to be presented in Firenze and subsequently pub-
lished here. The Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival
Commission had been especially helpful as have our colleagues in CABI Africa.
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P. Denny, editor. The ecology and management of African wetland vegetation. A
botanical account of African swamps and shallow waterbodies. Dr W. Junk Publishers,
Navarro, L. and G. Phiri. 2000. Water Hyacinth in Africa and the Middle East. A Survey
of Problems and Solutions. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada.
NEPAD, 2003. Action plan for the environment initiative of the New Partnership for
Africa’s Development (NEPAD). African Union, NEPAD, UNEP and GEF.
Pieterse, A. H. and K. J. Murphy. 1990. Aquatic weeds. The ecology and management of
nuisance aquatic vegetation. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
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vegetation. A botanical account of African swamps and shallow waterbodies. Dr
W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
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Triet, T., L. C. Man, and N. P. Nga. 2004. Impacts of Mimosa pigra on native plants
and soil insect communities in Tram Chim National Park, Vietnam. Pages 22–27 in
M. Julien, G. Flanagan, T. Heard, B. Hennecke, Q. Paynter, and C. Wilson C, editors.
Research and management of Mimosa pigra. CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia.
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New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). Programme Area 3. Prevention,
Control and Management of Invasive Alien Species. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Databases:
Aquatic, Wetland and Invasive Plant Database. www.plants.ifas.ufl.edu
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Smithsonian Environment Research Center, Aquatic Invasions Research
Directory. http://invasions.si.edu/aird.htm
Chapter eleven
Non-indigenous aquatic
and semiaquatic plant
species in France
INTRODUCTION
The invasion of natural communities by introduced plants constitutes one of the

most serious threats to biodiversity (Heywood 1989). What is the current
situation in France? What do we know about these invasions and their conse-
quences? What measures have been implemented to manage non-indigenous
plant species populations? To respond to these questions, the French Ministry for
Ecology and Sustainable Development has supported various biological invasion
research projects (‘‘INVABIO’’) and the National Museum of Natural History
entrusted Muller et al. (2004) to evaluate plant species invasiveness in metro-
politan France.
While the invasibility of riparian plants communities, patterns, and causes of
river corridor invasion by non-indigenous plant species have been studied
(Planty-Tabacchi et al. 1995, 2001, Tabacchi and Planty-Tabacchi 2002),
significantly less attention has been paid to the introduced aquatic and semi-
aquatic plants. Biological invasion research in freshwater systems has focused
on a few plants such as Fallopia taxa (Schnitzler and Muller 1998, Bailey and
Schnitzler 2003), Elodea species (Thiébaut et al. 1997, Barrat-Segretain 2001,
2004, 2005, Barrat-Segretain et al. 2002, Greulich and Trémolières 2002) or
Ludwigia sp. (Dutartre and Oyarzabal 1993, Dutartre et al. 1997, 1999, 2002,
Cazaubon et al. 2002, Cornier et al. 2002, Dandelot et al. 2005). To elucidate the
reasons for the success of non-indigenous species (NIS), studies have gathered
209
ß 2007 Springer.
210 Gabrielle Thiébaut
data on the biology and ecology of emblematic, non-indigenous macrophytes.

Numerous studies and reports have focused on the management of invaders
such as Ludwigia sp. (Dutartre and Oyarzabal 1993, Damien 2002, Fournier
and Oyarzabal 2002, Pipet 2002, Rebillard et al. 2002, Grillas 2004) and, to a
lesser extent, Elodea species (Di Nino et al. 2005).
NON-INDIGENOUS AQUATIC AND SEMIAQUATIC MACROPHYTES

IN FRANCE
Compilation of a species list
The term ‘‘aquatic macrophyte’’ is commonly used for all macroscopic forms of
aquatic vegetation including algae, bryophytes, some pteridophytes, and many
flowering plants (angiosperms). This assemblage contains extremely hetero-
geneous species which survive in similar habitats but result from fundamentally
different evolutionary pathways. Non-indigenous aquatic plants do not belong
to one distinct taxonomic group, but rather form a collection of many plant
taxa.
This chapter does not claim to be an exhaustive review of introduced plants in
metropolitan France, but rather an overview of the present situation. This
review covers aquatic macrophytes in inland waters, excluding marine algae,
such as Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl.) C. Agardh, as well as woody species (except for
Hibiscus roseus). Some taxa, regarded as non-indigenous by certain authors
(although with a wide margin of doubt), have been included here: Acorus
calamus, H. roseus (three European populations; E. Tabacchi 2005, personal
communication), and Azolla mexicana (formerly known as Azolla caroliniana
Willd). The status of several species from southern Europe varies according to
the author: Vallisneria spiralis, Stratiotes aloides, Scirpus mucronatus, and Scirpus
pungens are protected locally, whereas Dutartre et al. (1997) considered these
species non-indigenous. In addition, van der Velde et al. (2002) considered
Salvinia natans and Octodiceras fontanum as non-indigenous in the Netherlands,
while they are protected in France. Some NIS are well-established, whereas
others are found only occasionally in aquatic environments.
For aquatic macrophytes, several regional floras (Abbayes et al. 1971,
Corillion 1982, Bournerias 1984, Lambinon et al. 1992) and local scientific
journals (Bulletin de la Société Scientifique de Bretagne, Bulletin de la Société
d’Histoire Naturelle de Moselle, Bulletin de la Société Linnéenne de Normandie,
Bulletin de l’Association Philomathique d’Alsace Lorraine, Bulletin de la Société
des Sciences de Nancy, le Monde des Plantes) were consulted. They provided
information about plant histories in the geographical area, specifically on
whether it is an indigenous or an NIS. Several sources containing information
on NIS were also used (Dutartre et al. 1997, Aboucaya 1999, Muller et al.
2004).
Non-indigenous plants in inland waters of France 211
NIS taxonomic groups and eco-morphological types
My resulting list of NIS, representing 24 families and 58 species in metropolitan

France (Table 1), includes species found occasionally as well some hybrids.
Some aquatic families are well represented, such as Lemnaceae and Hydro-
charitaceae. Furthermore, numerous non-indigenous semiaquatic species were
also present, such as Poaceae and Cyperaceae. As compared to Wallentinus’s list
(Wallentinus 2002), 10 additional species, including two bryophytes, have been
identified as NIS in France.
Table 1 List of non-indigenous aquatic and semiaquatic plant species in France and
their vectors of introduction: (a) escaped from aquaria, (b) arrived on seagoing vessels
(ballast water, timber trade), (c) introduced intentionally (ornamentals, pond gardens,
medicinal plant), (d) seed or grain contaminant, (e) wool industry, (f) natural expansion,
(?) unknown source.
Family Vectors
Alga
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerh. Hydrodictyaceae ?
Bryophyta
Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.) Nees Marchantiaceae f
Octodiceras fontanum (Bach. Pyl) Lindb. Fissidentaceae f
Pteridophyta
Azolla filiculoides Lam Azollaceae a
Azolla mexicana C. Presl Azollaceae a
Salvinia natans (L.) All. Salviniaceae a?
Vascular plants (monocots and dicots)
Acorus calamus L. Araceae c
Althernanthera philoxeroides (Martius) Griseb Amaranthacea a
Aponogeton distachyos Thunb. Aponogetonaceae c
Callitriche peploides Nutt. Callitrichaceae ?
Callitriche terrestris Rafin Callitrichaceae ?
Cortadaria selloana (Schultes and Schultes fil.) Poaceae c
Ascherton and Graebner
Cotula coronopifolia L. Asteraceae c?
Cyperus difformis L. Cyperacea ?
Cyperus eragrostis Lam. Cyperacea c
Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperacea e
Cyperus reflexus Vahl Cyperacea e
Egeria densa Planchon Hydrocharitaceae a
Eichhornia crassispes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae c
Eleocharis bonariensis Nees Cyperaceae ?
Table 1 Continued.
Family Vectors
Elodea canadensis Michaux Hydrocharitaceae a/b

Elodea ernstiae H. St. John Hydrocharitaceae a
Elodea nuttallii (Planchon) H. St. John Hydrocharitaceae a
Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decraene Polygonaceae c
Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt Petrop.) Polygonaceae c
Ronse Decraene
Fallopia x bohemica Chrtek and Chrtkova Polygonaceae f
Glyceria striata (Lam.) A. S. Hitchc Poaceae d
Heracleum mantegezzianum Sommier and Lev Apiaceae c
Hibiscus roseus Thore Malvaceae c
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae a/c
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.fil Apiacae a/c
Impatiens balfouri Hooker fil. Balsaminaceae c
Impatiens glandulifera Royle Balsaminaceae c
Juncus tenuis Willd. Juncaceae ?
Lagarosiphon major (Ridley) Moss Hydrocharitaceae a
Lemna aequinoctialis Welw. Lemnacaeae f?
Lemna minuta H.B.K. Lemnacaeae f?
Lemna perpusilla Torrey Lemnacaeae f?
Lemna turionifera Landolt Lemnacaeae f?
Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennel Scrophulariaceae f
Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala Onagraceae c
(Hook. and Arn.) Nesom and Kartesz
Ludwigia peploides subsp. montevidensis Onagraceae c
(Spreng.) Raven
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Velloso) Verdcourt Haloragaceae a
Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux Haloragaceae a/c
Najas graminea Delile Najadaceae f?
Paspalum dilatatum Poiret Poaceae e
Paspalum distichum L Poaceae f?
Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae a/c
Pontederia cordata L. Pontederiaceae c
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Alismataceae a/c
Schoenoplectus prolifer Rottb. Cyperaceae ?
Scirpus mucronatus L. Cyperaceae ?
Scirpus pungens Valh. Cyperaceae ?
Spartina alterniflora Loisel Poaceae b/c
Spartina x townsendii H. and J. Groves Poaceae f
Spirodela oligorhiza (Kurz) Hegelm. Lemnacaeae f/a
Stratiotes aloides L. Hydrocharitaceae c
Vallisneria spiralis L. Hydrocharitaceae a
The composition of the non-indigenous aquatic flora is illustrated in Fig. 1A, with
one alga (hydrodictyaceae), two bryophytes (Marchantiaceae, Fissidentaceae),
three pteridophytes (Azollaceae and Salviniaceae), and 52 vascular plants (34
monocotyledons and 18 dicotyledons). More NIS are monocots than dicots pro-
portionally, perhaps due to the monocots’ high incidence of rhizomatous growth.
Of these non-indigenous plants, helophytes, amphiphytes, floating, and sub-
mersed species represented 20, 20, 19, and 16% of the introduced macrophytes,
respectively (Fig. 1B). Helophytes are emergent plants which occupy per-
manent, standing water, or wet soil. Floating macrophytes are not rooted in
sediment, but live unattached in the water. The life forms within this group
included very small floating or submersed plants with few or no roots (Lemna
minuta and the water fern Azolla sp.). Submersed macrophytes include many
flowering plants, for example Elodea nuttallii and Egeria densa which complete
their life cycle under water.
Invasion histories and pathways
Many aquatic macrophytes were introduced more than a hundred years ago,
while others are more recent arrivals. The majority of introductions took place
at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries (Table 2). Of all
the introduced species listed here, more than 50% came from America and
almost 40% came from Asia and/or Africa (Table 2).
Taxonomic group
2%
5%
3%
31%
Alga
Pteridophyta
Bryophyte
Monocots
Dicots
59%
Fig. 1A Taxonomic groups of non-indigenous aquatic and semiaquatic plants in

France.
Eco-morphological type
5% 2%
20%
A: Amphiphyte
19%
G: Geophyte
Hc: Hemicryptophyte
He: Helophyte
9%
Hy: Submersed Hydrophyte
F: Floating species
Th: Therophyte
16% 9%
W: Woody species
20%
Fig. 1B Eco-morphological types of non-indigenous aquatic and semiaquatic plants

in France.
Some NIS are only reported occasionally, like Eichhornia crassipes (Planty-
Tabacchi 1993) or Althernanthera philoxeroides in south-west France (Dupont
1989, Georges 2004) or Pistia stratiotes; Pontederia cordata and Hydrilla verti-
cillata were observed only once in an aquatic environment.
The time-lag phenomenon, during which a given population remains small
and geographically restricted, is well documented for riparian species (e.g.
Impatiens glandulifera, Fallopia japonica, Fallopia sachalinensis) or amphiphytes,
such as Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala and Ludwigia peploides subsp.
montevidensis (Dutartre and Oyarzabal 1993). The fact that certain introduced
species became aggressive after a lag phase is ecologically significant.
The invasion histories of some NIS are well known:
– The hybrid Spartina x townsendii was first observed in France in 1906

along the Atlantic Coast. The first sighting in south-west France occurred
in 1985 and then spread quickly via mud flats, resulting in hundreds
of hectares being colonised by this species. Moreover, a second North
American species, Spartina versicolor Fabre, not included in our list, has
been reported occasionally. Spartina alterniflora spread, but only around
the Bay of Brest (Goulletquer et al. 2002).
– The two Japanese Knotweed taxa (F. japonica and F. sachalinensis) have
been expanding throughout Europe ever since their deliberate introduc-
tion in the 19th century. The spread has increased dramatically since the
1980s: F. japonica and F. sachalinensis and hybrids have developed in large
Table 2 NIS origin and introduction date in France. (? ¼ unknown).
Origin area First found
Alga
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerh. Cosm. subtropic. 1989
Bryophyta
Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.) Nees N. America before 1997
Octodiceras fontanum (Bach. Pyl) Lindb. S-Europe ?
Pteridophyta
Azolla filiculoides Lam. N. America, S. America, 1880
Australia
Azolla mexicana C. Presl. N. America 1901
Salvinia natans (L.) All. S. Europe, India, Japan. before 1997
Vascular plants (monocots and dicots)
Acorus calamus L. Asia, N. America, XIV
India
Althernanthera philoxeroides (Martius) Griseb S. America 1971
Aponogeton distachyos Thunb. S. Africa 1830
Callitriche peploides Nutt. N. America before 1997
Callitriche terrestris Rafin N. America before 1997
Cortadaria selloana (Schultes and S. America before 1977
Schultes fil.) Ascherton and Graebner
Cotula coronopifolia L.A S. Africa before 1980
Cyperus difformis L. Pan-tropical 1850
Cyperus eragrostis Lam. S. America XIX
Cyperus esculentus L. Tropical Asia and Africa 1952
Cyperus reflexus Vahl Tropical America 2003
Egeria densa Planchon S. America 1961
Eichhornia crassispes (Mart.) Solms S. America before 1993
Eleocharis bonariensis Nees S. America 1750
Elodea canadensis Michaux N. America 1845
Elodea ernstiae H. St. John S. America 1959
Elodea nuttallii (Planchon) H. St. John N. America 1959
Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decraene Asia 1825
Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt Petrop.) Japan 1869
Ronse Decraene
Fallopia x bohemica Chrtek and Chrtkova Hybrid before 2003
Glyceria striata (Lam.)A. S. Hitchc N. America, 1906
Central America
Heracleum mantegezzianum Caucasus 1993
Sommier and Lev
Hibiscus roseus Thore Europe ? before 1995
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Australia, Asia, Africa before 1997
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.fil N. and S. America 1820
Impatiens balfouri Hooker fil. Himalayas 1943
Table 2 Continued.
Origin area First found
Impatiens glandulifera Royle Himalayas 1842

Juncus tenuis Willd N. America XIX
Lagarosiphon major (Ridley) Moss S. Africa 1960
Lemna aequinoctialis Welw. S. America ?
Lemna minuta H.B.K. N. and S. America 1965
Lemna perpusilla Torrey Asia, N. Africa and before 1997
S. America
Lemna turionifera Landolt N. America 1992
Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennel N. America before 1997
Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala S. America 1820–1830
Ludwigia peploides subsp. montevidensis S. America 1820–1830
(Spreng.) Raven
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Velloso) Verdcourt S. America 1880
Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux N. America before 1997
Najas graminea Delile S. Europe to E. Asia ? before 1997
Paspalum dilatatum Poiret S. America 1937
Paspalum distichum L. Trop. America 1965
Pistia stratiotes L. S. America ?
Pontederia cordata L. N. America ?
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. N. America 1936
Schoenoplectus prolifer Rottb. S. Africa, Australia? 1920
Scirpus mucronatus L. Paleo Subtrop. 1859
Scirpus pungens Valh. S. America 1849
Spartina alterniflora Loisel N. America 1906?
Spartina x townsendii H. and J. Groves hybrid 1906
Spirodela oligorhiza (Kurz) Hegelm. Asia, Australia ?
Stratiotes aloides L. S. Europe, Asia 1834
Vallisneria spiralis L. S. Europe, N. Africa, Asia 1787
patches along many riparian and man-made habitats, often far from the
original introduction point (Bailey and Schnitzler 2003).
– Coming from South America, Ludwigia sp. (L. grandiflora and L. peploides)
were introduced by accident in southern France in the 1820s. Long
restricted to the southern part of the country, from Camargue to Aqui-
taine, they have been migrating north for nearly 30 years. Today,
L. peploides has reached the Belgian border. Others have been observed
at sites in Belgium and in the Netherlands (Dandelot 2004).
– In a similar pattern, E. densa, a species first observed in France in 1960
(Feuillade 1961a, b), has spread along the entire Atlantic coast (Dutartre
et al. 1999).
– An indigenous of North America, Elodea canadensis, first recorded in the

early 19th century in the British Isles (Simpson 1984, 1990), is now
naturalized and widespread in Europe. Elodea canadensis became a persis-
tent weed following its naturalization, choking waterways before declining
to its present, less-abundant (but still common) level (Thiébaut et al.
1997, Barrat-Segretain 2001).
– Another species from North America, E. nuttallii was first found in
Belgium in 1939 and had spread into northern France by the end of
the 1950s (Sell 1959). For the past 30 years it has been colonizing
numerous ponds and streams in metropolitan France, except in the
south-east (G. Thiébaut 2006, unpublished data). Elodea nuttallii is replac-
ing E. canadensis at many sites (Mériaux 1979a, b, Thiebaut et al. 1997,
Barrat-Segretain 2001). Although E. canadensis and E. nuttallii have been
spreading for several years in eastern France, this species is relatively
more problematic in other European countries. For example, E. nuttallii
was classified as one of the ‘‘top ten’’ invasive species in Germany
(F. Klingenstein 2005, personal communication); colonies have been
expanding in Lake Leman in Switzerland since 1993 (Demierre and
Perfetta 2002), in numerous ponds, reservoirs, and streams in Brittany
(Simpson 1990), in Belgium (G. Verniers 2004, personal communication),
as well as in Sweden (D. Larson 2006, personal communication).
I have come to the conclusion that most invasive plant species arrived in France
as a result of human intervention (aquarium plants, ornamental use). Of all the
plants, 38% are ornamentals, by far the dominant vector for introduced plants
(Table 1). Another 17 of the introduced plant species are sold for use in
freshwater aquaria (29% of the aquatic and semiaquatic plants; Table 1).
Among the well-known examples of aquarium plants are certain hydro-
charitaceae species (E. densa, Elodea sp., Lagarosiphon major, H. verticillata) and
some other taxa (Myriophyllum aquaria). Plants which escaped from aquaria
(Hydrocharitaceae, Ludwigia sp., Myriophyllum sp.) easily colonized freshwater
environments. Highly invasive aquatic and semiaquatic species, including
Ludwigia sp. and Fallopia taxa, have resulted to a large extent from either
intentional introduction for ornamental use (outdoor ponds) or use as orna-
mentals after the initial introduction (Table 1). A few species are medicinal
plants (e.g. A. calamus). Spartina alterniflora from the East coast of North America
was introduced accidentally in ship ballast at the end of the 19th century in
southern England, but it was also intentionally introduced into France to
stabilize sand dunes, given its ability to increase sediment accumulation.
NIS distribution in France
Plant distribution varies according to the different climate in each of three

biogeographical zones (Atlantic A, Continental C, Mediterranean M). For
example, the diploid L. peploides colonises mainly the Mediterranean region of

France (except for the south-eastern part), while the polyploid L. grandiflora
predominates in all the other regions (Dandelot 2004). These data are taken
primarily from Aboucaya (1999), from other publications (Felzines and Loiseau
2003, Muller et al. 2004, Felzines 2004), and from personal data (Table 3).
Of the 11 taxa present in the three biogeographical areas, there are five
widespread invasive and one potentially invasive plants: three riparian species
(F. japonica, F. sachalinensis, I. glandulifera), two floating species (Azolla filicu-
loides, L. minuta), and a single amphibious species (L. grandiflora). Ludwigia
species are considered to be the most invasive aquatic plants in France. For
Table 3 Classification of NIS according to their invasiveness in France. Data taken

primarily from Aboucaya (1999) and from: Felzines and Loiseau (2003), Muller et al.
(2004), Felzines (2004), and personal data.
M: Mediterranean area, A: Atlantic area, C: Continental zone.
Invasive Potentially invasive
widespread restricted widespread restricted
Acorus calamus L. AC
Althernanthera philoxeroides (Martius) M?
Griseb
Aponogeton distachyos Thunb. A
Azolla filiculoides Lam MAC
Azolla mexicana C. Presl AC
Callitriche peploides Nutt. ?
Callitriche terrestris Rafin ?
Cortadaria selloana (Schultes and M A
Schultes fil.) Ascherton and Graebner
Cotula coronopifolia L. A M A
Cyperus difformis L. M
Cyperus eragrostis Lam. C
Cyperus esculentus L. A
Cyperus reflexus Vahl A
Dumortiera hirsuta (Sw.) Nees A?
Egeria densa Planchon A
Eichhornia crassispes (Mart.) Solms M
Eleocharis bonariensis Nees AC
Elodea canadensis Michaux C MA
Elodea ernstiae H. St. John C
Elodea nuttallii (Planchon) H. St. John C A
Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decraene MAC
Fallopia sachalinensis (F. Schmidt Petrop.) MAC
Ronse Decraene
Table 3 Continued.
Invasive Potentially invasive
widespread restricted widespread restricted
Fallopia x bohemica Chrtek and Chrtkova MAC

Glyceria striata (Lam.)A. S.Hitchc AC
Heracleum mantegezzianum Sommier AC
and Lev
Hibiscus roseus Thore A
Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle MA?
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.fil AC
Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerh. MAC?
Impatiens balfouri Hooker fil. AC
Impatiens glandulifera Royle MAC
Juncus tenuis Willd AC
Lagarosiphon major (Ridley) Moss A
Lemna aequinoctialis Welw. M
Lemna minuta H. B. K. MAC
Lemna perpusilla Torrey M
Lemna turionifera Landolt C
Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennel AC M
Ludwigia grandiflora subsp. hexapetala MAC
Ludwigia peploides subsp. montevidensis C
(Spreng.) Raven
Myriophyllum aquaticum (Velloso) A M
Verdcourt
Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michaux ?
Najas graminea Delile ?
Octodiceras fontanum (Bach. Pyl) Lindb. ?
Paspalum dilatatum Poiret MA C
Paspalum distichum L. MA C
Pistia stratiotes L. M
Pontederia cordata L. MAC?
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. AC
Salvinia natans (L.) All. MA?
Schoenoplectus prolifer Rottb. A
Scirpus mucronatus L. MAC
Scirpus pungens Valh. AC
Spartina alterniflora Loisel A
Spartina x townsendii H.and J. Groves A?
Spirodela oligorhiza (Kurz) Hegelm. A
Stratiotes aloides L. AC
Vallisneria spiralis L. MAC
the 567 sites investigated in France by Dutartre (2004), Ludwigia sp. were found
in rivers with low water velocity in summer (29%), in shallow wetlands (20%),
in ditches and channels (20%), in ponds and on lake shores (13%), in oxbows
(9%), and in wet meadows (4%).
Many of the NIS listed have a restricted invasion range in France: for example
the hybrid S. x townsendii along the Atlantic Coast or S. alterniflora in Bay of
Brest (Goulletquer et al. 2002). Fifteen species are restricted to Atlantic sites
only, 10 to the Mediterranean zone, and eight to the Continental area. Twelve
species have been observed in both Atlantic and Continental areas, whereas
only five taxa were listed for both Atlantic and Mediterranean areas (Table 3).
Plants normally found growing in rice-fields were often limited in range to
southern France, since the warm climate they need is not found further
north. Invasibility potential is highest in the Atlantic area. In many cases,
tropical–subtropical species thrived in Mediterranean and Atlantic areas but
were absent in colder, northern France.
Numerous NIS (e.g. A. philoxeroides, E. crassipes, P. stratiotes) have spread
worldwide, but are restricted to the Mediterranean zone in France. These
species, sold in the aquarium trade, are potentially invasive (Table 3). Other
species, such as Cotula coronopifolia, are invasive in some habitats (salt marshes,
estuaries) but their low actual invasiveness allows them to be considered as
potentially invasive in the Atlantic area. The number of sites at which a species
occurs is a misleading indicator for degree of invasiveness. Some species, such as
the non-indigenous Lemna sp. or water fern, which are found at a much more
restricted number of sites than Elodea species, for example, are in fact highly
invasive and spreading at those sites.
NIS MANAGEMENT IN FRANCE
Some invasive species are considered to cause ‘‘nuisance growth’’, where the
degree of nuisance is judged in relation to the water body management aim (for
transportation, recreation, fishery management, or conservation). The ultimate
goal is to prevent the establishment of new invasive species proactively, while
setting control priorities for established plants. The action plan takes into
account the plants’ actual and potential impact on ecosystem functioning, as
well as the indigenous species and communities present, particularly if rare and/
or ecologically important species are targeted for conservation. Action is recom-
mended only after careful analysis indicates that leaving the spreading species
unchecked will result in greater damage than that caused by control efforts.
In general, the biological invasion control priority is to prevent new infes-
tations from taking hold, especially for the fastest growing and most disruptive
species. NIS that are not rapidly increasing in numbers, proliferating in undis-
turbed habitats, or interfering in areas recovering from disturbance have a
lower priority for control. Large infestations of plants which cause considerable
environmental impact, such as Ludwigia spp. or Hydrocharitaceae (L. major,

E. densa) have the highest priority for control.
Each site has its own management plan based on individual characteristics.
Hand-pulling has been tested to limit unwanted proliferation of E. nuttallii in a
small stream (Di Nino et al. 2005). In order to fight Ludwigia sp., various
solutions adapted to individual sites were tested: manual removal and/or treat-
ing with herbicides (Dutartre and Oyarzabal 1993, Damien 2002, Fournier and
Oyarzabal 2002, Pipet 2002, Rebillard et al. 2002). The removal operation was
manual at the beginning of Ludwigia sp. colonisation. When it became well-
established, mechanization was necessary (Dutartre and Oyarzabal 1993,
Dutartre et al. 1999). Although chemical treatment can replace or enhance
manual removal operations, it has been used only as a last resort, where water
use and environmental considerations made it possible. In some wetlands in
southern France, salt water has been used to eradicate salt-sensitive L. peploides
(Grillas 2004).
Management plans established early on were the first steps towards sustain-
able management of aquatic environments. However, these efforts are compro-
mised as long as invasive aquatic plant species continue to be sold to
individuals. Stronger enforcement of existing laws, coupled with an intensive
public education campaign, is needed to prevent further NIS introduction.
INVASIBILITY AND INVASIVENESS
Habitat invasibility
Invasibility is an emergent property of an environment, the outcome of several

factors including the region’s climate, the environmental disturbance regime,
and the competitiveness of the resident species (Lonsdale 1999). The actual
invasion of an environment by a new species is influenced by three additional
factors: the number of propagules entering the new environment, the charac-
teristics of the new species, and the susceptibility of the environment to invasion
(Lonsdale 1999).
For example, whether or not cut-off channels are connected to the main river
is probably the essential parameter of colonization by E. canadensis and
E. nuttallii in the Rhône River flood plain. These two species colonize new
areas most often by vegetative fragments transported by water currents
(Barrat-Segretain 2001). Flood disturbances can, in particular, damage or destroy
some resident vegetation and allow for the introduction of Fallopia taxa. In some
cases, restoration work or river management efforts may be considered as
disturbances that facilitated NIS invasion (Schnitzler and Mulller 1998).
Fluctuation in resource availability is identified as another key factor control-
ling habitat invasibility (Davis et al. 2000). In a previous study, I established
that the eutrophication process increases the invasibility of Elodea species while
inducing competition between Elodea species and indigenous macrophyte species.

Elodea nuttallii and E. canadensis take advantage of eutrophication because they
are adapted for the quick nutrient uptake necessary for growth and can avoid
turbidity by covering the water’s surface (Thiébaut 2005). However, when
increased levels of eutrophication induced the disappearance of submersed macro-
phytes as a result of phytolankton blooms and increased turbidity, they were
replaced by free-floating plants such as duckweed. This type of vegetation allowed
Azolla species to invade, particularly A. mexicana and A. filiculoides. Azolla species
live in symbiosis with the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae Strass
and are therefore efficient phosphorus removers in the absence of nitrate.
Life history traits of invasive plants
Many studies have focused on identifying plant traits that define invasiveness
(e.g. Goodwin et al. 1999, Vaźquez 2005). There have been many attempts in
invasion biology to predict outcomes by focusing on the traits of potential
invaders and of the invaded community. Unfortunately, most of these attempts
have been unsuccessful (Vásquez 2005).
Below is my review of the studies that have evaluated the relationship
between the traits of some emblematic species in France and their invasion
success (Barrat-Segretain et al. 2002, 2004, Barrat-Segretain 2004, 2005,
Barrat-Segretain and Elger 2004, Dandelot 2004, Petit 2004, Thiébaut
2006). However, less is known about the invasiveness of the majority of NIS
and the invasibility of aquatic habitats.
Biological attributes as key factors for invasion
Ploidy level: Invasion outcomes might be influenced by variations in clonal

architecture and ecological attributes of emergent hybrids, as well as differen-
tiated abilities for sexual reproduction. Effective hybridization is known to
increase a species’ invasive potential in its secondary distribution area, if the
parents themselves are invasive (Bailey 2003). For example, hybridization with
local S. maritima (Curtis) Fernald resulted in a sterile hybrid, S. alterniflora being
the seed parent in the cross. Chromosome doubling in this hybrid gave rise to a
new fertile allopolyploid species, S. x townsendii. This new species, genetically
isolated from its parents, is very aggressive (Petit 2004). Similarly, the ploidy
level of Fallopia taxa was studied in north-eastern France. All plants were hybrid
Fallopia x bohemica and male fertile. The population analysed was a mixture
of hexaploids, octoploids, and aneuploids. The seedlings found were octoploids,
indicating the ability of octoploid plants to produce seeds (A. Schnitzler 2006,
personal communication). A possible outcome of hybridization is heterosis or
‘‘hybrid vigour’’. Although dissolution of heterosis can occur in hybrid popula-
tions that retain sexual reproduction, vegetatively reproducing aquatic plants
can propagate hybrid genotypes indefinitely. Molecular data demonstrate
clearly that invasive water milfoil populations in North America have resulted
from hybrization between NIS and indigenous species. These observations
suggest that invasiveness in these aggressive NIS may be linked to heterosis
maintained by vegetative propagation (Moody and Les 2002). In France, no
plant morphologically intermediate between the indigenous M. spicatum
Linnaeus and the non-indigenous Myriophyllum heterophyllum has been
discovered yet, but the potential exists.
Reproductive biology: The reproductive biology of numerous aquatic NIS,
especially in their foreign ranges, is relatively poorly understood. Levels of
inbreeding and other mating-system parameters have been measured in several
emergent species but are lacking for free-floating or submerged taxa. Invasion
capacity may be influenced by the balance between sexual versus clonal repro-
duction. The relative importance of sexual versus clonal recruitment may vary
among populations of clonal plants because reproduction allows populations to
persist in habitats or regions where sexual reproduction cannot occur. For
example, the spread of dioecious E. canadensis or E. nuttallii across Europe
involved only female plants, and male and female S. aloides plants tend to be
confined to different parts of the species’ European range so that sexual repro-
duction is not possible in most populations.
Sexual reproduction generates genotypic diversity which may increase the
adaptive evolution rate during expansion into new habitats. The seeds produced
by sexual reproduction are also more likely to participate in long-distance
colonization than vegetative clonal propagules which are often larger, more
vulnerable to desiccation, lack dispersal and dormancy mechanisms, and there-
fore have less capacity for dispersal (Eckert 2002). Asexual reproduction
includes both seed production without fertilization and vegetative reproduction
(rhizomes, turions, tubers, and stolons). Asexual reproduction is important in
the establishment, growth, and maintenance of NIS. Each aquatic species has
followed a unique evolutionary path representing a complex balance between
sexual and asexual reproduction, levels of genetic variation in offspring, and the
ability to maximize survival. Because of the highly diverse evolutionary histories
of aquatic plants, it is difficult to identify general evolutionary models.
Dispersal of propagules: Gene flow in aquatic plants may be greatly affected by
the discrete and patchy nature of many aquatic habitats and the directional
transport of propagules in running water. Transport of vegetative fragments
may lead more frequently to successful gene establishment than seed dispersal
and may, in part, explain the extensive geographical ranges of many clonal
aquatic species (Barret et al. 1993). Semiaquatic invaders differ from many
aquatic invaders in that seeds are often dispersed via water, whereas aquatic
plants and plant fragments can be dispersed via flotation. In aquatic species,
reproduction occurs primarily from asexually rooting plant fragments. Ludwigia
grandiflora produces viable seeds and plantlets in the south of France (Dutartre
et al. 1997, Dandelot 2004). Stem fragmentation is the main dispersal mode for
Ludwigia spp., Elodea sp. and E. densa. After establishing themselves in the
bank or channel bottom, prostrate stems grow laterally, rooting adventitiously

at nodes. Water plants excel in this capacity with a variety of vegetative
structures that are highly specialized to function efficiently as propagules,
some being even capable of long-distance dispersal (Dutartre et al. 1997, Thié-
baut et al. 1997, Dandelot 2004). Life history traits, regeneration (regrowth into
viable plants) and colonization (establishment in the sediment) of vegetative
plant fragments, and resistance to water current were compared in two invasive
macrophyte species, E. canadensis and E. nuttallii (Barrat-Segretain et al. 2002).
Both species showed similar resistance to currents, while fragment regeneration
and colonization were only slightly higher in E. nuttallii than in E. canadensis.
Physiological traits as key factors for invasion
Allelopathy: NIS are considered less vulnerable than indigenous species to

phytophagous animals, due to a lack of natural herbivores in their introduced
range or efficient defence mechanisms. For example, Ludwigia spp. are con-
sumed less by herbivores probably due to their high content of saponins and
calcium oxalate (Dandelot 2004). In the same way, a slightly higher palatability
was established for E. nuttallii than for E. canadensis (Barrat-Segretain et al.
2002, Barrat-Segretain and Elger 2004). The difference in palatability between
the two Elodea species was also partly related to the smaller dry matter content
of E. nuttallii. At an intraspecific level, the effect of time of year is also fully
explained by the temporal variability in dry matter content for the Elodea species
(Elger and Wilby 2005). Palatability is a multi-factorial feature of plants,
resulting from chemical (e.g. nutrient content and amount of secondary com-
pounds) and physical (e.g. toughness and hairiness) tissue characteristics.
Despite these studies, there is no comprehensive view of biotic interactions
occurring in fresh waters.
Competition: The success of invasive species has also been attributed to
their ability to displace other species by direct competition. The formation of an
E. nuttallii canopy which shades E. canadensis is a key factor in explaining
the success of E. nuttallii, particularly under eutrophic conditions (Barrat-
Segretain and Elger 2004). Later, Barrat-Segretain (2005) established that
both spatial pattern and development stage of E. canadensis may influence the
outcome of competition with E. nuttallii. The coexistence of the two Elodea species
is enhanced by river disturbances (Barrat-Segretain 2001), whereas E. nuttallii
dominates in less-disturbed waters as a result of its higher growth rate.
Phenotypic plasticity: NIS have been shown to modify resource allocation
through changes in their morphology and physiology. Plant plasticity when
facing fluctuating resources is one characteristic that contributes to competi-
tiveness and invasibility. By changing leaf area, E. nuttallii individuals can
maximize growth and reproduction under a variety of environmental conditions
(F. Di Nino 2006, unpublished data). Phenotypic plasticity may play a key role in
the adaptation of organisms to changing environmental conditions. This trait is
especially important for aquatic plant species which often spread asexually and
thus lack genetic variation.
A broad ecological tolerance: Wide ecological amplitude seems necessary
because any changes in the water potentially influence all plants in contact
with it; for example, Ludwigia sp. has rather good resistance to frost in Europe.
The growth of E. canadensis is affected by reduced light intensity, contrary to
that of E. nuttallii. Increasing water phosphate levels increased the growth rate
of E. nuttallii (Barrat-Segretain 2004). Elodea nuttallii and E. canadensis have
wide amplitude in nutrient levels (Dendène et al. 1993, Robach et al. 1995,
Rolland et al. 1999, Thiébaut and Muller 2003, Thiébaut 2005). Adaptation to
dynamic water conditions is apparent in widespread aquatic species such as
Lemna aequinoctialis and L. turionifera which can tolerate extreme ranges in pH
from 3.2 to more than 9.0 (Landolt 1986).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This review shows that a total of 58 plant species has been introduced into
aquatic environments in France over the last three centuries. Most NIS arrived
in France through human intervention (aquarium or ornamental plant use).
Plant distribution varies according to the different climates in three biogeo-
graphical zones.
Despite several recent contributions concerning biology and ecology in
the rapidly developing field of invasion biology, less is known about the inva-
siveness characteristics of aquatic or semiaquatic species and the specific
features associated with habitat invasibility. This synthesis highlights the gaps
in our understanding and contributes to identifying areas for further research
which should be encouraged in order to prevent biological invasions of aquatic
and semiaquatic species in France, other parts of Europe, and the world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to D. Larson, F. Klingenstein, and G. Verniers for information

about Elodea species. Many thanks to Dr. E. Tabacchi (University Paul Sabatier
of Toulouse) and Dr. A. Schnitzler (University Paul Verlaine of Metz) for their
assistance about invasive taxa in France and to the two referees for their helpful
comments.
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Conceptual Ecology and Invasions Biology. Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Van der Velde, G., I. Nagelkerken, S. Rajagopal, and A. Bij de Vaate. 2002. Invasions by
aliens species in inland freshwater bodies in Western Europe: the Rhine delta. Pages
360–372 in E. Leppäkoski, S. Gollasch, and S. Olenin, editors. Invasive Aquatic Species
of Europe: Distribution, Impacts and Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Wallentinus, I. 2002. Introduced marine algae and vascular plants in European aquatic
environments. Pages 27–52 in E. Leppäkoski, S. Gollasch, and S. Olenin, editors.
Invasive Aquatic Species of Europe: Distribution, Impacts and Management. Kluwer
Profiles of invaders
Learning to identify invaders in advance would tell us a great deal about how life
history traits evolve and how biotic communities are assembled. In practical terms, it
could reveal the most effective means to prevent future invasions.
Richard Mack et al. (2000)
Chapter twelve
Ecological traits of aquatic

NIS invading Austrian
fresh waters
HABITATS, FAUNA, AND NIS IN AUSTRIAN FRESH WATERS
The modern geographical distribution of aquatic organisms in Austria has

been highly influenced by glaciation. Accordingly, most of the today temperate
freshwater fauna in this area has become established within the last
10,000–15,000 years, a process that has not yet stopped. Although prehistoric
man had already favoured the distribution of various plant and animal species,
a considerable change in species distributions started with the onset of the great
expeditions and continued with the subsequent alterations of the cultural
landscape. Predominantly, plant species were transported to Europe and with
them various species of animals and fungi arrived. In addition to the intentional
introductions, many species were transferred to European fresh waters acciden-
tally. The general decline of species diversity in many types of ecosystems has
been a result of all these activities in central Europe. This is expected to be
intensified, leading to a drastic increase of non-indigenous species (NIS).
Freshwater systems and their faunas were subject to dramatic changes due to
the human impact (Strayer 2006). Similarly, organic pollution, river engineer-
ing, impoundments, hydropower development, tourism, and fisheries have con-
siderably altered the structure and function of various lentic and lotic
systems. In some extreme cases, stenotopic organisms (i.e. species occupying a
narrow range of environmental gradients) have declined or disappeared, while
eurytopic organisms (species occurring across a wide range of environmental
233
ß 2007 Springer.
234 Leopold Füreder and Manfred Pöckl
gradients) have survived within generally species-poorer assemblages. As a

consequence, NIS may have used the opportunity to compensate the obvious
deficit in indigenous species.
Austria has about 6,000 natural lakes and about 100,000 km of rivers, with
an estimated surface area of 1,300 km2 , which is about 1.6% of the area of
the country. Its streams and rivers drain to three different systems, which
are the Danube River system; its Austrian catchment covers well above 90%
of the country, the Rhine River system in the extreme west, and the Elbe River
system with the River Lainsitz or Lusnice and tributaries in the extreme north.
In a recently published book on the ‘‘neobiota’’ in Austria, Essl and Rabitsch
(2002) recorded a still relatively small number of 89 aquatic taxa compared
to 411 terrestrial NIS, which together – although based on a preliminary data
set – represent an estimated 1.1% of the Austrian fauna (Rabitsch and Essl
2006). The Austrian freshwater NIS (Table 1) are predominantly found in river
systems recently connected by shipping canals that facilitated the active migra-
tion and the passive transport of organisms. Major donor centres for freshwater
NIS are the Ponto–Caspian Basin (Black Sea, Caspian Sea), North America, and
South-east Asia. Due to the mainly passive transport, there is no preference for
any specific organism; therefore, NIS can be found in a variety of taxonomic
groups, e.g. fish, flatworms, isopods, molluscs, microcrustaceans, and crayfish.
Considerable anthropogenic alterations of river systems have expanded
the available habitat especially for ecologically indifferent NIS (Spindler 1997,
Pöckl 2002, Mikschi 2005). The species inventory of the Danube has
been notably altered since 1992, when the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal was
established. A well-documented example is the migration and succession of
gammarid species in the Danube (Pöckl 2007). In the headwaters of river
systems, few NIS have been found to date, although in these freshwater habitats
noticeable examples of ecological relevance exist, e.g. the North American
signal crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana) and the New Zealand mudsnail
Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray).
In isolated ponds, lakes, and marshes, which are generally less reachable and
consequently less affected by accidental introductions (although exceptions may
occur due to aquatic birds, boats, fishermen, and the aquarium trade), active
release is more likely. Several examples can be found in fish, snails, crayfish,
and turtles. For example, among the seven fish species of relevance for conser-
vation, the cyprinids Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes), Hypophthal-
michthys molitrix (Valenciennes), Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson), and
the centrarchid Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus) in lentic waters, the salmonid
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) and the gobiid Neogobius kessleri (Günther) in
lotic waters, and the cyprinid Pseudoraspora parva in both types of waters,
the first five fish species were deliberately introduced (Mikschi 2002). The
non-indigenous crayfish species are another example.
The causes of the occurrence of NIS in Austria and their vectors of propaga-
tion are diverse, being the result of deliberate and non-deliberate introductions
Table 1 Overview of 92 non-indigenous species recorded in Austrian fresh waters among bivalves, snails, crustaceans and other
invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and fish. Information on their habitat, distribution, and potential impact is shown. For the remaining
species, no adequate information is available. Information compiled from a draft data base of W. Rabitsch from the Federal Environmental
Agency Ltd, Essl, Rabitsch (2002), and several specialists.
Distribution Impact
No. of
Taxa species Habitat Single/local Rare Common Abundant No Some Strong
Various 19 Lentic, lotic, 6 9 7

invertebrates benthic, host
Bivalvia 3 Lotic, lentic benthic 2 1 2 1
Gastropoda 10 Lotic, lentic benthic,
thermal springs
Crustacea 28 Lentic pelagic and benthic, 9 8 1 6 12 5 3
semi-terrestrial, thermal
springs, host
Amphibia 2 Cave, lotic 2 2
Reptilia 2 Lentic pelagic 1 1 2
Ecological traits of freshwater NIS in Austria
Pisces 28 Lentic pelagic, lotic, 7 4 6 3 19

thermal springs
235
and displacements, active immigration (following displacement), and passive

transportations and translocations by ships, most often due to the construction
of canals that connect formerly separated faunistic provinces.
DELIBERATE INTRODUCTIONS WITH AN ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
Several species of fish and crayfish were originally imported and deliberately
released in streams, rivers, and other water bodies (Spindler 1997, Füreder and
Machino 1998, 1999, Eder 2002, Machino et al. 2004). Although ecological
assessment studies had not been undertaken decades ago, some of these intro-
ductions were welcomed by the responsible authorities because of the expected
economic value. Recreational fisheries are worth a lot of money; therefore, any
supposed means of securing this income is welcome. For example, in Austria its
value is estimated at approximately 75 million Euro per year, and there are
officially at least 200,000 licensees (Spindler 1997).
Meanwhile, species like rainbow trout O. mykiss and American brook
char Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchell), introduced during the 1880s from North
America, are well established and, despite their potential impact on indigenous
fish species, were not considered as NIS according to the Fisheries Acts of the
Austrian Federal States. Similarly, the European eel Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus),
non-indigenous to the Danube river drainage system, has been intensively
stocked in many waters. As an aggressive predator it preferably feeds on
indigenous crayfish and on small, endangered fish species.
Presumably, the oldest non-indigenous fish is the goldfish Carassius auratus
(Linnaeus) from East Asia, which was imported during the 17th century for
ornamental reasons in artificial park ponds by the aristocracy. Other cyprinid
fish from the Amur drainage system in South-east Asia, such as C. idella,
H. molitrix, H. nobilis, and Mylopharyngodon piceus (Richardson) (also known
as grass carps), have been introduced and stocked since the 1970s. The com-
mon grass carp (C. idella) was especially used to consume and reduce aquatic
plants in Austrian water bodies.
The notorious history of the non-indigenous crayfish invasion in Europe
started with the introduction of the spiny-cheek crayfish Orconectes limosus
(Rafinesque) in 1890, when 100 specimens from the USA were released into
a 0.1 ha fish farm pond north-east of Berlin, Germany. Many introductions
followed throughout Europe, as this species was expected to replace the indig-
enous noble crayfish Astacus astacus (Linnaeus), whose populations were
decreasing due to the crayfish plague (Chapters 2 and 28). Orconectes limosus
is today the most widely spread non-indigenous crayfish species in European
inland waters and is responsible for the spreading of Aphanomyces astaci Schi-
kora (the oomycete fungus that causes the crayfish plague). In 1970, about
2,000 specimens of the signal crayfish (P. leniusculus) were imported directly
from California into Austria and the water bodies of several of its provinces
Ecological traits of freshwater NIS in Austria 237
were stocked. More specimens for further stockings came from Sweden. Within
the last decades, the crayfish plague developed to become one of the major
threats to indigenous crayfish in Europe. Although impact studies have not
been performed up to now in Austria, we have learnt from other countries that
indigenous crayfish species are highly threatened by the crayfish plague for
which the vectors are predominantly non-indigenous crayfish, as well as by
direct competition (Söderbäck 1991, 1995, Maiwald et al. 2006).
NON-DELIBERATE AND OTHER DELIBERATE INTRODUCTIONS
While sticklebacks, such as Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus and Pungitius pungi-

tius Linnaeus, have been introduced deliberately from North Europe and North
America; the cyprinid Pseudorasbora parva (Temminck and Schlegel), which is
now regarded as a pest in pond systems, has been introduced accidentally from
South-east Asia together with the grass carp mentioned above. Together with
introduced fish, parasitic worms (Monogenea, Cestoda, Nematoda) were also
imported (Pöckl and Rabitsch 2002). Already in the 1870s, the giant trematode
Fascioloides magna (Bassi), which has aquatic juvenile stages, was imported with
Wapitis from North America. The parasite had severe impacts on the indigenous
red deer Cervus elaphus Linnaeus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus (Linnaeus), as
well as on the non-indigenous fallow deer Dama dama (Linnaeus) and on other
related ruminants.
Aquarists are well known for having released a number of specimens in
natural waters. Cichlids from Africa such as Hemichromis letourneauxi (Sauvage)
and H. fasciatus Peters, as well as poecilids from Central and South America
such as Poecilia reticulata Peters, Xiphophorus maculatus (Günther), and X. helleri
Heckel, have been reported to be free-living in thermal waters near Villach
in Carinthia. This is also the case for some specific warm-water gastropods;
recently, the American red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard) was
recorded from there (J. Petutschnig 2005, personal communication).
In Austria, several invertebrate and vertebrate NIS have been introduced
accidentally. The Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis H. Milne Edwards)
was caught in the Danube downstream from Vienna (at Fischamend) by
lift-net fishing in 2002 (Rabitsch and Schiemer 2003). The direct vector for
these crabs is unknown, although they were most probably displaced by ships.
They are, however, not expected to reproduce in the Danube, as the pelagic
larvae of this species need brackish water for their development. A subspecies of
the smooth newt, Triturus vulgaris graecus (Wolterstorff), from the Greek Balkan
region was found in ponds near Vienna. The animals must have been set free
by aquarists, as there are no other plausible reasons for their existence (Cabela
and Grillitsch 2005). A recent record of young crocodiles, Caiman crocodylus
(Linnaeus), in the Danube Canal in Vienna underlines this potential threat
of NIS.
THE BUILDING OF CANALS AND SHIP TRAFFIC
Canals connect former separate drainage systems and consequently different

faunistic provinces. Aquatic organisms are therefore presented with new oppor-
tunities to spread. Examples for the successful invasion of NIS are numerous.
In most cases, the active upstream or downstream migration, drift, and passive
transportation in the ballast waters of ships overlap. Biofouling, i.e. the devel-
opment of biofilm or sessile biocoenosis on hard substrates, including natural
(especially drifting wood) and artificial ones (the metal surfaces of vessels, boats,
chains, and ropes), is responsible for species displacement from one water body
to another. The migration of small non-indigenous organisms can further be
facilitated by natural vectors: the feathers of waterfowl and the fur of water
mammals, such as otters, minks, and voles.
The construction of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal (25 September 1992)
has opened an important migration and passive transportation route for aquatic
organisms in Austria. With a total length of approximately 3,550 km it is one
of the longest waterways in Europe, allowing the direct shipping of goods from
the North Sea to the Black Sea. Since its opening, many species from the
Ponto–Caspian Basin have successfully moved up- and downstream in the
Danube, the Canal, and the Rhine in Germany and in the Netherlands. Many
of them are now widespread, well established, and reach considerable densities
and productivity. While the gudgeons Neogobius kessleri (Günther), N. melanos-
tomus (Pallas), and N. gymnotrachelus (Kessler) from the Ponto–Caspian Basin
are reported to be displaced in the embryonic stage by ships, some species from
the Black and Caspian seas also reached Austria from the west in the down-
stream direction. An example is the mysid shrimp Hemimysis anomala G. O. Sars.
Although this species originates from the Ponto–Caspian Basin, it was first
displaced to the Baltic Sea, and reached the Danube via the Rhine and the
Canal. Other examples for new species having invaded Austria from the
west via the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal are Atyaephyra desmaresti (Millet) and
Echinogammarus trichiatus Martynov (Pöckl and Rabitsch 2002).
STRATEGIES OF SUCCESSFUL INVADERS
In spite of increased opportunities for the immigration of NIS, not all of them are
successful. Williamson (1996) formulated the ‘‘tens rule’’, to explain that only
10% of the established immigrant species can turn into pests. Species that were
successful during a previous invasion on one continent have also proved
successful as they entered new territories on another continent. This means
that such species may become cosmopolitans, making ecosystems all over the
world more and more similar with respect to species composition.
Successful invasions by new species usually proceed via a number of
stages. The initial introduction must occur across a natural barrier, which is
circumvented most often with the help of human activities. Enormous spatial
leaps may be made, e.g. from one continent to another. Subsequently, the
invasive species must be able to settle or adapt to the habitat in a new area
that is conducive to its survival. There, it must be able to reproduce and
complete its life cycle. The species will then spread over the new range success-
fully, usually by gradual local dispersal but also by jumps aided by transport
action. It will show exponential population growth, reaching densities some-
times higher than ever recorded before, followed by a somewhat lower steady-
state fluctuation.
Attempts have been made to define the possible factors likely to be important
for successful invasions (Bij de Vaate et al. 2002). These include (a) invader
properties, adaptations, genetic characteristics, mode of reproduction, growth
rate, and dispersive capability; (b) competition, predation, diseases, and parasit-
ism; and (c) climate match, habitat modification, vacant niche, and ancestral
habitat.
The qualities of successful invaders are generally those of opportunistic species,
often termed r-strategists. Morton (1997) listed several ecological/biological
traits for molluscan invaders, such as a short lifespan and generation time,
rapid growth with early sexual maturity, high fecundity, larger size
than phylogenetically close species, habitat generalism with wide physiological
tolerances, wide genetic variability and phenotypic plasticity, omnivorous
and/or suspension feeding, and others. The success of invaders is ultimately
also dependent on a variety of other factors, such as the lack of indige-
nous competitors, predators, diseases, and parasites, allowing uncontrolled
population expansion.
Below, we will provide some well-studied examples of invasive species
recorded in Austria and will highlight their success in relation to their life
history traits and their potential threat to the indigenous fauna. These include
(a) Asian clams and zebra mussels; (b) the amphipod Dikerogammarus villosus
(Sovinski); and (c) the non-indigenous astacid and cambarid crayfish species.
Example 1: Asian clams, zebra and unionoidean mussels
The bivalve fauna of European rivers and lakes consists of species of the
superfamily Unionoidea. In riverine habitats, they inhabit stable substrates
of course and sand–gravel mixtures subject to moderate current velocities.
Although there is interspecific variation, members of the Unionoidea display
most of the K-selected characteristics expected of species adapted to the intense
competition associated with stable habitats (Table 2). They have long lifespans
and delayed maturity, are gonochoristic (i.e. species with sexes separate,
the male and female reproductive organs being in different individuals),
grow rapidly to maturity, and, thereafter, grow slowly, have extremely low
juvenile survivorship but high adult survivorship, are highly iteroparous
(i.e. have many reproductive periods within their extended lifespans) with
Table 2 Summary of the life history characteristics of indigenous, European freshwater bivalves (Unionoidea) and of the
non-indigenous Corbicula fluminea and Dreissena polymorpha (after McMahon 2002).
240
Unionoidea Corbicula fluminea Dreissena polymorpha
Origin Indigenous, partly endangered Asia, Australia, Africa Caspian Sea, Ural River
Habitat stability Generally stable Stable to unstable Stable to moderately unstable
(can inhabit high-flow habitats)
Life history trait

Lifespan (years) <6 to >100, depending on species 1–4 4–7
Age at maturity (years) 6–12 0.25–0.75 0.5–2
Reproductive mode Gonochoristic (few Hermaphroditic Gonocharistic
hermaphroditic species) (self-fertilizing)
Growth rate Rapid before maturity, much Rapid throughout life Relatively rapid throughout life
slower thereafter
Fecundity (no. young per 200,000 – 17,000,000 per 35,000 per hermaphroditic 30,000 – 1,000,000 per female
adult per breeding season) female depending on species individual
Juvenile size at release Very small, 50---450 mm Small, 250 mm Extremely small, 40 mm
depending on species
Relative juvenile survival Extremely low Extremely low Extremely low
Relative adult survival High Low, 2–41% per year Intermediate, 26–88% per year
Degree of iteroparity Highly iteroparous, generally > 10 Moderately iteroparous, Moderately iteroparous,
reproductive periods 1–7 reproductive periods 1–4 reproductive periods

Reproductive efforts per year One Two (spring to autumn) One (2–8 months long)
Assimilated energy respired (%) – 11–42% > 90% from May to October
Non-respired energy allocated 85.2–97.5% depending 58–71% depending on 10–26% depending on
to growth (%) on species cohort and season temperature and ration
Non-respired energy allocated 2.8–14.8% depending on species 5–15% depending on cohort 74–90% depending on
to reproduction (%) and season temperature and ration
Turnover time in days (¼ mean 1,790–2,849 depending on species 73–91 depending on cohort 53–869 depending on habitat
standing crop biomass : biomass
produced per day)
one reproductive period per year, and tend to allocate high proportions of
non-respired assimilated energy to growth and low proportions to reproduction
(McMahon and Bogan 2001). Low juvenile survival and slow adult growth
rates lead to low population productivity, reflected in extended turnover times
(i.e. time in days for population to produce the equivalent of their mean
population standing crop biomass) up to 2,849 days (Table 2). High adult
survival, long life spans, and low juvenile survival result in domination of
unionoidean populations by adults relative to juveniles, a trait characteristic
of species adapted to stable habitats (Sibly and Calow 1986).
Unionoids deviate from the life history traits expected for species adapted to
stable habitats in that females produce very large numbers of small young
individuals (Table 2). Females retain eggs in marsupial chambers within the
exhalant water channels of their outer gills where they are fertilized by sperm
carried to them on inhalant currents. After fertilization, eggs develop into a
small, externally released, bivalved larva called glochidium (McMahon and
Bogan 2001). The glochidium is parasitic on specific fish hosts, encysting in
their fins or gills for periods of less than 200 days to more than 1,000 days
depending on species, allowing dispersal and growth to a more competitive size
before excystment as a free-living juvenile (Bauer 1994). Because of the high
risk within this parasitic stage, the effective fecundity of unionoidean species
is quite low, leading to the production of a few, large, well-developed offspring
(i.e. excysted juveniles), a characteristic of K-selected species from stable
habitats (Sibly and Calow 1986).
Extended lifespans, delayed maturity, low effective fecundities, reduced
powers of dispersal, high habitat selectivity, poor juvenile survival, and long
turnover times (Table 2) make unionoidean populations highly susceptible to
human perturbations (Strayer et al. 1999, McMahon and Bogan 2001). These
unionoidean life history traits (particularly long life spans and low effective
fecundities) slow population recovery from human- or naturally mediated
habitat disturbances (Strayer et al. 1999, McMahon and Bogan 2001).
The introduced freshwater clam, Corbicula fluminea (O. F. Müller), unlike
unionoideans, displays a majority of the life history traits (Table 2) that adapt it
for life in unstable, unpredictable habitats (McMahon 1999). Arguably, it is the
most invasive of all freshwater bivalves, occurring in southern Asia, Australia,
and Africa and having been introduced into Europe, North America, and South
America within the last 100 years (McMahon 1999). Corbicula fluminea grows
rapidly, in part because it has higher filtration and assimilation rates than other
freshwater bivalve species. Only a relatively small proportion of its assimilated
energy is devoted to respiration, the majority being allocated to growth and
reproduction. This species allocates a high proportion of non-respired assimila-
tion to growth, allowing individuals to reach 15–30 mm in shell length in the
first year of life and 35–50 mm in the terminal 3rd–4th year (McMahon 1999).
Thus, C. fluminea has the highest net production efficiencies recorded for any
freshwater bivalve, reflected by short turnover times (Table 2).
Newly released juveniles of C. fluminea are small but completely formed, with
a well-developed bivalve shell, adductor muscles, foot, statocysts, gills, and
digestive systems. They anchor to sediments or hard surfaces with a mucilagi-
nous byssal thread but can resuspend in turbulent flows to be dispersed long
distances downstream (McMahon 1999). A relatively low percentage of non-
respired assimilation in C. fluminea is allocated to reproduction (equivalent to
that expended by unionoideans); however, its elevated assimilation rates allow
higher absolute energy allocation to reproduction than in other freshwater
bivalves. Fecundity is high, estimated at 68,678 juveniles per adult per year
(Aldridge and McMahon 1978). Juvenile survival, while higher than that of
unionoideans, is still low, and unlike unionoideans, mortality rates remain high
throughout adult life (74–98% in the first year, 59–69% in the 2nd year, and
93–97% in the 3rd year of life). Low adult survival leads to populations
dominated by juveniles and immature individuals (McMahon 1999), a charac-
teristic of species adapted to unstable habitats (Sibly and Calow 1986). Most
European C. fluminea populations have two reproductive periods per year
(i.e. spring through early summer and late summer through early autumn).
Corbicula fluminea is hermaphroditic and self-fertilizing (Kraemer et al. 1986),
allowing single individuals to found new populations. Maturation occurs within
3–6 months at a shell length of 6–10 mm, thus spring-born juveniles can
participate in autumn reproduction. Maximum lifespan is highly variable,
ranging from 1 to 4 years, within which early maturity and bivoltine repro-
duction allows individuals to participate in one to seven reproductive efforts
(McMahon 1999).
The relatively short lifespan, early maturity, high fecundity, bivoltine juvenile
release patterns, high growth rates, small juvenile size, and capacity for down-
stream dispersal of C. fluminea make it highly invasive and adapted for life in
unstable lotic habitats subject to unpredictable catastrophic environmental
disturbance. Its high reproductive potential and growth rate allow it to achieve
high densities after having invaded a new habitat or re-establish dense popu-
lations soon after experiencing catastrophic population declines. Its high meta-
bolic rates allow for rapid burrowing, being the species tolerant of suspended silt
(McMahon 1999). Thus, it is highly successful in European and American
drainage systems, subject to periodic anthropogenic interference, such as chan-
nelization, navigational dredging, ‘‘pearling’’ acitivities in unionoidean beds,
sand and gravel dredging, commercial and recreational boating, and organic
and chemical pollution, compared with the less resilient indigenous unionoi-
dean species (McMahon and Bogan 2001).
Unlike unionoideans in which dispersal generally occurs within a popula-
tion’s drainage by host-fish glochidial transport, C. fluminea is adapted for
transport between isolated drainages. The juvenile’s mucilaginous byssal thread
or the filamentous algae on which it settles entangles in the feet or feathers of
shore birds and waterfowl, which then transport them between drainages
(McMahon 1999).
The zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas), was introduced into Austria
long before Corbicula and Sinanodonta. Like C. fluminea, many of its life history
characteristics (reviewed in Mackie and Schloesser 1996, McMahon 1996,
Nichols 1996) make it highly successful as an invader (Table 2). Unlike all
other European bivalve species, it has external fertilization that results in the
development of a free-swimming, planktonic Veliger larva. The Veliger remains
in the water column for 8–10 days before settlement, allowing long-distance
downstream dispersal (Nichols 1996) or even displacement attached to small
ships or fishermen’s equipment. Veligers released into the Illinois River in North
America were estimated to travel > 306 km downstream before settlement with
total annual Veliger flux ranging approximately from 1:94 1014 to
2:13 1014 Veligers (Stoeckel et al. 1997). Adults byssally attached to floating
objects can be transported long distances downstream, and juveniles attached to
macrophytic vegetation can be carried between drainages by waterfowl. Thus,
zebra mussels may be dispersed by a number of passive and active mechanisms
(Carlton 1993).
Zebra mussels sustain relatively high growth rates throughout their lifespan,
becoming sexually mature in the first year of life and reaching a terminal adult
shell length of 3.5–5.0 cm. Dreissena polymorpha is gonochoristic, iteroparous,
and univoltine, with individuals participating in three to four annual repro-
ductive periods within their life span (Mackie and Schloesser 1996). The egg
and freshly hatched Veliger larvae are small. Dreissena polymorpha allocates a
lower percentage than C. fluminea of non-respired assimilation to somatic
growth (Stoeckmann and Garton 2001; Table 2). Allocation of a relatively
large proportion of non-respired assimilation to growth allows individuals
to rapidly increase in size, making them more competitive and less vulnerable
to predation (Sibly and Calow 1986). The elevated levels of energy devoted to
reproduction by D. polymorpha relative to C. fluminea and its very small egg size
allow for high fecundity (Table 2; Sprung 1991, Mackie and Schlosser 1996).
Dreissena polymorpha population densities can range from 7,000 to 114,000
individuals m2 , and standing crop biomasses from 0.05 to 15 kg m2 (Claudi
and Mackie 1994, Mackie and Schloesser 1996). High standing crop
biomass results from juveniles settling on the shells of adults and substrates
inhabited by adults, forming dense mats. High individual growth rates and
population densities lead to high population productivity, estimated to be
0:05---15 g C m2 year1 in European populations and approximately
75 g C m2 year1 in North American Great Lakes populations when con-
verted from dry tissue mass productivity values (Mackie and Schloesser
1996). These productivity values, although higher than those of unionoideans,
are still relatively low compared with those of 1,000---4,500 g C m2 year1
estimated for dense North American C. flumnea populations (McMahon and
Bogan 2001). Population growth and productivity are habitat-dependent in
D. polymorpha, yielding variable turnover times, ranging from 53 days (high
productivity) to 869 days (low productivity) (McMahon and Bogan 2001).
As for C. fluminea, the life history traits of D. polymorpha cause its populations to
be dominated by juvenile and immature individuals (Smit et al. 1993), charac-
teristic of a species adapted to unstable habitats (Sibly and Calow 1986).
The r-selected life history traits, high growth rate throughout life, elevated
fecundity, short life spans, and long-distance downstream dispersal of adult and
larval stages make D. polymorpha a successful invasive species. However, unlike
C. fluminea, D. polymorpha populations tend to be characterized by a restriction
to more stable habitats in medium- to large-sized lakes and rivers, reflected
by its original distribution in the Caspian Sea and Ural River, avoidance of
shallow, near-shore, lentic habitats and small, variable-flow, lotic habitats,
relatively long age to maturity (generally at least 1 year), iteroparity, gono-
chorism, and relatively high adult survival (Mackie and Schloesser 1996). Thus,
D. polymorpha, while adapted to rapidly recover from catastrophic reductions
in population densities, appears less r-selected than C. fluminea but it is more
r-selected than members of the Unionoidea.
Example 2: Dikerogammarus villosus
Dikerogammarus villosus was not found before 1989 in the Austrian stretch of the
River Danube (Nesemann et al. 1995). It is reported to be a successful invader by
competition and predation in the Rhine system (Müller et al. 2002) and in the
large rivers in northern Germany (Grabow et al. 1998), as well as in the Moselle
and in other French streams, rivers, and canals (Devin et al. 2001). In the
Netherlands, Dick and Platvoet (2000) have found that D. villosus is having a
marked impact on the indigenous Gammarus duebeni Lilljeborg, as well as on the
non-indigenous G. tigrinus Sexton, until now a successful invader from North
America, and they predict that it will further reduce amphipod diversity in a range
of freshwater habitats in Europe. Besides its occurrences in the Danube, Diker-
ogammarus villosus has also been found to occur in several lakes, e.g. Traunsee
and its outflow, the River Traun, Austria (O. Moog 2003, personal communica-
tion), Lake Constance, Germany (K. O. Rotthaupt 2003, personal com-
munication), Lake Garda, Italy (Casellato et al. 2006), where it is observed to
partially replace the indigenous Echinogammarus stammeri (S. Karamann).
Although in field studies and laboratory experiments the exceptional preda-
tory capabilities of D. villosus on other amphipod species, Asellus aquaticus
(Linnaeus), insect larvae, including the hard-shelled water boatman, and fish
eggs have been observed – even small fish are reported to be attacked (Dick
and Platvoet 2000, 2001, Dick et al. 2002, Chapter 27), Platvoet (2005)
showed that the species is able to nourish itself by a wide range of feeding
methods. Feeding habits included shredding, grazing, collecting micro-algae,
macro-algae, coprophagy, and carnivory, and were dependent on the water
temperature and the (micro)-distribution of prey organisms. Finally, van Riel
et al. (2005) showed that D. villosus was less predatory when a population
was well established in a respective habitat compared to the phase when a
population was rapidly increasing its number in a recently invaded habitat.

In Table 3, life history and ecological traits are compared between D. villosus
and the indigenous gammarid species Gammarus fossarum Koch and G. roeseli
Gervais.
Currently, the high reproductive potential of D. villosus in the Austrian
Danube is greater than that reported for other Danubian gammarids with larger
females carrying more than 100 developing embryos and juveniles in the brood
pouch. Just a couple of animals is probably sufficient to found a new population.
Moreover, the number of offspring produced by a female D. villosus in a single
clutch is much higher than the total numbers that most of the indigenous
freshwater gammarids, such as G. fossarum, G. roeseli, or G. pulex, can produce
during their entire lifespan of ca. 1.5–2 years in 6–8 successive broods (Pöckl
1993, 2007, Pöckl et al. 2003). In Fig. 1, the frequency distribution of classes
of egg numbers are plotted for D. villosus in comparison with G. roeseli and
G. fossarum.
Also, the time taken to reach sexual maturity is considerably shorter at
similar water temperatures, compared with other gammarid species (Piscart
et al. 2003). Moreover, in the Moselle River, where the temperature range is
similar to that of the Danube, D. villosus has a short generation time and
rapid growth rates, particularly in younger specimens (Piscart et al. 2003).
Altogether, some six life history parameters – early sexual maturity, short
generation time, high growth rates, large reproductive capacity, comparatively
small eggs, and optimal timing to release the maximum number of neonates per
female in April/May (maximizing rapid growth at the period of high summer
temperatures and plentiful food) – are important biological traits in the invasion
process (Mordukhai-Boltovskoi 1949, Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1998, Kolar
and Lodge 2001). Bruijs et al. (2001) highlighted the tolerance of D. villosus
to a wide range of environmental conditions and several workers described the
exceptional predatory capabilities of the species (Dick and Platvoet 2000, 2001,
Dick et al. 2002, Chapter 27).
In contrast to the disturbed ecosystem of the River Rhine, where D. villosus is
reported to have eliminated indigenous species, several other gammarid species
cohabit with D. villosus at the sampling site of the Danube: D. haemobaphes,
D. bispinosus, Echinogammarus ischnus Stebbing, Obesogammarus obesus (G. O.
Sars), Chelicorophium curvispinum (G. O. Sars), and G. roeseli.
Bruijs et al. (2001), who did laboratory experiments on the oxygen consump-
tion, temperature, and salinity tolerance of D. villosus, speculated that the
species might survive (incomplete) ballast water exchange and subsequently
be dispersed over intercontinental distances. It has thus the potential to develop
large populations in temperate biomes all over the world and could develop into
a cosmopolitan species. In all life history variables, D. villosus is competitively
superior to many of the indigenous species in north-western Europe and else-
where. If it will ever spread into North America, its impact on freshwater and
brackish water ecosystems could be disastrous.
246
Table 3 Summary of the life history characteristics of the non-indigenous gammarid Dikerogammarus villosus compared to the two
indigenous Gammarus roeseli and G. fossarum.
D. villosus G. roeseli G. fossarum
Origin Ponto–Caspian Basin Indigenous Indigenous

Habitat R. Danube warm rivers small brooks
(high order streams) (low order streams)
Life history trait

Life span (years) 1 ?? 1–2 1–2
Age at maturity (months) 3 4 5
Growth rate Rapid throughout life Rapid until sexual maturity Slow throughout life
Fecundity per clutch (No. of eggs) 43 (5–194) 32 (5–87) 15 (5–59)
Fecundity in total life span (No. of eggs) 350 ?? 120–169 127–208
Egg size (mm3) Small (0.05) Large (0.075) Large (0.08)
Juvenile size at hatching 1.5 mm 1.5 mm 1.5 mm
Relative juvenile survival Extremely low Low Intermediate
Size at maturity (mm) 7.5 8.5 6.5
Brood development time Rapid Slow at cold temperatures Intermediate
Maximum size (mm, M/F) 22/18 19/16.5 17.5/12

Embryonic survival High Intermediate High
Relative adult survival Low Intermediate High
Degree of iteroparity Low (reproductive peaks Intermediate Low (þ continuous,
with cohorts) no cohorts)
Reproductive resting stage October–December (3 months) October–March (5 months) October–November
(2 months)
G. fossarum
50
Frequency (%) 40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
G. roeseli
35
30
25
Frequency (%)
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
D. villosus
25
20
Frequency (%)
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Number of Eggs
Fig. 1 Frequency distribution of egg numbers per clutch in classes (1 is up to 10 eggs,

2 is 11–20 eggs, 3 is 21–30 eggs, etc.). Amphipods are from Austrian locations:
Gammarus fossarum from six Austrian streams, G. roeseli from two Austrian streams,
Dikerogammarus villosus from the Danube.
Example 3: Indigenous and non-indigenous freshwater crayfish
In Austria, the two astacids Astacus astacus and Austropotamobius torrentium

(Schrank) are considered indigenous, whereas the position of the two astacids
A. leptodactylus and Austropotamobius pallipes (Lereboullet) is still debated. The
astacid P. leniusculus and the cambarids O. limosus and P. clarkii are of North
American origin (Füreder et al. 2006, Chapter 28). The non-indigenous crayfish
considerably increased their distribution within the last five years: the available
data show an increase in records of the spiny-cheek crayfish from 16 to 25 and
of the signal crayfish from 126 to more than 320 since 1998 (L. Füreder 2006,
unpublished data). Meanwhile, P. clarkii has also been found very recently near
Villach (J. Petutschnig 2005, personal communication).
Neveu (2006) has classified six crayfish species according to r and K strategies
(Table 4), the European species A. astacus, A. pallipes, and A. leptodactylus, and
the North American species P. leniusculus, O. limosus, and P. clarkii. According
to their biological and life history traits, these species can clearly be separated,
which demonstrates these species pose increasing threats to the indigenous
species.
Annual life cycle and activity patterns differ between the crayfish species.
The indigenous A. astacus, the two Austropotamobius species, and the North
American P. leniusculus mate and spawn in October and November, and carry
the eggs during the cold season of the year. The mating and spawning of
A. leptodactylus occurs about one month later in December. The juveniles of
these five species hatch in May and June. The offspring leave the mother 2
weeks later in June and in the beginning of July. The incubation time of the eggs
of A. torrentium, A. pallipes, A. astacus, A. leptodactylus, and P. leniusculus ranges
from 158 to 214 days.
Orconectes limosus and P. clarkii spawn at other periods of the year. Mating in
O. limosus occurs from the end of August until the beginning of April, but egg-
carrying females are not found until mid-April. The juveniles hatch at the end of
May and in June, as in the European species and in P. leniusculus. The incuba-
tion time of the eggs of O. limosus is therefore much shorter (49–55 days).
Females of P. clarkii spawn at different times during the year. The incubation
time for the eggs is 48–55 days. Females bearing eggs at different stages of
development and females carrying embryos or juveniles are found throughout
the year. The hatching and incubation time for the eggs carried by females
spawning in late autumn is not known. Most probably, they are carried by the
female during winter, and hatching is in spring as for other species in moderate
climates.
Females of A. torrentium and A. pallipes become sexually mature at a size of
between 23 and 26 mm in cephalothorax length (CL). Single crayfish reach this
size at the end of the 2nd year, but the majority of crayfish in both species
become sexually mature in the 3rd year. Females of A. astacus reach sexual
maturity at a CL of 41–44 mm in the 3rd–4th year. Astacus leptodactylus
Table 4 Classification of crayfish species from Brittany (France) according to the two
strategies r and K in relation to their life history characteristics. Code: ***: strong test; **:
medium test; * low test; total score: stars sum for each species (AUP Austropotamobius
pallipes, ASA Astacus astacus, ASL Astacus leptodactylus, PAL Pacifastacus leniusculus, ORL
Orconectes limosus, PRC Procambarus clarkii). After Neveu (2006).
AUP ASA ASL PAL ORL PRC
r-selection?
Early sexual maturity * *** ***
High fecundity * ** ***
Small egg size * *** ***
Rapid egg development ** ***
Long egg-laying duration ***
Short hatching duration ***
Fast growth 1st summer *** *** *
Fast growth 2nd summer ** *** * ** ***
Small body 2nd summer ** * ***
Variable size 1st summer * * * ***
Short life span ** ***
Susceptible to plague *** *** ***
Score total 2 2 8 8 24 31
K-selection?
Extended sexual maturity *** ** **
Low fecundity *** *** **
Large egg size *** ** *
Slow egg development *** ** * *
Short egg-laying duration *** * * *** ***
Short hatching duration *** * * *** ***
Slow growth 1st summer ***
Slow growth 2nd summer ***
Larger size 2nd summer ** *** ** ***
Same size 1st summer *** *** *
Long life span ** *** *** *
Susceptible to plague *** *** ***
Score total 32 22 16 12 6 3
females reach maturity at a similar size (39–40 mm CL) as A. astacus but, due to
faster growth, some individuals reach that size during the 2nd year. In contrast
to the European species, the females of all the American species, O. limosus,
P. leniusculus, and P. clarkii, become mature in their 2nd year. Also the males of
P. leniusculus and P. clarkii reach maturity in the 2nd year.
The American crayfish species display a high capacity for recruiting offspring.
The three species reach sexual maturity in their 2nd year. Young females are
already able to spawn high numbers of eggs, and the average egg number per
female is high. Females of P. clarkii are reported to spawn up to 700 eggs, and
the average number of eggs can reach up to 300 per female in populations in
Portugal and Louisiana (Correia 1995, Avery and Lorio 1996, Ilhéu and
Bernardo 1997). In P. leniusculus, average numbers of 160–300 eggs per
female are described for Scandinavia, Germany, France, and the western
USA (Abrahamsson 1972, Müller 1978, Shimizu and Goldman 1983,
Westman et al. 1995, Mankampa and Chaisemartin 1996). In contrast,
A. torrentium and A. pallipes spawn a lower number of eggs, averaging 39–75
eggs. The average egg diameter is between 2.52 and 3.06 mm in A. astacus,
A. leptodactylus, A. torrentium, A. pallipes, and P. leniusculus. The eggs of
O. limosus and P. clarkii are smaller, with average diameters of 1.76–2.00 mm.
NIS display several characteristics that differ from the life history traits of the
indigenous species but also show a different behavioural pattern. Astacus lepto-
dactylus, O. limosus, and P. clarkii can be active during both nocturnal and
diurnal hours and their activity period during the year is longer. The flexibility
in the diurnal activity pattern enables these crayfish populations to extend their
feeding activity during times of favourable conditions and to avoid predators.
According to Cukerzis (1988), the better adaptability of A. leptodactylus to
different light regimes and the better utilization of the food supply are reasons
for its success in competition with A. astacus.
Orconectes limosus and P. clarkii show not only a more flexible activity pattern,
but also a different life cycle and a more flexible reproductive pattern than the
other species. As cambarids, females are able to store spermatophores in their
annulus ventralis, which enables a temporal separation between mating and
spawning. The European species and P. leniusculus lack this morphological
feature, and spawn one or two weeks after mating. As female O. limosus and
P. clarkii carry eggs in spring and summer, the temperature dependent embry-
onic development is much faster. Moreover, females of P. clarkii are able to
spawn at different times of the year, and there are always crayfish at different
stages of development in the population. Therefore, a population is able to
respond very quickly to changing environmental conditions and, due to this
ability to store spermatophores, times of unfavourable conditions can be over-
come. This strategy which may have evolved as an adaptation to temporary
waters in their original distribution area is maintained also in the permanent
water bodies in Europe.
In summary, O. limosus and P. clarkii show several characteristics of r-selected
organisms. Both species have an early sexual maturity, are fast growing, spawn
many small eggs, and have a relatively short lifespan. On the contrary, the life
history of the indigenous species shows characteristics of more K-selected
organisms. Sexual maturity is later, growth is slower, the females spawn
fewer but larger eggs and the lifespan is longer. Astacus astacus and P. leniusculus
show characteristics between these two extreme positions. Pacifastacus leniuscu-

lus grows fast and has a high fecundity, but the crayfish reaches a large body
size and has a long lifespan. Growth is also fast in A. leptodactylus; females
spawn high quantities of large eggs and their life is long.
The comparison of life history and ecological traits demonstrates that
non-indigenous crayfish are clearly able to exploit European water bodies. Due
to their high fecundity, early maturity, fast growth, and flexibility in life cycle and
activity, the introduced species show characteristics of successful dispersal and
are superior in the competition with indigenous species (Stucki 2000, Holdich
et al. 2006). Additionally, populations of the indigenous European species, par-
ticularly A. astacus, were badly affected by the introduction of the crayfish plague.
CONCLUSIONS
Habitat destruction and degradation, pollution, introductions of NIS, direct har-

vest, and global climate change have been considered as the major threats to the
freshwater fauna (Strayer 2006). Introductions of non-indigenous species are
now widespread around the world (e.g. Cox 1999). Also in Austria, some of
the introductions were deliberate, but most were unintentional (Essl and Rabitsch
2002, Rabitsch and Essl 2006). Non-indigenous species often have strong, long-
lasting, and irreversible ecological effects. Our examples of successful invaders of
Austrian waters demonstrate their potential threats for ecologically similar indi-
genous species. In some cases, alterations of the whole ecosystem have to be
expected. The two bivalve species, D. polymorpha and C. fluminea are highly
competitive: it was demonstrated at other locations that they can radically
change the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of lakes and rivers
(e.g. Strayer et al. 1999). Competition with zebra mussels led to the extirpation of
many populations of indigenous unionid mussels in North America (Ricciardi
et al. 1998, Strayer 1999); Ricciardi et al. (1998) even predicted that the zebra
mussel invasion will drive unionids into global extinction. For Austria, the time of
monitoring is still too short or the effort even not existent; therefore, drastic
changes are hardly reported and may occur unnoticed. However, given the
examples from other countries, worse scenarios have to be expected.
The life history and ecological traits of the non-indigenous molluscan and
crustacean species show that most of them have the potential to become highly
invasive. Similarly to D. villosus, these are considerably different from those of the
indigenous species, giving them the ability to potentially change the biological
characteristics of the invaded habitats. The same is true for the American crayfish
species and also for some non-indigenous fishes. Today, the rainbow trout is
distributed throughout Austria’s epirhithral zone and represents a strong but
often neglected competitor for space and food with the indigenous fish species.
Many other non-indigenous plants, microbes, fungi, invertebrates, fishes
and other vertebrates, and diseases have been moved around the world and
have had strong ecological effects (e.g. Cox 1999, Mack et al. 2000). The repeated
outbreak of the crayfish plague is the unmistakable evidence of the threats
that NIS introductions bring along. The introduction of NIS continues to
be a difficult and growing problem in freshwater biodiversity conservation
because the number of new invasions is expected to rise also in Austria and the
effects of established NIS tend to be cumulative and difficult or impossible
to reverse.
Our examples also demonstrate that ecosystems can easily be colonized by
invasive NIS and, due to their dominance over indigenous species, endemic,
unique, rare, and stenotopic species may be lost. Due to the impacts on fresh-
water ecosystems all over the world and the effects of global warming, the
establishment of NIS will make the composition of the aquatic fauna more and
more similar and dominated by globally distributed, formerly non-indigenous,
invaders. The ‘‘homogenization of the earth’s biota’’ (Rahel 2002) is acknowl-
edged as a major threat to global biodiversity. In Austria, this is expected to be
especially the case in larger rivers, but it may also affect lakes where human
activities threaten the existence of NIS. Endemic, unique, and endangered
indigenous species may have a better chance to survive in woodland brooks,
headwaters, and isolated water bodies at higher altitudes where the pressure of
human activities is less severe.
Once a population of NIS is well established, it is impossible to eradicate it
under normal conditions, and even management methods for an effective
population control will be intensive in cost, labour, and time. Hence, it is the
duty of scientists and authorities to raise public awareness. As in other Euro-
pean countries, there is an Austrian Action Plan on invasive aquatic species
(Essl and Rabitsch 2004), where the spread and impact of NIS should be
prevented through concerted national actions and international cooperation.
Appropriate adaptations in customs acts (legislation) for prohibiting the import
of NIS and enforced control were considered necessary (Holdich and Pöckl
2005). However, when we approached the topic of the ecological impact of
NIS in Austria, we became rapidly aware that there exists a great lack of
knowledge and data. Ecological impact studies are very necessary, compulsory,
and must be seriously conducted before an NIS is set free. The area has to
be extremely limited, and the performance of the non-indigenous population
and the reaction of indigenous species studied in great detail. Given today’s
knowledge, well accustomed practices in the introduction of NIS have to be
questioned in terms of necessity, economy, effects, and (better) alternatives.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Wolfgang Rabitsch who provided the database of non-indigenous

freshwater animal species which was prepared within the EU-STREP-Project
DAISIE (Delivering Alien Invasive Inventories for Europe). We are grateful for
valuable suggestions by Francesca Gherardi and Wolfgang Rabitsch as well as

two anonymous reviewers.
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235–248.
Chapter thirteen
Growth and reproduction

of the goldfish Carassius
auratus: a case study
from Italy
Massimo Lorenzoni, Massimiliano Corboli,

Lucia Ghetti, Giovanni Pedicillo,
and Antonella Carosi
INTRODUCTION
The goldfish Carassius auratus (Linnaeus) is a scaly, high-bodied, laterally

compressed fish; its mouth is small and terminal, without barbels. The dorsal
fin is long with a slightly serrated third spine. This species is very similar to the
crucian carp Carassius carassius (Linneaus), but is more elongated and has a
slightly concave dorsal fin and slightly larger scales (Lelek 1987).
There has been considerable confusion concerning the taxonomic status of
C. auratus. Many authors have recognized two subspecies in its native range:
C. a. auratus (goldfish, Chinese goldfish, or Asian goldfish) from Asia, and
C. a. gibelio Bloch (Prussian carp, gibele carp, or European goldfish) from
eastern Europe (Hanfling et al. 2005). Howells (1992, in Nico and Schofield
2006) reported that goldfish typically observed in the US waters are crucian
carp goldfish hybrids. Goldfish commonly hybridises with the carp Cyprinus
carpio Linnaeus, giving rise to individuals that are intermediate in morphology
between the two parent species. Recent studies have indicated that European
259
ß 2007 Springer.
260 Massimo Lorenzoni et al.
goldfish populations represent probably an assemblage of lineages of different

origins (various clonal lineages as well as hybrids between goldfish and crucian
carp) which might have contributed to the taxonomic confusion in the genus
Carassius Jarocki (Hanfling et al. 2005).
Goldfish may grow to 45 cm total length (TL) and 3 kg; however, they
generally reach only 20 cm TL and weigh 100–300 g (Muus and Dahlström
1967). Their lifespan is typically 6–7 years, but it has been reported to be as
long as 30 years (Menassè 1974). There is no parental care of the eggs or
larvae.
Typical habitat includes weedy ponds, shallow lakes, and slow-flowing rivers,
especially those with submerged aquatic vegetation (Lelek 1987, Maitland
2004). Many different varieties of goldfish have been produced by man through
selective breeding to create a wide range of colours and fin shapes. When
released from captivity, these fishes usually revert to their natural olive-bronze
colour and normal fin shapes.
DISTRIBUTION
There is still considerable uncertainty regarding the distribution of goldfish. This

species is indigenous to eastern Asia (Lelek 1987), including China and neigh-
bouring countries, and, if C. a. gibelio is a valid subspecies and not just a feral
introduction (Raicu et al. 1981), also to some parts of central-eastern Europe.
However, the distribution of goldfish in Europe today extends from the Iberian
Peninsula to the Black Sea area, with the exception of northern regions (Ireland,
Scotland, and part of the Scandinavian Peninsula) (Lelek 1987, Maitland
2004). Wild populations have often been established by released pet goldfish,
but many have been introduced unintentionally through restocking with young
carp, from which goldfish are difficult to distinguish (Halacka et al. 2003);
goldfish have been also introduced as bait fish (Nico and Schofield 2006). The
species can also spread spontaneously using the connections of hydrological
networks. The range of this species in Europe is currently expanding (Lelek
1987).
The goldfish was probably the first foreign fish species to be introduced
into North America, arriving in the late 1600s (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994).
Today this species is established or reported in all the American States except
Alaska (Nico and Schofield 2006). The species can also be found in South
America, where it was introduced at the beginning of the 1900s by European
immigrants (Gomez et al. 1997). The goldfish was first taken to New Zealand in
the late 1860s and is now widespread and well established in the country.
A large number of C. auratus has been reported in many lakes, dams, and
rivers in Australia since the late 1870s (Department of Fisheries of Western
Australia 2005).
Growth and reproduction of Carassius auratus 261
ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The goldfish has the potential to be invasive on account of some of its ecological
and biological characteristics: high tolerance of water pollution, high fecundity,
and wide-ranging diet. Its omnivorous diet includes planktonic crustaceans,
phytoplankton, insect larvae, fish eggs and fry, benthic vegetation, and detritus
(Muus and Dahlström 1967, Scott and Crossman 1973, Maitland 2004, Nico
and Schofield 2006). Its populations grow rapidly, as the species can reproduce
through gynogenesis (Abramenko et al. 1997, Xie et al. 2001, Kuznetsov
2004).
Goldfish are extremely tolerant of environmental stress (Abramenko et al.
1997), including high levels of turbidity and fluctuations in pH and temperature
(Spotila et al. 1979). Laboratory tests have revealed pH tolerance levels between
4.5 and 10.5, and a preference for pH levels between 5.5 and 7.0 (Szczerbowski
2001). Goldfish have been captured in waters with salinity levels as high as
17 ppt, and adults can survive water temperatures between 0 8C and 41 8C
(Nico and Schofield 2006). Moreover, the species is highly tolerant of water
pollution (Abramenko et al. 1997) and can cope with low levels of dissolved
oxygen and even prolonged periods (several months at 2 8C) of total anoxia
(Walker and Johansen 1977, Van den Thillart et al. 1983). This ability requires
metabolic adaptations: below critical oxygen content in the water, the fish is
able to exploit an anaerobic, or mixed aerobic-anaerobic, metabolism (Holopai-
nen and Hyvarinen 1985, Nilsson 2001). This ability allows them to colonize a
wide variety of habitats, including small ponds. In shallow pond conditions in
Finland, the crucian carp C. carassius abounds and dominates the ecosystem
(Holopainen and Pitkanen 1985, Holopainen et al. 1991).
Goldfish are considered to be vulnerable to competition (Piironen and
Holopainen 1988, Paszowski et al. 1990) and to predation (Tonn et al. 1991);
however, the rapidity of their growth limits their vulnerability as prey for
ichthyophagous fish (Nico and Schofield 2006).
Concerns have been raised about the impact that goldfish have on the aquatic
community, including increasing turbidity (Cowx 1997) and competition with
indigenous fish (Scheffer et al. 1993). Indeed, declines in invertebrate numbers
have been attributed to the establishment of this species (Richardson and
Whoriskey 1992) and local eradication of aquatic macrophytes through direct
consumption and uprooting has also been documented (Richardson et al.
1995). The bottom-sucking feeding methods of goldfish can also contribute
to algal blooms by re-suspending nutrients, which makes them available to
phytoplankton (Richardson et al. 1995). Furthermore, recent studies have
demonstrated that growth of cyanobacteria is stimulated by the passage
through goldfish intestines (Kolmakov and Gladyshev 2003). The primary
threat to indigenous fish species is probably competition for food and other
resources (Moyle 1976). Goldfish have also been known to prey upon eggs,
larvae, and adults of indigenous fishes (Scott and Crossman 1973). Other
threats may include the introduction and persistence of parasites (such as Lernea
sp.) that commonly live on goldfish. In the US, the introduction of goldfish was
believed to be a major cause of the decline of populations of Empetrichthys latos
Miller during the early 1960s (Deacon et al. 1964); it seems that also the
Sacramento sucker Catostomus occidentalis Ayres suffers in the presence of
goldfish (Moyle 1976). In Europe it has been reported that in some habitats
the introduced goldfish affects resident fish, such as crucian carp and tench
Tinca tinca (Linnaeus) (Halacka et al. 2003); in addition, declines in pike abun-
dance (Esox lucius Linnaeus) can occur as a result of increased water turbidity
(Cowx 1997).
CASE STUDY
Lake Trasimeno is a lake of tectonic origin situated in central Italy (4389’11’’ N

and 12815’ E) between the Tiber and Arno rivers basins. It is the fourth largest
lake in Italy (124:3 km2 ) and the most extensive of the Italian peninsula. Its
shallowness (average depth: 4.72 m; maximum depth: 6.3 m) makes Lake
Trasimeno the largest laminar lake in Italy. The catchment basin is made up
of lands with low permeability and covers an area of 357:98 km2 , about three
times greater than the lake surface (Mearelli et al. 1990). The water is supplied
by short intermittent streams which have little or no water in the summer.
Owing to the morphologic characteristics of Lake Trasimeno, the water tem-
perature is almost the same as the air temperature, exceeding 30 8C in the
summer; thermal stratification being usually absent (Lorenzoni et al. 1993).
Lake Trasimeno is classified as mesotrophic (Mearelli et al. 1990).
The fish community, composed of 19 species (Mearelli et al. 1990), is domi-
nated by cyprinids. Fishing is still one of the main commercial activities of the
local population and, although it has declined in recent years, the number
of professional fishermen is the highest in Italy with regard to inland lakes
(Lorenzoni et al. 2002). Goldfish have been found in Lake Trasimeno since the
end of the 1990s (Mearelli et al. 1990) and, owing to the absence of predators,
man included, their numbers are currently high. This probably exerts a negative
impact on fish communities owing to interspecific competition.
Little information is available on the biological characteristics of goldfish
populations in Italy and in western Europe in general. A study was conducted
to collect information on the growth and reproductive biology of goldfish, in
order to investigate the causes of their rapid expansion in Lake Trasimeno and
to gather data on which to design a plan for the control of these unwanted
populations. Sampling was conducted monthly, from February 2003 to January
2004; individuals were caught by means of electrofishing and multi-mesh
gill-nets at 6 sampling stations along the perimeter of the lake. Two types of
net were used: fyke nets and gill-nets. The gill-nets were assembled using panels
with differently sized mesh (22, 25, 28, 35, 40, 50, and 70 mm), to allow more
efficient and representative sampling (Craig et al. 1986, Degerman et al. 1988).
The panels, each of which was 1 m high and 50 m long, were positioned for one
night near the bottom, perpendicular to and about 1,000 m from the shore. The
fyke nets were positioned for one night in the vicinity of the gill-nets.
Electrofishing was conducted monthly, except in April, when it was con-
ducted weekly. Sampling was carried out from boats by means of 4.5 kW
electric stunning devices; these devices supplied continuous pulsating current.
Electrofishing has been used to study fish populations in lotic wadable waters
for some considerable time, but is seldom used in lentic systems, where it is
effectively restricted to the littoral area (Eloranta 1990, Reynolds 1996). In
Lake Trasimeno, however, this technique is more efficient, in that the water is
shallow in most of the lake, as pointed out by a previous research (Mearelli et al.
2004). During each sampling at each of the six stations, a variable number
of transects of varying lengths were examined. These transects were chosen on
the basis of their different environmental conditions (in terms of substrate,
vegetation, depth, and transparency) in order to determine in which conditions
catches would be optimised.
The fish caught (expressed as biomass) were standardized with regard
to the ‘‘fishing effort’’ (CPUE ¼ catch per unit effort) (Degerman et al. 1988,
Wilderbuer and Kappenman 1998). For fyke nets, fishing effort was defined as
the time of sampling, and CPUEs are expressed as g h1 ; for gill-nets, fishing effort
was the area of nets (CPUEs ¼ g 102 m2 ); for electrofishing, fishing effort was
the time of sampling (CPUEs ¼ g min1 ). The lengths of the sampling areas were
measured by a GPS meter.
Laboratory analysis and data elaboration
All specimens were measured in terms of total length (TL) and standard length
(SL) with an accuracy of 1 mm, and weighed (W) with an accuracy of 1 g
(Anderson and Neumann 1996). Sex was determined by macroscopic exami-
nation of the gonads (Bagenal 1978) and gonads were weighed (Wg ) with an
accuracy of 0.1 g. Age was evaluated in the laboratory by a microscopic
scalimetric method (Bagenal 1978, Britton et al. 2004): the scales were
removed from the left side of the fish, above the lateral line, near the dorsal
fin (De Vries and Frie 1996) and stored in ethanol (33%). The TL-SL relationship
(TL ¼ a þ b SL) and TL-weight relationship (W ¼ a TLb ) were calculated
separately for the two sexes, using a least-squares method (Ricker 1975). The
relationships between the sexes were compared by analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA).
The theoretical growth in length was described by the Von Bertalanffy
growth equation (1938): Lt ¼ L1 (1-exp(K(tt0 ) ) ), where Lt is the theoretical
total length (in cm) at age t, L1 the asymptotic length, K the coefficient of
growth, t0 the theoretical age (in years) at length ¼ 0 (Bagenal 1978). The
analysis was conducted using the values of total length and age of the single
individuals. Because no difference emerged in the TL-SL and TL-weight rela-

tionships, the theoretical growth in length was analysed without distinction
between sexes.
Gonadosomatic index (GSI) was evaluated by the following formula (Ricker
1975): GSI ¼ (100 Wg )=W, where Wg is gonad weight (in g) and W is total
weight (in g). The ovaries of 92 females were excised, weighed, and fixed
immediately in 10% buffered formalin. Some cross sections of ovaries from
each fish were weighed and microscopically examined, and the oocytes were
counted. Ten oocytes were selected for each female and the diameter was
measured by means of a computerized system of image analysis (IAS2000)
connected to the microscope. The relationship between TL and number of
eggs (N ¼ a TLb ) was calculated using a least-squares method (Ricker 1975).
Age structure and sex ratio
The sample was composed of 3,111 specimens. The TL, weight, and age of the
specimens analysed ranged between 4.30 and 40.60 cm, 1 and 1137 g, 0.2
and 7.9 years, respectively. Eight age-classes were found, with most specimens
in the 2þ age-class; the number of captured individuals decreased progressively
as the age increased. The 0þ age group is not well represented in the sample,
probably because of the selectivity of the capture nets. Females were grouped
into 7 age-classes, while in the male subsample, 8 age-classes were found.
Results showed that the population was composed mostly of females (males ¼
102, females ¼ 1953, sex ratio: 1:19). The sex ratio also seems to be unbal-
anced in May, when sampling was carried out among the groups during
reproduction (males ¼ 20, females ¼ 575, sex ratio: 1:29).
In many European populations of C. auratus a similar imbalance in the sex
ratio has been observed, which is probably due to the reproductive system of the
population (Abramenko et al. 1997, Xie et al. 2001, Kuznetsov 2004). Indeed,
in Europe many populations are made up exclusively of females that reproduce
by gynogenesis through mitotic divisions of eggs due to heterologous species of
sperm (Muus and Dahlstrom 1967, Sani et al. 1999). By contrast, in Asia the
sex ratio is around 1:1 (Muus and Dahlstrom 1967, Abramenko et al. 1997,
Kuznetsov 2004).
Growth
The TL-SL relationship estimated for the whole sample was TL ¼ 0.0822 þ
1.2155 SL (R2 ¼ 0:992, P ¼ 0.000). On covariance analysis, the difference
between the two sexes was not statistically significant (F ¼ 3.700, P ¼ 0.054).
The weight-length relationship estimated for the whole sample was:
W ¼ 0:0147 TL3:062 (R2 ¼ 0:990, P ¼ 0.000), without any significant differ-
ence between sexes (F ¼ 3.124, P ¼ 0.077). The results show that in Lake
Trasimeno the species displays allometric growth (b > 3 in both sexes). The
Fig. 1 Goldfish: curve of theoretical growth in length.
regression coefficient values for the population of Lake Trasimeno are generally
higher than those of other populations investigated (Froese and Pauly 1998).
The curve of the theoretical growth in length was TL = 46.967
{1-e(0:154(tþ1:048) ) } (R2 ¼ 0:982) for the total sample (Fig. 1). Froese and
Pauly (1998) and Kuznetsov (2004) report data on numerous other European
and Asian populations of goldfish.
Reproductive biology
The GSI was calculated in both sexes. The average GSI value was 6.25 in
females, varying between a minimum of 0.18 and a maximum of 46.51,
while in males it was 1.69, varying between 0.19 and 11.19. The differences
between the two sexes were highly significant on t-test (t ¼ 7.36, P ¼ 0.000).
The monthly trend in GSI for the female sample (Fig. 2) showed that maturation
of ovarian eggs reached a maximum in April, while in August reproduction
ended and gonads were in a resting condition. The GSI value began to rise in
autumn; during the winter, when fish metabolism is slowed and food supply is
scarce, the GSI value tended to decrease slightly and then increased rapidly from
February onwards. In Lake Trasimeno, the female reproductive investment was
high, reaching almost 50% of the entire body mass at its maximum peak.
Analyses of the GSI showed that the reproductive period of the population
14
12
10
8
GSI
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
Fig. 2 Goldfish: monthly average values (with confidence limits) of gonadosomatic

index (GSI).
extends over an ample time period, from the end of March until June. The water
temperature recorded at the beginning of reproduction was about 13 8C.
Most of the females (85% of the population sampled) attained sexual maturity
in the second year, while in the third and subsequent years this percentage rose
to 100%; however, some (7.55%) 1-year-old females were able to spawn. The
smallest sexually mature female was 12.20 cm TL. The relationship between TL
and the number of eggs was N ¼ 0:0198 TL4:339 (R2 ¼ 0:743, P ¼ 0.000).
Fecundity varied from 286 to 219,104 eggs, averaging ( + SE) 46,253 +
3,921 eggs. The diameter of mature eggs in the spawning season ranged from
0.74 to 1.71 mm, with a 1.27 + 0.01 mm average. Average relative fecundity
was 103 + 5 eggs g1 . The relative fecundity and the diameter of mature
eggs of the population sampled were positively correlated with TL (cm) (fecundity:
r ¼ 0.315, P ¼ 0.002; egg diameter: r ¼ 0.561, P ¼ 0.000) and body weight
(fecundity: r ¼ 0.216, P ¼ 0.012; egg diameter: r ¼ 0.511, P ¼ 0.000).
Catch per unit effort
In Lake Trasimeno the statistical records kept by commercial fishermen do

not include catches of goldfish, as this species is not marketed. In the 1980s,
the total commercial yield of the lake was 0:048 t ha1 y1 , while recently
(2002–2004) it has fallen to 0:023 ha1 y1 (unpublished data). At the end of the
1980s, tench (31.05% of total yield), European perch Perca fluviatilis (Linnaeus)
(21.28%), sandsmelt Atherina boyeri (Risso) (20.59%), and eel Anguilla anguilla
(Linnaeus) (13.46%) were the species most caught in the lake. By 2002–2004,
the situation had changed markedly: sandsmelt (29.76%) was the most caught
species, followed in decreasing order by tench (21.95%), largemouth bass
Micropterus salmoides (Lacépède) (10.39%), eel (10.28%), carp (10.16%), and
black bullhead Ictalurus melas (Rafinesque) (8.53%); catches of European perch,
the most lucrative fish in the lake, had plummeted to 5.07% of the total yield.
Our research confirmed concerns over the abundance of goldfish in Lake
Trasimeno: in the last few years the population has noticeably increased. In
our samples, it was by far the most abundant species, representing 58.08% of
the individuals and 73.23% of the whole biomass caught with nets, and
48.24% of individuals and 62.63% of the biomass captured by means of
electrofishing. The average value of the CPUEs of goldfish caught by gill-nets
was 10,175:48 g 102 m2 , while with fyke nets the average value was
246:97 g h1 (Table 1). With regard to electrofishing, the number of transects
was 97, while the average fishing effort applied was 10.72 min, for a length of
387.93 m. Goldfish were also the species most captured by electrofishing: the
average value of the CPUEs was 606:50 g min1 . A similar monitoring cam-
paign conducted in 1993 by means of electrofishing turned up on C. auratus;
comparison with the present data points up the changes that have occurred in
the fish populations (Table 1).
Figure 3 shows monthly average values and pertinent confidence limits in
the CPUEs of goldfish. The efficiency of electrofishing was not equal in all periods
of the year: no fish were caught in winter; catches increased in spring, reaching
a maximum in May; from June to August they declined and then increased
again in autumn. The Kruskall-Wallis non-parametric test showed that the
differences in CPUEs among monthly median values were highly significant
(x2 ¼ 26:05, P ¼ 0.006). The variability in catches was partly due to the
different environmental characteristics of the sampling sites; however, statisti-
cally significant differences among the CPUEs emerged only with regard to
vegetation. Indeed, goldfish were far more abundant near submerged vegetation
(mean CPUEs + S.E. ¼ 758.46 + 123:51 g min1 ) than in areas lacking
vegetation (212.51 + 74:32 g min1 ); these differences were significant
(Kruskall-Wallis non-parametric test: x2 ¼ 5:90, P ¼ 0.015). When the sample
was subdivided on the basis of the sampling season, the average yields were
higher in all seasons in the areas with submerged vegetation, but the CPUE was
particularly elevated in spring, when the population was reproducing (areas
with vegetation: 1,268.52 + 291:60 g min1 ; areas without vegetation:
469.52 + 181:90 g min1 ).
Gill-nets yielded abundant catches of goldfish at all times, without marked
differences from one month to another (Fig. 3); the average CPUEs reached their
Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the CPUEs yielded by nets and by electrofishing.
Gill-nets (g 102 m2 ) Fyke nets (g h1 )
Sample Standard Sample Standard

size Mean deviation size Mean deviation
Goldfish 84 10,175.48 9,733.86 12 246.97 202.88

European perch 84 275.25 1,485.69 12 1.99 4.90
Pumpkinseed1 84 214.39 1,523.93 12 5.87 9.05
Rudd 84 2,018.21 4,319.34 12 1.39 4.81
Tench 84 1,388.68 2,899.12 12 13.54 20.50
Largemouth bass 84 520.32 1,304.61 12 133.33 456.66
Black bullhead 84 363.76 1,205.45 12 16.04 15.83
Pike 84 80.05 648.55 12 0.00 0.00
Eel 84 0.00 0.00 12 3.47 6.61
2003–2004 1993
Electrofishing Sample Standard Sample Standard

(g min1 ) size Mean deviation size Mean deviation
Effort (min) 97 10.72 6.17 14 56.07 33.75

Length (m) 97 387.93 233.31
Goldfish 97 606.50 931.89 14 0.00 0.00
Tench 97 45.62 89.35 14 199.40 95.35
Rudd 97 17.13 51.20 14 17.65 32.91
Topmouth gudgeon2 97 0.51 1.90 14 0.00 0.00
Black bullhead 97 3.10 15.32 14 13.05 12.42
Largemouth bass 97 39.84 82.74 14 20.65 24.09
Pumpkinseed1 97 0.98 4.51 14 9.29 7.10
European perch 97 0.65 2.17 14 1.94 1.69
Pike 97 3.98 17.24 14 47.06 35.59
Sandsmelt 97 1.26 4.41 14 0.00 0.00
Carp 97 253.63 709.63 14 0.00 0.00
Eel 97 6.64 25.94 14 2.22 3.08
Bleak3 97 0.10 0.63 14 0.00 0.00
1
Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus), 2Pseudorasbora parva (Schlegel), 3Alburnus alburnus alborella
(De Filippi)
highest values in the period preceding reproduction and during the reproduc-
tion period. However, the nets also showed good sampling efficiency in winter,
when goldfish reduce their activity and move offshore. The Kruskall-Wallis non-
parametric test showed that the differences in CPUEs among monthly median
values were not significant (x2 ¼ 10:70, P ¼ 0.469).
40000 5000
35000
4000
CPUEs electrofishing (g min−1)

30000
CPUEs gill-nets (g 10−2m−2)
25000
3000
20000
2000
15000
10000
1000
5000
0 0
F M A M J J A S O N D J
gill-nets
Month
electrofishing
Fig. 3 Goldfish: monthly average values (with upper confidence limits) of the CPUEs
yielded by electrofishing and by gill-nets.
CONCLUSIONS
The main characteristic that determines the high invasive potential of the
goldfish is its great adaptability and its ability to tolerate extreme environmental
conditions. Another important factor in its success is its growth capability,
which enables this species to rapidly reach a size that makes it safe from
predators in Lake Trasimeno. Predation on C. auratus, as on C. carassius, is
size-dependent (Piironen and Holopainen 1988, Bronmark et al. 1995), pred-
ators preferring individuals of small size (Holopainen et al. 1991, Tonn et al.
1991). Its reproductive biology – precocious maturity, ability to reproduce by
gynogenesis, high fecundity, and reproduction several times per year – is also a
prerequisite to the invasive potential of this species.
In dealing with invasive species, eradication is obviously the favoured strat-
egy and several studies have demonstrated its success (Chapter 34). However,
success has been limited to small, isolated biotopes, on a local scale and in the
first stages of invasion (Zavaleta et al. 2001). Efforts fail when eradication is not
complete and if re-invasion is likely; in such cases, an r-strategist like the
goldfish can rapidly increase. For this species, therefore, it seems preferable to
adopt a control programme aimed at reducing the density of the unwanted
populations and at maintaining it below an impact threshold (Mueller 2005).
The adoption of a particular strategy depends both on the assessment of its costs/
benefits and on its potential to be successful (Myers et al. 2000). Generalization
is difficult, as the choices vary according to several aspects, which also regard
the economic and social context. In lakes, netting probably remains the most
common and effective method of keeping down an invasive fish population,
although a substantial effort was required: various mesh size were necessary to
target the full range of the size classes present. In the Rotopiko Lake (New
Zealand) the eradication of rudd made with nets alone was unlikely and
additional control techniques were required (Barnes et al. 2003). Where com-
mercial fishermen operate, a good strategy of control may be to encourage the
harvesting of invasive populations, for example by offering financial incentives
or encouraging the trade in fish or fish parts (e.g. eggs).
Electrofishing is a specific sampling technique for shallow water, and habitat
preference among species or life stages affects their vulnerability to it (Reynolds
1996). In favourable situations, this sampling technique can be effectively
combined with the use of nets in the containment of some invasive fish popu-
lations. These results have application for managing goldfish because they
should be easier to remove when they are aggregated: in a goldfish removal
project conducted at Medical Lake (Washington, USA) in 1983, 17,837 goldfish
were harvested by electrofishing over a period of seven days. The efficacy of the
procedure was quantified by comparing goldfish county and gill-net CPUEs: an
estimated 95–99% of goldfish was removed (Scholz 1984). Electrofishing has
some advantages over gill-nets: it causes little injury to the fish captured and it
exerts modest selectivity regarding the size of the specimens. In spring, when
goldfish and other cyprinids congregate in shallow, vegetated areas to repro-
duce, it can be effectively used without greatly affecting other species.
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Chapter fourteen
Epigenetic context in the life

history traits of the round
goby, Neogobius
melanostomus
Mária Balážová-L’avrinčı́ková and Vladimı́r Kováč
INTRODUCTION
The round goby, Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas), is a typical representative of

gobiids, a distinct family within the order Perciformes (Nelson 1994). Most
species in this family have their pelvic fins fused into a suction disk with weak
adhesion, the external lateral line being usually absent. The subfamily Gobio-
nellinae, which includes the round goby, is mostly confined to the Caspian,
Black, and Azov seas (Nelson 1994). Members of this subfamily are primarily
benthic and therefore do not have a swim bladder (Nikolsky 1954). Neogobius
melanostomus is a small, soft-bodied fish. Its head width is about equal to its
depth; the snout is oblique and convex in profile. The anterior and middle nape,
upper opercule, breast, pectoral fin lobes, and part of abdomen are covered with
cycloid scales, the rest of body with weak ctenoid scales. The dorsal fins are
contiguous. The second dorsal fin is uniform in height, while the first dorsal fin
has a prominent posterior black spot (Berg 1949, Miller 1986). Both sexes have
an erectile urogenital papilla between the anus and the base of the anal fin, a
subject of sexual dimorphism (Miller 1984).
Its native range covers a wide area of Ponto–Caspian basin. In the Black Sea,
round gobies were reported from all shore areas (Borcea 1934, Bănărescu
275
ß 2007 Springer.
276 Mária Balážová-L’avrinčı́ková and Vladimı´r Kováč
1964), including estuaries and ascended tributaries, the River Dniester as far
as the city of Kamianets–Podolsky, the River Southern Bug to the city of
Ladyzhino, the River Dnieper up to the city of Dnepropetrovsk, and the River
Don up to the city of Rostov (Berg 1949, Pinchuk et al. 2003). Recently, an
upstream extension of the species’ range has been recorded in these rivers. At
the southern shores of the Black Sea, round gobies have been found at Sinope
and Samsun, in the Bosporus and throughout the Sea of Marmara (Pinchuk
et al. 2003). It is also native to the lakes and rivers of the Caucasian west coast.
The round goby has also been found throughout the Sea of Azov, though less
abundant in the central area (Kostyuchenko 1969). In the Caspian Sea, this
species occurs along almost all seacoast, as well as in southern parts of the
rivers Volga and Ural (Pinchuk et al. 2003). Concerning the River Danube,
N. melanostomus was known earlier as far as Vidin, and along the River Vit up to
Pleven (Berg 1949, Drensky 1951).
As the second longest river in Europe, the Danube serves as an important
waterway across the continent. Such a geographical predisposition, together
with intensive shipping, makes the Danube an ideal route for biological inva-
sions. Indeed, over the last decade, four Ponto–Caspian species of the genus
Neogobius have been observed to invade the middle stretches (as much as
2,000 km upstream) of the river. Neogobius melanostomus has become a new
member of the fish fauna in the Slovak stretch of the Danube since 2003
(Stráňai and Andreji 2004). In this chapter, some biological traits and aspects
of the species’ invasion biology are briefly reviewed, which is followed by data
on life history traits of the Danubian population of the round goby, and finally, a
hypothesis about the role of epigenetic mechanisms in helping this species to
become a successful invader is developed.
INTRODUCTION, EXPANSION, AND INVASION
In the late 1950s, the round goby was introduced into the Aral Sea, together
with the grey mulet (Moskalkova 1996). Despite increased salinity in the sea,
this species survived at least until late 1980s, although it is now reported
extinct (Skóra 1996). In 1968, the round goby was found in the Kuybyshev
Reservoir on the River Volga, from where it has been spreading continuously
(Tsyplakov 1974). In the River Moscow, the species was found in the 1980s,
probably as a consequence of the accidental introduction of eggs attached to the
hulls of barges (Sokolov and Tsepkin 1992).
In 1990, N. melanostomus was found outside the Ponto–Caspian basin – in
the Gulf of Gdansk in the Baltic Sea. The species was most likely transported to
the Baltic with the ballast water of vessels sailing from the Black and/or Caspian
seas, or directly through the riverine routes going to the north. In general, there
are three possible routes of introduction (Fig. 1). The first route starts in the
Black Sea and continues via the rivers Dnieper, Pripet, Pina, Kanal Krolewski,
Life history traits of the round goby 277
Volga
Baltic Sea
Volga
Dnieper
Azov Caspian
Sea
Sea
Danube Black Sea
Fig. 1 Major spreading routes of Neogobius melanostomus in Europe. Note that there is
a network of canals in the river systems, which facilitates fast spreading of the species
(not illustrated). The native range of the round goby covers the Black Sea, Azov Sea,
Caspian Sea, and the surrounding waters. The oval indicates the Slovak stretch of the
Danube, the area of this study.
Bug, and Vistula; the second route is that from the Azov Sea, which runs via the
rivers Don to Volga, and then joins the third possible route, which originates in
the Caspian Sea and continues via the River Volga, the Rybinskoe Reservoir,
lakes Onega and Ladoga to the Gulf of Finland. The first specimen caught was
3–4 years old; therefore, the initial introduction could have occurred 3 years
earlier (Skóra 1996). In summer 1999, the round goby was also reported from
Rugia Island, Germany, and in 2003, from several locations along the north
coast of Germany (Corkum et al. 2004).
The first record of N. melanostomus in North America comes from summer
1990, when the species was found in the River St. Clair (Jude et al. 1992). It is
thought that it was initially transported to the Great Lakes in the ballast water
of transoceanic ships. The round goby needed only 5 years to spread into all five
Great Lakes. It has been termed a ‘‘cyberfish’’ able to disperse rapidly,

using Great Lakes freighters as transport vectors (Jude 1997).
In the River Danube, its upstream expansion has been reported since the
1960s (Bănărescu 1964). In 1997, the species was for the first time found in
the Serbian part of the Danube (Simonović et al. 1998), in 2000 it reached the
stretch near Vienna (Wiesner et al. 2000), and 3 years later it was found also in
the Slovak stretch of the Danube (Stráňai and Andreji 2004). Since the expan-
sion of the round goby over the Danube appears to have been very fast,
especially close to industrial areas and large towns (Jurajda et al. 2005), its
spreading is likely to have been facilitated by freight vessels. The idea is that the
vessels primarily help the gobies to move upstream for longer distances, to
establish foci of their populations in harbours, and then they spread both
downstream and upstream (for shorter distances in the latter case) in the
river (see Jurajda et al. 2005, Wiesner 2005).
EXISTING AND POTENTIAL IMPACT OF THE ROUND GOBY

IN NON-NATIVE AREAS
In North America, in areas where N. melanostomus became abundant, a signifi-

cant decline of some indigenous species has been recorded (Crossman et al. 1992).
The round goby is larger, more fecund and more aggressive than the indigenous
benthic species (Jude et al. 1995). In the River St. Clair, the species has been
decimating the populations of mottled sculpin Cottus bairdi Girard and logperch
Percina caprodes Rafinesque (Jude et al. 1995). Indeed, Janssen and Jude (2001)
found that the round goby potentially affects the mottled sculpin through com-
petition for food resources in small specimens (<60 mm), competition for space in
fish of intermediate sizes (60–100 mm), and competition for spawning substrates
at larger sizes (>100 mm). Apart from that, N. melanostomus also benefits from a
longer reactive distance to prey, which suggests that they may possess a com-
petitive advantage in acquiring prey at night. The decline in logperch populations
may be due to the predation of the round goby on logperch eggs (Jude et al. 1995).
Other species impacted by N. melanostomus predation on their eggs and larvae
are the lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush Walbaum (Chotkowski and Marsden
1999), and the lake sturgeon, Acipenser fulvescens Rafinesque (Corkum et al.
2004). Another local species – the deepwater sculpin, Myoxocephalus thompsoni
Girard – may be also at risk because, in winter, its normal bathymetric range may
be penetrated by the round goby (Jude et al. 1995).
In the Baltic Sea, N. melanostomus appears to have affected the populations
of the flounder, Platithys flesus Linnaeus, a mollusc feeder. Some species of
Gobiidae (the sand goby, Pomatoschistus minutus Pallas, the common goby,
P. microps Krøyer, and the black goby, Gobius niger Linnaeus), as well as the
eelpout, Zoarces viviparus Linnaeus, have been affected due interference with
their similar life space (Sapota 2001a, b).
The appearance of the round goby in new areas may also affect the food webs.
In the Gulf of Gdansk, cormorants have directed their diet at the round goby,
which resulted in increased density of eel and planktivorous sprat (original main
diet components of cormorants); this in turn caused a reduction of zooplankton
and a corresponding increase in the algal biomass (Bzoma and Stempniewicz
2001). Neogobius melanostomus predation on grazing invertebrates enhanced
the algal biomass, as apparent from an increased chlorophyll a concentration
(Kuhns and Berg 1999). Moreover, piscivorous fish consume round gobies,
which have consumed zebra mussels. Thus, the round goby introduces the
otherwise inaccessible zebra mussel into the food webs, contributing indirectly
to increase populations of piscivores (Charlebois et al. 1997).
The round goby may also indirectly release detrimental material from the
bottom, because benthic prey organisms are exposed to contaminated sedi-
ments. In turn, N. melanostomus is preyed upon by various sport and commer-
cial fish and thus toxic substances can then be passed to humans who consume
piscivorous fish (Charlebois et al. 1997, Corkum et al. 2004). Researchers have
also suggested a possible link between this species and botulism, Clostridium
botulinum van Ermengem type E, a mortal disease of wild migratory birds. The
infected birds had a higher incidence of gobies in their guts than did uninfected
birds (Corkum et al. 2004).
Recently, the first possible current impact of the high frequency and abun-
dance of invasive Neogobius species in the Danube has been observed: a pro-
gressive decline in indigenous benthic fishes, such as the bullhead (Cottus gobio
Linnaeus), the stone loach (Barbatula barbatula Linnaeus), and the white-finned
gudgeon (Gobio albipinnatus Lukasch) (Jurajda et al. 2005).
WHY IS IT SO SUCCESSFUL?
The main advantages that N. melanostomus possesses for the occupation of new
areas appear to be its tolerance for a wide range of environmental conditions, a
broad diet, aggressive behaviour, parental care, and larger size compared to
species of a similar benthic lifestyle (Charlebois et al. 1997). Adult round gobies
are euryhaline and thus able to colonize various habitats from the freshwater
of rivers or lakes to brackish waters with polyhaline (up to 37‰) salinities
(Smirnov 1986). Development inside their eggs can also take place at a wide
range of salinities and the species can even reproduce in freshwater (Smirnov
1986, Moskalkova 1996). The round goby also tolerates big contrasts in water
depth. During the breeding seasons it migrates close inshore to depths
0.2–0.5 m and the mature specimens concentrate in shallow areas where
they spawn (Kostyuchenko 1969). Young fish, a few days after hatching,
gather in sunlit shallows in pursuit of plankton (Moskalkova 1996). In winter,
the round goby moves back down to depths of 10–15 m (Kostyuchenko 1969)
or even 60–70 m (Ragimov 1991).
Neogobius melanostomus can be found in various habitats, for example, on

coarse gravel, shell sands, and even macrophytes (Smirnov 1986). In the Gulf of
Gdansk, the gobies are associated with stony and sandy areas, mussel beds,
marine structures and/or sunken objects (Skóra and Rzeznı́k 2001). However,
in Puck Bay, they occupy primarily a sandy-sludgy bottom covered with benthic
flora (Skóra 1996). In the middle section of the Danube (Hungary, Slovakia,
Austria) the round goby occupy most of the available shorelines, being found in
highest relative densities along artificial rip-rap habitats and in relative low
densities in sandy areas (Ero}s et al. 2005, Jurajda et al. 2005, Wiesner 2005).
They can tolerate a flow rate up to 0:34 m s1 for 3–4 min. At higher current
velocities, they remain close to the bottom, presumably using their pelvic fins to
brace against the current (Skazkina 1972).
Water transparency does not seem to be a problem for the round goby. In the
Azov Sea, the species uses acoustic signalling in the areas with decreased
visibility (Kostyuchenko 1960). It is a eurythermic species, tolerating temper-
atures from 1 to 30 8C (Kalinina 1976), being well resistant to temperature
stress. Round gobies prefer at least 60% oxygen saturation (Skazkina 1966),
though their threshold level is relatively low, depending on their body weight,
from 0:3 to 0:9 mgl1 .
Neogobius melanostomus is essentially a benthic feeder, preying mainly,
though not exclusively, on molluscs, followed by crustaceans (Lus 1963). For
example, in the Azov Sea, molluscs make 93.5% of total weight of food con-
sumed (Lus 1963), whereas in the Black Sea the ratio of molluscs comprise only
60% (Smirnov 1986) and in the Caspian Sea only 43.6% of total food weight,
together with crustaceans at about 40% in the latter (Lus 1963). Even in non-
native areas of the distribution, N. melanostomus retains its diet preference for
molluscs. In the River St. Clair, their dominant diet item is the zebra mussel
(another non-indigenous species accidentally introduced into the Great Lakes).
Round gobies even prefer them to indigenous molluscs (Ghedotti et al. 1995). In
the Baltic Sea, their diet composition is similar to that in the Ponto–Caspian area
(Skóra and Rzeznı́k 2001). At the onset of the round goby invasion into the
Baltic Sea, a prominent increase in bivalve quantities was noticed, that might
have facilitated their success (Sapota 2004). In the Serbian part of the Danube,
molluscs represent 70.59% of the round goby diet, with zebra mussel predom-
inating (Simonović et al. 1998).
A parasite release may be important in allowing an introduced species to
become invasive. In the Slovak stretch of the Danube, the number of parasite
species found in round gobies was similar to those in their native range, and no
parasites specific to the genus Neogobius in their indigenous populations were
found. Moreover, reduced parasite abundance combined with strong host reac-
tion to many parasite species may be in favour of the round goby in new
habitats of the Middle Danube (Ondračková et al. 2005).
Since a wide ecological tolerance itself may not be sufficient to turn a species
into a successful invader, we have also evaluated the round goby in terms
of possible epigenetic relations among the ontogenies of its indigenous and

invasive populations.
LIFE HISTORY TRAITS OF THE ROUND GOBY WITHIN

AN EPIGENETIC CONTEXT
The phenotypic plasticity of a species can be a function of epigenetic mechan-

isms usually expressed in creating both altricial and precocial forms within
and/or among populations (Balon 2001, 2002). These forms can be best
evaluated by a thorough examination of their ontogenies, especially early
development, associated with studies of life history traits such as fecundity,
number of spawning acts per season, parental care, egg size, age at maturation,
as well as both between- and within-population ontogenetic variability in
external morphology. Thus, the ontogenetic patterns of the round goby from
the Slovak stretch of the Danube, as related to external morphology, have been
examined using both distance-based and geometrical (Bookstein coordinates-
based) measurements (L’avrinčı́ková et al. 2005). The overall development of
the Danubian round goby (17–153 mm standard length, SL) appeared to be
rather fuzzy and no remarkable change in external shape during their ontogeny
was observed (L’avrinčı́ková et al. 2005). This means that all substantive
morphological developments must have occurred very early. Indeed, the eggs
of the round goby are relatively large and high in protein and fat (Moiseyeva
1983), and studies of early development define the round goby a species with
direct development (Moskalkova 1996). Such a direct development represents
a strongly precocial (specialized) life history (L’avrinčı́ková et al. 2005). To
summarize, if the life history traits of N. melanostomus (indigenous populations)
are evaluated within the epigenetic concept (Balon 2004), it is a typical preco-
cial species: it has large eggs with a dense yolk, a small egg number, the larval
period is absent, it has a large size at first exogenous feeding, high parental
investment in the young, advanced developmental state of the young, and
implicitly a longer juvenile period.
Successful colonists typically have a short generation time and mature earlier
(Lodge 1993). In their non-native areas, such as brackish waters and lakes, as
well in the Detroit River, newly arrived round gobies really mature earlier
compared to those from native marine habitats (MacInnis and Corkum
2000b, Corkum et al. 2004). Similarly, round goby females (n ¼ 109) from
the Slovak stretch of the Danube can be mature at only 45 mm SL (minimum
size), and thus they reach reproductive maturation at smaller size than in most
indigenous populations, where maturation occurs mostly in females longer
than 55 mm SL (Table 1; L’avrinčı́ková and Kováč 2007).
Building a phenotype of any multicellular organism requires two sources of
information: programmatic (coming from the genotype) and developmental
(coming from the environment). At the same time, both of these sources of
282
Table 1 Life history traits of round goby from native and non-native (rivers Danube and Detroit) areas of distribution. Note that the
invasive populations reach reproductive maturation at smaller size than in most indigenous populations. Data for the Danube from
L’avrinčı́ková and Kováč (2007).
Caspian Sea7 Caspian Sea7 River Danube River Detroit8

Black Sea Azov Sea north middle (Slovakia) (North America)
Minimum size at maturity 55 mm1 55 mm4 32 mm 50 mm 45 mm 42 mm

Fecundity at the same SL
42.4–92 mm – – – – 80–600 84–606
53–120 mm 200–15002 – – – 206–1402 –
70–130 mm – 578–26935 – – 443–1640 –
Diameter of mature group of eggs 1.0–(1.9–2.5) mm3 1.3–2.5 mm6 – – 0.8–2.3 mm –
References: 1Pavlov (1964)*; 2Burnashev et al. (1955)*; 3Vinogradov and Tkacheva (1950)*; 4Trifonov (1955)*; 5Kovtun (1977); 6Mikh-
man (1963)*; 7Azizova (1962) **; 8MacInnis and Corkum (2000b)
*after Smirnov (1986)
**after Pinchuk et al. (2003)
Mária Balážová-L’avrinčı́ková and Vladimı´r Kováč
information are also sources of variation, which enters the process at each
transition from one developmental step to another (this is in terms of the theory
of saltatory ontogeny, and the theory of synchrony and heterochrony in
ontogeny; see Balon 1990 and Kováč 2002 for details). As a result, the life
history of each population and/or species can slide over the trajectory between
the most altricial extreme to the most precocial extreme, back and forth, from
generation to generation. Of course, such intraspecific differences between
altricial and precocial forms in ontogeny (i.e. the shifts over the trajectory) are
usually very small. ‘‘Epigenesis, the mechanism of ontogenies, creates in every
generation alternative variations in a saltatory way that enable the organisms
to survive in the changing environments as either altricial or precocial forms’’
(Balon 2004). In the light of such a notion, earlier maturation (at smaller size,
Table 1) of non-indigenous round goby populations, which is associated with
shortening the juvenile period of life, suggests a shift back from the strongly
precocial towards a more altricial (more generalized) life history (L’avrinčı́ková
et al. 2005, L’avrinčı́ková and Kováč 2007). On the other hand, the absolute
fecundity of the smaller females from the Danube did not decline significantly
compared to those of indigenous round gobies (Table 1; L’avrinčı́ková and
Kováč 2007). Thus, the shift from the highly precocial life history of the
indigenous round goby back towards a more altricial life history in the invasive
populations (see also MacInnis and Corkum 2000a) also appears to have
occurred in the Danubian population. It has been hypothesized that such a
combination of altricial-precocial epigenetic trajectories may be one of the key
factors for successful colonization of new environments.
CONCLUSIONS
Neogobius melanostomus has several attributes typical of successful invaders,

allowing it to establish rapidly in novel environments: increased phenotypic
plasticity, tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions, broad diet,
aggressive behaviour, high reproductive capacity, nest guarding by males, and a
large size compared to species of a similar benthic lifestyle. Nevertheless, a wide
ecological tolerance itself may not be enough to explain how a species can turn
into a successful invader. Complementary insights can be obtained from exami-
nation of epigenetic interactions among the overall ontogenies (i.e. including life
history traits) of its indigenous and invasive populations. In the round goby, it
appears that a similar shift from the highly precocial life history of indigenous
populations back towards a more altricial life history in its invasive populations
(earlier maturation at smaller size, i.e. a shortened juvenile period) occurred at
least in North American and Danubian populations. This similarity in patterns
that occurred independently in two continents has led us to the hypothesis that it
is the combination of altricial-precocial epigenetic trajectories that may be one of
the key factors for successful colonization of new environments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Jozef Tomeček, Michal Baláž, and Daniel Grul’a helped us in the field and
Andrea Novomeská assisted in the laboratory. We thank them all. This study
was funded by the Slovak VEGA Grant Agency, projects No. 2/3126/23 and
1/2341/05.
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Chapter fifteen
Growth and life history

traits of introduced
pumpkinseed (Lepomis
gibbosus) in Europe, and the
relevance to its potential
invasiveness
INTRODUCTION
The North American centrarchid, pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus), is

a good example of how the life history traits and biogeographical patterns of
growth can vary in populations of introduced species, facilitating the estab-
lishment of new populations in novel environments. Introduced into Europe
from North America in the late 19th century (Maes 1898), the pumpkinseed is
now established in at least 28 countries of Europe and Asia Minor (Fig. 1).
Scientific interest in the species in Europe began early (e.g. Künstler 1908,
Roule 1931), but studies of the species (i.e. papers with either the Latin or
common names, pumpkinseed, or sunfish, in the title) only really began in the
mid-20th century (Fig. 2). Scientific output rose to about one publication per
year in the 1970s, though half of these were laboratory experiments on
289
ß 2007 British Crown.
290 Gordon H. Copp and Michael G. Fox
Fig. 1 Countries in Europe in which introduced pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus are

known to have established populations.
Fig. 2 Number per decade of publications in Europe specifically on pumpkinseed (i.e.

title contains one or more of the following terms: pumpkinseed, Lepomis gibbosus, sun-
fish), based on the authors’ bibliographic collections and a review of listings in ASFA
(Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts) undertaken in April 2006 using these search
terms.
Life history traits of introduced pumpkinseed in Europe 291
pumpkinseed physiology (Kramer 1971, 1972, 1973, Krapp 1975, Piavaux

1977). With a sharp rise in papers during the 1990s and 2000s, approxi-
mately half of the 12 papers on growth and life history of European pump-
kinseed appeared in the last 5 years (Gutiérrez-Estrada et al. 2000a, b, Fox and
Crivelli 2001, Copp et al. 2002, 2004, Villeneuve et al. 2005). Virtually, all
of the studies on pumpkinseed growth and life history included some form of
limited comparison with populations from the species’ indigenous and/or
introduced ranges, and a common finding in most studies was the absence
of sexual dimorphism in growth. However, Fox and Crivelli (2001) were the
first to examine the biological traits of pumpkinseed populations introduced
into Europe, in contrast with indigenous populations, within the context of
ecological theory. They tested whether ectotherms living in warm thermal
environments should mature early because of fast juvenile growth (Atkinson
1994), restricting their analyses to female pumpkinseed because male repro-
ductive indices are poor indicators of population responses to environmental
variability (see Danylchuk and Fox 1994). This led to a critical review of
the available data on the biological traits of European pumpkinseed (Copp
et al. 2002), which examined the influence of latitude on female growth
rate and life history traits, as well as the interrelationships among life
history traits.
Building on empirical relationships established in studies of North American
female pumpkinseed (Deacon and Keast 1987, Fox 1994, Fox and Crivelli
2001), the life history theory (e.g. Gadgil and Bossert 1970) that underpinned
subsequent European studies (e.g. Copp et al. 2002, Villeneuve et al. 2005)
predicts that age at maturity and reproductive allocation in females would
be influenced by prematurational growth rates (which determines size at
maturity), and that these reproductive variables would, in turn, influence
postmaturational growth rates. The aim of the present chapter is to review
the available data on growth and life history traits of pumpkinseed in Europe
and consider whether any of these indices may be used to assess the species
invasiveness [Copp et al. (2005a) define an invasive organism as a ‘‘indigenous
or non-indigenous species, NIS, that spreads, with or without the aid of
humans, in natural or semi-natural habitats, producing a significant change
in composition, structure, or ecosystem processes, or cause severe economic
losses to human activities’’]. In the present paper, specific reference is made to
the following geographical and life history predictions for female pumpkinseed
originally hypothesized by Copp et al. (2002):
(1) Juvenile growth rate decreases with latitude.

(2) Age at maturity increases with latitude.
(3) Age and size at maturity are inversely related to juvenile growth rate.
(4) Reproductive effort increases with size at maturity and decreases with
temperature.
SOMATIC GROWTH PATTERNS IN EUROPEAN PUMPKINSEED
The growth trajectories of freshwater fishes, often attributed to the influence of

environmental conditions, are usually quite variable (Mann 1991). This is
apparent in the pumpkinseed populations introduced into Europe, which gen-
erally show much slower growth in the adult stage than their indigenous North
American counterparts (Copp et al. 2004). As is the case in North America (Fox
1994), growth trajectories in introduced European populations show a high
degree of variation, with body length at a given age typically varying more than
twofold from age 2 and above (Table 1).
In their initial examination of growth in European populations, Copp et al.
(2002) hypothesized that mean juvenile growth decreases significantly with
latitude, but this relationship disappeared when a pumpkinseed population from
the River Odra (Poland) was included (Copp et al. 2004). This data point is
spurious, however, as the Odra population inhabits the plume of a thermal
discharge from a power plant (Piasecki and Falandysz 1994). Using all available
data for European pumpkinseed populations existing under natural thermal
conditions, juvenile growth rate (length at age 2) appears to decrease significantly
with increasing latitude, although at any given latitude there is considerable
variation (Fig. 3). This latitudinal cline in juvenile growth rate is consistent with
other studies in which juvenile growth of centrarchids is expected to be faster in
warmer waters (McCauley and Kilgour 1990, Fox and Crivelli 2001). Juvenile
growth rates in more northerly latitudes (i.e. English populations) do appear to be
lower than those in the rest of Europe (Fig. 4); these differences in growth rate
between English populations and those of more southerly latitudes extend into the
adult stage, and adult body size in English pumpkinseed is generally stunted
despite a relatively long lifespan. At present, growth data are not available for
pumpkinseed populations (under natural thermal conditions) in other parts of
northern Europe, such as Belgium (Declerck et al. 2002, H. Verreycken 2006,
personal communication), the Netherlands (Vooren 1971, Aarts and Nienhuis
2003, Denoel et al. 2005, H. van Kleef 2006, personal communication), and
Norway (E. Sterud 2006, personal communication). Data on these northern
populations would be useful for providing a broader-based determination
of latitudinal patterns, and thus determine whether English pumpkinseed
populations are unusual or representative of northern European populations.
Slow growth in European pumpkinseed, relative to indigenous North American
populations, was initially attributed to the selective importation of small-bodied
specimens for the aquarium trade (Crivelli and Mestre 1988). However, biblio-
graphic sources suggest that pumpkinseed were introduced for angling as well
as for ornamental purposes (pumpkinseed introductions reviewed by Copp et al.
2005a). Furthermore, comparative studies of the longitudinal growth of intro-
duced European and indigenous North American pumpkinseed populations
have revealed overall differences in adult, but not in juvenile growth patterns
(Copp et al. 2004). Although there are a few European populations that produce
Table 1 Latitude (Lat) in 8N, back-calculated total lengths (TL) at age, reproductive effort (ER ), age at maturity (AaM) in years, and TL
at maturity (LaM) in mm for all ages and for ages 3–5 only of pumpkinseed populations in Europe (using the internationally recognized
country codes except for England: Eng). Continental European data and those on Cottesmore School Pond were taken from Copp et al.
(2002a, 2004), with back calculations using a common body-scale intercept of 24 mm TL and with standard length to TL conversions from
the original data source or when unavailable, by using TL ¼ 1.27SL þ 0.981 as per Copp et al. (2004). Underlined ER values are populations
believed to have been established less than 50 years prior to 2006, which are significantly higher (Students’ unpaired t ¼ 2.66, df ¼ 6,
P ¼ 0.038) than those for populations older than 50 years (all others).
Mean back-calculated TL at age (mm)
Site Lat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AaM LaM ER Bibliographic source
1 Spain (Guadiato River) 38 35 93 109 114 1.4 0.306 Gutiérrez-Estrada et al. (2000a)1
2 Tapada Pequena Reservoir (P) 38 55 73 81 90 92 115 Godinho and Ferreira (1996)2
3 Tapada Grande Reservoir (P) 38 48 65 75 82 96 Godinho (2004)
4 Monte Novo Reservoir (P) 39 55 84 104 113 118 123 126 Godinho (2004)
5 Divor Reservoir (P) 39 58 77 90 103 109 109 109 115 Brabrand and Saltveit (1989)
6 Tavropos Reservoir (GR) 39 88 100 107 Bobori et al. (2006)
7 Kerkini Reservoir (GR) 41 74 88 101 113 122 132 2.0 Neophitou and Giapis (1994)
8 Lake Banyoles (E) 42 53 98 129 145 152 155 162 2.0 61.4 Copp et al. (2004)
9 Fumemorte Canal (F) 43 40 72 89 105 116 126 128 1.8 70.0 0.142 Fox and Crivelli (2001)3
10 Ligagneau Canal (F) 43 43 70 94 114 1.3 66.1 Fox and Crivelli (2001)
11 Sollac Marsh (F) 43 39 73 105 125 136 142 153 2.3 75.9 0.156 Fox and Crivelli (2001)
12 Fundata Lake (R)4 44 55 94 130 3.0 83.5 Constantinescu (1981)
Life history traits of introduced pumpkinseed in Europe
13 Danube delta (R) 44 2.0 96.2 Papadopol and Ignat (1967)

14 Dabas Pond (HU) 47 41 64 84 97 102 75.9 Tandon (1977)
15 Danube (SK) 47 51 86 111 132 150 164 Krupka (1973)
16 Boringwheel Lake (Eng) 51 35 53 68 83 93 109 3.2 78.9 0.321 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
17 Batts Bridge upper Stream (Eng) 51 36 57 75 87 98 108 3.3 84.6 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
18 Powdermill Upper Lake (Eng) 51 41 77 96 107 122 131 141 2.0 70.0 0.167 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
293
Table 1 Continued.
294
Mean back-calculated TL at age (mm)
Site Lat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AaM LaM ER Bibliographic source
19 Powdermill Side Pond (Eng) 51 41 78 97 102 2.2 81.7 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
20 Powdermill Lower Lake (Eng) 51 40 72 104 118 136 2.1 83.8 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
21 Tanyards Lake 1 (Eng) 51 42 69 85 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
22 Tanyards Lake 2 (Eng) 51 40 70 92 103 2.1 75.5 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
23 Tanyards Lake 3 (Eng) 51 38 58 68 78 90 97 100 2.7 72.1 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
24 Tanyards Lake 4 (Eng) 51 36 58 70 82 93 3.4 78.3 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
25 Tanyards Lake 5 (Eng) 51 38 59 73 88 105 2.8 75.7 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
26 Tanyards Lake 6 (Eng) 51 40 68 84 105 2.0 65.0 0.306 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
27 Tanyards Lake 7 (Eng) 51 36 59 71 86 97 2.6 66.0 0.248 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
28 Milton Mount Pond (Eng) 51 40 71 89 99 109 2.1 80.0 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
29 Cottesmore School Pond (Eng) 51 36 48 63 72 81 3.9 78.6 0.194 Copp et al. (2002a)
30 Cottesmore Middle Pond (Eng) 51 37 55 66 76 91 104 107 3.1 80.8 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
31 Cottesmore Lower Pond (Eng) 51 36 53 65 78 93 104 113 126 3.1 69.1 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
32 Island Pond (Eng) 51 34 54 78 92 107 120 3.0 75.0 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
33 Douster Pond (Eng) 51 35 49 61 72 82 90 102 110 114 2.8 66.9 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
34 Dunwear Pond (Eng) 51 41 67 98 107 116 129 2.5 83.3 Villeneuve et al. (2005)
35 Mirgenbach Reservoir (F) 49 1.0 76.6 Dembski et al. (2006)5
36 Odra River (PL) 53 81 109 136 155 173 178 181 T. Heese and M. Przybylski (2004)6
1
Back-calculated data from Table 1 of that paper (fish from 1993 only, i.e. up to age 4 only), ER values from Table 2 of that paper, which includes fish (up to
age 5) from 1994; 2Back-calculated value not given for age 6, value given here is the estimated mean of the observed TL values presented in Fig. 2 of the cited
paper; 3ER values from Copp et al. (2002a): 4The age at maturity value used for the Lake Fundata population was 2.0 years, as per Copp et al. (2002a) rather
than that (3.0 years) given in Villeneuve et al. 2005), a presumed transcription error. 5Published data for a thermally influenced population. 6Unpublished
data for a thermally influenced population cited in Copp et al. (2004). 62004, personal communication.
Fig. 3 Juvenile growth (indicated by mean TL at age 2) of pumpkinseed populations as

a function of latitude, with the best-fit least squares relationship (r2 ¼ 0:271, P < 0:005)
shown as a solid line. Population data are from Table 1.
adults comparable in size to those of typical North American populations (e.g.

Lake Banyoles, Spain, and the thermally influenced Odra River population in
Poland), these are the exception rather than the rule. The processes that
determine the differential growth between the pumpkinseed populations in
England and in southern Europe remain unclear, but differences in the length
of the vegetative season and variations in diet may play a role, e.g. limited food
resources due to elevated population density (Copp et al. 2002, Klaar et al.
2004) and/or the greater energetic value of mollusc (Godinho et al. 1997,
Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000) and non-mollusc dominated diets
(Copp et al. 2002, Declerck et al. 2002).
LIFE HISTORY TRAITS OF EUROPEAN FEMALE PUMPKINSEED
Female pumpkinseed in their indigenous range show a high degree of variation in

mean age (aA ) and size at maturity (aTL ), where a is calculated from the females
collected in just prior to or during the height of spawning, using the formula from
DeMaster (1978) as adapted by Fox (1994) and Fox and Crivelli (2001):
X
w
a¼ (x) [ f (x) f (x 1)]
x¼0
Fig. 4 Mean growth trajectories (total length at age) from Villeneuve et al. (2005) for
populations of pumpkinseed in the northern (cool-water: England) and the southern
(warm-water: France, Greece, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain), parts of its intro-
duced European range. Data points in the graph are means from the individual popula-
tions, listed in Table 1.
This high degree of variation in age and length at maturity is also true of the
European populations, with the available data (Table 1) demonstrating that
mean age at maturity among European populations is almost three times more
variable (coefficient of variation ¼ 26.3) than the mean length at maturity
(coefficient of variation ¼ 9.06). Nonetheless, the latter extends over a range
of 23.2 mm total length.
The third hypothesis proposed by Copp et al. (2002) was that the age at
maturity of European pumpkinseed would increase with latitude. This hypoth-
esis was supported with the addition of new data for England (Villeneuve et al.
2005) to the existing data for continental Europe (Copp et al. 2002), which
resulted in a significant relationship between age at maturity and latitude
(Fig. 5). Again, however, there was considerable variability in the mean age
at maturity of populations within any given degree of latitude, especially in
England.
Age and length at maturity were found to be inversely related to the juvenile
growth rate in European pumpkinseed populations (Copp et al. 2002), although
the relationship with length at maturity was not quite significant (P ¼ 0.07).
With the inclusion of new data (Villeneuve et al. 2005), the relationship
Fig. 5 Age at maturity vs. latitude for European pumpkinseed populations. Solid line
is the best-fit least-squares regression line (r2 ¼ 0:41, P < 0:001). Data are listed in
Table 1.
between the juvenile growth rate and age at maturity was found to be highly
significant (r ¼ 0.78, P < 0.001, Fig. 6), whereas no significant relationship was
found between the juvenile growth rate and length at maturity (r ¼ 0.08,
P ¼ 0.71). The relationship between fast growth and early maturation is pre-
dicted from life history models (e.g. Stearns and Koella 1986) and has been
found at the population level in many fish species (reviewed in Fox 1994). This
relationship appears to explain some of the interpopulation variation in age at
maturity, particularly in England, that cannot be explained by latitude alone.
This relationship may provide a useful means for assessing the potential inva-
siveness of pumpkinseed populations in Europe (Fig. 6), whereby the transition
phase between non-invasive and invasive pumpkinseed populations is defined at
its lower extent by the minimum age at maturity (age 1; Fox 1994) and at its
upper extent by the end of juvenile growth (which for many pumpkinseed
populations is age 2; Fox 1994, Fox and Crivelli 2001, Copp et al. 2004).
Virtually all of the populations from Southern Europe, where the species is
considered invasive, are in the lower right of the graph (Fig. 6), with the
apparent non-invasive sites to the upper left. Populations in the lower right
quadrat of the graph would be those with the highest potential for population
expansion by virtue of their short generation time and their high fecundity early
in life because of fast juvenile growth. This of course presumes that the fitness
Fig. 6 Mean age at maturity (in years) as a function of mean juvenile growth (TL at
age 2) for European pumpkinseed populations (solid: r2 ¼ 0:61, P < 0:001), with boxed
numbers being those in regions where the pumpkinseed is considered invasive. Sites are
numbered as in Table 1. The proposed physiological transition phase between non-
invasive and invasive pumpkinseed populations is hypothesized as extending from the
minimum age at maturity [the 458 line that traces from the intercept, at (i)] and the end
of juvenile growth [which for many pumpkinseed populations is age 2; the 458 line that
traces through the age 2 intercept with the regression slope, at (ii)].
benefit of early maturity and high reproductive output is not offset by high
rates of juvenile and adult mortality. Although southern European populations
with these ‘‘r-selected’’ traits do appear to have shorter lifespans than popula-
tions with slower juvenile growth rates and later maturity (see Table 2 in
Villeneuve et al. 2005), these differences may not be reflected in juvenile
mortality rates (see Bertschy and Fox 1999), and the rapid expansion of
southern populations, particularly in the Iberian Peninsula, would seem to
support this explanation. Unfortunately, there are no data on juvenile mortality
in European pumpkinseed populations that can be used to test this hypothesis in
a fitness model. Such data would require more intensive sampling than has
typically been collected for European pumpkinseed populations (see Bertschy
and Fox 1999). Of particular interest in the relationship between juvenile
growth and age at maturity are the sites in the proposed transition phase
between invasive and non-invasive (i.e. end of lag phase). All but one of the
English sites in this zone are in the Sussex Ouse River catchment. The two
continental sites in this intermediate/potentially invasive phase are a canal and

a marsh/canal in southern France, an area where migration is much less difficult,
and where pumpkinseed are widely distributed (Keith and Allardi 2001).
The last of the hypotheses proposed by Copp et al. (2002) for introduced
pumpkinseed in Europe was the positive (but significant at 10% only) relation-
ship between reproductive effort (ER ) and mean length at maturity. Similar
to reproductive allocation, which is commonly measured using the gonado-
somatic index (GSI ¼ 100 ovary weight 7 total body weight), reproductive
effort is the proportion of available resources used for reproduction, representing
the relative annual energetic investment in gonadal growth (for a review, see
Wootton 1979). Biological theory predicts that species in unpredictable (i.e.
novel) environments will exhibit fast juvenile growth and high reproductive
investment at an early age (Stearns 1976). Within the context of invasion
biology theory, these same attributes are expected to be characteristic of
recently introduced species as they strive to establish a self-sustaining popula-
tion in a novel environment where intraspecific competition would be absent,
and interspecific competition might be reduced due to the absence of indigenous
competitors. However, after an extended period of establishment in a given
water body, the introduced populations are expected to shift their allocation of
resources gradually to somatic growth, resulting in lower ER values, as intras-
pecific competition becomes a factor and the population shifts from a more
‘‘r’’-selected to a ‘‘K’’-selected life history strategy.
To examine reproductive effort, we used the Mills and Eloranta (1985)
version of the formula described by Wootton (1979): ER ¼ WG (WG þ WI ),
where WG is the mean weight (g) of the gonad for a given age class and WI is the
somatic weight increment (g) between consecutive year classes. ER will there-
fore be high when allocation to somatic growth (i.e. increment) is low, and ER
will be low when somatic growth increment is elevated. ER is difficult to obtain
from bibliographic sources, as it requires the age-specific mean values of gonad
weight and of the incremental change in somatic weight (WI ). Additionally,
potential use of the index can be hampered when the number of female fish
obtained per age class is low, which can result in negative WI values (i.e. a few
specimens from a given age that are small for their age will render a mean size
below the mean of the next younger year class). ER tends to increase with
age (Gutiérrez-Estrada et al. 2000a) because the allocation to somatic growth
is disproportionately high in immature fish (Wootton 1979). Therefore, we
calculated ER for ages 3–5 only, to reduce the impact of size-related growth,
but this was possible for only five of the 19 populations examined by Villeneuve
et al. (2005).
In the limited data for European pumpkinseed populations (Table 1), ER is not
correlated with age at maturity (Pearson r ¼ 0.16, P ¼ 0.70, n ¼ 7), and no
latitudinal pattern in ER is evident in reproductive effort (r ¼ 0.08, P ¼ 0.85,
n ¼ 7). We also contrasted ER in populations from southern Europe with
those in England, in order to compare locations with warmer water and more
widespread pumpkinseed distribution with those of cooler water and more

limited distribution. Both of these factors would favour higher reproductive effort
in English pumpkinseed populations. Although ER was greater, on average, in
England (mean ER ¼ 0:247, SE ¼ 0.03, vs. mean ¼ 0.201, SE ¼ 0.05 in southern
European populations), this difference was not significant (t ¼ 0.83, df ¼ 6,
P ¼ 0.44). However, pumpkinseed populations that are thought to have existed
for less than 50 years had a significantly higher (Students’ unpaired t ¼ 2.66,
df ¼ 6, P < 0.05) mean reproductive effort (mean ER ¼ 0:27, SE ¼ 0.029) than
those established prior to 1950 (mean ER ¼ 0:164, S.E. ¼ 0.016). This apparent
difference is provisional in nature and requires further study for verification.
DISCUSSION
The inverse relationship between the juvenile growth rate of a pumpkinseed

population and its mean age at maturity may provide a useful means for
assessing the potential invasiveness of pumpkinseed populations in Europe.
The parts of Europe where this species is considered invasive (rapid spread,
producing significant ecological change, or severe economic losses; Copp et al.
2005a) are in southern Europe (Neophitous and Giapis 1994, Godinho and
Ferreira 1996, Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000, Keith and Allardi
2001) and demonstrate characteristics (Fig. 6) that generate high potential
for population expansion by virtue of short generation time and high fecundity
early in life. There are six English pumpkinseed populations that show juvenile
growth and age at maturity patterns similar to those of the southern France
populations. Yet, pumpkinseed in England have demonstrated minimal expan-
sion since the species’ introduction about one hundred years ago (Wheeler and
Maitland 1973, Lever 1977). In the English river catchments where pumpkin-
seed occurs, the species has remained confined mainly to still waters. Few
individuals are found in English watercourses except in the Sussex Ouse catch-
ment (Klaar et al. 2004), where ripe male and female pumpkinseed have been
captured, but no evidence of in-stream reproduction (e.g. no nests or larvae) has
been found (Copp et al. 2004, Klaar et al. 2004, Villeneuve et al. 2005), with
only one specimen <40 mm TL observed (S. Stak_enas and F. Villeneuve,
unpublished data). Therefore, the small specimens of pumpkinseed found in
English streams are most likely to be escapees from upstream online water
bodies, which act as ‘‘drip-feeds’’ of small pumpkinseed into the receiving
streams. The intensity of this drip-feeding is determined by the type of outlet
from still waters to the adjacent streams.
Slow expansion of pumpkinseed in England does not appear to be due to
elevated water velocities in the streams. The English water courses inhabited by
pumpkinseed are not particularly fast flowing, and telemetry data for pumpkin-
seed in Batts Bridge Stream (Sussex Ouse catchment) indicate that the species is
able to move through rapids at least as fast as 0:7 m s1 (S. Stak_enas 2005,
personal communication). However, most water courses in southern England

(as in much of Europe) are interrupted by weirs and small reservoir dams, which
can impede upstream movement. The environmental conditions available to
pumpkinseed in the receiving water courses appear to be favourable to the
establishment of pumpkinseed populations, as there are lentic areas similar to
those found in French watercourses where pumpkinseed have established
populations (e.g. Copp and Cellot 1988). However, the species is rarely recorded
in water courses outside the Sussex Ouse catchment (Copp et al. 2006). The
reason(s) for the absence of in-stream reproduction may be related to an
establishment lag-phase, as suggested by Klaar et al. (2004). Lag phases are
common in NIS (Crooks and Soule 1999) and represent a post-establishment
period during which the introduced species adapts its reproduction to local
conditions.
As previously mentioned, recently-established populations are expected to
express a more r-selected life history strategy, investing more effort into repro-
duction, so as to ensure continuation of the species. The available data on ER do
suggest that recently-established populations (i.e. post-1950s) are putting more
into reproduction than longer-established populations (i.e. pre-1950s). One
possible explanation for this is compensatory reproductive effort in response to
cannibalism. Introduced pumpkinseed are known to be cannibalistic (Copp et al.
2002) and during establishment the young-of-the-year pumpkinseed represent
a ‘‘familiar’’ prey type that could smooth the transition to novel prey types of the
new environment. Elevated reproductive effort would compensate for the high
juvenile mortality (e.g. Copp et al. 2002), which can express itself in longer
lifespans or a greater number of spawning events, such as has been suggested
for other nest-guarding fish species (Copp et al. 2002b).
However, there are problems with both GSI and ER in that they assume that
the number of spawning events is equal among populations. When ER is
calculated from ‘‘one off ’’ assessments (i.e. just before spawning), it may mis-
represent the real allocation to reproduction. Previous studies have found
pumpkinseed to spawn over shorter periods and with fewer batches, in colder
water (Fox and Crivelli 2001). Indeed, only four population data points (7, 8, 9,
and 27 in Fig. 6), from France and England, are based on collections made
during several periods of the spawning season. Therefore, the difference
observed in ER between recently established and longer-established populations
European pumpkinseed populations may be spurious and should be viewed as
suggestive, pending further study.
Of particular interest to environmental managers is whether the invasiveness
of pumpkinseed, in its current and future introduced range (i.e. under conditions
of climate change), can be predicted by the simple relationship of juvenile growth
and mean age at maturity (Fig. 6). This relationship is influenced by a suite of
environmental factors, not the least of which are temperature, intraspecific
competition, and predation. It is interesting to note that pumpkinseed and its
indigenous predator, the largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides (Lacépèdé), have
generally been introduced into the same European countries (i.e. 22 of 28

countries; see Elvira 2001). And largemouth bass introductions have generally
been successful in southern European water bodies where pumpkinseed is con-
sidered invasive (Elvira 1998), but rarely in other parts of Europe where pump-
kinseed is not invasive (Copp et al. 2004). In Iberia, where freshwater fishes, and
in particular its endemic species, evolved in the absence of piscivorous fishes,
largemouth bass could be facilitating the invasion of pumpkinseed by reducing
(or removing) potential competitors (see Ricciardi 2001) rather than impeding its
establishment through predation pressure. This would be particularly true for
Iberian river systems that have been rendered largely lentic by the construction of
reservoirs, which provide ideal source populations for pumpkinseed establish-
ment and dispersal. Human assistance in the spread of pumpkinseed (e.g. by
anglers) may be more common in southern Europe than elsewhere. Pumpkinseed
were introduced into France for angling (Künstler 1908) and in Iberia as prey for
largemouth bass in order to keep them from eating indigenous forage (Elvira
2001). But pumpkinseed are rarely sought after in Europe as an angling amenity,
and indeed the species has been considered to be a pest throughout most of
Europe for some time (e.g. Roule 1931, Vooren 1972, Belpaire et al. 2000).
In conclusion, the initial evaluation of the available data on European pump-
kinseed populations, Copp et al. (2002) suggested that the later maturation and
slower growth of a pumpkinseed population in southern England resulted from
the combined effects of thermal regime, limited food resources, and relatively
high juvenile survivorship. Subsequent study of other English pumpkinseed
populations (Villeneuve et al. 2005) revealed the initial data point for northern
Europe to be representative of the upper extent of the range of observable values
for age and length at maturity (Fig. 6) as well as age-specific growth (Table 1).
From the information currently available, the degree of invasiveness of pump-
kinseed in Europe appears to be a function of three factors: (1) life history traits
(Fig. 6), with particular reference to age at maturity and juvenile growth rate of
which both depend to a degree on temperature; (2) characteristics of the
drainage basin/landscape into which the species was first introduced, with
dispersal facilitated by watercourse and water body connectivity; and
(3) human-assisted dispersal such as unauthorized fish movements and releases
for angling amenity or religious reasons (Copp et al. 2005b). To verify the
importance of these factors, and provide advice on the management needs as
regards non-indigenous fish species, further study is needed of pumpkinseed
populations in northern Europe as well as a detailed comparison between
indigenous and introduced populations of this species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors’ research is funded by UK Defra and the National Science and
Engineering Research Council of Canada, respectively.
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Chapter sixteen
The biological flexibility

of the pumpkinseed:
a successful colonizer
throughout Europe
Jozef Tomeček, Vladimı́r Kováč, and Stanislav Katina
INTRODUCTION
Among the introduced species of fishes, the pumpkinseed Lepomis gibbosus

(Linnaeus) is one of the most successful. During the last century, the pump-
kinseed became established in most European countries, not merely by intro-
ductions but also by natural spreading into adjacent water bodies, and in
many cases they attained high population densities in the receiving waters.
Impacts on local ichthyofauna were first reported in Portugal and Spain,
where pumpkinseed spread invasively (e.g. Zapata and Granado-Lorencio
1993, Godinho et al. 1997a, Godinho et al. 1998, Blanco et al. 2003). So,
what makes this fish such a successful colonizer of new environments? It
appears that it is the flexibility and plasticity of the pumpkinseed, so obvious
in several aspects of its life history. This chapter reviews some of the most
important literary sources on various aspects of the life history of the pump-
kinseed, emphasising its flexibility. Where possible, the ecology of indigenous
North American and introduced European populations is compared. The
review is combined with our own original data that focus on the phenotypic
plasticity of the species, thus addressing the high potential of pumpkinseed to
colonize new environments.
307
ß 2007 Springer.
308 Jozef Tomeček et al.
DISTRIBUTION
Native area
The native distribution of the pumpkinseed is restricted to the fresh waters

of eastern North America, from New Brunswick, Canada, to north-eastern
Georgia, USA (Scott and Crossman 1973). In the post-glacial era, pumpkinseed
recolonized the Great Lakes region, from Mississippi–Missouri river system or
through the Hudson River outlet (Fox et al. 1997), as St. Lawrence River
probably provided them a refuge during glaciation (Arendt and Wilson 1999).
Over the past centuries, the pumpkinseed was introduced into other parts of the
USA and Canada (Scott and Crossman 1973, Holčı́k 1995), and now it is
common in both lakes and flowing waters in north-east of North America,
from North Carolina to South Ontario (Laughlin and Werner 1980, Hanson
and Leggett 1985, Mittelbach 1986).
Non-native area
Around 1880, the pumpkinseed was first introduced into Europe (Garcı́a-
Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000a), as one of six centrarchids introduced to
Europe by the end of the 19th century (Holčı́k 1991). Since 1887, the pump-
kinseed has acclimatized in France and since 1890 also in South England (Copp
et al. 2002). During the 19th century, the pumpkinseed was introduced into
nearly all European and South American countries (Welcomme 1981), as a
sport fish (e.g. in France) or as an ornamental fish (e.g. in England, Copp et al.
2002, 2004; in Slovenia, Povž and Šumer 2005). In 1910–1913, the pump-
kinseed was also introduced into Lake Banyoles (Spain), where it has become a
dominant species in the littoral zone (Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich
2000b). Being used by anglers as a bait-fish, the pumpkinseed has spread over
many catchment areas of the Iberian Peninsula (Zapata and Granado-Lorencio
1993), including Portugal, where it was recorded in 1977 (Godinho et al. 1998).
Thereafter, the pumpkinseed continued to spread, and is now found in most
Portuguese river basins (Godinho and Ferreira 1998a, Godinho et al. 1998).
The success story of this species is similar in other parts of Europe. Therefore, it
is considered to be one of the most successfully introduced fish species (Holčı́k
1991), especially in water reservoirs and coastal wetlands (Crivelli and Mestre
1988). For example, in Slovakia, pumpkinseeds have increased their densities
and distribution along the Danube and adjacent canals over the last decade
so notably that the species was included into the list of invasive species of fish
in Slovakia (J. Černý, V. Kováč and J. Kautman 2007, unpublished data).
Currently, it occurs in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine, former Yugoslavia (Serbia and Monte-
negro, Slovenia), and Great Britain (Băcesku 1942, Blanc et al. 1971,
The biological flexibility of Lepomis gibbosus 309
Holčı́k 1976, 1991, Witkowski 1979, Reshetnikov et al. 1997, Copp et al. 2002,
Povž and Šumer 2005, Šumer et al. 2005).
FLEXIBLE IN HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
The pumpkinseed inhabits lentic, clear, and transparent waters of lakes, river
inlets, side arms, and channels (Holčı́k 1995), but individuals can also be found
in river beds, and periodically even in the turbid waters of the main channel of
large rivers and flow-through side channels (Balon 1959a, b, 1966). Although
pumpkinseeds require a lentic habitat for reproduction, they can be occasion-
ally found in moderately fast water (Klaar et al. 2004). However, in rivers,
pumpkinseeds prefer backwaters and calm sites to avoid direct water flow
(Keenleyside 1978), since at current velocities >0.12 m sec1 , they have to
turn their swimming behaviour from sculling with pectoral fins to propulsion
with the caudal fin, and to move their body to maintain position (Brett and
Sutherland 1965). In streams, young pumpkinseeds migrate mostly downstream,
whereas older, large individuals do more upstream migration (Hall 1972).
Concerning the substrate, the pumpkinseed is ubiquitous, occurring in all
lake types with various organic content in the sediment, though more abundant
in lakes with more organic sediment (Laughlin and Werner 1980). They seem
to prefer mud-bottom sites to hard-bottom sites (Nash 1950). Nevertheless, their
presence is more dependent on aquatic macrophytes, especially when young, as
smaller specimens, prefer heavy vegetation cover. Indeed, in the lakes with
sparse vegetation, pumpkinseeds concentrate in areas with vegetation cover
(Laughlin and Werner 1980, Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2002). The
height of vegetation also plays an important role in habitat preferences of
smaller-sized classes (Laughlin and Werner 1980). After hatching, larvae
move to the limnetic zone to feed on zooplankton; at a total length (TL)
>14 mm they move back to the littoral zone (Vila-Gispert and Moreno-Amich
1998, Hall and Rudstam 1999). Larvae can also undertake diurnal vertical
migrations. During the day, they swim in 3.5–4.5 m depth compared to 1 m at
night (Copp and Cellot 1988, Vila-Gispert and Moreno-Amich 1998). Small
juveniles prefer vegetation in the shallow littoral zone, swimming near the
surface in loose schools. Adults swim mostly in pairs or in small aggregations
of 3–4 individuals, only rarely schooled (Emery 1973). Larger specimens also
exhibit closer association with offshore vegetation in deeper water; however,
some individuals occur over bare sediments (Laughlin and Werner 1980). In
the lakes with thermal stratification, pumpkinseeds do not move to feed in cold
water below the thermocline, whereas in the lakes without a thermocline they
can feed in deep waters (Hartleb and Haney 1998).
The pumpkinseed is better adapted to hypoxic conditions than its congener
bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque), which often dominates pumpkinseeds
in nearby lakes but is absent in water bodies with winter hypoxia (Fox and
Keast 1990, Keast and Fox 1990, Osenberg et al. 1992). Furthermore, pump-
kinseeds are also able to reduce metabolic rates (oxygen consumption) and
maintenance costs during winter, reducing the risk of overwinter starvation
(Evans 1984). On the other hand, pumpkinseeds are eurythermic, preferring
22–31 8C in summer (Müller and Fry 1976), and thus tolerating easily temper-
atures over 30 8C (Carlander 1977, Houston 1980). In non-native areas,
pumpkinseeds are able to survive at 36 8C (e.g. in Arrocampo Reservoir,
Spain; Zapata and Granado-Lorencio 1993), or even at 36.6 8C (in River
Guadiato, Spain; Gutierréz-Estrada et al. 2000).
In the lakes of Ontario, pumpkinseeds tolerate a pH-value of 5.2–8.4 (Wren
and MacCrimmon 1983, Scheuhammer and Graham 1999), though a low pH
during winter probably affects their survival, as they need more oxygen under
low pH conditions (Rahel 1984). As in other fishes, larger individuals have
lower oxygen consumption per gram of body mass but as the temperature
increases, they consume more oxygen, probably because they are less adaptable
than smaller ones (O’Hara 1968). Pumpkinseeds also show a high tolerance to
nitrites (Brunson and Morris 2000).
FLEXIBLE IN DIET
Diet composition
The pumpkinseed is classified as a secondary–tertiary consumer (Vander

Zanden et al. 1997) and is considered an opportunistic feeder. Both the diversity
and size of food items increase with age (Guti et al. 1991, Zapata and Granado-
Lorencio 1993). Important food items of young pumpkinseeds are small crust-
aceans (zooplankton), but with increasing age, their proportion decreases in
favour of larger prey. This transition is believed to represent an adaptation that
minimalises the energetic costs of capturing and processing the prey (Keast
1978, Vinyard 1980, Hanson and Legett 1986, Zapata and Granado-Lorencio
1993). The diet of adults consists mainly of dipteran larvae and pupae (mostly
of the family Chironomidae), molluscs, caddisflies, dragonflies, isopods, and
amphipods.
The diet composition of pumpkinseeds varies seasonally and it is highly
correlated with the abundance of local macroinvertebrates (e.g. Deacon and
Keast 1987, Fox and Keast 1990, Mittelbach et al. 1992, Zapata and Granado-
Lorencio 1993, Sutter and Newman 1997, Wolfram-Wais et al. 1999, Copp et al.
2002). If the abundance of invertebrates is low, they also prey on eggs and fish,
including those of their own species (e.g. Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich
2000a, Copp et al. 2002).
The pumpkinseed can consume large quantities of molluscs, a prey type that
is ignored by many other species of fish (Pearse 1924). They are also able
to benefit from feeding on the invasive zebra mussel [Dreissena polymorpha
(Pallas)]. In fact, it has been shown that their growth rates can increase
following zebra mussel invasions (Mercer et al. 2000). However, pumpkinseeds
do not hesitate to consume other prey, such as dragonfly nymphs or Simoce-
phalus sp. (Reid 1930, Werner and Hall 1976, 1979); in some locations,
molluscs may be just a competitive substitute, especially for American popula-
tions living in sympatry with the bluegill (see Keast 1978, Werner and Hall
1979, Mittelbach 1984). Nevertheless, zebra mussels were also observed to
be important prey for non-indigenous pumpkinseeds from the lower Danube
inundation area (in Romania; Spătaru 1967).
Foraging patterns
It seems that pumpkinseeds preferentially search for prey on macrophytes;

however, if vegetation density is low, they are also able to search for prey in
sediments (Laughlin and Werner 1980). When competing with the bluegill and
green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque), they are able to switch from prey
on vegetation to prey in the sediments, as the green sunfish is more efficient in
catching prey on vegetation. However, if the vegetation cover is removed, the
growth of pumpkinseed is minimally affected, as they are more efficient in
searching for prey in sediments (Werner and Hall 1976, 1979).
The foraging rate of pumpkinseeds can significantly differ within or between
lakes, depending on the composition of littoral vegetation, as the physical
structure of the vegetation can affect the ability of pumpkinseeds to localize
prey, and increasing habitat complexity through plant growth reduces fish-
foraging rate (without increasing prey abundance). Prey capture rates of
pumpkinseeds foraging for cladoceran Sida crystallina (O. F. Müller) and larval
damselfly (Coenagrionidae) were 53% and 365% higher, respectively, among
Scirpus validus Vahl with cylindrical stems than for Potamogeton amplifolius
Tuckerman that has leafy stems. The antipredation behaviour (hiding) of dam-
selfly larvae, especially at their higher abundance, may also reduce capture rate
by reducing encounter rate (Dionne and Folt 1991).
Mean gut contents, which ranges from 1.09% to 1.96% of body weight, does
not seem to vary significantly at different pumpkinseed densities (6.5, 13, and
26 g m2 ), nor with the presence of yellow perch [Perca flavescens (Mitchill)]
(Hanson and Legett 1986). The amount of food eaten by pumpkinseeds during
24 h can be up to 16% of their own weight, and young specimens can consume
up to 1.5 times more food per weight than larger fish (Pearse 1924). At high
densities (26 g m2 ), macrophyte fragments may appear in their guts
(19.5–31.6% of total weight of intestine content). However, the fragments
recovered from faeces have provided no evidence of digestion (Hanson and
Legett 1986). Macrophyte fragments also appeared in the diet of introduced
pumpkinseeds from Lake Banyoles (Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno Amich 2000a);
sediment, algae, and detritus were found in their guts from Lake Albufera
(Blanco et al. 2003).
Pumpkinseeds are diurnal feeders using visual orientation for foraging (Shao
1997a), and UV light reception enhances their prey search, probably by
improving target contrast (Browman et al. 1994). They may begin to feed
from midnight to 8:00 am (Hanson and Legett 1986), being most active at
dawn, and during the first hours of sunlight (Hanson and Legett 1985, Dionne
and Folt 1991). In Lakes Memphremagog (Québec-Vermont, Canada) and
Lawrence (Michigan, USA), their stomach attains maximum fullness between
8:30 and 11:30 (Mittelbach 1984, Hanson and Legett 1986). The foraging
activity of pumpkinseeds is influenced by reproduction, mainly in nesting males.
At dawn, non-nesting fish had significantly fuller stomachs, and a similar,
though not significant, trend has been observed at dusk. Nesting males ate
less chironomid pupae, cladocerans, and isopods at dawn, and less odonates and
isopods at dusk. During the daytime, only one occasional prey attack was
observed. At night, nesting males probably leave their nest for short periods to
forage in the vicinity of their nests (Thorp et al. 1989).
Plasticity in feeding mechanisms
Pumpkinseeds use suction feeding (Lauder 1983, Wainwright 1996) but their
considerable plasticity can be illustrated by their variability in feeding mechan-
isms. Snails are captured by the jaws, drawn in the buccal cavity, and then
passed to the pharyngeal jaw apparatus. Pumpkinseeds possess strong, molari-
form teeth, which allow them to crush mollusc shells quickly and effectively and
to extract soft body parts (Mittelbach 1984). This requires a special muscular
activity that is absent in other species of the genus, who are unable to crush
shells (Wainwright 1996). In crushing, all the pharyngeal jaw muscles act
simultaneously in an intense burst, including antagonistic muscles, probably
stabilizing the pharyngeal jaw apparatus (Wainwright et al. 1991a). The
musculus pharyngocleithralis externus exhibits short bursts of activity before
crushing, presumably helping to position the prey in the pharyngeal jaw
apparatus. However, this type of muscular motor pattern has not been observed
in all pumpkinseed populations. Pumpkinseeds are able to adjust their motor
pattern to novel prey over a period of several weeks (Wainwright 1996). The
force necessary to crush hard shells is created mainly by the musculus levator
posterior. Depending on the type of prey, this muscle shows a high degree of
phenotypic plasticity – in pumpkinseeds feeding mostly on molluscs this muscle
is up to 2.34 times heavier than in populations feeding on soft bodied inverte-
brates (Mittelbach 1984, Wainwright et al. 1991b). This also applies for other
muscles, as well as for the bones of crushing apparatus, which are more robust
(Wainwright et al. 1991b). Furthermore, the size of the molars and gill rakers is
also a subject of variability, both within and between populations (Robinson
et al. 1993, 2000, Gillespie and Fox 2003). Such a high degree of phenotypic
plasticity in feeding mechanics and the robustness of the crushing apparatus
have also been confirmed experimentally (Mittelbach et al. 1999). In correlation
with the inter-individual differences in preferred food, observed both in indige-

nous as well as non-indigenous populations (Mittelbach et al. 1999, Garcı́a-
Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000a), a great variability in the morphology of
feeding apparatus exists even within populations (Mittelbach et al. 1999).
GROWTH, AGE, AND LONGEVITY
Pumpkinseed growth exhibits a high degree of variation in both indigenous

North American and non-indigenous European populations. In general,
growth-rate differences (especially in the juveniles) may be due to environ-
mental variation rather than genetic diversity, as the growth of fish originating
from stunted and normal populations did not differ under the same laboratory
conditions (Heath and Roff 1987). Adult growth rates and ultimate lengths in
non-indigenous European populations are generally lower than in indigenous
North American populations, which may result from a higher reproductive
effort associated with the colonization of new ecosystems (Copp et al. 2004).
Latitudinal clines in growth rates and body sizes were significant only in adults,
but in a reverse correlation for each of the two continents: with increasing
latitude, the adult body size decreased in North America but increased in Europe
(Copp et al. 2004). The main factors affecting growth in pumpkinseeds appear to
be temperature, pH, density, and interspecific competition. Growth can be also
affected by a behavioural influence on feeding, as dominant specimens acquire
more food than subordinates (Blanckenhorn 1992).
TEMPERATURE AND pH
The growth rate of the pumpkinseed is positively correlated with temperature

(Pessah and Powles 1974). For instance, temperatures over 15 8C induced
accelerated growth for 4–7 weeks, though then the growth rate declined.
At 10 8C, growth was very slow, and at 5 8C, no growth was recorded. When
the temperature increased to 15 8C, and then (after 16 weeks) to 25 8C,
‘‘overcompensatory’’ growth was observed in both cases, followed by a
growth-rate decline after 6 weeks. It seems that an increasing temperature
can be a signal to begin the spring growth cycle (Pessah and Powles 1974).
High temperatures, together with an extended growth period, have been
attributed as the cause of the high growth rate seen in young pumpkinseeds
in the warm Arrocampo Reservoir (Spain; Zapata and Granado-Lorencio 1993).
Similarly, early warming in shallow beaver ponds in spring promotes the
growth of pumpkinseeds (Fox and Keast 1990, 1991). In contrast, short sum-
mers and low temperatures result in poor growth and high mortality, especially
in 0þ specimens (Jackson and Harvey 1989). Slow growth is also characteristic
for the populations from England with mild winters but low temperatures and
limited food sources during the growth period (Copp et al. 2002). However, a
water temperature that is too high also results in slower growth (Crivelli and
Mestre 1988).
Growth of the pumpkinseed, and its coefficient of condition as well, can also
be influenced by pH. At low pH-values, growth is reduced and, in addition to
acid stress, fish from acidic lakes may be exposed to elevated metal levels, e.g. in
form of methylmercury (Wren and MacCrimmon 1983, Scheuhammer and
Graham 1999).
GROWTH RATE, POPULATION DENSITY, AND INTERSPECIFIC

COMPETITION
Pumpkinseed growth may be negatively correlated with its population density,

as well as with interspecific competition, though in experiments with yellow
perch the growth of the pumpkinseeds was not affected by the presence of this
competitor (Hanson and Leggett 1985, 1986). Because no significant difference
in composition and quantity of food eaten was observed when compared to low
densities, fish probably expend more energy to obtain the same amount of food
at higher densities. However, the growth of the pumpkinseed appeared to be less
affected by interspecific competition, compared to Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque)
and L. cyanellus, when all three species were reared together (Werner and Hall
1976). Density mostly affects the growth of smaller specimens, especially in the
case of competition between young L. macrochirus and L. gibbosus (Osenberg et al.
1988). In Lake Lawrence and Three Lakes II (USA), the growth rate of pump-
kinseed attained only 13–45% of that exhibited in experimental ponds with no
other fish species (Mittelbach 1986).
When a part of each population of sunfish (L. gibbosus, L. macrochirus, and
their hybrids) was removed from Lake Flora (Wisconsin, USA), the growth of
older age classes improved considerably (Parker 1958). In Lake Alanconie
(Pennsylvania, USA), partial removal of a fish population positively affected
growth of the remaining sunfish, growing up to 221 mm TL (Cooper et al.
1971). When only the bluegill population was removed, the improved growth
and the higher survival rate of the remaining juveniles reduced growth in older
pumpkinseeds (Osenberg et al. 1992). However, competition between bluegill
and pumpkinseed juveniles does not need to affect the growth rate of pumpkin-
seeds only negatively. If predators are present, juveniles of both species are
confined to the shallow littoral areas, where they compete for food. At 70 mm
TL, pumpkinseeds were found to be able to crush mollusc shells effectively, and
also to escape from the danger of predators limited by their gape. Therefore, it
can be an advantage to grow faster and to escape from competition, even if
juvenile resources are limited (Arendt and Wilson 1997, 1999, Arendt et al.
2001). Of course, in such a case, there is a trade-off between growth rate
and skeletal development (e.g. cranial ossification; Arendt and Wilson 2000),
regeneration of damaged fins (Arendt and Wilson 1999), and/or scale strength
in the faster growing specimens. Such a compromise in turn results in inferior
feeding and swimming abilities, and in weaker defence against predators.
LONGEVITY AND MAXIMUM SIZE
The pumpkinseed appears to be a medium-lived fish with a lifespan not exceed-

ing 10 years in nature and 12 years in captivity (Holčı́k 1995). It seems that
indigenous populations not only grow faster but also live longer compared to
the European pumpkinseeds. For example, Scott and Crossmann (1973) have
reported pumpkinseeds of age 9 years, attaining 241 mm TL. In the Lower and
Upper Beverley Lakes (Canada), males are usually larger than females of the
same age, though this becomes significant only at the age classes 5 and 6
(Deacon and Keast 1987). In Europe, the maximum age recorded in most
pumpkinseed populations has been 6 years (e.g. Lake Banyoles, Spain, Garcı́a-
Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000a; backwaters of the rivers Danube and
Latorica, Slovakia, Krupka 1973, Koščo et al. 2001). However, some popula-
tions in England have specimens aged up to 9 years (Villeneuve et al. 2005).
The maximum size of pumpkinseeds from non-indigenous European habitats
also appears to be smaller than in indigenous populations. The largest
specimens have been recorded in Spain (176 mm Standard length [SL],
Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000a) but those from the Slovakian habi-
tats did not exceed 112–128 mm SL (Krupka 1973, Koščo 1997, Koščo et al.
2001), which is similar to pumpkinseeds from the lower Danube in Romania
(maximum 113.7 mm SL; Constantinescu 1981). In England, the growth of
pumpkinseeds is stunted; for example, 9 years old specimens from the Douster
pond attained only 114 mm TL, and the mean TL of 5 to 9 years old specimens
ranged from 101 to 114 mm (Villenueve et al. 2005).
MORPHOLOGICAL PLASTICITY
Phenotype vs. genotype
A very important source of variability in the body shape of pumpkinseeds

appears to be their phenotypic plasticity. For example, in a study of limnetic
and littoral pumpkinseeds from Paradox Lake, phenotypic plasticity was esti-
mated to account for 53% of total variation in body shape, whereas heritable
genetic variation accounted for only 14% of this variation (Robinson et al.
2000). In general, pumpkinseeds adapt their body shape according to the
habitat occupied. Riverine populations tend to be more slender-bodied than
lacustrine pumpkinseeds, though no two discrete morphs can be distinguished.
Riverine specimens also have longer pectoral fins, however the other fins are
shorter. This is probably due to the necessity to produce higher drag and to
minimize resistance when the fish is not oriented precisely in an upstream
direction (Brinsmead and Fox 2002).
Littoral and pelagic morphology
In North American lakes, adult pumpkinseeds usually inhabit the littoral zone,
whereas the pelagic zone is typically occupied by congeneric adult bluegill
where these species co-occur. But if bluegills are absent, then the pumpkinseeds
may occupy bluegill’s pelagic niche, if offshore reefs are present. Littoral and
pelagic pumpkinseed are segregated most of their lifespan, as indicated by the
analysis of their parasite load (Robinson et al. 2000, Gillespie and Fox 2003).
A high degree of reproductive isolation is also probable (Gillespie 2000). Pelagic
pumpkinseed have a more slender shaped body, which is thought to be ener-
getically efficient for cruising open waters, shorter heads, increased length and
depth of the caudal peduncle, and reduced paired fins (Robinson et al. 1996,
2000, Gillespie and Fox 2003). Littoral pumpkinseeds from Monck Lake
(Ontario, Canada) were found to have longer pectoral fins, as expected in a
habitat requiring more precise manoeuvring. They also tended to have longer
heads, and more anteriorly placed dorsal and pectoral fins (Gillespie and Fox
2003). Pelagic pumpkinseeds had thicker, more closely (up to 38% closer)
spaced gill rakers, thus improving their efficiency to capture zooplankton
(Robinson et al. 1993, Gillespie and Fox 2003). Littoral forms may tend to
have larger molariform teeth of the pharyngeal jaw apparatus and more distant
gill rakers (significantly in three of five lakes; Gillespie and Fox 2003), though
this is not necessarily always the case (Robinson et al. 1993).
The degree of differentiation between littoral and pelagic morphs varies from
lake to lake. For example, in Lake Paradox (New York), pumpkinseeds from both
habitats are only moderately differentiated, whereas in Round Lake (New York),
the differentiation is bimodal, with a reduced number of intermediate pheno-
types. Specialised phenotypes have a significantly better condition factor than
generalist phenotypes (Robinson et al. 1996).
Indigenous vs. non-indigenous populations
Detailed comparison of ontogenetic patterns in external morphology among two

indigenous Canadian populations of pumpkinseeds and several non-indigenous
populations from Slovakia, Slovenia, and England (see Figs. 1 and 2 for details)
revealed that each population had its own developmental pattern (Tomeček et al.
2005). The differences increased with the size of the fishes, i.e. during their
ontogeny. In general, smaller specimens showed no significant differences
among populations, except for pumpkinseeds from the thermal Topla struga
oxbow (Slovenia), whereas in pumpkinseeds >60 mm SL populations differed
from each other in numerous characters (Tomeček et al. 2005).
size-group 1 size-group 2
3
3
2
2
∨
Vel’ké Cunovo
Tanyards pond
2nd discriminant
1
2nd discriminant
1
Danube river
Topla struga
−4 −3 −2 −1 0
Otonabee river Tanyards pond
0
Looncall lake
−1
Danube river
−2
Topla struga
Otonabee river
Looncall lake
−3
∨
Vel’ké Cunovo
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 −4 −2 0 2 4
1st discriminant 1st discriminant
size-group 3
3
2
∨
Vel’ké Cunovo
2nd discriminant
1
Topla struga
Danube river
−4 −3 −2 −1 0
Tanyards pond
Otonabee river
Looncall lake
−4 −2 0 2 4
1st discriminant
Fig. 1 Graphical representations of comparisons among pumpkinseed populations

(Slovakia: Vel’ké Čunovo gravel pit and River Danube; Slovenia: Topla struga; England:
Tanyards pond; Canada: Looncall Lake and River Otonabee) in geometrical discriminant
analysis, where the x and y axes correspond to the two most important discriminants.
Ellipses cover the interval where the mean is located with 95% probability. Size groups 1,
2, and 3 approximately correspond to specimens < 40 mm SL, 40–60 mm SL, and
> 60 mm SL, respectively (each group was identified by searching for lowest within
group variability, see Katina 2003 for the algorithm used).
Importantly, geographical proximity (and presumably also genetic similarity)

seemed to be less important in this respect than local environmental conditions,
which supports the above statement that most of the plasticity in pumpkinseeds
is of phenotypic rather than of genotypic origin. Detailed analysis revealed
that each population differed from every other population – and although the
size-group 1 size-group 2
1-Topla struga
∨
(SLO)
1-Topla struga
∨
(SLO) 2-Vel’ké Cunovo (SK)
2-Vel’ké Cunovo (SK) 4 3-Danube(SK)
2
3-Danube(SK) 2 4-Tanyards pond (ENG)
2
4
4
4
4-Tanyards pond (ENG) 4 4 4 2 5-Looncall lake (CAN)

1 2
5-Looncall lake (CAN) 22 6-Otonabee river (CAN)
66 2
6-Otonabee river (CAN) 4 6 1 2
2 2 3
4 4 2
4 2 22 2
4 4 2 4 3
4 1 4 3
4 4 4 1 2 2 2 22 2
4 6 1 22 2 2
5 4 2
2 4422
∨ 24 22
Vel’ké 4 3
4
4 Tanyards
4 44 1 1 1 1 2 2 4 3
3
3
2
4
6 Cunovo
2
4 5 4 64 22 3
5 2
pond 4 1 2 2 42
2nd discriminant
4 44 2 3
2nd discriminant
6 3
4 22 2 2 22 4 3 2
5 4
44 444 4 6
4 6 1
1 1 1 1 11 2 22 44 2 3
5 3 4 4 23 3 33 3
1
5 51 5 45
4 4
4 44 6 6
3 Otonabee Topla 2
24
2 4
3 3 3
5 5 5 5 4 5 33 3
1
1 1 2 4 43 3 43
Tanyards Danube
3 3 3 33
1 1
5 115 15 5 54 5
55 5
5 5
3 6 3
river
66 6 33 6
3
1 1 1
1
struga
1
1
11 4 2
2
4 4
4 43
444 2 334 3
3 3
3
3
1 5 Looncall
5 5 5 3
4 3 6 3 3 1
1 1
4
44
2 444
4
pond
33 3
34 3 3
3
1 1 5 55 5 5 6 3 36 3 1 2 4
4
lake 55 5 3 33 6 42
0
1 3 1 1 1 4
0
5 1 4 24 4
1 11 4 6 1 4 4 3 3 3
1
1 1 55 1 1
5
6 55 5 5
3 3
5 6
6 3 Danube 3 11 1 11 2
4 33
3
3
1 1 5 33 3 3 33 3 1 6
1
11 1
11 51 3 5 4
11 5 151 1 6
11 3 3 33 3 3
1
11 Topla
11 111
1 1 1
11 15 1 5 5 54 23 3 4
44
4 66 5 6 6
11 1 1 11 2 2 2
1 1struga
11 1 1
1 1 11
5 3
2
3 51 5 4
11 1 11 1 1 11 2 5 6 6
2 3 3 6
−2
1 11
−2
1 1 5 2 32 6 2 6
1 1 1 1 2 3 3 Otonabee
5 6 6 6
4
11 1 1
1 2 2
2 2 Vel’ké 5 5 56 6 6 6
1
1 ∨ 2 5 Looncall 6river
6
1 1
1
1
Cunovo 3
5
lake
5
5 5
5
6
5 5
6 6
1 2 2 6
2 6
2 6 6
1 1 5 5
2 66 6
6
−4
−4
6
55
5
2 22
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
1st discriminant 1st discriminant
size group 3
1 2
4
3
1 2
2
2 2
2 2 2 3
222 2
2 22 3
1 2 2 2
2 1 4 33
2
4 2 2 22 2 3
11 1 1
1 Vel’ké 2 2
1
22 2 3
2
4 2 ∨ 4 21 2
1 1
1
Topla Cunovo
1
2 2 2 2222
2 2 3
3 3 33
3 3
3
3
2 2 3
2nd discriminant
24 24 2 2
struga 1
2
22 2
2 2 33
3
3 3
3
33 3
3 3
42 4 2 21 4 2 2 3 33 3
12 42 22 2 2
2 3 22
3
2
3 Danube
3 333
3 3
33 3 3 3
1 1 41 44 2 3
4 4 2
2 4 3
24 4 4 3 3 333 33 3
41 44 4 22 3
1
Tanyards 6 3 3 3 3 3 3
0
4 4 2 3
4 41 441 4 64
4 pond
4 44
2
3 3
4 44 6 6 44 4 3
4 4 4 3
4 444 6 3
6 6 6 6 3
4 66 4
54
4 44 Otonabee 3
5 6 6 66
55 3
4 56
−2
4
54 5 river6 6
6
5 6 5
6 5 656
5 5 5 55 6
Looncall 55 6
6
5 6
5
5 lake
5 55
55 65
5 5
−4
5
5 5 1-Topla struga (SLO)
5 ∨
5
2-Vel’ké Cunovo (SK)
5 5
5 3-Danube(SK)
5
5 4-Tanyards pond (ENG)
5-Looncall lake (CAN)
6-Otonabee river (CAN)
−6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6
1st discriminant
Fig. 2 Graphical representations of comparisons among the pumpkinseed popula-

tions. Ellipses cover the interval, where 95% of fish from respective population should
be predictively classified. All details as in Fig. 1.
differences were not great, they were significant. Indeed, a model provided by
geometrical-discriminant analysis permitted re-classification of the specimens
studied with >95% success. Populations from the River Danube, Looncall Lake,
and the Topla struga oxbow appeared to be the most distinct (Figs. 1 and 2),
the latter being also most extreme, probably due to the extreme thermal condi-
tions in this habitat (Šumer et al. 2005).
REPRODUCTION AND VARIABILITY IN LIFE-HISTORY
Among all aspects of its biology, the reproductive characteristics of the pump-
kinseed are subject to the most intense variations depending on local environ-
mental conditions. It is an iteroparous species (Deacon and Keast 1987, Fox and
Keast 1991), classified to the guild of egg-protecting indifferent species (C2;
Balon 1966).
Nesting
Pumpkinseed males build nests prior to spawning, and actively protect eggs
and embryos (e.g. Balon 1959a,b, 1966), which can be one of the key factors of
pumpkinseed success. Nests are built in shallow littoral areas near the shores
of lakes; in rivers, nests are built only in calm backwaters (Keenleyside 1978),
usually in depths around 40 cm (Shao 1997a) to 110 cm (Thorp et al. 1989),
rarely 25 cm (Forbes 1989) and very rarely up to 200 cm (Thorp et al. 1989).
The manner of nesting and the morphology of the embryonic respiratory
system (aorta dorsalis, vena caudalis profunda, vena subintestinalis, and elongated
ducti Cuvieri) presuppose that pumpkinseeds reproduce preferably in clean
waters with gravel or clay bottom and good oxygen conditions (Balon
1959a,b). However, the substrate for the nest depends on local conditions.
It can be gravel or coarse sand (Balon 1959a,b, 1966), or clay with varying
amounts of gravel (Shao 1997a). If such substratum is not available, the
pumpkinseed can also use branchlets and vegetation remnants to build its
nests (Balon 1966, Colgan and Ealey 1973). The presence of micro-organisms
around the nest is also important, as they play a vital role for the pumpkinseeds
during the transition of the embryos to exogenous feeding (Balon 1959a,b,
1966).
Nests are often grouped (Balon 1959a,b, 1966, Keenleyside 1978) as pump-
kinseeds tend to aggregate at preferred sites (Gross 1979); though, in contrast to
the bluegill, pumpkinseed males also build solitary nests, not only colonies (Fox
and Crivelli 1998, Garvey et al. 2002). Nests on a muddy substrate hidden in
vegetation are more dispersed (>1 m in diameter) than those on a gravel
bottom (0.5 m in diameter; Shao 1997b). The area covered by nests range
from 1150---1700 cm2 (Shao 1997a), with a diameter 40–125 cm (Balon
1959a,b; Thorp et al. 1989).
Spawning behaviour
Reproduction usually takes 10 days (8–15 days), and can be divided into 4
stages:
(1) Nesting – males leave deep water and take up territories in shallow water.
Establishment of a territory is accompanied by nest building. Nests and territories
are co-extensive. Typical activity of males during this period is sweeping with the
caudal fin across the substrate and removing debris to form a nest depression.
This usually lasts two days (Colgan and Gross 1977). (2) Spawning – females
enter the colonies, courtship begins. It consists of a series of grunts; males pursue
females around the nest (Balon 1959a,b, Morris and Mischke 2000). Successful
courtship leads to spawning into the nest. Eggs are laid into the centre of the nest
or at its periphery (Shao 1997a). A spent female leaves the nest (Morris and
Mischke 2000); if not, the male drives her away and exhibits fanning behaviour
(Colgan and Gross 1977, Thorp et al. 1989), which lasts three days. Fanning
behaviour is characteristic only for this period, and has never been observed
beyond the third day (Colgan and Gross 1977). (3) Brooding – this period starts
with the hatching of the embryos and ends approximately four days later when
the larvae leave the nest. (4) Vacating – reproductive activities terminate; the
male leaves its nest (Colgan and Gross 1977).
In pumpkinseeds, an alternative reproductive strategy is also known in young
non-nesting males. Intruders (sneakers) usually hide behind physical objects
(plants, rocks, woody debris), to avoid the parental male and when a female
releases eggs, they enter the nest and release sperm. As nesting males react very
aggressively, the intruders hide behind the female and can stay in the nest for
several egg releases (Gross 1979).
Spawning period
The beginning of the spawning period coincides with changes in physico-

chemical characteristics of the environment, such as water temperature, pH,
and water level (Neophitou and Giapis 1994). The breeding season usually
begins at the end of May or early June (Bertschy and Fox 1999), which is
true not only for indigenous populations, e.g. those from the lakes of Creston
valley in British Columbia, Canada (water temperatures 16–26 8C; Forbes
1989) or Lake Opinicon, Ontario, Canada (19 8C; Garvey et al. 2002) but also
for non-indigenous populations (Lion side-arm of the Danube, Slovakia, Balon
1966; Lake Banyoles, Spain, Vila-Gispert and Moreno-Amich 1998). The
spawning season extends, depending on climate conditions, to late July (Balon
1966, Garvey et al. 2002), early August (Forbes 1989), or even late August
(Vila-Gispert and Moreno-Amich 1998). Larger individuals reproduce earlier in
the season than smaller ones; thus, the size structure of a population can
markedly influence offspring survival (Danylchuk and Fox 1994). In Little
Round Lake (Ontario, Canada), the proportion of large males decreased with
the progression of the season; later in the season > 70% of nesting males were
the small ones (Danylchuk and Fox 1996).
In pumpkinseeds, reproductive success can be enhanced with repeated
spawning (Deacon and Keast 1987). One female can lay eggs in more than
one nest, and one male can breed with more than one female in a single nest
(Morris and Mischke 2000). Certain males repeat spawning, once the previous
brood has left the nest. Some males can fertilize up to four broods, although
most males fertilize only one brood. The number of broods appears to be
correlated positively with the SL of males and with the duration of nesting.
However, the brood size may not be correlated with the size of the nesting males
(Shao 1997a). Pumpkinseeds from the delta of the River Rhône (France)
repeated their spawning 3 times per season on average (1–6 times) at Fume-
morte, and 3.1 times (2–5 times) at Sollac. The number of broods was not
correlated with the size of females. In the Lake Opinicon, in Canada, pumpkin-
seeds breed 2.1 times per season on average (1–4 times); again, no significant
correlation between the number of spawning periods and the body size of the
female was found (Fox and Crivelli 1998).
Maturation of gonads and gonadosomatic index (GSI)
Maturation of gonads in males and females (also observed as changes in GSI)

coincide with each other. This can be illustrated with populations from ponds in
Massachusetts (USA). From January to early May, the gonads of both sexes
remained small. However, in late May and early June, both the testes and
ovaries in adult pumpkinseeds began to increase, and reached their maximum
size in late June and/or early July. Then, in mid-August, the size of gonads
decreased and spawning stopped. During autumn and winter, GSI in both sexes
remains low. Changes in GSI are correlated with changes in the histology of the
gonads. Thus, histologically, the annual cycle of the testes in pumpkinseeds
contains seven developmental stages, and that of the ovaries, four develop-
mental stages (Burns 1976; see Table 1). Gonads of mature and immature
fish can be distinguished visually. For example, mature males have large testes,
usually opaque creamy-white, whereas the immature testes are translucent and
threadlike (Deacon and Keast 1987).
Mean values of GSI vary widely among populations, reaching 3–9.3% in
females (Deacon and Keast 1987, Bertschy and Fox 1999, Copp et al. 2002,
Gillespie and Fox 2003) and 0.25–1.16% in males (Deacon and Keast 1987,
Neophitou and Giapis 1994; Tables 1 and 2). On the other hand, differences in
GSI values between littoral and pelagic forms are rare, and have been recorded
only in Shadow Lake (Canada), where females from the littoral zone had higher
GSI than those from pelagic (Gillespie and Fox 2003).
Fecundity
Absolute fecundity (Table 2) increases with age or SL; relative fecundity remains
more or less unchanged, being lower only in the youngest females. Batch
fecundity is highly correlated with SL (Fox and Crivelli 1998). During the
spawning season, the diameter of eggs in the gonads ranges from 0.48 mm
up to 1.3 mm, depending on the stage of their maturity (Deacon and Keast
1987, Neophitou and Giapis 1994, Holčı́k 1995, Copp et al. 2002).
Table 1 Seasonal histological changes in testes and ovaries of pumpkinseeds (from

Burns 1976).
Stage Description Period
Testes
1 Collapsed seminiferous lobules, secondary spermatogonia February–early May
2 Seminiferous lobules collapsed, active spermatogenesis, end of May
spermatocytes present, but no free spermatozoa
3 Free spermatozoa present in lobules, all stages of early June
spermatogenesis present
4 All stages of spermatogenesis present, expansion of mid-June–early July
lobules with free spermatozoa
5 Lobules totally distended and filled with free spermatozoa late July
6 Lobules collapsing, spermatozoa still present in many late August
of them, lobule walls lined with primary and
secondary spermatogonia
7 Only occasional residuals of spermatozoa present, September–February
lobules collapsed, secondary spermatogonia increased
against primary spermatogonia
Ovaries
1 Oocytes diameter not exceeding 0.25 mm, very little February–early May
yolk present
2 Active vitellogenesis, largest oocytes 0.35 mm in late May–early June
diameter
3 Oocytes reach largest size, yolk is extensive mid-June–late July
4 Similar to stage 1 late August–January
Age and size at maturity
Age and length at maturity is also subject to variation between indigenous

Canadian and non-indigenous European populations. The Canadian pumpkin-
seeds usually mature later than the European ones (Tables 3 and 4; Fox 1994,
Copp et al. 2002), though mean age at maturity varies within adjacent water-
bodies (Fox 1994). However, within a single population, both sexes reach
maturity at a similar age and size. No differences in maturation were found
between littoral and pelagic forms, except at Shadow Lake (Canada), where
littoral forms matured at 2.6 years and 81 mm TL, compared with 3.6 years
and 108 mm TL for the pelagic ones (Gillespie and Fox 2003).
Age and size at maturity have not been found to be consistent with the
genetic proximity of populations, but rather they are influenced by a combi-
nation of ecological factors (biotic or abiotic), e.g. temperature/survival ratio of
adults to juveniles, adult to juvenile growth ratio, presence/absence of sym-
patric bluegill, occurrence of winterkills, predator presence, and/or history of
Table 2 Absolute and relative fecundity of some pumpkinseed populations. For some
locations, regression equations are available. F ¼ fecundity, FL ¼ Fork length, TL ¼ Total
length.
Relative
Location Absolute fecundity fecundity Source
Kerkini (Greece) 7,169 (1,122–12,293) 143.5 Neophitou and

(82–165) Giapis 1994
Upper Beverley Lake 1,844–10,632 Deacon and Keast 1987
(Canada)
Lower Beverley Lake 2,451–5,387 Deacon and Keast 1987
(Canada)
Banyoles Lake (Spain) 4,485 (log F ¼ 0,59 þ Vila-Gispert and Moreno-
2,16 log FL) Amich 2000
Camargue (France) 7,613 (F ¼ 276, Crivelli and Mestre 1988
794TL–18,129)
Lower Danube 3,200–29,172 158–588 Holčı́k 1995
(Romania)
Table 3 Mean age, length at maturity and female GSI (gonadosomatic index) values of
some European pumpkinseed populations. SL ¼ Standard length (from Copp et al. 2002).
Age at maturity Length at maturity GSI

Locality (years) (mm SL) (%)
Ligagneau (France) 1.3 51.6 5.4

Fumemorte (France) 1.8 54.6 6.5–10.5
Sollac (France) 2.3 59.2 6.9
Guadalquivir (Spain) 1.4 91.2 6.6
Cottesmore pond (England) 3.9 61.1 6.1
Kerkini (Greece) 2.0 – 9.0
Danube (Romania) 2.0 75 9.0
Fundata Lake (Romania) 2.0 65 –
post-glacial recolonization (Fox and Keast 1991, Fox 1994, Fox et al. 1997,
Bertschy and Fox 1999, Fox and Crivelli 2001).
Patterns in early development
Pumpkinseed eggs have a single large oil globule and are adhesive (Balon 1966,
Shao 1997b). As parental males do not remove ailing eggs (Shao 1997b),
successful hatching is limited due to fungal infections (Shao 1997a). Hatching
Table 4 Male and female mean age, length at maturity, length at age 2, and female GSI values of some native Canadian populations;
TL ¼ Total length, FL ¼ Fork length (from Deacon and Keast 1987, Fox et al. 1997, and Bertschy and Fox 1999). 324
Males Females
Age at maturity Length at maturity Size at age 2 Age at maturity Length at maturity Size at age 2
Locality (years) (mm TL) (mm TL) (years) (mm TL) GSI (%) (mm TL)
Otonabee River basin

Balsam Lake 3.4 125 85 3.6 129 4 85
Buckhorn Lake 3.5 104 75 3.1 91 5.07 77
Rice Lake 3.6 112 72 2.7 82 3.67 72
Scugog Lake 2.7 84 74 2.9 88 5.59 75
Crowe River basin
Beloporine Lake 3.2 102 73 3.1 92 7.01 71
Belmont Lake 2.75 81 68 3.36 89 6.72 62
Crowe Lake 3.06 91 74 3.49 105 4.67 73
Round Lake 3.6 107 72 3.2 89 5.52 71
Cataraqui River basin
Loughborough Lake 4.2 114 66 4.5 115 3.44 65
Jozef Tomeček et al.
Opinicon Lake 4.3 116 70 3.9 108 5.9 71

Smiths B Lake 4.2 115 69 4.3 115 3 70
Upper Rock Lake 4 122 67 3.7 102 3.88 66
Rideau River basin
Bass Lake 4 117 73 4.2 130 5.45 67
Long Lake 4.6 125 65 4.6 131 7.42 65
Otter Lake 3 86 68 3.52 98 6.58 67
Little Round Lake – – – 2.4 65 7.7 –
Warrens Lake – – – 2.9 74 9.3 –
Black Lake – – – 3.1 84 6.9 –
Vance Lake – – – 3.4 95 7.5 –
Upper Beverley Lake 5,76 147 (FL) – 5.52 138 (FL) 3.13 –
Lower Beverley Lake 5 117 (FL) – 5 110 (FL) 3.36 –
normally occurs in 2–3 days (Shao 1997a,b). Hatched embryos have a round
yolk sac with a large oil globule (Shao 1997a) and are very small, about
3.1 mm TL (Balon 1966, Vila-Gispert and Moreno-Amich 1998). The embry-
onic respiratory system is quite weak (Balon 1959a,b), but instantly after
hatching the embryos vehemently move off the above bottom and disperse
around the nest, where they have better oxygen conditions and protection
from predators (Balon 1966, Shao 1997a). During the next 4–5 days, the
embryos rest on the bottom and swim from time to time towards the surface
to enhance respiration (Balon 1959a,b).
With the onset of exogenous feeding, at TL about 5.3 mm, the actively
swimming embryos become larvae (Brown and Colgan 1984). The mouth and
opercular aperture are already opened at this time. Such early mobility of the
jaws and opercles indicates not only the early beginning of gill respiration, but
also the ability to feed from the first day of free swimming. The yolk sac with its
oil globule serves as a reserve source of energy during the next two days (Balon
1959a,b, Brown and Colgan 1984). The relative size of the oil globule in
pumpkinseed larvae is the lowest of all Percoidei, and it is not large enough to
serve as hydrostatic organ only (Balon 1959a,b). However, unlike other percids,
swim bladder fills in on the 6th day (i.e. the first day of swimming) and so larvae
are fully prepared to swim and seek for food. At transition to exogenous feeding,
larvae must have small micro-organisms at their disposal (Balon 1966), as they
are probably selective feeders (Hart and Werner 1987) and suffer high mortality
rates as they are more dependent on the availability of suitable prey at transi-
tion to exogenous feeding than fish with larger yolk reserves. However, the
strategy of the pumpkinseed is based on a continual production of offspring, so
that the chance that some of the batches will encounter good prey availability is
higher (Hart and Werner 1987). After hatching, larvae become pelagic for 2–3
weeks and are obligate zooplanktivorous (Vila-Gispert and Moreno-Amich
1998). From day 19 to 60, caudal, dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins form
completely. Calcification of cranial structures with a clearly given order varies
following epigenetical interactions (Arendt and Wilson 1997, 2000, Arendt
et al. 2001). The first scales appear at 15–19 mm SL (Tandon 1976, 1977a,b
Crivelli and Mestre 1988, Koščo et al. 2001). At 20 mm TL, the larvae return
back to the littoral area (Garvey et al. 2002).
PUMPKINSEED AS A PREY SPECIES
Theoretically, strong predation on pumpkinseeds might be one of the ways to

control its population density, though such a control in non-native areas would
require the introduction of another non-indigenous species, which itself implies
controversy. In native areas, the largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides
(Lacepède) is an important predator of pumpkinseeds (e.g. Godinho et al. 1997b).
Its presence affects not only habitat use, but also the feeding resources of young
pumpkinseeds, as these have to keep hidden in vegetation up to 50–100 mm SL

(Wainwright 1996). However, in the Spanish Lake Banyoles, non-indigenous
pumpkinseeds were not found in the diet of the largemouth bass, which appar-
ently prefer to prey on indigenous cyprinids – presumably for lower costs
of capture (Garcı́a-Berthou 2002). Thus, the largemouth bass does not appear
to be a species that could control non-indigenous pumpkinseed populations. Of
course, pumpkinseeds can also be a prey of indigenous species of fish, such as
wels Silurus glanis Linnaeus, sander Stizostedion lucioperca (Linnaeus), and/or
Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis Linnaeus, as observed in the Danube inundation
(Romania; Spătaru 1967). According to Scott and Crossman (1973), small
pumpkinseeds form part of diet for almost all predatory fish, including northern
pike Esox lucius Linnaeus. Guti et al. (1991) found that the pumpkinseed was
the second most abundant fish prey in pike from moorland water bodies in
Hungary. However, in some places pike seem to ignore pumpkinseeds as a
potential prey (Slovakia, Sedlár 1957; Camargue, France, Crivelli and Mestre
1988), and it appears that in general, indigenous predators may only have a
moderate impact on non-indigenous populations of pumpkinseeds.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF PUMPKINSEED INTRODUCTIONS

AND INVASIONS
The pumpkinseed, as a flexible generalist, can, by competition, limit cyprinid

communities (Rahel 1984). They can survive in localities with fluctuating
hydrological conditions and may be able to invade new environments (Poff
and Allan 1995). As they are considerably less frequent in riverine environ-
ment, the damming of rivers can help their successful establishment, so river
reservoirs have been identified as the most probable source for pumpkinseed
inoculation in Portugal and in England (Godinho et al. 1998, Klaar et al. 2004).
The introduction of pumpkinseeds into some water bodies has led to a suppres-
sion and density decline of indigenous fish species (Holčı́k 1991), mainly due to
feeding on eggs and young fish, and to feeding competition (Sedlár 1957, 1965,
Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000a).
Indeed, the spread of the pumpkinseed and largemouth bass is considered a
major cause of indigenous fish species decline in Portugal and Spain (Godinho
and Ferreira 1998b). For example, in Lake Banyoles, indigenous fish decline
seems to be entirely an effect of pumpkinseed, largemouth bass, and roach
introduction (Garcı́a-Berthou and Moreno-Amich 2000b). In Lake Albufera,
Mugil cephalus Linnaeus was a dominant species until 2000, but in 2002 this
species was no longer recorded, and the density of the pumpkinseed doubled
(Blanco et al. 2003). Similarly, in the lower Guadiana basin, indigenous
Anaecypris hispanica (Steindachner) disappeared at the same time as a notable
predominance of pumpkinseeds was recorded (Godinho et al. 1997a). In three
reservoirs located in the Madrid Community (Spain), overpopulation with
pumpkinseeds has been attributed as the cause for lack of spawning of other
fish species (Garcı́a de Jalón et al. 1993). The pumpkinseed, together with
the largemouth bass and mosquitofish, are also responsible for the decline
of indigenous fish fauna in the Portuguese River Raia (Godinho et al. 1998,
Godinho and Ferreira 2000). Furthermore, in the Portuguese reservoirs
Divor and Montargil, it was the only species found in open water, feeding
intensively on zooplankton, probably because water level fluctuations reduced
the littoral fauna. This predation pressure resulted in changes in local
zooplankton communities (Braband and Saltveit 1989). Finally, in the Portu-
guese reservoir Tapada Pequena, only non-indigenous species can now be
found, the pumpkinseed dominance reaching 93.9% (Godinho and Ferreira
1996).
Another example of competition for food comes from the Lake Neusiedler
(Austria), where a very abundant population of pumpkinseeds competes with
white bream [Blicca bjoerkna (Linnaeus)], eel [Anguilla anguilla (Linnaeus)], and
ruffe [Gymnocephalus cernuus (Linnaeus)]. Surprisingly, the dietary overlap with
another non-indigenous fish, topmouth gudgeon [Pseudorasbora parva (Tem-
minck and Schlegel)] was found to be much less. Although both species feed
on chironomid larvae, their feeding microhabitat is clearly differentiated, as
pumpkinseeds feed here mainly on sediment dwelling chironomids, whereas the
topmouth gudgeon prefers epiphytic species (Wolfram-Wais et al. 1999). Guti
et al. (1991) also recorded a high dietary overlap between the pumpkinseed and
the crucian carp, with both species consuming mainly chironomids, ceratopo-
gonid larvae, and gastropods.
The presence of non-indigenous pumpkinseeds, especially in high densities,
also leads to a strong decline in mollusc abundance (Osenberg et al. 1992).
Moreover, predation on molluscs can induce morphological and life-history
changes in molluscs, and adversely affects endemic species (Garcı́a-Berthou
and Moreno-Amich 2000a). Molluscs, like Physa acuta (Draparnaud), use chem-
ical cues (from the molluscs eaten) to detect a predator and in response change
their morphology, life history, and behaviour. Stationary pumpkinseeds can
influence prey behaviour over an area of 3:1 m2 , but, as pumpkinseed move-
ment rate is estimated to achieve 100 m h1 , each fish can change snail
behaviour over an area of 8,000 m2 . Snails remain in refuges and their growth
is negligible (Turner and Montgomery 2003). Direct predation of pumpkinseeds
in experimental enclosures led to a dramatic decline in snail density and
modified snail assemblages (Brönmark et al. 1992). The presence of pumpkin-
seeds can also reduce growth, rate of development (in males), and fecundity in
the chironomid Chironomus tentans (Fabricius) (Ball and Baker 1996). High
pumpkinseed density can reduce the density of the aquatic weevil [Euhrychiopsis
lecontei (Dietz), Coleoptera: Curculionidae], a potential control agent for
Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum Linnaeus) introduced to North
America in the mid-1900 (Sutter and Newman 1997). Finally, pumpkinseeds,
similar to the common carp, were found to be able to contribute considerably to
the increase of turbidity, as well as chlorophyll a, total phosphorus, and total

nitrogen levels (Angeler et al. 2002).
CONCLUSIONS
Pumpkinseeds have been in Europe for more than 120 years, and they have
managed to establish their populations in various types of water, in most
catchments of rivers flowing through a considerable part of the continent. The
pumpkinseed appears to be a typical generalist species with flexible habitat
requirements, diet, growth rates, and overall life history. However, being a
generalist species does not necessarily mean a successful invader. Indeed,
pumpkinseeds are not only flexible generalists but they also have a great
capacity for phenotypic plasticity, both in their native and non-native areas of
distribution. The review of various studies, as well as our own research, shows
that this plasticity can be expressed in many aspects of this species’ life, for
example in its external and/or internal morphology, early development or
feeding mechanisms, thus affecting its overall life history in general. So, it is
probably this high degree of phenotypic plasticity, based on the generalist
genotypic attributes of the species, that makes this species such a successful
colonizer – and in some regions even an invader – throughout Europe.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank G. H. Copp for his bibliographic assistance. This study was funded by
the Slovak VEGA Grant Agency projects No 2/3126/23 and 1/2341/05.
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Patterns and pathways
of invasions
The most frequent and strong result . . . was that successful establishment was
positively related to propagule pressure. Although this result is intuitively obvious,
quantifying it is not of trivial importance with respect to prevention of NIS. For
example, accidental introductions of NIS via commerce-related activities might be
impossible to halt completely. Reducing the number of individuals released and the
frequency of releases, however, reduce the probability of establishment.
Cynthia Kolar and David Lodge (2001)
Chapter seventeen
Marine vs. freshwater

invaders: is shipping the
key vector for species
introductions to Europe?
Stephan Gollasch
INTRODUCTION
Species introductions are of concern as many non-indigenous species (NIS) have

been shown to have worldwide significant negative impacts on the recipient
ecosystems. Prime introduction vectors are the unintentional transport by ships
(i.e. ballast water, tank sediment, and hull fouling), intentional species import
for aquaculture purposes (i.e. target species and non-target species, such as
disease agents or parasites), accidental releases of species cultured in contain-
ment and stocking initiatives (Carlton 1985, 1987, Cohen and Carlton 1995,
Eno et al. 1997, Reise et al. 1999).
Since biological invasions of aquatic species became more and more into focus
in Europe in the mid 1990s, regional inventories were prepared for some
European coastal waters: North Sea (Gollasch 1996, Reise et al. 1999, Nehring
2002), Baltic Sea (Leppäkoski 1994, Gollasch and Mecke 1996, Leppäkoski and
Olenin 2000, Olenin et al. 2005), British Isles (Eno 1996, Eno et al. 1997),
Ireland (Minchin and Eno 2002), Azores (Cardigos et al. 2006), Mediterranean
Sea (Galil and Zenetos, 2002, CIESM 2005). An overall summary of introduced
aquatic species in Europe was prepared by Streftaris et al. (2005) and Gollasch
(2006).
339
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340 Stephan Gollasch
This account reviews the relative importance of invasion vectors and also
provides a comparison of introduced marine versus freshwater species.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The earlier mentioned publications were reviewed and summarized. In addition,

a comprehensive literature research was undertaken, including publications
in scientific journals, meeting reports of international working groups, and
Internet databases. Earlier prepared summaries of introduced aquatic species
in Europe (Streftaris et al. 2005, Gollasch 2006) have been taken as baseline
documents and were updated, as new species were introduced since those
inventories were completed. Further, these earlier inventories did not separate
freshwater from marine-introduced species, but provided an overall account.
Whenever possible, all coastal habitats have been addressed, including inland
waters in close proximity to the coast. Noting that shipping is a key introduction
vector, looking at marine coastal waters only will result in a biased overview as
the busiest European ports, such as Rotterdam, Antwerp, and Hamburg, are
located in lower saline waters.
For this comparison of introduced marine versus freshwater species, I used
the term introduced species as a synonym of NIS and defined it as any species
transported intentionally or accidentally by a human-mediated vector into
aquatic habitats outside its native range (see ICES 2005). Freshwater species
are those species which complete their entire life cycle in freshwater, whereas
those species which do not complete their entire life cycle in freshwater, includ-
ing brackish water species, are here classified as marine species (see ICES 2005).
RESULTS
Introduced species are known from all European coasts. The highest number of
introduced species was found in the Mediterranean Sea and the lowest number
in European Arctic waters (Table 1, Fig. 1).
A total of 1069 NIS are known from European coastal and adjacent waters, of
which almost 60% are assumed to occur in self-sustaining populations. The
dominating type of organisms is composed of zoobenthos invertebrates (575
taxa). Almost 190 fish and 189 phytobenthos species were also observed, while
60 taxa of phytoplankton species are also frequently recorded (Table 2).
Invasion vectors overlap and for several species introduction vectors could
only be assumed. Fouling species may be introduced via ship hulls or also in
the fouling of species intentionally imported for aquaculture purposes (e.g. on
oysters). Further, early life stages of fouling organisms may also be introduced
with ballast water releases. For those species the most likely vector was
assumed. This approach results in shipping being the most important invasion
Shipping as the key vector for species introductions 341
Table 1 Freshwater versus marine established non-indigenous species excluding

parasites and pathogens in European coastal waters. (Modified from Gollasch 2006)
Salinity
Dominance of brackish
Freshwater Brackish and and marine species
Region species marine species [%]
Mediterranean Sea 10 307 96.8

North Sea 33 99 75.0
Atlantic coast 6 95 94.1
Baltic Sea 41 51 55.4
Black Sea 12 47 79.7
Azores no data 24
Irish waters & NW UK 3 33 91.7
Arctic waters no data 8
Total 105 664 86.3
350
Number of species
300 established
250 not established
200 unknown
150
100
50
0
a
t
a
s
a
es
s
as
Se
Se
er
er
Se
Se
or
co
at
at
an
Az
th
w
W
ic
lti
ac
ne
or
ic
nt
Ba
sh
Bl
N
rra
ct
la
Iri
Ar
At
ite
ed
M
Fig. 1 Number of introduced species per region according to invasion status,

i.e. established, not established, or unknown. (Modified from Gollasch 2006)
vector with 215 taxa in ballast water and 131 in hull fouling. Intentional and
accidental species introductions for aquaculture purposes account for 134
species and 78 species were intentionally introduced during stocking initiatives.
It should be noted that for 179 species the introduction vector could not be
Table 2 Freshwater, marine established non-indigenous species and total number

of non-indigenous species in European coastal waters according to life forms. Other ¼
parasites, pathogens, and fungi. (Modified from Gollasch 2006)
Salinity
Established Established brackish Number % of all

Group freshwater species and marine species of all species species
Zoobenthos 51 305 575 53.8

Fish 41 50 190 17.8
Phytobenthos 9 168 189 17.7
Phytoplankton 0 101 60 5.6
Zooplankton 2 14 41 3.8
Other 2 26 14 1.3
Total 105 664 1,069 100.0
Table 3 Importance of invasion vectors for all species. Lessepsian ¼ species movement
through the Suez Canal, range expansion ¼ active and passive species dispersal,
aquaculture ¼ species not intended to be placed in open waters, stocking ¼ intentionally
released species. Although not being introduced by vectors, those species that have arrived
with drift or due to natural range expansion were included here for comparison. (Modified
from Gollasch 2006)
Vector Total Freshwater Marine
Aquaculture 134 9 125

Bait 5 0 5
Ballast 215 33 182
Drift 2 0 2
Fouling 131 3 128
Lessepsian 253 0 253
Ornamental 19 12 7
Range expansion 46 0 46
Science 7 0 7
Stocking 78 51 27
Unknown 179 36 143
Total 1069 144 925
identified. Although not being introduced by vectors, those species that have
arrived with drift or due to natural range expansion were included here for
comparison (Table 3).
Of the established non-indigenous invaders, brackish or marine species are
more common (664 species) than freshwater taxa (105 species). In all regions,
marine species are dominant. However, the share of freshwater versus marine
species is regionally very different. In European seas with a large number of
estuaries (e.g. the North Sea) and in the Baltic Sea with its brackish to freshwater
environment, the relative number of freshwater species is higher (Table 1).
CONCLUSIONS
The ranking of likely species introduction vectors varies throughout Europe.

However, the results show that shipping and aquaculture activities are the
dominant invasion vectors. In areas with more shipping activity, more intro-
duced species were found (Gollasch 2006), highlighting the importance of this
invasion vector. The large number of invaders in the Mediterranean Sea is
almost certainly a result of the removal of the migration barrier between
the Red and the Mediterranean seas by the opening of the Suez Canal (Galil
2006). In European Arctic waters, the number of invaders is low. It is assumed
that this region is less exposed to the prime invasion vectors. Here, the number
of ports engaged in intercontinental trade is limited and also aquaculture
facilities are rare.
This summary shows that the majority of aquatic invaders are marine
species. However, it should be noted that here inland waters were only con-
sidered when they were in close proximity to coastal marine waters, e.g. canals
and inner estuaries with shipping engaged in intercontinental traffic. For some
regions, inventories on introduced-inland species are unknown. The lack of
such data and the approach selected may have resulted in a biased calculation.
The dominance of marine species is enormous, i.e. even if future studies
on freshwater species in close proximity to the coast reveal additional intro-
duced freshwater species, the dominance of marine species will remain. Regions
without larger freshwater habitats in close coastal proximity, e.g. the
Mediterranean Sea, are clearly dominated by marine invaders. Even regions
with a high number of estuaries and also freshwater ports are dominated by
marine species (Table 1). Studies on ballast water arriving in the North Sea
revealed that the majority of ships carry ballast water from marine locations
(Gollasch 1996). It is therefore more likely that marine species are transported
within ballast water. However, it should be noted that freshwater ports are
especially at risk of future species invasions when they are engaged in shipping
routes to other freshwater ports. This refers, for example, to ports in the North
American Great Lakes and also to freshwater ports in the northern and eastern
Baltic. The different salinity between those donor and recipient ports makes
a natural spread of species impossible, but in ballast water tanks this salinity
barrier is absent. As a result, freshwater ballast from a donor port should not
be released in recipient freshwater ports. Here a mid-ocean ballast water
exchange may be most efficient until other ballast water management or
treatment approaches become available.
First records of new invaders are reported with a time lag due sometimes
to time consuming publishing procedures. Consequently, the number of first
records in this decade will increase in the future. As an example, since the
preparation of the last summary of introduced species in Europe (Gollasch
2006), two new invaders were found in the North Sea and its adjacent waters,
i.e. Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas) in Dutch inland waters (van Beek 2006)
and Rapana venosa (Valenciennes) in the south-western North Sea (Kerckhof
et al. 2006). These new records are of concern as both species have the potential
to negatively impact on the environment and may also affect resource users.
However, it is not clear whether the two species are established in the North
Sea region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful thanks are expressed to all contributors to this inventory. The list is too
numerous to be mentioned here. However, I would especially like to thank
Argyro Zenetos and Nikos Streftaris (Hellenic Centre for Marine Research,
Anavissos, Greece) for having shared data on another inventory of exotic
species in Europe. The author is partner in the EU funded project Delivering
Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE). This programme will
shortly launch a database on alien species in Europe (www.daisie.se).
REFERENCES
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Carlton, J. T. 1987. Patterns of transoceanic marine biological invasions in the Pacific
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CIESM. 2005. Atlas of exotic species in the Mediterranean Sea. www.ciesm.org/atlas
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Cohen, A. N. and J. T. Carlton. 1995. Biological study: Non-indigenous aquatic species in
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Eno, N. C. 1996. Non-native species in British waters: effects and controls. Aquatic
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Eno, N. C., R. A. Clark, and W. G. Sanderson. 1997. Non-native species in British waters: a
review and directory. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, UK, 152 pp.
Galil, B. and A. Zenetos 2002. A sea change – exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
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Galil, B. 2006. The Suez Canal. Pages 207–300 in S. Gollasch, B. Galil, and A. Cohen,
editors. Bridging Divides. Maritime canals as invasion corridors. Springer, Dordrecht,
The Netherlands, 315 pp.
Gollasch, S. and R. Mecke. 1996. Eingeschleppte organismen. Pages 146–150 in Warn-
signale aus der Ostsee. J. L. Lozan, R. Lampe, W. Matthäus, E. Rachor, H. Rumohr, and
H. V. Westernhagen, editors. Parey Buchverlag, Berlin, Germany, 385 pp.
Gollasch, S. 1996. Untersuchungen des Arteintrages durch den internationalen Schiffs-
verkehr unter besonderer Berücksichtigung nichtheimischer Arten. Diss., Univ. Ham-
burg; Verlag Dr Kovac, Hamburg, Germany, 314 pp.
Gollasch, S. 2006. Overview on introduced aquatic species in European navigational and
adjacent waters. Helgoland Marine Research 60, 84–89.
ICES. 2005. ICES Code of Practice on the Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organ-
isms 2005, 30 pp.
Kerckhof, F., R. J. Vink, D. C. Nieweg, and J. J. N. Post. 2006. The veined whelk Rapana
venosa has reached the North Sea. Aquatic Invasions 1, 35–37.
Leppäkoski, E. 1994. Non-indigenous species in the Baltic Sea. Pages 67–75 in C. F.
Boudouresque, F. Briand and C. Nolan, editors. Introduced species in European coastal
waters. CEC Ecosystem Research Report 8, 67–75.
Leppäkoski, E. and S. Olenin. 2000. Non-native species and rates of spread: lessons from
the brackish Baltic Sea. Biological Invasions 2, 151–163.
Minchin, D. and N. C. Eno. 2002. Exotics of coastal and inland waters of Ireland and
Britain. Pages 267–275 in E. Leppäkoski, S. Gollasch, and S. Olenin, editors. Invasive
aquatic species of Europe: distribution, impacts and management. Kluwer Academic
Publishers. Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 583 pp.
Nehring, S., 2002. Biological invasions into German waters: An evaluation of the
importance of different human-mediated vectors for nonindigenous macrozoobenthic
species. Pages 373–383 in E. Leppäkoski, S. Gollasch, and S. Olenin, editors. Invasive
aquatic species of Europe: distribution, impacts and management. Kluwer Academic
Publishers. Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 583 pp.
Olenin, S., D. Daunys, and E. Dauniene, E. editors. 2005. Baltic Sea Alien Species
Database http://www.ku.lt/nemo/mainnemo.html
Reise, K., S. Gollasch, and W. J. Wolff. 1999. Introduced marine species of the North Sea
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Streftaris, N., A. Zenetos, and E. Papathanassiou. 2005. Globalisation in marine ecosys-
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and Marine Biology 43, 419–453.
van Beek, G. C. W. 2006. The Round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) first recorded in the
Netherlands. Aquatic Invasions 1, 42–43.
Chapter eighteen
Modeling biological
invasions of inland waters
Hugh J. MacIsaac, Leif-Matthias Herborg, and

Jim R. Muirhead
INTRODUCTION
The discipline of invasion biology suffers from a number of problems, not least of
which is a lack of a central, organizing paradigm. Ecologists have for decades
sought to relate invasion success both to characteristics of invaded communities
and to those of the invading species (see references in Davis 2005), the results of
which have only served to demonstrate the highly system- or species-specific
nature of many invasions. One recent development that holds promise for
resolving this problem has been a recognition that successful invasions result
from a series of inter-connected stages: introduction effort across biogeographic
barriers, suitability of physiochemical conditions in the new environment, and
survival in the local biota; each of these stages may pose differing demands on
entrained species and may be studied independently (Carlton 1985, Williamson
and Fitter 1996, Richardson et al. 2000, Kolar and Lodge 2001, 2002, Colautti
et al. 2006). While many patterns in nature may have alternate explanations,
none of which takes logical precedence for testing over any other, the same
cannot be said for hypotheses that may account for success of non-indigenous
species (NIS). All invasions begin with the introduction of NIS propagules,
which may vary in number, quality, sex ratio, age, or number of introduction
events (Fig. 1). Propagules are then subject to prevailing conditions of the host
lake, which may reduce or eliminate effective propagule pressure depending on
the species’ ability to tolerate these conditions. Only at this stage does the
possibility of positive or negative biological feedback between the NIS and host
community occur (Fig. 1). So, for example, an introduced mollusk like Dreissena
polymorpha Pallas could fail to establish in a new lake owing to stochastic or
347
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348 Hugh J. MacIsaac et al.
Regional species pool A B C D E F G H I

Human
introductions
Biogeographic filter
F G H I
Physiological filter
Biotic filter
Local assemblage A B C H I
Fig. 1 Transportation of species (F, G, H, I) beyond historic biogeographic barriers to

new ecosystems, where sequential filters reduce the number that successfully establish
(H, I) as NIS. An introduction effort or ‘propagule pressure’ filter reduces both the
number of species and individuals within particular species that reach the physiological
filter. Modeling techniques may help identify physiological and/or constraints that
further restrict establishment of NIS in novel ecosystems. (Modified from Rahel 2002)
deterministic processes (e.g. small population size; all larval or post-reproductive

propagules), because of insufficient calcium in lake water to allow shell forma-
tion, or because predation by molluskivorous waterfowl increased the species’
death rate. While this model suggests that introduction effort (i.e. propagule
pressure) hypotheses be tested first and biological interaction questions last, we
recognize that invasions could fail at any stage (see Colautti et al. 2006).
Additionally, cases might occur where, under the same biological conditions
(e.g. predators), NIS introduction can either succeed or fail depending upon
physiological conditions. Indeed, evidence exists supporting the importance of
all three stages in failed invasions by various species. If this order of hypothesis
testing is accepted, then methodologies must be developed for examining pro-
pagule pressure. Unfortunately, formal tests of the importance of propagule
pressure have been few in number until quite recently (see Lockwood et al.
2005, Colautti et al. 2006). For species that pass through the introduction effort
filter, other methods are required to determine the suitability of water in newly
colonized lakes and ecological conditions therein. In this paper, we begin by
reviewing mechanisms of natural dispersal, following which we consider
human introductions of species to lakes. As much as possible, we follow the
sequence of hypothesis testing outlined above.
Modeling invasions in fresh waters 349
NATURAL DISPERSAL
Passive (e.g. wind) and active (e.g. animal-vectored) transport of propagules has
long been recognized as important to regional dispersal of species (see reviews
Bilton et al. 2001, Havel and Shurin 2004, Green and Figuerola 2005). The
simplest and most predictable form of dispersal occurs via advection of propa-
gules in currents. Zooplankton and planktonic larval stages of benthic species
may be readily dispersed to connected waterbodies, though depending on the
life stage involved, mortality during transport may be high. For example,
Horvath et al. (1996) determined that presence of zebra mussels in upstream
lakes was a strong predictor of mussel presence downstream, although abun-
dance of mussel veliger larvae fell exponentially with distance from the source.
The same pattern also holds on a broader scale: lakes in the midwestern USA
that were connected by streams to invaded lakes were more likely to be invaded
than those connected to non-invaded lakes (Bobeldyk et al. 2005). A similar
pattern was observed in Belarus, where isolated lakes were much less likely to
be invaded by zebra mussels than clustered lakes (Kraft et al. 2002). Although
the generality of these patterns must be tested for species other than zebra
mussels, upstream sources of propagules of NIS place downstream ecosystems
at high risk of invasion. Western and northern European river systems have
become invaded with a succession of NIS from the Black Sea owing to construc-
tion of canals that permit passive transfer in currents or active transport in or
attached to vessels (Bij de Vaate et al. 2002). Likewise, the Volga River has been
colonized by a number of species from the Black Sea, placing the Baltic Sea at
risk; the Caspian Sea, in turn, has been invaded by NIS from the Black and Azov
seas (see Leppäkoski et al. 2002). While some of these transfers were undoubt-
edly made via ships, all of these ecosystems are now linked either directly or
indirectly by canals, thus opening the possibility of passive transfers of NIS.
Reservoirs are often created by damming rivers, one consequence of which may
be greater susceptibility to invasion, in particular for passive dispersing species
that cannot persist in strong unidirectional flow (e.g. zooplankton, aquatic
weeds, planktonic larvae; Havel et al. 2005). These reservoirs may, in turn,
serve as ‘stepping stones’ for secondary spread of NIS to both connected and
disconnected aquatic habitats (Havel et al. 2005). As an example, the quagga
mussel Dreissena rostriformis bugensis Andrusov is spreading up the Volga River
system after having been introduced in or near Kubyshev Reservior, Russia
(Therriault et al. 2005).
Wind and rain also may transport NIS locally or between watersheds, par-
ticularly those species capable of producing diapausing eggs (Bilton et al. 2001).
However, the importance of these mechanisms to overall dispersal patterns
remains unclear. On the one hand, Louette and De Meester (2005) observed
20 different colonizing species, averaging 4.2 cladoceran species per pond after
a 15-month period, in 25 freshly dug and isolated pools in Belgium, and
suggested that dispersal of cladocerans was high. Cohen and Shurin (2003)
also suggested that zooplankton species were vagile over short distances in their
North American study. On the other hand, Jenkins and Underwood (1998)
observed only two bdelloid rotifer species in experimental wind socks and four
rotifer species from samples of rain, and Havel and Shurin (2004) suggested
that zooplankton dispersal might become limiting beyond 20 km.
Local spread of NIS may be affected by strong winds and the availability of
resting stages. For example, extensive foam windrows of the NIS waterflea
Bythotrephes longimanus Leydig have been observed on leeward shores of Lake
Huron after strong winds blew across the lake (D. Garton 1986, personal
observation). Diapausing eggs contained in this foam could be moved to seed
new populations in waters directly proximal to the lake, or, more likely, coat
plumage of dabbling waterfowl that could then introduce the species to other
visited lakes in the region. Introductions by local movements of waterfowl are
likely confined to proximal systems (e.g. Johnson and Carlton 1996, Bilton et al.
2001), while long-distance transport would almost certainly be limited to sea-
sonal migrations (e.g. Proctor 1959, 1964, Swanson 1984). Thus even though
Green and Figuerola (2005) proposed that transfer of invertebrates by waterfowl
may exceed 1,000 km, from a mass-transfer viewpoint, it is far more likely that
flocks of migrating waterfowl would effect transfer of species more readily than
could single individuals. Ectozoochorous or endozoochorous transfers by sea-
sonally migrating waterfowl could effect both regional and long-distance intro-
ductions of NIS in a non-spatially explicit (i.e. not area specific) yet predictable
pattern (Bilton et al. 2001, Figuerola and Green 2002). For example, Figuerola
et al. (2003) identified a broad array of invertebrate eggs in digestive tracts of
waterfowl arriving to and departing from wetlands in Doñana, Spain. If this
information were combined with that on the primary flight paths of the water-
fowl species and the distribution of major stopover sites, general models of
possible range extensions of zooplankton could be constructed.
Charalambidou et al. (2003) suggested that autumnal migrations of water-
fowl were more likely to spread Bythotrephes via endozoochory from north to
south in Europe. However, they also asserted that dispersal probability would
drop sharply beyond 60–80 km, based upon waterfowl flight speed and gut
retention time for diapausing eggs of the waterflea. The application of molecular
markers may allow identification of source–destination relationships (see Bilton
et al. 2001, Figuerola and Green 2002), although in the case of NIS this is often
simplified since there may be very few putative sources from which new
populations could be drawn.
In summary, both wind and directed flights by waterfowl are capable of
dispersing propagules – especially resting stages of invertebrates – of NIS in a
directional manner, although identifying destinations of these propagules can
only be done on a relatively crude, regional basis. Development of models to
predict the strength of these vectors also has not yet been accomplished. Even
though these vectors have likely played important roles in evolutionary changes
to species distributions, their respective roles in effecting dispersal of NIS now
appear swamped by vectors associated with human activities, in part because

the number of propagules potentially transported by an individual waterfowl or
by wind is much lower than the bulk transfers associated with ballast water
discharges or recreational boats trailered between lakes (e.g. Johnson and
Carlton 1996, Hebert and Cristescu 2002). The importance of human vectoring
over natural mechanisms like wind or waterfowl has been highlighted for the
dispersal patterns of non-indigenous macrophytes in New Zealand (Johnstone
et al. 1985). Indeed, our understanding of human-mediated dispersal of NIS has
been enhanced by studies of inter-lake transfers of invasive macrophytes, which
many political jurisdictions recognize as problematic and have taken manage-
ment actions to prevent.
HUMAN-MEDIATED DISPERSAL
Humans are rapidly changing biological communities of lakes through a com-

bination of habitat change, overexploitation, and species introductions. Bio-
diversity of lakes appears particularly vulnerable to introduction of NIS (Sala
et al. 2000, Rahel 2002). Heretics argue that changes to species distributions,
including invasions of new habitats, occur naturally. While this is certainly
true, the scale by which natural dispersal operates is far lower than that
associated with human activities (Hebert and Cristescu 2002, Grigorovich
et al. 2003), and, in some cases, species are being introduced across biogeo-
graphic realms that have, until now, proved resistant to natural dispersal
(see Havel and Shurin 2004). For example, the waterflea Daphnia lumholtzi
Sars was introduced to North America from its native regions of Australasia
and northern Africa (Havel and Medley 2006), whereas the signal crayfish
Pacifastacus leniusculus Dana has been introduced to Europe from North
America (Gherardi and Holdich 1999).
Once NIS establish in one location, they may be spread by both natural and
human-mediated mechanisms elsewhere in the introduced region. For example,
zebra mussels dispersed through the Great Lakes in a pattern consistent with
stratified diffusion involving both advective and human-mediated dispersal
(Griffiths et al. 1991). Buchan and Padilla (1999) developed a diffusion model
for zebra mussels that incorporated long-distance movement of trailered boats
across Wisconsin and the probability that zebra mussels survive transport and
establish in the destination lake. Johnson et al. (2001) developed a probability-
based model to forecast spread of introduced zebra mussels to inland lakes in
Michigan, USA based upon movement of trailered boats between a network of
lakes adjacent to, and presumably initially invaded from, the Great Lakes. This
effort was made more quantitative by surveying boaters and inspecting their
equipment as it was trailered from Lake St. Clair to determine if larval or adult
zebra mussels were being transported. These data were combined with estimates
of survival of mussels outside water to determine the number of dispersal events
from the lake associated with seven different vectors. Application of different
modeling tools may allow investigators to identify lakes that will serve as
invasion hubs – from which other lakes are colonized – as well as vulnerability
of regions or specific lakes to invasion. One of the most promising techniques
that links invaded sources with non-invaded destination lakes is gravity
modeling. Gravity models can be considered a form of ‘propagule pressure’
assessment since they seek to quantitatively link sources and destinations.
VECTOR-BASED GRAVITY MODELS
Transportation or gravity models have been applied to many economic and

social questions, and have been widely applied over the past decade to assess
spatial patterns of aquatic NIS dispersal (Schneider et al. 1998, Bossenbroek et al.
2001, Drake and Bossenbroek 2004, Drake and Lodge 2004, Leung et al. 2004,
2006, MacIsaac et al. 2004, Muirhead and MacIsaac 2005). Gravity models of
species spread estimate the frequency of dispersal events and are coupled with
the explicit nature and spatial arrangement of potential colonization sites in
contrast to diffusion models that assume a homogeneous landscape (e.g.
Buchan and Padilla 1999). Gravity models provide information on the relative
strength of vector movement (i.e. propagule pressure) from an invaded source to
non-invaded (or invaded) destination lakes in a manner analogous to Newton’s
Theory of Gravity for measuring the attractive force between two masses.
Perhaps better than for any other type of ecosystem, gravity models hold the
promise of accurately forecasting the dispersal of NIS amongst lakes.
Depending on the type of information available and objectives of the
study, four classes of gravity models are available: total flow-constrained,
production-constrained, attraction-constrained, and production-attraction or
doubly-constrained (Haynes and Fotheringham 1984). In the total flow-
constrained model, which requires the least knowledge of the system, informa-
tion is available on only the total number of interactions and we are asked to
forecast the interaction pattern among origins and destinations based on their
distances. The model is constrained so that the total of the forecast interactions
between sources and destinations is equal to the known total number of
interactions. In production-constrained models, we have information only on
outflows from each of the origins. The inflows into each destination are fore-
casted based upon the magnitude of outflows from each origin, the pairwise
distances between origins and destinations, and an external measure of attract-
iveness to each destination such as lake area (Bossenbroek et al. 2001). During
the calculation of predicted inflow, the sole constraint is that the predicted
outflow of the balanced model is equal to the measured outflow. Likewise, for
attraction-constrained gravity models, we have information on inflows to each
of the destinations and are asked to forecast outflows from each of the origins
under the constraint that predicted inflows for each destination is equal to
measured inflow. The doubly-constrained gravity model, in which information

about both outflows and inflows is required, provides the best quality of inter-
action information and thus is the most spatially-explicit when forecasting
dispersal to novel regions. In this model, the forecasted interactions between
origins and destinations are constrained in such a manner that the predicted total
outflow for each origin and total inflow for each destination are equal to meas-
ured outflows and inflows. Schneider et al. (1998) and MacIsaac et al. (2004)
used doubly-constrained gravity models to forecast human-mediated spread of
D. polymorpha and B. longimanus, respectively, in the Great Lakes region.
With the four types of gravity models, predictive ability scales with the
amount of effort required to collect the data and the amount of measured
information about flows in the system, especially with respect to forecasting
the interaction flows between sources and destinations. The total-constrained
model requires the least effort and offers the least predictive ability, since we
have information only on the total number of interactions within the system
(e.g. total number of boaters moving in the area). The summed outflows for
each source, summed inflows for each destination, as well as the interaction
flows between sources and destinations are unknown and must be solved.
The gain in predictive ability of the production- or attraction-constrained
model over the total-flow constrained alternative is large relative to the effort
required to collect additional information. For production-constrained models,
information of outbound propagule pressure from invaded sources can easily be
obtained by surveys of the number of boaters leaving a lake, or the number of
owners of boat licenses at regional scales. Bossenbroek et al. (2001) modeled the
propagule pressure of transporting zebra mussels by the number of boats that
could potentially leave a county from five midwestern States and arrive at a
particular lake, with lake area as a measure of attractiveness. Leung et al.
(2004) use a similar production-constrained gravity model approach to model
the risk of transporting zebra mussels via boater traffic from Michigan counties to
lakes in the State, and again used the number of registered boaters per county as a
measure of potential outbound traffic. In their assessment of the utility of using
production-constrained gravity models to capture boater traffic within Michigan,
Leung et al. (2006) used lake area as a proxy for lake attractiveness. The advan-
tage in using these models is that data on the number of boat licenses, which can
be used as a proxy for potential outbound traffic, is often available from govern-
ment databanks. However, these gravity models are limited by the lack of data on
the actual inbound vector traffic, which becomes important when forecasting
relative risk by contrasting invaded vs. currently non-invaded destinations.
In attraction-constrained models, the converse is true. Explicit inbound vector
data is required for each destination, and usually will require more intensive
survey work, either through contacting officials responsible for monitoring
recreational lake use or via mail-based or creel surveys, since the number
of non-invaded or invaded destinations is usually greater than the number of
invaded sources. This form of model is not normally used as a risk assessment
tool for invasions since it only forecasts putative sources for invasion if currently
unknown. One advantage of this form of model is its greater confidence in the
relative risk of a destination being invaded, but at the cost of lack of information
pertaining to the source of the invading propagules. Since survey information
for each destination is usually required, the same amount of effort can be used
to collect data necessary for the construction of a doubly-constrained model.
In the doubly-constrained model, spatially-explicit knowledge of the vector
outflow from invaded sources as well as inflow to currently invaded and
non-invaded destinations requires the greatest commitment in terms of data
collection. Information on specific trips is necessary to gauge the interaction
between sources and destinations, and thus is usually collected in the form of
surveys. This form of gravity model allows the best predictive ability since it
forecasts interactions between sources and destinations based on distance and
external measures of attraction, and is constrained so that summed outflows
from sources and summed inflows to destinations are equal to measured out-
flows and inflows. In other words, the accuracy of the forecast interactions in
the doubly-constrained model is likely closest to actual flow than that predicted
by the other forms of gravity models. Similar to the production-constrained
model, we are able to predict invasions by forecasting inflows to other destin-
ations for each source lake. Likewise, for each destination, we can assess
the relative inflow from each of the sources. Schneider et al. (1998) used a
doubly-constrained gravity model to assess the risk of transporting zebra mus-
sels to inland lakes in Illinois, USA. Based on both creel surveys and contacting
officials responsible for boat-access sites, propagule pressure was estimated by
the number of boats used per year. In their model, an assumption was made
that attractiveness of a particular destination was correlated with boat use.
MacIsaac et al. (2004) modeled the risk of transporting the spiny waterflea
among inland lakes in Ontario using mail and on-site surveys. The doubly-
constrained gravity model allows for the greatest confidence in predicting which
currently non-invaded lakes are at risk of invasion. Both Schneider et al. (1998)
and MacIsaac et al. (2004) developed prioritized lists of lakes likely to be
invaded. Doubly-constrained models may be validated by backcasting the
order in which lakes were invaded based on current relative inbound vector
traffic if one assumes that human activity patterns have not changed over the
time invasions occurred (Fig. 2a). Gravity models may also be validated by
comparing forecasts with observed invasions. MacIsaac et al. (2004) found
that lakes with high inbound traffic were likely to be invaded in subsequent
years (Fig. 2b). In addition to providing watershed managers with an assess-
ment of relative inbound traffic to currently non-invaded destinations, doubly-
constrained models also can be used to provide an assessment of the relative
outbound traffic from invaded sources. This data can be used to identify existing
and future ‘‘hubs’’, thereby allowing management efforts to focus on these lakes
(Fig. 3) (Muirhead and MacIsaac 2005). By contrast, Drake and Lodge’s (2004)
assessment of a global network of ship movements amongst ports suggested that
(a)
Ontario Crotch Black Donald Centennial
Whitefish
Go Home Simcoe Trent System
Joseph
Wood Pigeon Sugar
Huron Muskoka
Bernard Loon Kawagama
Nipissing
Rosseau Mary Kash Kennesis
Peninsula Red Pine
Soyers
Vernon Canning Leonard
Fairy Shebandowan
Lake of Bays Panache
Harp Three Mile
Ahmic
Skeleton
Sturgeon
Erie Manitou
Temagami George
Tyson Nipigon
Superior
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Year Reported Invaded
(b)
250
Non-invaded Lake
200
Gravity Score
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Lake Rank
Fig. 2 a) Sequence of introduction of the spiny waterflea Bythotrephes longimanus to
inland lakes in Ontario from the Great Lakes (Lake Huron). Backcasting sequences are
based upon reported order in which lakes were invaded and surveys of boater/angler
movements from invaded source lakes to non-invaded destination lakes. Arrow thickness
indicates strength of vector from donor lake (left side) to destination lake (right side).
b) Forecast of invasion risk for non-invaded lakes in relation to gravity score (a measure
of introduction effort). Lakes that switched from non-invaded to invaded status are
indicated with an arrow, and had significantly higher vector inflows than lakes that
remained non-invaded. (Modified from MacIsaac et al. 2004)
80
Lake Simcoe
Cumulative Number of Lakes

70
60
55
50
40
36
30
To invaded lakes
20 To non-invaded lakes
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
80
Lake Muskoka
Cumulative Number of Lakes
70
60 To invaded lakes
To non-invaded lakes
50
40 40
30 33
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Number of Surveys
Fig. 3 Cumulative number of lakes visited by boaters that arrived from invaded source
lakes (Simcoe, Muskoka) in Ontario. Dotted line represents visitations to non-invaded
lakes, solid lines visitations to invaded lakes. Asterisks represent the estimated number of
boaters leaving each lake per year. A disproportionate number of boaters leaving Lake
Simcoe arrive to lakes that have not yet been invaded (55 vs. 36), whereas most outflow
from Lake Muskoka is to other lakes that have already been invaded (40 vs. 33). Lake
Simcoe may develop into a future hub for dispersal of the species, whereas Lake Muskoka,
which has already caused many invasions, is less likely to cause future invasions. Results
are based upon surveys of boaters leaving the lakes and were modeled using Monte Carlo
simulations and nonlinear regression. (Modified from Muirhead and MacIsaac 2005)
a reduced invasion rate could be better obtained through small reductions per
ship-invasion risk through ballast control than by knocking out particular
‘‘hub’’ ports. While much remains to be learned about gravity models, these
techniques offer insights into how lakes are connected as networks owing to
human activities and they ought to be applied much more widely to studies of
other aquatic NIS.
Survey methods have also been used to predict spread of other aquatic NIS.
Many of these studies involve bait or food fishes that are imported and sold live,
following which the purchasers release some or all of their stock. As with their
gravity model counterparts, either coarse or fine-scale spatial predictions may
be made regarding vulnerability of lakes to NIS introduction depending on the
nature of the survey questions. As an example, surveys by Litvak and Mandrak
(1993) at bait-fish shops in Toronto, Ontario illustrated that 41% of anglers
who purchased bait fishes released unused specimens at destinations up to
hundreds of kilometers from their source. The same methodologies may be
used to track introduction and potential spread of species in water garden and
aquarium trades.
Modeling environmental suitability
Ecologists have used a number of other techniques to model habitat suitability

of aquatic NIS. One approach is to empirically determine limnological differ-
ences between lakes with and without a particular species. For example, Ram-
charan et al. (1992) assessed differences in 278 European lakes with and
without D. polymorpha using discriminant-function analysis (DFA). Their
analysis revealed that lakes with Dreissena could be separated from those
without the species using only two variables: pH and calcium content of lake
water. This analysis was extended to demonstrate that lakes with high mussel
densities differed from those with low densities based upon nutrient levels
(NO3 , PO4 ). MacIsaac et al. (2000) also used DFA to identify lakes in Europe
with and without the waterflea Bythotrephes. In this case, lakes with the species
tended to be larger, deeper, and have higher Secchi transparency than those
without the species. Functions generated in both Ramcharan et al.’s (1992) and
MacIsaac et al.’s (2000) models were then used to predict where these respective
species would potentially occur in North America.
Allen and Ramcharan (2001) used logistic regression to differentiate river
systems in the USA with and without Dreissena. They found that permanent
populations tended to occur in systems with moderate ionic strength and some
degree of impoundment. Again, based upon this classification, the authors were
able to extend their analyses to predict whether Dreissena would occur in other,
untested river systems.
In a very thorough study, Marchetti et al. (2004) used multivariate models to
explore determinants of invasion success for all stages of fish invasions – from
introduction to integration – in California catchments. They determined that
propagule pressure and prior invasion history were significant predictors of fish-
establishment success, as were biological features such as parental care and
physiological tolerance. During secondary dispersal after establishment, dis-
tance from nearest native source and trophic status were important predictors.
Maximum size, physiological tolerance, and distance from nearest native source
were the best predictors of abundance for established populations. This study
clearly highlighted the importance of different factors to success of fish species at
different stages of an invasion. In an earlier assessment of assembly rules for
aquatic invasions, Moyle and Light (1996) observed that most invasions failed
but that all systems are invasible. Among their findings, they noted that
piscivores and detritivores/omnivores were most successful in relatively undis-
turbed systems, and that any species could invade so long as they possessed
appropriate environmental tolerances.
Kolar and Lodge (2002) also used multivariate analyses to identify different
factors important to different stages of fish introductions to the Great Lakes.
Because data were available on failed as well as successful fish introductions,
the authors were able to specifically distinguish between characteristics associ-
ated with each. Kolar and Lodge (2002) used DFA to determine that successful
invaders at the establishment stage grew relatively fast, tolerated greater vari-
ation in temperature and salinity, and had more extensive histories of invasive-
ness than species that failed at this stage. Similar results were obtained when
the authors used another methodology, categorical and regression tree analysis
(CART). At the spread stage, DFA demonstrated successful species had slower
relative growth rates and poor survival in high water temperatures, although
they did exhibit a broader temperature range than slow-spreading species. At a
final stage of analysis, the authors noted that ‘nuisance’ species had smaller
eggs, wider salinity tolerance, and survive low water temperatures better than
nonproblematic fishes.
At this stage we would like to highlight the importance of distinguishing
between lakes that are unsuitable for an NIS (e.g. those that have experienced
failed invasions) and lakes that possess suitable environmental conditions but
which lack sufficient propagule pressure (i.e. they could be viewed as ‘not yet
colonized’). Both types of lakes have the same characteristic – lack of an
established NIS population – yet they differ fundamentally with regard to
invasibility. Studies on the invasion in Bellarussian lakes found that even after
200 years, some lakes with suitable environmental conditions are still not
invaded by zebra mussels due to limited propagule pressure (Karatayev et al.
2003). Similarly, Johnson et al. (2006) found that only 10% of lakes with
suitable environmental conditions had been invaded by zebra mussels after 15
years in areas of North America that already support the species. Hence, the
distinction between unsuitable lakes and suitable but not-yet-invaded lakes is
crucial while studying the invasion process.
Ecological niche modeling
Ecological niche modeling is a methodology that seeks to predict the potential

range of NIS based upon matching of environmental characteristics in the
native range with those in the introduced range (see Peterson 2003). A wide
variety of approaches are available (Elith et al. 2006), including two – CLIMEX
and Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction (GARP) – that have been utilized
to predict ranges of NIS. CLIMEX seeks to identify the potential distribution and
relative abundance of species in relation to climate models, while GARP uses
georeferenced environmental and biological information to predict suitable

habitat in a species’ introduced range. GARP is an iterative machine-learning
tool that employs an array of methods including logistic regression, range rules,
negated range rules, and atomic rules to identify heterogeneous rule-sets
describing a species’ environmental niche. Models are constructed using species
presence in the native range together with geo-referenced environmental data.
GARP models may also be developed using species presence and environmental
data from one introduced range to determine where the species could spread in
the future. As an example, GARP was used to predict range expansion and
boundary limitations for zebra mussels dispersing into the western USA, based
upon its distribution patterns in the eastern USA (Drake and Bossenbroek
2004). Resultant models identified environmental, geological, and biological
correlates of its occurrence in the east, and forecasts of vulnerable areas in the
west. Some areas, including the Columbia and Colorado rivers, were identified
as highly vulnerable to establishment, should mussels be introduced, thereby
providing managers with spatially-explicit insights into where exclusion pro-
grams would be most useful. Similarly, Herborg et al. (2007a) developed sepa-
rate GARP models for Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis H. Milne Edwards)
in native East Asia and in its introduced range in Europe to develop forecasts
of where the species could be expected to establish in North America. GARP
may be most useful if combined with measures of introduction effort, which
collectively provide managers with information on where species are being
introduced as well as the suitability of these habitats.
Below we develop a simple combined model that incorporates a GARP model
to identify where Chinese snakehead (Channa asiatica Linnaeus) fishes could
survive in North America.
An Example of the Chinese snakehead in North America
The Chinese snakehead (C. asiatica) is a freshwater fish native to central and
southern China (188–358 N). Its ecology is poorly described, but it is reported to
be predaceous and capable of short-distance overland migration. Various spe-
cies of the genus Channa are available on Asian food markets in the USA
and Canada, despite bans from import and interstate transport between all
American States. Snakeheads are also sold as aquarium fish, but due to their
rapid growth and high cost they are not widely used. Despite C. asiatica’s
availability to aquarists in the USA since the early 1900s and occasional reports
of the fish in Florida in the 1960s, no established populations have been
reported, although other members of this genus have successfully established
in the USA (Courtenay and Williams 2004).
We developed a GARP model for C. asiatica based on its native distribution
(Courtenay and Williams 2004). Polygons representing the native range of
the species were converted into 200 occurrence points in a GIS (ArcMap 9.1).
The development of ecological niche predictions was consistent with previous
applications of GARP (see Herborg et al. 2007a). A GARP simulation using all
possible combinations of the environmental coverage, allowed determining the
effect of each environmental variable on model accuracy using multiple regres-
sion analysis. The global climatic and geographic coverages tested included:
frost frequency, slope, compound topographic index, precipitation, river dis-
charge, minimum annual air temperature, mean annual air temperature, maxi-
mum annual air temperature, and wet day index. Once suitable environmental
coverages were determined, 100 models were generated following the best
subset method (see for details Anderson et al. 2003) and converted into a map
of percentage environmental match using ArcMap 9.1. Finally, hierarchical
partitioning analysis was applied to test the effect of environmental coverages
on predictive accuracy of the final models (Peterson and Cohoon 1999). Once
the model was developed and tested, we applied it to identify suitable environ-
ments for C. asiatica in North America. We refined the analysis by identifying
States that are most at risk from C. asiatica establishment by using a very
crude measure of propagule pressure: the number of individuals of the genus
Channidae (e.g. snakeheads) reported in the wild by the United States Geological
Survey (http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/default.asp) (Table 1). We used reports
from all species of snakeheads as the same two vectors – aquarium trade and/or
Table 1 Summary of all reports of occurrences of the Asian snakehead genus Channa
in the contiguous USA, as reported by the United States Geological Survey online
database (http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/default.asp). Multiple reports from established
populations are not included in the number of isolated reports, as they are most likely
caused by reproduction rather than human introduction. Occurrence reports are used as
a crude measure of potential propagule pressure in a State.
Number of Number of established

US State isolated reports populations
California 2
Florida 4 1
Illinois 1
Massachusetts 3
Maryland 2 1þ1#
Maine 1
North Carolina 1
New York 1
Pennsylvania 2 1
Rhode Island 2
Tennessee 1
Virginia 0 1
Wisconsin 1
# Population has been successfully eradicated in 2002

live fish markets – are responsible for introducing individuals of all congeneric
species including C. asiatica. We recognize that additional sites may have had
snakehead releases which either have failed or, if successful, have not been
reported.
Hierarchical partitioning of the GARP model revealed that the most impor-
tant contributors to model accuracy were mean air temperature, ground frost
frequency, and precipitation (Table 2). It should be noted that these are not
necessarily determinants of distribution, but rather are correlated with predict-
ive accuracy of the model. The GARP model predicted the highest habitat match
levels along the west coast of North America (Fig. 4). Specifically, it identified a
narrow strip (50–150 km) running from San Francisco Bay to southern Alaska
as environmentally suitable. Large areas in the south-eastern USA also were
predicted as environmentally suitable in 20 to 30 out of 100 models run (Fig. 4).
The level of environmental suitability provides an estimate of the likelihood of
survival of the species, as it is based on the number of models out of 100 that
predicted a particular area suitable. Nevertheless, there is no defined cutoff point
for the level of environmental match below the species cannot survive. For all of
these areas deemed suitable, establishment of the species could only occur if an
introductory pathway exists. One albeit crude measurement of introduction
effort is the number of snakehead introductions reported for each US State
(Fig. 5). By combining these data with areas of suitable habitat, locations
vulnerable to snakehead establishment can be identified. The combination of
propagule supply and potentially suitable habitat places Florida at a high risk of
establishment. North Carolina, and to a lesser extent, northern California also
have suitable habitat and reports of snakehead occurrences, although they are
fewer than in Florida (Table 1). Occurrence data are not available for British
Columbia, although the species is sold there and habitat matching suggests that
it can survive in that region.
Table 2 Hierarchical partitioning of environmental variables that contributed

significantly to predictive models of Channa asiatica distribution in North America. The
importance of each environmental variable is given as a relative percentage contribution
to model accuracy.
Contribution to
Factor Model Accuracy (%)
Ground-frost frequency (number of days) 19

Topographic index (wetness index based on flow
accumulation and slope) 1
Precipitation (mm day1 ) 17
River Discharge (km3 yr1 ) 2
Mean temperature (8C) 53
Wet day index (number of days of precipitation) 8
Fig. 4 Predicted occurrence of the Chinese snakehead Channa asiatica in North

America based on Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction, an ecological-niche model-
ing technique, developed using environmental data for its native range in Asia. Areas of
greatest habitat suitability include regions of Central America, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and
Hispanola.
Fig. 5 States in which individual snakeheads (gray stippling) or established populations

(dark stippling) were reported, based on the invasive species database of the United States
Geological Survey. It is not known whether reports of individual fish-finds reflect established
populations.
One of the benefits of environmental niche models is that risk models can be
formulated even for those species, like Chinese snakeheads, for which little
ecological information exists. While gravity models can provide detailed predic-
tions on vector transport, they do not address the principal question of whether
the NIS could survive in the introduced environment. The combination of
ecological-niche modeling and basic vector-traffic predictions presented here
has the ability to answer and identify locations where a species can survive
and a transport vector exists. Clearly a vector-traffic model of higher predictive
power (e.g. gravity model) would provide more detailed results, but is outside
the scope of this study. However, our prediction identified the highest invasion
risk for Florida, followed by North Carolina and California, information that
could help policy makers to focus management efforts. One limitation of GARP
is that validation tests are rarely conducted for introduced ranges, but two
recent studies (Iguchie et al. 2004, Herborg et al. 2007b) found high predictive
accuracy for GARP models in identifying introduced ranges based upon native
distribution data. Another issue for prediction of suitable environments of
aquatic species is the lack of hydrological datasets (i.e. water temperature,
water chemistry, flow speed, etc.) with a wider coverage. The basic output of
the GARP also provides no information on the operational procedures by which
models are constructed and weightings of environmental criteria are ‘black-box’
and beyond simple assessment by the investigator. Nevertheless, through
additional analysis described in this study (see Herborg et al. 2007a for more
detail) as well as other recently published methods (Elith et al. 2005), relevant
environmental parameters and their suitable ranges can be identified, thereby
facilitating a deeper understanding of the model.
CONCLUSIONS
Collectively, these studies demonstrate that a broad array of modeling and

statistical techniques can be brought to bear on the question of what determines
invasion success. It is clear that answers can be far more complex than earlier
models of invasion success, as different environmental factors or biological
characteristics may be important at different stages of invasion. At the first
stage of the invasion sequence, models of natural and human-mediated dis-
persal have been shown to forecast vulnerability of lakes to invasion. Environ-
mental niche modeling can predict if a potential invaders can pass through the
second stage of the invasion process (i.e. physiological filters). Predicting the
ability of potential invader to survive the third and final stage – the biological
filter – is more complex, and is only possible if biological interactions between
the invader and native species are understood, which is typically not the case.
Future models that incorporate all three stages of the invasion process will
produce spatially-explicit predictions of where an NIS can establish. Lake
systems are ideal models for developing and testing invasion theory because
they are clearly defined habitats, because natural and human-mediated disper-
sal can often be quantified, and because they vary in physical–chemical consti-
tution and biological composition. Hence, results of NIS studies conducted on
lake ecosystems can be applied to a wider array of habitats in future to predict
determinants of invasion success.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful for research funding from NSERC’s (Canada) Collaborative

Research Opportunities and Discovery grants programs, NSF (USA) to David
Lodge, an Invasive Species Research Chair to HJM from the Department of
Fisheries and Oceans, and an Ontario Graduate Scholarship to JRM. We
would like to acknowledge the assistance of Nick Mandrak and Becky Cudmore
(DFO Canada) in obtaining the C. asiatica distribution data. We are grateful to
Dr Francesca Gherardi for hosting an excellent workshop in Florence and for
the opportunity to participate in this forum.
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Chapter nineteen
Biomonotony: definition
and assessment for
macroinvertebrates in
European running waters
Jean-Nicolas Beisel and Simon Devin
INTRODUCTION
Emerging evidence shows that most species are declining as a result of human
activity and are being replaced by a much smaller number of expanding
species that are successful in human-altered environments (McKinney and
Lockwood 1999). The process by which the genetic, taxonomic, or functional
similarities of regional biota increase over time is called biotic homogenization
(Olden and Rooney 2006). Some researchers view homogenization as a form
of community globalization (Lockwood and McKinney 2001, Mooney and
Cleland 2001) that causes the ‘‘McDonaldization’’ of the biosphere (Ritzer
1996, Lövei 1997) or the setting of global ‘‘McEcosystems’’ (Enserink 1999).
Many studies report on this phenomenon across and within continents, such
as the homogenization of the fish fauna across the North America (Rahel
2000, Taylor 2004, Olden et al. 2006), and biotic homogenization is now
recognized as an important component of the modern biodiversity crisis (Olden
et al. 2006).
Aquatic ecosystems are not spared this rampant homogenization of the
earth’s ecosystems, but on the contrary they have some sensitive features that
lead to heightened vulnerability (Beisel 2001, Rahel 2002). Several recent
369
ß 2007 Springer.
370 Jean-Nicolas Beisel and Simon Devin
reviews based on temporal analyses report range expansions with rapid spread-
ing of aquatic invaders, such as the zebra mussel [Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas)]
or the Asiatic clam [Corbicula fluminea (Muller)] in Europe and in North America
(Morton 1997). More worrisome is the introduction rate of non-indigenous
species (NIS) which is increasing exponentially across wide ecosystems such
as San Francisco Bay (Cohen and Carlton 1998), the North American Great
Lakes (Ricciardi and MacIsaac 2000), and the Baltic Sea (Olenin and Leppäkoski
1999).
At the same time, several studies report massive species extinction and
profound modifications in freshwater communities (Hughes and Noss 1992,
Rahel 2002). When calculating the extinction rate of North American fresh-
water fauna, Ricciardi and Rasmussen (1999) found a value five times higher
than for terrestrial fauna and predicted an extinction rate of 4% per decade,
i.e. a depletion of species as high as the alarming rate in tropical forests.
Den Hartog et al. (1992) have pinpointed the extensive modification of macro-
invertebrate communities on the Lower Rhine throughout the 20th century,
with the disappearance of 85% of the pollution-sensitive insect species
(Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera), as well as seven of the 14 Lamelli-
branchia mollusc species originally present. On a global scale, freshwater
bivalves are declining (Bogan 1993) and in North America, where this phe-
nomenon has been documented best, more than 70% of the 343 bivalve
species occurring are threatened (Neves et al. 1997). In Europe, as in the
USA, researchers have proclaimed the alarming status of freshwater fish
species, the most diverse of all vertebrate groups, which have been threatened
or pushed to the local extinction during the last century (Miller et al. 1989;
Williams and Miller 1990, Den Hartog et al. 1992, Rahel 2002, Myers and
Worm 2003) and have suffered an overall decline globally (Duncan and
Lockwood 2001). In turn, the disappearance of autochthonous species, the
poverty of the fauna remaining, and their inability to adapt to new local
conditions (Sax and Brown 2000) have favoured the permeability of human-
altered freshwater ecosystems to repeated introductions of NIS (decrease in
biotic resistance as defined by Elton 1958).
Local extinctions and the spread of NIS are leading to taxonomic changes
which need to be described precisely and quantified so that objective compar-
isons of faunal modifications over time and space can be made. To this end, we
propose to define a ‘‘biomonotony concept’’, which allows for an objective
assessment of the global modifications in freshwater macroinvertebrate com-
munities and establishes a framework which can be used to predict the conse-
quences an introduced species will have on biodiversity. A practical example,
based on the rapid changes over the last few decades in the communities
inhabiting a European river, illustrates the relevance of this framework at a
local scale for applicative purposes.
Biomonotony in macroinvertebrates of running waters 371
DEFINITION OF THE ‘‘BIOMONOTONY’’ CONCEPT
We define biomonotony as a two-dimensional attribute of a modified commu-

nity, including: (i) the importance of the taxonomic change within the ecosys-
tem due to the loss of indigenous species and the gain of NIS; and (ii) the
modification of functional diversity (Fig. 1).
Faunal change consists of biotic homogenization that often replaces unique
endemic species with already widespread NIS. Species extinction often affects
endemic species and is taxonomically non-random at the local and global scale,
with some families reported as containing substantially higher percentages of
threatened or declining species than others (McKinney and Lockwood 1999).
The clumping of species extinction within particular systematic families accel-
erates biodiversity loss, meaning that these taxonomic groups will be lost much
faster than if extinction had occurred at random (McKinney 1997). Further-
more, the sequence of species loss in communities under pressure from human
activity is not random, but it depends on organismic traits which induce,
for example, a skewing trophic structure (Duffy 2003). In aquatic ecosys-
tems, several insect families are the most threatened groups (belonging, for
example, to Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera or Trichoptera orders, such as Chloro-
perlidae, Leptophlebiidae, and Brachycentridae, respectively) because their
traits (K-selected traits, rare, specialist, poorly-adapted to human activity) do
not promote survival in changing ecosystems.
Conversely, introduced species are currently a much smaller fraction of the
earth’s total biota, with 1–2% of known invasive species and 5–29% of species
expanding their ranges locally (McKinney and Lockwood 1999). These reports
support in part Williamson’s (1996) ‘‘tens rule’’, stating that an average of one
in ten successfully introduced species will become invasive. A large heterogeneity
Functional
diversity
Biomonotony
Biotic
homogenization
- + Non-indigenous species
Indigenous species + -
Fig. 1 Hypothetical diagram showing the two biomonotony components: functional

diversity and biotic homogenization. The arrow denotes the most extreme (important)
biomonotony gradient that can be obtained.
of results was found for the two first steps in the invasion process during which,
according to Williamson (1996), one in ten imported species appears settled, and
one in ten of settled species becomes established. Nevertheless, these few figures
illustrate the replacement importance, whereby a great portion of the fauna is
being replaced by a small fraction of the existing species. Long-distance transport
via human activity allows these species to spread to isolated or distant areas that
they would never have reached by their own means of dispersal (Carlton 2003).
In fact, several introduced species have expanded their ranges worldwide and can
now be considered cosmopolitan species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito [Aedes
albopictus (Skuse)] (Eritja et al. 2005).
The second aspect of biomonotony concerns modifications in functional
diversity. Changes in species diversity have functional consequences because
the composition and structure of species in place determine the bioecological
traits which in turn influence ecosystem processes (Chapin et al. 2000). Species
traits may mediate energy or material flux, directly or indirectly, by altering the
abiotic conditions which regulate process rates. Successful NIS often possess a
homogeneous combination of bio/ecological traits (such as r-selected traits,
rapid dispersal, eurytopy, and human commensalism) which promotes range
extension. Such clustering of invasion-prone traits is apparently a very common
result of the non-random way in which closely-related species share common
traits. As a result, the biosphere could be increasingly dominated not only by the
same few species in terms of systematic units, but also by the same closely-
related species (McKinney and Lockwood 1999). Globally, in freshwater eco-
systems, the introduction of non-indigenous crustaceans, flatworms, and
molluscs has met with more success than for other taxa (Morton 1997, Van
der Velde et al. 2000, Grigorovitch et al. 2002, Devin et al. 2005). Such
taxonomic clumping of invaders can occur because closely-related species
tend to share traits that promote transport, establishment, or massive develop-
ment in a recipient ecosystem, the three major steps of an invasion process
(Vermeij 1996, Kolar and Lodge 2001). This over-representation can have
drastic effects on ecosystem functioning by replacing many, specific, complex
functional systems with a few, similar, simpler ones. The degree and signi-
ficance of such alterations depend on the biotic context, as explained by Vaughn
and Hakenkamp (2001) for freshwater bivalves.
From a theoretical point of view, if species (local and non-indigenous) perform
similar ecological process at similar rates, they are ‘functionally redundant’ (see
Rosenfeld 2002). Thus, extinction of a particular species may make little differ-
ence within an ecosystem context, as long as the overall taxon biomass of
functionally-redundant species is maintained. Conversely, if a species plays a
distinct role (such as a keystone species), the replacement or extinction of that
particular species may alter or modify the ecosystem’s functioning permanently.
For example, a modification of food webs caused by the predatory impact
of a single introduced Ponto–Caspian gammarid [Dikerogammarus villosus
(Sowinski)] may disrupt the dynamics of indigenous species (Dick and Platvoet
2000, Dick et al. 2002, Bollache et al. 2004) and affect diversity at other trophic
levels. Dyer and Letourneau (2003) report that changes in diversity at one
trophic level can provoke changes in diversity at other levels, and trophic
cascades in aquatic ecosystems are clearly stronger than in terrestrial ones
(Shurin et al. 2002). In such a case, the introduction, with or without extinction
of local fauna, may affect the ecosystem’s functioning. Furthermore, on a larger
scale and independent of ecosystem functioning which is trophically mediated, a
functional consequence of taxonomic changes is that non-indigenous introduc-
tions can lead to interactions between species that have never met before (non-
additive effects). In particular, the introduction of non-endemic pathogens to
indigenous populations may have unpredictable consequences. An example is
the unintentional introduction and consequent spread in Europe of the crayfish
plague [a virulent oomycetal disease, Aphanomyces astaci Schikora, which infested
the very susceptible, indigenous crayfish Astacus astacus (Linnaeus), Van der
Velde et al. 2000] following the intentional introduction of North American
crayfish [Orconectes limosus (Rafinesque), Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana), Pro-
cambarus clarkii (Girard)] (Chapters 2 and 28). The interdependence between
taxonomic change and functional modification is fundamental to our decision
to link these two community characteristics in the biomonotony assessment.
THE PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT OF BIOMONOTONY

FOR RUNNING-WATERS
Based on the taxonomic changes and on functional diversity, the quantification

of biomonotony requires a precise, practical, quantitative method to assess both
characteristics. For this study, we focused on biological characteristics at the
level of the species’ systematic unit, the level best documented as a global
diversity descriptor (ranging from genetic diversity within populations to the
diversity of ecosystems).
Functional diversity needs to be described objectively. To provide important
insights into the functioning of running-water communities, many authors
advocate working with groups of organisms that are as similar as possible in
terms of biological, physiological, and ecological trait relationships. Following
Rosenfeld (2002), we considered the functional effects of a taxon as output
variables, or consequences of an organism’s traits and resource use. Recently,
Usseglio-Polatera et al. (2001) developed a functional classification for benthic
macroinvertebrates based on both biological and ecological traits. The definition
of six groups, nine subgroups, and 43 units according to a biological versus
ecological ordination allowed for an innovative assessment of the functional
rule of 472 European macroinvertebrate genera. Usseglio-Polatera et al. (2001)
provided examples illustrating the use of these discrete groups as a valuable tool
to track environmental changes over time and space. From a theoretical point of
view, species (or genera) belonging to a given group can be considered as
‘functionally redundant’ for the major processes occurring in that particular

ecosystem, if three different factors have been taken into account (Rosenfeld
2002): (i) ecological processes related to morphological and physiological attri-
butes; (ii) demographic characteristics; and (iii) environmental factors influen-
cing where an organism can perform its function. The replacement of a given
species belonging to a particular functional group can be counter-balanced,
functionally speaking, by the introduction of a NIS belonging to that same
group. If each species in a given community is replaced by its functional
group, the assessment of community diversity, based on these groups, provides
a functional measure of the community. Regardless, this approach does not take
into account all the subtleties of ecosystem functioning (e.g. inter-species rela-
tionships resulting from co-evolved adaptations such as host–parasite relation-
ships), but it allows for an initial, quantitative assessment of functional diversity
in a macroinvertebrate community, and provides baselines to improve this tool.
As pointed out by Rosenfeld (2002), even similar species, by definition, will
differ to some unknown degree along some functions, but it is still reasonable to
expect that some species are more similar than others in terms of their roles in
communities and ecosystems.
The second component of biomonotony is more difficult to evaluate, because
it requires comparisons of faunal samples with faunal reference lists. For many
freshwater ecosystems, it is unrealistic to define a faunal reference list as
representing the community as it was several hundred years ago, prior to the
human disturbance. However, a relative reference point corresponding to
the best-known situation can be obtained in several ways (Nijboer et al.
2004), two of them deserving particular attention. The first consists in simply
using historical data collected from situations (sites) with the minimum of
anthropogenic stress. The second is to model the community as it would be
expected to exist in the absence of anthropogenic stress, but this requires a data
set to construct, calibrate, and validate the model. An example of this approach
is the RIVPACS (River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification Systems) devel-
oped in the UK for the assessment of aquatic communities (Wright et al. 1984,
Wright 1995). In the absence of a modelling approach for many other European
eco-regions, we recommend the use of historical data when available. In all
cases, either of these approaches will provide a faunal list that can be used
to detect the homogenization of taxa considering: (1) the extinction of geo-
graphically restricted indigenous species (for reasons such as habitat changes);
and (2) the introduction of widespread, highly tolerant species. In most cases,
the actual biomonotony will be greater than that observed, the number of
non-indigenous introductions and local extinctions in a given region always
being underestimated because an absolute faunal reference is unavailable. We
proposed, as an initial approach, to evaluate the faunal change using data on
the proportion of NIS. The use of a relative measure (number of NIS reported
on the total number of species) has the advantage of taking into account both
the importance of the introduction of NIS and the extinction of local fauna.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF BIOMONOTONY ASSESSMENT
To illustrate this approach, a faunal analysis of three time periods was per-
formed on the navigable French section of the Moselle River (north-eastern
France, Rhine tributary). Three locations were chosen: upstream (near the town
of Liverdun), midstream (near the city of Metz), and downstream (between
Cattenom and Sierck-les-Bains). For each location (called Upper, Middle, and
Lower parts), semi-quantitative data on macroinvertebrate assemblages were
collected from different literature sources (grey literature of our institute for
1975; reports from the International Commission for the Protection of the
Moselle River; and the authors’ unpublished, personal data for 1996 and
2000). Diptera Chironomidae were not considered in this analysis due to the
lack of precision in their systematic determination but, ideally, when enough
data is available, they should be taken into account in the analyses.
For this example, each species in a community was replaced by their
functional group, and functional diversity was then measured as the Shannon-
Weaver diversity of functional groups (Usseglio-Polatera et al. 2001). Taxon-
omic change over time was assessed using the proportion of NIS in faunal lists.
All taxa considered as non-indigenous (review in Devin et al. 2005) were
described in various literature sources as having been introduced in the Moselle
River during the 20th century, with the exception of the zebra mussel,
D. polymorpha, a well-known invasive species introduced into the Moselle
River in about 1850 (Kinzelbach 1992).
In 1975, the invertebrate communities were the most diversified in terms of
functional groups and, logically, least altered by NIS (Fig. 2). Thus, this period
can be used as a relative reference, even though the situation was already far
from ideal, in other words without anthropogenic disturbance. The whole
macroinvertebrate structure prior to 1975 has remained largely ignored,
though fragmentary information is available. In 1996, we observed a clear
loss of functional diversity and a significant increase in invasive species,
representing between 19% and 21% of the collected taxa. The biomonotony
increased from upstream to downstream, the Lower part having changed the
most, certainly due to a migratory corridor of NIS from the Middle Rhine to its
tributary. We can note that the repartition of stations on the scatter plot did
not overlap between the three periods. In 2000, the entire section studied is
homogeneous in terms of biomonotony, all sections being altered to the same
degree. The proportions of NIS in 2000 were above the values noted for 1996,
and the functional diversity for the river was slightly below the value of
the Upper part for 1996. Functional diversity increased between 1996 and
2000 for the Middle and Lower sections. After the demographic explosion of
several new NIS introduced in the beginning of the 1990s (Bachmann et al.
1995), densities tend to equilibrate, with, for example, the observed decline
of D. polymorpha (Bachmann et al. 2001), previously over-represented in
this ecosystem. This evenness incorporated the relative abundances of taxa,
(diversity of bio/ecological groups)

2.8
2.6
Functional diversity
2.4
1975
2.2
2000 Upper
2
1.8 Middle
1.6
Lower
1.4
1996
1.2
1
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Biotic homogenization
(proportion of non-indigenous taxa)
Fig. 2 An example of the practical application of the biomonotony framework:

temporal modification of macrobenthic communities between 1975 and 2000 for a
navigable sector of a large river subdivided into three sections (Moselle River, France).
and quantified the best representation of different bio/ecological trait com-

binations, i.e. the highest functional diversity. In other cases, the additions of
NIS belonging to original functional groups could increase the functional
diversity, especially when they do not lead to the extinction of indigenous
species.
This example objectively shows how river integrity can be profoundly modi-
fied over a very short period of time. The biomonotony framework can serve as a
tool to evaluate these changes and can illustrate the potential effects of rehabil-
itation measures taken to improve river quality.
CONCLUSIONS
The biomonotony concept is defined as a loss of diversity due to species replace-

ment, species extinction, and the establishment of NIS more-or-less functionally
redundant with the indigenous ones. Thus, particular biological or ecological
functions could disappear, or be overexpressed, in a biomonotonous ecosystem.
This concept provides a framework to objectively assess the degree of ecosystem
modification and focuses on functional diversity which is generally not
approached fully. These tools will provide an efficient method for the quanti-
tative assessment and study of the ecological consequences of freshwater
macroinvertebrate introductions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Philippe Usseglio-Polatera for his comments on the
manuscript and Anna Matheny-Cartier for her revisions. This study is supported
by the French Minister of Ecology and Sustainable Development, as part of the
2003–2006 INVABIO – Biological Invasions Program. Financial support from
the ‘‘Zone Atelier Moselle’’ by the ‘‘Region Lorraine’’ is gratefully acknowledged.
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Chapter twenty
Genetics and invasion

biology in fresh waters:
a pilot study of Procambarus
clarkii in Europe
Silvia Barbaresi, Francesca Gherardi, Alessio Mengoni,

and Catherine Souty-Grosset
INTRODUCTION
Since Charles Elton, ecologists have struggled to account for the distribution and
spread of non-indigenous species (NIS). They now realize that the key factor is
‘‘opportunity’’. The more frequently and persistently a foreign plant or animal is
exposed to a new environment, the better its odds of invading. Ecologists call this
‘‘propagule pressure’’ (also termed introduction effort), a composite measure
expressing the number of individuals released into a region to which they are
non-native. It incorporates estimates of the absolute number of individuals
involved in any one release event (propagule size) and the number of discrete
release events (propagule number) (Lockwood et al. 2005). Propagule pressure
has rarely been documented for freshwater organisms except in fish. Duggan
et al. (2006), for example, using data on aquaria in stores and historical records
of fish introduced into Canadian and US waters, showed a clear relationship
between their occurrence in shops and the likelihood of their introduction and
eventual establishment.
381
ß 2007 Springer.
382 Silvia Barbaresi et al.
The existence of two opposing pathways in Europe has been suggested:

virtually all large aquatic ecosystems now support NIS that were unintention-
ally (e.g. euryhaline invertebrate species) or deliberately (e.g. freshwater fish)
introduced by humans (MacIsaac et al. 2002). On one hand, geographically
remote areas, such as the Black and Caspian seas and the North American
Great Lakes (e.g. Ricciardi and MacIsaac 2000, MacIsaac et al. 2001), have
been found to be biologically linked due to the active dispersal of organisms
along artificial canals and their long-distance transfer in ballast water of com-
mercial ships (Cristescu et al. 2001, Bij de Vaate et al. 2002). On the other hand,
human commercial activities, specifically aquaculture, legal or illegal stocking,
live food trade, aquarium, and pond trade (Lodge et al. 2000), have led to the
deliberate introduction of, e.g. several crayfish species from North America to
Europe (Gherardi and Holdich 1999).
EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF INVASIVE SPECIES
The genetics and evolution of NIS have received far less attention than their
ecology but undoubtedly such studies could offer further insights into invasion
dynamics (Lee 2002), since genetic and evolutionary processes may be the key
features in determining whether invasive species establish and spread (Sakai
et al. 2001). Of great theoretical and practical importance is the ability to
identify the location of origin of NIS and their route of invasion (Wilson et al.
1999, Kreiser et al. 2000, Cox 2004). Theoretical models of genetic organiza-
tion and population structure following a founding effect can be described by
two different scenarios. The first model predicts subpopulations to show strong
genetic structuring and clinal variations, while the second involves extinction
and recolonization that enhance gene flow and reduce inter-population differ-
entiation (Alvarez-Buylla and Garay 1994). Migration may be critical, not only
as a source of continuing propagule pressure, but also as an important source of
genetic variation to the colonizing population if multiple invasions provide
the genetic variation necessary for adaptive evolution. Multiple introductions
can create invasive populations that are much more genetically diverse than
any single source population when the invasive species is highly structured in
its native range. Different colonizing populations of the same species are likely to
be genetically divergent with different levels of genetic variation and therefore
have different capacities to promote invasiveness; characteristics that promote
invasiveness might evolve in some populations but not in others. Gene flow
between populations could result in the spread of invasive genotypes. Alterna-
tively, gene flow between populations that swamps out locally beneficial alleles
could prevent evolution of invasiveness (Kirkpatrick and Barton 1997 in Sakai
et al. 2001). From this knowledge, we can obtain useful information about the
vectors and the number of introductions and, as a consequence, we may
attempt to halt or to slow down the invasion process. We can also find effective
Genetics of freshwater invaders 383
biological control agents of harmful NIS and understand to which degree

the ‘‘enemy release’’ hypothesis (e.g. Keane and Crawley 2002) can explain
invasions (Kreiser et al. 2000, Patti and Gambi 2001, Allendorf and Lundquist
2003).
Molecular genetic techniques today offer a very powerful set of tools for
characterizing populations of NIS and for relating them to the populations of
their native and colonized geographical areas (Cox 2004). These molecular
markers can provide an indication of the amount of genetic variation lost
during a colonization bottleneck and furnish evidence for multiple population
sources. They have been successfully used to pinpoint the source areas and
the routes of dispersal followed by a number of freshwater non-indigenous
crustaceans, including Cercopagis pengoi Ostroumov and freshwater Cladocera
(Cristescu et al. 2001, Hebert and Cristescu 2002). Here we present a pilot study
on the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii Girard, in which we used mo-
lecular markers with the aim of understanding the dynamics of introductions of
such a commercial invasive species that most often follow illegal paths. When
historical human records are incomplete, inaccurate, or simply nonexistent,
molecular genetic studies often offer a powerful tool for the identification of
relationships between introduced populations.
PILOT CASE STUDY: THE RED SWAMP CRAYFISH

PROCAMBARUS CLARKII
Procambarus clarkii is typically found in marshes, rivers, reservoirs, irrigation

systems, and rice fields; the species is a paradigmatic example of a recent
freshwater invader (Gherardi 2006). When introduced, it most often becomes
established quickly, contributing to the decline of indigenous European species
of Astacidae due to its strong competitive pressure and its ability to transmit
the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci Schikora (Chapter 28).
In Europe, the species was first introduced into Spain in 1973 using speci-
mens from Louisiana (Habsburgo-Lorena 1986). Reasons for its introduction
varied and included aquaculture, aquarium and live food trades, and bait (Huner
1977, Huner and Avault 1979). In less than 20 years from this first introduction,
new populations of P. clarkii have been reported in several countries of Europe,
including Portugal, Cyprus, England, France, Germany, Italy, Mallorca, The
Netherlands, and Switzerland (Gherardi and Holdich 1999). Populations found
in Italy were described for northern and central Italy by Barbaresi and Gherardi
(2000). In northern Italy, P. clarkii is undergoing a great expansion in both
the Po and the Reno drainage basins in Piedmont and in Emilia-Romagna,
respectively. In central Italy, the species is widespread in Tuscany, especially
in Massaciuccoli Lake after the establishment of a farm in 1990. It is hypo-
thesized that all the P. clarkii populations appearing in Tuscany after 1990
probably originated from man-made translocations from this lake. Since its first
Fig. 1 The map gives details of the current distribution of Procambarus clarkii in Europe.
Spain, France, and Italy have the majority of populations (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006).
introduction, the red swamp crayfish has now also been found in Liguria. As of
2005, P. clarkii has invaded 13 countries and is considered a major freshwater
pest (Souty-Grosset et al. 2006) (Fig. 1).
Different mechanisms play a role in the displacement of the crayfish outside
their native ranges: (1) natural, such as active dispersal; (2) accidental, such as
escape from holding facilities; or (3) deliberate by the intervention of humans.
There are only anecdotal reports about the geographic source of most intro-
duced P. clarkii populations. The population genetic approach, on the contrary,
is of great help in understanding the contribution of each mechanism to its
actual distribution. In order to outline the history of the invasion process
throughout Europe, our objectives were to address the role of single versus
multiple dispersal events through the comparison of the genetic structure of
different European P. clarkii populations. The first introduction of P. clarkii into
Spain from Louisiana is well documented. On the other hand, the events leading
to subsequent expansion of the species are only partially known (Laurent 1997,
Gherardi and Holdich 1999).
A study was undertaken using a population genetic approach that aimed
at analysing the invasion process of this introduced crayfish (Fetzner 1996,
Fetzner and Crandall 2001). Because allozyme variability is very low in crayfish
(reviewed in Fetzner and Crandall 2001), a preliminary study using random
amplification polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers was initially performed.
It revealed high levels of genetic variability in five European populations,

suggesting multiple introductions of individuals coming from different source
locations (Barbaresi et al. 2003). Subsequently, we analysed the genetic vari-
ation at CO1 mtDNA sequences and at five microsatellite loci in P. clarkii
populations of western Europe to outline their genetic relationships. Our aim
was twofold: first, we addressed the role of single versus multiple introduction
events and, second, we clarified the effects of the active dispersal of crayfish on
the diffusion of this species at a microgeographical scale.
Samples of P. clarkii were obtained from two areas of its native range: the first
in New Orleans (Louisiana, USA, NOR), the putative source of the European
populations, and the second in northern Mexico (Chihuahua, CHI); other
populations were sampled from the introduced range in western Europe from
May 2000 to January 2003 (Fig. 2 and Table 1).
Localities were selected on the basis of the historical (published) or anecdotal
information on their introduction (Gherardi and Holdich 1999, Table 1). In
particular, the Spanish site (Veta La Palma, Doñana, Guadalquivir Region,
VPA) was the first European locality where the introduction of a 400 kg
batch of P. clarkii in 1974 was followed by its successful establishment
(a 100 kg batch imported a year before in the Spanish province of Badajoz did
not prosper). The other sampled populations were collected from Switzerland
Fig. 2 Geographic location and mtDNA haplotype frequencies of European popula-

tions of Procambarus clarkii sampled in the present study.
Table 1 Procambarus clarkii populations sampled in the present study: sampling

location, site code, number of sampled individuals for microsatellite and mtDNA (in
parenthesis) analysis, and status of the population (I ¼ introduced, N ¼ native) are
indicated. For introduced populations, the table shows the year of introduction and the
source population derived from either anecdotic or published (*) data (Habsburgo-Lorena
1986).þ indicates populations previously studied using RAPDs (Barbaresi et al. 2003).
Collection Site Sample

location code size Status Year Source
Veta La Palma, Doñana, VPA 10 (5) I 1974 Louisiana*

Sevilla, Spain
Le Tatre, Givrezac Charente, TAT 10 (5) I 1976 Spain
France
Évora, Alentejo, Portugalþ EVO 10 (5) I 1985 Spain
Carmagnola, Torino, CAR 10 (5) I 1989 Unknown
Piedmont, Italy
Fucecchio, Tuscany, Italyþ FUC 10 (5) I 1995 Massaciuccoli
Firenze, Tuscany, Italyþ FIR 10 (4) I 1995 Massaciuccoli
Malalbergo, Bologna, MAL 10 (5) I 1990 Unknown
Emilia Romagna, Italyþ
Mellingen, Aargau, MEL 10 (4) I 1990 Unknown
Switzerland
Massaciuccoli, MAS 10 (3) I 1992 Spain (Doñana)
Tuscany, Italyþ
Sarzana, La Spezia, SAR 10 (3) I 1998 Unknown
Liguria, Italy
New Orleans, Louisiana, NOR 10 (5) N – –
USAþ
Chihuahua, Mexico CHI 9 (4) N – –
(Tanklager Weiher, Mellingen, MEL), France (Le Tatre, Givrezac Charente,

TAT), and southern Portugal (Guadiana River Basin, Évora, Alentejo, EVO).
In all these areas, individuals were sampled from the sites where the species was
first recorded in these countries. In Italy, we analysed samples from the locality
where a wild population of P. clarkii was first recorded in 1989 (Delmastro
1992) in Carmagnola (Piedmont, northern Italy, CAR) and from the second
known locality of introduction (Massaciuccoli Lake, MAS) in Tuscany.
To explore the hypothesis that some Italian populations could have been
founded through either an active dispersal event or human-mediated transloca-
tions from Massaciuccoli Lake in Tuscany, additional samplings were performed
in Sarzana (SAR, Liguria region) at a distance of about 20 km from the nearest
Tuscan population and of 60 km from Massaciuccoli Lake, and in Fucecchio
(FUC) and Firenze (FIR) in Tuscany. These latter two populations are 60 km
distant from each other but have no direct water connections. Some of the
analysed populations (MAS, FUC, FIR, MAL, EVO, and NOR) were previously
studied using RAPD markers (Barbaresi et al. 2003).
MtDNA analysis
Muscle tissue was removed from a single claw of each specimen and preserved
in 96% ethanol until DNA extraction. Total genomic DNA extraction was
performed as reported in Barbaresi et al. (2003). After precipitation, DNA was
stored in the Qiagen-supplied buffer at 4 8C for routine use or at 20 8C for long-
term storage. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence analysis included
nine individuals from the two localities in the native range and 44 individuals
from the 10 localities in the introduced range (Table 1). A 572-base pair (bp)
segment of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (COI) was amplified by
polymerase chain reaction using the primer Jerry (5’-CAA CAT TTA TTT TGA
TTT TTT GG-3’) from Simon et al. (1994) and a primer designed by the authors
and named ProsSilvia (5’-TCA GGA TAA TCT GAA TAA CG-3’). PCR was
carried out in a total volume of 25 mL containing 10X PCR buffer
(Gold), 25 mM MgCl2 and 200 mM each dNTP, 10 mM each primer, 2.5 units
of Amplitaq Gold Taq DNA polymerase and 50–100 ng DNA. An initial 5-min
denaturation step at 94 8C was followed by 35 cycles of 30 s at 94 8C
for denaturation, 45 s at 48 8C for annealing, 45 s at 72 8C for extension,
and by 10 min of final extension at 72 8C. Successful PCR products were
purified by the ExoSAP-IT buffer (USB), and then sequenced using the Big Dye
Terminator method with an ABI 310 automated sequencer. For most samples
the forward and reverse sequences were obtained. Sequences were manually
edited with the program CHROMAS version 1.55 (Technelysium, Queensville,
Australia). The software ESEE Version 3.2 (based on Cabot and Beckenbach
1989) was used to align sequences by eye. Sequences were trimmed to the same
length. There were no gaps in the two regions, making alignment straightfor-
ward. The data matrix included the 53 sequences examined in this study.
For each population, we calculated the following genetic diversity indices: the
number of haplotypes (Nhap), the nucleotide diversity (p=L, the probability that
two randomly chosen homologous nucleotides are different), and the gene
diversity (H, the probability that two randomly chosen haplotypes are different).
This latter index was estimated according to Nei (1978). The indices were
calculated with Arlequin 2.0 (Schneider et al. 2000). Out of the 53 individuals
studied, we identified 6 different haplotypes (Table 2). The number of haplotypes
found within each population was low, ranging from 1 to 3. One most frequent
haplotype was detected in 28 individuals from 10 populations. Few private
haplotypes were found, one in the native population from Louisiana (NOR)
and three in European populations (FIR: N ¼ 2; CAR: N ¼ 1). Two haplotypes
were shared among few populations (haplotype 1: VPA, FUC, and TAT; haplo-
type 4: NOR, MAS, and SAR). The amount of mtDNA COI sequence variation
Table 2 Procambarus clarkii mtDNA haplotype distribution among the analysed

populations. N is the number of the analysed individuals; Nhap is the number of
different haplotypes found in each population. Gene and nucleotide diversities are also
reported.
Haplotypes
Gene Nucleotide
Locality 1 2 3 4 5 6 N Nhap diversity diversity
FIR 2 1 1 4 3 0.833 0.003

MAS 2 1 3 2 0.667 0.001
MAL 5 5 1 0.000 0.000
FUC 4 1 5 2 0.400 0.001
TAT 5 5 1 0.000 0.000
SAR 2 1 3 2 0.667 0.001
CAR 2 3 5 2 0.600 0.002
VPA 3 2 5 2 0.600 0.002
MEL 4 4 1 0.000 0.000
EVO 5 5 1 0.000 0.000
CHI 4 4 1 0.000 0.000
NOR 1 3 1 5 3 0.700 0.000
Total 12 28 5 6 1 1 53
within populations is reported in Table 2. Gene diversity (haplotypic diversity,

H) differed among populations, ranging from 0 to 0.7, in the native NOR
population.
To illustrate the relationships between the haplotypes, a minimum spanning
network was constructed by the use of Kimura two-parameter genetic distances
(Kimura 1980), with Arlequin 2.0 (Schneider et al. 2000). All haplotypes
were closely related and could be linked in an unambiguous most parsimony
network (Fig.3).
As we previously investigated 16S mtDNA and found only one haplotype
(Barbaresi 2003), CO1 mtDNA was used to find more variability. However, all
haplotypes were closely related, differing by very few mutational steps. This low
level of sequence divergence is expected showing that the colonization of
P. clarkii is recent (35 years); a similar situation has already been described in
the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis Milne-Edwards, which colonized
Europe less than 100 years ago (Hänfling and Kollmann 2002)
The number of haplotypes and within-population gene diversity was higher
in the source population NOR than in the introduced populations. However, we
also found some variation in gene diversity within Europe. All the populations
shared at least one haplotype except FIR, which is the population harbouring
two haplotypes (4 and 6) deriving from the most frequent haplotype 2. This
result sharply contrasts with the anecdotal information stating this population
MAL FUC
MAS VPA
1 (12)
CAR CHI
NOR MEL
FIR EVO 2
SAR
TAT
2 (28)
6 (1)
1
4 (6) 5 (1)
1
1
3 (5)
Fig. 3 Haplotype network of the mtDNA sequence data. Numbers along branches
denote the number of nucleotide substitutions between haplotypes. The haplotype num-
ber (in bold) follows Table 1. The frequency of each haplotype is indicated in parenthesis.
Sample names follow Table 1.
is derived from MAS. The detection of unique haplotypes in this population

suggests a different origin of source individuals, possibly a source not sampled in
this study. These haplotypes could be the result of a different introduction
possibly from China following the immigration of a Chinese community to
Florence. As the first introduction of P. clarkii from Louisiana to Asia was done
in 1918 in Japan and in a second step a translocation was made from Japan to
China (1948) (Laurent 1997), the introduced individuals in FIR could have
evolved differently because of successive translocations and more than 80 years
of divergence. This hypothesis should be verified by sampling Japanese and

Chinese populations.
Microsatellite analysis
Microsatellite analysis of P. clarkii populations was carried out using five poly-
morphic loci (PclG-07, PclG-15, PclG-26, PclG-28, and PclG-37) described by
Belfiore and May 2000. These authors isolated 23 microsatellite loci from the
red swamp crayfish but these loci have never been published in any population
genetic study. Polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) were carried out in a total
volume of 15 mL containing 10X PCR buffer (Finnzyme) with MgCl2 and
200 mM each dNTP, 5 pM each primer, 0.8 units of Dynazyme Taq DNA
polymerase (Finnzyme) and 50–100 ng DNA. Reactions were performed in a
Perkin-Elmer 9600 thermal cycler programmed for an initial melting at 95 8C
for 2 min followed by 35 cycles at 95 8C for 30 s, 56 8C for 30 s, and 72 8C for
60 s. A final extension step at 72 8C for 5 min was performed. Amplification
products were resolved by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gels containing
1 mgmL1 ethidium bromide in TAE buffer. DNA fragments were visualized by
image-analysis software for gel documentation (LabWorks Software Version
3.0; UVP, Upland, CA, USA). Sizing of PCR products was carried out using an
ABI310 DNA sequencer (PE/ABI, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s
instructions, and the results were analysed using Genescan 3.1 software (PE/
ABI, CA, USA). The distribution of allele frequencies, presence of private alleles,
single-locus, and average values of observed (Ho) and expected heterozygosity
(He) were evaluated separately for each population using Genepop v. 3.1
(Raymond and Rousset 1995).
Polymorphism of microsatellite loci and genetic diversity
We first tested the variability of the 5 microsatellite loci in the sampled popu-
lations. All 5 loci were polymorphic. A total of 99 alleles was observed for the
five loci over 12 populations (119 individuals). We detected 16 alleles at locus
PclG-07, 18 alleles at locus PclG-15, 26 alleles at locus PclG-26, 11 alleles at
locus PclG-28, and 28 alleles at locus PclG-37. The allelic distribution (Fig. 4)
varied significantly among loci, with PclG-28 and PclG-07 displaying an
approximately normal distribution, and PclG-37, PclG-26, and PclG-15 exhibit-
ing a uniform distribution of alleles. In these latter loci, however, 63%, 58%,
and 39% of the alleles, respectively, had a frequency lower than 3%, whereas
18%, 3.8%, and 11%, respectively, had a frequency lower than 1%. Most
represented alleles are 241 for locus PclG-26 (18%), 118, 138, 178, and 182
for locus PclG-15 (16%, 11%, 13%, and 12%, respectively), and 107 and 131
for locus PclG-37 (15% and 11%, respectively) (Fig. 4).
The allele number varied from 15 to 45 per population and mean number
of alleles within populations (allelic diversity) varied from 3 to 7.8 (Table 3).
0.30 0.20
PclG-07 PclG-15
0.25
0.15
0.20
0.15 0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0 0
103 111 119 127 139 147 118 138 150 162 170 178 186 194 202
allele length (bp) allele length (bp)
0.30 0.30
0.25 PclG-26 PclG-28

0.25
FREQUENCY
0.20 0.20
0.15 0.15
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
0 0
231 249 253 267 273 277 283 287 291 295 307 329 335 229 237 245 253 261 269
allele length (bp) allele length (bp)
0.20
PclG-37
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
83 91 101 105 109 113 117 121 127 135 139 147 161 165
allele length (bp)
Fig. 4 Distribution of allele frequencies for each microsatellite locus in Procambarus

clarkii.
Genetic variation within populations has also been expressed as heterozygosity

values. Observed heterozygosity (Ho ) averaged across loci varied among
populations from 0.36 to 1.0 (Table 3). Highly significant deviations from
Hardy-Weinberg expectation were found. In particular, four out of 12 sampled
populations (SAR, FIR, VPA, and TAT) exhibited a significant heterozygosity
excess, while one population (CAR) exhibited a heterozygosity deficiency.
Population differentiation
Only a few alleles were private (6 in locus PclG-37, 4 for PclG-26, 1 for PclG-07,
and 3 for PclG-15) and no private allele had a frequency above 5%. With the
Table 3 Microsatellite comparisons of population diversities. For each locus, expected (He) and observed (Ho) heterozigosity, and
392
number of alleles (A) are reported. For each population, mean He and Ho, deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (P), mean number of
alleles (mean A) and number of private alleles detected across all loci are summarized.
Population
Locus SAR MAS FIR FUC TAT EVO MAL MEL VPA CAR NOR CHI
PclG-07 Ho 0.800 0.800 0.667 0.900 0.800 1.000 0.889 0.700 0.800 0.000 1.000 0.333
He 0.811 0.810 0.777 0.710 0.736 0.873 0.790 0.763 0.874 0.482 0.852 0.385
A 8 6 8 4 5 7 5 5 8 3 7 3
PclG-15 Ho 0.700 0.800 0.600 0.600 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 0.800 0.900 0.444
He 0.905 0.889 0.847 0.794 0.778 0.857 0.678 0.742 0.910 0.773 0.921 0.627
A 8 9 8 9 6 7 7 5 10 4 10 4
PclG-26 Ho 0.900 0.900 0.333 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.556 0.400 0.500 0.400 0.400 0.714
He 0.884 0.847 0.882 0.552 0.773 0.900 0.803 0.689 0.894 0.563 0.363 0.689
A 10 9 7 4 8 9 5 4 8 3 4 3
PclG-28 Ho 0.900 0.700 1.000 0.700 0.537 0.888 0.800 0.600 0.800 1.000 0.900 0.444
Silvia Barbaresi et al.
He 0.836 0.726 0.821 0.621 0.700 0.771 0.737 0.773 0.878 0.526 0.831 0.366
A 6 6 6 6 3 5 4 5 9 2 7 3
PclG-37 Ho 0.500 0.600 0.500 0.900 0.500 0.700 0.600 0.300 0.500 0.100 0.800 0.667
He 0.810 0.864 0.805 0.947 0.757 0.821 0.631 0.742 0.921 0.194 0.931 0.758
A 6 9 7 12 6 7 6 5 10 3 11 5
Summary
Ho 0.528 0.528 0.431 0.514 0.444 0.587 0.492 0.431 0.486 1.000 0.556 0.361
He 0.590 0.575 0.574 0.503 0.503 0.554 0.506 0.515 0.618 0.319 0.542 0.372
P <0.02 ns <0.001 ns <0.05 ns ns 0.05 <0.001 <0.0001 ns ns
Mean A 7.6 7.8 7.2 7 5.6 7 5.4 4.8 9 3 7.8 3.6
Private alleles 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 1 1 2 2 2
exception of SAR, FIR, and MAS, populations showed private alleles ranging
from 1 to 3 (Table 3). The inspection of the allelic distribution suggested that the
alleles having the highest frequencies generally had wide distributions.
Global x 2 tests of population differentiation indicated significant heteroge-
neity in allelic frequencies among the 12 populations (P < 0:0001). In an effort
to further partition these data, pairwise estimates of genotypic differentiation
were calculated. Fifty-nine of 65 pairwise comparisons (90.8%) were signifi-
cantly different at P < 0:001 (x2 test) following Bonferroni correction (Rice
1989). Exceptions were the following population pairs: SAR-MAS, SAR-VPA,
SAR-EVO, VPA-EVO, VPA-MAS, and NOR-FUC.
Genetic diversity within each population was measured as allelic diversity
(mean number of alleles per locus, A), observed heterozygosity (Ho), and hetero-
zygosity expected from Hardy-Weinberg proportions (He). Here we calculated
the unbiased estimates of expected heterozygosity proposed by Nei (1978) using
the software Genetix V 4.01 (Belkhir et al. 1998). Observed heterozygosities
within populations were tested for Hardy-Weinberg expectations using Weir and
Cockerham’s (1984) estimate as implemented in Genepop v. 3.1 (Raymond and
Rousset 1995). Since loci exhibited a number of alleles higher than five, we used
a 10,000-step 1,000-iteration Markov chain method (10,000 dememorization
steps) to calculate estimates of the P value.
Genetic evidence for a bottleneck effect in the sampled populations was
evaluated using the program BOTTLENECK 1.1 (Cornuet and Luikart 1996),
which tests whether Ho is significantly different from the expected hetero-
zygosity at mutation drift equilibrium (Heq). One tail Wilcoxon sign test (Bottle-
neck, 10,0000 replications) was used. Significant differences between Ho and
Heq indicate either a recent severe reduction in the effective population size (Ne)
(if Ho > Heq), or a recent expansion in Ne or influx of rare alleles from
genetically distinct immigrant (if Ho < Heq).
Genetic distance between populations was measured by calculating FST (Weir
and Cockerham 1984) between pairs of populations using Arlequin 2.000. The
significance of these FST estimates was tested under the null hypothesis H0 ¼ ‘no
difference between populations’ by permuting genotypes between populations
(10,000 iteractions). The P value of the test is the proportion of permutations
leading to an FST value larger or equal to that observed (Schneider et al. 2000).
Estimation of fixation index (FST ) of population pairs calculated for all loci
(Table 4) showed high levels of genetic differentiation between populations.
With the exception of the population pair SAR-MAS, all population pairs were
significantly differentiated on the basis of FST . The FST values for P. clarkii ranged
from 0.021 to 0.461. These values indicated low levels of gene flow. However,
a low level of genetic differentiation was obtained between MAS and SAR
populations.
Both global and pairwise tests of population differentiation were performed
using Genepop v. 3.1 (Raymond and Rousset 1995). The significance of the
P values across the five loci was determined using Fisher’s x 2 method for
Table 4 Fixation index (FST ) for population pairs estimated for all microsatellites
loci.* indicates that FST value is not significant.
SAR MAS FIR MEL FUC TAT EVO MAL NOR VPA CAR
SAR –
MAS 0.021* –
FIR 0.080 0.083 –
MEL 0.113 0.123 0.148 –
FUC 0.118 0.144 0.146 0.183 –
TAT 0.119 0.125 0.101 0.185 0.214 –
EVO 0.031 0.068 0.084 0.081 0.157 0.121 –
MAL 0.135 0.123 0.134 0.223 0.195 0.187 0.179 –
NOR 0.113 0.139 0.122 0.197 0.033 0.199 0.139 0.190 –
VPA 0.048 0.049 0.076 0.046 0.090 0.137 0.043 0.124 0.110 –
CAR 0.262 0.281 0.243 0.313 0.343 0.311 0.264 0.354 0.277 0.261 –
CHI 0.231 0.224 0.258 0.289 0.151 0.316 0.290 0.284 0.162 0.188 0.461
Table 5 Microsatellites and analysis of molecular variation (AMOVA; Excoffier et al.

1992).* denotes that the variance component is statistically significant (P < 0.05).
Source of variation df Variation (%) F statistics
Among groups 2 1.72 FCT ¼ 0:017

(1) VPA, FUC, TAT, NOR;
(2) CAR, FIR;
(3) MEL, MAS, CHI, EVO, SAR, MAL
Among populations within groups 9 15.81 FSC ¼ 0:160*
Among individuals within populations 226 82.47 FST ¼ 0:175*
combining probabilities (Sokal and Rohlf 1981) followed by a sequential

Bonferroni correction for multiple tests (Rice 1989).
Differentiation among populations was also assessed by an FST -based
hierarchical AMOVA (Excoffier et al. 1992) as implemented in Arlequin
2.000. This analysis (Table 5) allowed us to clarify the partitioning of molecular
variance among three levels: variation among groups of populations, among
populations within groups, and within populations. Three different parameters
were computed (FCT , FSC , and FST ), describing the differentiation at each level.
In order to test correlation between genetic and geographical distances
between populations in Italy, a Mantel test (Arlequin 2.000) was performed.
One thousand permutations were used to find significance levels. The test was
performed for distance estimates based on microsatellite data and no isolation
by the distance was found.
CONCLUSIONS
In a previous work, RAPD was used to perform a preliminary screening of the

genetic variability in the invasive P. clarkii (Barbaresi et al. 2003). Results
revealed a pronounced level of genetic variation in this species. This finding is
in agreement with recent studies conducted in the Australian redclaw crayfish
Cherax quadricarinatus von Martens (Macaranas et al. 1995) and in the native
European white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes Lereboullet, 1858
(Souty-Grosset et al. 1999, Gouin et al. 2001, 2006).
This study is the first using microsatellite loci characterized by Belfiore and
May (2000) in P. clarkii. A high genetic variation within sampled populations
emerged from the use of microsatellite markers. In addition, microsatellites
revealed a high inter-population differentiation with an FST up to 0.461. For
comparison, Gouin et al. (2006) found also an FST of 0.461 in southern French
populations of the indigenous white-clawed crayfish A. pallipes, indicating an
absence of gene flow due to the fragmentation of the populations.
Considering the degree of variability of P. clarkii in its native range, contra-
dictory results emerged. In fact, while in the sample from Louisiana a high
heterozygosity value was found similar to the major part of the European
populations, heterozygosity was low in the Mexican population sampled in the
field and naturally dispersed (P. Gutiérrez-Yurrita 2004, personal communica-
tion). The level of diversity observed in the Louisianan population could be
explained as the result of the intense commercial exploitation of the species in
the southern USA (Louisiana accounts for most of the national aquaculture
production). In this area, exchanges of crayfish from natural habitats to culture
ponds can be common. In addition, stock translocation is reported to be a
common practice (Busak 1988).
Heterozygosity found in the European populations was high and could be
explained by the fact that the initial genetic structure of a successful invasive
population depends on several factors, including the effective population size of
the introduction event(s), the genetic diversity of the source population(s), and
the number of founding sources. Since this is the first study using microsatellites
in this species, no comparison can be made with the results from other authors;
in particular, the degree of variability in native populations is unknown.
A phylogeographic study from P. clarkii from its native range still needs to be
undertaken.
The high genetic diversity revealed by microsatellite markers in some intro-
duced populations of P. clarkii could be the result of different types of introduc-
tion events, i.e. (1) multiple introduction events with individuals from different
sources; (2) a single introduction of a large number of individuals from
a genetically diverse source population; and (3) a combination of these events.
As concerns the population from Doñana, historical data (Table 4) report that
this population originated from a stock coming from Louisiana introduced for
aquaculture purpose (Gherardi and Holdich 1999). The high genetic variability
of the Spanish population could be thus explained by a single introduction event

from a very heterogeneous pool coming from that area.
The degree of heterozygosity found in this study would not have been
detected in the case of a severe bottleneck. The lack of heterozygote deficiencies
is predicted for biological invasions and commonly encountered as, for example,
in mussel populations (Holland 2001). An exception is represented by the
population from Piedmont, where a bottleneck effect was revealed (according
to the BOTTLENECK’s test). For this population, the origin from a small number
of introduced individuals can be hypothesized.
As shown by pairwise FST , no differentiation was found between samples from
Sarzana (Liguria) and Massaciuccoli (Tuscany). In accordance with the data
obtained with mtDNA, this result seems to confirm the hypothesis of a single
origin of the population sampled from Liguria, possibly by active dispersal
and/or by human translocation of crayfish coming from the nearby Massaciuccoli
Lake. From a management point of view, this result points out how dispersal
capability could be favoured, at least at a microgeographical scale.
The usefulness of microsatellites as evidence of bottlenecks and gene flow has
been outlined by Colautti et al. (2005) for the Eurasian spiny waterflea, whose
spread was found to depend on long-distance jump dispersal (Suarez et al.
2001). In Dreissena rostriformis bugensis Andrusov, the use of six microsatellites
gave evidence of considerable gene flow (multiple invasions) among popu-
lations: its genetic diversity was consistent with the existence of a large meta-
population that has not experienced bottlenecks or founder effects (Therriault
et al. 2005). Procambarus clarkii’s spread may involve both long-distance jump
dispersal and natural dispersal at a microgeographical scale. The high level of
genetic diversity in introduced population of this species and its corresponding
success of establishment support the hypothesis that high genetic variability is
an important characteristic of successful invasive populations (e.g. Ehrlich
1986, Holland 2000). However, this result cannot be generalized. For example,
Tsutsui et al. (2000) used microsatellite markers in the invasive ant Linepithema
humile and showed that the loss in genetic diversity of the introduced popula-
tions of this species was associated with the reduced intraspecific aggression
among spatially separate colonies with the formation of interspecifically dom-
inant supercolonies. In that case, genetic bottlenecks have led to widespread
ecological success. Our results on P. clarkii confirm the model suggested
by Barbaresi et al. (2003), in which the colonization of Europe by this
species derives from subsequent introductions of individuals coming from
different source populations. This model is consistent with both the high genetic
diversity observed (introduction of different sets of individuals) and the genetic
differentiation of populations resulting from the casual bias of introductions.
As shown from a recent work on Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus) (Roman 2006),
genetic studies can provide significant insights into the colonization pattern
of invasive aquatic species even when small samples have been analysed.
However, further work is needed to verify our preliminary results on P. clarkii

and to identify source populations and pathways of introduction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
For providing samples we are grateful to: José Juan Chans (Estacion Biologica de
Doñana, Spain), Maria Ilhéu (Universidade de Évora, Portugal), Jay Huner
(University of Southern Louisiana, USA), David Mazzoni (Università di Bologna,
Italy), Roberto Pieraccini (SpeechCycle, New York), Robert Romaire (Louisiana
State University, USA), Sebastiano Salvidio (Università di Genova, Italy), and
Thomas Stucki (Switzerland). Special thanks are due to Julian Reynolds for
improving the English style.
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Chapter twenty-one
Do estuaries act as saline

bridges to allow invasion of
new freshwater systems by
non-indigenous fish species?
J. Anne Brown, Dawn M. Scott, and Rod W. Wilson
INTRODUCTION
In Europe, the non-indigenous species (NIS) most frequently introduced are

freshwater fish (Garcı́a-Berthou et al. 2005). Once introduced, dispersal is a
key element in determining their invasiveness (Rehage and Sih 2004); in order
to limit or mitigate impacts, an understanding of likely establishment and rates
and routes for dispersion is important (Pihlaja et al. 1998, Ricciardi and Ras-
mussen 1998). Currently, however, we have limited information on the poten-
tial for range expansion for most of the non-indigenous freshwater fish species
introduced into Europe. Dispersal is likely to be at least partially dependent on
the tolerance of these species to variable environmental conditions, but toler-
ances are often poorly understood, particularly in the new environment. The
possibility of using shared estuaries as ‘saline bridges’ to migrate between
contiguous freshwater systems has only very rarely been considered (Brown
et al. 2001, Bringolf et al. 2005), and it has usually been assumed that estuaries
will act as barriers (rather than bridges) to the dispersal of freshwater fish.
However, the salinity tolerances and physiological responses to salinity are
poorly understood in many NIS. This lack of knowledge may lead to their
inaccurate classification as strictly freshwater, whereas some species may be
401
ß 2007 Springer.
402 J. Anne Brown et al.
at least partially euryhaline and capable of living in a wider range of salinities

than previously considered.
Body fluid osmolality in freshwater bony fish is around 300 mOsm kg1,
much higher than that of the surrounding freshwater where osmolalities are
around 2–15 mOsm kg1. This large osmotic gradient leads to a high influx of
water across permeable surfaces that must be excreted by the kidneys in order
to maintain water balance. Alongside the water influx (mostly across the
gills), salts are lost down the concentration gradient, but active uptake of
salts by the gills and gut ensures regulation of body fluid salt concentrations
(Evans et al. 2005). When the external salt concentrations are raised, as
in brackish waters, the osmotic gradient between body fluids and the environ-
ment is reduced (unless plasma levels of ions are also raised sufficiently). An
iso-osmotic point is reached when internal and external osmolalities are equal.
At salinities beyond the iso-osmotic point, euryhaline fish continue to maintain
relatively stable blood salt levels (and overall osmolality) so that the osmotic
gradient is reversed, with higher external concentrations resulting in a
state known as hypo-osmoregulation. This is an established feature of eury-
haline teleosts living in mesohaline (5–18 psu) and polyhaline environments
(18–30 psu) or in ocean seawater (30–35 psu), and leads to water loss by
osmosis. Water loss must be balanced by drinking the environmental medium
and intestinal water absorption. Hypo-osmoregulation does not, however,
occur in strictly freshwater species [such as the common carp Cyprinus carpio
Linnaeus or channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque)] which show an
unabated and ultimately fatal rise in internal body fluid osmolality as external
osmolality rises and therefore fail to survive in waters much beyond
400–450 mOsm kg1 (Abo Hegab and Hanke 1982, De Boeck et al. 2000,
Eckert et al. 2001). Hence, physiological studies can give a clear picture of
the saline tolerances and acclimation abilities of fish that will influence dispersal
via saline waters and have therefore formed an important component of our
studies of NIS.
The central hypothesis behind the experimental studies discussed below is
that some non-indigenous fish species found in freshwater ecosystems that have
previously been considered to be limited to freshwater, may actually have
sufficient salinity tolerance to allow them to disperse through estuaries. Using
these as ‘‘saline bridges’’ they may reach contiguous freshwater ecosystems,
and may disperse between different estuaries through mesohaline/polyhaline
coastal waters. In this chapter, we focus upon three invasive fish species that are
commonly classified as freshwater fish: pikeperch Sander lucioperca (Linnaeus),
sunbleak Leucaspius delineatus (Heckel), and topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora
parva (Temminck and Schlegel). The results of laboratory investigations on
these three species are considered in relation to the likelihood of their dispersal
by migration through saline routes. All three of these species are of current
concern in the UK and are listed species in legislation dealing with importation
and movement of live fish in England and Wales. However, the principles raised
Saline bridges allowing the invasion of fish 403
apply more generally in appreciating the impact of saline tolerances on the

dispersal of non-indigenous fish species.
PIKEPERCH
The pikeperch (also known as zander), S. lucioperca, is a piscivorous predator

that is now a broadly distributed NIS in the inland waters of mainland Europe,
extending from the Ponto–Caspian region, where it originated, to Spain and
from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean countries. Pikeperch were first deliber-
ately brought into the UK by the Duke of Bedford who introduced several
specimens into two lakes on his Woburn Estates in 1878; subsequent additions
to these lakes occurred in the early 1900s (see reviews: Hickley 1986, Hickley
and Chare 2004, Copp et al. 2005a). Translocations from the lakes into the
Great Ouse River system began in 1960 and pikeperch have since dispersed
through much of this system. Several specimens were later introduced into
Stanborough Lake, adjacent to the River Lee in Hertfordshire. Population
growth and dispersal in UK river systems have been slow, but appear to have
been helped by anglers. Pikeperch are now found in the Rivers Severn, Lee, and
Thames and there have been recent unconfirmed reports of pikeperch in the
Welsh Dee (Copp et al. 2005a).
In the UK, pikeperch are thought to out-compete the indigenous piscivorous
pike Esox lucius Linnaeus, and have been blamed for the decline in native
populations of cyprinids. However, the range of fish species in the diet of
pikeperch appears to depend on their size and the particular locality of the
population as well as the available prey populations (Smith et al. 1996, Keski-
nen and Marjomäki 2004, Hickley and Chare 2004). The impacts appear to be
of greater significance when conditions are particularly favourable for pike-
perch, and indigenous fish are already under pressure. For example, introduc-
tion of the pikeperch into Lake Egridir in Turkey had a severely detrimental
effect, with rapid total extinction of several indigenous species (Crivelli 1995).
Active hunting and predation on salmonid smolts by pikeperch have also been
reported (Jepsen et al. 2000).
The dispersion of pikeperch through UK river systems has been fairly slow but
has now led to the establishment of populations at the tidal limits of the Thames
and Severn estuaries and in the tidal reaches of the Ouse (Hickley 1986, Copp
et al. 2005a). This highlights the possibility of dispersal between river catch-
ments via brackish or salt-water corridors in the Thames or Severn estuaries, or
using the more saline reaches of the middle regions of the Wash. Such migra-
tions across saline bridges may already have occurred in other European
countries, particularly as pikeperch are known to flourish in lower salinity
regions of the Baltic Sea, the Kiel canal, and many European estuaries (Lehto-
nen et al. 1996, Maes et al. 1999, Kafemann et al. 2000, Ložys 2004). However,
these distributions generally suggest that pikeperch populations only occur in
low salinities where external osmolality is much less than that of body fluids
(as in freshwater). The optimal salinity has been reported to be around 6 psu
(Craig 2000), which is in agreement with field observations of pikeperch oc-
cupying the Lithuanian coastal region of the Baltic Sea (at salinities of
4.9–6.8 psu) that had a higher condition factor and growth rate than pikeperch
in the adjacent freshwater Curonian Lagoon (Ložys 2004).
Laboratory investigations of the osmoregulatory abilities of the pikeperch
anecdotally reported fish deaths after transfer from freshwater to salinities of
8 or 12.8 psu (Crăciun et al. 1982). However, our studies have revealed a far
greater tolerance of saline waters than previously suspected (Brown et al.
2001). These studies found that pikeperch could tolerate rapid transfer from
freshwater to a salinity of 16 psu, surviving for at least 6 days. An increase in
plasma glucose after 24 h in 16 psu water was the result of hormonal stress
responses, but was followed within 6 days by restoration of plasma glucose
concentrations that were typical of unstressed control fish (Brown et al. 2001),
indicating that acclimation occurs in the longer term. Pikeperch were also
shown to tolerate exposure to a simulated tidal cycles rising to a salinity of
33 psu. Although plasma cortisol and plasma glucose concentrations increased
as salinity peaked, showing physiological stress in these fish, there was a rapid
recovery after return to freshwater (Brown et al. 2001).
The exposure of pikeperch to saline water has been shown to increase blood
plasma osmolality (Brown et al. 2001). Plasma osmolality was unaffected in
pikeperch held in water of 8 psu for 24 h and only slightly increased after 6
days but in pikeperch held in water of 16 psu, a significant elevation in plasma
osmolality occurred within 24 h, and further increased after 6 days (Fig. 1).
However, these fish in 16 psu were still able to hold plasma osmolality well
below that of the external environment, showing that in the short term (up to 6
days at least), pikeperch can hypo-osmoregulate. This is not a typical feature of
freshwater fish and studies to further characterize the hypo-osmoregulatory
ability of pikeperch are therefore needed. One aspect of this is to examine
whether pikeperch can drink the saline environmental medium in order to
achieve water balance.
Addition of phenol red to the external environment has allowed us to make
the first assessments of whether drinking by pikeperch is a significant compo-
nent of their volume regulatory mechanisms during hypo-osmoregulation.
Collection and analysis of gut fluids showed that drinking rates were minimal
in pikeperch held in freshwater (Fig. 2), but increased significantly in saline
waters so that the distinct red coloration of imbibed fluid was visible throughout
the gut. Drinking increased from 25.9 + 8.5 mL h1 kg1 in eight pikeperch
held in freshwater to 122.9 + 28.0 mL h1 kg1 in seven pikeperch held
in approximately iso-osmotic water (10.5 psu) for 7 days. Similarly, hypo-
osmoregulating pikeperch exposed to 12 psu and 16 psu for 5 days showed
higher drinking rates than pikeperch held in freshwater (Fig. 2). For the drink-
ing response to play a significant role in body fluid regulation, however,
Fig. 1 Plasma osmolality of pikeperch, sunbleak, and topmouth gudgeon held in

freshwater and 24 h and 4 days after transfer to higher salinities.
Mean fish masses: pikeperch 266 g; sunbleak 1.73 g; topmouth gudgeon 1.81 g. Sali-
nities employed: pikeperch - 8 psu (230 mOsm kg1) and 16 psu (462 mOsm kg1);
sunbleak and topmouth gudgeon - 10.8 psu (281 mOsm kg1) and 13.7 psu (350
mOsm kg1).
The iso-osmotic line, where plasma osmolality is identical to that of the environment, is
shown by a dashed line. Values to the left of this line show plasma that is hyperosmotic to
the external medium; values to the right of this line show plasma that is hypo-osmotic.
Different letters indicate statistical differences between groups indicated by use of two-
way ANOVA and post-hoc multiple comparisons (Student-Newman-Keuls Method or
Tukey’s test). Pikeperch data presented in Brown et al. (2001). Data for sunbleak and
topmouth gudgeon included in Scott et al. (2007). Asterisks (*) indicate significant
differences (P < 0.05) between 24 h and 4 or 6 day values at each salinity.
Fig. 2 Drinking rates in pikeperch (mean mass 318 + 34 g; n ¼ 8 per group) meas-
ured by addition of phenol red (0.0275 g L1) to the external environment 16 h before
the end of the 5 day salinity exposures. Different letters indicate statistical differences
between groups after ANOVA (P ¼ 0.009) and linear contrasts: 0.2 psu compared to
12 psu (P ¼ 0.041); 0.2 psu compared to 16 psu (P ¼ 0.003).
absorption of water by the gut is required. Net water absorption from the gut
would result in a higher phenol red concentration in gut fluids than in the
environmental medium i.e. a concentration ratio of more than 1.0.
For pikeperch held in freshwater, the phenol red concentration ratio of gut
fluids/environmental medium was 0.67 + 0.24 (n ¼ 12), indicating net fluid
secretion rather than water absorption. This is not surprising as in freshwater
fish, water is already available, in excess. However, in pikeperch held at 12 psu
some fish showed intestinal water absorption (concentration ratios above 1.0)
after 5 days. At 16 psu a higher level of water absorption was apparent with a
mean phenol red concentration ratio of 1.66 + 0.32 (n ¼ 8). Acclimation pro-
cesses in the gut might be predicted to take several days and this idea is
supported by a mean intestinal fluid phenol red concentration ratio of
2.60 + 0.93 (n ¼ 7) with values of up to 6.1 reached in pikeperch kept for 7
days at 10.5 psu.
Experimental studies have shown that pikeperch can tolerate periodic expo-
sure to mixohaline estuarine conditions and mesohaline coastal waters, and are
capable of some physiological acclimation that could facilitate their potential
migration to new river systems. However, these studies raise the question: how
do pikeperch respond behaviourally when faced with changing environmental
salinities? The behaviour of pikeperch, monitored using video cameras, has
shown that freshwater fish are relatively inactive during daylight hours, but
became more active in the dark at night (D. M. Scott, R. W. Wilson and J. A.
Brown 2004, unpublished observation). This agrees with recent telemetry
studies of pikeperch that showed diel activity patterns with maximal activity
at dusk, although there is high individual variability (Poulet et al. 2005). The
importance of salinity in determining the pikeperch behaviour has been shown
in laboratory studies during the normally quiescent daylight hours. Pikeperch
were exposed to a 12 h tidal cycle of salinity, rising to a peak of 30 psu in
6 h, then returning to freshwater in the next 6 h. Initially, as salinity rose there
was little change in physical activity, but at around 12.5 to 15 psu an increas-
ing proportion of time was spent moving up and down the water column
(Fig. 3). Once salinity was reduced, physical activity rapidly returned to the
low level typical of pikeperch in daylight hours in freshwater. In the wild,
increased vertical mobility would bring pikeperch into surface waters. In estu-
aries with halocline stratification this could allow selection of the less dense,
lower salinity water, and movement towards the mouth of an estuary through-
out almost the entire tidal cycle, which may promote migration into new river
systems. Potential corroboration of this hypothesis is provided by the repeated
reports of pikeperch captures in the tidal Severn and Thames (Hickley 1986,
Kirk et al. 2002, Copp et al. 2005a), and in tidal sections of the lower River Great
Fig. 3 Time spent moving through the water column in pikeperch (mean mass 325 g;
n ¼ 8) exposed to a simulated tidal cycle of salinity that reached a peak of 30 psu in 6 h,
and returned to freshwater 6 h later. Each point represents an average measurement for
an individual fish within a 20-min period. Experiments started at 08.00 am and were
conducted entirely in daylight hours.
Ouse (A. C. Pinder 2003, CEH-Dorset, personal communication). Clandestine

illegal introductions could account for these occurrences, but in the light of our
physiological and behavioural studies, dispersal through saltwater corridors is
also a feasible explanation. To assess the behaviour of pikeperch in the wild,
acoustic telemetry work (in collaboration with G. H. Copp and S. Stak_enas,
Cefas-Lowestoft) is now exploring pikeperch movements in freshwater and tidal
reaches of the Rivers Thames and Lee.
SUNBLEAK
The native range of sunbleak L. delineatus includes areas of central and eastern
Europe, from the Rhine basin in the west to the Volga basin in the east
(Maitland 2004), but, while once common, it is now often rare or vulnerable
in its native range. This species is amongst the more recent non-indigenous fish
to be introduced into the UK and was first introduced in 1986 by an ornamental
fish supplier (Farr-Cox et al. 1996). Sunbleak rapidly established breeding
populations in several locations in southern England, including still waters in
Hampshire, waterways in Somerset, and a complex of fishing lakes in Dorset
(Gozlan et al. 2003a), and more recently has been reported in north-western
England (Hickley and Chare 2004).
A detrimental impact of sunbleak on the recruitment of indigenous cyprinids
is suggested, possibly because sunbleak share common resources with indige-
nous cyprinids such as bream, roach, bleak, and rudd (Gozlan et al. 2003a).
Sunbleak could also aid the spread of non-indigenous copepod parasites to
indigenous fish populations (Beyer et al. 2005).
A number of unusual characteristics compared to indigenous cyprinids make
sunbleak a successful invader. They become sexually mature at one year old
and are batch spawners that exhibit male nest guarding (Gozlan et al. 2003a, b)
hence ensuring a better survival rate for larvae and/or juveniles and rapid
establishment of populations. They will also spawn on any flat surface, which
could include floating macrophytes and the underside of boats or fishing para-
phernalia, increasing their chances of dispersal (Gozlan et al. 2003a). Although
sunbleak appear to prefer slow-flowing rivers and still waters such as drains and
canals, fast-flowing rivers have already been identified as dispersal routes
(Pinder and Gozlan 2003), so it is important to consider the salinity tolerance
of sunbleak and the influence that salinity may have in limiting or allowing
dispersion. This is particularly relevant as sunbleak (like pikeperch) originated
in the Ponto–Caspian region that has a geological history of fluctuating water
levels and salinities. Consequently, biota with a Ponto–Caspian origin often
show some degree of saline tolerance (Dumont 1998, Ricciardi and MacIsaac
2000).
Exposure of sunbleak captured from Stoneham Lakes, Hampshire, UK to
5.4 psu daily increases in salinity have indicated tolerance of 10.8 psu, but at
16.2 psu, reduced feeding was observed and fish rapidly became moribund
(D. M. Scott, R. W. Wilson, and J. A. Brown 2004, unpublished observation).
In subsequent experiments, sunbleak were exposed to freshwater (0.2 psu),
10.8 psu (iso-osmotic to the body fluids of freshwater-acclimated fish) and
13.7 psu which would be slightly hyper-osmotic to the body fluids of the
sunbleak at the beginning of the experiment. Sunbleak tolerated these condi-
tions for at least 4 days with no deaths. Plasma osmolality was significantly
increased in sunbleak exposed to elevated salinity regimes, both after 24 h and
four days, and with an increase over time (Fig. 1). Mean plasma osmolality
matched the external osmolality after 24 h and over the next 3 days rose so as
to exceed the external medium. The pattern of changing plasma osmolality in
sunbleak is similar to that reported for stenohaline freshwater fish that do not
survive in saline water of above 400–450 mOsm kg1 (14–16 psu). In these
stenohaline species, plasma osmolality is typically 10% above that of the
environment within 24 h of initial exposure and continues to rise thereafter,
allowing continued osmotic water influx that aids excretory processes (Abo
Hegab and Hanke 1982, Wilkes and McMahon 1986, Van der Linden et al.
1999, Eckert et al. 2001). However, sunbleak exposed to 13.7 psu for 24 h had
lower total water content than that of freshwater control fish (Scott et al. 2007).
This is presumably because the osmotic gradient for water influx was reduced,
coupled with a lack of appropriate compensatory responses, such as reduced
renal output or increased drinking of the environmental medium. In sunbleak,
the mean plasma osmolality reached 406 mOsm kg1 in fish held for 4 days in
water of 13.7 psu (Fig. 1). This is similar to a strictly freshwater fish such as
carp, and suggests that tolerance of sunbleak to salinities much higher than this
is unlikely. This hypothesis agrees with the reduced feeding observed after
exposure to a salinity of 16.3 psu (D. M. Scott, R. W. Wilson, and J. A. Brown
2004, unpublished observation).
Based on these studies we conclude that despite the Ponto–Caspian origin of
sunbleak, their limited saline tolerance coupled with adverse effect on feeding
will mean that brackish or salt-water corridors are likely to act as barriers to
dispersal.
TOPMOUTH GUDGEON
Topmouth gudgeon, P. parva, is an Asiatic cyprinid species that was first

brought into Europe in 1960, by accidental introduction into Romanian
ponds with other fish larvae, and has since spread rapidly across continental
Europe (Copp et al. 2005b). This may to some extent reflect a high tolerance
of environmental variation and phenotypic plasticity (Rosecchi et al. 2001),
features that are frequently associated with translocation success and rapid
invasion (Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1998), as populations of topmouth gudgeon
thrive in streams, rivers, and still waters (Pinder and Gozlan 2003).
The high level of dietary overlap of topmouth gudgeon and indigenous species
such as roach, and a voracious appetite for fish eggs of other fish species (Xie
et al. 2000, 2001), indicates a high potential for interspecific interactions
(Declerk et al. 2002, Pinder and Gozlan 2003, Hickley and Chare 2004). This
may explain the rapid expansion of populations of introduced topmouth
gudgeon that typically dominate and replace other cyprinids. A part of this
invasion may reflect the effects of a recently discovered infectious disease
transmitted by topmouth gudgeon (Gozlan et al. 2005, Pinder et al. 2005)
that may infect indigenous fish species.
The first known introduction to the UK was in the mid-1980s at a fish farm in
southern England (Gozlan et al. 2002). Large geographical distances between
current UK populations strongly suggest that humans have played a major role
in dispersal of topmouth gudgeon (Pinder and Gozlan 2003, Pinder et al. 2005)
and that a major dispersal process is inadvertent translocation between fisheries
or fish farms, along with other species (Pinder et al. 2005). Currently, most
topmouth gudgeon populations in Britain are in enclosed lakes and still water
bodies distributed throughout England and Wales, but several of these sites are
connected to river systems. Topmouth gudgeon have already been identified in
the River Itchen and the River Test, in the latter location having escaped from a
connected still water site (Pinder et al. 2005). Their potential dispersal via saline
routes has not yet been considered but will be highly dependent on their
tolerance of saline waters.
Topmouth gudgeon, captured at Crampmoor Fish Farm in Hampshire and
exposed to freshwater (0.2 psu), an iso-osmotic salinity (10.8 psu), and
13.7 psu, showed 100% survival of all of the experimental conditions for up
to 4 days, but feeding on bloodworms was depressed in both 10.8 psu and
13.7 psu. When exposed to iso-osmotic conditions (10.8 psu), topmouth
gudgeon showed a similar increase in plasma osmolality as seen in sunbleak
(Fig. 1). Exposure to 13.7 psu had a slightly less marked effect than in sunbleak,
and after 24 h topmouth gudgeon had a plasma osmolality slightly below that
of the environment (hypo-osmotic), with a mean plasma osmolality of
344 mOsm kg1. However, this was not maintained after 4 days of exposure
to 13.7 psu (Fig. 1) and may simply reflect a slight delay in achieving the
elevation in plasma osmolality seen in strictly freshwater fish when they are
exposed to saline waters (Abo Hegab and Hanke 1982, Van der Linden et al.
1999).
Our results suggest that neither topmouth gudgeon nor sunbleak are likely to
make significant use of water with salinities greater than 13.7 psu for dispersal
in the wild. Certainly, their tolerance of salinities is far less than that of
pikeperch. However, even this saline tolerance may permit some dispersal via
coastal waters and given that in topmouth gudgeon the plasma osmolality
remains below that of the environment for at least 24 h, short migrations
could occur in mesohaline coastal regions of the Baltic including the coasts of
Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, and Estonia.
SUMMARY AND WIDER CONCLUSIONS
Our physiological and behavioural studies focused on one type of environmental

stressor, salinity, that has generally been assumed to limit dispersal of fresh-
water invasive fishes. Other water quality parameters will also inevitably be
involved and ultimately the combined influences of these conditions on dispersal
need to be incorporated into models that predict the rate and extent of expan-
sion of invasive species. Of the three invasive species studied (pikeperch, top-
mouth gudgeon, and sunbleak), pikeperch showed greatest saline tolerance and
evidence of osmoregulatory mechanisms, such as stimulation of drinking, to
achieve hypo-osmoregulation when fish meet sufficiently saline waters (in
excess of approximately 12 psu). Populations of pikeperch have so far only
expanded gradually in UK fresh waters, but are now widespread in continental
Europe, and saline tolerance is likely to have aided this dispersal. In the UK,
pikeperch have now reached the tidal limits of several river systems. Here, we
predict that their physiological responses to salinity could facilitate invasion of
contiguous freshwater systems. The behavioural responses of pikeperch to
increased salinity with increased swimming and vertical movement within the
water column at >12.5 psu is likely to take them into the uppermost haloclines
with lower salinity and would aid movement downstream.
In contrast to the rather slow dispersal of pikeperch, both sunbleak and
topmouth gudgeon have shown rapid expansion once introduced, but our
results suggest that both species are likely to be restricted by saline waters,
with estuaries presenting a barrier to dispersion. Topmouth gudgeon showed a
slightly greater ability than sunbleak to cope with saline water as a slight hypo-
osmotic state was initially apparent after exposure to 13.7 psu. However,
although both sunbleak and topmouth gudgeon survived this salinity for sev-
eral days, the inhibition of feeding that we have observed strongly suggests that
in the wild, their performance will be severely compromised once salinity
reaches 11 psu.
Although our studies have focused on three NIS of current importance in the
UK, the insights gained are relevant in considering dispersal of non-indigenous
fish species throughout the world. Indeed, investigation of the salinity tolerance
of an American invasive species, the flathead catfish Pylodictis olivaris (Rafin-
esque), has recently identified possible dispersion through estuaries (Bringolf
et al. 2005). This kind of dispersion has been observed in the non-indigenous
gibel (or Prussian) carp, Carassius gibelio (Bloch), that was first introduced into
ponds and small lakes of Estonia in the late 1940s. The gibel carp was first
detected in Estonian brackish waters (Gulf of Riga) in 1985 and has since spread
along the entire Estonian Baltic coastline (Vetemaa et al. 2005). This provides
the potential for gibel carp to disperse to many new freshwater systems. Further
studies of NIS are required on a case-by-case basis so as to provide information
that can be used in the risk assessments increasingly employed to inform
policymakers and regulators.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was partially supported by the Natural Environment Research Coun-
cil, UK (NE/B502436). We are grateful to Dr. Rudy Gozlan, Adrian Pinder and
Kathleen Beyer (Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Winfrith Technology Centre,
Dorset) and Dr. Gordon Copp (Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture
Science, Lowestoft, Suffolk) for helpful discussions regarding the dispersal of
sunbleak and topmouth gudgeon in the UK, and to Adrian Pinder for help in
capture of sunbleak. We are also grateful to Andy Thomas (Environment
Agency) and Mark Stollery (Crampmoor Fish Farm) in enabling us to obtain
topmouth gudgeon for these studies. Sue Frankling has provided valuable tech-
nical assistance and we have welcomed the participation of several students
(Wilaf Moore, Madeleine Brown, Daniel Depledge, Sue Fleming, Greg Langham)
in our studies of the physiology and behaviour of non-indigenous fish.
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Chapter twenty-two
Which factors determine

non-indigenous fish
dispersal? A study of the
red piranha in tropical
Brazilian lakes
Anderson O. Latini and Miguel Petrere Jr.
THE FISH INVASION
Fish introductions are common worldwide and are responsible for economic and
ecological damage (Welcomme 1988). Non-indigenous fish have been the
leading cause of the extinction of fish species in North America (Miller et al.
1989) and worldwide (Mooney and Cleland 2001). In Brazil, fish introductions
are common; they may cause the local extinction of indigenous fish species and
contribute to biodiversity decline and biotic homogenization (Latini and Petrere
2004, Agostinho et al. 2005). Nowadays, 134 freshwater fish are endangered in
Brazil due to pollution, siltation, impoundments and flood control, fisheries, and
introductions of non-indigenous species (NIS) (Agostinho et al. 2005).
In the River Doce basin (State of Minas Gerais), there are about 140 natural
lakes where some non-indigenous fish have been introduced for sport-fishing
purposes. One of these species is the red piranha, Pygocentrus nattereri (Kner), a
piscivorous characid fish that also feeds on shrimps and other aquatic inverte-
brates (Sazima and Machado 1990, Uetanabaro et al. 1993). The red piranha is
415
ß 2007 Springer.
416 Anderson O. Latini and Miguel Petrere Jr.
naturally distributed in South America in the Amazon River basin, Paraguai–

Paraná River basin, north-eastern Brazilian costal rivers, and the Essequibo
River basin (Froese and Pauly 2006), and nowadays has a wide distribution (as
NIS) on this lake system (Latini et al. 2004). It is possible that temporary canals
connecting lakes and streams during the rainy season facilitated the spread of
this species across lakes.
We used a ‘‘range assessment’’ of the red piranhas in the lakes of this area
(Latini et al. 2004) and analysed whether abiotic factors are affecting their
distribution in this system, testing the following hypotheses:
(i) The red piranha has a lower probability of colonization on lakes with larger areas.
Larger lakes must have larger species richness, so an inverse relationship
between species richness and invasion success is expected (Elton 1958,
Levine and D’Antonio 1999, Sakai et al. 2001).
(ii) Lakes with a higher density of aquatic macrophyte mats show decreasing prob-
ability of red piranha colonization. Macrophyte mats provide refuges to a prey,
which is less suitable to a predator (Crowder and Cooper 1982, Power et al.
1992), so it would be more difficult for the red piranha propagules to persist
in lakes with more refuges.
(iii) There are some limits on the range of physical or abiotic factors in areas where
the red piranha propagules may have a successful colonization. The ecological
niche theory (Hutchinson 1957) points to a specific combination of condi-
tions and resources that describe a specific n-dimensional limit where
species may occur. Thus, the red piranha must have limitations to its ability
to colonize some lakes due to these environmental variables.
(iv) Longer temporary canals between lakes and streams decrease the probability of
red piranha colonization of some lakes. Due to physiological limitations or
stochastic factors, increasing canal length would increase the difficulty
experienced by the non-indigenous fish accessing new habitats.
METHODS OF STUDY
This study was conducted between coordinates 42845’ W and 42825’ W,

19850’ S and 19830’ S in the Atlantic Forest biome, one of the most important
biodiversity hotspots in Brazil (Myers et al. 2000). These lakes are distributed
over an area of about 58,000 ha, 36,000 ha of which are in the protected area
of Parque Estadual do Rio Doce (PERD), and the remaining 22,000 ha are in
Eucalyptus plantations of the Companhia Agrı́cola Florestal (CAF, Arcelor
Group). Fishing activities are allowed only for scientific purposes in the PERD
area, but in the CAF area fishing is permitted in some lakes for sport. The 57
lakes included in this study are distributed among three stream basins: Belém,
Turvo, and Mombaça, which are related to paleo-courses of the River Doce
(Fig. 1).
Dispersal of the red piranha in tropical Brazilian lakes 417
Fig. 1 Study area. The picture shows the lakes (black spots) and the streams (grey lines)
in an area of about 35 46 km. All 57 study lakes are marked. Gray squares denote where
the red piranha is present and white circle where the red piranha is absent. Native Atlantic
Forest (PERD) and eucalyptus (CAF) area are illustrated in different shades of gray.
Between February and May 2002, Latini et al. (2004) used a rapid assess-
ment programme to obtain the red piranha distribution in this lake system.
They used visual methods, line fishing, and gill netting on all these 57 lakes. In
that study the red piranha was considered present if it was detected with some of
these techniques. This ‘‘range assessment’’ was used in this study to test
relations between the red piranha and abiotic factors.
The area of the lakes, the total area with aquatic macrophyte mats, and the
temporary canal lengths (between a specific lake and the nearest stream) were
measured based on a Landsat 7 (ETMþ) satellite image. The total lake perimeter
covered by aquatic macrophyte mats was directly estimated on 16 lakes by
visual inspection of the shoreline using a boat. Additional measured factors
were oxygen content (mg L1), pH, electrical conductivity (mmho cm1), and
turbidity levels (NTU – nephelometric turbidity units) obtained with specific
equipments.
To verify the association between the red piranha distribution (dependent
variable) and the sampled variables (independent variables), we fitted the
Logistic Regression model and tested this fit using 5% probability of a type I
error. This model gives an easy statistical interpretation and comprehensible
biological conclusions (Hosmer and Lemeshow 1989).
ARE THERE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN NON-INDIGENOUS FISH

AND ABIOTIC FACTORS?
The occurrence of the red piranha was not associated with the area of the lakes
(n ¼ 57; X2 ¼ 0.36; P ¼ 0.55; x ¼ 34.4, s ¼ 40.6 to non-invaded lakes and
x ¼ 77.4, s ¼ 100.3 to invaded lakes), or with the density of aquatic macro-
phytes, i.e. a refuge for indigenous species (n ¼ 16; X2 ¼ 0.03; P ¼ 0.87; x ¼ 1.1,
s ¼ 0.63 to non-invaded lakes and x ¼ 0.8, s ¼ 1.3 to invaded lakes). Relation-
ships between the species occurrence and oxygen content (n ¼ 17; X2 ¼ 0.02;
P ¼ 0.88; x ¼ 17.8, s ¼ 2.26 to non-invaded lakes and x ¼ 17.7, s ¼ 2.2 to
invaded lakes), pH (n ¼ 15; X2 ¼ 3.71; P ¼ 0.06; x ¼ 8.32, s ¼ 0.99 to non-
invaded lakes and x ¼ 7.32, s ¼ 0.88 to invaded lakes), electrical conductivity
(n ¼ 19; X2 ¼ 0.30; P ¼ 0.58; x ¼ 3.25, s ¼ 1.96 to non-invaded lakes and
x ¼ 4.18, s ¼ 1.45 to invaded lakes), and water turbidity (n ¼ 18; X2 ¼ 1.45;
P ¼ 0.22; x ¼ 7.94, s ¼ 6.89 to non-invaded lakes and x ¼ 8.46, s ¼ 4.8 to
invaded lakes) were also not significant. So, the occurrence of the red piranha
in these lakes seemed not to be affected by the above cited environmental
features of the lakes. In contrast, the occurrence of the red piranha was strongly
associated with the length of temporary canals (n ¼ 57; X2 ¼ 17.91; P < 0.001;
x ¼ 3419.3, s ¼ 3162.1 to non-invaded lakes and x ¼ 1241.1, s ¼ 1125.4
to invaded lakes) and the probability of occurrence decreased with an
increase in the length of the temporary canals that linked the lakes to the
streams (b ¼ 1.879; Fig. 2).
Probability of occurrence of the red piranha 1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
439 1354 2269 3184 4099 5015 5930 6845 7760 8675
Temporary canal length interval (m)
Fig. 2 Probability of occurrence of the red piranha related to the length of temporary
canals linking the lakes and the nearest stream. Each point illustrates the probability of
occurrence of the red piranha in a lakes’ group with a specific temporary canal length
interval.
The majority of the invaded lakes are in the PERD area, where the canals are
about three times smaller than in CAF area (mean length of 0.92 km in PERD
vs. 2.82 km in CAF; Student’s t ¼ 3.56; df ¼ 24.49; P < 0.01). However, it is
possible to identify a specific canal length interval (between 2.27 and 2.73 km)
with a higher probability of the occurrence incidence of the red piranha,
contrary to the prediction of the model (Fig. 2).
IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIGENOUS FISH CONSERVATION
The species richness of the indigenous community in the lakes is low (Latini and
Petrere 2004) which might cause a low resistance to the invasion of NIS (Mack
et al. 2000). Invasive species success in these lakes, as well as in other systems,
may be increased by the life history characteristics of the invader (Lodge 1993,
Kolar and Lodge 2001). In fact, the red piranha exhibits territorial behaviour
during the reproductive season with strong parental care (Uetanabaro et al.
1993) and an efficient predatory habit (Sazima and Machado 1990). These
properties might certainly favour its colonization of these lakes (Latini and
Petrere 2004).
Several studies showed that environmental variables can facilitate the inva-
sion of NIS (Moyle and Light 1996a, b, Moyle et al. 2003, Marchetti et al. 2004).
In the lakes we studied (either invaded or not by the red piranha), the abiotic
factors did not limit the red piranha distribution against expectations from the
theory and as reported in several studies on different species (e.g. Jackson et al.
2001, Kouamélan et al. 2003, Sweka and Hartman 2003). For this reason, it is
reasonable to assume that the red piranha success in invading novel habitats is
related to its biological potential.
In the river Doce lake system, natural dispersal across the temporary canals is
the most important factor determining the red piranha distribution. Invaded
lakes are more frequent inside the environmentally protected area than outside
due to shorter temporary canals linking the lakes to streams in the protected
area. The success of this species decreases with the increasing length of the
temporary canals linking lakes to streams. This pattern was also found in other
aquatic invasive species, such as Daphnia lumholtzi (Sars) in North America
(Havel et al. 2002) and Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) in both North America
and Europe (Kraft et al. 2002). Lakes with lower spatial isolation are more
susceptible to invasions and consequently deserve special attention and early
conservation action.
Lakes with long canals are naturally protected from natural invasion by
the non-indigenous red piranha. Probably, human mediated dispersal is the
main cause of red piranha introduction and colonization in these lakes. In fact,
the vestiges of fishermen (e.g. used hooks, nets, and fishing line) were observed
in almost all of these study lakes.
Once established in a new habitat, the control of this invasive species or its
eradication is difficult and virtually impossible (Simberloff 2001). If the red
piranha is an effective invader of the River Doce lakes and its distribution is
determined by the length of canals linking lakes to streams, lakes near streams
and not yet invaded will probably be so in the future. On the other hand, more
isolated lakes have minor chances of a natural invasion by the red piranha.
Therefore, we think that the best option for the conservation of the indigenous
fish community would be to concentrate political and conservation efforts on
lakes far from streams. Additionally, action to increase awareness by local
populations may also be very important to avoid the introduction of the red
piranha into these lakes by fishermen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is part of a Ph.D. thesis presented to the ecology postgraduate

programme of the Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) by A.O.
Latini, advised by M. Petrere Jr. It was supported by the Fundo Nacional do
Meio Ambiente (FNMA 80/2001), Ministério do Meio Ambiente, and by the
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico e Tecnológico (CNPq) in
association with the Instituto de Pesquisas da Mata Atlântica (IPEMA). The

authors thank the Instituto Estadual de Florestas de Minas Gerais (IEF) and the
Companhia Agrı́cola Florestal Santa Bárbara (CAF - Grupo Arcelor) for logistic
support, and they are grateful to Dr. Daniela C. Resende who read an early draft
of this chapter.
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Chapter twenty-three
The relationship between

biodiversity and invasibility
in central Swedish lakes
invaded by Elodea species
Daniel Larson and Eva Willén
INTRODUCTION
Since only a fraction of non-indigenous species (NIS) become invasive, it has

long been a desirable goal to predict those associated with the largest risks. In
addition, some environments have more frequently suffered from biological
invasions than others, which has raised the question of whether environment
invasibility can be predicted. Many attempts have been made to find general
characteristics distinguishing NIS that have become invasive from those that
have not, as well as invaded environments from non-invaded environments, but
often with ambiguous results (Williamson 1999).
One of the most debated factors suggested to affect the invasibility of an
environment is biological diversity. Biodiversity has been proposed to both act
as a barrier for invasions (Elton 1958, Tilman 1999) and, conversely, to
increase the likelihood that introduced species find suitable environments
for establishment (Stohlgren et al. 2003). With high biodiversity it is possible
that more niches are occupied, which would result in more resistant commu-
nities. On the other hand, high biodiversity may be an effect of high niche
richness, and, thus, the community would be more likely suitable for a potential
invader.
423
ß 2007 Springer.
424 Daniel Larson and Eva Willén
To our knowledge, of how species richness affects the invasion process

has never previously been assessed for lake ecosystems or aquatic plants. In
addition, most studies on biodiversity have correlated the number of NIS within
an area with the number of indigenous species, without considering the effect
of the match between species and environment. Such an approach may be
misleading, since different types of environments both support different number
of species and are under different propagule pressure. This chapter will assess
how biodiversity affects the establishment of NIS using an approach that
includes only two species with similar spreading patterns and environmental
demands to avoid the bias correlation studies could experience.
DOES BIODIVERSITY MATTER?
To assess how biodiversity affects the establishment of non-indigenous aquatic

plants, invaded and non-invaded lakes were compared. Species data were
assembled from a recent investigation of the aquatic plant species composition
of 275 lakes situated in a small geographical area in central Sweden, close to
Stockholm (Södertörnsekologerna 2001). Within the studied area, only two
plant species have been recognized as invaders: the North American elodeids
Elodea canadensis Michx. and Elodea nuttallii (Planch.) H. St. John. These species
are not only ecologically similar but also have similar histories of invasion in
Europe. In the studied area, E. canadensis was first found in the late 19th
century, whereas E. nuttallii has been noted only during the last 25 years
(Larson and Willén 2006). Of the 275 surveyed lakes, 27 were found to have
been invaded by one or both Elodea species. Here, invaded lakes were compared
with non-invaded lakes in terms of species richness measured as number of free-
floating, floating-leaved, and submerged plants (except for the non-indigenous
Elodea species).
The methods used in the studies from which species data were taken differed;
sampling effort depended on the surface area of the lake. Hence, the likelihood of
detecting rare species within a lake varies with the lake area. For small lakes
(<0.01 km2) only one profile was mapped; for intermediate-sized lakes
(0.01–1 km2) two profiles were mapped; and for large lakes (>1 km2) three
or more profiles were mapped. Further, surveys were made outside the profiles
to create a list of all plant species in the lake. Here, species lists both on the
whole lake basis and on profile basis (n ¼ 512) have been used.
The number of indigenous species was found to be positively related to
invasibility. Invaded lakes contained more species than non-invaded lakes
(Table 1). Not only the overall number of species, but also the number of
elodeids, i.e. species of the same guild as the Elodea species, was larger in the
invaded lakes. However, when assessing biological diversity it is important to
consider the concept of spatial scale, since area is positively correlated with
species richness, a relation also showed for aquatic plants (Jones et al. 2003,
Biodiversity vs. invasibility in lakes invaded by Elodea 425
Table 1 Differences in species-richness, surface area, shore line irregularity, trophic

ranking score, maximum depth, and altitude between invaded and non-invaded
lakes. Number of lakes (invaded, non-invaded) are as follows: all lakes ¼ 275 (27,
248) and sampled lakes ¼ 38 (23, 15). Numbers of profiles are 79 and 433 for all
lakes respectively, and 58 and 53 for the sampled lakes.
All lakes Sampled lakes
Invaded Non-invaded Invaded Non-invaded
Species richness, lake level 14 5.5 *** 13 7.7 *

Elodeid richness, lake level 8.4 2.2 *** 8.1 3.3 **
Species richness, site level 7.9 4.3 *** 8.1 4.5 ***
Elodeid richness, site level 4.9 1.4 *** 4.8 1.8 ***
Surface area [km2] 46 0.26 ** 2.2 0.72 NS
Length of shore line [km] 15 2.4 *** 14 4.9 NS
Shore line irregularity 3.0 1.6 *** 2.8 1.8 *
Maximum depth [m] 15 6.4 ** 14 8.2 *
Altitude [m] 18 33 *** 18 27 *
Trophic ranking score 8.1 7.3 *** 8.1 7.4 *
Student’s t-test: *P < 0.05. **P < 0.01. ***P < 0.001.
Rørslett 1991). Spatial scale has also been reported to affect the outcome when
assessing the relationship between biodiversity and invasibility (Herben et al.
2004). In addition, since sampling efforts were larger for larger lakes than for
smaller lakes and the invaded lakes were larger, the resulting species richness
could also be interpreted as an effect of both size and sampling effort. To reduce
these possible biases, species richness was also examined at site level. However,
at the scale-independent site level, habitats with more aquatic plant species
were more frequently invaded, both when comparing all sites with and without
Elodea spp. and when comparing only invaded and non-invaded sites within the
invaded lakes (Table 1). Hence, the results found are interpreted as not just an
effect of size. The pattern described above was similar in a subset of the 275
lakes containing 23 invaded and 15 non-invaded lakes, which were compared
for water chemistry.
THE ROLE OF HABITAT HETEROGENEITY
The pattern described in the previous section, i.e. habitats with more aquatic
plant species were more frequently invaded by the Elodea species, needs to be
further explored. Our hypothesis was that species richness and invasibility were
not affected by each other, but instead that a different common factor affected
both processes. One possible explanation was that the invaded lakes had a richer
habitat heterogeneity and thereby more suitable niches for occupation, for
both indigenous and non-indigenous species. Therefore, in addition to species
richness, the lakes were also assigned values for their habitat heterogeneity.
How can habitat heterogeneity be measured?
The larger an area, be it aquatic or terrestrial, the more different types of

habitats are likely to be represented, and hence a larger number of species are
supported. Moreover, larger areas can also contain several species with similar
niches if similar habitats are spatially separated. However, more factors than the
size of an area control habitat heterogeneity. For instance, different types of
wind and wave exposure create different bottom types in lakes. Hence, lakes
with a non-circular shape are likely to contain many gradients of sheltered and
exposed areas, and are therefore also more likely to have high habitat hetero-
geneity. To relate habitat heterogeneity to species richness, and in the long run
also to invasibility, both lake area and irregularity of the shore line were
calculated (Equation 1; Wetzel 1975).
L
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (1)
2 Ap
L ¼ Length of shore line (km)
A ¼ Surface area (km2 )
Differences in heterogeneity
Lake surface area and shore line irregularity are indicators of habitat hetero-
geneity and both were larger in the invaded lakes. The relationship between
habitat heterogeneity and species richness, also found in other studies (e.g.
Burnett et al. 1998, Nichols et al. 1998, Honnay et al. 2003), became clear
when the number of plant species were plotted against surface area (Fig. 1a)
and shore line irregularity (Fig. 1b).
OTHER INVOLVED MECHANISMS
When searching for relationships in nature, it is important to simultaneously

consider several mechanisms. Therefore, in addition to our main hypothesis of
habitat heterogeneity, consideration was given to other factors affecting the
invasion process, i.e. environmental conditions affecting the species, propagule
pressure, and anthropogenic disturbances. To get a comprehensive picture, a
subset of the 275 lakes was investigated further. This subset of lakes was
selected using two criteria followed by random selection. The two criteria
(a) (b)
30 30
25 25
Species richness
Species richness
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Log surface area (m2) Shore line irregularity
Fig. 1 Relationship between species-richness, surface area and shore line irregularity.
a) Linear regression between species-richness and surface area (adj. R2 ¼ 0.25,
P < 0.001, n ¼ 275).
b) Linear regression between species-richness and shore line irregularity (adj. R2 ¼ 0.26,
P < 0.001, n ¼ 275).
used were surface area (0.05–15 km2) and distance to the closest invaded lake
(< 5 km), which resulted in 23 invaded lakes and 93 non-invaded lakes. The
choice of distance was based on the shortage distance by which 95% of
the invaded lakes where interconnected. The excluded lakes varied considerably
in size or were considered to be too far from a propagule source. Of the 93
non-invaded lakes meeting these criteria, 15 were randomly selected. These
non-invaded lakes were compared with the 23 invaded lakes for physical and
chemical conditions, propagule pressure, and anthropogenic disturbances.
Habitat match
Water chemistry and light climate were sampled in the 38 lakes and analysed
according to international (ISO/EN) standard methods (Wilander et al. 2003).
Based on the plant species assemblages in each lake, trophic ranking scores
(ranging from 1 to 10) were calculated according to Palmer et al. (1992). The
score assigned to a lake is the mean of the scores for all species present. A low
score indicates that a species most often is found in nutrient-poor environments,
and a high score indicates the affinity of a species to a nutrient-rich environment.
The use of biota as indicators of a nutrient state gives a more comprehensive
picture of the available nutrients than that revealed by a few direct water-
chemical measurements.
Invaded lakes did not differ from non-invaded lakes in most aspects. When
reducing the compared variables to two principal components, separation
between the invaded and non-invaded lakes appeared on the second axis
for principal component analysis (PCA, Fig. 2a). However, when PCA were per-
formed on chemistry and morphometry variables separately, only morphometry
(a) (b)
1.5 1.5
Lenght of shore line Absorbance

Area Shore line irreg. Tot-P
Depth Tot-N
Color
NH4
SO4
pH Mg
Ca pH K
Mg
Alk. K Alk.
Altitude Cl Cond. Cond.
Na Ca Na
Res. areas of low build. SO4
Main roads Cl
Tot-P
NO2+NO3
Color Absorbance
−1.0 −1.0
−1.5 1.5 −1.5 1.5
(c) (d)
1.5 1.5
Industial areas Residential areas
of high buildings
Depth
Country roads Main roads

Area
Lenght of shore line
Shore line Residential areas
irregularity of low buildings
Summer cottage
Altitude areas Bathing sites
−1.0 −1.5
−1.5 1.5 −1.0 2.5
Fig. 2 Principal components analysis performed in CANOCO Version 4.5 (Ter Braak
and Smilauer 2002). Mean and SD of invaded lakes (solid crosses, n ¼ 23) and
non-invaded lakes (dashed crosses, n ¼ 15). Differences between invaded lakes and
non-invaded lakes tested with t-test.
a) Water chemistry, morphometry, and urbanization (variables with a principal length
less than 0.5 not shown). One reference lake was excluded prior to analysis due to its
extremely high conductivity. Eigenvalues and P-values are 0.359 and 0.312 respectively
for the first ordination axis, and 0.137 and 0.003 for the second ordination axis.
b) Water chemistry variables. One reference lake was excluded due to its extremely high
conductivity. Eigenvalues and P-values are 0.531 and 0.238 respectively for the first
ordination axis, and 0.149 and 0.259 for the second ordination axis.
c) Morphometry variables. One invaded lake was excluded prior to analysis due to its
extremely large area, length of shore line, and shore line irregularity. Eigenvalues and P-
values are 0.586 and 0.008 respectively for the first ordination axis, and 0.237 and
0.0437 for the second ordination axis.
d) Urbanization variables. Eigenvalues and P-values are 0.314 and 0.391 respectively for
the first ordination axis, and 0.226 and 0.910 for the second ordination axis.
variables successfully separated invaded lakes from non-invaded lakes

(Fig. 2b-c). The results from the PCA are in line with results obtained from
testing one variable at the time with the Student’s t-test. In the t-tests, most
morphometry variables differed between invaded and non-invaded lakes, e.g.
surface area and shore line irregularity (Table 1), whereas the chemistry was
similar in the two groups of lakes (Table 2).
Table 2 Means and standard deviations of water chemistry, light climate, and
urbanization variables not differentiating invaded from non-invaded lakes (Student’s
t-test, P > 0.05). The number of lakes is 38 (23 invaded and 15 non-invaded).
Invaded lakes Non-invaded lakes
Mean SD Mean SD
pH 8.0 0.63 7.7 0.72

Conductivity [mS cm1] 0.24 0.11 0.25 0.27
Alkalinity 1.0 0.41 0.85 0.60
Tot-P [mg L1] 27 16 30 23
Tot-N [mg L1] 0.63 0.29 0.57 0.19
NO2þNO3 [mg L1] 4.7 1.7 4.3 1.7
NH4 [mg L1] 8.6 7.7 9.9 6.6
Ca [mekv L1] 1.1 0.46 0.93 0.66
Mg [mekv L1] 0.35 0.091 0.32 0.25
Na [mekv L1] 0.85 0.52 0.98 0.65
K [mekv L1] 0.061 0.024 0.060 0.011
SO4 [mekv L1] 0.40 0.17 0.36 0.27
Cl [mekv L1] 0.72 0.49 1.1 1.9
Absorbance. non filtered [420nm 5cm1] 0.11 0.055 0.16 0.097
Water colour [mg Pt L1] 25 14 30 20
Bathing sites (number per km2 lake area) 1.1 2.0 2.2 5.4
Summer cottage areas (%) 4.7 7.9 4.2 8.1
Residential areas of low-rise buildings (%) 8.3 10 11 21
Residential areas of high-rise buildings (%) 0.50 1.3 0.75 1.5
Industrial areas (%) 0.56 1.6 2.5 8.8
Country roads (km per km2) 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.5
Main road (km per km2) 3.8 1.9 4.2 3.0
Although not considered here, other environmental factors might be of

importance for the establishment of the Elodea species. For instance, adaptation
to seasonal nutrient fluctuations has been proposed as one of the key factors
explaining the success of invasions by Elodea species. (Thiébaut 2005).
Propagule pressure
Propagule pressure was, not surprisingly, larger for the invaded lakes, inter-
preted by a higher occurrence of Elodea species upstream to invaded lakes (9 of
23) than upstream to lakes without Elodea species (0 of 15; Pearson Chi-square
statistics: P < 0.01). An unexpected finding was that not a single non-invaded
lake was connected with invaded lakes upstream. This finding could suggest
that propagule pressure determines the invasion success of the Elodea species.
However, most invaded lakes also lacked invaded upstream lakes. Such a
coincidence suggests invasions from other pathways.
The interference of human related actions may also spread Elodea species,
particularly activities such as boating (Johnstone et al. 1985) and fishing,
although these were not considered here. However, invaded lakes did not
contain more bathing sites, nor did they contain more summer cottage areas
(Table 2). Hence, it seems likely that both groups of lakes are equally used for
recreational boating, although it is possible that lakes without bathing sites or
summer cottage areas are frequently used for recreational boating.
Anthropogenic disturbance
Anthropogenic processes may affect the structure and function of lake

ecosystems in numerous ways. It has been proposed to be that invasibility is
affected by the presence of humans due to increased environmental disturbance
and the transportation of propagules (King and Buckney 2000). Therefore, an
estimate of the total disturbance was assigned to each lake by calculating
variables such as the percent urban area, length of roads, number of bathing
sites in the area surrounding the lakes (500 m from the shore) using Geograph-
ical Information System (GIS) software. However, in the studied area, these
urbanization variables did not differ for invaded lakes and non-invaded lakes
(Table 2, Fig. 2d).
CONTRADICTING THEORIES
Many theories have been developed in the field of invasion biology, some
to explain why certain environments suffer from biological invasions more
frequently than other environments. Elton (1958) proposed that species-poor
communities were more vulnerable to invasions, based on observations from
highly invaded oceanic islands. Different kinds of theoretical support for Elton’s
ideas were soon presented, e.g. by MacArthur (1972) who suggested that the
more species present, the more effectively resources would be used, which
would result in more resistant communities. Biological diversity has been
proposed to act as a barrier for invasions based on the assumption that
the more species are present, the more niches are occupied. However, high
biological diversity may also indicate high habitat heterogeneity, which in turn
increases the likelihood that an introduced species finds a suitable environment
for establishment.
Just as different theories predict different outcomes, results from different
studies are contradictory; some show cases where the number of biological
invasions is negatively correlated with biological diversity, i.e. where the
diversity acts as an invasion barrier. This kind of result is often obtained in
experimental studies, but many experiments have been criticized for their design
(Wardle 2001). Most observational studies, on the other hand, report that the
number of invasion is positively correlated with biodiversity (Levine and
D’Antonio 1999). In this study, we found no evidence for any direct relation-
ship between invasibility and species richness. However, we suggest that the
same underlying factors affect the richness of non-indigenous and indigenous
species. Although it is plausible that higher biodiversity leads to more efficient
resource use, which in turn could reduce the likelihood of establishment of NIS,
the strength of this effect may be small compared to the effect of other factors.
Perhaps the weakness of the diversity effect is the reason why a negative
relationship only has been detected in controlled experiments whereas field
observations show the opposite. Although diversity may exert a too weak effect
on the establishment success of NIS (i.e. the invasibility), it may affect their
abundance (Levine et al. 2004). Thus, diversity should be considered when both
the likelihood of establishment and the potential effects of a NIS are assessed.
CONCLUSIONS
Most observational studies on how biodiversity affects the invasion process

have compared environments with different degrees of invasion, i.e. correlated
biodiversity with invasibility. With such an approach, no consideration is given
to the potential influence of different numbers of species in different environ-
ment. In this chapter, an approach that includes only two species with similar
spreading patterns and environmental demands is used to investigate how lakes
invaded and non-invaded by these species differ in species-richness and other
aspects, i.e. chemistry, morphometry, and anthropogenic disturbance. The
number of lakes sampled for water chemistry and scored for proximity to
populated areas (n ¼ 38) and the diversity of their water quality would probably
have shown significant trends if these types of variables were unambiguous
indicators of Elodea invasions. The best indicator was instead the diversity of
other aquatic plant species, which in turn is an indicator of habitat hetero-
geneity. We suggest that habitat heterogeneity is the underlying mechanism
causing a positive relationship between biodiversity and invasibility.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Francesca Gherardi for the invitation to contribute to this volume.

We also thank Frauke Ecke and two anonymous referees for providing
valuable comments on the manuscript. This study is part of the AquAliens
project dealing with non-indigenous aquatic species in marine and freshwater
environments of Sweden. Financial support from the Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency is gratefully acknowledged.
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Impacts of invaders
I believe that the strongest ethical bases, and possibly the only ethical bases, for
concern about introduced species are that they can threaten the existence of native
species and communities and that they can cause staggering damage, reflected in
economic terms, to human endeavors.
Daniel Simberloff (2003)
Chapter twenty-four
Measuring the impact

of freshwater NIS:
what are we missing?
Francesca Gherardi
There is no data like more data

(Mercer 1998)
INTRODUCTION
Within the last two decades, the dangers that some non-indigenous species
(NIS) pose to indigenous species, ecosystem functioning, economic interests,
and public health have been abundantly publicized in both the scientific and the
popular literatures. A flood of publications, under the format of both synthetic
overviews and detailed accounts of some species, accompanied the heightened
interest in biological invasions (e.g. Williamson 1996, Mack et al. 2000, Cox
2004). Several underlined the dramatic effects that these species induce to the
recipient environment and ascribed them to the potential of NIS to (1) alter and
disrupt the biotic structure of ecosystems; (2) affect the wellbeing of other
species; (3) push many species toward extinction; (4) reduce the productivity
of agriculture and aquaculture; and (5) pose threats to human health and to the
health of domesticated or semidomesticated plants and animals (Cox 2004). The
media often featured both general problems (e.g. Bright 1998, Devine 1999, Di
Justo 2006) and ‘‘the invader of the week’’ (Simberloff 2003a). Many nations
(e.g. New Zealand, South Africa, USA, Canada, European Union) and inter-
national organizations (e.g. IUCN) began to consider the ecological impact of
some NIS as one of the world’s most serious conservation issues and several
437
ß 2007 Springer.
attempted to improve administrative and legal solutions (Simberloff 2003a).

Meanwhile, two points have become universally clear: (1) the introduced species
already established in natural areas are far more numerous than managers can
really control and (2) their number is inevitably destined to increase as a conse-
quence of the exponential growth of transport and commerce (Ewell et al. 1999).
Luckily, not ‘‘every barrel contains bad apples’’ (Sagoff 1999) and not neces-
sarily ‘‘the worst of species’’ are ‘‘the ones that are alien and numerically
successful’’ (Slobodkin 2001). On the contrary, the enormous benefits of some
of the introduced species are universally recognized. Humans, it has been
claimed, depend heavily on several non-indigenous organisms for food, shelter,
medicine, ecosystem services, aesthetic enjoyment, and cultural identity (Ewel
et al. 1999). Also among those species that have been inadvertently introduced
by man, as many as 80–90%, according to the ‘‘tens rule’’ (Williamson 1996) –
or less than 75%, at least for some taxa, according to Jerscke and Strayer (2005) –
may actually have minimal detectable effects on the environment.
Indeed, the classification of NIS in function of the good and the bad they
provide to both the environment and humans is implicit in the formal definition
of ‘‘invasive species’’ first given by the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD 2001) – ‘‘alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats, or
species’’ – and then by 1999 President Clinton’s Executive Order 13112 – ‘‘alien
species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental
harm or harm to human health’’ (Clinton 1999). Unfortunately, in the ‘‘con-
tinuum of kaleidoscopic interactions’’ that characterizes the natural world
(Carlton 2002), the attribute ‘‘invasive’’ does not divide conveniently species
into taxa that have an impact and those that do not but needs to be assessed on
a case-by-case basis.
It is certainly critical to face this recognized difficulty in classifying NIS when
the purpose is to stimulate management options and policy actions. Priorities
based on assessment of impacts need to be set at all scales, from management of
local reserves to national and international policy decisions. So, impact mea-
surements may allow for generating a rank-ordering of major risks to ecosystems
and natural communities and for guiding ecosystem restoration efforts. But they
also help test hypotheses about how communities function and what factors
inhibit or facilitate invasions. Ultimately, the availability of quantitative data
will make scientists able to generalize, and even predict, which species will most
likely be ‘‘invasive’’ (Parker et al. 1999).
MULTILEVEL IMPACTS
Since 1984, the research focused on the impact of freshwater NIS on species,
communities, and ecosystems has expanded greatly, especially in North Amer-
ica, New Zealand, Australia, and Western Europe (Fig. 1). Introduced plants,
bivalves, and fish were the privileged organisms for impact studies in the 1980s,
Measuring the impact of freshwater NIS 439
40
35
30
Number of papers
25
20
15
10
0
84-85 86-87 88-89 90-91 92-93 94-95 96-97 98-99 00-01 02-03 04-05
Year of publication
Fig. 1 The rise in the number of publications focused on the impact of freshwater
non-indigenous species (NIS). Papers were identified via keywords from Biosis (from
1969 to April 2006) and later selected, reaching a total of 123. Only papers published
before 2006 (118) are included here.
but the diversity of the analyzed taxa widened with time, including today also
several arthropods (mainly crustaceans) and a few amphibians, e.g. Bufo mar-
inus (Linnaeus), reptiles, e.g. Trachemys scripta elegans (Wied), and mammals,
e.g. Mustela vison Schreber (Fig. 2). However, also within the taxa that have
been subject to a more extensive research, only a narrow range of genera and
families was used as paradigms of freshwater invasions, namely dreissenids
(83%), gammarids (38%), and salmonids (50%). Obviously, this concentrated
effort on a few organisms is not the reflection of the lack of ecological impacts by
other taxa, but the result of some idiosyncratic factors, often interacting (e.g.
productivity of laboratories, scientific or economic interest, and easiness of
experimentation).
A similar unequal distribution of studies is to be found among the biological
levels at which the impact has been measured. Under the classification of Parker
et al. (1999), five levels of biological complexity may be affected by NIS, namely:
(1) individuals (life history, morphology, behavior); (2) population dynamics
(abundance, population growth, etc.); (3) genetics (including hybridization); (4)
communities (species richness, diversity, trophic structure); and (5) ecosystem
processes (nutrient availability, primary productivity, etc.). To these levels a
sixth may be added, the ‘‘societal’’ level of impact, in which the focus is on
the economic damage that introduced species may inflict to human societies,
including social and ethical problems associated with their possible harm to
human health.
100%
80%
Frequency of papers
60%
40%
20%
0%
< =90 91-95 96-00 01-05
Year of publication
P=25 B=42 A=29 F=36 AR=6 M=1
Fig. 2 Distribution per taxon (P ¼ plants, B ¼ bivalves, A ¼ arthropods, F ¼ fish,

AR ¼ amphibians and reptiles, and M ¼ mammals) of the articles published before
2006 describing the impact of NIS (see Fig. 1 for the used method of retrieval) classified
per periods of 5 years. Before 1990: n ¼ 5, 1991–1995: n ¼ 8, 1996–2000: n ¼ 34,
2001–2005: n ¼ 92. Single studies that reported the impact of more than one NIS
were tallied more than once.
Population-level effects, eventually leading to a decline in the abundance and

diversity of indigenous biota, have been documented much more extensively in
the literature than the other biological effects (Fig. 3). Conversely, the most
understudied impacts are genetic effects, notwithstanding their potential to
provide insights about the still controversial role of NIS to speciation (e.g.
Rosenzweig 2001).
There is a nearly unanimous belief that several NIS contribute to the threat-
ening of an ever increasing number of indigenous species. In their analysis of
the causes of threat for 1,880 of the nearly 2,500 species now imperiled in the
USA, Wilcove et al. (1998) clearly showed that introduced species are the
second leading factor (after habitat degradation/loss); they endanger, alone or
in conjunction with other causes, a total of 49% of species – more than the next
three categories (overexploitation, pollution, and disease) combined. This is true
also for freshwater indigenous taxa, which were found to suffer from competi-
tion with, and/or from predation by introduced species, at percentages that
reach 27, 53, 17, and 4 in amphibians, fish, mollusks, and crayfish, respect-
ively. However, NIS are not viewed as the only responsible for biodiversity loss;
soc, 13
ind, 16
gen, 1
eco, 26
com, 33
pop, 61
Fig. 3 Number of articles published until April 2006 describing the impact of NIS (see
Fig. 1 for the method of retrieval) at six different levels of biological complexity: individual
(ind), genetic (gen), population (pop), community (com), ecological (eco), and societal
(soc). Single studies that reported the impact of more than one biological level were
tallied more than once.
much stress has been recently given to their ancillary role in inducing extinc-
tions or, in the words of Gurevitch and Padilla (2004), to their being ‘‘the final
nail in the coffin’’ and ‘‘the bouquet at the funeral’’.
Surprisingly few are those freshwater organisms whose impacts have been
analyzed at multiple biological levels. One is the Ponto-Caspian zebra mussel,
Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas), certainly the most striking example of a species
that has been able to change the nature of entire communities. Since the 1980s,
after its introduction to the North American Great Lakes, the invasive potential
of D. polymorpha has attracted much scientific attention, soon becoming the
most thoroughly investigated freshwater invader. Today we dispose of an
enormous amount of information about its wide-reaching effects on several
invaded lakes and rivers in eastern North America (e.g. Nalepa and Schloesser
1993, Strayer et al. 1999) and central Europe (Karatayev et al. 1997). The
invasiveness of this species is widely facilitated by various biological characteris-
tics (i.e. high fecundity, planktonic veliger larvae enabling its fast diffusion, and
byssal threads permitting firm attachment to hard substrates) so that, once
introduced into a new system, it soon becomes abundant, even exceeding 10
times the biomass of all other indigenous benthic invertebrates. Its rapid popu-
lation growth makes this species competitively dominant over resident benthic
fauna, including several endangered or threatened bivalves. In conjunction
with its close relative, the quagga mussel, Dreissena bugensis (Andrusov), zebra
mussel colonization has highly accelerated the local extinction of unionid
species as an effect of fouling (i.e. growing in dense clusters on unionid shells) or

competing for seston (Strayer 1999). In Lake St. Clair, all the indigenous
freshwater mussels were eliminated by 1997 after the appearance of zebra
mussel in the early 1980s (Ricciardi et al. 1998, Nalepa et al. 2001). By
contrast, there are few reports of mass mortalities of resident mussels in the
European invaded lakes and rivers (e.g. Lake Balaton in Hungary, Lake Bourget
in France, Lake Mikolajskie in Poland, and Lake Hallwill in Switzerland; refer-
ences in Ricciardi et al. 1998). A plausible explanation of this different behavior
between continents might be that in Europe indigenous bivalve fauna had been
previously exposed to D. polymorpha during the Pleistocene era and had already
acquired counteradaptations to it (e.g. avoidance behavior through deeper
burial in sediment, less ecological sensitivity to fouling) (Ricciardi et al. 1998).
Functioning as an ‘‘ecosystem engineer’’ – i.e. a species that ‘‘directly or
indirectly controls the availability of resources to other organisms by causing
physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials’’ ( Jones et al. 1994),
D. polymorpha can affect all components of the invaded freshwater systems at
multiple levels (MacIsaac 1996, Strayer et al. 1999, Karatayev et al. 2002), as
synthesized in Fig. 4. It increases water transparency (by 1.5–2 or more times)
and the rate of conversion from organic to inorganic matter; it decreases the
amount of seston in the water column (by 1.5–10 times), together with organic
matter, biochemical oxygen demand (up to 1.5 times), and the biomass of
phytoplankton (1–5–4 times); it affects bacterioplankton by e.g. consuming
large bacteria and facilitating growth of small bacteria with excretion and
release from protozoan predators; it favors growth and production of macro-
phytes, periphyton, and benthic algae by increasing water transparency; it
changes the abundance and diversity of zooplankton community by preying
on microzooplankton and offering refuges to large cladocerans; it alters the
abundance and diversity of zoobenthos by offering shelters to e.g. snails and
gammarid amphipods, competing for food and space or fouling them (e.g.
macrophytes, indigenous mollusks); it enhances abundance of benthivorous
and, potentially, planktivorous fish; it transfers the accumulated organic pesti-
cides and polychlorinated biphenyl compounds to their predators, mostly water-
fowl, fish, and crayfish; and it diverts production and biomass from pelagic to
benthic food webs, shifting ecosystems to an alternative state. A gross estimate
of D. polymorpha’s monetary cost has been recently provided by Pimentel et al.
(2005): in the USA alone direct costs, mostly due to its fouling and clogging
water intake pipes, water filtration, and electric generating plants, amounted to
about US$1 billion per year. If added to the indirect and non-market costs
associated with the altered ecosystem processes and reduced indigenous bio-
diversity, the overall damage inflicted to the human economy by zebra mussel
should be enormous. However, notwithstanding this, prevention seems to be
currently underfunded. A recent analysis (Leung et al. 2002) suggested that it
would be beneficial to spend up to US$324,000 per year to obtain a modest
reduction in the probability of zebra mussel invasion into a single lake. For
consumers and
inhabitants of
consumers macrophytes
of phytoplankton
inedible primary
producers (e.g.
edible particles macrophytes, inedible
(e.g. phytoplankton) phytoplankton)
resources
biodeposits,
DREISSENA POLYMORPHA (e.g. light, nutrients,
mussel tissue
bacteria?)
consumers, inhabitants
of biodeposits and
Dreissena
Fig. 4 Ecological changes induced by increasing populations of the zebra mussel

(Dreissena polymorpha). Bold boxes and lines denote components that tend to increase
with the bivalve population, and thin boxes and dotted lines denote components that
tend to decrease. (Modified after Strayer et al. 1999)
comparison, in 2001 the US Fish and Wildlife Service distributed to all States
combined a total of US$825,000 for prevention and control efforts for all
aquatic NIS in all lakes.
A second celebrated case of freshwater invader is the Nile perch, Lates niloticus
(Linnaeus), purposively introduced into Lake Victoria in the 1950s to boost
fisheries (Seehausen et al. 1997). The dramatic result of this introduction is
universally recognized as ‘‘the first mass extinction of vertebrates that scientists
have never had the opportunity to observe’’ (Kaufman 1992). Only in the early
1980s was an explosive increase of this species observed leading to a rapid
collapse of the species-rich Lake Victoria ecosystem and its replacement by a
highly simplified, largely exotic-based community. Nile perch population explo-
sions were accompanied by the disappearance, mostly occurring between 1975
and 1982, of about 200 endemic haplochromine cichlids of the 300þ species
that previously were known to occupy a great variety of niches in the lake. By
1983 in Kenya and by 1986 in Tanzania, the indigenous fish community had
80
Catch (kg ha−1) 60
40
20
0
1970 1975 1977 1983 1990
Year
native introduced
Fig. 5 Demise of the native fish of Lake Victoria, as illustrated by surveys in Kenyan
water by the Kenyan Marine and Fisheries Research Institute. Standing stock estimates
derived from the following numbers of hauls: 1969–1970 ¼ 19; 1975 ¼ 69;
1982–1990 ¼ 41. (Modified after Kaufman 1992)
been virtually destroyed, while the Nile perch comprised more than 80% of the
catch. The remaining 20% consisted of the introduced Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
niloticus (Linnaeus), an indigenous pelagic minnow, Rastrineobola argentea
(Pellegrin), and a small remnant of other indigenous fish (Fig. 5).
Coincident with the Nile perch explosion, an abrupt change in the physical
environment of the lake was recorded. Today the region between 50 and 25 m
in depth is subjected year-round to frequent severe deoxygenation, whereas
before 1978 aerobic line penetrated into the lake’s deepest waters. So, indige-
nous fish, seeking reliable refugia in their seasonal moves between shallow and
deep water habitats, ‘‘may have faced a choice of death by asphyxiation in
deeper water or death by Nile perch predation in the more oxygen-rich shal-
lows’’ (Kaufman 1992). Among the myriad other aspects of the lake’s ecology
that appear to have changed, productivity and turbidity have both increased,
papyrus swamps declined, and snails greatly increased in abundance (Kaufman
1992). The recent blooms of blue-green algae have been imputed to the disap-
pearance of phytoplanktivore haplochromines, while the zooplanktivore haplo-
chromines have been replaced by R. argentea (Goldschmidt et al. 1993). Finally,
the indigenous atyid prawn Caridina nilotica (P. Roux), a potential consumer of
decaying algae, has replaced the bottom-dwelling detritivorous haplochro-
mines, as the result of several concomitant factors, such as the availability of
sheltered habitats for prawn juveniles in the increased submerged vegetation
and/or the disappearance of their haplocromine predators (Goldschmidt et al.
1993).
The story of the Nile perch also highlights the need for a critical evaluation of
data in order to properly understand the role of NIS in species extinctions. The
decline of cichlids started long before the introduction of the Nile perch, dating
back to the 1920s with the development of railroads, erosion, and shoreline
destruction. Then, the urbanization of the 1970s increased eutrophication and
decreased lake transparency that affected color vision of many cichlids leading
to reduced sexual selection, incorrect mate choice, and breakdown of repro-
ductive isolation; increased nutrients produced anoxic events and favored the
invader water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius). In its turn, this latter
species may have altered nursery areas for juvenile fish (reviewed in Gurevitch
and Padilla 2004).
Today, an appraisal of the monetary revenues that local people have obtained
from the introduction of the Nile perch may be controversial. Certainly, the
importance of biodiversity is often questioned when a commodity of immediate
value appears in its place (Kaufman 1992). And there is much evidence that
local people have taken real profits from the Nile perch commerce. During
1975–1989, the introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria was followed
by (1) production gains amounting to about US$280 million (at 1989 prices);
(2) increased number of fishermen and of their dependents by 267% (more than
1.2 million people depend today entirely on fishery); (3) ameliorated food
quality for greater numbers of people; (4) intensified exports that reached
about 5–10% of the lake’s production (Kasulo 2000). However, these estimates
do not take into account the changes in the level and distribution of income,
and in the ease of entry to fishery. The new fishery that required expensive
fishing tools and refrigerating systems has had the effect of concentrating
income in the hands of foreign investors and of a small minority of local
fishermen (Kasulo 2000).
COMPLEXITY IN THE IMPACTS OF FRESHWATER NIS
Freshwater NIS are well known to exert an immediate impact on the behavior
displayed by resident species, which may change their habitat use or activity
patterns in response to the new predators or competitors. For instance, in New
Zealand, larvae of mayfly Nesameletus ornatus Eaton are active on rock surfaces
both day and night and drift in the water column when they coexist with
indigenous predators (galaxiid fish). Conversely, in rivers invaded by brown
trout, they mostly remain beneath rocks during the day and usually only forage
on exposed surfaces and drift in the water column at night. This modified
behavior was retained when mayflies from brown trout waters were tested in
experimental streams without fish or with galaxiids (McIntosh and Townsend
1994). Non-indigenous salmonids also restrict the indigenous fish and amphi-
bians to lesser preferred habitats, where they suffer reduced feeding activity and
efficacy (references in Simon and Townsend 2003). Antipredator behaviors
may also quickly evolve in the presence of a non-indigenous predator. In

Oregon, when red-legged frog (Rana aurora Baird and Girard) tadpoles were
exposed to chemical cues of the introduced bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana Shaw),
individuals that had coexisted with bullfrogs showed strong antipredator re-
sponses by hiding or reducing their activity, whereas those from populations
without bullfrogs did not (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997).
When no changes at the individual level occur, when they occur but are
insufficient, or when organisms become ‘‘trapped’’ by their evolutionarily
responses to formerly reliable cues (Schlaepfer et al. 2005), the survival rate of
resident species may be affected and the abundance of their populations inevit-
ably decreases. Extreme consequences are the endangerment that indigenous
species may suffer from the introduction of NIS or their local or global extinc-
tions (Mack et al. 2000). The mass extinctions of endemic fish and mussels
recorded in Lake Victoria and in North American lakes and rivers, respectively,
are not the only environmental catastrophes to which NIS have contributed.
Non-indigenous fish are at least partially responsible for the extirpation of 68%
of the 40 fish species and subspecies declared extinct over the past 115 years in
North America (Miller et al. 1989). The combined pressure of urbanization,
overexploitation, and introductions of NIS has led to the global extinction of
Pacifastacus nigrescens (Stimpson) in northern California (Bouchard 1977) and a
similar process is ongoing in the same area for Shasta crayfish, Pacifastacus fortis
(Faxon), today displaced at several locations by habitat loss and competitive
interactions with Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana) (Light et al. 1995, Chapter 28).
The mechanisms leading to biodiversity loss are many and abundantly
explored in inland waters. They range from predation/parasitism, to competi-
tion for resources, interference competition, and transmission of parasites. So,
the sharp decline in macroinvertebrates that have been recorded in central-
European streams after the appearance of the Ponto-Caspian crustacean amphi-
pod Dikerogammarus villosus (Sowinsky) in the early 1990s was imputed to the
ability of this invasive species to prey upon more macroinvertebrates than the
resident species did (Dick and Platvoet 2000, Krisp and Maier 2005). Invasive
amphipods, although under the regulatory control of acanthocephalan para-
sites (MacNeil et al. 2003), are also able to kill and consume individuals
of close relative species (Dick and Platvoet 2000). Similarly, the decreased
abundance of several dominant species of zooplankton [Daphnia retrocurva
Forbes, Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Müller), and Diacyclops thomasi (Forbes)]
recorded in Lake Ontario (North America) coincided with the increased occur-
rence of the introduced predator cladoceran Cercopagis pengoi (Ostroumov)
(Laxson et al. 2003).
Food competition with amphibian and reptile NIS – larvae of R. catesbeiana
and Osteopilus septentrionalis (Duméril and Bibron) or adults of T. scripta elegans –
was hypothesized to cause decreased survivorship, reduced growth rate, and
delayed metamorphosis in the larvae of indigenous anurans – Rana boylii Baird,
Hyla regilla Baird and Girard, Bufo terrestris (Bonnaterre), and Hyla cinerea
(Schneider) – (Kupferberg 1997, Smith 2005) or was found to determine weight

loss and high mortality in the European turtle Emys orbicularis (Linnaeus)
(Cadi and Joly 2004). Similarly, in the US waters, the plankton feeding,
non-indigenous alewife, Alosa pseudoharengus (Wilson), heavily competes for
prey with indigenous fish. Only a few indigenous fish were able to survive to
its competition. Among them, the bloater, Coregonus hoyi (Milner), was able to
coexist with alewife by shifting its diet from small zooplankton to larger benthic
prey (Crowder 1984).
NIS may also outcompete indigenous species through direct aggression and/
or transmission to them of diseases and parasites. So, the dominance in ago-
nistic interactions of North American crayfish species over the European indi-
genous species (e.g. Gherardi and Cioni 2004) and the ability to transmit
to them the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci Schikora – the etiological agent of
the crayfish plague (e.g. Alderman and Polglase 1988, Diéguez-Uribeondo
and Söderhäll 1993) – have both contributed to the constant contraction of
indigenous crayfish biodiversity in Europe (Chapter 28).
The potential for introgressive hybridization is an additional but still elusive
threat posed by NIS to closely related indigenous species. Introgression can
increase the likelihood of extinction by reducing fitness and the ability of popu-
lations to changing conditions. However, the occurrence and consequences of
hybridization between indigenous species and NIS have been overlooked in most
freshwater species with the exception of fish. Genetic assimilation has led to the
extinction of about 38% of North American indigenous fish species (Cox 2004).
Cutthroat trout (Salmo clarkii Richardson), Apache trout (Oncorhynchus apache
Miller), and Gila trout (Oncorhynchus gilae Miller) have undergone extensive
hybridization with the invading rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)
(references in Simon and Townsend 2003). Stocking of conspecifics or escape of
farm individuals may result in disruption of local adaptations and reduction
of genetic diversity, as shown in brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill)
(Hayes et al. 1996), and in the Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar Linnaeus (Fleming
et al. 2000). If hybrid individuals show greater fitness or vigor, the pure indig-
enous species may become extinct by being absorbed into the gene pool of a
NIS with high invasive rates. This phenomenon of ‘‘genetic assimilation’’ has
been reported in crayfish. For instance, matings between Orconectes rusticus
(Girard) females and Orconectes propinquus (Girard) males yield a fecund and
highly competitive progeny, which is replacing the indigenous species in Trout
Lake, Wisconsin, USA (Perry et al. 2001, 2002, Chapter 28). Indigenous
species are threatened by hybridization with a NIS also when the hybrids do
not succeed, simply because crossbreeding reduces the number of new offspring
added to the species’ own population. For instance, females of the European
mink, Mustela lutreola (Linnaeus), hybridize with males of the introduced North
American mink, Mustela vison (Schreber); embryos are invariably aborted, but
the wastage of eggs exacerbates the decline of the indigenous mink (Rozhnov
1993).
Other subtler evolutionary changes (Cox 2004) may influence several life
history characteristics of both NIS and indigenous species in a relatively short-
time scale. In fact, once established, NIS are freed from the constraints of gene
flow from their parent population and from the biotic pressures of former
enemies, are subject to altered selection pressures, and impose strong new
evolutionary pressures on indigenous species. As an example, Chinook salmon,
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum), native to the Pacific coast of North
America, was introduced to New Zealand in 1901–1907. From the initial
introduction, the species has colonized several river systems along the eastern
coast of the South Island, giving rise to isolated populations. These populations,
after about 30 generations, now differ genetically among themselves and from
their source population in California by several morphological and reproductive
features (Quinn et al. 2001).
At the community level, the potential by NIS to alter trophic interactions has
been abundantly studied in several salmonids. Brown trout (Salmo trutta
Linnaeus), introduced into New Zealand in 1867 (Townsend 1996), has been
responsible for the local extinction of several indigenous galaxiid fish; it also
profoundly affects the functioning of stream communities, by reducing the
biomass of grazing invertebrates, altering their grazing activity, and ultimately
releasing algae from top-down regulation by grazers and therefore indirectly
increasing their biomass. Several other NIS are reported to induce trophic
cascades, e.g. rainbow trout (O. mykiss) (Nyström et al. 2001) and crayfish
(P. leniusculus, Nyström 1999, and O. rusticus, Charlebois and Lamberti 1996).
Similarly, by preying on crustacean zooplankton, the cladoceran C. pengoi seems
to cascade down the foodweb in Lake Ontario to increase phytoplankton abun-
dance (Laxson et al. 2003).
The impact of NIS on ecosystem processes has rarely been analyzed in
freshwater habitats, except for invasive plants. Their induced changes to nutri-
ent cycling were found to range from being inconsistent (e.g. Findlay et al.
2002) to causing enormous consequences. For instance, purple loosestrife,
Lythrum salicaria (Linnaeus) was found to accelerate P turnover (twice that
of indigenous cattail Typha angustifolia Linnaeus) leading to low porewater
nutrient concentrations (Templer et al. 1998), whereas common reed Phrag-
mites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Streud. is capable to sequester a large amount of
nitrogen and to reduce nutrient availability to other organisms (Templer et al.
1998).
THE IMPACT ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES
A limited understanding of the inextricable link between nature and economy

may be responsible for the often failed attempts of invasion biologists to arouse
public and governmental support for the prevention or control of invasions
(Mack et al. 2000). Indeed, the direct and indirect economic consequences of
the ecological impact of NIS are well acknowledged but as yet poorly quantified.
Scientific studies centered on the damage they inflict to human activities are still
relatively rare, notwithstanding the increased general interest in the discipline
of ecological economics.
Recently, Pimentel et al. (2005) attempted to tabulate the damage that NIS
inflict to the US economy and the expenses needed for their control. The total
cost in 2004 reached US$120 million per year, which appears to be ‘‘a formi-
dable loss’’ even for a productive industrialized society such as the USA (Mack
et al. 2000). The introduction of about 40 freshwater fish species alone was
estimated to cause US$5,400 million in losses each year (Pimentel et al. 2005).
A similar study has been recently conducted in Canada. Colautti et al. (2006)
attempted to quantify the economic cost associated with 13 nuisance species
(freshwater, marine, and terrestrial), including control costs, reduced yield,
reduced land use, trade bans on exported goods, compensation paid to farmers,
health care costs, and reduced tourism and tourism-related revenues. Compre-
hensive data were lacking for virtually all the analyzed species, providing
relatively modest costs (an overall of CAN$187 million per year) if compared
with two non-indigenous disease outbreaks (SARS and mad cow disease),
which posed an additional cost of CAN$2.5 billion in 2003. Zebra mussels,
quagga mussels, and the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus (Linnaeus) made
up the bulk of CAN$32.3 million per year in characterized costs to aquaculture
and aquatic-related industries. Of these species, dreissenid mussels have
affected primarily industries and municipalities with a variety of direct costs.
The sea lamprey, which attacks salmonids and other valuable fish, costs
CAN$22 million per year to the Great Lakes Fishery Commission – a joint
agency administered by the USA and Canadian federal governments – for its
control and for research. However, costs incurred through reductions in
harvest of commercial and sports fish would likely be much higher without
this expenditure.
Other detailed analyses are scarce in the published literature. An example
might be the estimated loss of US$30–45 million per year in Lake Tahoe
(California) due to the degradation of resources by the introduced Eurasian
watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum Linnaeus) (Eiswerth et al. 2000). A similar
analysis was done by Zavaleta (2000): the invasion of riparian tamarisk led to
an increased sedimentation in river channels followed by frequent and severe
floods. This translates to an overall cost of US$280–450 ha1 that adds to
US$7,400 ha1 needed to eradicate the invader and to restore indigenous
riparian communities. Conversely, still anecdotal is the monetary damage
inflicted to water transportation, recreation activities, and hydraulic systems
by other infamous invasive species, e.g. the water hyacinth (Gao and Li 2004)
and Limnoperna fortunei (Dunker) (Oliveira et al. 2006).
Even fewer are the studies that have attempted to assign monetary values to
species extinctions and losses in biodiversity, ecosystem services, and aesthetics.
One example comes from the analysis by Spencer et al. (1991) of the impact of
the opossum shrimp, Mysis relicta (Loven), on the Flathead Lake in Montana,
USA. This species was introduced between 1968 and 1975 by the Montana
Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks to provide a supplemental prey for
kokanee salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum), the dominant sport fish in
the area. However, the shrimp did not become significant components of the
kokanee diet, possibly because their vertical migration in deep waters during
the daytime precluded fish from exploiting the new prey. On the contrary,
they led to marked changes in the community initiating a trophic cascade to
higher trophic levels. The density of two cladocerans – Daphnia longiremis Sars
and Leptodora kindtii (Focke) – decreased as an effect of their voracious pre-
dation. Consequences were the crash of the population of kokanee, from
26,000–118,000 annual spawners in 1979–1985 to 50 in 1989, and the
reduction in the angler catches from 100,000 kokanee through 1985 to
fewer than 6000 in 1987 to no reported catches in 1988 and 1989 (Spencer
et al. 1991). The abundance and diversity of birds and mammals feeding on
spawning kokanee, carcasses, and eggs, sharply declined. Among the others,
flagship species such as bald eagles and grizzly bears reduced their density. As a
result, the number of tourists declined from 46,500 in 1983 to less than 1,000
in 1989 with an obvious economic loss for local activities based on ecotourism
(Williamson 1996).
The damage that freshwater NIS may inflict on human health is well exem-
plified by the 1991 outbreak of cholera in Peru. It caused the death of over
10,000 people after ballast water containing the microbe Vibrio cholerae Pacini
was released and infected drinking water (Bright 1998). However, conflicting
insights emerge from the literature, especially concerning introductions of
species into tropical areas. On the one hand, introduced snails may be extremely
dangerous, due to their serving as intermediate hosts for some animal or human
parasites, as in paragonimiasis. Invasive plants, such as water hyacinth, may
also offer protection from predators to some snail species, such as Biomphalaria
sudanica (Martens), host of Schistosoma mansoni Sambon (Plummer 2005). On
the other hand, some introduced snails may be also beneficial due to their ability
to outcompete indigenous snail vectors of blood and liver flukes (Pointier 1999).
MEASURES OF THE IMPACT
According to Parker et al. (1999), much of the discussion about the ecological
effects of invasive species has been purely anecdotal in nature. Any conclusions
about impacts, or the lack thereof, are often based upon ‘‘conjecture, supposi-
tions, and presumptions’’ (Carlton 2002). The result is that ‘‘the case against
introducing NIS is often poorly supported even for some of the most infamous
invaders’’ (Parker et al. 1999).
This picture seems to be changing in the last few years, at least in the case of
freshwater species. More than 100 studies on a total of the 123 here analyzed
provide a quantitative estimate of the different categories of the impacts pro-

duced by NIS. Several have adopted a correlative approach making useful
diachronic and synchronic comparisons between sites. However, in a few of
these studies attempts have been made to control for naturally different
responses of the invaded community over space and time or for confounding
variables in the environment, such as pollution, harvesting, climate change, or
other established NIS (Witt et al. 2005).
Many drawbacks of quantitative studies derived from the paucity of historical
data needed to compare the same area before and after the invasion event. One
of the few examples comes from the study of Wei and Chow-Fraser (2006) on
the effects of multiple stressors [water level fluctuations, human population
growth, and percent cover of nonindigenous Glyceria maxima (Hartman)
Holmberg 1919 and P. australis] on the indigenous Typha latifolia Linnaeus
marsh community in Lake Ontario (Canada). Studies of historical records,
human population census, and field vegetation maps clearly showed that each
stressor, including NIS, may explain alone the observed changes in indigenous
T. latifolia community but that their synergistic interaction induces even greater
detrimental effects on it.
The impact of NIS has been more extensively investigated in multiple sites or,
most often, in the same site at different stages of invasion. For instance, field and
laboratory studies in Northern Ireland showed that the non-indigenous Gam-
marus pulex (Linnaeus) has a greater impact on the composition of the macro-
invertebrate community than the indigenous Gammarus duebeni celticus Stock
and Pinkster due to its more intense predation on ephemeropterans, dipterans,
and plecopterans (Kelly et al. 2003, Kelly and Dick 2005). These effects seemed
to be independent of other environmental factors (Kelly et al. 2003) but they
also operated at larger scales than those detected within individual rivers (Kelly
and Dick 2005). Often comparisons have been made between sites with and
without the invader; e.g. some Canadian lakes invaded by the non-indigenous
predatory cladoceran Bythotrephes longimanus (Leydig) showed a signifi-
cantly lower richness in crustacean zooplankton species (for 30%) than the
non-invaded lakes (Boudreau and Yan 2003). Surprisingly, the ecological role
of a species has never been compared between the indigenous and the colonized
communities. Certainly, the impacts of potentially invasive species cannot be
reliably predicted from their effects in the native ranges. For instance, the
virulence that the oomycete A. astaci exerts toward the European crayfish
could not have been forecasted from its innocuous effects toward North Ameri-
can species (Reynolds 1988). However, information about the biology of an
invader in its native range would, on the one hand, provide a useful baseline for
unraveling its ecological role and, on the other, greatly improve our under-
standing of the factors eliciting its invasive behavior in novel areas.
Still today, few studies are adopting stable isotope techniques to quantify
the food-web consequences of invasions. Using this method, Vander Zanden
et al. (1999) found that the indigenous top predator, the lake trout, Salvelinus
namaycush (Walbaum), had more negative d13C values and lower trophic
positions (3.3 vs. 3.9) in two Canadian lakes invaded by the introduced small-
mouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu Lacepède, and rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris
(Rafinesque) than in two non-invaded lakes, as an indication of the NIS-induced
shift from a fish-based to a plankton-based diet in lake trout.
Much more numerous are the studies analyzing differences in diet breadth
and/or in the position within the food web between invasive and non-invasive
related taxa or between invasive taxa. For instance, laboratory experiments
revealed that invasive Gambusia species consistently fed at higher rates than two
non-invasive congeneric species, although displaying similar feeding prefer-
ences (Rehage et al. 2005). Multiple methods (stable isotope analysis, feeding
experiments, mesocosm experiments, and gut content analysis) showed large
differences in the potential impact on aquatic food webs of two non-indigenous
decapod crustaceans, the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis (H. Milne
Edwards) and the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii (Girard), in the San
Francisco Bay (USA) (Rudnick and Resh 2005). Conversely, using stable isotope
techniques, zebra mussel (D. polymorpha) and quagga mussel (D. bugensis) were
found to share suspended detritus as the main food item and to compete with
zooplankton and with each other for seston (Garton et al. 2005).
Obviously, both the population dynamics of an NIS and the responses by the
recipient community (e.g. its species abundance) are expected to vary over time;
therefore, any estimate of the impact of an NIS may greatly depend on the
temporal scale of the study. Some successful invaders increase steadily to a
stable equilibrium density, but others exhibit a more complex behavior, initially
reaching very high densities (‘‘boom’’) but then declining to lower levels
(‘‘bust’’). And the same NIS may show booms and busts in some areas and
steady logistic increase in others, as found for the zebra mussel in eastern
Europe (e.g. Karatayev et al. 1997). Notwithstanding these well-known
idiosyncratic dynamics of NIS populations (Williamson 1996), a minority of
studies has been conducted on the impact of freshwater NIS over a long-time
scale of analysis (e.g. Yan and Pawson 1997, Johannsson et al. 2000, Yan et al.
2002, Laxson et al. 2003, Barbiero and Tuchman 2004). This is not surprising:
long-term monitoring requires a pattern of time and money allocation, which is
usually extraneous to the rhythms of both academy and funding agencies,
except for few cases (e.g. McCarthy et al. 2006). Conversely, long-term data
sets would provide the indispensable background to help us assess the biotic
resilience of the community, predict the restoration potential of the ecosystem,
and finally understand the ecological and evolutionary mechanisms accom-
panying the integration of NIS in the system. By understanding the long-term
feedbacks between invasive species and the invaded communities and ecosys-
tems, ‘‘we will be able to evaluate alternative management approaches for well-
established invaders, and be better able to identify which new invaders should
be targeted for early eradication because of unacceptable acute and chronic
impacts’’(Strayer et al. 2006, p. 650).
THE NEED FOR PREDICTIVE MODELS
Related to the exiguous number of pre-colonization data sets and the rarity of
long-monitoring researches, there is a general lack of theoretical studies aimed
at modeling the effects of NIS on resident communities. This is unfortunate,
because models might provide significant insights into the impact of NIS by
permitting the calculation and comparison of an essentially unlimited range of
measures. They may also help design more effective and efficient empirical
studies by providing information about which measures are redundant and
which measures identify independent effects. Taking advantage of their ability
to vary characteristics of either the NIS or the community independently,
models would also enhance the accuracy of water quality assessments by
decoupling the environmental effects of NIS from those caused by different
anthropogenic stressors. In sum, the modeling exercise may put biologists ‘‘in
a much better position’’ in order to understand and to predict the impacts of a
wide range of invaders (Parker et al. 1999).
Following this rationale, Ricciardi (2003) synthesized the data collected in
different ecosystems and geographic regions to generate statistical models of the
impacts exerted by the zebra mussel (D. polymorpha). This exercise permitted
the author to determine whether the effects of D. polymorpha are consistent
in different environments, and therefore whether they are predictable. For
instance, by plotting the results of field experiments and surveys from multiple
colonized sites, predictable patterns of D. polymorpha’s impact on other benthic
invertebrates were identified. In the presence of the zebra mussel, the density
of other macroinvertebrates was found to increase 2–10 times, whereas
they declined in deepwater sites as a possible response to a reduced influx
of food particles caused by the filtration activity of near-shore zebra mussel
populations (Fig. 6). This information was found to be essential also for the
correct interpretation of water quality assessment and of indices of biotic
integrity, which are commonly based on the composition of benthic macro-
invertebrate communities.
Recently, Vander Zanden et al. (2004) developed models aimed at predicting
future occurrences and impacts of the non-indigenous smallmouth bass
(M. dolomieu) into lakes in central Ontario. To identify ‘‘vulnerable’’ lakes, the
authors used a conceptual framework for modeling the occurrence and impact
of this species. Its colonization was dissected into three steps or filters. The first
filter identified which lakes are accessible to colonists, the second filter identified
which lakes are capable of supporting a population of NIS, and the third filter
identified which lakes would be adversely impacted if an NIS were to become
established. Based on this conceptual approach and using a data set composed
of 3,046 lakes in central and northern Ontario, the authors developed two
separate lake classification models. The first model, based on artificial neural
networks, aimed at predicting the location of future bass invasions based
on environmental suitability, and the second, based on known food-web
100000
Post-colonization density (no. m−2)

Increase
10000
1000
Decrease
100
100 1000 10000 100000
Pre-colonization density (no. m−2)
Fig. 6 Changes in the density of macroinvertebrates (excluding Dreissena) before and
after Dreissena polymorpha colonization. Points above the 1:1 line indicate a positive
change (increase), points below a negative change (decrease). Data include field surveys
of littoral rocky substrata (black circles) and deepwater sediments (black quadrates), and
experiments using artificial substrata (white circles). (Modified after Ricciardi 2003)
interactions derived from extensive stable isotope and gut content-based studies,
singled out lakes in which bass was expected to have negative impacts on lake
trout populations (Vander Zanden et al. 1999). By combining the predictions of
these two models, along with information about lake remoteness, a subset of
lakes in the region was identified, 48 (6%), that were classified as ‘‘highly
vulnerable’’, being both likely to be colonized and impacted by smallmouth
bass. These lakes, the authors concluded, should have priority for the efforts
aimed at minimizing further impacts of bass introductions in Ontario.
Certainly, the inherent difficulty in incorporating in a model the complexity of
the community and the manifold biological relationships between NIS and
residents has hampered the adoption of the modeling approach also in fresh-
water systems (Parker et al. 1999). Quantification of impacts may be made
particularly complex due to a long list of confounding factors that include: the
natural variability of the environment in space and time, other anthropogenic
disturbances, synergistic effects of other established invaders (the ‘‘invasional
meltdown’’, Simberloff and Von Holle 1999, see also Dermott et al. 1998), the
original composition of the invaded community, the extremely variable time
lag between initial introduction and detectable impact (Shigesada and Kawasaki
1997), and the ‘‘statistical shrinkage’’ (i.e. the fit of a regression model to
new data is worse than the fit to the original data) lamented by Williamson
(1999). All these multiple sources of variability influence the observed responses
of a system and may explain why generalizations cannot be made from single
experiments at small temporal and spatial scales (Ricciardi 2003). As a conse-
quence, for many, if not most, known NIS, insufficient quantitative data are
available to make useful comparisons between systems, times, and geographical
areas.
To make the picture worse, when confronted with the increasing number of
species that are moved outside their natural range for the first time, most often
scientists do not dispose of an invasion history from which to draw predictive
information (Ricciardi 2003). An approach might be to predict their impact
from the invasion history of functionally similar organisms. For instance, the
Asian freshwater mytilid mussel, L. fortunei, currently invading South America,
displays a number of biological properties that are remarkably similar to those of
D. polymorpha. Many of these properties are shared with other fouling bivalves,
such as Mytilopsis sallei (Recluz), Modiolus striatulus (Hanley), Perna viridis
(Linnaeus), and Xenostrobus secures (Lamarck). The life history of these species
could therefore serve as a template to prioritize other potential pest bivalves
without an invasion history (Ricciardi 2003). Taxonomic similarity may be a
predictor of impact potential. Indeed, most invasive fouling bivalves belong
to the same family, the Mytilidae, and the confamiliar fish, smallmouth bass,
M. dolomieui, and rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque), alter the food
web to the same extent by reducing the diversity and abundance of littoral fish.
There are however some remarkable exceptions, also within congeneric species.
The rusty crayfish, O. rusticus, has greatly expanded its range and displaces
indigenous crayfish in North American lakes and streams (Lodge et al. 2000),
whereas several other congeneric species are declining (Taylor et al. 1996).
All the above examples and thoughts may support the pessimistic attitude of
several ecologists about the role of scientific research in predicting invaders.
Research certainly yields major insights into areas of ecology, evolution, and
conservation biology, and the frequent ‘‘serendipity’’ in science ensures that
some fraction of these insights will ultimately help management (Simberloff
2003b). But most of these findings will have ‘‘little direct relevance to the
introduced species problem’’ (Simberloff 2003b) and precise predictions are
often expected to be elusive. Agreeing with Ricciardi (2003), the point here
is that lack of precision should not be viewed as a deterrent to developing
predictive models where none exist. Even ‘‘crude’’ models, obviously based on
reliable data, could be extremely helpful in providing valuable criteria for
prioritizing invasion threats (Simon and Townsend 2003).
CONCLUSIONS
Several NIS are today affecting freshwater communities, imperiling indigenous

species, altering ecosystem processes, and causing damage to human endeavors.
Recognizing these threats certainly represents the strongest and possibly the only
‘‘ethical basis’’ for the concern that scientists, laypeople, and institutions have
today about the problem of introduced species (Simberloff 2003a). This general
awareness of the detrimental effects of several NIS is expected to translate soon
into implemented policies aimed at preventing new undesirable introductions,
responding quickly to newly discovered NIS, and controlling the most damaging
established NIS. To succeed, however, all management and policy actions should
be based on a sound understanding of the impact that target species exert, of their
multilevel effects, and of the diverse expression of these effects over space and
time. And they should also acknowledge that not all NIS exert a negative impact
and the same species may have large effects in some areas and negligible ones
in others (Byers et al. 2002). The so-often revealed idiosyncratic behavior of NIS
can be properly faced – and reliable predictive models of their impact can be
developed, only when a large amount of quantitative information is available.
And the more idiosyncratic is a species’ behavior, i.e. more noise is in the
background, the larger is the information required. That is, in invasion biology,
as within the entire scientific realm, ‘‘there is no data like more data’’ (Mercer
1998): the limiting factor for predicting the impact of NIS is the chronic scarcity
of ‘‘numbers’’.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was written while the author was acting as a Visiting Scholar at
the Columbia University in the City of New York (NY, USA). My warmest thanks
are directed to Professor Shahid Nahem for his kind hospitality.
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Chapter twenty-five
Invasion of the Baltic Sea

basin by the Ponto-Caspian
amphipod Pontogammarus
robustoides and its
ecological impact
Ke˛stutis Arbačiauskas and Simona Gumuliauskait_e
INTRODUCTION
Range extensions of amphipods and other aquatic macroinvertebrates in the

inland waters of Europe have been mainly facilitated by the interconnection of
river basins through artificial canals, intentional introductions, and shipping.
Among the most successful and ecologically aggressive aquatic immigrants are
Ponto-Caspian amphipods from the family Pontogammaridae. The southern
and central water corridors connecting the Black Sea with the North and Baltic
seas were used for active westward migration by Dikerogammarus haemobaphes
(Eichwald) and Dikerogammarus villosus (Sowinsky) (see Bij de Vaate et al. 2002,
Jazdzewski and Konopacka 2002), whereas the expansion across European
inland waters outside native ranges by two other pontogammarid species,
Pontogammarus robustoides (G. O. Sars) and Obesogammarus crassus (G. O. Sars)
started from the point of their first intentional introduction in the Baltic Sea
basin. In Lithuanian fresh waters where the conquest of new areas had begun,
P. robustoides proved to be the most successful amphipod invader (Arbačiauskas
463
ß 2007 Springer.
464 Ke˛stutis Arbačiauskas and Simona Gumuliauskaite_
2005). Today, its distribution range is rapidly expanding which may lead to
dramatic changes in local communities, whether indigenous or previously
altered by earlier invaders. This chapter will describe the spread of P. robustoides,
along with its life history and ecological impact, and will analyse those factors in
the environment that may affect the establishment of its populations.
INVASION HISTORY
During 1960–1961, approximately 1,600 specimens of P. robustoides, O. crassus

and another Ponto-Caspian amphipod Chaetogammarus warpachowskyi (G. O.
Sars) from the family Gammaridae, were translocated from Dniepr and Simfero-
pol (the Crimea) water reservoirs into the newly constructed Kaunas Water
Reservoir (WR) in the middle reach of the Nemunas River. Within a few years,
these species reached the Curonian Lagoon by downstream dispersal (Gasi unas
1963, 1972). After the establishment of pontogammarids and the gammarid
C. warpachowskyi in Kaunas WR, attempts were made to introduce them into
Lithuanian lakes and other reservoirs with the aim of improving fish produc-
tion. Among others, P. robustoides appeared to be the species best adapted to
stagnant environments. Currently, this species inhabits three water reservoirs
and nine lakes (Fig. 1; Arbačiauskas 2005); for two of those nine lakes no
official records of intentional introductions have been found. As natural disper-
sal into these lakes is not probable, these invasions must have been mediated by
deliberate but officially unrecorded translocations. So far, the current dis-
tribution of P. robustoides across Lithuanian lakes and water reservoirs has
definitely resulted from human activity asserted through intentional introduc-
tions (Arbačiauskas 2005).
In the 1960s, Ponto-Caspian species, including P. robustoides, were also
transferred from Kaunas WR into the areas located to the north of Lithuania,
in particular to Latvia, Estonia, and the St. Petersburg region (Gasi
unas 1972).
Although their survival in the St. Petersburg region was not recorded, P.
robustoides was detected in the Gulf of Finland (the Neva Bay) in 1999 as a
possible result of penetration from the inland waters into which it had been
intentionally introduced. Nevertheless, a shipping vector should not be ruled
out (Berezina and Panov 2003). Recently, P. robustoides is widespread in Latvia;
it occurs in the lower reaches and mouths of rivers emptying into the Baltic Sea,
in water reservoirs located on the Daugava River, and in the onshore lakes
connected to the brackish waters of the sea (Fig. 1; Grudule et al. 2007).
The expansion of P. robustoides is also ongoing in the southern part of the
Baltic Sea basin (Fig. 1). In 1988, a well-established population was found
in the lower Oder River and its estuary, Szczecin Lagoon (Gruszka 1999, Wawr-
zyniak-Wydrowska and Gruszka 2005). In 1996–1998, the species was found in
the lower Vistula River and in the Vistula Lagoon (Konopacka 1998, Jazdzewski
and Konopacka 2000). Further expanding upstream, the species colonized two
Impact of Pontogammarus robustoides on the Baltic Sea basin 465
Fig. 1 Distribution of the Ponto-Caspian amphipod Pontogammarus robustoides in the

Baltic Sea basin. Arrows indicate Kaunas Water Reservoir (KWR), Curonian Lagoon
(CL), Vistula Lagoon (VL), Szczecin Lagoon (SL), and the eastern Gulf of Finland (GF).
Circles indicate localities.
artificial water reservoirs (Wloclawski and Zegrzynski, WRs) located in the middle
reaches of the Vistula River (Jazdzewski et al. 2002, Grabowski et al. 2006).
Finally, for the first time in Poland, P. robustoides was recorded in a mesotrophic
lake of glacial origin located in the Vistula valley, in central Poland in 2004, but
not in the outflow river connecting the lake and the Vistula River, which might
have served as a dispersal route (Grabowski and Bacela 2005).
Within north-eastern Germany, P. robustoides was first found during 1994 in
Peenemundungsgebiet, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Rudolph 1997). Since
then, the pontogammarid has been reported from the Mittelland Canal and its
distribution across the inland waters of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is increasing
(Zettler 1998, 2002, Martens et al. 1999).
A few possible methods of invasion of P. robustoides into the deltas of the
Vistula and Oder rivers have been suggested (Gruszka 1999, Jazdzewski and
Konopacka 2000, Bij de Vaate et al. 2002, Jazdzewski et al. 2004). Firstly,
transmission of this pontogammarid from the Curonian Lagoon via ballast
waters; secondly, dispersal through the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea; and
thirdly, a freshwater route from the Nemunas River basin via the Pregel River
system which provides a direct connection between the Curonian and Vistula
lagoons. As P. robustoides also was detected in the lower Vistula reaches, the
central invasion corridor, i.e. the route connecting the Dnieper and Vistula
basins via Pripet-Bug canal, is also under consideration.
The actual invasion path of P. robustoides into the basins of the Vistula and
Oder rivers or whether more than one dispersal vector was operating simul-
taneously remains unresolved. Penetration through the central corridor by
natural spread seems the most unlikely. In its native environment, this species
inhabits the lower reaches and deltas of large Ponto-Caspian rivers, lagoons,
and some brackish and freshwater Black Sea onshore lakes; its upstream
expansion has occurred as a result of introductions into numerous water
reservoirs (Dedyu 1980, Jazdzewski 1980). It was not reported from the lotic
environments of the higher reaches of Ponto-Caspian rivers. In Lithuania,
P. robustoides has not managed to colonize the upstream section of the Nemu-
nas River in the 40 years since its introduction into the Kaunas WR, whereas
the same upstream section is inhabited by the Ponto-Caspian amphipod
Chelicorophium curvispinum (G. O. Sars) (Arbačiauskas 2005), which invaded
the Baltic Sea basin through the central corridor (Jazdzewski 1980). In the
Vistula River, P. robustoides dominates only lentic environments of water
reservoirs, while the lotic sections are inhabited almost exclusively by another
pontogammarid, D. haemobaphes (Jazdzewski et al. 2002). Hence, the ability of
P. robustoides, originating from lentic or stagnant water environments, to
spread against the flow in lotic waters is probably limited.
The penetration of P. robustoides by the freshwater route from the Curonian to
the Vistula lagoon seems likely. The same route also is available for the Ponto-
Caspian mysid Paramysis lacustris (Czerniavskyi), which is abundant in the
Curonian Lagoon but, perhaps surprisingly, there is no record of its presence
in the Vistula River system, although this mysid proved to have a substantially
higher potential for natural dispersal than P. robustoides (Arbačiauskas 2005).
The salinity of the Baltic coastal waters (7 psu) allows P. robustoides to maintain
high survival rates and even to reproduce (Berezina and Panov 2003). Hence,
expansion through coastal waters might be possible. However, a recent exten-
sive survey of Baltic coastal waters of Poland revealed that this pontogammarid
was absent in open-shore waters, although the Vistula and the Oder deltas
harbour established populations of P. robustoides (Jazdzewski et al. 2005). Thus,
natural dispersal through Baltic waters seems unlikely.
Within the Baltic Sea, P. robustoides can be transferred not only in ballast
waters but also in the hull fouling of ships, especially over short distances
by slow-speed vessels, such a dispersal method being possibly the most import-
ant. Across inland waters, the transmission of non-indigenous amphipods
by boats has been documented in Germany (Reinhold and Tittizer 1999). Gen-
erally, the expansion of P. robustoides in the Baltic Sea basin follows the pattern of
jump dispersal, clearly suggesting the involvement of anthropogenic factors.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT MAY LIMIT ESTABLISHMENT
Pontogammarus robustoides is described as a euryhaline freshwater species

(Dedyu 1980) or as a brackish water species (Grabowski et al. 2005). Although
able to endure the salinity of the Baltic Sea, it establishes sustainable popula-
tions only in salinities not exceeding 3–4 psu, which are characteristic of Baltic
lagoons (Grabowski et al. 2006). The increase in freshwater ionic content that
large European rivers suffered due to industrial and agricultural pollution has
been suggested to be a cause for the explosion of successful aquatic invasions in
European inland waters during the last decades of the 20th century (Jazdzewski
et al. 2002, 2004). A similar hypothesis has been raised for invasions of the
North American Great Lakes (MacIsaac et al. 2001). Indeed, the increase in
salinity of the main European flowing waters may have facilitated the success of
crustacean invaders, which are mostly euryhaline species with oligohaline
preference (Bij de Vaate et al. 2002). This raises the question of what the
lower limit of water ionic content might be for the establishment of a sustainable
population of P. robustoides.
For the Gulf of Finland, it was hypothesized that the low concentration
of chloride salts may limit the establishment of populations of P. robustoides,
which requires at least 17 mg L1 concentration of sodium for its successful
reproduction (Berezina and Panov 2003). However, in Lithuanian waters,
P. robustoides showed the potential to adapt and to establish viable populations
under rather a low water ionic content, and even a five-fold lower sodium
concentration (Table 1; see also Arbačiauskas 2005).
Many lakes in, at least, the southern part of the Baltic Sea basin satisfy the
minimal demands of water ionic content for the establishment of P. robustoides.
However, in spite of the extensive translocation effort, this species has exhibited
long-term survival in relatively few Lithuanian lakes. These are typically large
mesotrophic lakes, with the exception of one small eutrophic lake. The latter
Table 1 Water ionic content (mg L1) of Lithuanian lakes, in which ponto-
gammarids Pontogammarus robustoides (Pr) and Obesogammarus crassus (Oc), and
Ponto-Caspian gammarid Chaetogammarus warpachowskyi (Cw) have established
sustainable populations. For other lake characteristics see Arbačiauskas (2005).
Total ionic
Lakes Species Kþ Naþ Mg2þ Ca2þ SO2
4 Cl content
Plateliai Pr 1.6 3.4 5.0 40.1 9.0 6.0 185

Seirijis Pr, Cw 2.1 4.5 13.4 48.3 15.5 10.0 274
Dusia Pr, Oc, Cw 3.0 7.7 17.7 44.8 28.3 13.9 296
Daugai Pr, Oc, Cw 2.8 9.6 13.2 54.0 25.4 15.0 310
is located immediately downstream of a large lake hosting an abundant

P. robustoides population; thus, the downstream population may be sustained
by pontogammarid inflow. The disappearance of the species from three large
eutrophic lakes has been recorded. In contrast, the indigenous gammarid
Gammarus lacustris G. O. Sars, which can tolerate significant oxygen decrease,
is widespread across lakes in which the pontogammarid failed to establish (see
discussion in Arbačiauskas 2005). In turn, these data have led to the hypothesis
that in higher latitudes where stagnant waters are ice-covered for a substantial
portion of the year, oxygen content in the water during the winter may
be a decisive factor for the long-term survival of P. robustoides (Arbačiauskas
2002, 2005). In eutrophic waters, the rise of adverse oxygen conditions is
more likely than in waters of a lower nutrient status. Such circumstances
under ice-cover, when retreat into a suitable refuge is impossible, may destroy
even an established population. During an open-water phase, sufficient oxygen
concentrations are always available in the shallowest waters. Therefore, in
the Ponto-Caspian region where ice-cover is infrequent, P. robustoides also
occurs in small eutrophic stagnant water bodies (M. Grabowski 2006, personal
communication).
Pontogammarus robustoides is the most successful species across the stagnant
fresh waters of Lithuania when compared with other Ponto-Caspian amphi-
pods. Consequently, it shows the widest distribution and the highest population
densities (Arbačiauskas 2002, 2005). Although less resistant than G. lacustris,
P. robustoides probably has a greater tolerance of low oxygen in comparison
with other Ponto-Caspian amphipod invaders of Lithuanian waters, and this
has contributed to its success. According to Dedyu (1980), P. robustoides resis-
tance to low oxygen content is greater than of all the other Ponto-Caspian
amphipods which have invaded the Baltic Sea basin: O. crassus, Chaetogammarus
ischnus (Stebbing), C. curvispinum, C. warpachowskyi, D. haemobaphes, and
D. villosus (lethal oxygen concentration: 0.209 vs. 0.262, 0.290, 0.300,
0.308, 0.345, and 0.380 mg O2 L1, respectively). The importance of oxygen
in affecting habitat quality for P. robustoides also suggests that a correlation
exists between the area of a lake and this species’ abundance; in fact, due to
wind-induced water motion, the littoral waters of large lakes, especially lakes
with considerable fetch and wide littoral zones, contain high concentrations of
dissolved oxygen (Arbačiauskas 2005).
Flow velocity is an additional environmental factor that must be discussed
with respect to pontogammarid establishment. As already stated, the ability of
P. robustoides to disperse against the flow in lotic conditions seems to be limited.
In its native environment, this species establishes sustainable populations only
in lentic or stagnant water environments such as lagoons, deltas, water ways,
and reservoirs or lakes, as supported by several reports from the Baltic Sea basin
(Jazdzewski et al. 2002, Zettler 2002, Berezina and Panov 2003, Grabowski and
Bacela 2005, Grudule et al. 2007). Across Lithuania, P. robustoides only occurs
in lotic environments in the Nemunas River downstream from Kaunas WR and
in restricted parts of two other rivers, also downstream from abundant ponto-
gammarid populations (see Arbačiauskas 2005). Thus, P. robustoides seems to
avoid lotic waters.
LIFE HISTORY
The fecundity and body size of P. robustoides were estimated to be greatest

among amphipods occurring in the fresh waters of Lithuania. For Kaunas
WR, the individual weight of egg-bearing females ranged from 24 to 117 mg,
and clutch size varied between 34 and 167 eggs (Gasi unas 1972). This
species was found to be one of the most fecund amphipod species occurring in
Polish waters, especially in comparison with indigenous species (Bacela and
Konopacka 2005). Clutch size varied between 11 and 185 eggs (mean: 65). The
smallest observed body length of gravid females was 8.5 mm; the largest,
21 mm. Breeding lasted from the beginning of April until the first week of
October, and showed three reproduction peaks, indicating three generations
per year. Females of the overwintering generation were the largest in body size
and produced the largest clutches, whereas females of the spring and summer
generations showed lower values of these traits but they deposited clutches
more than once (Bacela and Konopacka 2005).
The three seasonal peaks of pontogammarid progeny observed in the Cur-
onian Lagoon (Jankauskiene 2002) suggest that in Lithuanian waters P. robus-
toides also produces three generations per year. In the Gulf of Finland, its
reproduction lasts between May and October, and the number of generations
was found to depend upon the seasonal pattern of water temperatures. During
‘‘normal’’ years, this pontogammarid produced three generations, but in 2003,
when water temperatures were continuously low, only two generations were
observed (N. A. Berezina 2006, personal communication).
So far, the life history characteristics of P. robustoides measured in the Baltic
Sea basin suggest significant potential for this species to increase in numbers.
Indeed, under favourable environmental conditions, its populations are usually
more numerous than those of the indigenous amphipod species in similar
environments (Gasi unas 1972, Arbačiauskas 2002).
INTERACTION WITH OTHER AMPHIPODS
Of primary interest is the interaction of P. robustoides with the gammarid species

indigenous to the Baltic Sea basin. Information from the Lithuanian inland fresh
waters indicates competitive exclusion of the indigenous gammarid G. lacustris
in stagnant water habitats sustaining abundant populations of the pontogam-
marid (Arbačiauskas 2002, 2005). Four years after the translocation of Ponto-
Caspian species into the Kaunas WR, the indigenous species of the Gammarus
pulex group (probably Gammarus varsoviensis Jazdzewski, which inhabits the

River Nemunas upstream from the Kaunas WR), was present in different
areas of the reservoir, although in low density (Gasi unas 1972). However,
indigenous amphipod species were absent in recently collected samples from
the Kaunas WR. Similarly, Gammarus pulex (Linnaeus) and G. lacustris were
reported in the Curonian Lagoon prior to the invasion of the Ponto-Caspian
amphipods (Gasi unas 1959), but not after.
The negative impact of the amphipod invaders (among which primarily the
most successful was P. robustoides) on other indigenous gammarids, Gammarus
zaddachi Sexton and Gammarus duebeni Liljeborg, has been documented in the
Vistula Lagoon, although environmental factors, such as pollution and eutrophi-
cation, may also have been involved (Grabowski et al. 2006). So far, the
negative influence of P. robustoides on indigenous Gammarus spp. is apparent
in habitats which environmentally favour that pontogammarid. The absence of
representatives of the genus Gammarus when pontogammarids are present has
also been reported for the Ponto-Caspian region (Dedyu 1980).
An experimental study of the interaction between P. robustoides and G. lacustris
clearly showed the negative impact that the pontogammarid exerted on the
indigenous species (Fig. 2). Highest survival was observed for G. lacustris when
Fig. 2 Survival of Gammarus lacustris (squares) and Pontogammarus robustoides (circles)

under control (closed symbols) and experimental (open symbols) conditions, i.e. when
raised separately and together on filamentous algae Cladophora sp. as sole food. Error bars
indicate SE of 3 (control) or 6 (experiment) replicates. When comparing all treatments, the
highest and the lowest survival was found for G. lacustris under control and experimental
conditions, respectively (Cox-Mantel test, P 0.009), and did not differ in P. robustoides
between treatments (S. Gumuliauskait_e and K. Arbačiauskas 2005, unpublished data).
raised separately, whereas the lowest survival was observed when raised together
with the pontogammarid; the survival of P. robustoides under control and experi-
mental conditions was similar. These results suggest a predatory impact of
P. robustoides on G. lacustris. In addition, it seems that pontogammarids are
aggressive not only towards gammarids, but also towards their congeners.
Thus, asymmetrical intraguild predation (see Polis et al. 1989) might be
primarily responsible for the displacement of indigenous Baltic Sea basin gam-
marid species when they encounter the invasive P. robustoides. Such an inter-
action is common between invading and resident gammarid species (Dick 1996,
Dick et al. 1999, 2002).
The greater aggressiveness of P. robustoides in intraguild predation has been
shown to affect a dramatic decrease in the numbers of a smaller-sized invasive
amphipod, Gmelinoides fasciatus (Stebbing), of Baikalian origin, in some habitats of
the eastern Gulf of Finland (Berezina and Panov 2003). However, interactions of
P. robustoides with other amphipod invaders of the Baltic Sea basin are not so
clear. The Ponto-Caspian species O. crassus, although at low numbers, is capable
of long-term survival with P. robustoides in the same habitats of lakes or water
reservoirs (Arbačiauskas 2005). In lagoons, these pontogammarids share dom-
inance in different areas and usually co-occur (Daunys and Zettler 2006, Grabo-
wski et al. 2006). The ecological mechanism of such co-occurrence still remains
unknown. In the lentic waters of reservoirs of the Vistula River, P. robustoides
seems to be superior to another pontogammarid, D. haemobaphes, which dominates
in the lotic habitats of this river (Jazdzewski et al. 2002). In northern Germany, the
American invader Gammarus tigrinus Sexton and the Ponto-Caspian gammarid
C. ischnus attained their highest abundance in the mid 1990s, whereas later,
P. robustoides and, in succession, D. villosus have replaced those former amphipod
species (Daunys and Zettler 2006).
In contrast, G. tigrinus recently appeared to be more successful than
P. robustoides in the Szczecin and Vistula lagoons (Jazdzewski et al. 2005,
Wawrzyniak-Wydrowska and Gruszka 2005, Grabowski et al. 2006). The dis-
placement of the pontogammarid by the American invader due to asymmetrical
intraguild predation seems unlikely, as the former species is highly aggressive and
larger in body size, and its predation on G. tigrinus has been observed under
laboratory conditions (Wawrzyniak-Wydrowska and Gruszka 2005). However,
the interactions between amphipod species that invaded the Baltic Sea basin
might be environmentally dependent and more complex than supposed, and
are of interest for the understanding of the ecological impact of these invaders.
IMPACT ON LITTORAL MACROINVERTEBRATES
Results from an ongoing study of the impact of P. robustoides on lake littoral

macroinvertebrates, comparing presence or absence of this species in similar
lake habitats, suggest a significant pontogammarid effect on community metrics
(Fig. 3). In the habitats where P. robustoides is well-established and numerous, it

significantly reduces species richness and diversity. However, moderate ponto-
gammarid density in the habitats where the indigenous gammarid G. lacustris
still survives did not reveal a negative impact on diversity indicators. The
Fig. 3 Variation (median, quartiles, and range) of species richness (a), Shannon-
Wiener diversity index (b), wet weight biomass of macroinvertebrates excluding Ponto-
gammarus robustoides and chironomids (c), and individual macroinvertebrate body wet
weight (pontogammarid excluded) (d) for the three types of lake littoral communities:
‘‘Ponto’’, with well-established and numerous P. robustoides; ‘‘Ponto & Gam’’, where
P. robustoides and Gammarus lacustris co-occur; and ‘‘Ponto absent’’, without
P. robustoides. For a test of well-established P. robustoides effect, data for the second and
the third community types were merged. Untransformed (species richness and diversity
index) or log-transformed (wet weight biomass) data were tested using a mixed model
ANOVA with study site as a random factor nested in the P. robustoides factor
(S. Gumuliauskait_e and K. Arbačiauskas 2004, unpublished data).
individual body size of other macroinvertebrates in habitats dominated by

P. robustoides was also reduced. The negative impact on benthic biomass was
observed only when chironimids (which exhibited high lake-specific biomass
variation) were excluded. However, such a negative impact might be expected,
as invasive amphipods are capable of negatively affecting both macroinverte-
brate diversity and abundance (Kelly et al. 2003). The negative impact on
chironomids is to be expected because P. robustoides is known to prey on them
as suggested by gut content analysis of pontogammarids from the Gulf of
Finland (Berezina et al. 2005).
This ongoing study also suggests that, when abundant, P. robustoides nega-
tively affects the freshwater isopod Asellus aquaticus (Linnaeus), as this isopod
was recorded in the presence of numerous P. robustoides at only one of five sites
(S. Gumuliauskait_e and K. Arbačiauskas 2004, unpublished data). The detri-
mental impact that P. robustoides has on A. aquaticus probably derives from
direct predation, as has been suggested elsewhere (Arbačiauskas 2005).
Furthermore, a negative impact of large numbers of non-indigenous amphi-
pods, including P. robustoides, on the densities of benthic detritovores was
also observed in the stony littoral of Neva Bay, the Gulf of Finland (Berezina
and Panov 2003). Notwithstanding recently available information, more
research on the effects of P. robustoides on macroinvertebrate communities is
warranted.
OTHER ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS
Being omnivorous, P. robustoides may also affect the composition and abun-
dance of plants. In the littoral zone of Lake Dusia (Lithuania), abundant over-
growths of the filamentous algae Cladophora sp. were common prior to the
introduction of P. robustoides. However, the total extermination of algal over-
growths by pontogammarid grazing was recorded seven years after its intro-
duction (Gasi unas 1975). When P. robustoides attains high densities, the
grazing impact exerted on Cladophora sp. may cause a dramatic decrease in
macroalgal biomass, which has been suggested for the eastern Gulf of Finland
(Berezina et al. 2005).
The purpose of the first and subsequent deliberate introductions of P. robus-
toides into the Baltic Sea basin was to improve fish production. Indeed, when
this species is abundant, its contribution to the diet of various fish species
is significant and frequently dominant (Bubinas 1979, K. Arbačiauskas 2002,
unpublished data). Nevertheless, the impact that P. robustoides and the other
introduced Ponto-Caspian peracaridan species exert on fish production in Lithu-
anian waters has never been precisely quantified, except for an unsubstantiated
20% increase indicated in a few fishery reports.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The extension in the distribution range of the Ponto-Caspian amphipod

P. robustoides in the Baltic Sea basin since its deliberate introduction shows a
pattern of jump dispersal that indicates the involvement of vectors associated
with human activity. In the colonized area, P. robustoides has great potential for
increasing its abundance under favourable environmental conditions and ex-
hibits the ability to establish sustainable populations where low water ionic
content is found. This species prefers lentic or stagnant water environments.
Due to its aggressiveness, P. robustoides affects indigenous gammarids and in
appropriate conditions may be superior to other amphipod invaders. This inva-
sive species is capable of negatively affecting indigenous macroinvertebrates
and may dramatically impact other ecosystem components. A future expansion
of P. robustoides beyond the Baltic Sea basin through vectors associated with
human activity seems to be extremely likely. The presence of this pontogam-
marid in the Mittelland Canal actually means that the species has already
invaded the North Sea basin. Successful colonization of P. robustoides probably
can be predicted across habitats with lentic or stagnant fresh waters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A draft of this manuscript profited from comments and suggestions of peer

referees and Francesca Gherardi, the editor of this volume. The language was
improved by Jonathan Grey. We thank all of them.
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Chapter twenty-six
Changes in the aquatic

systems of north-eastern
Europe after invasion by
Gmelinoides fasciatus
INTRODUCTION
The main pathways which have caused an increase in the dispersal rate of
. .
amphipods in Europe are associated with human activity (Jaz dz ewski 1980).
Destruction of natural geographic barriers has resulted in range expansions of
many amphipod species in different directions. For example, since the 20th
century, eight amphipod species of Ponto-Caspian, Baikalian, and Atlantic origin
have expanded widely within Russia due to both several human-mediated
vectors (shipping, intentional and accidental introductions, or natural migration
via the constructed waterways of Europe) and the elevated plasticity of some
non-indigenous species (Alimov and Bogutskaya 2004).
The successful establishment of non-indigenous amphipod species at new
locations and often the consequent local extinction of indigenous species are
the main causes of structural alterations of natural habitats. According to Elton
(1958), each introduction of a new species, whether followed or not by an
explosion of its density, exerts some influence on the indigenous communities
and ecosystem stability. Even a relatively small number of specimens may be
sufficient to cause severe damage in the recipient ecosystem (Mack et al. 2000).
Especially in the cases of addition of functionally dominant species (keystone
479
ß 2007 Springer.
480 Nadezhda A. Berezina
species, ecosystem engineers, or species with many trophic relations), the

impact on the recipient ecosystem is strong, inducing rapid changes in the
structure and functioning of communities (e.g. Olenin and Leppäkoski 1999,
Alimov and Bogutskaya 2004, Orlova et al. 2006).
The strong predatory impact of non-indigenous amphipods on indigenous
invertebrates and the related shifts in communities were found to occur in some
of the aquatic ecosystems in Europe (Dick et al. 2002, Van der Velde et al. 2002,
Kelly and Dick 2005, Kelly et al. 2006). Although the possible effects of invasive
amphipods on invertebrate species and communities were described, there is
a lack of detailed analyses of related changes in the recipient systems that
require long-term observations.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the amphipod Gmelinoides fasciatus (Stebbing) has
been abundantly introduced from Siberia into lakes and reservoirs in the former
USSR with the purpose of enhancing fish production. These introductions
resulted in a rapid expansion of this species’ geographic range (Alimov and
Bogutskaya 2004). While G. fasciatus before the 1960s was limited to the basins
of Siberian rivers (Angara, Barguzin, Irtysh, Lena, Pyasina, Tunguska, Selenga,
and Yenisey), it has spread into many waterbodies of Russia and adjacent
countries ranging between latitudes 488–748 N and longitudes 258–1108 E
(Panov and Berezina 2002). Gmelinoides fasciatus is today recorded in many
aquatic systems of European Russia (Fig. 1), where it has become a keystone
species.
This chapter reviews the pathways taken by G. fasciatus from the Lake Baikal
basin to the Baltic Sea basin (Lake Peipsi-Pihkva, Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, and
the Neva Estuary), describes the biological traits that make this amphipod
a successful invader, and attempts to identify changes in the invertebrate
communities of the diverse recipient ecosystems of north-eastern Europe after
this species became established. Also, it assesses the risk of further invasions by
G. fasciatus.
A HISTORY OF THE EXPANSION OF G. FASCIATUS
Study of the malacostracan fauna in large lakes of north-eastern Europe (the

Baltic Sea basin) had begun at the close of the 19th century (Yarzhinskyi 1870).
Before the 1970s, four amphipod species, the glacial relict Gammaracanthus
lacustris Sars, Monoporeia affinis (Lindstrom), Pallasea quadrispinosa Sars, and
the freshwater Gammarus lacustris Sars, inhabited Lake Ladoga and Lake
Onega (Gerd 1946, Segerstråle 1954, Stalmakova 1968). Pallasea quadrispinosa
and G. lacustris were common amphipods in Lake Peipsi-Pihkva (Timm and
Timm 1993). First data on zoobenthos of Neva Bay (easternmost part of the
Baltic Sea) connected with these large lakes were obtained at the beginning of
the 20th century (Deryugin 1923, 1925), when M. affinis, P. quadrispinosa, and
Gammarus pulex (Linnaeus) were reported as the most abundant crustacean
The invasion of north-eastern Europe by Gmelinoides fasciatus 481
Fig. 1 Records of Gmelinoides fasciatus in the aquatic ecosystems of European Russia:

Lake Ladoga (1), Lake Onega (2), Lake Peipsi-Pihkva (3), Neva Bay (4), eastern Gulf
of Finland (5), Lake Ilmen (6), Lake Otradnoe (7), Lake Beloe (8), Rybinsky Reservoir (9),
Gor’kovsky Reservoir (10), Cheboksarsky Reservoir (11), and Kuibyshevsky Reservoir (12).
species. According to the results of investigations of 1982–1984, two am-

phipods, G. lacustris and P. quadrispinosa, and the isopod Asellus aquaticus
(Linnaeus) were common species in the littoral zone of the northern Neva Bay
(Winberg and Gutelmakher 1987). While the density of G. lacustris did not
exceed 700 m 2 in this period, the density of A. aquaticus was locally very high
(10,000 m 2). Considerable changes had been recorded by the beginning of the
21st century. The relict amphipods and G. lacustris had disappeared from Neva
Bay; G. pulex became rare and some new crustacean species had appeared
(Berezina and Panov 2003a, 2004b).
The newcomer G. fasciatus originated from the Lake Baikal basin. It was shown
to be a successful invader, colonizing the majority of aquatic ecosystems in the
Baltic Sea basin. Gmelinoides fasciatus was first found in Lake Peipsi-Pihkva in
1972 (Timm and Timm 1993). By 1988 it had invaded Lake Ladoga (Panov
1996). In the Neva Estuary this amphipod was discovered in 1996 (Berezina and
Panov 2003a) and later (in 2001) it was recorded in Lake Onega (Berezina
and Panov 2003b). The deliberate introduction of G. fasciatus and its subsequent
natural expansion were the main causes of its spread into these systems.
In Lake Peipsi-Pihkva, G. fasciatus was introduced accidentally at the begin-
ning of the 1970s during several attempts to enrich the indigenous population
of G. lacustris by addition of specimens from a Siberian population (Timm
and Timm 1993, Alimov and Bogutskaya 2004). These introductions were
‘‘contaminated’’, because the released material (several million amphipod speci-
mens) contained a mixture of G. fasciatus (1–2% in density). The accidentally
introduced G. fasciatus survived and was first recorded in Lake Peipsi-Pihkva in
1972 (Timm and Timm 1993). By 1990, it was established in the whole littoral
zone of this lake (Timm et al. 1996, Panov et al. 2000).
An intentional introduction was the main cause of G. fasciatus expansion
to Lake Ladoga. Between 1971 and 1976 this species (from the Posolskiy Bay
of Lake Baikal) was introduced in six small lakes of the Karelian Isthmus
(Arkhiptseva et al. 1977), linked to the lake-river system of the Vuoksa River
connecting via the River Burnaya with Lake Ladoga. Earlier, in the late 1960s,
several attempts to introduce another gammarid G. lacustris from Siberian lakes
to some of these lakes were made (Karpevich and Lukonina 1972), but failed.
Gmelinoides fasciatus was the more tolerant species and it became successfully
established in some of these recipient lakes (Nilova 1976, Mitskevich 1981); it
migrated via the lake-river system to other lakes of north-western Russia. In the
late 1980s, G. fasciatus was already found at several sites in Lake Ladoga (Panov
1996, Kurashov et al. 1996, Slepukhina et al. 2000). By 2000 it had colonized
the whole littoral zone of this lake, becoming a keystone species in the majority of
sites (Berezina and Panov 2004a). The G. fasciatus population from Lake Ladoga
became the source for secondary introductions of this species to other aquatic
systems. In a short period, the Baikalian amphipod had expanded its range over
several hundred kilometres to the west (Neva Estuary) and east (Lake Onega).
By the 1990s, G. fasciatus had reached the Neva Bay (the freshwater part of
the Gulf of Finland). In 1999, it was recorded in the oligohaline Neva Estuary,
which is the very first record of the Baikalian amphipod in brackish waters.
Today it had become a common species in many habitats in the eastern Gulf of
Finland dispersing in the area with a salinity of 0.05–2.0‰ (Berezina and
Panov 2003a, Berezina et al. 2005, Haahti and Kangas 2006).
In 2001, G. fasciatus was found along the western shore of Lake Onega, where
it has established dense populations (Berezina and Panov 2003b). This species
was not recorded in Lake Onega during intensive survey before the mid-1990s
(Polyakova 1999). It is likely that introduction of G. fasciatus occurred in the
late 1990s. The migration route of this species to Lake Onega is most likely via
the Svir’ River (where it was also found), connecting the lake with Lake Ladoga.
The second possible source of this invasion may be part of the population of
Lake Beloe (where it was first recorded in 1994), migrating upstream through
the Volga-Baltic waterway (the so-called northern invasion corridor, according
to Bij de Vaate et al. 2002).
THE BIOLOGY OF G. FASCIATUS
Gmelinoides fasciatus belongs to the opportunistic ecological category or

r-strategist: it has a short time for reproduction of one generation, fast growth
and maturation, high resistance to environmental factors (including eutrophi-
cation and some pollutants), high genetic variability, and a wide food spectrum
(Alimov and Bogutskaya 2004). These traits permit it to adapt and increase
in density during a short period in the recipient ecosystems, becoming an
abundant species and expanding to new areas.
It is a middle-sized amphipod. The sizes of newborn specimens range from
1.2 to 1.4 mm, reaching a maximum of 16 mm in body length (Bekman 1962,
Panov and Berezina 2002). The sizes of ovigerous females range from 3.4 to
10 mm at different temperatures, with the smallest sizes found in Neva Bay
during a hot summer period of 27–31 8C (Alimov and Bogutskaya 2004).
Clutch sizes vary from 3 to 45 eggs depending on female body length. Embryo-
genesis lasts 180–220 degree-days, i.e. 10–12 days at 18 8C. Developmental
time from hatched juveniles of G. fasciatus to maturation correlates to tempera-
ture and takes about 1,000–1,200 degree-days or 50–60 days at 18–20 8C.
Being omnivorous (Berezina 2005), G. fasciatus has many trophic links. While
juveniles and specimens with body lengths up to 7 mm are preferably detriti-
vorous (70–90% in relative abundance), the larger specimens are omnivores
with about 35% of animal food such as infusorians, oligochaetes, nematodes,
and larvae of chironomids, trichopterans, and ephemeropterans (Berezina
2007).
The environmental barriers for its successful establishment include hypoxia
in water and sediments (oxygen < 1–2 mgL 1), pH < 6, a high content of
humic acids in water (brown water), and soft water with calcium content less
than 5–7 mgL 1 (Bekman 1962, Nilova 1976, Berezina 2001, 2003, Berezina
et al. 2005). For example, G. fasciatus was either absent or rare (0–500 individ-
uals m 2) in some locations of Lake Ladoga, with ‘‘brown water’’ (i.e. water
enriched by humic compounds) or near streams with discharged acidic water
from wetlands and bogs. A water salinity of around 5‰ is the upper limit for
survival of G. fasciatus adults, while salinity below 2‰ is needed for successful
embryogenesis and the survival of neonates (Berezina et al. 2001).
Gmelinoides fasciatus was among the first invertebrates to recolonize the
previously lifeless pulp-mill discharges in Lake Ladoga and was a very abundant
component in some waterbodies under hard eutrophication. However, it did
not colonize (or decreased considerably in its density) the habitats influenced
by the waste water discharge of oil and aluminum plants. Also, strong chemical
pollution of habitats by heavy metals or the release of warm water by power
stations may cause a significant decrease in the density of G. fasciatus (Skalskaya
1998). Low densities of G. fasciatus were reported from the Novosibirsky
Reservoir (the Ob’ River basin) during abrupt fluctuations in water level (Vizer
2006).
CHANGES IN THE RECIPIENT COMMUNITIES
The deliberate introductions of G. fasciatus in many lakes and reservoirs of Russia

and adjacent areas have had initially unexpected, long-term, and undesirable
consequences. This amphipod, which was introduced with the aim of food
enhancement for fish, occurred as the secondary food item in diets of marketable
fish (pike-perch, dace, whitefish, and bream). However, being the main or a
regular item in the diet of perch, roach, ruff, ide, and eel-pot, it facilitated
population growth of the weed fish (Mitskevich 1981, Vizer 2006). At the
same time, it became a keystone species in the majority of the recipient systems,
affecting indigenous species and invertebrate communities.
Lake Ladoga
Lake Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe (18,135 km2, mean depth 46.9 m), has
a mesotrophic status in most areas but it is subject to intensive eutrophication in
numerous shallow bays. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the indigenous
G. lacustris was a common species in the lake, inhabiting macrophyte beds
and exposed stones (Kuzmenko 1964, Panov 1996). In spite of being wide-
spread, G. lacustris was not very abundant at the majority of sites, varying from
20 to 300 individuals m 2, but it reached high densities (1,500–4,500 m 2)
at several sites. The indigenous isopod A. aquaticus occurred at densities of
100–4,500 m 2 (Berezina and Panov 2004a). In comparison, in 1988–90 the
density and biomass of the newcomer G. fasciatus established at several sites ranged
from 2,500 to 7,500 m 2, exceeding 53,800 m 2 at one site (Panov 1996).
Mid-summer surveys in the littoral zone of Lake Ladoga in 2000 and 2005
showed that G. fasciatus was the dominant species in terms of density and
biomass. Today its density is similar to the late 1980s level, varying from
2,000 to 10,000 m 2 in macrophyte beds and in exposed sand-stony littoral
(Berezina and Panov 2004a), while the very high density (above 30,000 m 2)
was recorded in more eutrophic parts of the lake. The contribution of G. fasciatus
to the total biomass of zoobenthos is very high, averaging 86% in the majority of
habitats.
The range of G. lacustris has decreased considerably during last decades. In
2000, the species was recorded at only three locations (at the south-eastern
and northern shores of Lake Ladoga and near Valaam Island) with densities of
16–254 m 2. In 2005, G. lacustris was not recorded during sampling of whole
coast of the lake except for one location at the northern coast, where G. lacustris
is not endangered by the invader due to the low density of G. fasciatus at this site.
Lake Peipsi-Pihkva
Lake Peipsi-Pihkva is a large but shallow (3,558 km2, up to 15.3 m deep)

eutrophic lake. Before the invasion by G. fasciatus, the average density of the
Table 1 Maximum density and biomass of Gmelinoides fasciatus in the littoral zone of
the studied waterbodies.
Maximum
density, Maximum
Observation individuals biomass,
Waterbodies period m 2 gm 2 Author
Lake Peipsi-Pihkva 1980 20,000 80 Timm and Timm 1993

1992 24,500 71 Timm and Timm 1993
1993 29,500 137 Melnik 2000
1996 17,000 102 Panov et al. 2000
2000 83,000 225 Berezina and Panov 2004a
Lake Ladoga 1990 53,800 158.6 Panov 1996
1996 54,500 135.8 Berezina and Panov 2004a
2000 37,400 66 Berezina and Panov 2004a
2005 34,600 48.9 Berezina et al., unpubl. data
Lake Onega 2001 8,300 34 Berezina and Panov 2003b
Neva Estuary 1999 13,100 – Berezina and Panov 2003a
2001 17,500 40.9 Berezina and Panov 2003a
2002 6,000 10.7 N. A. Berezina, unpubl. data
‘‘small’’ animals of macrozoobenthos (excluding large molluscs) was 2,600 m 2;

and its biomass reached 12 g m 2 (Timm et al. 1996). Already in 1980, the
density and biomass of zoobenthos had increased essentially on account of
established G. fasciatus. Its densities had reached high values (up to 20,000 m 2)
at several sites in the lake (Table 1). In 1992, a gradual decrease in the abundance
of the Ephemeroptera, Hydrachnellae, Oligochaeta, Pisidiidae, and the mollusc
Bithynia tentaculata (Linnaeus) occurred in the shallow-water zone, mainly due
to progressing eutrophication, while the abundance of G. fasciatus further
increased (Table 1).
According to the data recorded since 1993 (Melnik 2000), the density of G.
fasciatus reached its peak in the exposed sandy littoral of the lake (29,500 m 2).
Also, it was abundant in Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) beds and among accumu-
lations of the molluscs Unio tumidus Philipsson, Anodonta anatina (Linnaeus), and
Viviparus viviparus (Linnaeus), ranging from 2,000 to 11,000 individuals m 2.
In 1996 the densities of G. fasciatus were in the range of 7,600–17,000 m 2
(Panov et al. 2000). In 2000 mid-summer densities of G. fasciatus varied from
10,000 to 20,000 m 2, reaching locally a very high value (Table 1). The relative
abundance of the Baikalian invader reached a maximum of 98% of the total
zoobenthic biomass (Berezina and Panov 2004a).
In Lake Peipsi-Pihkva, G. fasciatus inhabits the G. lacustris habitats, replacing

the former dominant indigenous species. While a rare finding of G. lacustris was
recorded in the late 1990s, it was not found during an intensive survey in 2000
(Berezina and Panov 2004a).
Lake Onega
The mid-summer density and biomass of G. fasciatus in the oligotrophic Lake

Onega (9,943 km2, mean depth 26.8 m) varied between 2,200–5,200 m 2 and
4–27 g m 2 at different sites (Berezina and Panov 2003b). The maximum
abundance of G. fasciatus was recorded in macrophyte beds (Potamogeton
gramineus Linnaeus) in the south-western part of the lake (Table 1). The share
of the species in bottom communities was considerable, constituting 50–83% of
the total density and 46–79% of the total biomass. High densities and biomasses
were recorded also for chironomids, oligochaetes, molluscs, stone flies, caddis
flies, mayflies [Baetis rhodani (Pictet) and Heptagenia sulfurea (Müller)], and for
the isopod A. aquaticus. At some locations, indigenous G. lacustris was found
(50 individuals m 2).
Neva Estuary
The Neva Estuary, the largest estuary (3,600 km2) of the Baltic Sea, is one of
the most eutrophic parts of the sea, impacted by a number of human activities.
After the invasion by G. fasciatus in 1990s, densities and biomasses of benthos
had increased two- to sevenfold. During the last several years, these values have
been recorded as 17,000–20,000 m 2 and 30–40 g m 2 (Berezina 2005).
At present, non-indigenous amphipods have played significant roles in this
ecosystem, contributing 36–90% to the total biomass of benthos. Differences
in the maximal densities of G. fasciatus in different years (Table 1) relate to
changing salinity, the negative influence of macroalgal blooms, and predation
by another invasive amphipod (Berezina and Panov 2003a, Berezina et al.
2005). The highest density of G. fasciatus (17,500 m 2) was recorded in 2001
at the northern coast of Neva Bay. The indigenous amphipod G. lacustris
disappeared from the fauna of Neva Bay after invasion by G. fasciatus (Berezina
and Panov 2004b).
The phenomenon of the replacement of one amphipod species by another is
common in this group of invertebrates (see Alimov and Bogutskaya 2004 and
literature therein). Gmelinoides fasciatus typically replaces indigenous G. lacustris
in Lake Peipsi-Pihkva, Lake Onega, Lake Ladoga, and the Neva estuary as
the result of predation (N. A. Berezina 2006, unpublished data). It seems likely
that it has also affected other indigenous crustaceans (A. aquaticus and
P. quadrispinosa). In many cases, eutrophication facilitated the more rapid
disappearance of more sensitive indigenous species and their replacement by
the more tolerant invader G. fasciatus.
Biomass, g m−2 (1990)

0.8
0.01 1.5
0.4
0.5 0.5
6.4
4.7
1.4
1.6
0.5
1.7
22.6
3.9
1.3
1.9 0.5
0.1 0.2
0.1
Asellus Gmelinoides Gammarus Chironomidae Ephemeroptera

Mollusca Oligochaeta Trichoptera Hirudinea Odonata
Fig. 2 Changes in the taxonomic composition and biomasses of macroinvertebrates

during a decade (1990–2000) after Gmelinoides fasciatus’ invasion at an undisturbed
benthic community (Lake Ladoga, cape Bykovets, site 1).
Gmelinoides fasciatus may prey on macroinvertebrates (Berezina et al. 2005)

that can result in community alterations. For example, observations of benthic
communities in the coastal zone of Lake Ladoga after the invasion by G. fasciatus
(in 1990 and 2000) showed that the taxonomic composition of the benthic
community and the density of invertebrate groups have changed abruptly.
Two examples of changing benthic communities from undisturbed Site 1 and
disturbed eutrophic Site 2 can be considered as possible scenarios of community
alteration caused by the invasive amphipod G. fasciatus (Figs. 2 and 3). As
shown in Fig. 2, in 1990 (at the beginning of the invasion by G. fasciatus),
site 1 in Lake Ladoga was characterized by a high taxonomical diversity with a

prevalence of the isopod A. aquaticus (4.7 g m 2) and the presence of the
indigenous amphipod G. lacustris (0.8 g m 2). In 2000, the total biomass
of benthos was 2.2 times higher than in 1990 on account of G. fasciatus
population growth that increased its biomass from 0.02 to 22.6 g m 2. The
predatory insect larvae (Odonata) and leeches (Erpobdellidae) remained at
around 3 g m 2, whereas the biomass of isopods and of other groups (trichop-
terans, chironomids, ephemeropterans, and oligochaetes), the favourite food
items of G. fasciatus (Berezina et al. 2005), decreased at least two-fold. Similarly,
the invasion of another amphipod, G. pulex, dramatically altered macroinverte-
brate and fish communities through strong predatory and competitive inter-
actions (Kelly et al. 2003, Kelly and Dick 2005). In particular, in the invaded
sites of Irish rivers fewer taxa of macroinvertebrates, including a lower abun-
dance of ephemeropterans, dipterans, and plecopterans, were found.
Another situation is shown by an example of community change at site 2,
which was influenced by pulp-mill discharges until the 1980s that facilitated the
decrease in the abundance of the benthic community and the disappearance of
some crustaceans and insects before colonization by G. fasciatus in 1988 (Fig. 3).
The more tolerant G. fasciatus rapidly established at this site, reaching a high
biomass (42.2 g m 2) as early as 1990. Other invertebrates formed a biomass
of 8.5 g m 2; among them, chironomids (3.4 g m 2) and ephemeropterans
(2.5 g m 2) were the more abundant, whereas the biomass of A. aquaticus was
insignificant (0.1 g m 2). In the next decade, G. fasciatus increased its biomass
slightly from 42.2 to 47.5 g m 2, without however any modification in the overall
biomass of the other benthic species (around 8 g m 2). However, changes in the
structure of the benthic community were observed: isopods and oligochaetes
disappeared, ephemeropterans and chironomids decreased in biomass due to
predation by G. fasciatus, while the biomass of predaceous trichopterans increased.
RISK OF FURTHER INVASION BY G. FASCIATUS
Nowadays, G. fasciatus range expansion in Europe is fast. For example, this

species continues to expand its range to the west in the Baltic Sea and in 2005
it was recorded outside the Neva Estuary near Estonia and Finland, from
which it may penetrate the Baltic Sea and other regions probably via ship
ballast. This amphipod may invade the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea with
salinities below 5 ppt, such as the Bothnian Bay (2–4 ppt), Curonian Lagoon
(0.5–7.0 ppt), and Vistula Lagoon (1–7 ppt) (Berezina et al. 2001). However, its
establishment will be confined to those habitats where salinity can decrease to
1–2 ppt at least temporarily.
The aquatic system of Lake Ladoga – Neva River and its estuary – Gulf of
Finland is a hub for water transport to Europe, North America, and the inland
waters of Russia. Recently, in the Gulf of Finland some new terminals in the
0.9
2.5
0.7
42.2 8.5 0.5
0.4
0.1
3.4
0.1
1.7
4.8
47.5 7.8
0.1
1.1
Asellus Gmelinoides Chironomidae Ephemeroptera

Mollusca Oligochaeta Trichoptera Coleoptera
Fig. 3 Changes in the taxonomic composition and biomasses of macroinvertebrates

during a decade (1990–2000) after Gmelinoides fasciatus’ establishment at a disturbed
benthic community (Lake Ladoga, Shchuchij Bay, site 2).
St. Petersburg area have started to function and new terminals are planned for
construction that are likely to increase traffic and associated species invasions.
The risk of further invasions should be assessed on the basis of possible vector
pathways, the invasibility of systems, and the ecological requirements of the
invader, including information on its tolerance to environmental factors, life
cycle traits, reproduction rate, food habits, energy requirements, and strength of
its interactions with other species. Such a risk assessment of invasions was
provided for the Finnish Lake District connecting to the Russian part of the
eastern Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga area via canal-river systems (Pienimäki
and Leppäkoski 2004). Low calcium and acidic conditions may limit the estab-
lishment of G. fasciatus in these lakes. Nevertheless, its spread from the Lake
Ladoga basin to other areas is very likely.
CONCLUSIONS
Non-indigenous amphipod species cause dramatic alterations in aquatic com-

munities because of their key role. The consequences of their invasions need a
thorough assessment at genetic, species, community, and biotope levels to face
the loss of biodiversity and disruption of the system stability that they may cause.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I warmly thank the editor for the invitation to contribute to this book and three
reviewers for valuable comments. This study was supported by Russian Acad-
emy of Sciences Program (‘‘Biodiversity’’), President’s Program ‘‘Scientific
Schools of Russia’’ (grants # 5577.2006.4), the St. Petersburg’s Scientific Centre
of Russian Academy of Sciences and European Commission 6th Framework
Programme Integrated Project ALARM.
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Chapter twenty-seven
The predatory impact

of Dikerogammarus
villosus on fish
Sandra Casellato, Alessandra Visentin,

and Giovanni La Piana
INTRODUCTION
Dikerogammarus villosus (Sowinsky), an amphipod gammarid crustacean, is an

extremely aggressive species to the point that it has been nicknamed ‘‘killer
shrimp’’ for its behaviour towards indigenous invertebrate species (Bij de Vaate
and Klink 1995, Nesemann et al. 1995, Tittizer 1996a, 1996b, Grabow et al.
. .
1998, Devin et al. 2001, 2004, Müller et al. 2001, Jaz dz ewski and Konopacka
2002, Mürle et al. 2003, MacNeil and Platvoet 2005). From its original Ponto-
Caspian area, it had invaded central and western Europe (Fig. 1) through the
southern corridor connecting the Danube with the Rhine and the central
corridor connecting the Dnieper with the Vistula, Oder, and Elbe basins (Bij de
Vaate et al. 2002).
What is especially worrying is that this small crustacean, only a few
centimetres long when fully grown, shortly after its arrival in new habitats
eliminates all other gammarids, competing with them not only for food
resources and space, but also attacking and devouring them. It often kills or
simply bites off much more prey than it eats (Dick et al. 2002) and may severely
damage the natural food webs of rivers and lakes. Numerous recent studies show
that its aggressive behaviour is impressive: in all the central European hydro-
systems in which it had settled, it has mostly replaced indigenous species (Dick
495
ß 2007 Springer.
496 Sandra Casellato et al.
Fig. 1 Distribution range of Dikerogammarus villosus in Europe; the origin area is

shown in grey with the year of the first record. Arrows indicate predicted further
invasions. (From Bollache et al. 2004, modified).
and Platvoet 2000, Whitfield 2000, Van der Velde et al. 2002, Kinzler and
Maier 2003, Bollache et al. 2004, MacNeil and Platvoet 2005). The decreased
numbers of invertebrates recorded in many lakes and rivers are suspected to be
due to the increasing numbers of D. villosus (Haybach et al. 2003). It is also
regarded as a risk for the vulnerable early life-stages of some vertebrates,
because it has been observed attacking small fish and fish larvae. The size of
these prey, which are sometimes much larger than D. villosus, does not seem to
pose an obstacle to its voracity (Müller et al. 2002, Devin et al. 2003, Schmidt
and Josens 2004). Sometimes, D. villosus appears simply to attack and injure
prey, indicating that its impact on prey is not limited by predator satiation (Dick
et al. 2002).
Successful invasion by D. villosus
The species has a surprising capacity for adaptation, explaining the ease
with which it settles in an enormous variety of both freshwater and brackish
environments in Europe. Discussing the biological attributes associated with
successful Ponto-Caspian invaders into Europe, Bij de Vaate et al. (2002)
reported that the invasive potential of this species is related to its relatively
short life-span and generation time, non-specific food preferences, and the
capacity to tolerate wide ranges of water salinity. It can also tolerate wide
The impact of Dikerogammarus villosus 497
ranges of temperature and water oxygenation, and adapts to several types of

substrate (Devin et al. 2003, Wijnhoven et al. 2003). Finally, it can reproduce
all year round (Kley and Maier 2003, Devin et al. 2004) and is capable to
form good ecological segregation between adults and juveniles, thus lowering
intraspecific competition between medium-sized and larger specimens (Devin
et al. 2003, Casellato et al. 2006).
Not only a shredder and detritus feeder
Dikerogammarus villosus is widely distributed in the Ponto-Caspian area and is

very common in the lower reaches and delta of the Danube (Kinzelbach 1995,
Neseman et al. 1995). It was accidentally introduced into Lake Balaton in
1950, through the canal link with the Danube, where it replaced the indigen-
ous species Gammarus roselii Gervais (Musko 1994). Its presence was reported
by Musko (1989, 1990), together with Chelicorophium curvispinum (G. O. Sars)
and Dikerogammarus haemobaphes (Eichwald), another Ponto-Caspian species.
In this environment, it is not the most abundant species and no aggressive
behaviour was observed, although it had been suspected of being more preda-
tory than other gammarids (Marguiller et al. 1998), which have traditionally
been viewed as principally herbivorous shredders and detritivores (Cummings
and Klug 1979). In fact, this gammarid had already been mentioned in less
recent literature as omnivorous and not simply as a shredder (Dedju 1980).
Other gammarid species, such as Gammarus pulex (Linnaeus) and Gammarus
duebeni celticus (Liljeborg), have been found to act as effective predators and not
only as shredders or detritus feeders (Dick et al. 1993, 1995).
The associated species
A strong association has been often observed in many aquatic environments

between D. villosus and the mollusc bivalve Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) (zebra
mussel), another Ponto-Caspian species widely distributed throughout the
world (Minchin et al. 2002). In the River Moselle (Devin et al. 2004), in Lake
Garda (Casellato et al. 2006), and in Lake Balaton (Musko and Bako 2005), they
belong to the same assemblage. These two species have co-evolved over a long
period of time; moreover, the presence of D. polymorpha seems to favour the
amphipod by increasing the habitat complexity. This is consistent with the
‘‘invasional meltdown’’ theory (Simberloff and Von Holle 1999) according to
which positive interactions between species with a common past increase the
probability of the successful establishment of exotic species of the same origin.
So, the previous establishment of D. polymorpha in European rivers and lakes
may also have favoured the settlement of D. villosus. The zebra mussel has long
been present in many European rivers and lakes (Giusti and Oppi 1972, Bedulli
and Franchini 1978, Binelli et al. 1997, Minchin et al. 2002, Musko and Bako’
2005) and in the Great Lakes of North America (Stewart and Haynes 1994,
Ricciardi et al. 1997). In Lake Eire, in particular, it became firmly established

and, after its arrival, an increase in the local amphipod fauna was observed with
a reduction in copepods and rotifers. The reasons for these structural modifica-
tions in lacustrine communities were attributed to changes in the habitat
caused by the presence of zebra mussel and its faeces deposition, which became
another food resource for gammarids and for other macroinvertebrates, poten-
tial prey for D. villosus (Ricciardi et al. 1997, Gonzáles and Downing 1999). The
arrival of D. villosus may have found the way already paved in that environ-
ment, as well as in the lakes Geneva, Constance, and Garda, where D. poly-
morpha had long been established.
To verify the hypothesized capability of D. villosus to prey, not only on other
aquatic microinvertebrates but also on fish eggs, laboratory experiments were
carried out in January 2005, when some fish spawn along the shorelines of the
lakes. Coregonus lavaretus Linnaeus, an endemic species of Lake Garda, is a
salmonid which lays many eggs in the gravelly bottoms. These bottoms are
also preferred by D. villosus that has been observed in abundance near the areas
where C. lavaretus lays its eggs.
THE FOOD PREFERENCE OF D.VILLOSUS
Experimental design
Specimens of D. villosus used for the experiments were collected by the ‘‘kick
sampling’’ method (Barbour et al. 1999) (kick net of 1 mm mesh frame, aper-
ture 250 mm) in sites of Lake Garda where a population of the invader can now
be found (Casellato et al. 2006). Only healthy, visibly non-gravid and non-
parasitized adults (approximately 20–25 mm body length) were selected. Fer-
tilized whitefish eggs, all more or less at the same stage of embryonic develop-
ment, were furnished by the Incubatoio Ittiogenico of Bardolino (Verona, Italy).
Laboratory experiments were performed in a thermostatic room at 15 8C. In
experiment 1, small glass tanks (diameter: 14 cm) were filled with filtered
aerated water taken from the collection sites, previously treated with a light
antibacterial and antimycotic. To provide shelter for gammarids and to repro-
duce the natural environment, small stones and weeds were collected along the
shores of the lake, washed, sterilized, and placed on the bottom of the tanks.
Before the experiment, the eggs of C. lavaretus were kept in a Zug bottle, to avoid
their agglutination and to preserve them in optimal conditions until their use for
laboratory experiments.
In the first set of experiments, five replicates were performed for each of the
following compositions: (a) one D. villosus offered with 10 fish eggs, (b) one
D. villosus offered with 20 eggs, (c) two D. villosus offered with 10 eggs, and
(d) two D. villosus offered with 20 eggs. Each test lasted four days; the number of
opened eggs was checked twice a day and carefully observed under a binocular
microscope to ascertain predation.
In the second set of experiments, five mesocosms were set up in small aquaria
(30 30 10 cm), to verify whether D. villosus was able to choose among a few
available prey, including C. lavaretus eggs. Three individuals of D. villosus with
25 adult specimens of each of the following species, Asellus aquaticus Linnaeus,
Echinogammarus stammerii (S. Karaman), and 25 larvae of Chironomus sp. were
kept together in each of the five replicates. Macroinvertebrates and eggs were
introduced into the mesocosms and allowed to settle for 2 h before D. villosus
specimens were added. The mesocosms were then monitored for a week.
A control blank (i.e. a mesocosm without D. villosus) was also set up, to verify
prey survival.
In experiment set l, data were analysed by a two-way ANOVA for the type-by-
type comparisons [factor 1 and factor 2 being the composition of microcosm
(a, b, c) and time (repeated measure: days 1, 2, 3, and 4), respectively] and by
a one-way ANOVA for the day-by-day comparisons, the factor being the com-
position of microcosm. Data of experiment set 2 were analyzed by a one-way
ANOVA, the factor being the type of prey (Chironomus, A. aquaticus, E. stammeri,
fish eggs). A post-hoc analysis by Tukey’s honest significance difference (Hsu
1996) was applied to evaluate differences among groups of the n-prey.
Whitefish eggs are consumed
In experiment set 1, significant differences were found among the four experi-
ments (F3,16 ¼ 8.03, P ¼ 0.0017) but not among days (F3,48 ¼ 2.3, P ¼ 0.089).
There are significant differences among the four types in the first day
(F3,16 ¼ 3.6885, P < 0.05), especially in the second day (F3,16 ¼ 11.193, P <
0.001), whereas no significant differences about the eaten prey can be observed
in the third (F3,16 ¼ 0.9237, P ¼ 0.452) and in the fourth day (F3,16 ¼ 0.8444,
P ¼ 0.489) (Fig. 2). The role of available number of eggs does not seem to
influence the behaviour of a single specimen of D. villosus (F1,8 ¼ 1.42,
P ¼ 0.267). Instead, when two specimens are present, there is a very significant
change in their attitude when the number of available eggs increases
(F1,8 ¼ 9.87, P ¼ 0.0138). If the amount of available eggs is small, there is no
significant difference in considering one or two D. villosus (F1,8 ¼ 0.36,
P ¼ 0.5651). Instead, when more prey are available, there is a significant
change in the behaviour of D. villosus; in fact, there is a clear increase
(F1,8 ¼ 7.99, P ¼ 0.0223) in the number of the eggs eaten.
To ascertain the true extent of predation by the gammarids, the broken eggs
were removed from the aquaria and observed under a binocular microscope in
order to separate the eggs hatched by fries and those eaten by the gammarids. In
the first case of hatching fry, the margin of eggs is smooth and the rim is curled
on the inside, while the eggs shredded by the jaws and mandibles of D. villosus
show the rim with serrated edges with some pieces missing (Fig. 3).
7
eggs eaten per day
0
days 1 2 3 4
1 D.villosus + 10 eggs 1 D.villosus + 20 eggs

2 D.villosus + 10 eggs 2 D.villosus + 20 eggs
Fig. 2 Mean number of the whitefish eggs eaten in a day by one or two individuals of
Dikerogammarus villosus when offered with 10 or 20 eggs in a laboratory experiment.
Whitefish eggs are preferred
At the end of experiment set 2, the specimens of D. villosus in each replicate had
consumed most of the eggs and of chironomid larvae, but only a small part
of the other prey (Fig. 4). Analyses of data showed strong evidence against the
null hypothesis that the available kind of prey are equally eaten by D. villosus
(F3,16 ¼ 28.192, P ¼ 0). Post-analysis test, applied to determine which prey is
preferred by D. villosus (Table 1), showed that consumption of Chironomus
larvae (55.2% eaten) and fish eggs (63.2% eaten) is higher than that of
A. aquaticus (3.2% eaten) and E. stammeri (5.6% eaten).
In both experiments, all gammarids survived throughout the experiments in
all replicates, indicating that the animals were not negatively affected by the
laboratory conditions. The complete survival of each type of prey was also
observed in the controls.
WHAT IS THE FUTURE FOR D. VILLOSUS AND WHITEFISH?
Our experiments show that whitefish eggs are most highly appreciated by
D. villosus, together with chironomid larvae, at least in a laboratory mesocosm.
This may explain its observed crowding in the spawning period of fish along the
shores of Lake Garda, which are also the preferred habitats for the gammarid.
Fig. 3 Eggs opened (a) and eaten (b) by Dikerogammarus villosus; egg from which larvae
had hatched (c).
Alarm about the ‘‘irresistible rise’’ of the ‘‘killer shrimp’’ will increase if our con-
cern is not only directed to other invertebrates that share the spatial niche with
D. villosus, but also to fish. Our laboratory experiments demonstrate that this species
is able to break egg shells, using its mandibles and gnatopods. Fish production in
Lake Garda, and possibly of other European lakes invaded by this species (Bollache
2004), could be seriously threatened if D. villosus populations continue to increase.
Experts on aquatic ecology predict that D. villosus will soon invade Great
Britain and the North American Great Lakes, where the zebra mussel had
already settled, a circumstance which seems to favour the arrival of compatriots
(Ricciardi et al. 1997, Ricciardi and Rasmussen 1998, Ricciardi 2001).
What can stop the invasion?
It is difficult to imagine how the advance of D. villosus can be halted. There were
at least three main vectors for its spread westwards: (i) its easy mobility along
25
20
Consumed prey
15
10
0
Chironomus sp. A.aquaticus E.stammeri eggs
Fig. 4 Mean numbers (n ¼ 5) of the prey consumed by Dikerogammarus villosus in a week.
Table 1 Multiple comparisons among types of prey; 1: Chironomus larvae, 2: Asellus

aquaticus 3: Echinogammarus stammeri, 4: fish eggs. The first column indicates which
groups are being compared, the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th columns represent respectively the
observed mean differences and their confidence interval; the last column reports the
P-value of each comparison controlling for multiplicity.
Type of
comparison Difference Lower Upper Adjusted P
2 vs. 1 13 19.062 6.938 0.000

3 vs. 1 12.4 18.462 6.338 0.000
4 vs. 1 2 4.062 8.062 0.782
3 vs. 2 0.6 5.462 6.662 0.992
4 vs. 2 15 8.938 21.062 0.000
4 vs. 3 14.4 8.338 20.462 0.000
newly constructed canals connecting rivers and lake basins in Europe;

(ii) passive transport in ship ballast; (iii) aquaculture management. There is
no remedy for the first vector. For the second, D. villosus is known to dislike high
levels of water salinity and proposals to discharge ballast water into salt water
before ships reach their destinations may prevent the shrimp from arriving
alive. On ships, ballast water and residues in tanks could be filtered or exposed
to heat, chemicals, ultraviolet light, ozone, or other treatments to kill unwanted
organisms (Taylor et al. 2002). However, although easy mobility and ballast
water have been the most important carriers to central and western Europe for
D. villosus, they were not the vectors to Italy. Lake Garda, the largest lake in
Italy, is not linked in any way with the European fluvial-lacustrine network, but
D. villosus most probably reached it in consignments of fish larvae coming from

fish-farms in the Caspian area; less probably, with boats transported to Lake
Garda from other European lakes. The species is rapidly spreading to all lake
basins and is in expansion because juveniles have the highest densities in the
entire population over the year (Casellato et al. 2006). At the present time, it is
impossible to arrest its invasion. Clearly, this species will shortly also spread
throughout the Po basin, as a few individuals have already been found in the
outlet river of Lake Garda, the Mincio (Casellato et al. 2006). We hypothesize
that, in a short time, this non-indigenous species will be found in other aquatic
environments in northern Italy. Studies on its biology indicate that just a
few individuals are sufficient to establish new populations rapidly in a new
aquatic system – an enormous risk, not only for other aquatic invertebrates but
also for fish.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr. Dario Basso for help and suggestions for the statistical analyses
of experimental data and Dr. Ivano Confortini for having kindly supplied the
C. lavaretus eggs from the Incubatoio Ittiogenico of Lake Garda.
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Chapter twenty-eight
Understanding the impact

of invasive crayfish
Francesca Gherardi
INTRODUCTION
In a rather provocative article, Parker et al. (1999) claimed that, up to then,

little scientific attention had been placed on developing either theoretical or
operational generalizations about the impact of invasive species. Specifically, the
authors lamented the lack of a general framework in which to discuss ‘‘what
impact is, or how we decide that the non-indigenous species exceeds that of
another, or how we decide that the impact of a particular species is greater in
one place than in another’’ (Parker et al. 1999, p. 4). Today, this scenario seems
to have changed for several freshwater non-indigenous species (NIS), e.g. the
zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) (e.g. Karatayev et al. 2002, Ricciardi
2003), but it has remained practically unaltered for other widely diffused
bioinvaders that have, however, attracted much scientific attention in these
latest years, such as freshwater crayfish.
Crayfish are the largest and amongst the longest lived invertebrate organisms
in temperate freshwater environments, and often exist at high densities. Most
species are keystone consumers (Nyström et al. 1996), feeding on benthic
invertebrates, detritus, macrophytes, and algae in lotic and lentic waters (e.g.
Whitledge and Rabeni 1997). They also constitute the main prey of several
species, including otter (Slater and Rayner 1993), fish (e.g. Blake 1995), and
birds (Rodrı́guez et al. 2005). Because of their capability to integrate into the
food web at many levels and to persist on the substantial energy reserves of the
detrital pool, crayfish are good candidates for invading aquatic systems (Moyle
and Light 1996).
507
ß 2007 Springer.
Crayfish native biodiversity is large but unequally distributed throughout

the continents. Over 600 species have been described worldwide (Crandall
2002), the majority occurring in North and Central America (75% of the world’s
total). About 100 indigenous species live in the southern hemisphere, five in
Europe, four in Asia, and none in continental Africa and in Antarctica (Hobbs
1988, Fitzpatrick 1995, Taylor et al. 1996, Taylor 2002). We know today that
much of their present distribution is due to human intervention, even for the
most celebrated ‘‘indigenous’’ species. For instance, as reported by Linnaeus
(1746, p. 358) and confirmed by Pontoppidan (1775, p. 175), the noble crayfish
Astacus astacus (Linnaeus) seems to have been imported into Sweden from Russia
by John III (King of Sweden since 1568) and later into Finland (Westman 1973).
Similarly, the white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius pallipes (Lereboullet) might
have been introduced into Ireland by monastic orders from France in the 12th
century, as suggested by Reynolds (1997). Genetic evidence for this hypothesis
has recently been obtained by Gouin et al. (2003).
In the last few decades, as a result of the exponential growth in the volume
and complexity of the international trade, the world distribution of crayfish has
dramatically changed (e.g. Pérez et al. 1997) mostly due to transcontinental or
interstate translocations of a still relatively small proportion of crayfish species
(hereafter referred to as NICS, i.e. non-indigenous crayfish species) – 20 accord-
ing to Hobbs et al. (1989), but increasing all the time. Human-mediated trans-
locations have been often accidental (in ballast, via canals, by escapes from
holding facilities) but the introduction of some crayfish species was deliberate
(for aquaculture and stocking, for food, as aquarium pets, as live bait, and for
snail and weed control; see Lodge et al. 2000, Chapter 2). In Africa, the
introduction of North American and Australian species from the 1970s on-
wards (Arrignon et al. 1990) was aimed to broaden the range of commercial
fisheries in lakes and dams (Mikkola 1996) and to control freshwater snails that
carry human schistosomiasis (Hof kin et al. 1991, Chapter 4). Indeed, most
crayfish introductions were motivated by our desire to eat them (Holdich
1999a) that in its turn generates economic interests. Some species are in fact
highly valued as food, and in countries like Scandinavia and Louisiana feasting
on them has become a cultural icon. As a consequence, for instance in Europe,
wild stocks are managed, leading to annual catches of more than 4,000 tons,
and some species are cultivated with a total production of about 150 tons
(Ackefors 1999).
Hence, crayfish introductions have certainly provided economic benefits
to several countries, because of (1) restoring the productivity of indigenous
stocks (e.g. in Sweden), (2) compensating for their lack (e.g. in Spain), or (3)
developing extensive or semiintensive cultivation systems (e.g. in the People’s
Republic of China) (Ackefors 1999). However, once introduced for stocking and
aquaculture and kept in outdoor ponds, crayfish of several species almost
inevitably escape (Hobbs et al. 1989) and a proportion of them is able to
establish self-sustaining populations in the colonized habitats. The invasion
The impact of invasive crayfish 509
process may continue: while some populations remain localized around the
point of introduction, others spread widely, becoming invasive (Kolar and
Lodge 2001). Compared to other aquatic species, the spread of this taxon is
favored by the ability of some species to stay for relatively long periods out of
water and to travel long distances, sometimes overland [e.g. Procambarus clarkii
(Girard), Gherardi and Barbaresi 2000]. Contradicting the predictions made by
the tens rule (Williamson 1996), the majority of the naturalized populations has
the potential to become noxious. For instance, of the eight NICS imported into
Britain since 1970 five have been found in the wild and four of these have
become established, three being now officially classified as pests (Holdich
1999b). Today, the list of species that are causing concern in the introduced
areas includes Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana) in California (USA), Europe, and
Japan, Orconectes limosus (Rafinesque) in Europe, Orconectes rusticus (Girard) in
North America, P. clarkii in Africa, California, Europe, and Japan, Astacus
leptodactylus Eschscholtz in some European countries, and Cherax destructor
Clark in Africa and Australia (Holdich 1999a). Other species, like Cherax quadri-
carinatus (von Martens) in Ecuador, are expected to lead problems in the near
future (Romero 1997).
Concerns relate to the modifications that NICS may induce in the structure of
freshwater food webs (e.g. Lodge et al. 1998) and the economic damage they
may inflict through, for instance, reduced recruitment of commercially valuable
fish stocks (Nyström 1999). In the short term, they may decrease the biomass
and species richness of macroinvertebrates, macrophytes, and periphyton
(e.g. Lodge and Lorman 1987) and, in the long term, they may contribute to
the decline of several invertebrate taxa, including indigenous crayfish species,
amphibians, and fish (e.g. Guan and Wiles 1997, Chapter 29). Once added to a
system, NICS have the potential to impose ‘‘considerable environmental stress’’
and, in most instances, they may induce ‘‘irreparable shifts in species diversity’’
(Hobbs et al. 1989, p. 309).
In this chapter, the literature focusing on the multiform ‘‘environmental
stress’’ that NICS have been found to pose to the colonized areas around the
world will be reviewed, as well as the ‘‘shifts in species diversity’’ that they have
caused. In addition, information about their effects upon human economy and
health will be discussed. By identifying several gaps in the existing literature,
I will suggest the directions that research should take to extend and strengthen
the current knowledge of the impact of NICS and to help prioritize interventions
in freshwater systems.
THE LITERATURE ON THE IMPACT OF NICS
Since the 1980s, the effects exerted by NICS on the environment, indigenous
species, national economies, and human health have been abundantly
publicized (e.g. Holdich 1988, 1999a, Hobbs et al. 1989, Gherardi and Holdich
50
45
40
35
Number of papers
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
<1991 1991−1995 1996−2000 2001−2005
Year of publication
Fig. 1 The rise in the number of publications that described the impact of non-
indigenous crayfish species (NICS). Papers (reaching a total of 103) were identified via
keywords from Biosis (1967–February 2006), ASFA (1960–March 2006), and Zoo-
logical Record (1978–March 2006). Only papers reporting quantitative data published
before 2006 (83) are included here.
1999, Lodge et al. 2000). The International Association of Astacology largely

contributed in heightening awareness about the negative impact of NICS
by adopting a resolution in 1987 (VII Symposium Lausanne, Switzerland),
in which governments were recommended to ‘‘find the means to stop the
importation of living crayfish into their countries for any purpose . . . except
for governmentally approved research, restockings or introductions’’. This reso-
lution was subsequently renewed (in: 1997, Florence, Italy; 1998, Amsterdam,
Holland and Augsburg, Germany, and 2002, Querétaro, Mexico).
The consequent surge of interest in NICS encouraged more proactive research
and led, since 1987, to a sharp increase, mostly in Europe, in the number of
publications, that included 18 reviews (e.g. Holdich 1999a, Lodge et al. 2000,
Nyström 2002, Westman 2002, Geiger et al. 2005), focused on describing the
impact of some NICS (Fig. 1), particularly P. clarkii and P. leniusculus (Fig. 2).
The studies that have attempted to quantify impacts have often done so using
an experimental approach (reviewed in Chapter 30). However, short-term
researches largely prevailed: only 12% of the 85 quantitative studies here
analyzed monitored the effects of NICS on a system for more than 1 year.
Some of these studies adopted classical in situ enclosure/exclosure experiments
to analyze the effects of NICS on the abundance of several components of the
60
Number of papers 50
40
30
20
10
0
Cd Cq Ol Or Ov Pc Pl
Crayfish species
Fig. 2 The number of publications describing the impact of NICS (103, see Fig. 1)
distributed among crayfish species. Cd ¼ Cherax destructor; Cq ¼ C. quadricarinatus;
Ol ¼ Orconectes limosus; Or ¼ O. rusticus; Ov ¼ O. virilis; Pc ¼ Procambarus clarkii;
Pl ¼ Pacifastacus leniusculus.
resident community. Lodge et al. (1994) pioneered this experimental approach

by revealing the control of O. rusticus on the trophic interactions existing in the
littoral zone of some North American lakes.
Several other studies applied a correlative approach by comparing NICS and
indigenous crayfish species for growth rate, densities, vulnerability to predators,
predatory ability, and behavioral dominance over food and shelter. On the one
hand, the impact exerted on macrophytes and benthic invertebrate abundance
has been elegantly compared between invasive and indigenous species through
a combination of field and laboratory experiments (e.g. Olsen et al. 1991). On
the other, to test the ability of several NICS to outcompete indigenous crayfish,
experiments were mostly run in the laboratory (e.g. Söderbäck 1991, Holdich
et al. 1995, Vorburger and Ribi 1999, Gherardi and Cioni 2004).
Ideally, much knowledge of the effects of NICS on the community should
derive from the comparison (1) of one site before and after their invasion and/or
(2) of different sites, with and without an invader present, at the same time.
Unfortunately, only a small minority of studies (e.g. Rodrı́guez et al. 2005,
McCarthy et al. 2006) adopted this comparative approach, in large part because
the interest in an invasive species most often arises after it has spread exten-
sively and only when it has already had an impact. An obvious drawback of
these studies is that results may be confounded by temporal or spatial trends
in the environment such as pollution, harvesting, or climate change; they
should therefore be accompanied by a thorough documentation of other
contemporary modifications in the habitat.
Finally, there is a surprising lack in the literature on NICS of any quantitative

estimate of the relative impact of a species between its native and invaded
habitats. Indeed, this comparison would be critical to assess the varying success
of an invasive species. Evolutionary history in fact plays a major role in this
process and invasive species may display greater impacts in systems without
co-evolved predators, parasites, and prey (see e.g. the ‘‘enemy release’’ hypoth-
esis, Torchin et al. 2003). This is well illustrated by the impact of the
North American P. leniusculus in the UK (Holdich et al. 2004).
THE FIVE LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS
According to Parker et al. (1999), the impact of an invader can be measured at

five levels of biological complexity: (1) effects on individuals (life history, morph-
ology, behavior); (2) population dynamic effects (abundance, population
growth, etc.); (3) genetic effects (including hybridization); (4) community effects
(species richness, diversity, trophic structure); and (5) effects on ecosystem
processes (nutrient availability, primary productivity, etc). An overview of the
literature on NICS clearly shows that some of these effects are documented
much more than others (Fig. 3). The most understudied impacts were genetic
changes that, on the contrary, should require much more attention by invasion
biologists. They may in fact give rise to new invasive forms, induce decline of the
40
30
Number of papers
20
10
0
ind pop gen com eco
Biological levels
Fig. 3 The number of studies (85) reporting quantitative data on the impact of NICS
at five different biological levels: individual (ind), population (pop), genetic (gen), com-
munity (com), and ecosystem function (eco). Single studies that reported impacts at more
than one level were classified on the basis of the most prominent one.
indigenous species through e.g. introgressive hybridization, and eventually lead

to long-term evolutionary shifts (Cox 2004).
The best examples of studies, classified at the biological level, which have
quantified the impact of NICS, are reviewed below.
Effects on individuals and populations
The development of predator-prey or competitive interactions is expected to

induce changes in the life history, morphology, and behavior of the interacting
species. These changes are obviously adaptive as they should reduce the risks for
the ‘‘weaker’’ species to be preyed upon or to be outcompeted by the ‘‘stronger’’
species (e.g. Lima 1998). When, on the contrary, no adaptation appears or the
changes undergone do not suffice to develop a balance between the prey and the
new predator or between competitors, the abundance, population dynamics, or
distribution of the ‘‘weaker’’ species – usually the indigenous species – may be
strongly affected. The most extreme effect at the population level is extinction, at
the local or even at the global level.
Several studies have focused on an NICS acting as a predator upon a naı̈ve
species, either invertebrate or vertebrate. Most often they showed lethal or
sublethal effects. For instance, P. leniusculus easily consumes Lymnaea snails
and induces tail-cuts to Rana temporaria (Linnaeus) tadpoles (Nyström et al.
2001); P. clarkii (1) is able to prey upon the embryos and free swimming larvae
of up to 13 amphibian species (Cruz and Rebelo 2005); (2) takes a significantly
shorter time than the indigenous A. pallipes to capture Triturus vulgaris
(Linnaeus) larvae and Rana esculenta Linnaeus tadpoles (Renai and Gherardi
2004); or (3) is not deterred by toxins contained in Californian newt [Taricha
torosa (Rathke)] eggs (Gamradt and Kats 1996).
Obviously, lethal or sublethal effects exerted by NICS are mostly due to the
relatively short coevolutionary history between them and the naı̈ve prey that
does not allow the latter to develop efficient antipredator behaviors, morpho-
logical structures, or chemical repellents. The absence of these mechanisms has
been evoked to explain, for instance, the sharp decline of the California newt
recorded in three streams in the Santa Monica Mountains of southern California
after about 10 years from the introduction of P. clarkii (Gamradt and Kats
1996).
However, historical coexistence in the area of origin seems not to be the
only prerequisite for the exhibition of efficient antipredator behaviors: notwith-
standing their common history in the area of origin, naturalized mosquitofish
[Gambusia holbrooki (Girard)], once exposed to visual and chemical stimuli of
P. clarkii in a confined environment in Portugal, did not decrease their activity
and did not avoid spaces with high predation risks (Leite et al. 2005). Mosquito-
fish were therefore subject to a strong predation pressure by the NICS as
confirmed from the frequent occurrence of their remains in crayfish gut content
(Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1998, Correia 2003).
Often, prior experience with a predator species is not required by the prey to
exhibit avoidance behaviors. These are on the contrary stimulated by chemical
cues released by injured conspecifics (alarm odors). For instance, when exposed
to alarm odors, the snail Physa gyrina (Say) significantly increases its use of
spatial refugia by moving to the waterline, floating at the surface, or crawling
out of the water (McCarthy and Dickey 2002). These behaviors were indepen-
dent of the predator’s identity and therefore were exhibited in the presence of
both the known Orconectes juvenilis (Hagen) and the unknown P. clarkii.
In only one case was it found that the prey, although naı̈ve, had quickly
acquired the ability to recognize an NICS as a predator. An ecological study,
conducted in Pennsylvania (USA), revealed that the snail P. gyrina moved under
cover in the presence of pumpkinseed sunfish but moved to the water surface in
the presence of O. rusticus; the combined effects of fish and crayfish were
intermediate to their individual effects (Turner et al. 2000). On the one hand,
these results can explain why periphyton standing crop in covered habitats was
the lowest in the fish treatment when covered habitat use by snails was the
highest, and the highest in the control and in the crayfish treatment when
covered habitat use by snails was the lowest. On the other hand, they showed
that the prey has learned some stimuli emitted by the NICS (possibly its odor)
and behaves accordingly to avoid it. This is not the typical response shown by
the snail to a generalized predator. On the contrary, the snail seems to be able to
distinguish the specific identity of O. rusticus with respect to fish predators. Other
behavioral responses to predatory NICS by potential prey, leading, for instance,
to changes in their microhabitat selection, diurnal activity or foraging patterns,
have never been studied.
As regards to competitive interactions, few studies have analyzed the effects
induced on non-crayfish species by resource competition with NICS. In the
laboratory setting, Carpenter (2005) conducted density manipulation experi-
ments to analyze the competition between O. virilis, established in the Colorado
River basin, and two endemic fish species, the Gila chub, Gila intermedia
(Girard), and the flannelmouth sucker, Catostomus latipinnis (Baird and Girard).
The results showed that growth of flannelmouth suckers, but not of Gila chub,
was affected by crayfish more than by intraspecific competition, leading to the
conclusion that each case of competitive interaction should be taken as a
separate case. At a population level, the ability of crayfish to outcompete some
fish species, for instance by expelling individuals from their shelters and there-
fore by making them more vulnerable to piscivorous fish, may have detrimental
effects. In six riffles of the River Great Ouse (England), the numbers of
P. leniusculus and of the two dominant benthic fish, bullhead [Cottus gobio
(Linnaeus)] and stone loach [Noemacheilus barbatulus (Linnaeus)], were
inversely correlated (Guan and Wiles 1997; other examples in Chapter 29).
The most commonly documented impact of NICS on competitive interactions
is the agonistic dominance they show over indigenous crayfish species (Chapter
31), with the only known exception of Astacopsis franklinii (Gray), endemic to
Tasmania, which dominated equally sized specimens of the non-indigenous C.

destructor (Elvey et al. 1996). When exposed in the laboratory to an NICS,
indigenous crayfish changed their posture and behavior, quickly assuming the
role of subordinates [e.g. Procambarus acutus acutus (Girard) vs. P. clarkii, Gher-
ardi and Daniels 2004]. When, however, stable dominance hierarchies between
NICS and indigenous crayfish species cannot be formed, as observed in the dyad
P. clarkii and A. pallipes (Gherardi and Cioni 2004), the repetition of escalated
fights may lead to injuries usually suffered by the weaker indigenous crayfish
followed by its likely death. Indeed, NICS, e.g. P. leniusculus, may prey upon the
indigenous A. pallipes and A. leptodactylus, and predation may have contributed
to the gradual decline of A. pallipes, at least in England (Holdich and Doma-
niewski 1995).
Dominance hierarchies usually translate into a differential capability to com-
pete for resources, such as shelters. It is known that shelters act as a ‘‘principal
resource bottleneck’’ in crayfish populations (Hobbs 1991) serving to minimize
predation risks and in some species to attract mates (Gherardi 2002). They are
usually limited so that an inferior ability to compete for them may lead to a
higher susceptibility to predation in subordinate species, being therefore the
cause of their increased mortality (Gherardi and Cioni 2004). When tested in
the laboratory, dominant NICS were most often found to competitively exclude
subordinate indigenous crayfish from the offered shelter [in: O. rusticus vs. other
Orconectes species, Hill and Lodge 1999; P. leniusculus vs. A. astacus, Söderbäck
1991; and P. leniusculus vs. Cambaroides japonicus (De Haan), Usio et al. 2001,
Nakata and Goshima 2003] also when NICS showed a low preference for the
shelter in a noncompetitive context [P. clarkii vs. A. pallipes, Gherardi and Cioni
2004, and vs. P. acutus acutus, Gherardi and Daniels 2004; but not P. leniusculus
vs. Austropotamobius torrentium (Schrank), Vorburger and Ribi 1999]. Although
conducted in an artificial setting, the results of these experimental studies are
both informative and predictive, being a reflection of the documented range
expansion of NICS. In fact, those crayfish species that were found to replace
other crayfish species are also dominant in interspecific contests staged in the
laboratory (e.g. Capelli 1982, Söderbäck 1991, Hill and Lodge 1994).
Predation and competition, both acting at the individual level and coupled
with the potential for reproductive interference (i.e. females or males of a species
may choose mates of the other species; Söderbäck 1994), enhance the effects of
habitat loss, overexploitation, and pollution in inducing a dramatic decline of
crayfish biodiversity. Of the 67 threatened species in North America, 5% were
subject to interference by NICS, 62% to habitat degradation or habitat loss, and
33% to pollution (Wilcove et al. 1998). NICS have already contributed to the
global extinction of other crayfish species: Pacifastacus nigrescens (Stimpson),
once common in the creeks of the San Francisco Bay area in northern
California, is now extinct due to the combined pressures of urbanization,
overexploitation, and introductions of NICS (Bouchard 1977). In the same
area, a similar process is ongoing. Shasta crayfish [Pacifastacus fortis (Faxon)],
designated endangered in 1988, is now limited to small, isolated populations,

having been displaced at several locations in its native watershed by habitat
loss and interactions with P. leniusculus (Light et al. 1995). Subject to similar
threats from NICS, the European indigenous species A. astacus, A. pallipes, and
A. torrentium have been designated as vulnerable by Groombridge (1993) and
as protected in Appendix III of the Bern Convention. The European Habitats
Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC) considers them as species whose exploit-
ation and harvesting should be subject to control. Austropotamobius pallipes
and A. torrentium are also listed in Appendix V, as species that require the
setting up of special areas of conservation for their protection (Souty-Grosset
et al. 2006).
Population effects on indigenous species may also be caused by indirect
mechanisms, for instance through the transmission of pathogens and diseases.
There is an extensive literature showing that North American crayfish species
carry a subclinical infection of the oomycete Aphanomyces astaci Schikora, the
aetiological agent of the crayfish plague (e.g. Alderman and Polglase 1988,
Diéguez-Uribeondo and Söderhäll 1993). This disease does not require its host
in order to spread, as the spores can become attached to damp surfaces and be
transported in this manner. So, crayfish plague has spread and is still spreading
via the hundreds of thousands of crayfish trappers and their gear. A large
number of European crayfish populations has been decimated by the plague
since 1860, leading to reduced production of A. astacus and A. leptodactylus by
up to 90% particularly in Scandinavia, Germany, Spain, and Turkey. For
example, in Sweden 90 tons were exported in 1908 (from a total catch of 200
tons), but export dropped to 30 tons by 1910 (Holdich 1999a). In Finland
exports declined from 16 million A. astacus in 1890 to less than 2 million in
1910 (Westman 1991). When the plague spread to Turkey in the 1980s, the
annual catch of A. leptodactylus plunged from 7,000 to 2,000 tons (Köksal
1988). It declined even further in the early 1990s, reaching 200 tons in
1991, which virtually eliminated exports from Turkey to western Europe.
However, since then there has been a steady increase in stocks (Harlioğlu
2004). The impact of the crayfish plague is still high in Europe; to mitigate
this, it has even been suggested that plague-resistant strains of native species
should be created through genetic engineering (Westman 2002), which, in
their turn, might pose additional threats to the original biodiversity.
The large emphasis that researchers have given to A. astaci has created, as
Edgerton et al. (2004) lamented, a kind of ‘‘inertia’’ in astacology, ‘‘which has
curtailed researchers, state fish-disease diagnosticians, and resource managers
from fully assessing and considering the existence of other serious pathogens of
crayfish and the ensuing consequences for the native species’’ (p. 1473).
Indeed, notwithstanding that the range of crayfish diseases is repeatedly
assumed to be much wider than previously thought (e.g. Vogt 1999), espe-
cially in North America, little attention has been given to commensals or
parasites other than A. astaci. It seems unlikely that these pathogens are
species-specific; so, introduced crayfish might bring a host of organisms that

may profoundly affect indigenous species. To make the picture worse, some
commensals or parasites of crayfish may affect other animals, humans included
(helminth parasites of vertebrates; Hobbs et al. 1989; bacterial fish diseases,
enteric redmouth, Dunlin et al. 1976; infectious pancreatic necrosis, Halder
and Ahne 1988). As a consequence, there is an urgent need for researchers to
address the issue of crayfish diseases from a broader perspective than has been
done up to now.
Genetic effects
Invaders may exert indirect genetic impacts on indigenous species, resulting in

altered patterns of natural selection or gene flow within indigenous populations.
They may change selection regimes or, in a subtler way, disrupt gene flow due,
for instance, to their fragmenting populations of indigenous species and lead
them to risky bottlenecks. Hybridization between an invader and an indigenous
species is a direct effect that may have three possible consequences: (1) the
creation of a new invasive genotype; (2) the production of sterile hybrids with
the resulting waste of gametes and resource competition with indigenous
species; and (3) the production of a hybrid swarm and widespread introgression,
leading to a virtual extinction of indigenous taxa through ‘‘genetic pollution’’
There has been little mention in the literature of the occurrence of hybridiza-
tion between indigenous and invading crayfish, e.g. A. astacus and A. leptodac-
tylus (Cukerzis 1968), although in that case both belonged to the same family
and were of European origin. Unique genetic documentation has been provided
by Perry et al. (2001, 2002) for hybridization between indigenous and invading
Orconectes species. Using diagnostic nuclear and mitochondrial DNA markers
along with morphological data, these authors compared crayfish from allopatric
and sympatric populations of the invasive O. rusticus and of the indigenous
Orconectes propinquus (Girard) and O. virilis (Hagen) in Wisconsin (USA).
Hybridization occurred between O. rusticus and O. propinquus in sympatric
sites, whereas O. virilis hybridized with neither of these species. A detailed
study of the dynamics of hybridization conducted in Trout Lake showed that
over 6% of the crayfish were F1 hybrids, 4% were F2 individuals (hybrid
hybrid origin), and 13% were backcrosses (product of hybrid parental mat-
ings). The majority of F1 hybrids (95%) were the result of O. rusticus females
mating with O. propinquus males; only 1% of the total crayfish population was
the product of F1 hybrids backcrossing to O. propinquus, whereas 13% represent
backcrosses to O. rusticus. The F1 hybrids, therefore, appeared to mate dispro-
portionately with pure O. rusticus that led to much greater genetic introgression
of nuclear DNA from O. propinquus to O. rusticus than in the reverse direction.
A consequence of this is the gradual elimination of O. propinquus genes from the
population.
These results add to the wide morphological evidence of putative hybrids

among crayfish species (Perry et al. 2002). The implication of Perry et al.’s
(2002) study is clear that hybridization and introgression pose a substantial
threat to the conservation of crayfish biodiversity and that further research is
required to test the potential for hybridization among resident and invasive
species. These studies have the potential to predict species at risk of losing
their genetic identity.
Effects on communities
While NICS clearly cause direct impacts on prey or on competitors and alter
their abundance and distribution, they may also indirectly change interactions
within communities that sometimes result in trophic cascades.
A large variety of articles has shown that, because of their omnivorous
nature, introduced crayfish can profoundly modify the trophic structure of
freshwater communities at several levels, often acting as keystone species
(sensu Paine 1966). They also display a wide plasticity in their feeding behavior,
switching from detritivore/scavenger to herbivore/carnivore habits in response
to food availability (Hobbs et al. 1989). For instance, the large niche breadth
and trophic diversity shown in the gut contents of a naturalized P. clarkii
population in Portugal denoted that a wide variety of aquatic macroinverte-
brates is consumed by this species and that the specific composition of the prey
changes according to its seasonal availability (Correia 2002).
Several experimental studies, most often conducted in the littoral zone of
lentic systems (an exception in Stenroth and Nyström 2003), have detailed
the direct and indirect trophic effects that NICS have on the food web structure.
On the contrary, little is known about the influence directly or indirectly exerted
by NICS on e.g. the pelagic compartments of the invaded systems. Figure 4 is an
attempt to summarize the trophic links that NICS may produce in littoral zones
of ponds and lakes (see also Nyström 1999, 2002). All these effects are most
often density dependent (e.g. Charlebois and Lamberti 1996) even if relatively
low densities of the potentially invasive O. virilis (Chambers et al. 1990), and of
the invasive O. rusticus (e.g. Lodge et al. 1994) and P. clarkii (Gherardi and
Acquistapace 2007) can dramatically reduce biomass and species richness of
submersed macrophytes and the abundance of invertebrate prey. The impact on
food web structure may also be influenced by the digestion rate of the crayfish
species (e.g. Bernardo and Ilhéu 1994), the species composition of
the community (Nyström 2002), and the presence of a second introduced
predator (Nyström et al. 2001), all conditions that make any generalizations
provisional.
Young and adult NICS are represented in Fig. 4 as different components of the
food web, as supported by the literature (Nyström 1999). In fact, although adult
crayfish, at least in the laboratory, can efficiently prey upon juvenile or small
fish, amphibian eggs and tadpoles, and macroinvertebrates (e.g. Gherardi et al.
Mammals
Birds
Large predatory fish
Juvenile predatory fish
Predatory insects
7 Adult crayfish
Juvenile crayfish Amphibians
1
Herbivorous 6
invertebrates 8 Snails Detritus
5 2
4
Surface microalgae Macrophytes
Periphyton 3
Fig. 4 Food web links (those numbered are discussed in the text) in a littoral zone of a
lake or pond. Arrow thickness denotes the hypothesized strength of the interactions. The
most important interactors in the food web are in bold.
2001, Renai and Gherardi 2004) including juvenile crayfish, the guts of many
species contain a large proportion of organic detritus and plants, especially
macrophytes, whereas juveniles feed predominantly upon macroinvertebrates
(Momot et al. 1978, Momot 1995). For instance, in a Swedish stream, 46% of
the adult P. leniusculus were found to have consumed invertebrates as opposed
to 87% of the juveniles (Nyström 1999). In a laboratory study, adult P. clarkii
even exhibited feeding preference for plant food over animal food when the
energetic cost of active predation was high (Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, 1995).
When kept together, juveniles may be easily cannibalized by adults. However,
the cannibalistic behavior of crayfish has not been confirmed in field studies
(Momot 1995), although it is expected to be most severe upon molting individ-
uals in the wild (Reynolds and O’Keeffe 2005). The presence of crayfish remains
in crayfish stomachs in enclosures was assumed to derive from the crayfish
consumption of their exuviae (Stenroth and Nyström 2003). Additionally, both
large predatory invertebrates and fish can reduce the abundance of juvenile
crayfish (Nyström 1999). Subsequently, young crayfish have less influence on
the food web structure than adult crayfish due to the strong negative effects
exerted on them by vertebrate and invertebrate predators.
Typically, adult NICS affect the biomass of organic detritus (link 1, Fig. 4) and
of macrophytes (link 2, Fig. 4). In their turn, changes in detritus and macrophyte
biomass have multiple non-trophic effects on the community, because of their
role of either protective cover or substrate and breeding sites for a multitude of
organisms. Detritus is considered to be a highly nutritive food for crayfish for its
‘‘microbial conditioning’’ or ‘‘chemical-defense leaching’’ (Newman 1991) and
for their easier handling by crayfish (Cronin et al. 2002). It may be preferred to
green plants in laboratory experiments (Ilhéu and Bernardo 1995) and has been
often found in gut contents of P. clarkii (Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993b, Gutiérrez-
Yurrita et al. 1998) and P. leniusculus (Stenroth and Nyström 2003).
The intense grazing on aquatic macrophytes by O. rusticus, P. leniusculus,
and P. clarkii (e.g. Lodge et al. 1994, Nyström et al. 1996, Gherardi and
Acquistapace 2007), coupled with their non-consumptive plant clipping and
uprooting (Lodge et al. 1994, Nyström and Strand 1996, Smart et al. 2002,
Gherardi and Acquistapace 2007) and their preference for seedlings rather than
for older plants (Nyström and Strand 1996), may induce a significant decline in
macrophyte abundance. In enclosure/exclosure experiments, O. rusticus abun-
dance of 19 g m2 reduced total macrophyte biomass of 64%, while abundance
>140 g m2 eliminated all macrophytes in 12 weeks (Lodge and Lorman
1987). More than 80% of macrophyte biomass was lost about 20 years after
P. clarkii’s introduction in the Doñana National Park (Spain) (Gutiérrez-Yurrita
et al. 1998). The destruction of much more plant tissue than the crayfish can eat
(Lodge 1991) may induce a positive effect to the system, because fragmentation
could produce nutritious coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) (Vannote
et al. 1980). However, macrophyte destruction in nutrient-rich conditions,
particularly in eutrophic shallow lakes, is generally followed by a switch from
a clear to a turbid state dominated by surface microalgae, like Microcystis,
growth (Rodrı́guez et al. 2003). In its turn, this may lead to a decrease in
primary production of macrophytes and periphyton due to the reduced light
penetration.
By feeding selectively (Lodge and Lorman 1987, Nyström et al. 1996),
crayfish may reduce the biodiversity of macrophytes and even control aquatic
weeds (Warner and Green 1995). Cronin et al. (2002) studied feeding prefer-
ences of P. clarkii among 14 species of freshwater macrophytes (including
macroscopic algae) and measured this species’ response to manipulation of
the combined plant traits of morphology, toughness, and surface features, and
their response to chemistry. The preference of crayfish was related to plant
phenolics, protein, nitrogen, fiber, lignin, cellulose, ash, and carbon. Like most
generalist herbivores or omnivores (reviewed in Cirujano et al. 2004, Anastácio
et al. 2005a), P. clarkii seems to base its feeding decisions on multiple plant
traits, such as morphology, structure, chemical defenses, and nutritive value.
Often, it feeds upon plants whose finely branched or filamentous morphologies
make them easier to handle and to consume, and not because of their nutri-
tional value. Similarly, O. rusticus consumes single-stemmed species more than
rosulate or highly branched forms (Lodge and Lorman 1987). NICS usually
avoid plants, which are chemically defended by multiple compounds, notwith-
standing their high concentrations of protein, nitrogen, and dry mass (Bolser
et al. 1998). The preference for some macrophyte species (e.g. Chara hispida
Linnaeus vs. Ceratophyllum submersum Linnaeus) can even influence P. clarkii’s
distribution and abundance, as found in a Spanish wetland (Cirujano et al.
2004).
However, no single macrophyte trait appears to be a good predictor of its
palatability and factors other than plant tissue quality and morphology, such as
cover or protection from predators afforded by the plant (e.g. Damman 1987),
the consumer’s state or hunger (e.g. Cronin and Hay 1996), and the consumer’s
prior feeding experiences (e.g. Dorn et al. 2001), may also be important in
determining feeding decisions. Differences in the impact of crayfish on macro-
phyte growth were also found to be related to crayfish sex and activity, and to
the abundance of alternative foods (Chambers et al. 1990).
NICS may affect periphytic algae (link 3, Fig. 4) in a number of ways that may
result in positive (þ) or negative () effects by: (1) consuming and dislodging
periphyton during feeding, movement, or burrowing (), (2) reducing the
abundance of algivorous invertebrates (or vertebrates), which can indirectly
increase algal abundance (þ) (Luttenton et al. 1998); (3) fertilizing periphyton
with their faeces (þ) (Charlebois and Lamberti 1996); and (4) consuming or
destroying macrophytes on which some algae grow () (Lodge et al. 1994).
Therefore, periphyton responses to the crayfish impact are expected to vary in
function of the effect that prevails in the system. Due to the morphology of their
feeding apparatus, O. rusticus and P. leniusculus are not as efficient grazers on
microalgae as snails are (Lodge et al. 1994, Luttenton et al. 1998, Nyström et al.
1999, Nyström et al. 2001) and their consumption is not so intense as to
outweigh the positive indirect effect of the crayfish-induced reduction in snail
densities (the crayfish–snail–periphyton link is strong). Other potential periph-
yton grazers, e.g. amphibian tadpoles (Nyström 1999) and herbivorous insects,
may be preyed on by crayfish but probably their consumption is not so extensive
to produce an indirect positive effect on microalgal abundance (the cray-
fish–amphibian–periphyton and the crayfish–insect grazers–periphyton links
are weak; Lodge et al. 1994, Nyström et al. 1999). As a result, because snails
are both the prey group primarily affected by crayfish and the functionally most
important grazer group among the many other grazing taxa, crayfish may
indirectly generate an increased abundance of microalgae by relaxing them
from the grazing pressure of snails (link 4, Fig. 4), thus inducing – although
being omnivorous – a trophic cascade in the food webs of the littoral zones of
lakes or ponds. However, in the habitats characterized by abundant filamentous
algae, the intense grazing from crayfish seems not to be sufficient to compensate
for the reduced grazing from snails (Nyström et al. 1996).
A correlation between the density of P. clarkii and the abundance and

composition of surface (but not pelagic) microalgae (link 5, Fig. 4) has been
recently found in an in situ experiment conducted in a Mediterranean wetland
(Gherardi and Lazzara 2006). Six areas (10 7 m) were delimited along a
channel in the ‘‘Padule di Fucecchio’’ (Italy) to host crayfish populations at
either low (1 m2) or high (14 m2) density. The analysis of chlorophylls a, b,
and c, and phaeopigments showed that biomass of surface microalgae, mostly
composed of Cyanobacteria, was strongly affected by the presence of dense
populations of P. clarkii. The potential of their direct consumption by P. clarkii
was confirmed by behavioral studies that showed crayfish on macrophytes
feeding on the floating film.
In both lentic and lotic systems, crayfish can have direct and indirect negative
effects on the biomass and species richness of macroinvertebrates (links 6, 7, and
8, Fig. 4) as the result of several mechanisms (Charlebois and Lamberti 1996),
i.e.: (1) consumption; (2) increased drift through prey escape and incidental
dislodgment by their foraging; and (3) possible inhibition of invertebrate colon-
ization. Each of these mechanisms could have different consequences (e.g. direct
mortality vs. displacement to downstream areas) for the local macroinvertebrate
assemblage. When crayfish become abundant in lentic systems, species com-
position of invertebrates may change towards less vulnerable prey species.
Gastropoda are the taxon most affected by NICS (link 6, Fig. 4) and are
sometimes eliminated. In Trout Lake, Wisconsin, snails declined from >10,000
to <5 individuals m2 after 19 years of colonization by O. rusticus (Wilson et al.
2004). Also bivalves may be affected by NICS; for instance, predation by
O. rusticus may have a significant impact on the colonization rate of zebra mussels
(Perry et al. 1997, 2000).
NICS are selective in their choice of snails, thin-shelled snails being preferred
to thick-shelled species because they are easier to handle (Nyström and Pérez
1998). Hence, in systems invaded by NICS, snail species composition may be
altered from the thin-shelled Lymnaea spp. to the thick-shelled Bithynia spp.
(Nyström et al. 2001). Large snails are also less profitable, because handling
time of shells increases exponentially: adult P. leniusculus took less than a
minute to feed upon small Lymnaea stagnalis (Linnaeus) but spent more than
27 minutes handling and consuming large snails. However, in complex habi-
tats such as macrophyte beds crayfish may be less indiscriminate in their
selection (Nyström and Pérez 1998). Also crayfish naı̈veté to a mollusk, al-
though never definitively proved, may influence consumption. In a laboratory
experiment Correia et al. (2005) showed that P. clarkii is able to capture the
exotic snail Physa acuta (Draparnaud), but never preyed upon the Asian clam
Corbicula fluminea (Muller). Possibly, prior experience coupled with the avail-
ability of alternative prey may be decisive as to whether the predator will
proceed with or abort an attack.
The direct impact of NICS on non-snail macroinvertebrates (links 7 and 8,
Fig. 4) largely depends on the life style and behavior of any single species.
In lentic waters, crayfish predation is weak on species that: (1) move quickly
enough to escape tactile-feeding crayfish (e.g. isopods, amphipods, some
Diptera, Heteroptera, and Coleoptera); (2) circumvent crayfish recognition abil-
ity by living in cases (e.g. Trichoptera); or (3) avoid contact by living in
the sediment (e.g. some Diptera) (Lodge et al. 1994, Nyström et al. 1996). In
streams, crayfish may have less predictable effects on invertebrate communities
than in lentic waters (Stenroth and Nyström 2003) even if, also in these
systems, slow-moving species are expected to decline (i.e. leeches, dragonflies,
caddisflies, isopods, and mollusks) whereas more mobile prey or prey living in
sediments seem to be less affected (i.e. chironomids and stoneflies).
The indirect impact of NICS on zoobenthic communities is particularly com-
plex. Through consumption and destruction of macrophytes, crayfish can alter
littoral habitats, leading to declines in macrophyte-associated taxa (Nyström
et al. 1996). Crayfish may also influence detrital substrates through bioturbi-
dation and feeding: the reduction in detritus has potential consequences for
zoobenthic communities, particularly collector-gatherers (e.g. some Ephemer-
optera, Trichoptera, and Diptera). Finally, crayfish predation upon, or competi-
tion with other zoobenthic predators such as Odonata larvae could reduce their
occurrence, subsequently leading to an increase in the abundance of their prey
(McCarthy et al. 2006).
Recently, the effects of O. rusticus – and of other NICS – on benthic inverte-
brate densities were examined by McCarthy et al. (2006) by applying a fixed-
effect model meta-analysis on pre-existing data. A comparison was made among
cage experiments conducted in 14 studies that excluded crayfish as the control
and maintained a given density of crayfish as the treatment. The negative effect
of crayfish on the total invertebrate abundance appeared to be driven by
the significant decline of a few taxonomic orders, specifically Gastropoda and
Diptera (Fig. 5). However, the abundance of Amphipoda, Coleoptera, Epheme-
roptera, Oligochaeta, and Trichoptera was also reduced in crayfish treatments,
although results for these taxa were not significant. Comparisons across orders
showed that the greatest negative impact was exerted on Gastropoda (followed
by Diptera, Amphipoda, and Ephemeroptera).
Finally, NICS can be prey items for fish, birds, and mammals, constituting a
new resource for higher trophic levels in several areas of their introduction.
In the Lower Guadalquivir Basin (Spain), before the introduction of P. clarkii,
eels mostly preyed upon fish species (mosquitofish and carp). After crayfish
introduction, only 17% of their stomachs (vs. 50% before crayfish introduction)
contained other fish species, whereas the dominant prey item was P. clarkii
reaching 67% of occurrence (Montes et al. 1993). As they readily feed upon
P. clarkii, eels were proposed as selective biological control organisms (Mueller
and Frutiger 2001). Still in southern Spain, P. clarkii is also an important
part of the diet of at least six bird species, in particular white storks, night
herons, and little egrets, whose diet is composed of up to 80% of crayfish
(Rodrı́guez et al. 2005). Though no quantitative study has been yet made,
0
Effect sizes
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
a
ta
a
a
da
a
r
a
l
od
er
r
te
ta
e
r
te
po
te
ha
pt
op
To
ip
op
ip
tro
ho
oc
ph
er
D
le
ic
lig
m
as
m
Co
Tr
he
G
A
O
Ep
Non-rusty crayfish Rusty crayfish
Fig. 5 Results from a fixed-effect model meta-analysis applied by McCarthy et al. (2006)
on data obtained from 14 enclosure/exclosure experiments from the published literature.
The effect size is the difference between the effects of crayfish on zoobenthic abundance in
normal versus elevated densities, measured in units of standard deviation. Effect sizes
(+95% Confidence Interval) are shown for total invertebrate and individual order dens-
ities. Negative values indicate a negative effect of crayfish on invertebrate density.
the appearance of P. clarkii has been considered responsible for the increase in a
number of avian species, like some Ardaeidae, together with cormorants, in
some European areas, such as in Massaciuccoli Lake (Tuscany) (Barbaresi and
Gherardi 2000). In Doñana National Park it has also become the most common
prey category of the otter, Lutra lutra (Linnaeus) (Delibes and Adrian 1987).
Notwithstanding the large amount of available data, much information
derives from short-term studies and therefore the long-lasting strength of each
link can only be hypothesized. A few long-term studies have attempted to
analyze – all the other factors being equal – changes in species richness after
the introduction of NICS. The study of Rodrı́guez et al. (2005) reviewed the
existing information on the communities before the appearance of P. clarkii in
Chozas Lake (Spain) and compared it with the data collected after its invasion.
For macroinvertebrates, data from proximal non-invaded wetlands were also
used in the analysis. The results (Table 1) were clear in showing the decline in
submerged vegetation and the decrease of macroinvertebrate populations, both
leading to a dramatic depletion of food resources, shelters, and breeding sites for
fish, amphibians, and birds.
In a northern temperate lake in Wisconsin, USA (Sparkling Lake), McCarthy
et al. (2006) conducted a 24-year time series analysis of O. rusticus and
zoobenthos abundances. As a confirmation of a companion study (see above),
Table 1 Changes in the vegetation cover and faunal abundance as occurred in

Chozas Lake (Spain) after the introduction of an NICS (Procambarus clarkii). (Modified
after Rodrı́guez et al. 2005)
Before After Loss (%)
Vegetation cover (%) 95 <3 99

Macroinvertebrates (genera, number) 31 9 71
Waterfowl (species, number) 50 26 52
Amphibians (species, number) 6 1 83
this crayfish species was found to exert a significant, although variable, impact
on zoobenthic communities, its abundance being negatively correlated with the
abundance of total zoobenthos and of Diptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and
Trichoptera. However, the authors proved that the invertebrate taxa had much
resilience in the long term. Nearly all invertebrate taxa were negatively affected
by the crayfish within a 1-year lag, but no taxa exhibited sustained declines
over the course of the O. rusticus invasion. Several factors may explain this
pattern. Large-bodied invertebrate taxa, such as snails and crayfish, have slower
generation times and are not as productive as smaller taxa, and are thus less
able to respond numerically following population reductions of crayfish. In
addition, aquatic insect larvae have a winged adult stage and, as a consequence,
great dispersal ability – thus facilitating quick recovery. Whatever the explan-
ation might be, McCarthy et al.’s (2006) results are illustrative in underlining
the importance of a long-term monitoring of the invaded community to capture
the complex picture of the impact of NICS.
Effects on ecosystems
As compared with the individual, population, and community levels, documen-

ted changes to ecosystem processes have been rarely reported in the literature
on NICS. This probably reflects a lack of measurements of ecosystem processes
rather than a lack of impact on these processes. The abundantly documented
community effects are on the contrary expected to determine significant
changes in energy flux and nutrient cycling in the invaded systems.
Essentially, the introduction of NICS may alter the pathways of the energy
flux in two ways, i.e. through augmenting connectance by feeding at several
trophic levels and through increasing the availability of autochthonous carbon
as a food source for higher trophic levels (Stenroth and Nyström 2003). This
was clearly proved by Geiger et al. (2005) in temporary freshwater marshes in
Spain. Before the introduction of P. clarkii (Fig. 6a), macrophytes and the
associated periphyton were the dominant primary producers. Only a small
portion of the energy was transmitted from them to herbivores, whereas most of
A
Herbivorous
Carnivores I
Zooplankton
Carnivores II
Macrophytes
Carnivores III
Detritus Detritivores
B
Herbivorous
Carnivores I
Zooplankton
Carnivores II
Procambarus
Macrophytes
clarkii
Carnivores III
Detritus Detritivores
Fig. 6 Hypothesized energy flows in a marshland system before (A) and after (B) the
introduction of an NICS (Procambarus clarkii). (Modified after Geiger et al. 2005)
it was lost to the detritus pool, which accumulated large amounts of organic
matter. Detritivores, mainly macroinvertebrates (oligochaetes, chironomids)
and meiofauna (nematodes, ostracods), used only a small fraction of the
WATER
Particle bound Sediment

nutrient resuspension
Nutrient
Burrowing
Feeding Crayfish Walking
Tail flipping
Organic matter Nutrient
SEDIMENT
Fig. 7 Effects of the benthic activity of an NICS (Procambarus clarkii) on physical and
chemical characteristics of water and sediments in a floodplain wetland in Spain.
(Modified after Angeler et al. 2001)
deposited material. This system was characterized by a high diversity of herbi-

vores and consisted of a minimum of four levels of consumers. Due to the large
number of trophic levels and losses of energy to the detritus pool, the energy
transferred to top predators such as birds and mammals was comparatively low.
After the introduction of crayfish (Fig. 6B), much of the detritus was consumed
by P. clarkii and the energy gained was directly transferred to the top predator
level (fish, birds, and mammals). This resulted in a decreased importance of
macrophytes, herbivores, and primary carnivores but offered a larger availability
of energy for vertebrate predators.
The role that NICS may play through their benthic activity on physical and
chemical characteristics of water and sediments was investigated by Angeler
et al. (2001) in a floodplain wetland in Spain. Procambarus clarkii was hypothe-
sized to affect the ecosystem processes by: (1) recycling sediment bound nutri-
ents and (2) resuspending sediments associated with crayfish foraging,
burrowing, and locomotory activity (walking, tail flipping) (Fig. 7). Compared
to the control, the enclosures with crayfish showed a significant increase in both
dissolved inorganic nutrients (soluble reactive phosphorus and ammonia) and
total suspended solids as a result of crayfish bioturbation. At the same time,
crayfish reduced the content of organic matter in the sediment and slightly
increased total phosphorus and nitrogen content in sediments as the effect of its
benthic activity.
Crayfish-mediated bioturbation has the general effect of impoverishing
water quality by increasing total suspended solids and hence turbidity and by
reducing light penetration and plant productivity (Anastácio and Marques
1997, Rodrı́guez et al. 2003). Crayfish may also alter sediment characteristics
as a result of oxygen supply due to their activity. Bioturbation is often associated
with crayfish constructing burrows, as commonly observed in P. clarkii,
P. leniusculus, and C. destructor (e.g. Sommer and Goldman 1983, Gutiérrez-
Yurrita and Montes 1999). However, crayfish, like O. limosus, can also move
bottom sediments due to the friction between the extremities of its pereopods
and the bottom during walking, the force exerted above the bottom by the
uropods and the telson of escaping crayfish, and the pressure of the uropods and
claws into the substrate to slow its movement while walking in fast currents
(Maude and Williams 1983). In experimental flumes, Statzner et al. (2000,
2003) showed that O. limosus at a fixed biomass (174 g m2) significantly
affected sand and gravel erosion. Its effect of bioturbator varied in function of
the presence of refugia and aggression: sediment erosion averaged 2.8 and
1.4 kg dry weight m2 d1 when crayfish hierarchies were established and
refugia were available. Once the refugia were removed, these rates increased to
4.0 and 3.2 kg dry weight m2 d1. Additionally, bioturbation by crayfish was
found to change bedform roughness, physical particle consolidation, proportion
of sand in gravel interstices, sand cover by gravel, and the cover of filamentous
algae. Such changes, in turn, may affect the abundance and structure of the
entire benthic community, e.g. by modifying their substrate or by reducing
algae and biofilm available for grazers. Also, sand reduction among gravel
might alter the egg survival of gravel-breeding fish, like salmonids.
WHY DO NICS CAUSE MORE PROBLEMS THAN

INDIGENOUS CRAYFISH?
In areas without any indigenous ecological equivalent, the changes caused

by the introduction of NICS may be complex and usually affect all levels of
ecological organization. Impacts range from subtle behavioral modifications of
resident species to altered energy and nutrient fluxes in the ecosystem. Impacts
at the community level can be strong when the introduced crayfish experience
little predation or competition from native predators and have prey that
lack efficient defense adaptations to them (Nyström et al. 2001). The modes of
resource acquisition by NICS and their capacity to develop new trophic rela-
tionships, coupled with their action as bioturbator, may lead to dramatic direct
and indirect effects on the ecosystem.
When NICS replace an indigenous ecological equivalent, their resource-
acquisition mode should not be novel to the colonized community and therefore
the resulting impact is expected to be weak. But the overall effect of NICS can be
strong if, once introduced, they are capable of building high densities and/or of
reaching large size. Indeed, several introduced crayfish often reach much higher
densities than indigenous crayfish, e.g. P. leniusculus vs. A. pallipes (Guan and
Wiles 1996). Densities of O. limosus ranged between 0.4 and 77 m2 in a
reservoir in Poland, of O. rusticus between 0.18 and 21 m2 in North American
streams, and of P. leniusculus between 3.7 and 21.7 m2 in an English river
(reviewed in Nyström 1999). On the contrary, densities of the indigenous
species have been estimated to reach a maximum of 14.3 m2 for A. astacus
(in a Swedish lake), 3 m2 for A. pallipes (in France), 3.6 m2 for C. japonicus
(in Japan), 0.83 m2 for P. fortis (in USA), and 3.3 m2 for Paranephrops
planifrons White (in New Zealand) (references in Nyström 1999). The drastic
decline of biota recorded by Wilson et al. (2004) in Trout Lake, Wisconsin
(USA), when O. rusticus catches reached a threshold of nine crayfish trap1,
suggests that its high abundance is the primary reason for its large impact, even
in lakes with pre-existing crayfish populations.
Several biological traits contribute to the achievement by crayfish of high
densities/large size. Relatively to indigenous crayfish, some NICS are character-
ized by higher fecundity, faster growth rates, and better physiological tolerances
to changing environmental conditions (Lindqvist and Huner 1999, Chapter
12). They also might be better at coping with changes induced by human
activities that cause pollution and habitat destruction. For instance, P. clarkii
is a good colonizer of disturbed aquatic habitats and can survive in anoxic
conditions in burrows (Gherardi 2006). Also, higher survival rate, hence
leading to higher densities and/or larger sizes, is expected when a species is
introduced without a full complement of specific parasites, pathogens, and
enemies. And large sizes, in their turn, make crayfish both resistant to gape-
size limited predators (such as many fish) and agonistically superior in resource
fights. As a consequence, because of their large numbers, coupled with their
wide trophic plasticity, NICS exert a greater direct (through consumption)
or indirect (through competition) effect on the other biota, particularly on
crayfish species, benthic fish, mollusks, and macrophytes (Nyström et al.
1996). This is also true for those species that apparently have not caused
much environmental degradation, such as A. leptodactylus in England whose
high numbers are producing considerable problems for anglers (Holdich
1999b). Obviously, large size usually translates into an overall higher energy
and nutrient demand, but NICS may also be more efficient energy converters
and may display higher metabolic rate when compared with similarly sized
crayfish species.
As a consequence, a combination of larger size and greater weight-specific
consumption of macrophytes and snails may explain the greater ecological
impact suffered by those North American lakes where O. rusticus had replaced
its congeners (Olsen et al. 1991) (Table 2), whereas the more efficient grazing
by P. leniusculus than A. astacus seems to be the cause of the dramatic decrease
Table 2 Summary of test results after Olsen et al. (1991) for mechanisms governing
the greater impact of Orconectes rusticus (Or) relative to O. propinquus (Op) and O. virilis
(Ov) on a benthic community structure.
Mechanisms Replace Op Replace Ov
1. Individual size Or > Op Or < Ov

2. Population density Or < Op Or < Ov
3. Population biomass Or < Op Or < Ov
4. Weight-specific consumption, C, C: Or > Op C: Or > Ov
and sublethal damage, D, of snails D: Or ¼ Op D: Or > Ov
5. Weight-specific selection for single-stemmed Or ¼ Op Or ¼ Ov
macrophytes
6. Weight-specific consumption, C, and destruction, C: Or > Op C: Or ¼ Ov
D, of macrophytes D: Or ¼ Op D: Or ¼ Ov
of macrophytes biomass (including the extinction of several rare Chara species),

as recorded by Nyström and Strand (1996) in Sweden.
EFFECTS ON HUMAN ECONOMY AND HEALTH
From an anthropocentric perspective, a useful approach to measure impacts is

to assess the damage caused by NICS by calculating the economic cost they
induce to human societies, also in terms of the social and ethical problems
associated with their potential harm to human health. A review of the existing
literature in the matter shows that much of the discussion has been purely
anecdotal. A negative consequence is the often encountered difficulty in justi-
fying to decision makers the need of containing the spread of NICS and of
mitigating the risks they pose.
The introduction of NICS has been often assumed to have contributed in
a positive way to human economy by: (1) restoring some traditions proper to
the cultural heritage of a country, e.g. crayfishing in Sweden and Finland
(Kirjavainen and Sipponen 2004); (2) producing some economic benefits for
many families in poorly developed areas, e.g. in Andalusia, Spain (Geiger et al.
2005); (3) leading to a diversification of agriculture to include astaciculture, e.g.
by crayfish farmers in Britain and in Spain (Holdich 1999a); and (4) increasing
trade between countries inside Europe as well as between European and extra-
European countries (Ackefors 1999).
There are, however, several examples showing that often the introduction
of commercially valuable crayfish has also led to negative results in the market-
place. Despite the original aim of crayfish farmers in Britain to produce crayfish
for export to the Scandinavian market where they fetch a high price (Holdich
1993), most of the exports are now being made with crayfish harvested from
natural waters and not from farming (Holdich 1999b). Similarly, in Africa, very
few of the several projects that led to crayfish importations since the 1960s
can be regarded as successful (de Moor 2002). For instance, in Lake Naivasha,
Kenya, only about 40 metric tons of P. clarkii are now caught annually
exclusively for local consumption (mainly tourism), after their first harvests in
1975 of several hundred tons per year (Smart et al. 2002). Crayfish were
reported to spoil valuable fish (tilapia and largemouth bass) caught in gillnets
(up to 30% of the catch) and to damage fish nets (de Moor 2002). They are also
responsible for the decline of the rooted vegetation and therefore of the increase
of phytoplankton, decrease of water transparency, and reduction of fish, includ-
ing commercial species, in the littoral zone (de Moor 2002).
In several countries, introduced crayfish have today much lower commercial
values than indigenous species, as exemplified by the Scandinavian market
where consumers are willing to pay substantially higher prices for the indigen-
ous A. astacus than for the naturalized P. leniusculus (Holdich 1999a). Crayfish-
ing, in its turn, may produce extensive environmental impacts and associated
costs, as the result of the continuous roaming of fishermen, causing a physical
alteration of the habitat and the capture of non-target organisms (e.g. turtles) in
the crayfish traps (Geiger et al. 2005).
There are several examples of damage to other human activities. Procambarus
clarkii is a recognized pest in rice cultures in various parts of the world.
Although in Louisiana (USA) double cropping crayfish and rice are practiced
with success (Chien and Avault 1980), the species produces economic costs in
rice fields in Portugal (Correia 1993). As an example, economic losses per ha of
Euro 43.40 of the 2004 rice production (a 6.3% decrease in profits) was
reported in the ‘‘Baixo Mondego’’ area exclusively due to crayfish (Anastácio
et al. 2005a). Damage to rice production primarily consists of crayfish consum-
ing seedlings, but negative effects derive from the increased turbidity and
decreased dissolved oxygen content due to the crayfish bioturbation (Anastácio
et al. 2005a, b, c).
Burrowing by several NICS (e.g. P. clarkii, P. leniusculus, and C. destructor) can
be a problem in areas other than agricultural, e.g. lawns, golf courses, levees,
dams, dykes, and in rivers and lakes (e.g. Anastácio and Marques 1997). A few
authors have lamented the damage caused by C. destructor burrowing to dam
walls and irrigation canals (de Moor 2002). More often cited is the effect
of P. clarkii to ‘‘honeycomb’’ banks, with their consequent structural damage
(Huner 1977) that seriously affects areas with extensive canal irrigation
systems and water control structures (Adão and Marques 1993). Although
not recorded as a burrowing species in its native North American habitat
(Holdich 1999a), P. leniusculus causes considerable damage to river banks by
burrowing in the UK (Sibley 2000).
Indeed, if a monetary value were to be assigned to species extinctions and
losses in biodiversity, ecosystem services, and aesthetics, the total economic
damage of introduced crayfish might be enormous. Neither do we have records
of the financial costs of control and remediation, except an estimate of

US$4.5 million for the restitution of P. fortis in California (USA) (US Fish and
Wildlife Service) and the £100,000 spent trying, unsuccessfully, to eradicate
P. leniusculus from rivers in Scotland (Collins 2006).
Up to today, little attention has been paid to the potential harm that NICS
pose to human health. NICS, such as P. clarkii, often live in areas contaminated
by sewage and toxic industrial residues and may have high heavy metal
concentrations in their tissues (Geiger et al. 2005); they were found to bioaccu-
mulate metals such as nickel, lead, and zinc in their tissues and organs at a
significantly higher rate than the indigenous species (Gherardi et al. 2002).
Their potential to transfer contaminants to their consumers, including man, is
obviously high. Measurements of accumulation of heavy metals in waterfowl
and other wetland birds living and feeding in a toxic spill area of Spain showed
that heavy metals like arsenic have entered the food chain and were detected in
some bird species, such as white storks, spoonbills and grey herons, all predators
of crayfish (Geiger et al. 2005).
The finding that P. clarkii may consume Cyanobacteria is of increasing
concern for human health (Gherardi and Lazzara 2006). Several Cyanobacteria
release a wide range of toxins and BMAA (b-N-methylamino-l-alanine) that
may produce lethal animal and human intoxications (e.g. Carmichael 1988,
Cox et al. 2005). Among the few organisms so far investigated, P. leniusculus
and P. clarkii were found to accumulate such toxins in their tissues (Lirås et al.
1998, Vasconcelos et al. 2001), being therefore able to transfer them to more
sensitive organisms, man included.
The other side of the coin is the ability of P. clarkii to control, through
predation and competition, populations of the pulmonate snails Biomphalaria
and Bulinus known to host Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium, the agents
of human schistosomiasis (Chapter 4). Schistosomiasis is one of the most
widespread diseases in Africa: in Kenya alone, it is known to affect 3.5 million
individuals with 12 million more at risk of infection. As suggested by Mkoji et al.
(1999), due to the quick spread of this crayfish in African waterbodies, the
epidemiology of schistosomiasis is expected to be significantly altered with time
although the possibilities remain that African snails will soon evolve measures
to avoid crayfish predation before their extinction or that the parasite will
change its host.
WHAT COMES NEXT?
Despite the considerable attention that NICS have received since 1987, a review
of the many papers published in the last few years has revealed the absence in the
literature of a general framework about their impact. Nonetheless, a global view
is required to help us coordinate and improve both control and research efforts
for the existing NICS and hopefully predict the impact of future introductions.
First, this review lamented the general lack of simultaneous measurements of

the impact of NICS at multiple ecological levels. This is unfortunate, because
information about responses at several levels of organization is required to
fully understand the range of the impact observed (Simon and Townsend
2003). Also, little effort has been made to study the impact of NICS at the
genetic level. We cannot even guess therefore what their role might be in
determining the future evolutionary pathway that the invaded system will
follow after the introduction of NICS. Neither do we have quantitative estimates
about direct or indirect monetary (and social) costs induced by NICS to the
human economy and health. And only a few paradigmatic invasive species,
namely P. leniusculus, P. clarkii, and O. rusticus, have been extensively studied,
whereas information is scanty or even absent about other species, like
C. destructor.
Short-term laboratory and field studies have revealed a myriad of direct and
indirect effects of crayfish on some compartments of the invaded ecosystem
(most often the littoral zone). Their results were certainly able to provide
mechanistic insights into the interactions between crayfish and the other
organisms in the community and to quantify the immediate impact of NICS.
However, these sometimes complex interactions have been only seldom inves-
tigated at larger levels. Few comparative field studies (e.g. Charlebois and
Lamberti 1996) and even fewer long-term studies (Wilson et al. 2004,
McCarthy et al. 2006) have been conducted to examine the dynamic relation-
ships among organisms, including the prolonged effects of crayfish invaders on
native communities over multiple generations.
Indeed, coupling the results of small- and large-scale studies may help capture
a more realistic picture of the impact of NICS. As held by McCarthy et al. (2006),
each method is not without its own biases. Along with characterizing only
short-term ecological responses, small-level studies may suffer from experimen-
tal artifacts. In contrast, long-term studies certainly provide important insights
into the long-term threats of an NICS and the potential adaptability of the native
taxa to it, but their results may also be confounded by environmental factors
that cannot be controlled (Parker et al. 1999). Because the disadvantage of one
approach is the advantage of another, coupling multiple levels of analyses
certainly provides a method in which interactions at one level can be success-
fully translated to another.
Finally, we need much more intensive work on the whole-system impact of
crayfish invasion; specifically, we need to learn more about the natural vari-
ability among systems and the extent to which the impact of an NICS depends
on the community or ecosystem where it is measured. So, on what level can we
generalize across systems? And how often does the impact of a crayfish invader
depend on the presence of other NIS? Not before having answered to these and
to the other questions above will we be able to generalize, and even predict,
which species is more likely to have the greatest impact in aquatic systems
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was written while the author was acting as a Visiting Scholar at the
Columbia University in the City of New York (NY, USA) and was partly sup-
ported by MIUR (ex-60%). My warmest thanks are directed to Professor Shahid
Nahem for his kind hospitality.
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Chapter twenty-nine
Predation of invasive
crayfish on aquatic
vertebrates: the effect of
Procambarus clarkii on
fish assemblages in
Mediterranean temporary
streams
Maria Ilhéu, João Manuel Bernardo,

and Sı́lvia Fernandes
INTRODUCTION
Non-indigenous species (NIS) have various effects on indigenous communities.

In some cases, species invasion can result in substantial loss of biodiversity
through competitive interactions and predation (e.g. Diamond and Case 1986,
Ashton and Mitchell 1989, Brown 1989, Vitousek et al. 1996). In fresh water,
in particular, the extinction of indigenous species is becoming common as
543
ß 2007 Springer.
544 Maria Ilhéu et al.
aggressive species invade degraded ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity has often
been caused by the spread of species assisted by man. Endemic fish and amphi-
bians are among the taxa most vulnerable to intentional introductions through-
out the world. As a result of introductions of NIS, several species have
disappeared or have been subject to major reductions in their numbers to the
extent that they are now threatened with extinction (Lloyd 1990, Arthington
1991, Minckley and Douglas 1991, Townsend and Crowl 1991, Witte et al.
1992).
Typically, successful invaders are characterized by a tolerance to wide envi-
ronmental conditions, omnivory, rapid growth, dispersal, breeding in ephemeral
habitats, and other traits associated with opportunism. The high predation
efficiency and the lack of predators frequently make them the originators of
important changes to the original biota.
Crayfish are among the most notorious invasive aquatic species in freshwater
ecosystems and have been reported not only to displace indigenous crayfish
but also to impact a number of other aquatic organisms (Chapter 28). Crayfish
feed omnivorously on detritus, algae, plants, invertebrates (including other
crayfish), and vertebrates (e.g. Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, 1995, Momot
1995, Smart et al. 2002, Chapter 30). Low-protein resources such as plants,
detritus, and algae are important energy sources for maintenance (e.g. Ilhéu
and Bernardo 1995, Rudnick and Resh 2005) but they might be expected to
feed predominantly on macroinvertebrates when these are available (Ilhéu and
Bernardo 1993b, Correia 2003, Nyström 2005). A large number of studies
have shown that, because of their omnivorous character, introduced crayfish
can profoundly modify the trophic structure of freshwater communities at
several levels, often acting as keystone species (e.g. Lodge et al. 1994, Nyström
et al. 1996, 2001, Covich et al. 1999, Dorn and Wojdak 2004, Usio and
Townsend 2004).
Crayfish display a wide plasticity in their feeding behaviour, switching
from detritivore/herbivore to scavenger/carnivore habits in response to food
availability (Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, 1993b, 1995, Nyström 2002, Alcorlo
et al. 2004). This is in accordance with previous studies that provided
evidence of the crayfish predation effects of crayfish particularly on benthic
invertebrates (Ilhéu et al. 2002, Smart et al. 2002, Dorn and Wojdak 2004,
Wilson et al. 2004, Correia et al. 2005, Geiger et al. 2005, McCarthy et al.
2006, Roth et al. 2006), including bivalves (e.g. Perry et al. 1997, 2000,
Reynolds and Donohoe 2001), amphibian species (e.g. Renai and Gherardi
2004, Cruz and Rebelo 2005), and fish (e.g. Savino and Miller 1991, Guan
and Wiles 1997). The aim of this chapter is to review the predation effects of
invasive crayfish on indigenous vertebrates, both amphibians and fish, and
present a case study on the impact of the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus
clarkii (Girard), on fish assemblages in dry-season pools of temporary streams in
southern Portugal.
The impact of Procambarus clarkii on fish assemblages in temporary streams 545
CRAYFISH PREDATION ON VERTEBRATES
Crayfish predation on amphibians
There are numerous reports of crayfish impact on amphibians (reviewed in

Nyström 1999), but few studies focus on the effect of crayfish predation on
amphibian populations.
Recently, both experimental studies and correlative field surveys implicated
non-indigenous predators, such as crayfish, as major contributors to amphibian
population decline and, in some instances, to local extinction (Kats and Ferrer
2003). The introduction of the American signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus
(Dana), in Sweden produced a negative impact on the embryos and larvae of the
indigenous amphibians (Axelsson et al. 1997, Nyström and Abjörnsson 2000,
Nyström et al. 2002). The effects of this species on the breeding habitat selection
by anurans were also reported (Nyström et al. 2001).
Laboratory studies showed P. clakii preying upon tadpoles of several
indigenous species of Rana from Italy (Gherardi et al. 2001, Renai and Gherardi
2004), along with embryos and tadpoles of Bufo bufo (Linnaeus) and larvae of
Triturus vulgaris (Linnaeus) (Renai and Gherardi 2004). The introduction of this
species into Californian mountain streams was a cause of the decline of the newt
Taricha torosa (Rathke) as a result of predation by the crayfish on embryos and
larvae (Gamradt and Kats 1996).
Many amphibians from the south of Portugal reproduce mainly in temporary
ponds where typical aquatic predators, such as fish, are absent. However, these
habitats are now occupied by the red swamp crayfish, and a negative corre-
lation between the distribution of some amphibian species and the presence of
the crayfish was found (Beja and Alcazar 2003). After the introduction of this
crayfish into a lagoon in NW Spain, five amphibian species previously reprodu-
cing in the lagoon eventually disappeared (Rodrı́guez et al. 2005). In the Paul de
Boquilobo, a wetland in central Portugal, apparently for no other reason than
the impact of the red swamp crayfish, there was a collapse of the amphibian
community, with drastic reductions of the populations of Pleurodeles waltl
(Michahelles), Triturus marmoratus (Latreille), and Rana perezi (Seoane), and
the probable extinction of previously abundant species, such as Hyla arborea
(Linnaeus) and Pelodytes punctatus (Daudin) (Cruz 2006).
There are numerous reports of crayfish consuming amphibian eggs. Cruz
and Rebelo (2005) found a very high consumption rate of amphibian egg
masses by the red swamp crayfish in mesocosm experiments, even when alter-
native vegetable food items were available. Cruz et al. (2006a) assessed the
effects of the presence of P. clarkii in the breeding site distribution of 13 amphi-
bian species in SW Portugal. Amphibian species richness was lower in places
where crayfish presence was a negative predictor of the breeding probability of
all urodeles [P. waltl, Salamandra salamandra (Linnaeus), Triturus boscai
(Lataste), and T. marmoratus] and of two anurans [Pelobates cultripes (Cuvier)
and B. bufo]. In the temporary ponds of Doñana Natural Park, red swamp
crayfish had a strong effect on the reproductive success of Bufo calamita (Laur-
enti), the survival of its embryos being strikingly reduced when they were
directly exposed to crayfish (Cruz et al. 2006b).
Dorn and Wojdak (2004) studied the effects of the virile crayfish, Orconectes
virilis (Hagen), on the development and structure of littoral communities in
newly established freshwater ponds in south-western Michigan (USA) and
found no bullfrog (Rana catesbiana Shaw) tadpoles in any of the crayfish ponds
although tadpoles were abundant in the control ponds.
In response to indigenous predators, amphibians frequently develop adaptive
mechanisms, such as toxic or unpalatable eggs and larvae (e.g. Eklöv and
Werner 2000). Behavioural or morphological features may also be effective to
escape predators (e.g. Rödel 1999, Lardner 2000, Nyström and Abjörnsson
2000). When no co-evolutionary process takes place, prey species may lack
suitable responses to crayfish predation. However, some crayfish species, such
as P. clarkii, are apparently resistant to certain amphibian toxic compounds and
are able to predate eggs with highly protective gelatine layer (Gamradt and Kats
1996, Renai and Gherardi 2004).
In general, invasive crayfish are efficient predators and a significant threat to
amphibians. Furthermore, in several instances, habitat degradation caused by
crayfish (e.g. Ilhéu et al. 2002, Geiger et al. 2005, Rodrı́guez et al. 2005) may
severely affect the amphibian populations as well.
Crayfish predation on fish
Crayfish have been implicated in the decline of fish populations mainly

indirectly due to competition for food and shelter (Guan and Wiles 1997, Miller
et al. 1992, Gherardi 2002, Nyström 2002, Light 2005) and through the
destruction of macrophyte beds, which are important habitats for juvenile fish
(Rubin and Svensson 1993, Scheidegger and Bain 1995, Shoup et al. 2003).
However, several studies also suggest that crayfish readily prey on all the life
stages of fish, but the effects and mechanisms of predation are less well-studied
than the crayfish-fish competitive interactions (reviewed in Dorn and Mittlelbach
1999). Even though the number of studies involving the role of crayfish as an
omnivorous predator is increasing, most knowledge is based on experimental
work and the magnitude of these effects is very much dependent on the particular
environmental context.
In northern Wisconsin lakes (USA), the decline of game fish populations
has been attributed to the invasions of the crayfish Orconectes rusticus (Girard)
(Hobbs et al. 1989). Egg predation by crayfish has been suggested to cause
declines in bass Micropterus dolomieu Lacépède, pumpkinseed sunfish Lepomis
gibbosus (Linnaeus), walleye Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchill), and lake trout Salve-
linus namaycush (Walbaum). Savino and Miller (1991) report the predation
of O. rusticus on lake trout eggs in experimental conditions. Egg consumption
(2–5 eggs day1 per crayfish) was dependent upon temperature, substrate, and
crayfish species. The authors concluded that, in conditions of high crayfish
density and/or low egg density in cobble habitats, crayfish predation may affect
trout recruitment. Similar effect may occur with bass and pumpkinseed sunfish,
as the crayfish potential to consume eggs of warm-water species is greater (Horns
and Magnunson 1981). Further, most bass and pumpkinseed sunfish concen-
trate their nests in shallow littoral zones, which make eggs more vulnerable
to crayfish predation. In experimental ponds, Dorn and Mittlebach (2004) and
Dorn and Wojdak (2004) observed virile crayfish preying heavily on fish
eggs and found that crayfish presence significantly affected the successful
reproduction of bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque, reducing the
recruitment of young-of-the-year. Fitzsimons et al. (2002) estimated a crayfish
(O. virilis) consumption of 82% of the potential egg numbers at lake trout
spawning reefs based on both the published literature (Miller et al. 1992) and
experimental work, concluding that high crayfish density and low egg abun-
dance (<100 eggs m2) may also limit natural recruitment of trout in Lake
Ontario. Corkum and Cronin (2004) also found that consumption of rainbow
trout eggs by crayfish depended on several factors, including crayfish density,
food levels, and habitat complexity. Other studies report that O. virilis, in its native
range, is a significant egg predator of the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas
Rafinesque. Matity et al. (1994) found that breeding male fathead minnows had
significantly more scars from crayfish pinches than non-breeding males or females,
which may be due to their involvement in nest defence. The fathead minnows
exposed to chemical cues from these crayfish presented variations in hatching
time, egg morphology, and fry size, as shown by Kusch and Chivers (2004), who
also suggested that the recognition of crayfish as an egg predator is innate in this
species. However, Rubin and Svensson (1993) studied predation by the indigenous
crayfish Astacus astacus (Linnaeus) on trout eggs and fry and found no evidence of
this species’ ability to consume trout eggs laid in reeds.
Evidence for crayfish predation on juvenile or adult fish is scarce and few
data are available to judge their importance. Light (2005) noted that sculpin
Cottus beldingi (Linnaeus) and signal crayfish may be considered as intraguild
predators (sensu Polis and Holt 1992) based on observations of each species
consuming the young-of-the-year of each other. Guan and Wiles (1997) found
evidence of predation by signal crayfish on sculpin as well as on bullhead Cottus
gobio (Linnaeus) and stone loach Noemacheilus barbatulus (Linnaeus). Neverthe-
less, because such predation was rare, it seems unlikely that it has significant
population consequences.
In fact, only in high crayfish densities is the impact more perceptible. Rogowski
and Stockwell (2006) assessed the potential impacts of non-indigenous crayfish
on the threatened white sands pupfish, Cyprinodon tularosa (Miller and Echelle),
and found that fish biomass was significantly lower at high densities of O. virilis.
On several occasions virile crayfish were seen consuming adult pupfish in a high
density crayfish experiment.
Other studies are not so conclusive on predation rates. Xinya (1995) studied
the effect of P. clarkii on the survival of fry and fingerlings of cultivated fishes in
China [carp, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus); grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella
(Valenciennes); silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes); and
tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus)] and found no significant negative
impacts; fry grew well with or without crayfish. Stenroth and Nyström (2003)
studied the effect of signal crayfish on brown trout using enclosures in a
Swedish stream and found no impact on growth or survival of juvenile trout.
Virile crayfish were found to reduce the activity rate and movement in and out
of shelter of the Little Colorado spinedace, Lepidomeda vittata Cope, a threatened
indigenous minnow of the south-western USA, but the predation rate was not
significant (Bryan et al. 2002).
Several studies reported the presence of fish in the crayfish diet (e.g. Lorman
and Magnuson 1978, Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1998,
Correia 2003, Pérez-Bote 2005). In experimental laboratory studies, Ilhéu and
Bernardo (1993b) demonstrated that crayfish predation success is very much
dependent on the ability of the prey to escape. The choice of the feeding
strategies may be interpreted in terms of cost-benefit analysis. In spite of a
preference for animal food items, such as fish, the high costs involved in active
predation may explain the low consumption of high mobility animals. This
conclusion leads us to hypothesise that crayfish feeding on fish occurs mainly
when prey is vulnerable and thus low costs of predation are involved. This
situation only happens in strongly confined conditions, which is the case of the
temporary aquatic systems during the dry period.
PREDATION EFFECTS OF INVASE CRAYFISH ON FISH OF DRY-SEASON

STREAM POOLS IN SOUTHERN PORTUGAL
Lowland streams in Mediterranean-climate regions are shaped by predictable

seasonal events of flooding and drying over an annual cycle. During the
summer and early autumn, streams show a marked pattern of zero flow.
When the flow ceases, and because of the high temperatures and evaporation,
many rivers show long dry reaches and the surface waters are reduced to
isolated pools (Bernardo and Alves 1999). Throughout the dry months, the
wet area and volume of the summer pools decrease, and environmental condi-
tions become more critical to the biota (Ilhéu 2004). Many receding pools will
eventually dry and the remaining ones are important refuges for the aquatic
organisms. During the following run-off period, streams start to flow again and
longitudinal connectivity is re-established (Bernardo and Alves 1999, Ilhéu
2004).
During the drying phase, the combination of nutrients, organic detritus,
shallow waters, favourable temperature, and dense populations of algae
and water plants form the basis of a highly productive food web capable of
supporting large populations of aquatic consumers. Throughout the summer

period, the aquatic biota, namely fish and invertebrates including the red
swamp crayfish, become progressively more concentrated in the receding pools.
The red swamp crayfish is an example of a successful invader in the tempo-
rary streams of the Mediterranean region. This species is very well adapted to
the natural flow variation of this type of streams and frequently develops high
density populations (Ilhéu 1994, Ilhéu and Bernardo 1996). Moreover, these
waterbodies show no indigenous crayfish species and thus P. clarkii occupies a
vacant niche.
The potential impacts of NIS on temporary aquatic systems are of special
concern because such systems can have relatively high levels of endemism
(e.g. Williams et al. 1985, Doadrio 2001, Cabral 2005). Many fish extinctions
have been associated with the introduction of NIS (Miller et al. 1989, Richter
et al. 1997, Minckley et al. 2002). The potential impact of NIS is apparently
higher when endemic fish evolved in an environment with few aquatic pre-
dators and competitors (Minckley and Douglas 1991). Moreover, regions with
Mediterranean climate are especially susceptible to invasions, as suggested by
Macdonald et al. (1988).
Assessing the impact of NIS in the rivers of southern Portugal is of extreme
importance because of the high conservation value of the indigenous fish fauna,
which show a high proportion of endemism most of which are threatened
(Cabral 2005). This fauna is mostly composed of cyprinids and no indigenous
piscivorous species exists. Fish assemblages are dominated by indigenous spe-
cies, although NIS, such as pumpkinseed sunfish L. gibbosus and mosquitofish
Gambusia holbrooki Girard, also occur very frequently (Ilhéu 2004).
Crayfish predation on fish was studied in 17 isolated pools in the south of
Portugal (Degebe stream, 2nd and 3rd order) during the summer of 2002.
Crayfish and fish were collected with electrofishing. In the shallow pools
crayfish were also captured by hand.
Pool volumes were highly variable, ranging from 0.06 to 700 m3, with mean
water depth from 0.03 to 0.7 m. Very shallow pools showed a high percentage
of aquatic vegetation, mainly filamentous algae. Many pools presented critical
conditions for the aquatic fauna because of the extreme temperature and
low dissolved oxygen (DO). Maximum water temperature was 28.6 + 2.9 8C.
Minimum oxygen concentrations were lower than 1 mgL1 in 41% of pools and
very large daily ranges were observed in 53% of the pools, mostly shallow ones.
Fish density in the pools ranged from 1.9 to 80 fish m2. Shallow pools
(<0.15 m mean water depth) had high fish densities, ranging from 20.1 to
80.2 m2, with a mean value of 50.7 m2 + 19.5 (SD). Fish density was
inversely correlated to the pool depth (after Spearman correlation: r ¼ 0.82,
P < 0.001) which may be interpreted as an effect of fish concentration as pools
shrink.
The most abundant species in the pools were mosquitofish (33.6%) and the
Iberian roach Squalius alburnoides (Steindachner) (30.4%), with the former
being more abundant in the very shallow pools (<0.15 m water depth), reach-
ing up to 60% of total fish specimens. Lower frequencies were observed for
pumpkinseed (10.1%), arched-mouth nase Chondrostoma lemmingii (Steindach-
ner) (5.1%), Iberian dace Squalius pyrenaicus (Günther) (3.2%), stoneloach
Cobitis paludica (De Buen) (2.6%), barbels Barbus spp. (1.1%), Guadiana nase,
Chondrostoma willkommii Steindachner (0.3%), and largemouth bass Micro-
pterus salmoides, Lacépède (0.03%). Specimens with 0–30 mm total length
were dominant in shallow pools (<40 cm depth) where no fish larger than
50 mm occurred. In the deeper pools, very small fish were less representative
and larger fish (50–80 mm) were observed.
Crayfish density in the pools ranged from 0 to 39.3 m2 and, as for fish, was
inversely correlated to the water depth (after Spearman correlation: r ¼ 0.46,
P < 0.05). Apparently, crayfish concentrate in the pools where fish are more
abundant and vulnerable because of the spatial confinement. In fact, choice
tests showed that fish is the preferred food type if the costs involved in the
capture are relatively low (Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993b).
A total of 409 crayfish stomach contents were analysed. For fish specimens,
the identification was based on skeleton remains, skin, and scales. The number
of eaten organisms was estimated by the skeleton parts. The food types in the
crayfish diet for each pool were characterized through a Modified Main Food
Index: MFI ¼ (frequency of occurrence proportion of each food item to the
total volume of the gut content)1/2 (Bernardo 1990).
Crayfish consumed a broad diversity of food items, the most common being
vegetal detritus, invertebrates, and fish. Vegetal detritus was dominant in 76%
of the pools. Overall, invertebrates were the second most important item in the
crayfish diet. Fish was the third most consumed item, present in 24% of crayfish
stomach contents; this type of food was dominant in 24% of the pools.
Consumption of animal material was negatively correlated with water depth
(after Spearman correlation: r ¼ 0.63, P < 0.01; Fig. 1) and pool area (after
Spearman correlation: r ¼ 0.69, P < 0.01). Fish consumption by crayfish
increased significantly with fish density in pools (after Spearman correlation:
r ¼ 0.68, P < 0.05) (Fig. 2). This fact clearly supports the hypothesis that
crayfish concentrate in the shallow pools because of the high availability and
vulnerability of the fish. The most abundant prey, mosquitofish, was also the
more consumed, representing 76% of total fish, thus corroborating the oppor-
tunistic character of P. clarkii. Pumpkinseed sunfish represented only 9% of fish
prey and some indigenous species, such as Iberian roach and barbel juveniles,
were also observed in the stomach contents but in very low frequencies and
volumes.
As the larger proportions of fish in the crayfish diet were observed in the
shallower (< 0.15 m water depth) and densely populated pools (both by cray-
fish and fish), the predation pressure of crayfish on fish was estimated on the
basis of the conditions of those pools. For the evaluation of the predation
pressure, values from this and previous studies on crayfish ecology were used.
MFI (%) Depth (m)
90 0.9
80 0.8
70 0.7
60 0.6
50 0.5
40 0.4
30 0.3
20 0.2
10 0.1
0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Pools
Animal items Fish Depth
Fig. 1 Main Food Index (MFI) of total animal items and fish consumed by crayfish in
each pool and pool water depth. (After Bernardo 1990, modified)
Fish consumption by crayfish (%)
80 R2 = 0.68
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2
Fish density (ind/m )
Fig. 2 Relation between fish consumption by crayfish and fish density in the studied
pools.
To estimate crayfish predation pressure on fish, crayfish food consumption

rate and the proportion of fish in the stomach contents were used. Total crayfish
biomass per area was assessed using the crayfish density and crayfish mean
weight. The consumption rate of fish by crayfish (CONS, g of fish m2) was
calculated as:
CONS ¼ DENS CW DCR PF

in which DENS is the crayfish density (N m2), CW is the mean crayfish

weight (g), DCR is the daily consumption rate (g food/g crayfish per day), and
PF is the proportion of fish in the crayfish stomach contents. Weights are wet
weights.
A crayfish density of 10 m2 was adopted; this density was observed in some
pools in this study and is a mean value for these stream types (Ilhéu 1994).
Crayfish size was homogenous, the average weight being 30.0 g (5.3 SD).
The mean proportion of fish observed in the stomach contents was 69.7%.
The consumption rate, based on the experimental assessment in ad libitum
conditions by Bernardo and Ilhéu (1994), was 0.088 g/g crayfish day1,
i.e. 8.8% of the crayfish weight per day. Based on these values, the estimated
consumption of fish in the conditions of the shallow summer pools is 18.4 g
fish m2 day1.
In order to have a relative measure of the magnitude of this consumption
rate, this value was compared to the fish density. The estimated mean biomass
of fish in the shallow and densely populated pools was 126.3 g m2. Based on
this value and on the consumption rate of fish, a prediction of the approximate
time for crayfish to consume all fish present in pools at the time of sampling
would be 6.9 days.
Results clearly demonstrate that the crayfish performs a significant role in
the removal of fish but only in the last phase of the vanishing summer pools.
As pools recede, confinement and concentration of the aquatic fauna causes the
intensification of biological interactions, in particular predation. High vulner-
ability of fish makes them the ideal prey only during the low-water conditions
associated with the temporary character of these streams. As the surface water
disappears, in the extreme confinement of the very shallow pools, fish are totally
predated.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Crayfish have been described as an opportunistic species feeding on various

types of animal and vegetal food items (e.g. Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, 1995,
Gherardi et al. 2001, Nyström 2002, Correia 2003). As the crayfish grow,
diet shifts from a more zoophagous to an almost exclusively phytophagous-
detritophagous one (Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, Pérez-Bote 2005). Usually,
fully grown adults feed almost entirely on vegetal matter, either fresh or detritic
(Ilhéu and Bernardo 1995).
As previous experimental laboratory studies predicted (Ilhéu and Bernardo
1993b), when prey face confined conditions, as in shallow pools, crayfish profit
from their vulnerability and in such an advantageous cost–benefit ratio crayfish
behave as opportunistic predators. In the large pools, fish display strong escape
ability, and predation efficiency by crayfish is low. Moreover, large persistent
pools tend to show higher habitat complexity, which is also reflected in the
crayfish predation success.
Both invasive and indigenous crayfish generally are well adapted for dispersal
and can move from habitats with low prey availability to other locations where
prey densities are higher and foraging success is greater. They often occupy
‘‘ephemeral home ranges’’ and move from one location to another (Ilhéu et al.
2003). The short-term movement is well studied in crayfish (e.g. Gherardi et al.
1998, Gherardi 2002, Bubb et al. 2006).
In general, the cost-benefit analysis – the basic principle of theories of optimal
foraging strategies (Schoener 1971) – is consistent with the opportunistic
character of the red swamp crayfish. To consume a certain quantity and quality
of food (i.e. the benefit) the forager has to spend a cost involved in food
searching, pursuit, handling or catching, and eating. The balance of costs and
associated benefits will determine the choice among the available options. Thus,
depending on the availability and ease of capture of the food categories, crayfish
may be a phyto/detritophagous or a predator.
When highly populated receding pools reach very low water depths, crayfish
face the ideal conditions of prey availability/vulnerability to perform an easy
and rewarding predation. This pattern is likely to be found in other temporary,
ephemeral, or intermittent aquatic systems of temperate or tropical regions
where the dramatic circumstances of the vanishing waterbodies provide a
feast for the predators.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Ana Manuel Costa for assistance with the literature research
and two anonymous referees for their valuable comments on the manuscript.
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Chapter thirty
Assessing the trophic ecology

of crayfish: a case study of
the invasive Procambarus
clarkii
Marı́a Crehuet, Paloma Alcorlo, Miguel Angel

Bravo-Utrera, Angel Baltanás, and Carlos Montes
INTRODUCTION
Freshwater crayfish, among the largest invertebrate members of biological

communities in non-marine ecosystems throughout the world, have a func-
tional role that is tightly linked to their trophic ecology both as consumers of a
large variety of food sources and as prey for a number of vertebrate predators
ranging from fish to mammals (Hogger 1988). Although the low diversity of
crayfish species in Europe, as compared to that in North America, might suggest
a low significance of this group to the functioning of the ecosystems, the recent
introduction of several non-indigenous species has changed this view dramati-
cally (Chapter 28).
Severe environmental impacts at both the population and the ecosystem level
followed those introductions. Impacts produced on other (indigenous) crayfish
should be distinguished from those impacts affecting non-crayfish species. The
former ones are frequently related to the spread of diseases (mainly the crayfish
plague, Aphanomyces astaci Schikora) and to competitive interactions, whereas
559
ß 2007 Springer.
560 Marı́a Crehuet et al.
the damage of introduced crayfish to non-crayfish populations and to ecosystem

functioning is related to trophic interactions (Chapter 28). Non-indigenous
crayfish are known to alter significantly the biomass and species richness of
their trophic resources, mainly submerged macrophytes and macroinverte-
brates (Lodge et al. 1994, Momot 1995, Charlebois and Lamberti 1996,
Nyström et al. 1996, Parkyn et al. 1997). Such changes, however, do not
always result from direct consumption by crayfish but frequently are the by-
product of non-consumptive activities. For instance, the abundances of aquatic
plants and invertebrate prey are reduced simply when crayfish feed actively on
them. However, population declines are also caused because crayfish, while
hunting or digging their burrows, alter the structure of the surrounding habitat
and reduce food resources and shelter for many other invertebrate species
(Carpenter and Lodge 1986, Hart 1992, Nyström et al. 1996).
There is a general agreement that detailed information on the trophic
requirements of introduced crayfish species is fundamental in order to identify
and to manage their likely impact on native ecosystems. Many studies devoted
to fulfil that aim have been traditionally based on the analysis of crayfish
gut contents (e.g. Alcorlo et al. 2004). Such an approach, although useful,
also proved to overestimate detritus and vegetation consumption by crayfish,
as compared to food of animal origin, thus leading to a misconception of the role
of crayfish in the aquatic food webs (Whitledge and Rabeni 1997, Correia 2003,
Alcorlo et al. 2004). Other methodological approaches have been successfully
applied to crayfish research, improving our understanding of crayfish trophic
ecology (e.g. enclosure experiments in the field, prey choice tests in the labora-
tory, and stable isotopes analysis).
The aim of this paper is to review these methodological approaches, with
special attention to their pros and cons, as well as to support the use of mixed
research strategies that combine the several approaches available. That aim is
addressed in the following sections. First, examples from the literature will
illustrate the several methods currently applied and their drawbacks. Second,
we will refer to a case study, in which two of such methods (stable isotopes
analysis plus food preference tests) have been combined to provide information
on the trophic ecology of the juvenile red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii
Girard).
ASSESSMENT OF THE TROPHIC ECOLOGY OF CRAYFISH
Laboratory vs. field (enclosure) experiments
Feeding activity and food preferences of crayfish, the causal links to their impact
on aquatic food webs, have been repeatedly assessed using field observations
(Feminella and Resh 1989, Nyström et al. 1999) and laboratory experiments
(Covich et al. 1981, Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, b, 1995, Lochmann et al. 1995,
Assessing the trophic ecology of Procambarus clarkii 561
Cronin 1998, Cronin et al. 2002, Correia et al. 2005). Laboratory experiments
are frequently performed using glass aquaria or individual containers that
allow for both individual based observations under controlled conditions and
the use of measuring/recording devices difficult to operate in outdoor condi-
tions. Because of those advantages, laboratory experiments have been exten-
sively used for the study of crayfish growth (Brown et al. 1992, McClain et al.
1992a,b, Oliveira and Fabião 1998, Bondar et al. 2005); consumption rates
(Rundquist and Goldman 1981, Ilhéu and Bernardo 1995, Correia et al. 2005);
and food digestibility (Brown et al. 1990, Reigh et al. 1990). Brown et al. (1990),
for instance, used faecal collection chambers to estimate digestibility of various
macrophytes by Orconectes virilis (Hagen), concluding that digestibility coeffi-
cients were significantly different between macrophytes but not between male
and female crayfish. Food preferences have been addressed in the laboratory as
well. Covich (1977), Ilhéu and Bernardo (1993b, 1995), and Cronin et al.
(2002) used choice tests in which alternative food items were offered in similar
quantities to crayfish and their preferences were evaluated according to the
amount of resources left after some time. Wiernicki (1984) also used a labora-
tory experimental approach to assess assimilation efficiency of juvenile and
adult P. clarkii feeding on plant detritus to conclude that assimilation efficiency
was greater when crayfish were fed plant material previously colonized by
micro-organisms.
Despite their advantages, laboratory experiments are not free from oper-
ational difficulties, among which to obtain and keep in good conditions
an adequate stock (diverse and abundant) of crayfish prey items is not trivial.
In addition, this approach suffers from lack of realism and a restricted scope
(Diamond 1986). Field studies, the counterpart to laboratory experiments
which focus mainly at the population level, provide realistic data but have
serious drawbacks like site replications and the lack of regulation of independent
variables (temperature, rainfall, light, etc.) (Diamond 1986). Those disadvan-
tages, nevertheless, can be significantly reduced with the use of cage or enclo-
sure experiments (Lodge and Lorman 1987, Feminella and Resh 1989, Lodge
et al. 1994, Angeler et al. 2001, Stenroth and Nyström 2003, Bondar et al.
2005).
The aim of enclosures is to isolate the biological communities that occur on a
given surface of aquatic benthic habitat while keeping the fluxes above it
(water, nutrients, oxygen, plankton, etc.) as natural as possible. Accordingly,
a variety of enclosure designs (boxes, cages, tubes), mesh sizes (1–15 mm), cage
areas (0.2–6 m2), and crayfish density (0–20 m2) have been used in both
lotic (Charlebois and Lamberti 1996, Parkyn et al. 1997, Perry et al. 1997,
Stelzer and Lamberti 1999, Perry et al. 2000) and lentic habitats (Lodge and
Lorman 1987, Feminella and Resh 1989, Lodge et al. 1994, Angeler et al. 2001,
Rodrı́guez et al. 2003, Stenroth and Nyström 2003, Bondar et al. 2005).
Because of the skills of crayfish at burrowing, enclosures fixed in lentic habitats
with muddy substrate are recommended to have their walls buried 15–40 cm
down into the sediment to avoid crayfish movements from or into the experi-
mental area (Lodge and Lorman 1987). With hard substrate (boulders, gravel,
and cobbles), as used to happen in lotic habitats, enclosures are frequently
designed as tubes or boxes embedded in the stream bed and with top, upstream,
and downstream walls with silicon mesh to allow water to pass through, and
the bottom covered with sediment (Charlebois and Lamberti 1996, Perry et al.
1997, Bondar et al. 2005).
Within enclosures, community composition and prey abundances can be
precisely assessed before and after interacting with crayfish in order to test its
effects (as changes in abundance, biomass, and species composition) on prey
populations. That was the approach used by Feminella and Resh (1989) to
document the impact of P. clarkii grazing on pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus
Linnaeus) in a Californian freshwater marsh; and by Lodge and Lorman (1987)
and Charlebois and Lamberti (1996) to show the influence of the non-indigenous
Orconectes rusticus (Girard) on benthic food webs in three northern Wisconsin
lakes and a Michigan stream, respectively. Angeler et al. (2001) also used
enclosures to estimate the effect of a non-indigenous crayfish (P. clarkii) on the
water quality of a wetland in central Spain (Tablas de Daimiel National Park).
Their results show that crayfish feeding activity worsens water quality by mobi-
lizing to the water column nutrients otherwise stored in the sediments and that
crayfish alter sediment features directly by recycling organic matter in the
sediment (Angeler et al. 2001). Similarly, Rodrı́guez et al. (2003) found that
while fish activity had no significant effect on plant growth in a shallow lake in
north-western Spain, P. clarkii feeding activities were responsible for the reduc-
tion of the plant biomass, forcing the system from a mesotrophic macrophyte-
dominated clear water state into a turbid and eutrophic one. Other crayfish
studies using enclosure experiments to assess the effect of indigenous/non-
indigenous crayfish on benthic communities include Lodge et al. (1994), Parkyn
et al. (1997), Perry et al. (1997), Stewart et al. (1998), Evans-White et al. (2001),
and Ságová-Marecková (2002). A remarkable work in this context is the
attempt of McCarthy et al. (2006) to provide a novel insight on a broad scale by
combining a meta-analysis of enclosure experimental studies and a long-term
observational study.
Useful as they are to identify overall crayfish impacts on biological commu-
nities, enclosure experiments meet difficulties when trying to distinguish the
specific mechanisms behind such impacts. For instance, although macrophyte
destruction has been repeatedly linked to the presence of crayfish, it remains
disputed how much is due to direct consumption (i.e. crayfish herbivory) and
how much to indirect non-consumptive activities (e.g. crayfish predation on
epiphytic snails or mechanical destruction of macrophytes) (Lodge and Lorman
1987). In laboratory experiments, such a problem can be partially solved by
keeping track of the macrophyte biomass destroyed but not ingested (for
instance, stems left as floating pieces in the aquaria), but in field studies such
an approach is almost impossible to follow. To address that aim, two alternative,
but complementary, methods stand out in studies of crayfish trophic ecology:

stomach contents analysis and the analysis of stable isotopes.
Stomach contents analysis
This is a straightforward method – and the most widely applied – to identify

which trophic resources are exploited as food by crayfish (e.g. Ilhéu and
Bernardo 1993a, b, Whitledge and Rabeni 1997, Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1998,
Verhoef et al. 1998, Parkyn et al. 2001, Correia 2002, 2003, Hollows et al. 2002,
Stenroth and Nyström 2003, Alcorlo et al. 2004, Bondar et al. 2005, Rudnick
and Resh 2005).
Due to its role as an invasive species in many areas, the diet of P. clarkii has
been studied intensively, a main issue being whether the species is an oppor-
tunistic or a selective feeder. Ilhéu and Bernardo (1993a, b) found that the gut
contents of P. clarkii living in a series of Portuguese aquatic habitats (from
streams to a reservoir) were dominated by vegetal biomass as compared
to macroinvertebrates or detritus. Similar results were obtained by Gutiérrez-
Yurrita et al. (1998) while studying P. clarkii (502 stomachs analysed) in
the lower Guadalquivir Basin (southern Spain). Moreover, the analysis of 80
additional stomachs from the same geographic area confirmed previous obser-
vations and showed that food item diversity in crayfish stomachs is correlated
with prey availability (Alcorlo et al. 2004). Correia (2002, 2003) also found
that crayfish resource use is adjusted to the availability of aquatic prey, but in
the Portuguese rice field populations that she studied there was a reverse
dominance of food items in crayfish guts; those of animal origin, not plants or
detritus, were the most abundant. Gut contents analysis has also been used to
assess crayfish diet in enclosure experiments by Stenroth and Nyström (2003)
and Bondar et al. (2005) working with Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana) in stream
habitats in Sweden and British Columbia, respectively.
Data provided by stomach contents analysis are extremely useful but tedious to
obtain and the method requires some taxonomic skills for the identification of the
partially digested prey pieces. This approach provides a snapshot of the feeding
habits of the studied organism and can hardly reflect trophic relationships in the
long term (Alcorlo et al. 2004). In addition, information obtained through this
method is frequently biased because diverse food items are preserved at different
rates inside the crayfish gut passage. Whereas soft prey are digested easily and
fast, some others (or their hard parts) can remain longer in crayfish stomachs,
thus increasing their possibilities of being found and recorded (Correia 2003).
Plant tissues, for instance, are more difficult to assimilate than food resources of
animal origin, and, because they can remain inside the crayfish gut for a long
period, crayfish preference for vegetation is frequently overestimated (Brown et al.
1986, 1990). Indeed, some probable prey of crayfish are unlikely to be found in
crayfish stomachs because they are digested so quickly that their identification
becomes difficult, if not impossible (Hanson et al. 1990, Momot 1995).
Finally, when consumption data are intended for the quantitative assessment
of crayfish energy sources, the additional estimation of assimilation efficiencies
and net production efficiencies is required (Whitledge and Rabeni 1997).
Stable isotopes analysis
Although stable isotopes analysis has been used for the study of food webs
for nearly 30 years, its application to the study of crayfish trophic ecology
is relatively new (France 1996a,b), focusing on the elucidation of major
energy pathways passing through crayfish in wetland and stream ecosystems
(Whitledge and Rabeni 1997). The technique is based on simple grounds: the
isotopic signature of a consumer (i.e. the ratio of stable isotopes of a given
element in the tissues of an organism, e.g. crayfish) reflects the isotopic signa-
ture of all the trophic resources it had assimilated (Anderson et al. 1987).
Carbon and nitrogen isotopes (d13C y d15N) are the stable isotopes most fre-
quently used in food web analysis. The technique does not normally provide
information about specific taxa in the diet of the consumer, but it can discrim-
inate between alternative food sources (plant vs. animal; inland vs. seashore,
etc.). Moreover, isotopic signals integrate information on resource use over
longer time periods (Whitledge and Rabeni 1997) [for a more detailed account
of stable isotopes analysis applied to food web studies see, for instance, DeNiro and
Epstein (1978), Rau (1980), Fry and Sherr (1984), Minagawa and Wada (1984),
Kling et al. (1992), Michener and Schell (1994), Hobson and Wassenaar (1999)].
Stable isotopes analyses have been applied to several crayfish species
with contrasting results. Orconectes punctimanus (Creaser) and Orconectes luteus
(Creaser), two indigenous species in an Ozark stream (Missouri), mainly behave
as predators of macroinvertebrates (Whitledge and Rabeni 1997), whereas
Orconectes neglectus (Faxon) and Orconectes nais (Faxon), occurring in a stream
in Kansas, function more as algal and detrital processors than as predators
(Evans-White et al. 2001). Similarly, isotopic signals found in P. leniusculus in its
homeland of British Columbia and in the non-indigenous crayfish P. clarkii in
California suggest that those species feed mainly on detrital biofilm and on
terrestrially derived detritus, respectively (Bondar et al. 2005, Rudnick and
Resh 2005).
The use of stable isotopes analysis allows us to differentiate between the
resources ingested (i.e. those found in the gut) and those really assimilated by
the crayfish, a very important difference from an energetic point of view. This
point is clearly illustrated in two studies of the trophic ecology of the
New Zealand crayfish Paranephrops planifrons (White) showing that most of
the energy used for crayfish growth comes from invertebrates despite finding
that the stomach contents were frequently dominated by detritus (Parkyn et al.
2001, Hollows et al. 2002).
Compared to stomach contents analysis, stable isotopes analysis is less time-
consuming, especially when working with juveniles that are small and difficult
to handle. On the other hand, measuring isotope ratios is more complex than
stomach contents analysis. Some complexities refer to tissue selection (exoskel-
eton, hepatopancreas, gills, or muscle) and sample treatment (acidification or
lipid extraction) which have been recently evaluated by Stenroth et al. (2006),
whereas others are instrumental (the method requires a mass spectrometer,
a more expensive and less available piece of equipment than a binocular
microscope for examining gut contents).
Mixed strategies
As usually happens in other research areas, competing techniques for the study
of the trophic ecology of crayfish provide better results when used in combin-
ation. Most of the studies quoted in the previous sections do indeed apply that
complementary approach. Feminella and Resh (1989), for instance, combined
in situ enclosure experiments with gut contents analysis in their effort to
determine whether or not P. clarkii reduce pondweed (P. pectinatus) abundance
at Coyote Hills Marsh (California, USA). Enclosure experiments, with crayfish
densities ranging from 0 to 3 m2, showed the kind of strong negative relation-
ship that can result from either an herbivore—plant interaction or mechanical
destruction of pondweed due to crayfish activity. Gut contents analysis
confirmed that the decline of P. pectinatus was mainly due to direct trophic
interactions.
Ilhéu and Bernardo (1993b) studied the diet of the red swamp crayfish
(P. clarkii) by checking the gut contents of 164 animals collected with traps in
several locations in Alentejo (southern Portugal). Although their results sug-
gested a preferential consumption of vegetal material rather than other types of
food, laboratory experiments revealed a crayfish preference for benthic inverte-
brates. Parkyn et al. (2001) and Hollows et al. (2002) combined gut contents
analysis and stable isotopes analysis to stress discrepancies in the results derived
from each method and to show shifts in the crayfish diet with changing
environmental conditions (from native forest streams to non-indigenous pasture
settings).
A study that combines all the approaches (field enclosure experiments, gut
contents analysis, laboratory experiments, and stable isotopes analysis) was
made by Bondar et al. (2005), who studied the trophic ecology of P. leniusculus
in a Canadian stream within its native distribution range. Enclosures were used
to control for food type, food availability, and crayfish density, to prevent
predation pressures on the crayfish and to run replicates in a standard way.
The diet of the crayfish was first identified through gut contents analysis and it
was later adjusted using stable isotopes analysis to account for the assimilation
of each food type, thereby eliminating overestimation of those diet items having
a long latency in the gut. Laboratory experiments were finally used to assess
growth granted by each food type. It was concluded that, although growth
would be far more rapid if they feed on invertebrates, juveniles and adults do not
differ in their diet. Besides, allochthonous detritus is their main food source
(Bondar et al. 2005). The same species, however, was studied by Stenroth and
Nyström (2003) to address its impact on the communities of a stream in southern
Sweden where the crayfish has been introduced. Using enclosures (see above) as
well as gut contents analysis, they concluded that P. leniusculus is responsible for
the decline of dominant predatory invertebrate populations which seemed to be
affected not because of their trophic status (i.e. there was no direct competition
with the crayfish) but because of their reduced mobility (i.e. crayfish can easily
capture them) (Stenroth and Nyström 2003).
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE TROPHIC ECOLOGY OF

AN INVASIVE CRAYFISH IN DOÑANA MARSHLANDS
In this section, we present a case study that aims to contribute to the existing
knowledge of the trophic ecology of the red swamp crayfish (P. clarkii) in
freshwater marshlands in southern Spain. Given that previous efforts focused
on crayfish population abundance and distribution and on gut contents analysis
(Montes et al. 1993, Gutiérrez-Yurrita 1998, Alcorlo et al. 2004), here we
address food preference experiments and stable isotopes analysis.
Attempts to introduce six species of non-indigenous crayfish (Astacus astacus
Linneus, Astacus leptodactylus Eschscholtz, Orconectes limosus Rafinesque, Cherax
destructor Clark, P. leniusculus, and P. clarkii) were made in the Iberian Peninsula
over the last half-century. Only the last three species thrived to establish wild
populations, but P. clarkii is undoubtedly the most successful of them all. This
species was first introduced in the Iberian Peninsula in 1973 using a stock from
Louisiana (USA) (Habsburgo-Lorena 1978), as a challenge to the indigenous
populations and aimed at commercial use. The success of that attempt was so
great that it immediately prompted additional introductions in rice fields placed
in the Lower Guadalquivir basin (south-western Spain). Since then, the distri-
bution range of the species continued to grow due either to natural dispersal or
to deliberate dissemination by fishermen (Gaudé 1983).
The introduction of P. clarkii in the area was initially supported by scientific
arguments based on the ‘empty niche’ concept: large invertebrates like crayfish
were absent from the whole area and it was assumed that no competition effects
would appear and that the system would not suffer any harmful change (Molina
and Cadenas 1983). On the contrary, the red swamp crayfish has produced
severe changes in the structure and functioning of ecosystems in the area,
and now plays a central role in the trophic webs of Doñana National Park
(Gutiérrez-Yurrita 1997, Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1998, Geiger et al. 2005).
Field and laboratory studies typify P. clarkii as an omnivore species that
feeds on large quantities of invertebrates, plants, and detritus (Feminella and
Resh 1989, Huner and Barr 1991, Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, b, 1995,
Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1998, Correia 2002, 2003, Alcorlo et al. 2004, Rudnick
and Resh 2005). Within that context, this study focuses on the trophic activity
of juvenile crayfish in the food webs of Doñana National Park (southern Spain).
Choice test experiments for detecting food preferences combined with stable
isotopes analysis (d13C y d15N) have been carried out.
Food preference experiments
Red swamp crayfish have been repeatedly blamed as responsible for the local
extinction of several snail species in the marshlands of Doñana. In order to test
crayfish preference for mollusc prey, a choice experiment was set up. This time,
juvenile crayfish were used as experimental subjects instead of adults. Although
omnivory in P. clarkii is widely assumed, it seems that shifts in diet might occur
during its ontogenetic development (Correia 2003) with juveniles showing
preference for food of animal origin and adults behaving mainly as herbivores
(Ilhéu and Bernardo 1993a, Montes et al. 1993). Accordingly, if the functional
role of P. clarkii changes with ontogeny, the impact of crayfish on the ecosystem
strongly depends on its population structure.
All experimental crayfish were raised in the laboratory from eggs laid by 80
adult crayfish collected in July 2004 from Lucio Martinazo, a site in the fresh-
water marsh of Doñana National Park. Juvenile crayfish fed exclusively on
chironomid larvae for nearly four months in order to assure homogeneous, single
origin isotopic signatures [note, nevertheless, that this protocol can alter posterior
crayfish trophic response due to training (Martin and Bateson 1991)]. Once
crayfish reached a size close to 3 cm (mean total length ¼ 2.98 + 0.35 cm),
84 juvenile crayfish were selected, weighted, and starved for 24 hours before
proceeding with the experiments. Two food items were offered, both of animal
origin, as alternatives: gastropods (Physa acuta Draparnaud) and chironomid
larvae (Diptera, Chironomidae).
All the experiments were run on single crayfish to avoid competition for
food and no individual was used more than once. Three treatments, with 12
replicates each, were carried out as follows: (1) only chironomid larvae were
offered; (2) only snails were offered; and (3) both chironomids and snails were
offered. Prey items were weighed before each experiment and offered to crayfish
in groups of 12 individuals. After one hour, the number of prey consumed
and their corresponding biomass were recorded. Twenty-four hours later,
experimental crayfish were frozen to proceed with stable isotopes analysis.
That lag was presumed to allow the non-assimilated prey biomass to be excreted
out of crayfish gut.
The treatment involving the simultaneous offer of chironomids and snails
implies that experimental crayfish have access to a lager amount of food
(12 þ 12 prey) as compared to treatments with a single item offered. Accord-
ingly, changes in resource use, if existing, might also be explained because of
a change in the amount (not in the quality) of food offered. In order to control
for such a possibility, an additional pair of treatments was added to the
Fig. 1 Results of the ANOVA performed on consumption rates of juvenile Procambarus

clarkii on chironomids (full circles) and gastropods (open squares) in experimental
treatments. Mean values ( S.E.) of the response variable, transformed to account for
normality, are plotted. Non-significantly different treatments (Tukey test) are enclosed in
a grey line.
experiments: chironomids and snails were each presented to juvenile crayfish

together with stems of carophytes (Chara spp.) offered in excess (i.e. carophytes,
which are one dominant constituent of crayfish diet in the area, were provided
in large enough quantities so that crayfish never run out of them).
Consumption rate was computed as prey biomass consumed per crayfish
biomass unit (g). This consumption rate was transformed to account for nor-
mality and analysed using a one-way ANOVA followed by a Tukey test for
a posteriori comparisons (Zar 1999). The ratio of the number of prey consumed
to the number of prey available was estimated for each individual crayfish.
Mean consumption rates for chironomids and gastropods were similar when
offered as single resources but significantly different when offered in combi-
nation (F(5, 66) ¼ 29.286, P < 0.00001; Fig. 1). Whereas chironomids are
always heavily consumed, preference for snails decreases when other food
resources (chironomids and carophytes) are involved. Such an overwhelming
crayfish preference for chironomids may be due to training while cultured in the
laboratory, but the smaller handling times involved in capturing and eating
the chironomids, as compared to the hard-shelled gastropods, might also
explain this pattern. In other words, snails may not be negatively selected by
juvenile P. clarkii but simply consumed at different rates. Indeed, snail biomass
was consumed in amounts comparable to those of chironomids when no other
Table 1 Average consumption rates of the different food resources offered to juvenile
Procambarus clarkii in the experiments. Rates refer to the prey biomass consumed relative
to the crayfish biomass (both in grams). Consumption rates of alternative food sources in
brackets.
Resource Consumption rate
Chironomids (alone) 0.0723

(þ gastropods) 0.0670 (0.0183)
(þ charophytes) 0.1278 (0.7539)
Gastropods (alone) 0.0388
(þ chironomids) 0.0183 (0.0670)
(þ charophytes) 0.0065 (0.0339)
food item was present, and crayfish never waited until chironomids (and
carophytes) were exhausted to feed on gastropods when they were all present
in the experiment (Table 1). When discussing the likely preference of P. clarkii
for gastropods, Gutiérrez-Yurrita (1997) suggested that benefits other than
metabolic energy must be at play in this interaction (e.g. calcium carbonate
required for crayfish growth). Of similar concern was the argument made by
Nyström et al. (1999) and Stenroth and Nyström (2003) that crayfish are prone
to predate on slow moving invertebrates, mostly on gastropods, because that
food source is expected to provide more energy in the long run. That hypothesis
is difficult to test with our experiments because of their short-term nature and
the high mobility of juvenile crayfish as compared to the adults. However it
points out the need to include different time scales and crayfish ontogenetic
stages (or some other estimate of population structure) into future studies
addressing the impact of crayfish food preferences in wild habitats.
Stable isotopes analysis
Crayfish were frozen immediately at the end of the experiments to prevent

further digestion of food items. Hence, all crayfish carried the same isotopic
baseline signature (due to the chironomid-based diet held for 4 months) plus an
additional signal added by the food items consumed and assimilated during the
24 h experiments. Prey items were also analysed in order to characterize their
isotopic signature. Therefore, crayfish stable isotopes analysis was intended as a
test for the sensibility of the method to detect diet shifts over short-term periods.
All samples were analysed using a Micromass CF-Isochrom mass spectrom-
eter for measuring isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen according to standard
methods and run by the SIdI (Servicio Interdepartamental de Investigación) at
the UAM (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid).
Isotopic fractionation coefficient, i.e. the change on isotopic signature
between the diet and the consumer tissues because of the digestion and
Fig. 2 Scatter plot of isotopic signals measured in juvenile Procambarus clarkii [open
circles (average values); dots (individual data)] and in several food sources [large closed
symbols (average values); small closed symbols (individual data)]. Codes for crayfish
isotopic signals refer to the different treatments (food provided): (A) chironomids only;
(B) gastropods only; (C) chironomids plus gastropods; (D) chironomids plus carophytes;
and (E) gastropods plus carophytes. Variability expressed as standard deviation.
assimilation process (Dtissue-diet ¼ Dtissue – Ddiet; where D is d13C or d15N), was

estimated from data as 1.2‰ (d13C) and 3.2‰ (d15N) for a chironomid-based
diet. These figures are in agreement with standard values for a food supply
of animal origin 0.5–1‰ for d13C (De Niro and Epstein 1978, Fry and Sherr
1984) and 3–4‰ for d15N (Minagawa and Wada 1984)], but differ from those
estimated for P. clarkii feeding on water-worms (Oligochaeta) (2.0‰ for d13C and
1.0‰ for d15N) in streams flowing into San Francisco bay (Rudnick and Resh
2005). The difference suggests that coefficients of fractionation are context-
dependent and must be estimated independently for each ecosystem studied.
Dual isotope plots (Fig. 2) show isotopic signals measured in both food items
and crayfish in each treatment. Data from the experiment including gastropods
plus charophytes were excluded because resource consumption was negligible,
leading to very large within-treatment variability. There were significant differ-
ences in nitrogen isotope signals between treatments (t-test comparisons
between each treatment and the control), but almost no changes were found
in carbon, except for the experiment with gastropods only. Such differences
mainly reflect, in addition to food preferences, differential assimilation rates over
a 24 h period. As expected from fractionation between trophic levels, the d15N
signal increased in crayfish feeding exclusively on chironomids as compared to
the signature found in its food supply (Fig. 2). Although similar effects are also
expected with other food items (i.e. the consumer should show a signal enriched
in the heavier isotope due to fractionation), a decrease is observed instead. This
result is most likely due to the short study period (24 h) which might affect the
chances for the differential excretion of the lighter nitrogen isotope. Still, the
isotopic signal of juvenile crayfish reflects systematically and coherently the
small differences in diet observed during the short-term experiments (Fig. 2).
Although much work is still to be done on crayfish trophic ecology using
isotopic signals, this approach seems to be precise and sensitive enough to detect
both dominant (ruling ecosystem functioning) as well as sporadic (frequently of
interest from a conservation perspective) food resources.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
As expected, all methods applied to the study of the trophic ecology of fresh-
water crayfish have advantages and limitations. Hence, the most efficient way
to address that topic must rely in a wise combination of them all. Laboratory
experiments, with their capability to control environmental variables and to
measure crayfish responses precisely, even at the individual level, allow for the
study of growth, consumption rates, food digestibility, and prey preferences.
However, such experiments lack realism and require adequate facilities in order
to keep alive both the crayfish and their prey. Field experiments, frequently
performed as enclosure/exclosure designs, are the reasonable alternative to
laboratory experiments. They provide a higher degree of realism but make it
difficult to track individual crayfish responses or to make close-up observations
of the feeding process.
Grown either in the laboratory or in the wild, the analysis of gut contents is
the most direct approach to the study of crayfish diet. This procedure, however,
is not free from problems. Because prey are digested by crayfish at different
rates, observational data from gut analysis are necessarily biased towards
heavily sclerotized prey (or their parts) and food items hard to assimilate (e.g.
plant material). In addition, quantitative estimates of prey abundances inside
crayfish guts are difficult to make because of the variety of prey remains (e.g.
claws, legs, cephalic capsules, and carapaces). Stable isotopes analysis recently
joined the collection of methods for the study of the trophic ecology of crayfish.
That technique is more expensive than gut contents analysis or direct observa-
tion in the laboratory, and cannot provide information on crayfish diet down to
the specific level. However, it is very accurate in identifying main energy
sources and their contribution to crayfish growth and survival in the long term.
Finally, a case study has been introduced including a selection experiment
and a stable isotopes analysis. The case focuses on the trophic ecology of
P. clarkii, an invasive species in European wetlands. Several studies already
addressed food preferences in adult crayfish, so that juveniles have been used
here instead. Although crayfish showed a clear preference for chironomids,
aquatic snails were also consumed. Because snail consumption diminishes
with the presence of alternative prey, it is argued that crayfish, although able
to feed efficiently on gastropods, prefer to use snails as a secondary food source.
Indeed, it is suggested that, in the presence of other prey, gastropods might be

exploited not for metabolic energy but mainly as sources of minerals (e.g.
calcium carbonate) needed for the crayfish growth.
Stable isotopes analysis allowed for the estimation of fractionation coefficients
for chironomids. Those fractionation coefficients seem to be context-dependent,
as demonstrated by comparisons with coefficients estimated for the same cray-
fish species in different habitats and using different food sources. Thus, site-
specific reference studies are strongly recommended. In addition, the technique
proved to be sensitive enough to detect changes in crayfish diet that occur over
short periods of time (24 h), opening new possibilities for the application of this
approach in short-term studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the editor for her kind invitation to contribute to this volume and
three anonymous referees for their helpful comments. This study was supported
by Grant No. 095A/2002 (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente).
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Chapter thirty-one
Introduction and spread of

crayfish (Parastacidae) in
Western Australia and their
potential to displace
indigenous species
Jessica Lynas, Andrew Storey, and Brenton Knott
INTRODUCTION
On a global scale, crayfish have been translocated extensively beyond their

natural range, both within and between continents, due largely to demand
for their commercial culture (Holdich 1987, Horwitz 1990, Elvey et al. 1996,
Gherardi and Holdich 1999). Deleterious impacts on the receiving environment
typically include predation on and competition with indigenous species
(Holdich 1987, Horwitz 1990, Elvey et al. 1996, Gherardi and Holdich 1999,
Chapter 28), alteration to food webs resulting in changes to nutrient and energy
flow (e.g. Holdich 1987, Nyström et al. 1999, Chapter 28), and the introduc-
tion of diseases (e.g. Horwitz 1990, Gherardi and Holdich 1999, Vogt 1999,
Chapter 28). The potential for a non-indigenous crayfish species (NICS) to
replace an indigenous species has been recognized by, for example, Capelli and
Munjal (1982), Butler and Stein (1985), Momot and Leering (1986), Söderbäck
(1991), and Vorburger and Ribi (1999), with competitive exclusion being cited
as the mechanism for such species replacements (Bovbjerg 1952, 1970, Aiken
577
ß 2007 Springer.
578 Jessica Lynas et al.
1965, Capelli 1982). Under competitive exclusion two, geographically sympat-

ric, non-interbreeding populations sharing ecological attributes cannot coexist
indefinitely; eventually, the population with the superior competitive ability will
displace the other (Cole 1960, Hardin 1960). In the case of typically aggressive
crayfish, this may occur through interference competition when one species
is able to inhibit another’s access to a common limiting resource through
territoriality or aggression (Jaeger 1974).
In contrast to the evidence from Europe, currently there are no reports
in Australia of displacement neither of indigenous crayfish by an NICS nor of
introductions of crayfish non-indigenous to the continent. However, there has
been widespread translocation of crayfish within Western Australia (WA), and
the yabby, introduced from Victoria, currently is expanding its distribution
within the State. This is of particular concern given the conservation signi-
ficance of the WA crayfish fauna (Whiting et al. 2000). Due to the ancient
separation of freshwater systems of this region from the rest of Australia, the
crayfish fauna has remained effectively isolated, resulting in an endemic biota
(Figgis 1993, Myers et al. 2000) that now is threatened by displacement and/or
replacement by non-indigenous species.
This paper summarizes the current situation of NICS in WA and specifically
discusses the potential for the deleterious impact of yabbies to indigenous crayfish
species and to the ecology of local natural freshwater ecosystems generally.
LEGISLATION
Australia has a long history of introductions of animals and plants that

have had a deleterious effect on indigenous fauna. This has lead, in part, to
the development of legislation to prevent unauthorized introductions of
non-indigenous species (NIS); however, movement of species within the contin-
ent is not so well regulated.
Within Australia there are two levels of jurisdiction governing the impor-
tation and exportation of fauna. At the Commonwealth level, the Wildlife
Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act (1982) regulates imports
of plants and goods that may have an ‘‘adverse effect on, or on the habits of,
native Australian animals’’ (Part 1: 3E). If an NICS were imported into Australia
and became established, it then could be included in the List of Key Threatening
Processes under section 183 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999). NICS currently do not appear in the list since
none have been imported from overseas to date (see www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/
sprat/public/publicgetkeythreats.pl).
Regulations for the importation and exportation of crayfish within Australia
are State-specific. In general terms, the exportation of crayfish from each State
or territory is not regulated (with the exception of Tasmania); movement within
the State is not regulated (except in the Northern Territory), but importations
Introduction of crayfish in Western Australia 579
are regulated (Horwitz 1990). It is acknowledged, however, that it is very

difficult to prevent unregulated transport of crayfish, particularly given the
interest in establishing populations for aquaculture and recreational fisheries.
CRAYFISH IN WA
The crayfish fauna of WA is represented by two genera (Family Parastacidae),

Cherax Clark and Engaewa Riek. In discussing Cherax spp. in the State, it is easier
to use the commonly expressed vernacular terms to avoid confusion over which
scientific names formally are correct. The indigenous peoples of south-western
Australia recognized three forms of crayfish that now are classified within
the genus Cherax: marron, gilgies, and koonacs. Translocations have occurred
both within WA and into WA from other States (Table 1). Whilst this paper
focuses principally on the likely impacts of increases in geographical ranges of
the marron, redclaw, and the yabby, the potential for extinction of one or more
of the five currently recognised species of Engaewa (Horwitz and Adams 2000)
caused by the yabby also should be anticipated. Engaewa spp. have very
restricted coastal distributions in the extreme south-western corner of the State.
Marron
Nicholl and Horwitz (2000) have recognized the marron as a flagship species
for river conservation within WA. Since these large crayfish are much sought
after for human consumption, considerable effort has been expended in their
aquaculture, locally, interstate, and overseas (Morrissy et al. 1990). It comes as
a surprise to many that the current distribution of marron in WA represents
a geographical range significantly increased post-European colonization of the
State. Morrissy (1978), based on historical accounts and the State Fisheries
Department records, concluded that the pre-European distribution of marron
was south of Mandurah in coastal lakes, creeks, and rivers from the Harvey to
the Kent rivers (Fig. 1). The restricted distribution of marron resulted from their
habitat requirement of permanent pools and their limited powers of dispersal
(Shipway 1951, Morrissy 1978, Morrissy and Fellows 1990).
Whilst it is not known if the historical expansion of marron into rivers and
permanent wetlands north of Mandurah have had deleterious impacts on the
indigenous crayfish and other stream fauna of this new range, the movement of
marron by humans within the south-west corner of the State may not have
been without casualty. Recent data indicate that the widespread smooth mar-
ron morph is having a markedly negative impact on the ‘hairy’ marron morph!
Cherax tenuimanus (Smith), the ‘hairy’ marron, was described on specimens
from Margaret River but marron from other rivers beyond this catchment
recently have been separated into a second species, Cherax cainii Austin, the
‘smooth’ marron (Austin and Ryan 2002). The more ubiquitous C. cainii, which
580
Table 1 Species of Cherax spp. in WA, together with their indigenous and non-indigenous distributions.
Species name Common name Indigenous distribution Non-indigenous distribution
Cherax cainii Smooth marron The high rainfall region between just Hutt River in the north to Esperance
west of Albany and just south of in the east (Lawrence and Morrissy
Perth (Riek 1967, Morrissy 1978). 2000).
Cherax destructor Yabby Over 2 million km2, from South WA – Hutt River in the north to Esperance
Australia and southern Northern in the south-east (Morrissy and Cassells
Territory in the west, to south-west 1992, Horwitz and Knott 1995). Isolated
Victoria and the extreme south-east populations inland at Cue and Leonora.
of SA in the east (Riek 1967). Tasmania–Midlands
Cherax preissii Koonac Widespread throughout much of the
south-west and Wheatbelt, from north
of Perth to east of Albany, mainly inland
Jessica Lynas et al.
Cherax quadricarinatus Redclaw Far northern Queensland and northern and WA – Kimberley Drainage Division in
eastern parts of the Northern Territory Western Australia. QLD – populations
(Riek 1969, Curtis and Jones 1995). in lake systems in northern and
Known only from limited area, in exorheic south-eastern Queensland.
drainage systems from Daly River, NT,
to Normanby River, NE QLD.
Cherax quinquecarinatus Gilgie North of Perth to west of Albany, mainly
coastal
Cherax tenuimanus Hairy marron Restricted to the Margaret River
Fig. 1 Map showing the current known distributions of yabbies and redclaw in West-
ern Australia. Distributions are not necessarily continuous and represent best current
information. There are likely to be other occurrences which have not yet been discovered.
is the subject of most marron research, is the species widely used in aquaculture,
including within the Margaret River catchment itself where smooth marron
escapees have bred with hairy marron. Consequently, the distribution of the
hairy marron phenotype has been restricted predominantly to forested head-
water reaches of the Margaret River, and is now formally gazetted under the
WA Wildlife Conservation Act 1950, following IUCN Red List Categories and
Criteria version 3.1, as critically endangered (Bunn 2004). The potential for
species replacement through competitive exclusion or reproductive interference
are yet to be evaluated. There is, however, some evidence that C. cainii has a
greater growth rate and earlier spawning (Bunn 2004). A management plan to
enhance recovery of the ‘hairy’ morph within the Margaret River system will
rely heavily on local community involvement to be effective (Bunn 2004).
The biological impacts of the northern spread of marron into areas with drier,
warmer climate and different geological conditions from those wetter, cooler
conditions characteristic of their ‘pre-European’ range have not been evaluated,
although there is clear evidence of phenotypic plasticity. Individual biomass,
corrected for body length, shows statistically significant reduction on a south
to north axis (M. Bennet-Chambers 2007, unpublished data). Given this signifi-
cant gradient, it is appropriate to raise the question of whether aquaculture of
marron in the northern areas where evaporation substantially exceeds rainfall
constitutes the wisest use of a limited groundwater resource. It is unlikely that
the ecological costs of growing marron depending on groundwater have ever
been included in calculating the full costs of production.
Redclaw, Cherax quadricarinatus
The redclaw Cherax quadricarinatus von Martens is endemic to ephemeral catch-

ments of the Gulf of Carpentaria of northern Australia (Riek 1969, Curtis and
Jones 1995, Jones et al. 2000). Because of its attraction for aquaculture, the
species has been translocated widely within northern Australia and overseas
(Horwitz 1990, Curtis and Jones 1995), and not always legally. Redclaw is
classed as a restricted fish species for importation into WA (Anonymous 1997).
Even so, the potential for aquaculture in the Ord Valley in the East Kimberley
of the ‘Walkamin’ strain was assessed under quarantine (Doupé et al. 2004).
A limited number of aquaculture licenses subsequently were issued, and shortly
after wild populations of redclaw were found established in Lake Kununurra, a
Ramsar wetland formed through impoundment of the Ord River (Fig. 1) within
the Kimberley Drainage Division of Western Australia (Morgan et al. 2004). Since
redclaw used in Ord River aquaculture are a genetically different strain to those
now found in Lake Kununurra, the source of their introduction is unknown.
Doupé et al. (2004), however, suggest it is the result of illegal translocations by
recreational fishermen. Redclaw has subsequently spread downstream from Lake
Kununurra into the lower Ord River, where local recreational anglers have
reported redclaw in the stomach of barramundi [Lates calcarifer (Bloch)] and
catfish (Arius spp.). It is quite likely that the species will soon reach Parry Lagoon
on the Ord River floodplain, another Ramsar wetland.
The implications for the ecology of these systems are unknown; however,
three indigenous species of Macrobrachium prawns [Macrobrachium australiense
Holthuis, M. bullatum Fincham, and M. rosenbergii (de Man)] and three species
of atyiid shrimp (Caridina cf longirostris, C. ?nilotica, and C. serratirostris de Man)
may all come under competitive pressure. Given their rapid growth rate and
tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Jones and Ruscoe
2001), redclaw are likely to thrive in fresh waters of northern WA and rapidly
expand their range into the many aquatic systems in this region. Recently, the
State Department of Fisheries provided funding to elucidate both the genetic
origins and extent of redclaw throughout the Ord River and the reproductive
biology, parasitology, and trophic interactions of this with other decapod species.
The yabby, Cherax destructor
Since being introduced in 1932 into WA, from a farm dam in western Victoria, the
yabby, Cherax destructor Clark, has spread into natural river systems within
the south-west of WA where it now co-occurs with indigenous crayfish species.
Although morphologically distinguishable from the white yabby, Cherax albidus
Clark, also from eastern Australia, allozyme evidence provides little support
for genetic separation between the two species and it has been suggested that the
two species should be synonymized (Austin 1986, Campbell et al. 1994). Cherax
destructor is the senior synonym by virtue of page priority; hence, zoologists in WA
use the species epithet destructor, for example, as used here, but for essentially
commercial reasons, fisheries personnel use the epithet albidus (e.g. Morrissy
and assells 1992). Austin (1985) reported little allozyme diversity from yabbies
in the State, but recent studies now indicate considerable variation in WA
yabby populations. This perhaps reflects the expansion of yabby aquaculture in
the 1990s with farmers introducing multiple strains from eastern Australia.
Although introduced initially to a farm dam at Narembeen, 280 km east of
Perth, into a landscape that would not have facilitated easily the natural spread
of the crayfish, its hardiness and ability to grow even in stagnant farm dams,
together with the human interest in crayfish as a food item, meant that crayfish
were spread quickly and widely. Many farmers actually thought they were
culturing the indigenous koonac [Cherax preissii (Erichson)]. By 1985, most
known yabby sites were still east of the Albany Highway (i.e. east of the typical
range of indigenous WA crayfish; Austin 1985). Yabby populations were first
reported in natural waterbodies west of the ‘yabby exclusion zone’ by Lynas et al.
(2004). They have since then shown a continuing strong spread northwards, to
the north-east and south-east, with their current distribution being from the
Hutt River in the north to Esperance in the south-east (Morrissy and Cassells
1992, Horwitz and Knott 1995). They have also colonized cave streams via
temporary, short streams on coastal sand-plain (Jasinska et al. 1993), occur in
coastal plain rivers to the west of the Darling Scarp, and occur in the arid
northern Goldfields Region near Leonora (see Fig. 1). The spread of yabbies
into natural habitats has generated potential for interactions with other WA
indigenous fauna. For example, the spread of yabbies into the Swan-Avon
catchment has led to their potential interaction with the critically endangered
western swamp tortoise, Pseudemydura umbrina Siebenrock, near the Ellen
Brook Nature Reserve proclaimed for preservation of the tortoise (Bradsell et al.
2002). Yabbies showed strongly aggressive and predatory behaviour toward
tortoise hatchlings in a laboratory study using hatchlings of a non-endangered
species of tortoise (Bradsell et al. 2002).
It seems reasonable to suggest, given the extent of their range expansion to
date and apparent capacity to colonize a wide diversity of waterbodies, that
yabbies will continue to progress into larger river systems of the Swan Coastal
Plain, making their move further into the south-west relatively simple, as has
occurred with other invasive species, such as the mosquitofish Gambusia hol-
brooki Girard.
The extensive spread of yabbies appears facilitated by their biology. They are
an r-selected species with a short life cycle, multiple spawning events, a high
spawning frequency, fast growth rates and high fecundity (Lawrence and Jones
2002, Beatty et al. 2005). Under suitable conditions, yabbies are able to breed
year-round (Morrissy et al. 1984). Such life-history traits would allow the
successful colonization of disturbed habitats and areas which have undergone
anthropogenic modification, such as many of the rivers of south-western
Australia. This effectively enables yabbies to become the most abundant crayfish
species in many of the freshwater systems throughout its translocated
range in south-western Australia (Beatty et al. 2005). In addition, yabbies are
burrowing crayfish adapted to long-term population survival in the fluctuating
environments of relatively impermanent and often highly eutrophic still waters
(Morrissy et al. 1984). They are also more tolerant than indigenous species
of extremes in temperature (Morrissy 1990), hypoxia (Morrissy et al. 1984,
Holdich and Lowery 1988), and salinity (Department of Fisheries website
http://www.wa.gov.au/westfish/aqua/broc/aqwa/marron/).
Human activity has also aided their spread through misguided information
and recreational carelessness. Typically, the extent of the problem has gone
largely unnoticed due to the common misnaming of this crayfish as the koonac.
Yabbies are commonly used as bait for redfin perch and trout fishing in the large
government irrigation dams to the south of Perth, with unused live bait often
being discarded directly into these waters (Morrissy and Cassells 1992).
Impacts to marron and gilgies
Despite their range expansion and suitability as colonisers, little research has
been undertaken, until recently, to ascertain the possible ecological impacts of
the invasive yabby in WA. Consequently, studies were undertaken to examine
25
marron a
yabbies
20
Mean number of wins
15 a
10
b
0
Y>M M=Y Y<M
Size class
Fig. 2 The interaction between species and size in relation to the mean number of
tension contacts ‘won’ (SE) by marron and yabbies (n ¼ 28). Letters denote equal
means determined using the least significant range test.
the potential for competitive exclusion of two indigenous species, the smooth
marron, C. cainii and the gilgie, Cherax quinquecarinatus (Gray).
In aggressive behaviour trials designed to predict the likely outcomes of
competitive interactions in natural systems, aggressive dominance was found
to be strongly influenced by size (Lynas 2002). When yabbies were larger or
equal in body mass to marron they ‘won’ a significantly higher number of
tension contacts (Fig. 2). Alternatively, when yabbies were of smaller body mass
than marron, the marron ‘won’ a significantly higher number of contacts
(Fig. 2; Lynas 2002). Given the small size of gilgies, aggressive experiments
with yabbies utilised only individuals of similar body mass. In such interactions,
yabbies were found to be equal in aggression to gilgies (Lynas 2002). The
importance of size in establishing aggressive dominance is well reported in
studies of crustaceans generally (e.g. Hartnoll 1974, Stein 1976), as well as
crayfish (Bovbjerg 1956, Lowe 1956, Horwitz 1980, Momot and Leering 1986,
Vorburger and Ribi 1999).
Laboratory-based competition experiments were also conducted with sedi-
ment as the limiting resource. Sediment was chosen because of its documented
significance in influencing crayfish distributions (Bovbjerg 1952, 1970, Suter
and Richardson 1977, Grow 1981, Capelli and Magnuson 1983), and its
necessity for protection from predators and cannibalism. In these trials, both
indigenous species demonstrated a preference for clay substrate, perhaps
because they were able to bury themselves in this sediment (Fig. 3; Lynas et al.
2006). In the presence of yabbies, however, the number of both gilgies and
1 b b
Mean number of animals
b
0
Clay Sand Pea-gravel Rocks
Marron
3
a
1 b
b
b
0
Clay Sand Pea-gravel Rocks
Gilgies
Fig. 3 Mean number (SE) of marron (above) or gilgies (below) on each sediment
when alone, i.e. not in the presence of yabbies. Letters denote equal means determined
using the least significant range test.
marron found on the clay was significantly reduced (Fig. 4; Lynas et al. 2006).
Agonistic behaviour in the form of tension contacts (fight, strike, threat, and
avoidance) was common during the trials, with interspecific contests being most
commonly recorded on the clay substrate in both marron and gilgie trials
(Lynas et al. 2006). Therefore, it seems that yabbies used agonistic behaviour
to control access to the limiting resource and effectively excluded marron and
gilgies from clay substrates in the laboratory (Lynas et al. 2006).
1
Mean number of animals on clay substrate
0
Alone With Yabbies
Marron
0
Alone With Yabbies
Gilgies
Fig. 4 Mean number (SE) of marron (above) or gilgies (below) on the ‘‘preferred’’
clay substrate when alone and when in trial with yabbies.
Results from both aggressive behaviour and sediment competition trials

indicate that, in habitats of co-occurrence where there is substantial overlap
in resource use, the potential for exclusion of marron and/or gilgies by the
invasive yabby is high (Lynas 2002, Lynas et al. 2006). The experiments
demonstrated that aggressive behaviour could be used to procure a limiting
resource. Superior competitive ability manifested itself through interfer-
ence, with the displacement of subordinate species from preferred substrates
(Lynas et al. 2006). Yabbies were found to be capable of evicting both marron
and gilgies from suitable substrates, thereby indicating the exclusion of these
species from the use of a limiting resource under laboratory situations (Lynas
et al. 2006).
It is suggested that in natural environments marron are likely at a disadvan-
tage. Marron have a life-history strategy between a typical r- (summer brooder)
and K-selected (winter brooder) species (Beatty 2005). Traits analogous to
a winter brooder include synchrony of breeding period, long life cycle, and
reliance on permanent aquatic systems (Morrissy 1975, 1983, Beatty et al.
2003, Beatty 2005). Traits of a summer brooder include a relatively short
brooding period during summer, high egg number per brood, and a rapid
growth rate (Beatty et al. 2003, Beatty 2005). Although capable of attaining
a larger size than yabbies, 2 kg vs. 90–100 g (Lawrence and Jones 2002) and
having a similar growth rate (Beatty et al. 2005), marron mature later and at
a much larger size than yabbies (Beatty et al. 2003). In a study of marron
established in the Hutt River (outside its natural range), Beatty (2005) reported
release of juveniles earlier than that previously noted by Morrissy (1975) for the
more southerly Warren River populations. Plasticity in biological parameters
was considered due to environmental conditions, namely temperature and
photoperiod (Beatty et al. 2003, Beatty 2005).
There is considerable asynchrony in the biological cycles of these species,
with yabbies reaching maturity and releasing juveniles earlier than marron.
Therefore, yabbies would have the size advantage when members of both species
come into contact in natural systems. In summer, the diet of both marron and
yabbies in the Hutt River is dominated by G. holbrooki, but yabbies show a
dietary shift towards herbivory in winter (Beatty 2007). Consequently, when
yabbies and marron co-occur in sympatry in natural habitats, yabbies
may dominate food resources and suitable shelter sites over marron juveniles.
Marron would have little likelihood of successfully establishing stable popula-
tions where yabbies already exist. Predicting the outcome of which species
would ‘win’ when yabbies invade a river system with a stable marron popula-
tion already in occupation is much more difficult and probably depends upon
the initial conditions. Larger marron may dominate access to limiting resources
over smaller yabbies. Nevertheless, yabbies would persist due to their high
fecundity and ability to withstand environmental fluctuations resulting in a
more unpredictable future. The survival of marron populations would be subject
to increased uncertainty since their juveniles would be unable to compete
successfully with yabbies. Furthermore, given the importance of size in deter-
mining the outcome of aggressive interactions, we predict that in natural
environments where yabbies attain a much larger size than gilgies (30 g in
biomass), yabbies generally would have a size advantage, thereby controlling
access to limiting resources such as food and suitable shelter sites when the two
species occur in sympatry. Beatty (2007) further suggested the dietary switch
reported in yabbies from the Hutt River leads to the potential for competition
with the smaller gilgies in unproductive freshwater systems common to the

south-west.
As well as competition from NIS, indigenous WA crayfish are at risk from
infection from the microsporidian Thelohania parastaci Moodie known to be
carried by the yabby (Horwitz 1990, Moodie et al. 2003). WA crayfish species
had not been exposed previously to the disease and therefore are likely to be
susceptible. Thelohania was found in WA farm dam populations of yabbies in the
1990s (Jones and Lawrence 2002), and has since been reported in yabby
populations in the Hutt River (Beatty 2005). This microsporidian could be
transmitted to indigenous species by sympatric yabbies. Infection of crayfish
by this parasite leads to the destruction of striated and cardiac muscle tissue,
resulting in reduced locomotor activity (Henneguy and Thélohan 1892, Cossins
and Bowler 1974, Quilter 1976). Survival time of infected individuals has
been reported to range from a few months (in the New Zealand Paranephrops
zealandicus White in Quilter 1976) to two years (in the astacid Austropotamobius
pallipes Lereboullet in Brown and Bowler 1977), although whether death is
always inevitable for infected individuals has yet to be ascertained (Moodie et al.
2003). Thelohania, therefore, may increase the risk of predation of infected
crayfish and reduce their ability to compete with healthy individuals.
Impacts to koonacs
Koonacs, the third main indigenous crayfish species in south-western Australia,

have suffered a reduction in distribution post European settlement due to
fragmentation and loss of swamps feeding into the headwater streams. The
potential impact of the yabby on the endemic koonac, C. preissii, is currently
unknown; although, Horwitz (1980) noted the importance of size in aggressive
interactions between gilgies and koonacs. Juvenile gilgies were found to be
dominant over juvenile koonacs but no aggressive differences were detected in
the adults of these species (Horwitz 1980). Since yabbies are strong burrowers,
they likely would be able to invade swamps inhabited by koonacs. The indige-
nous species breed in spring within capped burrows and unplug them at the
end of the dry season to forage within the waterbody. Given the importance of
size in aggressive and competitive interactions, juvenile koonacs are likely to be
out-competed by larger yabbies when they emerge from burrows.
Impacts to Engaewa
Finally, the importance for conservation of the five currently recognised species
of Engaewa (Horwitz and Adams 2000) cannot be ignored. The small, strongly
burrowing forms of Engaewa, with typical burrowing characteristics sensu
Holdich (2002), have a very restricted coastal distribution in permanently
moist acid peat swamps from Dunsborough to Albany; such swamp habitats
are more continuous along the south coast from Walpole to Augusta, but
become much more fragmented between Augusta and Dunsborough (Burnham

2005). Initially thought to be closely related to the genus Engaeus from south-
eastern Australia, the study on a region of the 16S mitochondrial gene by
Crandall et al. (1999) concluded that the genus represents a major, distinctive
clade within the Parastacidae. Such relict forms, with ancestry dating from
Gondwanic origins, are particularly susceptible to increasing pressures from
human activities, including habitat fragmentation and loss (Burnham 2005).
Whilst Engaewa spp. and indigenous Cherax species currently coexist in various
levels of sympatry throughout the geographic range of Engaewa, it will be
important to evaluate the impact on Engaewa spp. of the further spread of the
yabby into the south-western corner of the State, should it occur. Potential
impacts are likely from changes to the structure and function of the ecosystem,
including habitat alteration, changes to food web dynamics, and the introduc-
tion of disease.
THE FUTURE UNDER A DRYING CLIMATE AND GLOBAL WARMING
Current climatic trends in the south-west of WA likely afford a further

advantage to the invasive yabby, particularly over marron. With an increasing
drying climate and reduced rainfall across the south-west of WA, groundwater
levels are decreasing (Allan and Haylock 1993, Anonymous 2002). There
are likely to be numerous ecological consequences. Wetlands and streams
driven by groundwater inputs may become ephemeral or permanently dry.
Those crayfish able to burrow to the water table may survive dry periods
(Bovbjerg 1952, 1970, Taylor 1983). The yabby is a strong burrower (Morrissy
et al. 1984) and has been recorded alive from burrows beneath lake beds
that have been dry for eight years (Holdich and Lowery 1988). Marron, how-
ever, inhabit permanent freshwater systems and are not strong burrowers
but show a preference for sheltering under logs or stones in the bed of streams
(Shipway 1951). Indeed, Riek (1969) suggested the poor development of
chelae muscles in marron restricted their burrowing ability. Further, marron
do not burrow to escape drought (Maguire et al. 1999, Lawrence and Jones
2002). However, in a laboratory trial designed to determine the response
of crayfish to lowering groundwater, a single marron did construct an angular
pit (j-shaped burrow) approximately 30 cm deep when water levels were arti-
ficially lowered (Lynas 2002). This refutes the suggestion that marron are
physiologically unable to construct burrows. The experiment further highlights
the plasticity of marron and suggests that further investigation on the drought-
response mechanisms of WA crayfish and effects of lowering groundwater
are required. Gilgies and koonacs are both strong burrowers and able to survive
in temporary environments. Therefore, marron would likely be more severely
impacted by lowering groundwater levels, with yabbies having a considerable
advantage.
With an increase in water temperatures associated with global warming,

yabbies would again be at an advantage. The maximum growth of yabbies is
at 28 8C (Holdich and Lowery 1988), but for smooth marron, maximum growth
is at 24 8C. No research has been undertaken on temperature responses of
koonacs and gilgies, but an increasing temperature would likely reduce fitness
given they are both indigenous to the colder waters of south-western WA.
CONCLUSIONS
Within the vast area of WA, crayfish occupied a comparatively small area
within the reliably high rainfall zone of the south-western corner of the
State, where they were widely disjunct from the crayfish of eastern Australia.
Because of the interest for their consumption by humans, marron (C. cainii),
redclaw (C. quadricarinatus), and yabbies (C. destructor) have been translo-
cated, probably in many cases by recreational fishermen, but also by aqua-
culturalists, and without regulatory sanction. It is not known if the early
spread of marron has affected the ecology of invaded aquatic systems. Simi-
larly, the effects of the recent introduction of redclaw to the Ord River system
are unknown. The spread of smooth marron into the Margaret River, however,
is threatening the persistence of the endemic hairy marron, C. tenuimanus. The
impact of the invasive yabby is likely to be much more detrimental to the
indigenous crayfish of WA (marron, gilgies, and koonacs), particularly given
the drying climate in the south-west, with burrowing crayfish more likely to
survive periods of drought. Yabbies, too, have greater tolerance of increased
salinity than indigenous crayfish, with dryland salinity being a major landuse
and ecological problem in the southern half of WA. In all cases of interactions
with indigenous crayfish, the aggressive yabby is likely to be competitively
superior, particularly in the juvenile stages because of the earlier release of
young into streams.
The spread of the yabby seems inexorable, given commercial interest,
the current widespread distribution, the extent of unregulated movement (for
example populations inland at Leonora and Cue), and developing climate
change. It is difficult to foresee any effective control impeding the continuing
spread of C. destructor in WA and consequent impacts on indigenous species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge, with gratitude, assistance from Dr. Craig Lawrence

(Department of Fisheries, Government of Western Australia), Dr. Kyle
Armstrong, and Dr. Jane Prince (School of Animal Biology, The University of
Western Australia). Funding was provided by the Department of Zoology, The
University of Western Australia.
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Chapter thirty-two
The zebra mussel Dreissena

polymorpha: reproduction
and competition with
the sponge Ephydatia
fluviatilis
Tisza Lancioni and Elda Gaino
INTRODUCTION
The rapid expansion of Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) in freshwater environments

has resulted in serious problems from both an economic and an ecological
standpoint. In this regard, investigations have been focused on the life-cycle
and possible competitors able to counteract the spreading of this mollusc for
management and control programmes.
Histological gonadal observations produced a wide literature on the repro-
duction of zebra mussels (Walz 1973, 1978, Borcherding 1986, 1991, 1995,
Bielefeld 1991, Denson and Wang 1993, Garton and Haag 1993, Wang and
Denson 1995, Gist et al. 1997, Mantecca et al. 2000, Bacchetta et al. 2001,
Vailati et al. 2001, Juhel et al. 2003). This species has one (Haag and Garton
1992, Gist et al. 1997, Juhel et al. 2003) or more than one reproductive event
per year (Walz 1978, Borcherding 1991, Wang and Denson 1995, Jantz
and Neumann 1998, Bacchetta et al. 2001). Among the external factors affec-
ting gonadal activity, temperature has a strong influence (Ram et al. 1993,
597
ß 2007 Springer.
598 Tisza Lancioni and Elda Gaino
Borcherding 1995, Fong et al. 1995, Wacker and Von Elert 2003), 12–13 8C
being the value that triggers gamete development and spawning (Borcherding
1991, Neumann et al. 1993, Domaglia 1997, Bacchetta et al. 2001).
Competition among species has been extensively studied in marine environ-
ments (Jackson 1977, Russ 1982, Hirata 1987, Pansini and Pronzato 1990),
whereas less attention has been paid to freshwater ecosystems (Lancaster et al.
1988, Dudley et al. 1990, Lauer and Spacie 2000, 2004). In fresh waters,
sponges are well known as competitors (Molloy et al. 1997), because they
colonize hard substrata usually occupied by other sessile invertebrates, includ-
ing the non-indigenous zebra mussel D. polymorpha (Ricciardi et al. 1995, Early
and Glenoek 1999, Lauer and Spacie 2000, 2004).
In particular, Ricciardi et al. (1995) suggested that sponges [Ephydatia mülleri
(Lieberkühn), Spongilla lacustris (Linnaeus), and Eunapius fragilis (Leidy)]
involved in an overgrowth situation may control mussel abundance locally.
Investigation an sponge–zebra mussel interactions in south-western Lake
Michigan revealed mussel cellular energy deprivation, death, and digestion
most probably due to anoxia, caused by the growing sponge E. fragilis, which
interrupts the mussel oxygenated water supply (Early and Glonek 1999).
In southern Lake Michigan, Lauer and Spacie (2000) studied the effects of
freshwater sponge overgrowth on the fitness of adult zebra mussels using three
criteria: biochemical impact, wet weight, and lethal effect. The authors found
a significant reduction in glycogen content, soft tissue reduction, and reduced
survivability of sponge-covered zebra mussels when compared with the
non-sponge-covered population. In addition, Lauer and Spacie (2004), on the
basis of experimental tests on zebra mussel growth in response to E. fragilis and
E. mülleri removal and vice versa, suggested that sponges could eventually
displace zebra mussels from hard vertical substrata, whereas zebra mussels did
not overgrow sponge colonies, even though they were able to recolonize hard
substrata if they were yielded by sponges.
Dreissena polymorpha was first found in Lake Trasimeno (Umbria, central
Italy) in summer 1999 (Spilinga et al. 2000); this report showed sporadic
abundances along the northern and eastern shores as well as in the main
islands of the lake. The coexistence of the zebra mussel and the sponge
Ephydatia fluviatilis (Linnaeus) was based on a survey carried out from
June 2003 to May 2004 (Lancioni and Gaino 2005). Photographic moni-
toring showed that the sponge has a suppressive influence and can be
considered a natural enemy of D. polymorpha, as both species are sessile and
filter-feeders.
The main objectives of this study are: to determine the distribution of
D. polymorpha on various substrata along the shore of Lake Trasimeno; to
study the reproduction of the mollusc in this ecosystem; and to describe the
spatial interaction between D. polymorpha and E. fluviatilis. Observations were
carried out for 1 year from June 2003 to May 2004 at 12 sampling sites located
along the shore of the lake, 10 with a hard substratum and 2 with soft
sediments (Fig. 1).
Reproduction and competition in Dreissena polymorpha 599
Fig. 1 Map showing sampling sites (1–12) along the shores of Lake Trasimeno
(central Italy).
At each sampling site, a 5 m transect along the shore was inspected monthly
and the presence/absence of D. polymorpha and E. fluviatilis was recorded together
with the type of substratum. The selectivity of the two investigated species with
respect to the type of substratum was evaluated by Pearson’s Chi-squared test of
independence by comparing the aggregated data of presence on the various
substrata (observed frequency) with the overall frequency of substrata encoun-
tered during sampling (on the basis of which the expected frequency for a random
colonization was calculated). The similarity of substrata selection between
D. polymorpha and E. fluviatilis was also statistically tested by a Chi-squared test.
DREISSENA POLYMORPHA IN LAKE TRASIMENO:

DISTRIBUTION AND REPRODUCTION
In Lake Trasimeno, the shells of D. polymorpha are highly polymorphic in their

colour, pattern, and shape. Shell length varies from less than 1 mm to a
maximum of 38 mm. According to Sprung (1992), sexually mature individuals
are usually 8 mm in length. Therefore, we investigated the reproductive

activity of this species in all adult individuals, with an average shell length of
15.2 mm. Our data are consistent with previous observations conducted in
North America (Miller and Payne 1996, Tucker et al. 1996), in the Euphrates
basin (Bobat et al. 2004), in Ireland (Juhel et al. 2003), and in northern Italian
lakes (Galassi and Provini 2000).
While in the southern areas of the lake D. polymorpha was only sporadic
(Panicarola), huge numbers were found: (a) at the western stations (Dinette
and Comunale di Castiglione del Lago sampling sites); (b) at the eastern stations
(San Feliciano and Monte del Lago); and (c) at Passignano sul Trasimeno,
among the northern ones.
Zebra mussels are known to gather and form three-dimensional druses (Burks
et al. 2002), which consist of a surprisingly high number of individuals (in
the order of 105–106) (Griffiths et al. 1991, Kovalak et al. 1993, Stanczykowska
and Lewandowski 1993, Schloesser et al. 1994, Ricciardi et al. 1997). The
substratum strongly affects colonization by D. polymorpha (Lyakhnovich et al.
1994, Karatayev and Burlakova 1995, Karatayev et al. 1998, Bobat et al.
2002). In Lake Trasimeno, D. polymorpha was found to be attached to various
hard substrata, varying from concrete landing stages (reaching the highest
density of 200,000 m2) to pebbles; from rocks (density varied from 114 m2
to 140,000 m2) to artificial substrata (tires, tiles, plastic buoys, pumps, and
boat keels), and to the submerged portion of reed stalks of Phragmites australis
(Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (maximum density of 2,036 m2). In contrast, soft
substrata are unsuited to its colonization: no individuals were observed on silt
(San Vito) and only gathered in clumps on sandy substrata (Rigutini beach).
Clumps consist of mixed mussel populations, where the individuals adhere to
one another or attach to sand-grain sediments and filamentous algae by means
of their byssal threads. The same phenomenon has been observed in other lakes
(Karatayev 1983, Burlakova 1998).
The results of the Chi-squared statistics performed on frequency data (Table 1)
show that the distribution of D. polymorpha on different substrata is significantly
different (P ¼ 0.002) to that expected on the basis of the substratum availability.
As expected, D. polymorpha positively selects hard substrata, with a preference
for concrete, pebbles, and rocks, whereas sandy and silty bottoms are avoided.
Also, the stalks of P. australis do not seem to represent a preferred substratum for
this species.
Because a knowledge of the life-cycle of an invasive species is needed when
management and control programmes are to be defined (Denson and Wang
1994, Ram et al. 1996a), the reproductive biology of D. polymorpha in
Lake Trasimeno was investigated. We analysed histological sections of the
gonads, in line with previous investigations conducted elsewhere (Walz 1973,
1978, Borcherding 1986, 1991, 1995, Bielefeld 1991, Denson and Wang 1993,
Garton and Haag 1993, Wang and Denson 1995, Gist et al. 1997, Mantecca et al.
2000, Bacchetta et al. 2001, Vailati et al. 2001, Juhel et al. 2003).
Table 1 Overall observed frequencies of Dreissena polymorpha and Ephydatia fluviatilis

on different substrata and frequencies of encountered substrata along the transects
investigated in Lake Trasimeno.
Observed frequency
Dreissena Ephydatia
Substratum polymorpha fluviatilis Substratum
Concrete 31 14 48
Rocks and pebbles of various composition 53 18 98
Reed stalks of Phragmites australis 2 0 12
Tire 1 0 1
Pump filter 6 4 6
Iron gate 0 0 12
Sand 2 0 12
Silt 0 0 12
Boat keel 2 2 2
D. polymorpha shells * – (6) (24)
Total 97 44 227
* Not included for Chi-squared statistics
The population was composed of 44% of sexually mature males and 38% of
sexually mature females. Although all the examined mussels were adults, 18%
of samplings had inactive gonads, a feature that did not allow us to attribute
them a sex. Sexual dimorphism was not seen except that for the gametes. The
sex ratio of females/males was 1:1.16. No hermaphrodites were observed.
The method of Gist et al. (1997) was used to define the phases of gonadal
maturation through the shape of the gonadal cells: stage 0, inactive; stage 1,
developing; stage 2, pre-spawn; stage 3, post-spawn.
At the beginning of the reproductive activity, gonadal acini were present
within the connective tissue and we could not determine the sex. As gonadal
maturation proceeded, gonadal acini (tubules and follicles in the male and female
line, respectively) proliferated and increased their size. Gamete differentiation
occurred synchronously at both sexes and in all sampling sites, thus confirming
observations for other populations (Borcherding 1991, Haag and Garton 1992,
Denson and Wang 1993, Garton and Haag 1993, Mantecca et al. 2000,
Bacchetta et al. 2001). Although many authors have described more than one
reproductive event in a year (Walz 1978, Borcherding 1991, Wang and Denson
1995, Jantz and Neumann 1998, Bacchetta et al. 2001), in Lake Trasimeno
D. polymorpha showed an annual reproductive cycle, as already observed in other
areas (Haag and Garton 1992, Gist et al. 1997, Juhel et al. 2003).
In males, gametogenesis (Fig. 2A) ends with the differentiation of sperm with
the flagella oriented towards the centre of the lumen (Fig. 2B). Spawning causes
the tubules to empty. In females, the undifferentiated cells transform into
primary oogonia, which develop into oocytes by means of meiotic division.
The beginning of this process is shown by the presence of bigger and markedly
darker cells. Developing oocytes usually remain attached by a stalk to the
internal surface of the follicle (Fig. 2C). Mature oocytes (averaging 40–80 mm
in diameter) detach from the follicular surface (Fig. 2D) and project into the
lumen of the acinus. Mature oocytes have a germinal vesicle and a nucleus with
two nucleoli. After gamete release, ovaries show tissue degeneration and resting
mature oocytes can often be observed in the lumen (Fig. 2E). Male and female
spawning causes the gonad to empty (Fig. 2F).
Gonadal activity depends on both internal and external factors (Ram et al.
1996b). Among the latter, temperature exerts a strong influence (Ram et al.
1993, Borcherding 1995, Fong et al. 1995, Wacker and Von Elert 2003),
12–13 8C being the value that triggers gamete development and spawning
(Borcherding 1991, Neumann et al. 1993, Domaglia 1997, Bacchetta et al.
2001). This value is confirmed in our study, which shows that gonadal matura-
tion occurs in April, when water temperature increases from 4.3 8C to 13.4 8C
(Fig. 3). We found a large number of dead zebra mussels in July and August
when the water temperature reached 27.8 8C and 28.4 8C, respectively.
An exhaustive review on the life-history of the zebra mussel is reported in
Ackerman et al. (1994), who outlined the key events from fertilization to
adulthood. This representation provides a reasonable model of the life-history
of D. polymorpha. In Lake Trasimeno, spawning takes place from April to June. In
this last month, the monitoring of the hard substrata colonized by D. polymorpha
shows an astonishing number of very small individuals (less than 1 mm in
length) interspersed among larger individuals or adhered to them by the byssal
threads. Their small size and abundance are coherent by their belonging to the
new generation derived from the larval metamorphosis.
DREISSENA POLYMORPHA/EPHYDATIA FLUVIATILIS

INTERACTION FOR SPACE
In order to prevent D. polymorpha spreading in freshwater ecosystems, several

projects have focused on chemical compounds and physical processes reducing
the survival of this species (reviews in: Shtegman 1986, McMahon 1990,
Jenner and Janssen-Mommen 1993). However, molluscicides have harmful
consequences for the environment. Consequently, many efforts have been
carried out on finding natural enemies, such as predators, parasites, and com-
petitors (Molloy et al. 1997, Molloy 1998). The latter include organisms able to
interfere with D. polymorpha’s biological functions, such as adhesion to the
substratum and filtration. In this regard, sponges act as valid enemies, since
Fig. 2 Mature (male, A–B and female, C–E) and immature (F) gonads. A, initial stage
of sperm maturation (bar ¼ 40 mm); B, spermatozoa showing flagella (arrow) oriented
towards the lumen of the tubule (bar ¼ 68 mm); C, early stage of egg differentiation
(bar ¼ 30 mm); D, mature eggs showing their gradual detachment from the ovary
(bar ¼ 43 mm); E, the post-spawning stage showing resting eggs (bar ¼ 83 mm); F, general
view of the gonadal inactive stage (bar ¼ 110 mm).
Fig. 3 Gonadal stages (males and females) of Dreissena polymorpha over one year of
monitoring. Histograms show the mean value ( + standard error of the mean) computed
for all sampling sites in each month. The values on the main y-axis represent the stage of
gonadal maturation (0 ¼ inactive; 1 ¼ developing; 2 ¼ pre-spawn; 3 ¼ post-spawn).
Black disks denote temperature values (expressed in 8C, related to secondary y-axis).
they are able to encapsulate and kill zebra mussels (Ricciardi et al. 1995, Early
and Glonek 1999, Lauer and Spacie 2000, 2004, Ricciardi and Reiswig 2000),
as already discovered in the last century (Arndt 1937, Sebestyen 1937, Zhadin
1946).
Investigations on E. fluviatilis living in Lake Piediluco (Terni, central Italy),
showed that P. australis reed belts constitute an elective substratum on which
sponges grow (Moretti and Corallini Sorcetti 1980, Gaino et al. 2003) and host
other organisms (Gaino et al. 2004). A lowering of water levels occurred in Lake
Trasimeno in the first half of the 20th century and this led to the regression of the
reed belt (Di Giovanni 1961, 1968), a process that forced the sponge population
to compete with zebra mussels for the colonization of the same substrata.
In a preliminary study on the competition between D. polymorpha and
E. fluviatilis in Lake Trasimeno, it was found that in some areas, where these
organisms coexisted, sponges interfered with the molluscs for filter-feeding
activity and substrata colonization (Lancioni and Gaino 2005). It has been
calculated that a single zebra mussel can filter at least 1 L of water in 24 h
(Lei 1993). Zebra mussels select suspended material with a preference for edible
algae and micro-organisms (Berg et al. 1996, Baker et al. 1998, Dionisio Pires
and Van Donk 2002, Baker and Levinton 2003, Dionisio Pires et al. 2004).
In sponges, according to Frost (1991), a specimen of S. lacustris as big as a
finger can filter up to 125 L/day. Even though we have no data on the filtration
rate in E. fluviatilis, it seems likely that a volume of the sponge equal to that of
S. lacustris can reach similar effective clearance rate values. We experimentally
tested that a specimen of E. fluviatilis of such a size corresponds to 20 zebra
mussels in wet weight.
Another advantage of E. fluviatilis over mussels during filtration is that the
sponge can also feed by ingesting particulate matter by means of the cells
delimiting its external surface (Willenz and Van de Vyver 1982). On this
account, this sponge can bypass the dimensional constraint imposed by choa-
nocytes, the specialized cells of the sponge aquiferous system, which capture
suspended matter less than 1–2 mm in diameter (Francis and Poirrier 1986).
The results of the Chi-squared statistics performed on frequency data (Table 1)
show that E. fluviatilis is not evenly distributed on the different substrata
(P ¼ 0.001) and that, similarly to zebra mussels, the sponge positively selects
hard bottoms (concrete landing stages, and pebbles and rocks composed of
various materials). On these substrata, the growth and size of sponges vary
according to the season, reaching the maximum in warmer months (300
240 mm in length; 60 mm in thickness), while during autumn and winter
sponges survive as thin encrusting specimens.
The comparison between the mollusc and sponge distribution (Table 1)
shows that, although quite different in presence, they have statistically equiva-
lent preferences (P ¼ 0.66) with respect to the type of substratum. In addition,
D. polymorpha was found in 93% cases in the same portions of the transects
as E. fluviatilis (Panicarola, Passignano sul Trasimeno, Monte del Lago and
Comunale di Castiglione del Lago sampling sites). In two of these sampling
sites we followed the time progression of the E. fluviatilis/D. polymorpha inter-
action and found that the sponge outcompetes the mussels. We observed that,
whereas E. fluviatilis specimens are clearly separated from the assemblages
composed of medium-sized bivalves (about 15 mm in length) (Fig. 4A), the
sponge invades the surface occupied by larger zebra mussels (Fig. 4B) and
extends over the valves gradually enveloping the shell (Fig. 4C ), thus leading
to the death of the mollusc (Fig. 4D).
Sponges produce resistant bodies (gemmules) elaborated in different sampling
sites and in different months. Their differentiation is triggered by both desicca-
tion and drastic changes in water temperature (warming or cooling).
CONCLUSIONS
The patchy distribution of E. fluviatilis in Lake Trasimeno restricts active

competition with D. polymorpha in those areas markedly colonized by the
sponge population. In addition, whereas temperature values and desiccation
represent a constraint that hinder D. polymorpha, sponges can face such stressful
environmental conditions by the production of gemmules, which are able to
survive and give rise to new specimens. The flexibility in feeding and reproduction
Fig. 4 Dreissena polymorpha/Ephydatia fluviatilis interaction: large arrows denote the

pathway of sponge overgrowth. A, spatial separation between the zebra mussel clumps
and the sponges; B, encrusting sponges form laminar extensions that invade the surface
occupied by zebra mussels (arrows); C, sponge growth leads to a gradual covering of the
shell (arrows); D, encapsulation of the shell (arrows), causing the death of D. polymorpha.
of the indigenous E. fluviatilis can be seen as a winning strategy in the competition

with the non-indigenous D. polymorpha. Therefore, also in Lake Trasimeno,
sponges represent a natural enemy of this mollusc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are very grateful to Dr. Alessandro Ludovisi for his helpful collaboration
in the statistical analysis of the data. The study was partially supported by the
National Integrated Fund for Research (FISR-MICENA).
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Chapter thirty-three
Seasonal effects on the

antioxidant response and
metal accumulation of
Dreissena polymorpha
Antonia C. Elia, Ambrosius J. M. Dörr, Marino Prearo,

and Maria C. Abete
INTRODUCTION
Mussels are employed as sentinel organisms in biomonitoring programmes for

the assessment of environmental quality. They are sessile, euryhaline, filtering
organisms which can bioaccumulate by direct exposure or through the food
chain when chronically exposed to different pollutants, even if these are present
in low concentrations (Sheehan et al. 1995). The evaluation of contaminants in
aquatic organisms can estimate and quantify the bioavailable fraction which
might have the potential to induce an effect. However, the determination of
body concentrations alone does not provide useful indications about the effects.
Therefore, biomonitoring programmes require the quantification of some bio-
logical responses in order to assess the health state of contaminant-exposed
organisms.
Several classes of contaminants, including heavy metals, can cause oxidative
stress by enhancing the reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in living
organisms (Winston and Di Giulio 1991). These compounds, which can also
be produced by mollusc haemocytes during an inflammatory process in
613
ß 2007 Springer.
614 Antonia C. Elia et al.
response to foreign cells (Tiscar and Mosca 2004), are potentially very toxic as
they are a source of hydroxyl radicals and need to be inactivated in order to limit
the cellular damage.
The evaluation of oxidative stress is generally performed by following the
changes of enzymatic activities (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione
peroxidases, and glutathione reductase) and of the rates of the molecules
(reduced glutathione) involved in antioxidant defence. These variations have
already been employed as biomarkers of contaminant-mediated oxidative stress
in aquatic organisms (Winston and Di Giulio 1991). However, the antioxidant
defence mechanism of aquatic organisms is subjected to seasonal control. Thus,
it may fluctuate throughout the year, depending on the availability of nutrients,
reproductive cycle, temperature, and other factors. The metabolic status of
aquatic invertebrates can influence its defence capacity against changing
environmental parameters and/or xenobiotics. Oxidative stress is thus a
seasonal event in bivalve molluscs (Sheehan and Power 1999).
The non-indigenous zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha Pallas) was recorded
for the first time in Lake Trasimeno (Italy) in 2000 (Spilinga et al. 2000). It is an
invasive freshwater mussel native to Eurasia and is widely distributed in aquatic
environments. It is a sedentary species with a relatively long lifespan; its high
filtration rate facilitates the bioaccumulation of contaminants (Kraak et al.
1991, Hendriks et al. 1998). Recent studies have shown that zebra mussels
can tolerate temperatures of up to 30 8C, indicating that many warm-water
systems may not be excluded from its invasion (Iwanyzki and McCauley 1992).
This freshwater species fulfils the requirements of a good biomonitor for
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Binelli et al. 2001a, b, 2004, 2005) and
for trace metal availability and accumulation (Gundacker 1999, de Lafontaine
et al. 2000, Camusso et al. 2001). Several biochemical parameters have been
evaluated in zebra mussels as biomarkers of inorganic contamination. For
example, de Lafontaine et al. (2000) indicated a significant variation in the
levels of MT, EROD, DNA strand breaks, LPO, and VG, most probably as a result
of variable levels of metal contamination. Giambérini and Cajaraville (2005)
suggested that the digestive lysosomal response of zebra mussel, experimentally
exposed to cadmium, could have the potential to be employed as a biomarker in
freshwater biomonitoring.
Until now, few studies have been performed on the glutathione system and its
associated enzymes in D. polymorpha (Pflugmacher et al. 1998). Therefore, in
the present research, total glutathione, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione
peroxidase, glutathione reductase, glyoxalase I and glyoxalase II, and catalase
were evaluated on specimens collected seasonally from Lake Trasimeno (Italy).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the seasons on the
detoxificant response of D. polymorpha and on heavy metal accumulation (lead,
chromium, and cadmium) in the same specimens. These surveillances might be
useful to establish the correct sampling time for this freshwater species, when
field studies are performed.
Antioxidant response and metal accumulation of Dreissena polymorpha 615
HEAVY METALS
Sample preparation and metal determination
Specimens of D. polymorpha of both sexes of about 1.5–2 cm shell length

were collected from the southern part of Lake Trasimeno, between southern
Arcangelo and Isola Polvese, in autumn 2000 (late September and early
November), winter (January and early March), spring (late May and middle of
June), and summer (July) 2001. The mean lake water temperature was
17.9 + 1.4 8C (autumn), 7.5 + 2.1 8C (winter), 22.8 + 1.5 8C (spring), and
24.8 + 0.4 8C (summer). The samples were placed in thermally insulated boxes,
previously filled with lake water and transferred immediately live to
the laboratory. They were deprived of the foot and the byssus gland, rinsed
with ice-cold saline, blotted dry, divided in pools of 50 specimens each, and
immediately stored at 80 8C, until used.
Each pooled sample of D. polymorpha was analysed for the determination of
cadmium, chromium, and lead. The sample tissue (2 g) was mineralized in a
microwave oven with a nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide mixture. The sample
was filtered through filter paper into a 10 mL volumetric flask followed by
rinsing of both the flask and the filter paper with ultrapure water and made
to volume with ultrapure water. The determination of cadmium, chromium,
and lead was carried out with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer with
electrothermal atomization (GFAAS) Perkin–Elmer Analyst 600 (Norwalk, CT,
USA). The Zeeman effect was used to counteract aspecific absorption. Single
element hollow–cathode lamps were used for lead (l ¼ 283.3 nm), cadmium
(l ¼ 228.8 nm), and chromium (l ¼ 357.9 nm). The calibration curves were
made using standard solutions (Standard Merck – Darmstadt Germany) of each
metal. The quantification limit was 0.01 ppm (mg/g) for cadmium, 0.05 ppm
for chromium, and 0.04 ppm for lead (Baldini et al. 1996).
Kruskal Wallis ANOVA was applied to the data and pairwise comparisons
were tested using a Mann–Whitney U test to discriminate differences for
each sampling season. The chemical analysis was conducted on 2 (autumn),
6 (winter), and 3 (spring and summer) pools per season. Significance was tested
at the 5% level (P < 0.05).
Heavy metal accumulation in D. polymorpha
It is already known that total metal concentration in the water column is a poor
predictor for the metal that is really accumulated by organisms and which
might induce toxic effects. Until now, the study of metal accumulation
in aquatic species from Lake Trasimeno has been conducted in only one inver-
tebrate species, Procambarus clarkii (Girard) (Elia et al. 2006). No data are
available for heavy metal accumulation in zebra mussels from Lake Trasimeno.
It was reported by Gundacker (1999) that D. polymorpha collected from urban
Table 1 Cadmiun, chromium, and lead content in Dreissena polymorpha sampled

seasonally from Lake Trasimeno.
Metals Autumn Winter Spring Summer
Cd (mg/g) 0.21 + 0.01ab 0.17 + 0.09b 0.71 + 0.08a 0.45 + 0.23a

Cr (mg/g) 0.11 + 0.01 0.19 + 0.06 0.32 + 0.27 0.15 + 0.01
Pb (mg/g) 0.06 + 0.01 0.11 + 0.02 0.10 + 0.04 0.10 + 0.02
Mean values + SD. Statistical comparison: different letters (a, b) denote significant
differences between sampling periods (in the same row).
waters of Vienna (Austria) can be considered a poor accumulative indicator of

near-background heavy metal contamination. The author stated also that those
specimens showed a tissue-specific metal accumulation: cadmium was at the
highest concentration in soft body parts, while lead, copper, and zinc contents
were at the highest in the byssal threads. The heavy metal concentrations of
D. polymorpha sampled seasonally from Lake Trasimeno were evaluated only in
the soft tissues (Table 1).
The results showed that metal levels in these specimens were generally low
and almost constant for Pb and Cr, as indicated by its lack of statistically
significant differences, even if higher Cr content was achieved in samples
collected in late spring. Additionally, specimens collected during the warmer
seasons, mainly in spring, exhibited the highest Cd level. The results of chemical
analyses of water, performed in October 2000, February and June 2001,
indicated a very low Cd, Cr, and Pb level which was generally below the
detection limits (Monarca et al. 2004).
The changing of seasons can affect the tissue metal concentration in
D. polymorpha. In fact, the accumulation of As, Cd, Ni, Se, Cr, and Hg in specimens
of zebra mussel sampled from the St. Lawrence River was at a minimum in
June, when gonad maturation was complete and spawning was in progress,
and increased in the post-spawning period, from July through August, when
the fresh weight and the body lipid content of the organism decreased (Knaw et al.
2003). Dilution effects caused by rapid development of gonadal tissues in mussels
can result in an apparent reduction in element concentrations.
Data about the reproductive stage of D. polymorpha collected from Italian
biotopes are reported by some authors, which indicated for this species a
gonadal developmental phase in winter, followed by maturation and deposition
phases during spring and summer. In autumn, zebra mussels have inactive
gonads (Binelli et al. 2004). This species from Lake Trasimeno, sampled during
the years 2000–2001, had almost the same life cycle. In fact, when the
sampling was carried out in July, we observed the presence of juvenile speci-
mens of about 1 mm shell length, suggesting that spawning occurred most
probably in late spring (unpublished data). From our present results it might be
assumed that the higher Cd level in specimens sampled in spring, when water
temperature was about 22 8C, could be explained by the increased concentra-
tion of this metal during the postspawning period of the species.
ANTIOXIDANT RESPONSES
Sample preparation and biochemical assays
For sampling see section on heavy metals. The pools of zebra mussel tissue (1 g)
were homogenized and the cytosolic fractions obtained were employed for the
study of levels of total glutathione content (GSH þ 2GSSG) and enzymatic
activities using spectrophotometric methods (Elia et al. 2001). The total thiol
content (GSH þ 2GSSG) was determined by the GR recycling assay at 412 nm
on the deproteinized supernatant and it is reported as mmol per g of tissue
(wet weight).
Catalase activity (CAT; EC 1.11.1.6) was measured following the decrease
in absorbance at 240 nm due to H2O2 consumption (e ¼ 0.04 mM1cm1).
Glutathione peroxidase activity (GPx Se-dependent enzyme, EC 1.11.1.9)
toward H2O2 as the substrate was determined and the oxidation of NADPH
was followed at 340 nm (e ¼ 6.22 mM1cm1). Glutathione reductase acti-
vity (GR; EC. 1.8.1.7) was assayed following the decrease in absorbance at
340 nm (e ¼ 6.22 mM1cm1) due to oxidation of NADPH. Glutathione
S-transferase activity (GST; EC 2.5.1.18), with the substrate 1-chloro-2,
4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), was measured. at 340 nm (e ¼ 9.6 mM1 cm1).
Glyoxalase I activity (GI; EC 4.4.1.5) was determined at 240 nm
(e ¼ 3.37 mM1cm1) using 1.0 mM GSH/methylglyoxal hemithioacetal as
the substrate. Glyoxalase II (GII; EC 3.1.2.6) was determined at 412 nm
(e ¼ 13.6 mM1cm1) by monitoring GSH formation in the presence of
5,5’-dithio-bis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB) and S-D-lactoylglutathione (LSG).
Protein concentration of supernatant fractions was determined according to
Lowry et al. (1951) employing bovine serum albumin as a protein standard.
Kruskal Wallis ANOVA and a Mann–Whitney U test were conducted on
about 8–10 pools per season and run in triplicate to discriminate differences
for each sampling season.
Seasonal changes
Dreissena polymorpha collected from Lake Trasimeno showed significant differ-

ences in biochemical parameters according to the season (Table 2). All speci-
mens exhibited higher levels of biochemical parameters in autumn and winter
than in spring and summer, except for Se-GPx and GST. Biochemical and
chemical parameters in the zebra mussel tissue were examined using nonpara-
metric Spearman’s rank correlations. Statistically significant correlations were
Table 2 Antioxidant enzymes (CAT, Se-GPx, GR, GST, GI, and GII) and total
glutathione (GSHþ2GSSG) in specimens of Dreissena polymorpha sampled seasonally
from Lake Trasimeno.
Autumn Winter Spring Summer
1
CAT 54.20 + 19.40a 67.01 + 18.66a 36.36 + 6.19b 29.60 + 4.47c
2
Se-GPx 33.29 + 11.88b 25.78 + 6.16b 78.21 + 5.53a 33.55 + 13.16b
2
GR 8.74 + 3.75 5.16 + 0.89 4.27 + 1.63 4.89 + 1.82
2
GST 189.97 + 33.61a 121.62 + 56.51a 68.43 + 19.21b 154.38 + 45.30a
2
GI 219.64 + 58.95a 397.66 + 103.98a 98.86 + 18.19b 80.30 + 23.79c
2
GII 44.48 + 10.13a 49.86 + 12.62a 27.61 + 5.32b 22.26 + 6.05b
3
GSHþ2GSSG 98.73 + 10.96a 65.34 + 7.28a 37.36 + 13.32b 31.76 + 7.04b
Mean values + SD. Enzymatic activities are reported in 1mmol/min/mg prot and 2nmol/min/mg
prot; 3glutathione content is reported in nmol/g of wet weight. Statistical comparison: different
letters (a, b, c) indicate significant differences between sampling periods (in the same row).
Table 3 Spearman correlation for biological data and metal

content in Dreissena polymorpha from Lake Trasimeno.
Cd Cr Pb
CAT 0.75* 0.01 0.10

Se-GPx 0.73* 0.63* 0.09
GR 0.34 0.51 0.30
GST 0.05 0.54 0.33
GI 0.71* 0.03 0.19
GII 0.73* 0.11 0.04
CAT 0.75* 0.01 0.10
Significant correlations are reported with the asterisk (*) at P < 0.05.
found for some of these biochemical parameters that were positive for Se-GPx
with Cd and Cr and negative for GI, GII and CAT with Cd (Table 3).
Catalase is an inducible enzyme which allows the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen. In the current research, the enzymatic activity of
CAT in zebra mussels was at the lowest in summer and it was slightly different
from spring and markedly dissimilar from the other seasons (about 50%). The
enzyme was not positively correlated with heavy metals. Probably, the signifi-
cant reduction in CAT activity is correlated with the biological cycle of this
species. Thus, the seasonal variations of CAT activity recorded in D. polymorpha
from Lake Trasimeno indicated a greater prooxidant challenge during the
warmer seasons. Other authors observed the lowest enzymatic response of
CAT, SOD, and GPx in the digestive gland of the bivalve Saccostrea cucullata
(Born) exposed to polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in winter. According to
those authors, the decrease of enzymatic activity could be explained by a
shortage of food in the winter and by the bivalve reproductive cycle which
starts in the autumn (Niyogi et al. 2001). Glutathione peroxidase catalyses
the reduction of hydrogen peroxides. The enzymatic activity is coupled with
the oxidation of GSH and generates alcohols. A marked induction of Se-GPx
enzymatic activity was observed in D. polymorpha collected in spring from Lake
Trasimeno which was about 2.4 times higher than that of specimens from other
seasons. Generally, an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities could be related
to reproductive events in invertebrate organisms or to the higher metabolic
activity of the organisms during the warmer season (Vidal et al. 2002).
The biochemical parameters herein investigated are the first data evaluated
in this freshwater species and therefore we cannot assess if the highest Se-GPx
activity results from stress conditions owing to Cr and mainly Cd exposure or
to the biological cycle, so further studies are required to investigate this
aspect. Glutathione reductase is involved in the regeneration of reduced GSH
from the oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and the balance between GSSG and GSH
is necessary for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Even if the seasonal
progress of this enzyme in zebra mussels from Lake Trasimeno did not show
significant variations, the lower GR activity observed in samples collected
during the warmer seasons may result in a depletion of total glutathione
content in this freshwater species. In fact, the modification of the rate of
glutathione as well as the balance between the rates of reduced and oxidized
glutathione (GSH/GSSG) can be correlated with the variation in GR activity.
The reduction in the rate of GSH has been related to the enhancement of lipid
peroxidation in aquatic organisms which is generally correlated with the
decrease of antioxidant enzymatic activities (Doyotte et al. 1997, Cossu et al.
2000).
Glutathione S-transferase is involved in conjugation processes of the reactive
electrophilic centres of different substrates with the thiol group of GSH. In the
current research, GST activity in specimens of D. polymorpha was at the lowest
in spring and then constant through the other seasons. The enzyme was not
positively correlated with metals and thus this lowest activity could most likely
be due to the different regulation of GST expression during the biological cycle.
Another, potentially invasive, freshwater species such as Corbicula fluminea
(Muller) displayed no clear seasonal trend for GST activity (Vidal et al. 2002),
while Perna perna (Linnaeus) showed seasonal variability of GST, SOD, and CAT
in accordance with temperature changes and reproductive cycle (Wilhelm Filho
et al. 2001). In other freshwater invertebrates, such as bryozoans, a reduction of
antioxidant defence was reported during the spring coinciding with the end of
their biological cycle (Elia et al. 2001, 2007). These results suggest that the
defence capacity is related to the metabolic status of the organisms and thus
might reflect a susceptibility to environmental parameters and/or contaminants.
Glyoxalase I catalyses the formation of the thioester S-d-lactoylglutathione

from methylglyoxal and GSH, while glyoxalase II catalyses the hydrolysis of the
thioester to regenerate GSH and liberate d-lactate. Glyoxalases enzymes were
also subjected to seasonal variation in other freshwater invertebrates (Elia et al.
2001, 2007) and also in another non-indigenous species of Lake Trasimeno
such as P. clarkii (Elia et al. 2006). Both enzymes, when evaluated on the soft
tissues of D. polymorpha, exhibited their lowest activity in spring and summer at
about 70% (GI) and 50% (GII). These enzymatic activities have been found to be
markedly influenced by the seasonal changes and in this respect, the lowest
glyoxalases activities in spring and summer could represent a reduction in this
detoxification pathway. As a result, the depleted enzymatic system is not able to
counterbalance the increased toxicity of 2-ketoaldehydes, which might be
formed during the lipid peroxidation process.
The total glutathione level in the zebra mussel of Lake Trasimeno was lower
than those observed in other freshwater invertebrates (Cossu et al. 1997, Elia
et al. 2001, 2007). Sheehan and Power (1999) reported a low thiol level in
mussels collected in winter, which could be produced by fluctuations of pollu-
tants and by variations of temperature, food availability, and reproductive cycle.
In this study, thiol content was at the lowest level in specimens of zebra mussel
collected during the warmer seasons (about 70%). Generally, the decreased
thiol level in organisms might reflect a weakened defence ability which may
facilitate the onset of oxidative damage and a prooxidant status. The water
temperatures in Lake Trasimeno (20–25 8C during the warmer seasons) might
have induced a lowering of total glutathione and of some enzymatic activities.
A recent laboratory study has been performed on specimens of D. polymorpha,
collected from Lake Trasimeno in the years 2000–2001, exposed to different
temperatures (4, 18, 28, and 37 8C) for 15 h (Buschini et al. 2003). According
to those authors, the haemocytes showed increasing DNA damage at the high-
est temperature, as a result of general stress in this species. In the same
experiment, the same authors also found that this species showed a higher
resistance to sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) at low dosage at 18 8C, probably
due to more efficient detoxifying and repair mechanisms at that temperature.
CONCLUSIONS
Specimens of D. polymorpha collected seasonally from Lake Trasimeno displayed

low metal concentrations in their soft tissues. From the correlation analysis
it emerged that only glutathione peroxidase was positively related with Cd
content as measured in these specimens. Therefore, the seasonal variability
of the antioxidant parameters in the zebra mussel seems to be affected by its
biological status. These marked differences indicated that comparisons among
different biotopes or sites are significant only if the sampling of the zebra mussel
is carried out at the same period of its biological cycle. The baseline condition
of the antioxidant response of D. polymorpha might be useful to assess the

contaminants impact on this non-indigenous species when employed in
biomonitoring studies.
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Managing invasions
Each invasion has a certain degree of specificity. Yet, generalities are emerging
yielding encouraging insights into how invasions operate and how they may be best
addressed by conservation managers and policymakers. Although complicated by
economic, social, and political concerns, IAS policy decisions must also be based on
clear, scientific reasoning.
Jeb Byers et al. (2002)
Chapter thirty-four
Towards a European strategy

to halt biological invasions
in inland waters
Piero Genovesi
INTRODUCTION
A major portion of biodiversity in the world depends on inland waters; about

8,500 of the 20,000 species of fish live in this medium, and many species of
reptiles, amphibians, birds, semiaquatic mammals, along with invertebrates and
plants, depend on freshwater ecosystems. Of the 117 threatened species in
Europe, 28 live in freshwater ecosystems (IUCN 2006). The biological integrity
of inland waters is also crucial for people: it provides water and food to a large
majority of world populations (rice alone is the main part of the diet of over 50%
of the globe’s inhabitants).
Inland waters also include particularly fragile ecosystems; modification of the
physical characters of basins, loss and fragmentation of habitats, overexploita-
tion of plant and animal species, chemical pollution, and biological invasions
threaten most basins around the world, posing risks not only to the biological
diversity, but also to the wellbeing of a vast majority of humans.
Of the threats listed above, biological invasions are one of the most rapidly
growing causes of biodiversity loss. If non-indigenous species (NIS) are threat-
ening all regions of the world, the effects are particularly high in the wetlands of
Europe, where the percentage of the recorded introductions is the highest in the
world (Europe 25.1%, Asia 16.4%, Africa 14.7%, Oceania 14.7%, South and
Central America 14.1%, Middle East 8.4%, North America 6.3%; DIAS 1997).
The particular susceptibility of European inland waters to invasions is a direct
627
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628 Piero Genovesi
consequence of the rapid growth of transport, trade, and tourism. The most
relevant cause of the introduction of aquatic NIS is the movement of vessels
(both through ballast waters and hull fouling). The major pathways of species
translocations (i.e. for aquaculture, horticulture, aquarium trade, fishing, sport
angling) are a direct or indirect cause of the globalization of economies.
The high number of NIS in European fresh waters is a major threat to several
indigenous species; for example, the critically endangered white-headed
duck [Oxyura leucocephala (Scopoli)] is threatened by hybridization with the
introduced ruddy duck [Oxyura jamaicensis (Gmelin)] (Hughes et al. 1999); the
endemic European mink [Mustela lutreola (Linnaeus)] is being out-competed by
the introduced American mink (Mustela vison Schreber) (Sidorovich et al. 1999);
the endemic white-clawed crayfish [Austropotamobius pallipes (Lereboullet)] is
affected by several non-indigenous crayfish introduced into the European basins;
the introduced muskrat [Ondatra zibethicus (Linnaeus)] is responsible for dramati-
cally reducing the diversity of invertebrate fauna (Nummi et al. 2006); the
endangered European pond turtle [Emys orbicularis (Linnaeus)] is threatened by
the introduced red-eared terrapin [(Trachemys scripta elegans (Weid)] through
competition (Cadi and Joly 2003); and the entire fish fauna of several regions is
being profoundly altered by introduced species (e.g. Bianco and Ketmaier 2001).
Apart from the impact on biodiversity, freshwater NIS may also cause high
losses to the European economy; Gyrodactylus salaris Malmberg and Anguillicola
crassus (Kuwahara, Niimi and Hagakihave) led to dramatic decreases in the
incomes of the fisheries sector in several Nordic States (Weidema 2000), and
the muskrats and coypu [Myocastor coypus (Kerr)] severely damage river banks
through digging and increase the risk and severity of floods in many central and
southern European States; in 1995–2000, the management of the coypu in Italy
caused losses of over !11 million; it has been estimated that in the future this
species will cost the country over !12 million per year (Panzacchi et al. 2007).
There is therefore an urgent need to develop measures to prevent further
invasions of freshwater systems and to mitigate the impacts of NIS already
present in these fragile ecosystems. This is also required in the respect of the
commitment of European Countries to halt the loss of biodiversity in the region
by 2010, as agreed under the Kyiv Biodiversity Resolution.
OBSTACLES TO A EUROPEAN STRATEGY ON BIOINVASIONS

IN FRESH WATERS
Responding to the ambitious commitments of both preventing new invasions

in European fresh waters and mitigating the impacts of invasive NIS is a
complex task and much effort will be required from all the European States
and institutions.
There are in fact many and different obstacles to the development of actions
on biological invasions, including technical constraints and political issues.
A European strategy to halt invasions in inland waters 629
These add to the limited support of the public and of decision-makers because of
a widespread lack of awareness of the threats posed by invasive NIS. In the
following sections of this chapter, I will describe the main constraints that need
to be taken into account when developing a regional policy on the issue, basing
my argument on some case studies.
Lack of transboundary cooperation
Many basins are shared between two or more countries so that actions carried
out at the national level may be undermined by a lack of coordination between
neighboring countries. An example of the need for a supranational approach
is the case of the attempts to recover the population of the white-clawed
crayfish in Portugal; by the middle 1970s, only three small residual popula-
tions of A. pallipes survived in the north-eastern portion of the country. Be-
tween 1977 and 1986, a program aimed at recovering these populations,
through farming and restocking, was started, with the support of the European
Commission through a LIFE program. In the same period, several intentional
introductions of non-indigenous crayfish species [Pacifastacus leniusculus
(Dana) and Procambarus clarkii (Girard)] were made by the bordering Spanish
authorities, with the aim of improving the crayfish harvest industry. These
introductions, carried out in basins shared with Portugal, caused severe out-
breaks of the crayfish plague that contributed to the failure of the recovery
efforts in Portugal (Gutiérrez-Yurrita et al. 1999, Cuellar and Cuellar 2000,
Holdich 2003).
Limited ability to promptly detect incursions
When prevention of unwanted introductions fails and a new species enters

a country, it is critical to rapidly detect the introduction and to promptly
implement responses. When the response is prompt, even marine invasions
can be halted; for example, an infestation of the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia
(Vahl) C. Ag. – a non-indigenous alga that has invaded a large portion of the
Mediterranean – has been successfully treated in California because adequate
responses started 17 days after detection (Anderson 2005).
Unfortunately, most European countries seem to lack an effective alarm
system and responses to new invasions are often delayed not only because of
the difficulty of detecting them, but often because of a lack of communication
between the competent authorities and whoever first identified the new species,
whether private or public entities.
Ineffective responses to new incursions
Early detection is wasted when it is not followed by a prompt action. Unfortu-

nately, even when identification of a new invasion is rapid and competent
630 Piero Genovesi
authorities have been promptly informed, responses may be delayed for dif-
ferent reasons. The example of the already mentioned seaweed C. taxifolia is
paradigmatic. The species was detected in 1984 in the waters of Monaco by
an expert on algae who immediately reported the case to the local authorities;
at that time the invaded area was about 1 m2 and the invasion could have
been halted in two days by scuba divers. Unfortunately, no action was started
and by 1989 the invaded area had increased to 3 ha, reaching 31 ha in 1991.
Even then eradication was not started, mostly because a debate arose within
the academic world on the origin of the alga, the severity of the potential
impacts, and the expected long-term effects of this invasion. Only in 1995, a
recommendation was approved by the Bern convention calling States to
control proliferation of the alga (recommendation 45, 1995). The decision
arrived far too late, when the alga had already expanded, invading many
areas of the Mediterranean, and its eradication was no longer feasible
(Meinesz 1999).
Patterns of spread of invasive NIS
Freshwater ecosystems often facilitate the spread of NIS, because larvae, seeds,
and propagules can be passively transported by the water current, NIS may be
passively transported by boats even for long distances (e.g. Buchan and Padilla
1999) and many aquatic or semiaquatic species are able to swim using water as
a corridor of expansion. Invasion speed and the distance spread can thus be
much greater in aquatic than in terrestrial ecosystems, making a response in
this habitat more difficult.
Inappropriate technical tools for controlling most

freshwater invaders
Control in freshwater systems is often more difficult than in terrestrial envir-

onments. The only cases of successful eradications in inland waters concern a
few semiaquatic mammals (muskrat, coypu, Canadian beaver, American mink;
see Genovesi 2005 for a review), one waterbird species (the ongoing attempt to
eradicate the ruddy duck from the Palearctic), and a few fish (Copp et al.
2005); no eradication of amphibians, reptiles, plants, or invertebrates has
been completed so far in Europe. This is the case of non-indigenous crayfish,
despite the many attempts and efforts devoted to controlling their impacts.
Many control programs so far attempted have required the dispersion of
chemical toxicants into the water, with risks of causing undesired impacts on
nontarget species. For example, in an attempt to remove the parasite G. salaris
from their rivers, Sweden and Norway have dispersed in the last 10 years high
quantities of a chemical toxicant (rotenone) without succeeding in eradicating
the pathogen.
Legal and organizational aspects
The efficient control of NIS has been in some cases limited by inadequate legal
or organizational frameworks; for example, several European States have legis-
lation that automatically protects NIS when they become established in a
country (e.g. the Italian L. 157/92 protects all naturalized species without
distinguishing between indigenous and non-indigenous ones). Furthermore,
several laws ban the use of removal methods that may be essential for control-
ling NIS, as in the case of the use of herbicides in shellfish designated areas that
is a major obstacle to the eradication of the marine plant Spartina anglica C. E.
Hubbard from Ireland (Hammond and Cooper 2002). An additional critical
aspect is the need to coordinate all the relevant sectors of both the governmental
(e.g. fishing, transport, trade, management) and the nongovernmental bodies
(e.g. angling associations, pet trade associations, horticulture organizations).
Misperception of the costs/benefits of control
The technical, legal, and organizational difficulties in eradicating freshwater

NIS are not the only reasons that may explain the limited action to address
inland water invasions in Europe. There is also a general (and erroneous)
perception that eradication is generally very costly and that in most cases
fails. For example, the successful eradication of the coypu from East Anglia in
the 1980s at a cost of about !5 million in 11 years was considered a very costly
investment; but, if we compare this investment with the cost of permanent
control of the coypu in Italy (over !3.7 million in 2000, estimated to exceed
!12 million/year in the future), eradication – whenever feasible – seems to be a
worthwhile alternative.
Trade regulations
The difficulties associated with the control or eradication of freshwater invasive

species and the ease and speed of spread of the invaders make the development
of efficient prevention measures particularly urgent. It is clear that to mitigate
the impacts of aquatic invasive species it is essential to prevent the introduction
into countries that have not yet been invaded through trade regulations. This is
often in conflict with the free market policy of Europe, as also stated in the
European Community Treaty that prohibits quantitative restrictions on imports
and exports by Articles 28 and 29. A major problem with this legal conflict is
that there is no clear understanding of which States can and cannot do. In fact,
the European Court of Justice has examined two cases of import regulations
introduced by European States to prevent the impact caused by invasive species,
and the decisions have been somehow contradictory. One case concerned a
ban to the import of non-indigenous crayfish adopted by Germany to prevent
the risk of introducing the crayfish plague into its territory; in 1994, the Court
632 Piero Genovesi
considered the ban unjustified and ruled to remove the trade restriction (case
C-131/93). An opposite example (not concerning freshwater species) is the case
of the restriction on importing non-indigenous bees into the island of Læsø to
protect an indigenous breed of bees (case: C-67/97). In this case the Court found
that the Danish decision was justified by the need to protect the health and life of
animals; however, also in this case, in early 2005 Denmark decided to remove
the restriction because of the necessity of avoiding conflicts with the free market
policy of Europe.
These cases show the general uncertainty in the European legal framework
on what can be and what cannot be done. So, several European States have
introduced bans on importing non-indigenous crayfish (e.g. Norway, Ireland),
others have banned their keeping (e.g. Great Britain), and most renounced the
regulation of trade in any form. It appears that, given the unclear European
legal framework, States do not even implement the legislative measures that
they have the power to take and are reluctant to impose import bans even when
these are clearly justified.
Several European institutions have attempted to develop trade regulations for
preventing unwanted introductions. The European Plant Protection Organisa-
tion (EPPO) and the EC Regulation no. 338/97 have introduced lists of plant
and animal species whose introduction into Europe should be strictly regulated.
Unfortunately, the mechanisms for including new species on both these list are
rather slow and complex (nine species so far included in the EPPO quarantine
list; four in the EC reg. no. 338) and the system is far from being adequate, given
the rapidly growing increase of new introductions.
Inadequate circulation of information
Another cause of delay and inefficacy in the responses to new invasions is the
lack of information on the impact of the newly established species at a national
level and of expertise on management options. For these reasons, information-
sharing between States is very important; data on the impacts caused by the
newly recorded species and information on the possible management tools are
often available elsewhere in the world. Mechanisms for making this information
rapidly available to local decision makers are thus essential to reduce the time
for a response and to increase the ability to act.
In Europe, databases on invasive NIS have been developed for specific sectors
(e.g. the EPPO/EC plant health system) or areas (e.g. NOBANIS for Nordic
Countries; www.nobanis.org), but no comprehensive regional information
system on invasive NIS is currently available. To bridge this gap, the European
Commission has supported, under the Sixth Framework Programme for
Research, Technological Development, and Demonstration Activities, the pro-
duction of a pan-European database on invasive NIS aimed also at providing a
registry of experts for the different taxonomic groups and areas (DAISIE,
www.europe-aliens.org).
To ensure the flow of information regarding species not yet known in Europe,
regional databases need to be integrated with international instruments, such as
the Global Invasive Species Database (www.issg.org/database/) developed
by IUCN or the Global Invasive Species Information Network (http://www.
gisinetwork.org), an international web portal on biological invasions.
TOWARD A EUROPEAN STRATEGY ON AQUATIC NIS
In order to effectively minimize the adverse impact on European biodiversity,

economy, and human health and well-being inflicted by invasive NIS, it seems
urgent and critical to develop and implement coordinated measures and
cooperative efforts. This requires that European States revise their policies –
through the development of national strategies or action plans – and that
the European institutions (including the European Commission and the Bern
Convention) develop a regional policy on the issue, with the common aim of
increasing awareness, strengthening national and regional capacity and
cooperation, preventing new invasions, supporting rapid response, and
mitigating the adverse impacts caused by those invasive NIS that are already
established in Europe.
The key elements of a European policy on invasive species have been defined
by the ‘‘European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species’’ (Genovesi and Shine
2004); this document has been formally approved in 2003 by the European
States that also committed to implement the Strategy by 2008 in at least half of
the European countries through national strategies and action plans. The
document has also been welcomed by the conference of the parties of the
Convention on Biological Diversity and its implementation by European States
and institutions has been recommended by the World Conservation Conference
in 2004. The European Strategy applies to all environments and taxonomic
groups and covers well the specific problem of the European inland waters.
Below I will provide a synthesis of the main elements of the Strategy – with
particular reference to freshwater ecosystems:
1. Building awareness and support.
The limited understanding by the European public and decision-makers of
the magnitude of the threats posed by biological invasions limits the commit-
ment of the relevant agencies and other stakeholders in efforts to prevent and
mitigate the impacts posed by NIS. The first aim of a pan-European strategy
is hence to raise awareness of the Europe’s public, decision-makers, scientists,
and other stakeholders of the risks posed by invasive NIS, and the benefits
of prevention and mitigation for native biodiversity. This requires vigorous
information and education programs, and the involvement of key stake-
holders (e.g. travel departments, shipping authorities, aquaculture and fishing
associations).
634 Piero Genovesi
2. Collecting, managing, and sharing information.

Considering the difficulty of responding to freshwater invasions once they have
occurred, it seems critical to create national inventories of NIS, develop tools for
sharing information at the national and regional levels, and support research in
order to strengthen the capacity to predict the consequences of introductions.
Also, lists of experts and information on the techniques to respond to invasions
should be implemented and effectively circulated.
3. Strengthening national policy, legal, and institutional frameworks.
Any action to prevent unwanted introductions into inland waters necessarily
requires the involvement of many different sectors, including trade, water
resource management, infrastructure development, horticulture, aquaculture,
tourism, and recreation (e.g. angling, pet trade). A clear partitioning of roles
and responsibilities among the different agencies and departments is therefore
crucial, and States should start a review of their institutional and legal frame-
works. The creation of an authority, with the role of coordinating and leading
the efforts of all the responsible agencies, can be very effective. All the relevant
bodies should identify focal points to liaise with other departments on this
specific matter. National action plans or strategies should be developed, address-
ing all aspects of prevention and mitigation of invasions.
4. Regional cooperation and responsibility.
The above cited case of the introduction of non-indigenous crayfish species
in Spain – affecting the efforts to recover endemic white-clawed crayfish in
Portugal – shows the need for a coordinated approach to biological invasions
at a regional level. States should recognize the risk that activities within their
jurisdiction or control may pose to other States as a potential source of invasions
and take appropriate individual and cooperative actions to minimize that risk.
Mechanisms for the exchange of information, notification of relevant invasions,
and consultation should be developed, also by strengthening the role of the
regional authorities (e.g. Bern Convention, EPPO).
5. Prevention.
If in all environments prevention of unwanted introduction is far more
cost-effective and environmentally desirable than eradication and control, for
aquatic ecosystems prevention is in most cases the only means to address
invasions. It is therefore important to prioritize available resources on preven-
tion, beginning at the place of origin or export of species, focusing on the most
relevant pathways (i.e. ballast water management), and facilitating the appli-
cation of agreed standards and practices (i.e. on aquaculture, fisheries, etc).
A system of lists should be developed at the European level, based on a blacklist
approach. The involvement of the most relevant societal sectors (e.g. trade,
tourism, transport, pet trade, aquaculture) is also essential.
6. Early detection and rapid response.

Rapid identification of new invasions is a critical element of prevention, and the
development of effective surveillance procedures is thus essential, for example,
by monitoring the most vulnerable areas or the areas adjacent to containment
facilities (fish farms, aquaculture facilities, aquaria, etc.). Control and eradica-
tion in freshwater ecosystems are often very difficult, but many examples
show that rapid response can permit effective eradication of even invertebrate
aquatic species. The time between documenting an introduction and imple-
menting a response should thus be reduced by streamlining the authorization
processes, ensuring that all competent authorities have adequate powers, and
by having in place contingency plans for specific groups of organisms (e.g.
algae, invertebrates, vertebrates).
7. Management of impacts.
When prevention fails, eradication should be considered, when this is a feasible
option. Where eradication is no longer feasible, containment and control should
be evaluated, especially when there is a risk of spread of the invading species to
neighboring countries.
8. Restoration of native biodiversity.
Any strategy needs to go further than the defensive three-stage hierarchical
approach based on prevention-eradication-control and should support restor-
ation measures for species, natural habitats, and ecosystems that have been
affected by biological invasions. Increased resilience of native biodiversity can in
turn provide greater protection against re-invasion or new incursions. In this
regard, the use of indigenous plants and animal species in landscaping, revege-
tation, fish farming, aquaculture, etc. should be promoted.
CONCLUSIONS
Biological invasions in European freshwater ecosystems are a major threat

to the biological diversity, economy, and human health and wellbeing. Aqua-
tic NIS are difficult to detect, tend to disperse rapidly, and are extremely
difficult to eradicate and control. So, to address this threat it is essential to
focus on prevention, by improving the capacity of European States and
institutions to exchange information, address pathways of introduction, regu-
late importation and introduction of species, and mitigate the impacts once
prevention has failed. To reach these aims each European State should de-
velop a holistic and comprehensive national action plan/strategy, consistent
and harmonized with the European Strategy; and European States and insti-
tutions are expected to work jointly toward a consistent regional policy on
invasive NIS.
636 Piero Genovesi
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Chapter thirty-five
A risk assessment of
biological invasions in the
inland waterways of Europe:
the Northern Invasion
Corridor case study
Vadim E. Panov, Yury Yu. Dgebuadze, Tamara

A. Shiganova, Andrew A. Filippov, and Dan Minchin
INTRODUCTION
Inland waterways have provided opportunities for the spread of aquatic

non-indigenous species (NIS) for many centuries (reviewed in Ketelaars 2004,
Galil and Minchin 2006, Galil et al. 2007). Canals connecting different river
basins have allowed for range extensions of many species, either by active
movement and/or by ship transport. Over the past century, the potential for
species to expand their range has been enhanced due to increasing trade and
the construction of canals. The waterways occur at low altitudes and presently
the main European corridor routes consist of an interlinked network of 30
main canals with more than 100 branches, and more than 350 ports exist in
low-altitude Europe.
The European Agreement on Main Inland Waterways of International
Importance (AGN) was signed under the framework of the United Nations
639
ß 2007 Springer.
640 Vadim E. Panov et al.
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in Geneva in 1996. The AGN sets
down standards for a uniform infrastructure and operational procedures for the
European inland waterway network (EWN). With the adoption of the AGN
by the Russian Federation in 2002, the international network of European
waterways defined in the Agreement now consists of approximately
28,000 km of main navigable rivers and canals, extending from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Ural mountains and connecting 37 countries in Europe and
beyond. Currently, the network includes Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, The Netherlands, the Republic of Moldova, Romania, the Russian
Federation, Slovakia, and Switzerland. The EWN will be further developed in the
future, as more than 80 missing links and bottlenecks have recently been
identified (Anonymous 2005).
Such development will enable further opportunities for NIS to extend their
ranges to other river basins previously separated over geological time. The first
opportunity for NIS to spread began in the late 1700s with the construction of
canals connecting previously isolated river basins and linkages to European
seas: Mediterranean, Black, and Azov seas to the south, and the Baltic and
White seas to the north. Presently, there are four main inland water trading
routes (invasion corridors) that enable in particular the range expansion of
. .
several Ponto-Caspian species through Europe (Jaz dz ewski 1980, Panov et al.
1999, Bij de Vaate 2002, Nehring 2002, Slynko et al. 2002, Van der Velde et al.
2002, Ketelaars 2004, Pienimäki and Leppäkoski 2004, Galil et al. 2007).
These invasion corridors include the Northern Invasion Corridor which links
the southern seas (Black and Azov seas) with the Caspian Sea via the Azov
Sea–Caspian waterway (the main European inland waterway number E90,
including the Volga–Don Canal opened in 1952), and with the Baltic and
White seas via the Volga–Baltic waterway (the main European inland water-
way number E50 with the Volga–Baltic Canal first opened in 1810 and
reopened after major reconstruction in 1964) and via the White Sea–Baltic
Sea waterway (the main European inland waterway number E60 with the
White Sea–Baltic Sea Canal opened in 1932). This largest inland European
invasion corridor consists of approximately 6,500 km of waterways, represent-
ing the so-called United Deepwater System of Russia with 21 inland ports
of international importance, and linking four main watersheds in European
Russia (Black, Caspian, Baltic, and White seas basins) (Fig. 1). The Volga River
represents the longest section in the Northern Invasion Corridor. This river is
3,530 km long and includes 12 large and more than 300 medium and small
reservoirs (Slynko et al. 2002).
In 2003, the Russian Government adopted the national Concept of Develop-
ment of the Inland Water Transport, which is likely to increase trade along the
Northern Invasion Corridor. According to this concept, the United Deepwater
System of Russia should be fully open for international shipping by 2010 and be
integrated into the European inland waterway network. The main focus is to
Risk assessment of invasions in inland waterways 641
Fig. 1 The European Northern Invasion Corridor. Numbers on the map indicate:
1 – Black Sea, 2 – Azov Sea, 3 – Caspian Sea, 4 – Volga–Don Canal, 5 – Volga River
reservoirs, 6 – Volga–Baltic Canal, 7 – Onega Lake, 8 – Ladoga Lake, 9 – Gulf of Finland,
10 – White Sea-Baltic Canal, and 11 – White Sea. Dashed lines indicate the main
navigable waterways of the Northern Invasion Corridor, dotted line – the secondary
waterways, opened cycles – the monitoring stations.
provide connections between the Volga, Don, and Danube rivers to link more
than 15 European countries. These future developments may highly facilitate
the transfer of NIS across European inland waters and coastal ecosystems,
which require appropriate risk assessment-based management options to
address risks posed by human-mediated introductions of these species.
Ecological risk assessment is a process that evaluates the likelihood that
adverse ecological effects may occur or are occurring as a result of exposure
to one or more stressors. The process is used to systematically evaluate and
organize data, information, assumptions, and uncertainties in order to help
understand and predict the relationships between stressors and ecological effects
in a way that is useful for environmental decision making (Anonymous 1998).
Generally speaking, the risk assessment is a part of the process of managing
risks, and there are many different risk assessment approaches in different
decision-making contexts and levels ranging from specific case studies to
strategic regulation and policy making (Gerrard and Petts 1998). These
approaches can be separated into two major distinct types: quantitative and
qualitative risk assessments. However, because quantification of risks is not
always possible, it is better to convey conclusions (and associated uncertainties)
qualitatively than to ignore them, because they are not easily understood or
estimated (Anonymous 1998). In our opinion, quantitative risk assessments,
based on objective scientific judgements, can be more applicable for the local
level of decision-making in case of site-specific and/or species-specific manage-
ment, while the strategic regulation- and policy-making on both national
and international levels can be based in large extent on qualitative risk assess-
ment. This is particularly true if one considers the high degree of scientific
uncertainty when dealing with such a global and complex ecological issue as
large-scale intercontinental and intracontinental introductions of NIS.
The specific methodologies of risk assessment of shipping-mediated introduc-
tions of NIS include two main types: the environmental matching risk assess-
ment and the species-specific risk assessment (Pienimäki and Leppäkoski 2004,
Leppäkoski and Gollasch 2006). Based on these two principal approaches, we
conducted a qualitative risk assessment of NIS introductions along the Northern
Invasion Corridor, with the general purpose to develop a conceptual model
of risk assessment of biological invasions for the European inland navigable
waterways, which can be further used as a tool for management purposes.
CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT

FOR INLAND WATERWAYS
The qualitative risk assessment was based on the analyses of data from the
national database on aquatic NIS in European Russia (Panov et al. 2007a), the
AquaInvader information system (Panov et al. 2006), and other relevant sources
(Slynko et al. 2002, Panov et al. 2007b). The national database includes both
published information and primary field data on aquatic NIS distributions from
the national monitoring network established along the whole Northern Invasion
Corridor (Fig. 1).
There are five main components to the risk assessment of NIS for the navi-
gable inland waterways we have made:
1. Identification of the principle recipient and donor areas of NIS (risk areas)
and invasion routes.
2. Identification of the main vectors of NIS introductions.
3. Assessment of inoculation rates (propagule pressure).
4. Assessment of the vulnerability of potential recipient areas to invasions from
past patterns and likely environmental suitability.
5. Assessment of the invasiveness of NIS both in the recipient risk area and in
the potential donor areas based on known dispersal abilities, establishment
success, and ecosystem impacts.
Qualitative estimations of inoculation rates and ecosystem vulnerability to

invasions and species invasiveness were ranked low, medium, and high, and
these estimations were further used for an assessment of the integrated ecosys-
tem risk level for the main risk areas within the Northern Invasion Corridor.
The analysis of these five main components was conducted for initial predictive
risk assessment for selected recipient areas (risk recipient areas).
Identifying recipient and donor areas of NIS and invasion routes
There are four principle high risk areas along the Northern Invasion Corridor,
which act as recipient and also as donor areas of aquatic NIS: Azov Sea
(41 established NIS), Caspian Sea (46 established NIS), Volga River reservoirs
(85 established NIS), and Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea (23 established NIS).
The White Sea can be considered as a low-risk area, as only 10 NIS (both marine
and freshwater) have become established in its basin, and currently there is no
evidence of its possible role as donor area (Fig. 2). In this water system, Lake
Ladoga and Lake Onega (the largest European lakes), have the lowest number
of established NIS (only three), and is considered as low-risk area (see
discussion below).
The principle donor areas of NIS for the four main recipient ecosystems
include: Black Sea (25 species), Caspian Sea (four species), and Asia (three
species) for the Azov Sea; Black and Azov seas (44 species) for the Caspian
Sea; Lower Volga (42 species), Black and Azov seas (16 species), and Baltic Sea
basin (18 species) for the Volga River reservoirs; Ponto–Caspian basin (10
species) and western Baltic (11 species) for the Gulf of Finland (Fig. 3). The
principle donor areas of NIS are from southern regions. This may reflect climate
change with the concomitant advantage of an available route for southern
species to spread northwards.
We identified 10 patterns of NIS dispersal along the Northern Invasion
Corridor, considered here to be invasion routes (Fig. 2). Along routes 1–7 we
found 122 northward invasions but only 24 southward invasions along routes
8–10. Each route links the basins, seas, reservoirs, and canals as follows:
route 1, the Black and Azov seas basins with the Caspian Sea via the Volga–Don
Canal, resulting in 46 invasions into the Caspian Sea (Grigorovich et al. 2003,
Panov et al. 2007a); route 2, the Black and Azov seas to the Volga River
reservoirs, resulting in 16 invasions; route 3, the Black and Azov seas basin
across two geographic barriers via Volga River reservoirs to the Baltic Sea basin
(Gulf of Finland), resulting in five invasions (e.g. two species of predatory
onychopod cladocerans, Cercopagis pengoi and Cornigerius maeoticus; Panov
et al. 2007b); route 4, the Caspian Sea basin, from the Caspian and Lower
White Sea
10
basin 6 3 A
White Sea - Baltic
canal Sev. Dvina
Gulf of Finland 23 River 5 1
(NE Baltic Sea)
B
Ladoga&Onega lakes 3
Volga - Baltic
canal
Volga River
85 16 47 20 C
reservoirs
Caspian Sea
46 44
Volga - Don
canal
Azov Sea 2 2 D
41
basin 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 2 Main recipient areas of aquatic NIS and specific invasion routes of their
introductions within the Northern Invasion Corridor. Numbers in boxes and circles
indicate the number of established NIS in risk areas (see Fig. 1) and by the invasion
route, respectively. Dashed lines indicate the geographic barriers between previously
isolated basins of: A – White Sea, B – Baltic Sea, C – Caspian Sea, and D – Black and
Azov seas.
Volga, to the Middle and Upper Volga reservoirs, resulting in the spread of
47 species attributed, in part, to recent climate changes (Slynko et al. 2002);
route 5, the Caspian Sea directly to the Baltic Sea, resulting in the invasion of
Evadne anonyx (Rodionova and Panov 2006); route 6, the Caspian basin to the
White Sea basin via canals linking the Upper Volga with the Severnaya Dvina
River basin, the northernmost part of the Northern Invasion Corridor, resulting
in the invasion of Dreissena polymorpha (Panov et al. 2007a); and route 7, the
Baltic Sea basin to the White Sea basin, resulting in the invasion of two fish
species and of the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis (Panov et al. 2007a).
Routes 8–10 are north-south movements from the Baltic basin via the
Volga–Baltic Canal to the Volga River reservoirs (20þ species), from the
Caspian basin via the Volga–Don Canal to the Azov Sea basin (two species),
A C
Black Sea
lower Volga
Caspian Black & Azov seas
Asia Baltic basin
other other
B D
Black & Azov

seas Ponto-Caspian basin
western Baltic
other other
Fig. 3 Donor areas of aquatic NIS in the main risk areas of the Northern Invasion
Corridor (A – Azov Sea, B – Caspian Sea, C – Volga River reservoirs, and D – eastern Gulf
of Finland).
and long-distance transfer from the Baltic basin to the Azov Sea basin across
two main geographical barriers via the Volga–Baltic Canal, Volga River, and
Volga–Don Canal of the invasive crustaceans Bythotrephes longimanus and
E. sinensis (Panov et al. 2007a).
Identifying vectors of introductions of NIS
In all main recipient areas within the Northern Invasion Corridor, shipping-
related activities are the most important vectors of introductions of NIS. This
includes direct transfers of NIS with ballast water, sediments, and hull fouling,
and with migrations of NIS via navigable canals. The relative importance of
shipping-related vectors has increased since the 1950s in all risk areas (Fig. 4).
Long-term changes in the relative importance of different vectors indicate that
shipping-mediated accidental introductions were the primary pathway of intro-
ductions into the semi-enclosed Azov Sea and the Gulf of Finland prior to 1950,
whereas in the geographically isolated Caspian Sea basin and in the Volga River
reservoirs other vectors, such as intentional species introductions, were
prominent agents of introductions (Fig. 4). However, after the opening of the
Baltic–Volga and Volga–Don canals in the middle of the 20th century,
shipping also started to play the most important role for introductions of NIS
50 90
A C
40 75
60
30
45
20
30
10
15
0 0
before 1950 1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2005 before 1950 1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2005
50 25
B D
40 20
30 15
20 10
10 5
0 0
before 1950 1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2005 before 1950 1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2005
Fig. 4 Dynamics of the introductions of NIS in the four main risk areas (A – Azov Sea,
B – Caspian Sea, C – Volga River reservoirs, and D – eastern Gulf of Finland) along the
Northern Invasion Corridor for different vectors (black bars – intentional introductions,
grey bars – shipping-mediated accidental introductions, and open bars – other vectors).
Note the different scales for panels C and D.
for the Caspian Sea and the Volga River reservoirs. There is a clear trend in
increasing importance of shipping-related vectors over time in all main risk
areas, with greatest increase in rates of shipping-mediated introductions in the
Gulf of Finland during the last 15 years (Fig. 4). The latter phenomenon can
mainly be attributed to the effects of climate change that facilitates the estab-
lishment of warm-water species in the gulf (Panov et al. 2007b). Climate
changes may also have facilitated the range expansion of some NIS during the
last decades by other vectors, including natural migrations of NIS from adjacent
southern areas, specifically for the Gulf of Finland and Volga River (Slynko et al.
2002, Panov et al. 2007b) (Fig. 4).
Assessing inoculation rates
The inoculation rates by propagules of aquatic NIS (including their resting

stages) of the main risk areas within the Northern Invasion Corridor can be
assessed only indirectly from shipping statistics that include information of
volumes of discharged ballast water. However, such detailed information is
often lacking, and only general statistics on the number of ships entering the
Caspian Sea and the Gulf of Finland and the volume of transported cargo are
available. In 2003 and 2004, approximately 400 ships entered the Caspian Sea
(mainly via the E90 water route) in each year transporting 1 million tons of
cargo. In the same two years, approximately 7,000 ships with 18 million tons of
cargo entered the Gulf of Finland via the E50 water route each year. However,
we do not have information on the likely volumes of ballast transported and the
voyage durations; such information is important in relation to survival and
inoculation potential. The use of such statistics for the estimation of inoculation
rates of NIS without consideration of ballast water history and the duration of
ship voyage allows for only preliminary qualitative estimates and may be
associated with significant uncertainty.
Indirect estimations of inoculation rates using data on the long-term
dynamics of invasion rates (Fig. 4) are even more questionable and uncertain.
For instance, significant increase in the number of shipping-mediated introduc-
tions of NIS for the Caspian Sea during the last 15 years (Fig. 4B) can be
attributed to the increased ship traffic in this period and to the related increases
in inoculation rates. However, for the Gulf of Finland, even more profound
increases in the number of shipping-mediated introductions of NIS (mostly
Ponto-Caspian crustaceans) have been observed during the last 15 years
(Fig. 4D). These introductions were most likely mediated by climate changes,
as shipping intensity in the gulf via the E50 water route did not increase
compared to earlier time periods (Panov et al. 2007b). In contrast to the inland
ports, cargo turnover in the marine ports in the Gulf of Finland increased
several-fold over the last 10–15 years, and currently exceeds 100 million tons
per year (Panov et al. 2003). This has resulted in extremely high volumes of
released ballast water and, consequently, in high inoculation rates by propa-
gules of NIS. Taking into account available data on shipping, estimated inocu-
lation rates within the Northern Invasion Corridor are relatively low for the
Volga River reservoirs, Ladoga and Onega lakes, and White Sea, are medium for
the Azov and Caspian seas, and must be considered high for the Gulf of Finland
(Table 1).
Assessing the vulnerability to invasions of potential

recipient areas
Ecosystem vulnerability to invasions may depend on abiotic and biotic resis-

tance of the specific ecosystem to the establishment of NIS. Abiotic resistance
is related to the environmental match of potential donor and recipient eco-
systems. Considering main donor areas of NIS outside and within the Northern
Invasion Corridor (see section on identification of recipient and donor areas of
NIS and invasion routes above), abiotic resistance can be roughly estimated
as low for the Azov and Caspian seas, medium for the Volga River reservoirs
and Gulf of Finland, and high for the lakes Ladoga and Onega and for the White
Sea basin.
Table 1 Ranking of three factors of risk for the invasions of aquatic NIS (inoculation
rates, area invasibility, and species invasiveness) and the resulting integrated risk level
for six risk areas along the Northern Invasion Corridor.
Inoculation Area Species Integrated risk

Risk area rates invasibility invasiveness level
Azov Sea medium medium medium medium

Caspian Sea medium high high high
Volga River Reservoirs low high medium medium
Ladoga and Onega lakes low low high medium
Gulf of Finland high medium high high
White Sea low low high medium
Limnological conditions in the glacial lakes Ladoga and Onega, such as the
low conductivity of the water, make these lakes unsuitable for the progressive
expansion of NIS from the Caspian Sea basin to the Gulf of Finland and White
Sea region via the Volga–Baltic Canal and White Sea–Baltic Canal. Dispersal of
NIS from the Caspian Sea basin to the White Sea basin is possible only via
waterways connected to the Severnaya Dvina River (invasion route 6; see
Fig. 2). Any non-indigenous transmissions through lakes Ladoga and Onega
are likely to have taken place with human-aided processes. Presently, only two
invasive crustaceans are known from these lakes, the Baikalian zebra amphipod,
Gmelinoides fasciatus (Stebbing), and the Chinese mitten crab, E. sinensis (Panov
1996, 2006). Thus, the lakes Ladoga and Onega can be considered as natural
barriers to the dispersal of NIS that expand their ranges along waterways,
including newly built canals. Successful transmission through these lakes may
only occur for certain life history stages that attach to the hull of ships and that
are able to tolerate short periods of exposure to unfavourable water conditions,
or via transport in the ballast water of ships.
The biotic resistance of an ecosystem is related to the strength of interspecies
relationships for any new invasive species, including food supply, competition,
predator-prey, and parasite–host relationships. At the present stage, estimations
of biotic resistance of aquatic ecosystems towards biological invasions are
largely lacking (but see Ricciardi and MacIsaac 2000, Colautti et al. 2004,
DeRivera et al. 2005, Fenieva et al. 2006), and the development of approaches
to such estimations requires further study and was not considered in our
qualitative risk assessment.
Considering rough qualitative estimates of abiotic resistance (i.e. environ-
mental matching in terms of salinity and temperature regimes), vulnerability
of the studied ecosystems to biological invasions can be estimated as low for the
lakes Ladoga and Onega and the White Sea basin, medium for the Azov Sea
basin, and high for the Caspian Sea, Volga River reservoirs, and the Gulf of
Finland (Table 1).
Assessing the invasiveness of NIS
Because risk areas within the Northern Invasion Corridor are serving both
as donors and recipients of NIS, it is important to assess the invasiveness of
NIS in these areas according to their potential to spread, establish in new
environments, and affect potential recipient ecosystems (species-specific risk
assessment). We used available data on the main life history traits (salinity
and temperature tolerance, fecundity and patterns of reproduction, ability to
produce resting stages, etc.), invasion history, and known ecological impacts
(Panov et al. 2006, 2007a,b) for an assessment of species invasiveness in
different taxonomic groups of NIS in the main risk areas.
In all main risk areas, apart from the Caspian Sea where plants dominate as
NIS, crustaceans were the largest group of NIS with the highest proportion of
medium and high level of invasiveness (Fig. 5). Estimated proportions of estab-
lished medium and high-risk NIS for these areas were highest for the Gulf of
Finland (86%), and were somewhat lower for the Azov Sea basin, Volga River
reservoirs, and Caspian Sea (58%, 48%, and 39%, respectively). However, the
known level of negative impacts of NIS on the ecosystem biodiversity and
functions is certainly the highest for the Caspian Sea, currently experiencing
severe consequences of the Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz invasion (Shiganova
Other A Other C
Fish Fish
Crustaceans Crustaceans
Molluscs Molluscs
Annelids Annelids
Plants Plants
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Other Other
B D
Fish Fish
Crustaceans Crustaceans
Molluscs Molluscs
Annelids Annelids
Plants Plants
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Fig. 5 Taxonomic composition of NIS in main risk areas along the Northern Invasion
Corridor (A– Azov Sea, B – Caspian Sea, C – Volga River reservoirs, and D – eastern Gulf
of Finland). Black bars indicate proportion of high-risk species.
et al. 2004). Compared to the Caspian Sea, the level of known negative impacts
of invasive species in other main risk areas can be estimated as medium.
RESULTS OF THE QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT
Qualitative estimations of inoculation rates, ecosystem vulnerability to

invasions, and species invasiveness (see sections above) were used for an overall
assessment of the integrated risk level for each risk area within the Northern
Invasion Corridor (also ranked as low, medium, and high). The estimated
integrated ecosystem risk level was considered high for the Caspian Sea and
Gulf of Finland, and medium for the rest of the risk areas (Table 1).
From the combination of environmental matching and species-specific risk
assessments, we estimated likely levels of establishment for 34 key high-risk
target NIS in risk areas within the Northern Invasion Corridor as a predictive
risk assessment (Table 2). We deduced that the highest number of these will
appear within the Gulf of Finland (17 species), followed by the Caspian Sea with
seven potential new high-risk invaders. This assessment generally corresponded
with the independently estimated high integrated ecosystem risk level for these
two risk areas (Table 1).
The qualitative approach adopted here follows the predictive risk assessment
first used in the Nordic Council-supported project on risk assessment of NIS in
Nordic coastal waters (Gollasch and Leppäkoski 1999) for the eastern Gulf of
Finland area, with a prediction of invasion of two invasive Ponto-Caspian
onychopod species, C. maeoticus and Podonevadne trigona (Sars) into the eastern
gulf (Panov et al. 1999). Subsequently, C. maeoticus was found in the Gulf of
Finland in 2003 (Rodionova et al. 2005). However, the first new onychopod
invader (i.e. after publication of the initial risk assessment in 1999) was another
onychopod species, Evadne anonyx. This species was first recorded in the
zooplankton of the gulf in 2000 (Rodionova and Panov 2006). Evadne anonyx
was not considered as a high-risk species, because it had no previous invasion
history and was not considered to be able to develop sustainable populations at
salinities below 9 ppt (Panov et al. 2007b). In the eastern Gulf of Finland,
E. anonyx successfully established in areas with water salinities as low as 1–3
ppt (Rodionova and Panov 2006). This unexpected invasion of E. anonyx into
the eastern Baltic Sea may indicate that the most common Ponto-Caspian
onychopods, not listed among our 34 high-risk species in the Table 2 [i.e.
Podonevadne camptonyx (Sars), Podonevadne angusta (Sars), Polyphemus exiguus
Sars, Evadne prolongata Behning], may pose some risks of long-distance intra-
continental transfer if appropriate vectors of introduction are available (ship-
ping along the Volga–Baltic inland waterway). In general, the Ponto-Caspian
onychopods pose the highest risks for the Gulf of Finland, as all the non-
indigenous cladocerans established in the eastern Baltic Sea belong to this
group, and the rapid and successful establishment of three onychopod species
Table 2 Aquatic NIS with a high potential to become established with self-reproducing populations in risk areas along the Northern
Invasion Corridor.
Volga River Ladoga and Gulf of

Taxa Azov Sea Caspian Sea Reservoirs Onega Lakes Finland White Sea
Plants
Pseudosolenia calcar-avis (Schultze) Sundström 1924 1934 high low high low
Pseudo-nitszchia seriata (Hasle) Hasle indigenous 1990 high low high low
Skeletonema subsalsum (Cleve-Euler) Bethge indigenous indigenous 1957 low high low
Thalassiosira incerta Makarova indigenous indigenous 1967 low high low
Actinocyclus normanii (W. Gregory) Hustedt indigenous indigenous 1986 low high low
Chroomonas acuta Utermöhl indigenous indigenous 1988 low high low
Cnidaria
Blackfordia virginica Mayer 1930s 1956 low – high low
Bougainvillia megas Kinne 1950s 1961 low – high low
Ctenophora
Mnemiopsis leidyi A. Agassiz 1988 1999 – – medium low
Annelida
Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Fauvel) 1960 1961 low – high medium
Hypania invalida (Grube) indigenous high 1960 low high medium
Marenzelleria neglecta (Sikorski and Bick) high high – – 1996 medium
Mollusca
Risk assessment of invasions in inland waterways
Rapana venosa (Valenciennes) 1956 low – – low low

Mytilaster lineatus (Gmelin) indigenous 1919 – – medium low
Teredo navalis Linnaeus 1953 medium – – low medium
Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas) indigenous indigenous 1953 low 1986 1970s
Dreissena bugensis (Andrusov) high high 1992 low high high
Mytilopsis leucophaeata (Conrad) high high – – 2004 low
651
Table 2 Continued.
652
Volga River Ladoga and Gulf of

Taxa Azov Sea Caspian Sea Reservoirs Onega Lakes Finland White Sea
Crustacea
Acartia tonsa Dana 2000 1981 medium low 1934 high
Bythotrephes longimanus Leydig 1960s low 1957 indigenous indigenous indigenous
Cercopagis pengoi (Ostroumov) indigenous indigenous 1960 low 1992 low
Podonevadne trigona (Sars) indigenous indigenous 1966 low high low
Cornigerius maeoticus (Pengo) indigenous indigenous 1970 low 2003 low
Evadne anonyx Sars indigenous indigenous low – 2000 low
Rhithropanopeus harrisii (Gould) 1960 1958 medium low high medium
Eriocheir sinensis H. Milne-Edwards* medium high – – low medium
Callinectes sapidus M. J. Rathbun 1967 medium – – low low
Fish
Pseudorasbora parva (Linnaeus) 1970 high high low medium low
Clupeonella cultriventris (Nordmann) 1970 indigenous 1964 low high high
Vadim E. Panov et al.
Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas) indigenous indigenous 1968 low high** medium

Neogobius fluviatilis (Pallas) indigenous indigenous 1960 low high medium
Neogobius iljini Vasiljeva et Vasiljev indigenous indigenous 1970 low high medium
Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pallas) indigenous indigenous 1981 low high medium
Perccottus glenii Dybowski high high 1981 high 1950 high
Total number of HRS 4 7 3 1 17 4
Numbers in cells indicate the year of first record; empty cells indicate that establishment is not considered possible
* adults of E. sinensis were recorded in all risk areas
** single specimens of N. melanostomus were recorded in the western Gulf of Finland in 2005 (Ojaveer 2006)
has occurred in this region during the last 15 years, facilitated, most likely, by
climate changes in the region (Panov et al. 2007b).
It is important to note the primary importance of the Northern Invasion
Corridor for most recent invasions of NIS from southern regions to the Gulf of
Finland (high-risk area) and the Baltic Sea. This importance exists despite the
fact that the corridor currently contributes less than 20% to the volume of cargo
transported to the Gulf of Finland (approximately 20 million tons compared to
around 100 million tons per year from other transport corridors) and even
much less in terms of ballast water (most ballast water released in the Gulf of
Finland ports originates from areas other than the Ponto-Caspian). The role of
other invasion corridors in biological invasions of the gulf is minor. During the
last 15 years all other invasions corridors contributed to only one successful
establishment of NIS in the gulf. In 2003, the Atlantic species Conrad’s false
mussel, Mytilopsis leucophaeata, was discovered in an area affected by cooling
water discharges from a nuclear power plant (Laine et al. 2006).
The Gulf of Finland can also be considered as a high-risk donor area of NIS for
aquatic systems outside the Northern Invasion Corridor area, specifically for the
adjacent inland water ecosystems (Pienimäki and Leppäkoski 2004), and the
North American Great Lakes, which are connected with eastern Baltic by an
intercontinental invasion corridor (see Panov et al. 1999, 2003, 2007b). Ponto-
Caspian invasive onychopods producing large numbers of resting eggs may pose
a very high risk of introduction with ballast waters, even when regular ballast
water management procedures are carried out (e.g. ballast water exchange
during oceanic ship voyages), which might be ineffective for the resting eggs
accumulating in the sediments of ballast tanks (MacIsaac et al. 1999, Bailey et al.
2005).
Managing the dispersal of species by shipping is a priority throughout the
Northern Invasion Corridor. Taking into account the most important invasion
routes within this system (Fig. 2), the risk-reducing management options for
ballast water and other shipping-mediated vectors should be implemented at the
main entrances to the Northern Invasion Corridor, in the ports of the lower Don
River (entrance to the European inland waterway E90 from the Azov Sea) and
in the ports of eastern Gulf of Finland, specifically the Port of St. Petersburg
(entrance to the main European inland waterway E50 from the Baltic Sea).
These management options should include treatment of ballast water and
sediments, and hull fouling.
CONCLUSIONS
The Northern Invasion Corridor is playing an important role in the introduc-

tions of NIS in eastern Europe; its significance may increase over time with
further construction and/or improvement of navigable watercourses and with
their integration into the European network of inland waterways. Past patterns
of transmission of NIS are likely to be repeated in the future, resulting in

a further expansion of Ponto-Caspian species and in increased invasions
within the Caspian Sea basin itself. Specifically, we expect a range extension
of several invasive species already established in the ecosystems along the
corridor.
The qualitative approach to risk assessment of aquatic invasions, tested for
the Northern Invasion Corridor in the present study, can be considered as a
useful tool for management purposes and is also applicable to other main
European invasion corridors. The Northern Invasion Corridor case study indi-
cated that relevant management options should be first implemented at the
entrances to the inland waterways. Examples of ‘‘abiotic resistance’’ to bio-
logical invasions, such as the soft-water lakes Ladoga and Onega, with effective
natural barrier to the dispersal of Ponto-Caspian species, demonstrate the
potential effectiveness of such barriers along other European inland waterways
for preventing the dispersal of actively migrating NIS. The application of more
accurate quantitative methodology of risk assessment of biological invasions
will be possible only after the development and implementation of comprehen-
sive information systems on shipping statistics and after the collection of
detailed information on the biological traits of invasive NIS established in
the recognized donor areas (including potentially invasive indigenous species).
To obtain such information further studies are required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to three anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and
to Dr. Wolfgang Jansen (North/South Consultants Inc., Canada) for careful
reading and editing of a previous draft of the manuscript. This study has
been supported by the European Commission Sixth Framework Programme
Integrated Project ALARM (Assessing LArge scale environmental Risks for
biodiversity with tested Methods, contract GOCE-CT-2003-506675), Strategic
Targeted Research Project DAISIE (Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories
for Europe, contract SSPI-CT-2003-511202), the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Russian Federation (contract 02.435.11.4003), and Program
‘‘Biodiversity’’ of Russian Academy of Sciences (Area 5).
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Chapter thirty-six
Logistics of shipboard and

dockside testing of ballast
water treatment systems
in the United States
David A. Wright
INTRODUCTION
It is now widely accepted that ballast water, used to maintain ships’ trim and
stability, is a major vector for the unintentional introduction of non-indigenous
organisms into coastal waters (Carlton and Geller 1993, Carlton et al. 1995).
Ballast capacities range from several cubic meters (m3 or tonnes) in the case of
fishing boats to hundreds of thousands of tonnes in very large bulk carriers,
where ballasting rates can be as high as 15,000–20,000 tonnes h1. Ballast
water discharges were recognized as an international concern as early as 1973,
when the United Nations requested the World Health Organization to investi-
gate the spread of epidemic disease spread by ballast water. The U.N. Inter-
national Maritime Organization (IMO) first adopted a voluntary ballast water
exchange standard in 1991 and in 1997; after several subsequent revisions
and enhancements, the IMO Marine Environmental Protection Committee
(MEPC) adopted the IMO guidelines for management of ships’ ballast water.
This culminated in the February 2004 UN. International Convention for the
Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments, whose stated goal
was to control adverse ecological, economic, and human health effects caused
657
ß 2007 Springer.
658 David A. Wright
by the global dispersal of aquatic nuisance species resulting from ballasting/

de-ballasting procedures worldwide. The Convention is pending ratification by
30 States, representing 35% of the world merchant shipping tonnage. Criteria
for ‘successful’ management or treatment have been published as Regulation
D-1, relating to Open Ocean Ballast Water Exchange, and Regulation D-2,
described as the Ballast Water Performance Standard pertinent to the efficacy
of ballast water treatment.
In short, Regulation D-1 reads: The criterion for successful exchange is
defined as a better than 95% volumetric replacement of water either through
an empty-refill procedure or a pass-through procedure involving 3 the volume
of the tank (or less if the 95% exchange is satisfactorily met).
In short, Regulation D-2 reads: The criterion for successful treatment has
been defined as the discharge of less than 10 viable organisms/m3 greater than
or equal to 50 mm in minimum dimension and less than 10 viable organisms/
mL less than 50 mm in minimum dimension and greater than or equal to
10 mm in minimum dimension. Specific bacteria are included as ‘indicator
microbes’, namely strains O1 and O139 of Vibrio cholerae (standard: <1 cfu/
100 mL or <1 cfu/gm wet weight zooplankton); Escherichia coli (standard:
<250 cfu/100 mL); and intestinal enterococci (<100 cfu/100 mL).
Under regulation D-5 of the Convention, these standards are subject to
review, taking into account safety considerations; environmental acceptability,
i.e. not causing more or greater environmental impacts than it solves; practi-
cability, i.e. compatibility with ship design and operations; cost effectiveness; and
biological effectiveness in terms of removing, or otherwise rendering inactive
harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ballast water. The Convention
states that such a review process ‘‘should include a determination of whether
appropriate technologies are available to achieve the standard, an assessment of
the above mentioned criteria, and an assessment of the socio-economic effect(s)
specifically in relation to the developmental needs of developing countries,
particularly small island developing States’’.
In 1990, the US Congress enacted the Non-Indigenous Aquatic Nuisance
Prevention and Control Act which required ships to take measures to reduce the
risk of invasive species transfers to the Great Lakes and Hudson River. This was
reauthorized and expanded nationally as the US National Invasive Species Act
(NISA) of 1996 that became effective in July 1999. The National Aquatic
Invasive Species Act (NAISA) was introduced in the US Congress in 2003. If
passed, it will strengthen the original NISA and make voluntary aspects of that
legislation mandatory. Problems associated with ballast water exchange are
well known and are perhaps best illustrated by the near loss of the car trans-
porter Cougar Ace off Alaska in July 2006. Pending legislation makes provision
for ballast water treatment to standards that are at least as stringent as those
associated with the 2004 IMO convention.
Current research initiatives related to ballast water treatment have, therefore,
focused on the development of the most cost-effective and environmentally
Ballast water treatment systems in the US 659
sound technologies for achieving these standards. An important, related goal

has also been the refinement of appropriate biological end points that effectively
define such standards. It is, for example, a difficult task to assess the viability of
resting spores or dormant stages of organisms, including several members of
the phytoplankton community, such as dinoflagellates, of which many species
are toxic to marine life and therefore cause severe economic damage and can
be even of an immediate threat to human health. Beyond the immediate aim of
establishing ‘dose–response’ parameters for treatment technologies, an impor-
tant secondary goal has been to establish a realistic set of measurements
that can be universally applied to compliance monitoring once ballast water
treatment technologies are in common usage. The UN 2004 Ballast Water
Convention makes provision for the inspection of ships by port State control
officers, who can verify whether the vessels are carrying valid certification and
have up-to-date ballast water log books. Inspectors will have the authority
to collect ballast water samples and may subject these to detailed inspection to
determine whether appropriate management or treatment has been carried out.
Universal standardization of this inspection process will require reliable end
point determinations that are reasonably standardized and not too onerous or
costly to apply.
This paper describes progress to date in two ongoing initiatives in the USA
designed to achieve these goals. The Baltimore Harbor Ballast Water Treatment
Technology Demonstration Program is one of several dockside testing facilities
that are operational or in the planning stages in the USA. Similar initiatives are
being pursued internationally in Norway, Singapore, and Germany, and at the
Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research. The Baltimore facility is the
culmination of more than 15 years continuous funding by the US National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) into invasive species
research and mitigation technologies, and currently represents a partnership
between NOAA, Maryland Port Administration, the US Maritime Administra-
tion, and the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science. The
facility is not affiliated with the testing center located at Key West under
the auspices of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Environmental
Technology Verification (ETV) program, but represents a potential estuarine
alternative to that facility and a freshwater testing facility proposed for the
Great Lakes. The Shipboard Technology Evaluation (STEP) Program, under
the auspices of the US Coast Guard, addresses a need expressed by technology
developers and vessel owners for incentives that will encourage the develop-
ment of prototype treatment systems and shipboard testing. However, vessel
owners have been reluctant to invest the resources to install and operate
experimental treatment systems that might not meet discharge standards man-
dated by future regulations. To address this concern, vessels accepted into this
program may be granted an equivalency to future ballast water discharge
standard regulations, for up to the life of the vessel or the system, while they
operate satisfactorily.
660 David A. Wright
DOCKSIDE TESTING – BALTIMORE HARBOR BALLAST WATER

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
The Baltimore Ballast Water Treatment (BWT) Test Facility was constructed at
the Maryland Port Administration Clinton St. Terminal in 2004–2005. The site
is located on the north shore of the Patapsco River estuary less than a mile from
Baltimore’s Inner Harbor. The system is fully operational and is currently being
used to test a range of Ballast Water Treatment (BWT) technologies at ship-
board, ship-ready scale (Figs. 1 and 2). The system is located in a locked, secure
indoor environment, a disused, covered dock that is shielded from the direct
sunlight and not subject to large fluctuations in temperature. Experimental
biocide discharge permits at the site have been negotiated with Maryland
Department of the Environment on a case-by-case basis.
The facility has several advantages as a test facility for the estuarine environment.
It is centrally located in the Chesapeake Bay at a working dock immediately adjacent
to active loading/unloading facilities involving ballasting/de-ballasting operations.
It is located in an area of high productivity that easily meets the July 2005
Fig. 1 Baltimore Ballast Water Treatment Technology Testing Facility (Maryland Port
Administration, Clinton St. Terminal). Tank layout and biocide dosing equipment.
Fig. 2 Baltimore Ballast Water Treatment Technology Testing Facility (Maryland Port
Administration, Clinton St. Terminal). From top left, clockwise. Self-priming pump
(1500–2000 gpm ” 250 – 350 m3 h1); Sea strainer; UV irradiation system (Aquionics
Inc.); 20 cm discharge þ 10 cm backwash discharge; 3 (treatment) 3 (replicate)
sampling tanks; Primary filter (Arkal Inc.) with backwash system.
662 David A. Wright
modifications to the International Maritime Organization’s standards for minimum

testing requirements at dockside sites with respect to numbers of organisms, i.e.
‘‘test organisms greater than or equal to 10 mm and less than 50 mm in minimum
dimension should be present in a total density of preferably 104, but not less than
103 per mL and should consist of at least five species from at least three different
phyla/divisions’’ (MEPC\53\24\Add.1 ANNEX 3, p. 20). TSS, POC, and DOC con-
ditions are also met at this site (MEPC\53\24\Add.1 ANNEX 3, p. 19). Significantly,
such conditions are not universally met in the US coastal waters. At the Clinton
St. site, plankton densities in the 10–50 mm range occasionally approached
105 per mL during the late summer months with a broad range of phyla repre-
sented.
At the July 2005 meeting of the International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Marine Environmental Protection Committee, the need was established for BWT
testing to be performed at two (or more) salinities separated by at least 10 psu.
The naturally occurring salinities at the site vary seasonally between
<5–>15 psu, although some salinity manipulation is possible through access
to a freshwater supply at the test site. While testing over a range of salinities
remains an option at the Baltimore site, its primary application is perceived as a
mid-salinity alternative to pending or established US testing sites at Key West,
Florida (fully saline), and Duluth, Minnesota (freshwater). Its ambient tempera-
ture is also intermediate between those two sites, although, with temperatures
closer to the Gulf Coast during the summer, it is also seen as a warm water
alternative to a potential cold water test site such as Puget Sound.
SHIPBOARD TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION (STEP) PROGRAM
This program provides shipping companies and vendors of treatment technologies

with an opportunity to install ship-ready equipment, subject to a tolerably suc-
cessful record of pre-installation trials, either at full-scale or with appropriate
scaling parameters. In return for essentially providing test platforms for best
available technologies and the acquisition of important information on biological
end points and the feasibility and durability of BWT technologies under ‘real-world’
conditions, shippers and suppliers who successfully complete the STEP program
qualify for an ‘equivalency’ to any future standards that may apply to BWT. Details
of application requirements for the US Coast Guard STEP program may be found at
http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/mso/step.htm. The basic components of a STEP
application are: (1) a letter of commitment from the shipping company, the
suppliers of the BWT system, and the principal scientists involved in the shipboard
trials; (2) appropriate environmental compliance documentation relating to any
shipboard hazards associated with the BWT technology and environmental con-
sequences of discharged, treated water; (3) documentation of preliminary experi-
ments demonstrating efficacy of the applicant’s treatment system – these can
include bench-scale or mesocosm studies essentially demonstrating that the tech-
nology will be effective an acceptable level, e.g. 98% removal of (zoo)plankton
>50 mm in the smallest dimension; (4) study plan demonstrating an appropriate
degree of endpoint replication during each trial and the conduct of at least one trial
in each distinct water body where the vessel operates; (5) flow chart indicating the
movement of correspondence, decision points, and STEP time line.
Necessary components of the STEP process itself include:
Comparison of treatment system performance with ballast water exchange
(although this is being reconsidered).
Biological experiments documenting viability/mortality of entrained
organisms.
Submission of quarterly and annual reports on the system’s operation and
performance. Presentation of the physical design and engineering of the
treatment system, and plans to maintain reliable operation and monitor
the system’s performance for a three year period (years 2–4) following initial
trial(s). In year 5, a final shipboard test is to be conducted to provide detailed
long-term performance data.
It should be noted that STEP procedures and requirements are similar, but not
necessarily identical to specifications listed by IMO. For a summary of the latter,
the reader is directed to MEPC\53\24\Add.1 ANNEX 3 (pp. 15–17).
SUMMARY OF PROGRESS TO DATE IN DOCKSIDE

AND SHIPBOARD TESTING
Dockside testing
Dockside tests performed at the Baltimore test site since 2004 represent a
continuation of earlier trials carried out aboard the US reserve fleet vessel, the
USS Cape May in 2001. Most of the information from earlier tests has been
reported elsewhere (Wright et al. 2005a, 2007b) and concentrated on the
performance of UV and biocide treatments applied singly. The focus of more
recent trials has been the efficacy of combination treatments, including the
effect of primary filtration in tandem with secondary treatments such as UV
irradiation and biocides. The test system was also used to investigate subsidiary
questions associated with individual treatments. These included the relative
efficacy of the nominal 55 mm vs. the nominal 100 mm configurations of
the filter, the effect of backwashing on filter performance, and the relative
efficacy of UV irradiation applied ‘‘in series’’ vs. ‘‘in parallel’’. The configuration
of the system offers the option of directing water through all four UV systems in
parallel or directing a stream of water first through one pair, then through the
second pair of UV units. A summary of system configurations/combinations
tested in 2004/5 is shown below:
100% vs. 50% UV irradiation (half-strength UV obtained by turning off one
unit on either side of the system)
100% and 50% UV irradiation in series vs. in parallel
664 David A. Wright
55 mm filter configuration þ 50% or 100% UV irradiation

55 mm vs. 100 mm filter configuration of filter in combination with UV
100% and 50% UV irradiation in parallel in combination with 0.5 mg L1
and 1 mg L1 Seakleen
55 mm filter configuration filter þ 100% vs. 50% UV þ 0.5 mg L1 and
1 mg L1 Seakleen
Results from these studies were presented in detail at the March 2006 World
Maritime Technology Conference (Wright 2006) and are briefly summarized
here. Using the disk filter configured for a 55 mm cut-off in series with the UV
system employed at maximum output (30 kW, delivering 200 mW s1 cm2),
a 95% removal of plankton >50 mm was achieved, although in another test
the same performance (95% removal) was seen with the UV system run at 50%
output (100 mW s1 cm2). Only limited comparison can be made between
the results of these trials and data obtained by Waite et al. (2003) in a filter-UV
trial conducted at similar flow rates. Waite et al. (2003) reported a 90%
removal of zooplankton in the >50 mm range using a 50 mm screen filter,
compared with an 81% removal of this size fraction obtained from the Balti-
more study (Wright 2006). However, zooplankton viabilities after filter þ UV
treatment were not recorded by Waite et al. (2003). Based on observations of
bacterial growth in their studies, Waite et al. (2003) recommend a UV dose
substantially higher than the 60 mW s1 cm2 achieved by the system they
tested. Such a conclusion is supported by a series of scaling studies (Wright et al.
2006, 2007b) that indicated a minimum dose of 200 mW s1 cm2 was
needed for the broad spectrum kill that would be required for successful ballast
water treatment.
Shipboard trials
As a precursor to formal STEP trials, a test cruise was performed aboard the
Princess Cruise Lines ship Coral Princess by the same scientific team responsible
for the Baltimore dockside trials. In a report by Royal Haskoning Environmental
Management published by the Northeast Midwest Institute, it was postulated
that the cruise ship industry should play a leading role in the development of
ballast water treatment technology and the suggestion was made that ‘‘the
cruise ship industry may act as a testing ground for up-scalable technologies’’
(Tjallingi and Schilperood 2001). In response to this suggested initiative,
Princess Cruise Lines installed ballast water treatment (BWT) systems aboard
several of their ships beginning in 2002. The BWT system installed aboard
the Coral Princess in 2003 consisted of a disk filter manufactured by Arkal Inc.,
Tel Aviv, Israel (nominal cutoff: 55 mm) mounted upstream from a secondary
treatment system consisting of a medium pressure Aquionics UV system
nominally rated at 200 mW s1 cm2. This was very similar to the system
undergoing testing at the Baltimore dockside site. While the primary goal of the
shipboard trial was to determine the efficacy of the installed BWT system, the
tests performed were designed to inform both efficacy and compliance testing,
both in terms of the sampling strategy and the feasibility of the biological end
points employed.
The trial took place during the repositioning cruise from British Columbia,
through the Panama Canal to Fort Lauderdale, Florida; a distance of approxi-
mately 3,500 miles (Fig. 3). The passage through the Panama Canal provided
an opportunity to determine the efficacy of ballast water exchange (BWE) by
exchanging freshwater from the Panamanian Lakes system with saline western
Caribbean water. A comparison of the salinity shift with changes in biota
determined the efficacy of BWE and provided a direct comparison with BWT.
While detailed accounts of results from this shipboard trial have been published
elsewhere (Wright 2007, Wright et al. 2005b, 2007a,b), major findings and
conclusions are summarized below:
Ballast water exchange as determined by measurement of salinity tends to

overestimate the exchange of planktonic organisms.
Once-through filtration þ UV as a ballast water treatment would not meet
IMO standards, as currently drafted for organisms in the >50 mm range
but would probably meet or exceed the efficacy of ballast water exchange
( 90%).
Once-through filtration þ UV as a ballast water treatment controlled coliform
bacteria but gave mixed results with culturable, heterotrophic bacteria.
Filtration þ UV as a ballast water treatment would not meet IMO standards
as currently drafted for organisms in the 10–50 mm range. For example, the
two dominant genera Guinardia and Dytilum, both within the 10–50 mm size
range, would leave mean live residuals of 508 106 m3 and 289 106 mL3,
thereby exceeding IMO draft standards by factors of 51 and 29, respectively.
Detailed taxonomic identification of phytoplankton is too time-consuming to
be used as a universal biological end point for efficacy or compliance testing
and microscopic examination of nonmotile organisms will not provide suffi-
cient evidence of viability status (e.g. chloroplast integrity is unreliable).
Growth potential (through grow-out) of dominant phytoplankton taxa will
probably provide sufficient evidence of viability for this group.
Several phytoplankton groups overlap in size characteristics into the
>50 mm size range, leaving post-treatment residual densities in this size
range as high as >108 cells m3. This creates significant problems for a
standard of 10 viable organisms per ton.
Preliminary data suggest that a treatment regime comprising filtration þ UV
irradiation at ballasting and a repeated UV treatment at de-ballasting will
achieve current IMO standards for zooplankton, although some clarification
is required. The interval between ballasting and de-ballasting treatment in
this trial was >96 h longer than the definitive STEP test (24 h).
666 David A. Wright
Fig. 3 Test cruise for STEP program aboard MV Coral Princess, September–October
2004.
CONCLUSIONS
Definitive STEP trials are anticipated for the Coral Princess in winter 2007–08
(Caribbean) and summer 2008 (NE Pacific) as part of a 5-year program cul-
minating in a single shipboard trial in 2012. It is anticipated that further
refinement will be made to biological end points throughout the course of
these shipboard trials. These will include better live/dead assessment for
nonmotile organisms, largely phytoplankton, and this in turn may lead to
suggested changes in IMO standards, which are currently based on densities
of specified size classes. Even with adjustments to standards that could, for
example, account for large protists, such as dinoflagellates in the >50 mm
range, the draft IMO standard of 10 live organisms, >50mm (zooplankton) per
ton, remains difficult to meet for nonbiocide treatments. It is suggested that
more stringent standards should be avoided pending more effective treatments
and because they remain virtually unenforceable. A preliminary draft of the
Ballast Water Management Bill (S 363) passed by the US Congress in August
2005 contained a post-treatment standard of 0.1 viable organisms per m3
which would have required the filtration of a minimum of 100 tons of water
aboard the vessel in order to accomplish such a measurement: not a feasible

proposition aboard a working ship. Even with a minimum volume of 1 m3
comprising each replicate sample, filtration, concentration, and examination
of such a sample can be a challenge, particularly where high densities of
organisms are concerned. Discrimination between live and dead organisms
remains a high priority for nonmotile forms such as dormant stages and
provides the impetus for investigations of vital stains such as Sytox Green and
Cell Tracker Green that differentially stain cells with compromised cell mem-
branes (Veldhuis et al. 2006, Wright et al. 2006, unpublished data).
The indication that ballast water treatment may be required during both
ballasting and de-ballasting has crucial implications for land-based testing
facilities, the most important being the necessity for large tanks to be available
under such circumstances. Such tanks would be needed to store water to
simulate ballast tank residence time (usually > 24 h) in sufficient quantity
to avoid running the pump dry when the water is returned to the harbor
during a simulated de-ballasting operation. Using a pump rated at 1500 gpm
( 6 m3 min1) it would require a minimum tank size of 100 m3 to comfort-
ably accommodate the 15 min period required for sample collection and filtra-
tion. Large tanks would also be needed in cases where significant storage time
might be required prior to discharge to allow for chemical degradation in tests of
biocide treatment.
It may also be argued that large tanks would be needed in cases where
manipulations of water conditions (i.e. changes in water quality, additions of
cultured organisms) would be required in order to conform to conditions of
water quality and organism abundance stipulated by the IMO. Readers are
directed to MEPC\53\24\Add.1 ANNEX 3 for a detailed account of these guide-
lines. However, there are inherent drawbacks to such an approach. Apart from
the often prohibitively large effort involved with culturing the numbers of
organisms required to satisfy density requirements for volumes of water likely
to exceed several hundred m3, there is a risk of creating an inherently unstable
assemblage of organisms or set of water quality conditions (or both) that might
be viewed as unrepresentative of the natural environment. For land-based test
systems, a range of water quality and biological conditions is best achieved
through the judicious selection of a variety of sites that cover a spectrum
of environmental parameters. A compromise solution offering a greater degree
of flexibility within the coastal environment is a barge-based test system com-
bining a readily available sampling system with the ability to accommodate a
variety of environmental conditions. Drawbacks to such a system, however,
may include constraints regarding tank size. With respect of biogeochemical
conditions, less flexibility is available to investigators involved with full-scale
shipboard trials, although an improvement of test conditions can be achieved
through the selection of more productive coastal water as the basis for tests, as
opposed to poorly productive offshore water.
668 David A. Wright
REFERENCES
Carlton, J. T. and J. B. Geller. 1993. Ecological roulette: the global transport of non-
indigenous marine organisms. Science 261, 78–82.
Carlton, J. T., D. M. Reid, and H. van Leeuwen. 1995. Shipping study. The role of
shipping in the introduction of non-indigenous aquatic organisms to the coastal
waters of the United States (other than their Great Lakes) and an analysis of control
options. The National Sea Grant College Program/Connecticut Sea Grant Project
R/ES-6. Department of Transportation, United States Coast Guard, Washington DC
and Groton. Connecticut Report No. CG-D-11-95. Government Accession No. AD-
A294809.
Tjallingi, F. and H. Schilperood. 2001. Global market analysis of ballast water treatment
technology. October, 2001. Northeast Midwest Institute, Washington, DC.
Veldhuis, M. J. W., F. Fuhr, J. P. Boon, and C. C. ten Hallers-Tjabbes. 2006. Treatment
of ballast water. How to test a system with a modular concept? Environmental
Technology 27, 909–921.
Waite, T. D., J. Kazumi, P. V. Z. Lane, L. L. Farmer, S. G. Smith, S. L. Smith, G. Hitchcock,
and T. L. Kapo. 2003. Removal of large populations of marine plankton by a large-
scale ballast water treatment system. Marine Ecology Progress Series 258, 51–63.
Wright, D. A. 2006. Practical aspects of ballast water treatment, efficacy and compliance
testing. Proceedings of the 2nd World Maritime Technology Conference. Maritime
innovation - delivering global solutions. March 6–11, 2006, Institute of Marine
Engineering, Science and Technology, London, UK.
Wright, D. A. 2007. Practical aspects of compliance testing for ballast water treatment.
Proceedings of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology, Journal
of Marine Science and Environment, Journal of Marine Design and Operations (B),
in press.
Wright, D. A., R. Dawson, S. M. Moesel, and C. E. F. Orano-Dawson. 2005b. Shipboard
trials of ballast water management options: Part 2. Efficacy of ballast water exchange.
Proceedings of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology, Journal of
Marine Science and Environment (C3), 15–20.
Wright, D. A., R. Dawson, and C. E. F. Orano-Dawson. 2005a. Shipboard trials of ballast
water management options: Part 1. Efficacy of ultraviolet irradiation. Proceedings of
the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology, Journal of Marine
Science and Environment (C3), 1–11.
Wright, D. A., R. Dawson, and C. E. F. Orano-Dawson. 2007a. Shipboard trials of
menadione as a ballast water treatment. Marine Technology 44, 68–76.
Wright, D. A., R. Dawson, C. E. F. Orano-Dawson, and S. M. Moesel. 2007b. A test of the
efficacy of a ballast water treatment system aboard the Vessel Coral Princess. Marine
Technology 44, 57–67.
Wright, D. A., R. Dawson, C. E. F. Orano-Dawson, G. R. Morgan, and J. Coogan. 2006.
The development of ultraviolet irradiation as a method for the treatment of Ballast
water in ships. Proceedings of the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and
Technology, Journal of Marine Science and Environment (C4), 3–12.
Chapter thirty-seven
Virtues and shortcomings

of EU legal provisions
for managing NIS:
Rana catesbeiana and
Trachemys scripta
elegans as case studies
Riccardo Scalera
INTRODUCTION
Every year since 1928 a competition takes place in Angels Camp, California: the
Jumping Frog Jubilee, a popular event inspired by Mark Twain’s famous short
story The celebrated jumping frog of Calaveras County. At the time – the story was
first published in 1865 – the now endangered California red-legged frog (Rana
aurora draytonii Baird and Girard) was very common in that area: thus this was
probably the species used for the competition and to which the story refers.
However, at the end of the 19th century a non-indigenous species (NIS) entered
the scene: the American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana Shaw). Soon after being
introduced into the area, this species replaced the indigenous red-legged frog
within the Calaveras competition, and now, thanks to ‘‘Rosie the Ribiter’’ and
its jump over 6.5 m, the American bullfrog has held the world record since
669
ß 2007 Springer.
1986. Nevertheless the greatest ultimate jump that the species managed to
perform, with substantial help from human agency, has been through the
Atlantic Ocean, from the New to the Old World.
Today, R. catesbeiana, together with the red-eared slider Trachemys scripta
elegans (Wied), is among the approximately 270 non-indigenous amphibians
and reptiles known to be naturalized in the world (Lever 2003). Both
taxa, native to North America, have been introduced into several countries
throughout the world (Chapter 7).
Within the European Union (EU) their presence is documented in several
member States (for a review see Adrados and Briggs 2002). Rana catesbeiana is
known to occur and reproduce in eight countries (Belgium, France, Germany,
Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and the UK) but it seems to be established
only in Italy (Sindaco et al. 2006), France (Pascal et al. 2006), Belgium ( Jooris
2005), and Greece (Crete) (Adrados and Briggs 2002).
The situation is similar for T. s. elegans, whose presence is documented in at
least 12 countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the UK). However, breeding
populations are known only in Spain (Pleguezuelos et al. 2002), Italy (Sindaco
et al. 2006), France (Pascal et al. 2006, Cadi et al. 2004), and possibly the
Balkan peninsula (Džukić and Kalezić 2004).
A STORY OF PETS TURNING INTO PESTS
Today a major cause of intentional and unintentional introductions is related to

the growing trade in wildlife and the overall liberalization of international
business practices. The main problem related to the international trade in
wildlife is that certain NIS marketed over a period of time and frequently
released in the wild have a greater chance to establish self-sustaining popula-
tions (Perrings et al. 2002). In the case of R. catesbeiana and T. s. elegans, the
high number of specimens exported worldwide for the pet and food trade during
the last century has increased the chance of the species becoming naturalized
following intentional or unintentional releases. In practice, R. catesbeiana and
T. s. elegans get established in the wild as a consequence of human mismanage-
ment, in general following abandonment by owners who no longer could or
wanted to take care of them or through escapes from farms, garden ponds, and
other breeding facilities.
This is particularly true for T. s. elegans. According to Hoover (1998), up to eight
million individuals were exported annually from the USA to the European and
Asian markets (from up to 150 commercial farms; Moll 1995). In total, about
52 million specimens of T. s. elegans were exported from the USA between 1989
and 1997 (Telecky 2001). In countries like Italy (see Scalera 2001), Spain
(Pleguezuelos et al. 2002), France (Pascal et al. 2006), and Poland (Najbar 2001),
trade in T. s. elegans involved hundreds of thousands of individuals per year.
Managing Rana catesbeiana and Trachemys scripta elegans 671
As reviewed by Adrados and Briggs (2002), both taxa are considered a

serious ecological threat for indigenous species. Indeed they are voracious
opportunistic predators, eating a wide range of prey, from insects and other
invertebrates to several vertebrates, including amphibians and reptiles, small
mammals, and birds. Competition dynamics with indigenous species are
also known to occur. For instance, R. catesbeiana may compete for food with
indigenous amphibians, at either adult or larval stages (Kupferberg 1997).
Likewise, T. s. elegans may compete with other indigenous pond turtles
(i.e. Emys orbicularis and Mauremys spp.) for food, basking, and nesting sites
(Gasperetti et al. 1993, Miele 2001, Cadi and Joly 2003, 2004). Such species
may also bring the inherent risk of the spread of diseases and parasites. For
instance, R. catesbeiana seems to be involved in the spread of harmful pathogens,
like Chytridiomycosis (Mazzoni et al. 2003), a fatal disease caused by the fungus
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis Longcore, Pessier and Nichols (see also Chapter 7).
Trachemys s. elegans, as many other species, is considered a potential vector
for Salmonella Lignieres (Moll 1995; see also Chapter 7), a gastrointestinal
infection similar to typhoid, dangerous also to humans (that explains the US
ban concerning the sale of hatchling turtles within this country since 1975).
Although extensive studies on the economic impact of these species are not
available, figures related to local situations show that their management may be
very expensive. In the UK, for instance, early efforts to eradicate the first
breeding bullfrog population cost some !32,000 (Adrados and Briggs 2002).
In Germany, according to Reinhardt et al. (2003), the annual cost for measures
to control a few bullfrog populations (in only five ponds) is !270,000. The same
authors assessed that this figure would rise to !4.4 billion if control measures
were needed throughout the whole country.
FIRST STEPS WITHIN THE EU TO MANAGE NIS
In general, the identification of the intervention to be envisaged depends on

several biological, social, and economic factors. Prevention is always the most
environmentally desirable and cost-effective strategy. When prevention has
failed, the best option is the eradication of the undesired species before it
becomes invasive, provided that its presence is detected in time. When eradica-
tion is not feasible – i.e. for either technical or ethical constraints (Genovesi
1998, Kraus and Campbell 2002, Chapter 34) – the only valid alternative is to
reduce the species’ population density below an acceptable threshold, or to
prevent its spread beyond a given geographical boundary (Wittenberg and
Cock 2001). The support of GIS methodologies may contribute to the develop-
ment of theoretical distribution models to predict the potential expansion range
of NIS (Sutherst et al. 1996) and of their impact, i.e. eventual pathogens
associated to their presence (Ron 2005). When control or eradication strategies
are not feasible, the only option is to learn to ‘‘live with’’ the undesired NIS
and to mitigate its impact on indigenous species and on the invaded ecosystems
(Wittenberg and Cock 2001, Chapter 38) by, e.g., implementing habitat restor-
ation plans or restocking and reintroduction programmes for the endangered
indigenous species.
At the EU level, notwithstanding the formal adoption of the pan-European
strategy developed under the Council of Europe (Genovesi and Shine 2004,
Chapter 34), an ad hoc strategy has not yet been developed. As a consequence, a
unified approach to address the problems caused by NIS is lacking, and most
management initiatives undertaken so far were planned on a merely local basis.
For instance, although both T. s. elegans and R. catesbeiana are recognized as
undesired NIS within the EU, eradication programmes have been carried out
only for R. catesbeiana in Germany, the Netherlands, and the U.K. (Adrados and
Briggs 2002), while in France a control programme for this species is just being
implemented (Détaint and Coı̈c 2006). Other relevant actions, concerning T. s.
elegans, include the disposal of live specimen abandoned by amateur pet owners
at rescue centres and zoological gardens, as reported for Italy, Spain, and France
(Adrados and Briggs 2002, Pascal et al. 2006).
However, a more harmonized approach using the available tools is certainly
possible at a regional level. Despite the lack of a strategy, some legal measures to
manage NIS are envisaged within the EU by a few directives and regulations
and their relative amendments. The main ones are:
1. Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 of 9 December 1996 on the protection of

species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein – also known as
the Wildlife Trade regulations.
2. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural
habitats and of wild fauna and flora – also known as the Habitats directive.
3. Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1973/92 of 21 May 1992 establishing a
Financial Instrument for the Environment (LIFE) – also known as the LIFE
programme.
Directives and regulations are enforced by all EU member States. In particular, a

regulation immediately takes on the character of national law within member
States, and is directly implemented, while a directive is implemented by means
of national legislations.
The Wildlife Trade regulations
The Wildlife Trade regulations were adopted by the EU so as to comply with the
provisions of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora. This treaty, also known as CITES, was signed in
Washington in 1973 and is currently implemented in almost 170 countries.
It represents one of the most effective, though complex, international environ-
mental agreements, whose strength is due to the continuous amendments and
updates (under the form of resolutions) related to its interpretation, definitions,

application, and changes in species to be protected. The EU, although not yet
a party to the CITES, has implemented the convention through specific regula-
tions, which are based on Council Regulation (EC) No. 338/97, as amended
(see also Magel 2002). These regulations incorporate all CITES provisions as
well as other stricter measures, so as to be consistent with the adoption of the
single market and with the EU nature conservation policy (i.e. the Habitats
directive, which also includes non-CITES listed species.)
According to the Wildlife Trade regulations, the European Commission may
establish restrictions on the import of ‘‘live specimens of species for which it has
been established that their introduction into the natural environment of the
Community presents an ecological threat to wild species of fauna and flora
indigenous to the Community’’.
Rana catesbeiana and T. s. elegans are very special taxa, since they have been
for almost 10 years the only two species whose import has been suspended
following this provision. However, the suspension of imports was not extended
to subspecies other than T. s. elegans. As a consequence of this major inconsis-
tency, attempts to disguise the head diagnostic colours of specimen belonging to
T. s. elegans have been made in order to smuggle them (Fiori and Avanzo 2002).
Moreover, trade in other subspecies, such as Trachemys scripta scripta (Schoepff ),
Trachemys scripta ornata (Gray), has been increased as well as trade in similar
species such as Trachemys decussata Gray, Chrysemys picta Schneider, and Pseud-
emys concinna floridana (Le Conte). As a result, some of these subspecies and
species have already been recorded in the wild from time to time – i.e. in
Italy (see Bologna et al. 2000), Germany (Winkel et al. 2000), and Spain
(Pleguezuelos et al. 2002).
It is clear that the Wildlife Trade regulations can play a pivotal role in
preventing further introductions, reducing the movement of NIS which might
become invasive, as well as those already introduced and considered for control
or eradication programmes. Such regulations are elastic enough to be adapted
to the contingencies typical of NIS introductions. However, following a specific
study funded by the European Commission on the operation of the import
suspensions and on the effectiveness of these measures (Adrados and Briggs
2002), problems with the use of the Wildlife Trade regulations as a mechanism
for dealing with NIS were identified, and the need for a new instrument was
suggested. As a consequence, the Commission has become rather reluctant to
make additions to the list of species whose import is suspended on these
grounds. This is a major shortcoming, because, although R. catesbeiana and
T. s. elegans are some of the most harmful NIS within the EU – being also among
the ‘‘least wanted’’ taxa at the global level, they are only a small sample of the
taxa whose trade should be suspended to prevent further harmful introductions.
However, in their report to the Commission, Adrados and Briggs (2002)
introduced a couple of interesting concepts. In particular, they emphazised the
need (a) to focus attention towards the ‘‘replacement species’’ and (b) to foresee
adequate measures to control their trade once they are found to occur on the
market above a recommended ‘‘threshold’’. Indeed, in 2005 two more species
were subjected to import suspension, including the North American painted
turtle C. picta, which was identified as a potential replacement species for T. s.
elegans [see Commission Regulation (EC) No. 252/2005]. In fact, the export
quota of C. picta toward the EU increased sharply soon after enforcement of the
import suspension of T. s. elegans, with specimens sold at the same trading point,
similar price, and similar quantities. Moreover, field observations showed that
successful reproduction in the wild may occur, at least in Germany (Fritz and
Lehmann 2002).
The Habitats directive and the LIFE programme
The Habitats directive is one of the main legal instruments for the conservation of
wild threatened species and habitats in the EU, the main objective being the
creation of a regional network of protected areas. This network, called Natura
2000, is aimed at ensuring the long-term conservation of all fauna, flora, and
habitats of EU concerns (including species listed in the Birds directive 79/409/
EEC). This directive formally recognizes NIS as a conservation threat, and has
been supported by a financial instrument called LIFE [from the French acronym
‘‘L’Instrument Financier pour l’Environement’’, see Council Regulation (EEC)
No. 1973/92], which has been aimed at providing adequate resources for the
implementation and development of the EU environmental policy and legislation.
The LIFE financial tool, adopted between 1992 and 2006, has been the main
source of funding specifically aimed at the enforcement of legal provisions for
nature conservation. It has been managed directly by the European Commission
and consisted of three branches, one of which, called LIFE-Nature, was speci-
fically aimed at the implementation of the Habitats directive and at the creation
of the Natura 2000 network. For the period 2007–2013 the LIFE programme is
likely to be replaced by LIFEþ, a new financial programme which is being
developed by the European Commission.
Although actions to manage NIS were not explicitly considered among the
objectives of LIFE, between 1992 and 2002 the European Commission spent
about !30 millions on more than 100 projects including control or eradication
actions against NIS (Scalera and Zaghi 2004). While only a few projects targeted
NIS as a primary objective, a higher number included various measures for
monitoring and controlling NIS as a generic component of site management
programmes, some of which also targeted T. s. elegans and R. catesbeiana. As
emphasized by Scalera and Zaghi (2004), LIFE projects targeting NIS were
selected for funding without any clear guiding strategy. However, the actual
contribution of the LIFE programme and the Habitats directive, despite some
inherent limits, is quite concrete compared to other existing legal tools dealing
with NIS, which generally lack specificity and enforceability due to their vague-
ness and/or the lack of financial resources for implementation (Scalera 2004).
Of course, in the future more attention should be paid to the potentialities

of the Habitats directives and LIFEþ. If adequately planned, this programme
could offer important opportunities. Although the rules do not foresee actions
specifically directed at managing NIS, it is possible to address them whenever
they represent a threat for the species and habitats of EU importance. Experience
with the former LIFE programme emphasized the need for a national frame-
work of programmes or multinational initiatives (Scalera and Zaghi 2004).
Therefore, notwithstanding the lack of a comprehensive strategy or a specific
legislation developed at EU level – only a pan-European strategy is available
so far (Genovesi and Shine 2004) – member States should encourage actions
to deal with NIS in the projects to be financed by LIFEþ.
CONCLUDING REMARKS: THE WAY AHEAD
Within the EU, the lack of a comprehensive strategy to deal with harmful NIS
and the absence of specific funds for the implementation of effective measures
(EU funds are only partially available to deal with NIS), may represent a major
limit for the sound management of the undesired populations of successfully
established NIS.
The management of R. catesbeiana and T. s. elegans, in accordance with the
Wildlife Trade regulations, has shown that such a tool does not fully provide the
powers needed to deal effectively with NIS and has confirmed the need for a
specific EU legislation (Adrados and Briggs 2002). However, the time needed to
develop a new legal framework would be very long. In order to be effective, this
framework should guarantee a sound harmonization of all existing legislations
relevant to all sectors involved in this cross-cutting issue, for instance nature
conservation, trade, agriculture, fisheries, health, and research. Enforcing a new
legislation would be also very expensive. Regulating the trade in a number of
NIS needs stringent border control, which in turn requires a framework of rules,
training and capacity-building programmes, increased cooperation between the
relevant authorities, technical protocols for actions to be undertaken, and
reference lists of species and identification guides.
Although the mechanisms for implementing such regulations are neither
adequate nor intended to control the movement of an unlimited number of
species – the number of NIS likely to become invasive is potentially unlimited –
they have provided some concrete contributions. For instance, the Wildlife
Trade regulations have allowed a number of seizures that prevented further
possible releases of NIS as a consequence of the typically questionable mis-
management which affects the species commonly kept as pets. For instance,
following implementation of such regulations, in Italy between 1999 and 2000
the national authorities seized about 23,000 specimens of T. s. elegans, with
an economic value of !296,000 (Fiori and Avanzo 2002). Such seizures can
have an important effect in facing the spread of NIS. In fact, in Europe most
populations of R. catesbeiana and T. s. elegans are likely to be present especially as

a consequence of continuous releases, rather than to the existence of viable
populations (see Luiselli et al. 1997, Bruekers and Van der Keijlen 1999,
Adrados and Briggs 2002, Cadi and Joly 2003, Cadi et al. 2004, Hill et al. 2005).
In conclusion, before an ad hoc legislation is available, focusing on the
potential role of the existing Wildlife Trade regulations and of the Habitats
directive (European Commission 2003, Scalera and Zaghi 2004) could be key
to preventing further introductions of NIS within the EU Member States and
to enacting positive synergies with other international treaties and agreements.
Such regulations and directives can contribute either to prevent novel intro-
ductions or to respond to the spread of species already established (Adrados and
Briggs 2002). These contributions comply with the provisions which should be
included in a sound legal framework to face NIS (Shine et al. 2000). The
measures tested on T. s. elegans and R. catesbeiana may support the implemen-
tation of Recommendation No. 99 (2003) of the Standing Committee of the
Council of Europe, on the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (Genovesi
and Shine 2004), based on the Convention on Biological Diversity guiding
principles (Decision VI/23).
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Chapter thirty-eight
Problems and opportunities

managing invasive
Bullfrogs: is there any hope?
Michael J. Adams and Christopher A. Pearl
INTRODUCTION
The American Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana Shaw) is a widely introduced and

invasive anuran that is frequently blamed for population declines of indigenous
species (Bury and Whelan 1984). Once established, Bullfrog populations
are often either difficult or impossible to eradicate depending on habitat and
landscape features (Schwalbe and Rosen 1988, Doubledee et al. 2003,
Govindarajulu et al. 2005). Bullfrogs are representative of a large but neglected
suite of non-indigenous species (NIS) that are characterized by: (1) a broad
invasion that is well established in some areas; (2) a lack of obvious economic
impacts compared to some other invasive species; and (3) a lack of reasonably
feasible control methods. Despite demonstrated conservation concerns, invasive
species like the Bullfrog do not tend to attract the resources necessary to attempt
large scale management because of their lack of economic impact and the
difficulty of control methods. This leaves biologists responsible for managing
habitats invaded by such species with little hope and few options for promoting
the persistence of sensitive indigenous species. With these issues in mind, we
consider the case of the Bullfrog, review management options, and suggest
directions for future research with this and similar species.
Bullfrogs are among the most successful vertebrate invaders and are con-
sidered by the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group to be among the 100
worst invaders in the world (http://www.issg.org/database/welcome). The
679
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680 Michael J. Adams and Christopher A. Pearl
native range of the Bullfrog covers much of eastern North America, roughly
from the Mississippi River and Great Lakes east to the Atlantic Ocean and from
the State of Florida north into southern Canada (Bury and Whelan 1984). Few
anurans exhibit such a large native range. This broad native distribution is
indicative of the adaptability and success of Bullfrogs and is dwarfed by their
present range. They now occupy much of the western USA (Casper and Hen-
dricks 2005), and parts of western Canada (Green and Campbell 1984), Mexico
(Casas-Andreu et al. 2002), Brazil (Borges-Martins et al. 2002), Ecuador (Cis-
neros-Heredia 2004), Venezuela (Hanselmann et al. 2004), Cuba (Sampedro
et al. 1985), Dominican Republic (Kairo et al. 2003), Jamaica (Mahon and
Aiken 1977), Puerto Rico (Lopez-Flores et al. 2003), Hawaii (Viernes 1995),
Japan (Hirai 2004), China (Wu et al. 2004), Korea (Kim and Ko 1998), Italy
(Lanza 1962), France (Neveu 1997), the Netherlands (Stumpel 1992), and the
UK (Banks et al. 2000), among other locations (Lever 2003).
Original introduction of Bullfrogs to many of these locations occurred more
than 50 years ago for culturing as a food source, sometimes after the over-
harvest of indigenous anurans (Jennings and Hayes 1985, Negroni 1997,
Mazzoni 1999). Escapees and intentional releases established naturalised popu-
lations that are often difficult to eradicate. Post-metamorphic stages are capable
of dispersing long distances and are adept at colonizing new sites (>1200 m;
Willis et al. 1956). A single female Bullfrog can produce 1,000–25,000
eggs with the largest females sometimes producing more than 40,000 eggs
(Bury and Whelan 1984). Breeding sites can achieve notably high densities
(>780 adults ha 1; Schwalbe and Rosen 1988).
The conspicuousness (e.g. large size, high densities, and loud vocalizations)
and natural history (e.g. high fecundity and broad diet) of Bullfrogs make their
introduction an obvious hypothesis to explain declines in indigenous species.
Early reports suggested displacement of indigenous amphibians (Moyle 1973,
Hammerson 1982), but separating the influence of Bullfrogs from correlated
factors has proven difficult (Hayes and Jennings 1986, Adams 1999). Some
studies suggest that other factors associated with Bullfrog presence, like intro-
duced fish or habitat alterations, may be more detrimental to indigenous species
than the Bullfrogs themselves (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998, Adams 1999,
2000). However, an increasing number of studies shows direct and indirect
negative effects of Bullfrogs on indigenous anurans via competition, predation,
and habitat displacement (Boone et al. 2004, Pearl et al. 2004, others reviewed
in Kiesecker 2003). Bullfrog invasions may also affect other taxa such as
aquatic snakes and waterfowl (Viernes 1995, Rosen and Schwalbe 2002,
Lopez-Flores and Vilella 2003, Wylie et al. 2003). Recent work raises the
possibility that Bullfrogs may serve as a reservoir of a chytrid fungus, Batracho-
chytrium dendrobatidis (Longcore et al. 1999), pathogenic to some amphibians
(Hanselmann et al. 2004, Pearl and Green 2005, Garner et al. 2006). Despite
some conflicting reports and regional differences in effects, Bullfrogs are clearly
a conservation concern.
Managing invasive Bullfrogs 681
MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Ongoing expansion of Bullfrogs to a wide variety of regions and habitats

underscores the need for a suite of management approaches. No discussion of
management options for invasive species is complete without mentioning pre-
vention. The best way to control invasive species is to prevent their introduction
or establishment in new regions. This is because it is often difficult to detect new
invasions early and eradication is much more realistic for species with a limited
distribution (Simberloff et al. 2005). A review of the papers cited in our intro-
duction on the geographic extent of the Bullfrog invasion suggests that most
Bullfrog introductions have been associated with aquaculture. Escape from such
operations appears impossible to stop completely. Other vectors include the use
of Bullfrog tadpoles as bait for recreational fishing and the availability of live
Bullfrogs for pets, landscape ponds, research, and teaching. Efforts to reduce or
eliminate these vectors are warranted to slow or prevent the spread of Bullfrogs,
but we will not attempt a detailed analysis of such prevention options here.
Instead, we focus on methods applicable to established populations.
Direct removal
We define direct removal of Bullfrogs as actions that have a proximate result of

death or removal of Bullfrog individuals from the wild. This is in contrast to
other options described below that seek to reduce the survival or effects of
Bullfrogs by manipulating aspects of their environment. There are a few anec-
dotal accounts of efforts to directly control Bullfrogs but we are not aware of any
publications that fully detail such efforts. Banks et al. (2000) installed fencing
around the main ponds to limit dispersal and used lamps to collect adult frogs at
dusk. They then drained the ponds and excavated the sediment to remove
remaining frogs and larvae. This effort apparently did not result in complete
eradication: limited breeding was detected the following summer, and post
metamorphic bullfrogs were found in the vicinity two years after management
(B. Banks 2006, personal communication). Another direct removal effort that
has been partially documented in the literature is in ponds that are relatively
isolated in a desert landscape in Arizona, USA (Schwalbe and Rosen 1988,
Rosen and Schwalbe 1995). They used funnel traps, gigs, guns, and hand
capture to remove Bullfrogs annually. Reductions in Bullfrog densities were
said to be small and short-lived.
Direct removal techniques are hampered by strong density dependence.
Bullfrog populations may exhibit density dependence in both the larval
and post-metamorphic segments of their life history (Doubledee et al. 2003,
Govindarajulu et al. 2005). Demographic perturbation analyses of data from
invaded ponds in British Columbia suggest that removal efforts should
target juveniles and tadpoles that transform after one instead of two winters
(Govindarajulu et al. 2005). This is consistent with elasticity analyses for other
pond-breeding anurans that predict that reducing survival of juveniles rather

than other life stages should have the greatest effect on population growth rate
(Biek et al. 2002, Vonesh and de la Cruz 2002). For Bullfrogs and some other
temperate ranids, incomplete removal of eggs or larvae can boost growth and
survival of remaining individuals via strong density dependence (Altwegg
2002, Govindarajulu 2004). Likewise, a reduction in the density of adult
Bullfrogs can increase the survival of juveniles that would otherwise be prey
for adults (Werner et al. 1995, Doubledee et al. 2003, Govindarajulu 2004).
Doubledee et al. (2003) used population models to evaluate the potential effect-
iveness of shooting adult Bullfrogs. Their results suggest that efforts sufficient to
increase adult mortality by 65% or greater every 2 years would be necessary
to reduce Bullfrog densities enough to benefit California Red-Legged Frogs
(Rana draytonii Baird and Girard). However, they also suggest that this level of
mortality would be difficult to achieve and that the resulting fluctuations in
the Bullfrog population might lead to dangerous instability in the California
Red-Legged Frog population. Bullfrog life history and demography vary among
sites and regions (e.g. Viparina and Just 1975, Cecil and Just 1979), and this
variation will need to be accounted for in control prescriptions (Govindarajulu
et al. 2005).
The high fecundity, density dependence, and evasiveness of Bullfrogs, along
with the complexity of invaded wetlands, often make direct removal difficult.
Even in small and relatively simple ponds, direct manual removal may need to
be coupled with other activities to eradicate or control a population (Banks et al.
2000, Doubledee et al. 2003). Still, such actions are warranted in situations
where Bullfrogs are threatening an endangered species and in the early stages of
invasion. Direct removal will be more effective for small, isolated ponds where
removal can be complete and reinvasion by overland dispersal is less likely.
Habitat manipulation
Given that direct removal is usually difficult, finding methods to indirectly control
Bullfrogs or their effects is appealing. Opportunities to manage habitats present
themselves in the course of other management activities. For example, wetland
creation, restoration, and enhancement projects offer the chance to manipulate
wetland characteristics in ways that promote indigenous versus invasive species.
Preventing or controlling invasive plants is often a goal of wetland restoration or
enhancement (e.g. Kentula et al. 1992). The role that wetland characteristics can
play in managing invasive animals like the Bullfrog is less clear.
Some authors have suggested habitat and landscape characteristics that
might be managed to limit the dispersal of Bullfrogs. For example, connections
to permanent ponds in the form of streams, ditches, or flooding might increase
the chance that Bullfrogs will invade a site (Pearl et al. 2005). Among other
things, this suggests that mitigation of isolated wetlands that are lost to devel-
opment should emphasize isolation as a desirable characteristic for new sites
created. This has intuitive appeal, but the factors that influence Bullfrog move-
ment through a landscape require more study. Moreover, the effects of connec-
tivity and landscape patterns on the dynamics of indigenous species must also
be considered.
Habitat management can be viewed as a technique to indirectly reduce or
eliminate Bullfrogs. An obvious example is the alteration of hydroperiod. Bull-
frogs overwinter as larvae in many regions and they generally depend on
permanent waters for larval growth. Maret et al. (2006) found that drying
could be used to eliminate Bullfrogs in some livestock watering ponds. Pond
drying was also effective for local elimination of non-indigenous fish (Maret et al.
2006), which can interact with Bullfrogs in ways detrimental to indigenous
anurans (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998, Adams et al. 2003). Model compari-
sons of pond drying and adult removal caused Doubledee et al. (2003) to
conclude that draining ponds every two years might reduce Bullfrog densities
enough to allow the persistence of California Red-Legged Frogs. Their models
suggest that a combination of adult removal and periodic pond draining can be
an effective strategy to allow coexistence of California Red-Legged Frogs with
Bullfrogs.
The use of pond drying to limit Bullfrogs and benefit natives requires add-
itional research and will be region-specific. How to use drying rotations to
reduce Bullfrogs without harming natives in groups of wetlands is poorly
known (e.g. Maret et al. 2006). Drying effects on indigenous species must be
considered fully prior to implementing such management plans. A case in point
is the conservation of the threatened California Red-Legged Frog, which was
recently confirmed to overwinter as larvae in some sites (Fellers et al. 2001). In
warmer portions of their range, Bullfrogs are capable of reaching transfor-
mation in their first summer (Cohen and Howard 1958, Bury and Whelan
1984). Care must be taken to time draining such that there will not be selection
for rapid development of larval Bullfrogs. This means draining the pond fast
enough and early enough to prevent any rapidly developing portion of the
population from reaching metamorphosis.
Whether there are habitat features other than hydroperiod that can be
manipulated to control Bullfrog density is an open question. There is some
evidence that Bullfrogs are less abundant in ponds in the Pacific Northwest
with shallow sloping banks and extensive emergent vegetation (Adams et al.
2003). This may have less to do with Bullfrog habitat requirements than with
associated patterns in the community (see Community Characteristics below),
but suggests the possibility that pond characteristics other than hydroperiod
can be manipulated to limit Bullfrogs.
Habitat characteristics can also mediate the interactions between two species.
For example, it has long been thought that habitat complexity can facilitate prey
survival (Huffaker 1958, Crowder and Cooper 1982, Sredl and Collins 1992).
Habitat diversity can decrease encounter rates by increasing habitat segregation
of predator and prey (Smith 1972). Habitat segregation could serve to reduce
both predation and competition (Smith 1972). Structure such as vegetation can
also reduce the effectiveness of some predators by reducing encounter rates
within microhabitats (Savino and Stein 1982, Babbitt and Jordan 1996). It has
been argued that short term measures that favor the indigenous species might
allow natives to adapt in a way that allows their long-term persistence without
further intervention (Schlaepfer et al. 2005). For example, when exposed to
chemical cues from Bullfrogs, Red-legged frogs from populations that are syn-
topic with Bullfrogs can exhibit behavioral defenses that are enhanced relative
to allotopic populations (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997).
The demography of the typical pond breeding anuran is such that predation
by Bullfrogs on recently transformed juveniles might be particularly detrimental
to indigenous populations (Biek et al. 2002, Vonesh and de la Cruz 2002). This
suggests a hypothesis that providing some form of cover in the portion of a pond
where juvenile indigenous frogs emerge could promote survival of natives by
reducing Bullfrog predation on natives. It has also been suggested that provid-
ing riparian cover and feeding areas around ponds and suitable streams can
encourage indigenous species to leave the pond habitats where they are more
likely to encounter Bullfrogs (Govindarajulu 2004). These hypotheses illustrate
that the potential use of habitat to mediate Bullfrog interactions with indige-
nous species warrants further study.
Despite extensive theoretical evidence that habitat characteristics could
influence the probability that indigenous species can coexist with Bullfrogs,
there is little information upon which to base habitat guidelines. Indeed, there
is currently a need for observations that identify habitat characteristics to test.
Studies that quantify associations between Bullfrogs and various indigenous
species (e.g. Adams 1999, Kiesecker et al. 2001) provide a ready source of data
to further define habitat attributes that could increase persistence of natives if
Bullfrogs are not eradicated. For example, a study conducted by Pearl et al.
(2005) in the Willamette Valley of western Oregon takes the traditional
approach of evaluating the potential for Bullfrogs to exclude indigenous amphib-
ians but could, instead, investigate predictors of coexistence between indigenous
species and Bullfrogs. We revisited these data to determine whether wetlands
with coexistence had habitat characteristics that differed from wetlands where
only Bullfrogs or only the indigenous species (Northern Red-Legged Frog, Rana
aurora Baird and Girard) are found. Using Principal Components Analysis, we
explored the explanatory value of variables related to wetland size, vegetation,
depth, height of riparian vegetation, substrate slope, and road length within
200 m. We targeted these variables because large wetlands and shallow wet-
lands with extensive emergent vegetation might allow greater microhabitat
segregation of Bullfrogs and indigenous species. Likewise, suitable riparian
characteristics might reduce the amount of time that indigenous species spend
in contact with the more aquatic Bullfrogs. Our analysis indicated that wetlands
with greater portions of surface area with emergent vegetation might be more
likely to support coexistence or to support Northern Red-Legged Frogs alone
Extensive Emergent Vegetation

Mostly Shallow
Sparse Emergent Vegetation
Mostly Deep
Small Large
Shaded Unshaded
Few Roads Nearby Many Roads
Fig. 1 Characteristics of wetlands with Northern Red-legged Frogs only (open dia-
mond), Northern Red-legged Frogs and Bullfrogs (gray diamond), and Bullfrogs only
(black diamond). The axes are principal components based on habitat variables measured
during surveys for amphibians at 85 wetlands in the Willamette Valley, Oregon (Pearl et al.
2005).
(Fig. 1). As this was just an exploratory analysis, this pattern should be
considered preliminary rather than conclusive. However, this approach can
contribute to understanding coexistence by supplementing the more common
approach of describing the occupancy and abundance of indigenous species
relative to Bullfrog presence, Bullfrog abundance, and habitat characteristics.
The pattern of coexistence in the Willamette Valley shows that further research
seeking options to promote coexistence of indigenous amphibians with Bullfrogs
via habitat management is warranted.
Community characteristics
Larval Bullfrogs differ from most other temperate ranids in several ecologically
important ways. In their native range, Bullfrogs share permanent waters
with a variety of warm water fish (Werner and McPeek 1994). In particular,
Bullfrogs often co-occur with sunfish (family Centrarchidae), which include
pumpkinseed, bluegill, crappie, and bass. Many fish avoid feeding on Bullfrog
tadpoles which are somewhat unpalatable (Kruse and Francis 1977, Kats et al.
1988). These fish have an effect on pond communities that Bullfrogs exploit:
they reduce the size and abundance of macroinvertebrates that can be major
predators of Bullfrog larvae (Werner and McPeek 1994, Skelly 1996).
Research in the State of Oregon, USA, has shown that invasive bluegill
(Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque) increase the survival of Bullfrog tadpoles by
reducing the abundance of indigenous aeshnid dragonfly larvae (Adams et al.
2003). Survival of Bullfrog tadpoles was 0% in experimental enclosures that
lacked bluegill but had aeshnids; compared to 20% survival in enclosures with
both bluegill and aeshnids. This suggests that reducing or eliminating bluegill
and perhaps other similar centrarchids could be a way to reduce or eliminate
Bullfrog populations. Moreover, limiting the spread or intentional introduction
of such ‘‘facilitator’’ species may help limit the spread or abundance of Bullfrogs.
This hypothesis is supported by field surveys in Oregon, showing that Bull-
frogs are less likely to occur and appear to be less abundant at sites lacking
introduced centrarchids compared to sites with centrarchids present (Adams
et al. 2003).
This research also suggests a hypothesis that indigenous macroinvertebrates
can resist Bullfrog invasion or help restrict Bullfrog populations to low enough
densities that indigenous species can persist. Research is needed to understand
the factors that regulate the abundance of predaceous macroinvertebrates and
their effectiveness as Bullfrog predators. Such research might indicate features
of wetlands that could be manipulated to manage the Bullfrog problem.
LIVING WITH INVASIVE SPECIES
Invasive species research and management have typically centered on predic-

tion, prevention, and eradication (Mack et al. 2000, Simberloff et al. 2005). In
the early stages of invasion, aggressive actions to eradicate the invader are
warranted and, in some cases, intensive efforts to directly control invaders may
be preferred even after broad establishment. However, many aggressive in-
vaders like the Bullfrog, once established, are difficult or impossible to directly
control or eradicate (e.g. Mack et al. 2000). Even if viable approaches for
eradication exist, substantial resources are seldom available for any but the
most economically damaging species. Moreover, intensive efforts to eradicate
can sometimes have negative side effects (Zavaleta et al. 2001, Maret et al.
2006). These factors can leave few options for managing the problem.
The difficulty in eradicating Bullfrogs, particularly over large areas, is a
common situation in invasive species management and may lead to a sense of
futility. However, many of the non-eradication options discussed above have
not been adequately explored and have the potential to promote the persistence
of some indigenous species despite the invasion of Bullfrogs. In particular, while
Bullfrogs are a problem for a variety of indigenous species and there is also
evidence that some otherwise vulnerable natives can sometimes coexist with
Bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997, Adams 1999, Govindarajulu 2004,
Pearl et al. 2004). Coexistence suggests that other factors such as habitat
conditions can mitigate the negative effects of Bullfrogs. Management options
that focus on indigenous species persistence have potentially broad application
but have received little research relative to more direct eradication and control
measures.
We suggest that indigenous species persistence might be a primary goal of
managers that have broadly established Bullfrog populations with little hope of
eradication. However, managers must also consider the characteristics of the
indigenous species when setting goals. It seems likely that some indigenous
species simply may not be able to coexist with Bullfrogs while others, though
vulnerable to negative effects, might benefit from efforts to promote their
persistence despite the presence of Bullfrogs. Indigenous species are more likely
to coexist with invaders such as Bullfrogs if natural history and microhabitat
preferences of the former limit spatial and temporal overlap with the invader.
This is likely to be particularly important during life history stages that are
demographically influential.
Consider two pond-breeding ranid frogs that historically co-occurred in low-
lands of north-western North America: Northern Red-Legged Frogs and Oregon
Spotted Frogs (Rana pretiosa Baird and Girard). There is some evidence of decline
for both species but Oregon Spotted Frogs have experienced the greatest losses.
Bullfrogs have been implicated in population losses of both species, and both use
the same general habitats as Bullfrogs in the region. Several factors indicate that
Northern Red-Legged Frogs might be more likely than Oregon Spotted Frogs to
coexist with Bullfrogs (Pearl et al. 2004). First, experimental trials in mesocosms
showed that, given a choice between land or water, Oregon Spotted Frogs and
Bullfrogs both chose water more often than Northern Red-Legged Frogs. This
difference in microhabitat use could reduce contact between Bullfrogs and
Northern Red-Legged Frogs. Second, this same study found that, when all
three species are placed together in a mesocosm with both land and water
available, juvenile Oregon Spotted Frogs do not survive as well as juvenile
Northern Red-Legged Frogs. This supports the notion that differences in micro-
habitat use help protect Northern Red-Legged Frogs from Bullfrog predation.
Third, larval Northern Red-Legged Frogs are able to modify risky behaviors
in the presence of cues of invasive predators including Bullfrogs (Kiesecker
and Blaustein 1997, Pearl et al. 2003). Fourth, juveniles of the Northern
Red-Legged Frog tend not to linger around breeding ponds (Nussbaum et al.
1983, C. Pearl 2000, personal observation) and the adults spend much of their
lives away from their breeding sites (Licht 1969, 1986). In contrast, post-
metamorphic Oregon Spotted Frogs, like Bullfrogs, remain closely tied to aquatic
habitats throughout their lives (Licht 1969, 1986, Pearl et al. 2004). Finally,
field surveys at sites where both natives were known to occur found Northern
Red-Legged Frogs persisting after Bullfrog invasion more frequently than

Oregon Spotted Frogs (Pearl et al. 2004).
Another example exists within the native range of the Bullfrog in Ontario,
Canada, where Green Frogs (Rana clamitans Latreille), which share aquatic
habitat with Bullfrogs, responded positively to local Bullfrog extinction (Hecnar
and M’Closkey 1997). The relative abundance of Northern Leopard Frogs
(Rana pipiens Schreber), which use aquatic habitats favored by Bullfrogs less
than Green Frogs, decreased after the same Bullfrog extinction (Hecnar and
M’Closkey 1997). In general, highly aquatic species such as the Oregon Spotted
Frog may not be good candidates for coexistence with Bullfrogs whereas a
species like the Northern Red-Legged Frog, despite having breeding sites in
common with Bullfrogs, has greater potential to coexist with Bullfrogs.
A detailed understanding of behavioral and life history characteristics of indige-
nous species may provide clues to their vulnerability to invasive species. Such
insights can inform management prescriptions, including when to consider
aggressive control efforts and when to focus on the persistence of natives.
CONCLUSIONS
There are no easy solutions to the Bullfrog problem but there is hope for
progress. Given sufficient resources, eradication is an option for small isolated
ponds and, if possible, should be emphasized when endangered indigenous
species with vulnerable natural history characteristics are involved. When
this fails, there is evidence that some indigenous amphibians can coexist with
Bullfrogs in some habitats despite negative effects of Bullfrogs. This gives us
reason to believe that managing habitat and community characteristics has
potential to promote coexistence. Our primary thesis is that further research
could lead to management options that promote the persistence of indigenous
species despite the ongoing presence of Bullfrogs and that such options have
been neglected. This conclusion is somewhat dependent on the assumption that
observed coexistence between some indigenous species and Bullfrogs is not
simply a transitory condition but rather is a function of species and site char-
acteristics.
Several lines of inquiry need increased attention to develop management
options for Bullfrogs in regions where they are well established or cannot
otherwise be directly eradicated. These include:
1. Temporal dimensions of coexistence: Are cases of observed coexistence tran-

sitory or related, at least in part, to local conditions? This is a critical question
whenever comparative studies based on patterns of coexistence are being
used to suggest that certain habitat features might promote coexistence.
2. Habitat mediation: How do physical attributes of water bodies and upland
habitats affect Bullfrog abundance and interactions with indigenous species?
Are there attributes that promote coexistence with some species? If so, are
there ways to manage these attributes to benefit indigenous species?
3. Invasion resistance: What features of indigenous communities can help
resist Bullfrogs? Options that prevent invasion are obviously desirable but
there may also be options that help constrain Bullfrogs to low numbers.
Despite evidence that some odonates are voracious predators of Bullfrog
tadpoles, there is little information addressing interspecific differences in
predation rates or habitat features that promote various odonate species.
How can beneficial species be encouraged?
4. Mutualism: Are some NIS facilitating further invasion? Can knowledge of
positive interactions among NIS be used to manage invasives? This is a new
topic in invasive species research but a link has already been identified
between non-indigenous fish and Bullfrogs (Adams et al. 2003). There is
potential for other mutualistic interactions to be important.
In conclusion, we emphasize that while the Bullfrog invasion problem may

seem discouraging, there are management options both existing and in need of
further research that give reason to hope for future progress.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank J. Bowerman, J. Erickson, S. Galvan, F. Gherardi, and E. Muths for

assistance and helpful suggestions on this manuscript.
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Concluding remarks
The need for more research should not be casually invoked as an excuse for inaction.
Daniel Simberloff (2003)
Chapter thirty-nine
A role for scientists
Francesca Gherardi
Species introductions and their ecological consequences have long fascinated

scientists. In trying to explain patterns of species distributions and abundances,
Charles Darwin (1859) was faced with the problems of non-indigenous species
(NIS) (Cadotte 2006). He used them as a device to illustrate his theory of natural
selection and descent with modifications, but he was also the first to note
marked effects that these species had on the recipient communities. Invaders
‘‘from different quarters of the globe’’, as he wrote in The Origin of Species
(1859), have greatly reduced in number the endemic species in the southeast
corner of Australia (p. 124). So, caution should be taken, Darwin recom-
mended, ‘‘in transporting animals from one district to another’’ (p. 136). It
was a century later that Charles Elton’s The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and
Plants (1958) inspired much of the interest and understanding of invasions in
our lifetime. Indeed, investigating the ‘‘ecological explosions’’ (p. 15) that occur
‘‘when a foreign species successfully invades another country’’ and analyzing
the ‘‘mingling of thousands of kinds of organisms from different parts of the
world’’ and their induced ‘‘changes in the natural population balance’’ (p. 18)
are the major tasks of the contemporary invasion biologists.
The world today is much more ‘‘explosive’’ than in the 1950s. The volume of
flora and fauna that is shuttled from one geographic realm to another has
greatly expanded. The ballast water of cargo vessels alone can transfer up to
3,000–4,000 species per day from one continent to the other. Extrapolating
these numbers to all the kinds of vessels at sea at any given time, a total of
7,000–10,000 species are translocated per any 24 h period (Carlton 1999). The
increased complexity of international trade has opened new pathways and
facilitated the ease with which potentially invasive species can move along
these pathways. A wide diversity of vectors can transport invaders, including
aquaculture, aquaria, ballast water, and even sushi and live seafood (Carlton
and Geller 1993, Chapman et al. 2004). Almost every aquatic or wetland plant
697
ß 2007 Springer.
designated as a noxious weed can be ordered through e-commerce from an

aquatic plant nursery somewhere (Kay and Hoyle 2001). The deregulation of
national and international markets has reduced the barriers to trade and their
surveillance, facilitating the movement, for instance, of thousands of species
into North America by the aquarium industry alone (Welcomme 1984). In
addition, the impact of biological invaders has been made more intense – and
elusive – by the delay with which human behavior, social norms, and cultural
traditions respond to the new risks that they pose (Perrings et al. 2002).
Indeed, much progress in the knowledge of invasion biology has been made
within the five decades following the publication of Elton’s book (Williamson
1996, 1999, Lonsdale 1999) – and this volume is the expression of the prolif-
eration of scientific interest in biological invasions also in freshwater systems.
The research has emerged on several fronts, especially following the series of
invasion volumes published between 1986 and 1989 as the proceedings of the
SCOPE (Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment) symposia and
workshops (e.g. Mooney and Drake 1986, Drake et al. 1989, Davis 2006). Since
then, the scientific literature has moved on from its effort to describe the
characteristics that make a species a good invader, or a community invasible,
to the focus on the interactions between the invader and the target ecosystem.
Qualitative studies have been replaced by quantitative assessments of the attri-
butes of the invaders and of the invaded communities. Paleobiological studies,
microcosm/mesocosm experiments, and modeling exercises have contributed to
raise our awareness that history, chance, and determinism interact to shape
ever-changing communities.
The increased concern about the rising economic and ecological costs
inflicted by invasive species has induced many constituencies in several coun-
tries to seek to reduce their occurrence and impact. Problems caused by intro-
duced species were included as a priority item (article 8h) in the 1992 ‘‘Rio’’
Convention on Biological Diversity and international organizations (Global
Invasive Species Programme, Convention on Biological Diversity) began to
implement this article. In the last decade, many nations have recognized the
impact of some introduced species as a problem and have attempted to imple-
ment and improve administrative and legal solutions (e.g. New Zealand, South
Africa, the USA, and European Union). National and international initiatives
have been taken to assess the risk of future introductions, the potential for
establishment and expansion, and the subsequent impacts (e.g. IUCN 1987,
FAO 1995, 1996, US ANS Task Force 1996, NZ MAF 2002, UK Defra 2003).
Finally, the control of NIS is part of the EU’s policy approach taken to attain the
Göteborg’s target of halting biodiversity loss by 2010 (Commission of the
European Communities 2006).
Due to the inevitable interplay in this issue among science, environmental
ethics, and public policy (Lodge and Shrader-Frechette 2003), new areas of
conflict have been opened in the recent times (cf. Simberloff 2003). A number of
authors from different cultural fields (e.g. Sagoff 1999, 2005, Theodoropoulos
A role for scientists 699
2003) joined with a few ecologists (e.g. Slobodkin 2001) in a ‘‘rearguard

action’’ (Simberloff 2006, p. 915) to convince scientists and laypeople that
the threat posed by introduced species is overblown. Criticisms were mainly
directed towards the apparent ‘‘lack of adherence to sound scientific practices’’
(Thedoropoulos 2003) and to the formulation of unscientific generalizations or
‘‘reifications’’ (Slobodkin 2001). Among the other objects of contention, inva-
sion biologists have been accused of a biased interpretation of the effects that
invasive species exert on global biodiversity (Rosenzweig 2001, Gurevitch and
Padilla 2004), of their adoption of ‘‘stipulative definitions’’ (Sagoff 2005) – such
as the concept of biodiversity opposed to xenodiversity (in the meaning of
Leppäkoski and Olenin 2000), and of their use of military and pejorative
metaphors in their writings (Larson 2005). Finally, biological invasion research
captured the attention of the media, which often magnified existing misunder-
standings among scholars (e.g. Devine 1999).
A consequence is that invasion biologists are working today in an emotion-
ally charged atmosphere where they are subject to the inevitable tension
between the strong appeal that biological invasions elicit as ideal objects of
study and their personal concern about the threats they pose to biodiversity.
Davis (2006) coined the terms ‘‘Asilomar’’ (a town in California where the first
Symposium of the International Union of Biological Sciences was held in 1964)
and ‘‘Eltonian’’ (from Charles Elton) as attributes to label the two apparently
contradicting attitudes assumed by scientists when they face the problem of
invasions. On the one hand, some of them share the exclusive interest in
ecological theories shown by the conveners in Asilomar and view invasions as
very rich sources of information for capturing the complexities of ecological
systems. In the same way that the physiology of an organism may be better
studied during illness, anomalies of ecological systems – i.e. species introduc-
tions – are thus fundamental in understanding their functioning. On the other
hand, an increased sense of social responsibility among scientists and their
willingness to participate to the political forum made several of them believe
that their findings on biological invasions might also assist resource managers
in restoring and rebuilding the ‘‘ill’’ ecological systems.
As Soulé (1986) puts it, ‘‘fiddling’’ with ideas until the world is in ashes – like
the Emperor Nero who is alleged to have continued playing his lyre while Rome
burned – may lead to severe penalties (Gherardi 2006). Research is often ‘‘an
unaffordable luxury that provides information only for the eulogy’’ (Coblentz
1990); on the contrary, efforts are to be directed ‘‘to construct ecological
research program that dictate possibilities for managers, that investigate alter-
natives where the options used for management have failed, and that evaluate
the processes of management’’ (Underwood 1995, p. 232). Research should be
elevated to ‘‘a primary component of environmental decision-making’’, rather
than being relegated to ‘‘an increasingly peripheral procedure’’ (Underwood
1995, p. 232), and in their turn scientists should allocate more time to practical
concerns – rather than simply producing publications (Caro 1998). Real
progress cannot be made in affecting environmental policy and management

until scientists become more effective in the ‘‘processes’’ (the steps used to reach
decisions, such as law, credibility, etc.) and in the ‘‘relationships’’ (related to
human behavior, such as networks in communities), and not only in the
understanding of objective and factual data (‘‘substance’’) (Meffe 2002). In
sum, ‘‘scientists need to make concerted efforts to learn these other skills and
to become more active players in ensuring that good science is a real part of
policy and management’’ (Meffe 2002, p. 367).
Particularly in the field of invasion biology, any attempt to manage the
invasive species problem will greatly benefit from the role played by scientists
of advocate on the one hand, and of their constructive partnership with re-
source managers on the other (Byers et al. 2002). Researchers are expected to
identify and control pathways of accidental introductions, to promote measures
that may prevent unwanted introductions, and to produce protocols for pre-
introduction environmental risk assessment. They should stimulate cooperative
actions among States, recognizing the risk – particularly high in Europe – that
activities within their jurisdiction or control may pose to other States as a
potential source of invasive species. By quantifying how invasive species affect
native biodiversity, scientists also have the capacity to individualize effective
systems for the early warning of the newcomer species and safe methods for the
control/eradication of already established invaders.
Research has the potential to determine metrics reflecting all the biological
changes that accompany any intervention; it can evaluate the role of NIS after
their integration in the systems and suggest strategies that are flexible and in
line with biogeographic and evolutionary realities (Cox 2004). Finally, research
helps prioritize ecosystems at risk through assessing their invasibility and the
duration of lag phases between the establishment and the spread of specific
invaders. Risk assessment, decision theory, and epidemiology all offer useful
insights for the development of policies to control NIS through a process that
should involve both scientists and policy makers (Byers et al. 2002).
Certainly, much useful knowledge of NIS already exists – it merely requires
reanalysis or reassembly into a form that managers can use (Byers et al. 2002).
Despite the progress, to date much has still to be done – and scientists have not
yet missed the boat (Puth and Post 2005).
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General keywords
A Ballast, 6, 9–11, 29, 37, 38, 44, 46, 52

Ballast sediments, 339, 645, 653
Abiotic resistance, 647, 648, 654 Ballast water, 29, 37, 38, 44, 52–54, 56,
Accidental introductions, 113, 131, 145, 59, 60
234, 645, 646, 700 Ballast water: treatment, 657–661, 664,
Activity patterns, 166, 248, 354, 407, 445 665
Age, 240, 244, 246, 263, 264, 281, Basking, 148, 162, 163, 167, 170
291–295 Bern Convention, 516, 630, 633, 634
Age structure, 264 Bioaccumulation, 614
Aggression, 53, 167, 396, 447, 528, 585 Biocontrol, biological control, 95–97, 99,
Aggressive behaviour, 279, 283, 495, 146, 153, 205, 383, 523
497, 585, 587 Biodiversity, 86, 96, 114, 123, 152, 186,
Alarm odours, 514 187, 200, 202, 204
Alien invasive species, 194, 199, 204 Biofouling, 238
Allelopathy, 224 Biogeography, 123
Allometric growth, 264 Bioindicators, 112, 114
Altricial life history, 283 Biological flexibility, 307, 309, 311, 313,
Amphibious plants, 218 315, 317, 319, 321, 323, 325,
Anthropogenicdisturbances,426,427,454 327
Antioxidant response, 613, 617, 621 Biological invasions, 396, 430, 437, 627,
Aquaculture, 37, 38, 60, 145, 146, 628, 633–635
340–343, 382 Biological plasticity, 11
Aquarium trade, 39, 49, 220, 234, 292, Biomonitoring, 613, 614
357, 383, 628 Biomonotony, 369–376
Artificial canals, 382, 463 Biotic homogenization, 147, 148, 369,
371, 376, 415
B Biotic resistance, 11, 18, 647, 648
Bioturbation, 527, 528, 531
Bait-bucket, 37 Booms and busts, 452
Bait-bucket introductions, 37 Bottlenecks, 10, 396, 517, 640
703
704 General keywords
Botulism, 279 Detritivorous, 15, 444, 483

Brackish water, 237, 245, 279, 281, 340, Detritus, 52, 58, 261, 311, 452, 497,
402, 411, 464, 467, 482 507, 519, 520, 523
Burrows, 49, 83, 528, 529, 560, 589, Development, 9, 45, 103, 195, 200–202,
590 204–206
Diapausing eggs, 349, 350
C Diel activity patterns, 407
Diet, 17, 42, 61, 98, 148, 163, 166, 182,
CABI Africa, 204, 206 261, 279
Canals, 6, 14, 32–36, 38, 41, 44–46 Direct removal, 681, 682
Catch per Unit Effort (CPUE), 263, Discriminant function analysis (DFA),
266–270 357, 358
Character displacement, 17 Disease, 38, 48, 61, 95, 96, 151, 164,
Check-list, 123, 124 165, 167, 204
Chemical control, 205 Dispersal, human-mediated, 4, 351, 363,
Chytridiomycosis, 151, 154 364
Climate change, 56, 153, 194, 451, Dispersal, natural, 348, 349, 351, 396,
511, 643, 644, 646, 647, 653 420, 464, 466, 566
Coexistence, 86, 224, 513, 598, Dispersion, 403, 408, 411, 630
683–685, 687, 688 Distribution, 6, 7, 9, 15, 38, 40, 44–46,
Communities, 4, 5, 11–14, 18, 47, 96, 48, 53
147, 153 Donor areas, 642, 643, 645, 647, 654
Community alterations, 487 Dragonfly nymphs, 13, 149, 311
Community characteristics, 387, 685
Competition, 13, 15, 17, 38, 39, 42, 43, E
50, 55, 61
Competitive exclusion, 40, 53, 86, 469, Early, rapid detection, 186
578, 582, 585 Ecological impact, 96, 132, 147, 152,
Contaminants, 532, 613, 614, 619, 621 252, 437, 439, 449, 463, 464
Control, 16, 18, 61, 62, 95–97, 99, 112, Ecological niche modeling, 358, 362, 363
133 Ecological niche theory, 416
Convention on Biological Diversity, 188, Ecological processes, 372, 374
205, 438, 633, 676, 698 Ecological risk assessment, 641
Convention on International Trade in Ecological segregation, 497
Endangered Species of Wild Ecological tolerance, 163, 169, 225, 280
Fauna and Flora (CITES), 164, Economic damage, 179, 439, 509, 531,
167, 170, 672, 673 659
Economic impact, 152, 204, 671, 679
D Economic losses, 152, 179, 291
Ecosystem engineers, 16, 18, 480
Darwin, Charles, 153, 697 Ecosystem interactions, 91
Date of introduction, 215 Ecosystem processes, 291, 372, 439, 442,
DDT, 112 448, 512, 525, 527
Deliberate introductions, 30, 146, 236, Education, 62, 133, 221, 633
237, 473, 484 El Niño, 97
Demographic characteristics, 374 Electrofishing, 153, 262, 263, 267–270,
Demographic factors, 11 549
Elton, Charles, 381, 697, 699 F

Emergent plants, 195, 196, 198, 200,
203, 213 Farming, 145, 146, 151, 164, 176, 185,
Enclosure experiments, 560–563, 565 531, 629, 635
Endemism, 4, 549 Fecundity, 11, 16, 42, 44, 62, 239,
Enemy release hypothesis, 12, 383, 512 240–244
Energy flux, 525 Filter-feeding, 604
Environmental barriers, 483 Fisheries, 92, 93, 98, 99, 177, 178, 203,
Environmental conditions, 11, 16, 18, 56, 233, 236, 415
95, 109, 179, 182, 224, 245 Fishermen, 234, 262, 266, 270, 420,
Environmental niche modeling, 363 445, 531, 566, 582
Environmental quality, 613 Flatworms, 124, 234, 372
Environmental resistance, 10 Floating plants, 195, 196, 198, 200, 203,
Enzymatic activities, 614, 617–620 222
Epigenesist, 283 Floating-leaved plants, 201
Epigenetic trajectories, 283 Food trade, 382, 383, 670
Eradication, 18, 52, 61, 62, 153, 179, Food web, 15, 42, 451–453, 455,
183–188 518–520, 548
Escapes, 51, 146, 162, 165, 185, 186, Foraging, 311, 312, 514, 522, 527, 553
508, 670 Founder effects, 396
Established species, 39, 155, 632 Frankenstein effect, 18
Estuaries, 30, 45, 53, 54, 124, 130, 131, Fresh waters, 3–5, 8, 12, 18, 48, 91, 132,
343, 402, 403, 407, 411 194
European Agreement on Main Inland Functional diversity, 371–376
Waterways of International Functional groups, 375, 376
Importance (AGN), 639, 640 Functional redundancy, 372
European Court of Justice, 631 Fur farms, 180, 181
European Inland Waterway Network Fyke nets, 262, 263, 267, 268
(EWN), 640
European Plant Protection Organisation G
(EPPO), 632, 634
European Strategy on Invasive Alien Gene flow, 223, 382, 393, 395, 396, 448,
Species, 188, 633, 676 517
European Union (EU), 98, 164, 170, 437, Genetic assimilation, 447
670, 672, 673, 698 Genetic paradox, 10
Euryoeciousness, 11, 110 Genetics, 381, 382, 439
Eurytopy, 372 Genotype, 281, 315, 517
Eutrophication, 14, 221, 222, 445, 470, Geographical Information System (GIS),
483–486 359, 430, 671
Evolutionary changes, 16, 150, 350, 448 Geometrical discriminant analysis, 317,
Evolutionary release, 12 318
Evolutionary trap, 14 Gill nets, 262, 263, 267–270
Executive Order 13112, 438 Global Invasive Species Database, 29, 142,
Exotic, 91, 95, 96, 443, 497, 522 161, 195, 633
Extinction, 3, 14, 17, 97, 147, 148, Global Invasive Species Programme, 204,
370–374 698
Extirpation, 251 Global warming, 151, 252, 590, 591
Globalization, 141, 152, 153, 369, 628 Inland waters, 3–5, 8–9, 18, 29–33
Glutathione system, 614 Inland waterways, 36, 639, 642, 653,
Gonadosomatic Index (GSI), 264–266, 654
299, 301, 321, 323, 324 Inoculation rates, 642, 643, 646–648,
Gonads, 263, 265, 321, 600, 601, 603, 650
616 Intentional introductions, 37, 62, 145,
Gravity models, 352–354, 356, 363 233, 463, 464, 544, 629, 646
Growth, 6, 13, 60, 62, 154, 195, 199, Interference competition, 86, 132, 446,
202, 205, 213 578
Growth rate, 224, 225, 239, 240, 242, International Association of Astacology,
244, 246, 291, 292, 296 510
Gut, stomach content, 550, 560, International cooperation, 187, 205,
563–567 252
Gynogenesis, 261, 264, 269 International Maritime Organization
(IMO), 657, 658, 665, 667, 662
H Intraguild predation, 471
Introduction, 3, 4, 10, 14–16, 18, 37, 39,
Habitat complexity, 311, 497, 547, 553, 47
683 INVABIO, 209, 377
Habitat degradation, 3, 440, 515, 546 Invisibility, 209, 220–222, 224, 358,
Habitat displacement, 680 423–426
Habitat heterogeneity, 425, 426, 430, 431 Invasion corridor, 35, 56, 466, 482,
Habitat loss, 164, 446, 515, 516 639–651
Habitat manipulation, 682 Invasion history, 357, 455, 464, 649,
Habitat mediation, 688 650
Habitats directive, 516, 672–674, 676 Invasion resistance, 689
Heavy metals, 112, 483, 532, 613, 615, Invasion routes, 642–644, 647, 653
617, 618 Invasional meltdown, 13, 454, 497
Herbivorous, 194, 497, 519, 521, 526 Invasive species, 6, 12–14, 30, 37, 56, 61,
Heterozygosity, 390, 391, 393, 395, 396 62, 91
Hierarchical modeling, 361 Invasive water plants, 203–206
History of introductions, 143, 578 Invasiveness, 103–105, 112, 209, 218,
Hotspots, 5, 416 220–223
Hubs, 6, 352, 354 IUCN, 142, 161, 164, 165, 181, 204,
Hull fouling, 339, 341, 466, 628, 645, 653 437, 582, 627, 633
Human commensalisms, 372 IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist
Human disturbance, 4, 12, 374 Group (ISSG), 142, 679
Human health 150, 151, 162, 195, 438,
439, 450, 509, 530, 532, 633, J
659
Hybridization, 10, 15, 84, 149, 150, 222, Jump dispersal, 396, 466
439, 447, 513, 517, 518, 628
K
I
Keystone species, 480, 482, 484, 518, 544
Indigenous species, 11, 13–18, 29, 35, 38 K-selected species, 11, 241
Indigenous vegetation, 200 K-selected traits, 371
L Morphology, 84, 132, 224, 281, 313,

316, 319, 327, 328, 513, 520,
Laboratory experiments, 244, 245, 289, 521
452, 498, 501, 511, 520, mtDNA, 387–390, 396
560–562, 565 Mutualism, 689
Lakes, 3–7, 10–13, 17, 29–31
Latitudinal clines, 313 N
Legislation, 51, 61, 62, 185, 252, 402,
578, 631, 658, 674–676 Naı̈veté, 12, 513, 514
Lentic waters, 112, 234, 471, 507, 523 National strategy, 175, 184, 185, 188
Leptospirosis, 179 Nativeness, 194
Life cycle, 14, 62, 213, 239, 248, 250, Natural history, 111, 153, 209, 680, 687,
251, 340, 489, 584, 588, 600, 688
616 Naturalized species, 133, 143, 148, 631
Life history, 16, 42, 44, 46, 222, 224, Negative impacts, 177, 202, 204, 454,
239–241, 246, 248–251, 281, 548, 649, 650
283, 46 Nesting, 148, 166, 167, 186, 312,
Life history traits, 46, 222, 224, 241, 244, 319–321, 671
248, 250, 281, 283, 291, 295, New Partnership for Africa’s
302, 584, 649 Development (NEPAD), 204,
LIFE programme, 672, 674, 675 205
Live bait, 508, 584 Niche breadth-invasion success, 182
Live fish market, 361 Niche richness, 423
Live food trade, 382, 383 NICS, 508–513, 515–522, 523–529,
Long-distance transport, 350, 372 530–533
Longevity, 313, 315 Non-Indigenous Aquatic Nuisance
Long-term Prevention and Control Act,
monitoring, 167, 452, 525 658
observations, 480 Non-indigenous species (NIS), 3, 5,
studies, 524, 533 6, 7, 13–19, 29, 35, 51, 61,
62, 104, 123, 141, 142, 145,
M 149, 152
North European and Baltic Network on
Malaria, 95, 204 Invasive Alien Species
Management, 19, 37, 39, 48, 113, 133, (NOBANIS), 632
144, 152–154, 167, 179
Marine species, 38, 340–343 O
Maturity, 16, 52, 163, 239–242, 244,
245, 246, 248, 249–251, 266, Omnivores, 15, 18, 163, 358, 483, 520
282, 291 Omnivory, 544, 567
Mesocosm experiments, 452, 545, 698 Ontogeny, 281, 283, 316, 567
Meta-analysis, 523, 524, 562 Opportunistic feeder, 148, 310
Metal accumulation 614–617 Opportunistic predators, 552, 671
Microhabitat preferences, 687 Ornamental fish, 308, 408
Microsatellite analysis, 390–394 Osmoregulation, 402, 404, 411
Microzooplankton, 442 Overexploitation, 3, 19, 351, 446, 515
Molecular markers, 350, 383 Oxidative stress, 613, 614
P Prevention, 113, 184, 185, 199, 443,

629, 631, 633–635, 671, 681,
Parasites, 18, 110, 123, 124, 133, 151, 686
164, 239, 280, 408, 446, 450, Prey, 6, 12, 13, 17, 97, 152, 153, 176
517, 671 Principal Component Analysis (PCA), 427,
Parental care, 260, 279, 281, 357, 419 428
Pathogens, 5, 149–151, 373, 516, 529, Propagule pressure, 347, 348, 352–354,
658, 671 357, 358, 360, 382, 424, 426,
Periphyton, 442, 509, 514, 520, 521, 429, 430
525 Publications, 6, 38, 143, 154, 195, 340,
Pesticides, 14, 442 681, 699
Pests, 164, 238, 509
Pet industry, 146 R
Pet trade, 37, 49, 60, 62, 144, 146, 151,
162, 165 Range exapansion, 42, 54, 56, 352, 359,
Phenotype, 281, 315, 316, 582 370, 488, 515, 584, 640, 646
Phenotypic plasticity, 224, 225, 239, 281, Rapid response, 185, 186, 633, 635
312, 315, 328, 409, 582 Recipient areas, 10, 642, 643, 645
Phylogeography, 144 Recreational boaters, 351, 353
Physiological stress, 404 Recreational boats, 114, 351
Phytobenthos, 340 Recreational fishing, 681
Phytoplankton, 261, 340, 442, 448, 531, Releases, 4, 18, 146, 162, 168, 170, 185,
659, 665, 666 302, 320, 361, 675, 680
Plasma cortisol, 404 Religious beliefs, 170
Plasma glucose, 404 Reproduction, 10, 104, 149, 164, 167,
Plasma osmolality, 404, 409, 410 222–224
Pleistocene era, 11, 442 Reproductive biology, 223, 262, 265,
Pliny the Elder, 141 266, 600
Ploidy level, 222, 223 Reproductive effort, 291, 299–301, 313
Poisonous skin secretions, 152 Reservoirs, 30, 38, 45–47, 56, 57, 59, 95,
Pollution, 11, 40, 45, 55, 110, 150, 164, 131, 165, 167
242, 261, 370, 467, 483, 515, Restoration, 6, 35, 205, 404, 438, 452,
517, 529 635, 682
Population density, 104, 295, 314, 325, Rice cultures, 531
671 Rice fields, 96, 111, 130, 131, 220, 383,
Population dynamics, 44, 97, 150, 452, 531, 566
513 Riparian plants, 209
Population growth, 13, 239, 243, 403, Risk assessment, 188, 353, 411, 489,
441, 451, 484, 488, 682 641–643, 650, 654, 700
Population spread, 239, 297, 300 Risks, 6, 96, 151, 438, 513, 515, 530,
Ports, 6, 41, 343, 354, 640, 647, 653 630, 633, 641, 650, 654, 698
Positive impacts, 114, 149, 520, 521 Rivers, 16, 35, 37, 39, 41–46, 48
Precocial life history, 283 RIVPACS (River Invertebrate Prediction
Predation, 41, 43, 148, 176, 178, 180, and Classification Systems), 374
243, 244 r-selected species, 62, 182, 584
Predictions, 291, 357, 359, 363, 454, r-selected traits, 298, 372
455, 509 Running waters, 202
S Traditional medicine, 152, 170

Trailered boats, 351
Saline bridge, 401–404 Translocations, 132, 133, 142, 144, 236,
Saline coastal lagoons, 124 386, 389, 403, 464, 579, 582,
Salinity, acclimation to, 402 628
Salinity, tolerance to, 44, 245, 358, Trophic cascade, 15, 18, 373, 448, 450,
402–404, 408–411 518, 521
Salmonellosism, 151, 162 Trophic ecology, 560, 563–566, 571
Saltwater corridors, 408 Trophic structure, 371, 439, 512, 518,
Schistosomiasis, 95, 96, 99, 204, 508, 532 544
SCOPE, 698
Sex ratio, 264, 347, 601 U
Sexual maturity, 52, 239, 245, 248, 250,
266 United Nations Environment Programme
Shannon-Weaver diversity, 375 (UNEP), 204
Ship hulls, 340 Urbanization, 148, 430, 445, 446, 515
Shipping, 53, 56, 59, 61, 234, 238, 276,
340, 640, 642, 645, 647, 658, V
662
Shredder, 497 Vectors of introduction, 645, 646, 650
Size, 16, 42, 46, 48, 80, 82, 109, 111 Vulnerability to invasions, 643, 647, 648,
Social impact, 152, 164 650
Spawning, 16, 248, 266, 278, 281, 295,
301, 319–321 W
Species replacement, 149, 376, 582
Species richness, 14, 419, 424–427, 431, Water loss, 402
509, 518, 522, 560 Water pollution, 261
Sport fish, 308, 415, 450 Water quality, 35, 55, 80, 114, 194,
Stable isotopes, 560, 563–567, 569–572 201, 411, 431, 453, 528,
Stagnant waters, 468 562, 667
Statistical models, 453 Water supply, 202–204, 598, 662
Stenotopic organisms, 233 Weed, 37, 96, 484, 508, 698
Stock enhancement, 37, 38 Weed control, 508
Stocking, 15, 37, 50, 60, 131, 237, 382, Wetlands, 96, 112, 176, 179, 186, 194,
447, 508 199, 201–203, 220, 221, 350,
Stratification, 262, 309, 407 483, 571, 683, 684
Submerged plants, 195, 202, 203, 424 Wildlife Trade regulations, 672–675
World Health Organization (WHO), 657
T
X
Tank sediment, 339
Taxonomy, 83–85, 194 Xenodiversity, 11, 699
Temporary streams, 544, 549
Tens rule, 18, 238, 371, 438, 509 Z
Territorial behaviour, 419
Territoriality, 578 Zoobenthos, 53, 340, 442, 480, 484, 485,
Tidal cycles, 404 525
Tolerance, 10, 44, 169, 225, 245, 261, Zooplankton, 13, 17, 42, 56, 59, 279,
279, 283, 357, 404, 408–410, 316, 327, 349, 350, 442, 447,
468, 489, 544, 583, 649 448, 451, 664, 665
Families, orders
A Crustacea, 30, 55, 235, 652

Curculionidae, 327
Acanthocephala, 446 Cyanobacteria, 261, 522, 532
Amphipoda, 31, 38 Cyperaceae, 200, 211, 212
Apiaceae, 198, 212 Cyprinidae, 11
Araceae, 196, 211
Ardaeidae, 6, 524 D
Astacida, 30, 32, 35
Decapoda, 30
B Diptera, 523, 525, 567
E
Bivalvia, 235
Brachyura, 30, 32, 53, 83, 85
Eleotridae, 8
Branchiopoda, 30, 33, 56
Ephemeroptera, 370, 371, 485, 523, 525
Branchiura, 30, 33, 57
Brassicaceae, 197 G
Butomaceae, 197
Gammaridae, 31, 464
C Gastropoda, 235, 522, 523
Gobionellinae, 275
Cambaridae, 32, 47, 50
Cannacea, 197 H
Caridea, 30, 32, 52
Centrarchidae, 685 Haloragaceae, 196, 212
Ceratophyllaceae, 197 Heteroptera, 523
Cestoda, 237 Hydrocharitaceae, 197, 211, 217, 221
Chironomidae, 310, 489, 567
Coleoptera, 97, 327, 489, 523 I
Convolvulaceae, 197, 198
Copepoda, 30, 33, 56 Isopoda, 30, 57
711
712 Families, orders
L Poaceae, 197, 211, 212

Poeciliidae, 8
Lamellibranchia, 370 Pontederiaceae, 196, 211
Leguminosae, 196–198 Pontogammaridae, 463
Lemnaceae, 198, 199, 211 Potamidae, 77, 85–87
Pteridophyta, 196, 211, 215
M
S
Malacostraca, 30–34
Mollusca, 251, 487, 489, 651 Spermatophyta, 194
Monogenea, 237
Mysida, 30, 34, 35, 58 T
Mytilidae, 455
Trematoda, 126
N Trichoptera, 370, 371, 483, 488,
523–525
Najadaceae, 198, 212 Typhaceae, 198, 201
Odonata, 487, 488, 523, 525

Oligochaeta, 485, 523, 570
Parastacidae, 47, 579

Peracarida, 473
Plecoptera, 370, 371, 451, 488
Geographical names
A Austria, 31, 41, 43, 46, 105, 109–112,

184
Aberdare Mountains (Kenya), 93, 95 Awash River (Ethiopia), 199
Adige River (Italy), 106, 110, 112 Azores, 50, 339, 341
Africa, 14, 29, 77, 83, 91–93, 95–99 Azov Sea, 36, 53, 55, 59, 275–277, 280,
African Great Rift Valley, 93, 95, 199 282, 349
Albania, 78, 109, 111, 112 Azov Sea-Caspian waterway, 640
Alentejo (Portugal), 386, 565
Aller River (Germany), 54, 57 B
Amazon River, 416
Andalusia (Spain), 530 Bahati Highlands (Kenya), 93
Angara River, 46, 480 Bahrain, 162
Antarctica, 162, 508 Balearic Islands (Spain), 109, 112, 143,
Antwerp (Belgium), 340 145, 146, 148
Arabia, 162 Balkan peninsula, 31, 39, 670
Aral Sea, 276 Balkans, 32, 53, 78, 85, 150
Arizona (U.S.A.), 5, 681 Baltic Sea, 6, 11, 33–36, 44, 46, 47, 54,
Arno River (Italy), 110, 112, 262 56
Arrocampo Reservoir (Spain), 310, 313 Baltic Sea basin, 42, 463–469, 471,
Asia, 6, 8, 31–33, 35, 39, 53, 57, 109–111 473
Athi River (Kenya), 95 Baltimore (USA), 659, 660–664
Atlantic area, 5 16, 40, 60, 128, 176, Bangkok, 167
214, 216–218 Barguzin River, 46, 480
Australia, 6, 32, 33, 35, 109, 125–128, Batu Caves, 168
142 Belarus, 56, 184, 349
713
714 Geographical names
Belgium, 31, 32, 34, 39, 52, 54, 57, 59, Cobourg Peninsula neck (Australia),
109, 110 153
Bering Sea, 56 Colorado River (U.S.A.), 176, 359, 514,
Berlin, 41, 236 548
Bermuda, 162, 163 Congo River, 199
Beverley Lakes (Canada), 315, 323, 324 Crete (Greece), 670
Black Sea, 36, 45, 55, 58, 234, 238, 260, Crimea, 464
275–277 Croatia, 50, 640
Borneo, 168, 169 Cuba, 109, 680
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 111 Curonian Lagoon, 404, 464–466, 469,
Bosporus, 276 470, 488
Bothnian Bay, 488 Cyprus, 113, 148, 383
Brazil, 5, 162, 169, 415, 416, 680 Czech Republic, 31, 42, 109, 110, 112,
Brenta River (Italy), 112 176, 308, 640
British Columbia, 320, 361, 563, 564,
665, 681 D
British Isles, 31, 39, 56, 217, 339
Brittany, 40, 217, 249 Danube River, 35, 234, 236, 317
Bulgaria, 50, 57, 109–112, 308, 640 Danube-Main-Rhine Canal, 58
Burundi, 93 Daugava River (Latvia), 464
Denmark, 109, 632, 670
C Detroit River, 281, 282
Dnieper Basin, River, 466
Cagne River (France), 77, 78, 80, 81, Dniester River, 36, 41, 42, 276
85, 86 Dominican Republic, 680
California, 5, 10, 15, 53, 357, 360, 361, Don River, 42, 276, 277, 640, 641,
363, 446, 448, 449, 509, 513, 643–645, 653
515, 532, 545, 562, 564, 565, Doñana Natural Park (Spain), 520, 524,
629, 669, 682, 683, 699 546, 566, 567
Cambodia, 169 Duero River (Iberian Pensinsula), 131
Canada, 9, 37, 176, 308, 312, 315–317,
320, 321 E
Canary Islands (Spain), 105, 109, 143,
148 East Africa, 14, 91, 92, 96, 98
Caribbean, 14, 39, 665, 666 East Asia, 6, 110, 236, 359
Caspian Sea, 36, 41, 45, 53, 55, 58–60, Eastern Europe, 46, 48, 51, 61, 78, 146,
234, 238 177, 259, 408, 452, 653
Central Africa, 196 Ecuador, 144, 509, 680
Central America, 8, 33, 39, 57, 154, 215, Elbe Basin, River, 33, 35, 44, 46, 54, 55,
362, 508, 627 57, 58, 234, 495
Cheboksarsky Reservoir, 36, 481 Eldoret River (Kenya), 95, 99
Chengdu, 167 Elmenteita-Nakuru Basin (Kenya), 93
Chesapeake Bay, 660 Ems River (Germany), 40, 41, 57
Chile, 147 England, 31–34, 37, 40, 41, 48–50
China, 39, 53, 167, 168, 260, 359, 389, Entebbe (Uganda), 93
508, 548, 680 Erne River (Ireland), 41
Chozas Lake (Spain), 50, 524, 525 Essequibo River (Guyana), 416
Estonia, 183, 410, 464, 488 Gulf of Finland, 56, 277, 464,
Estremadura, 164 465, 467, 469, 471, 473,
Ethiopia, 199 481, 482
Eurasia, 5, 127, 129, 176, 614 Gulf of Gdansk (Baltic Sea), 276, 279,
Europe, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 30, 31–33 280
European Russia, 47, 480, 481, 640, Gulf of Mexico, 126, 176
642 Gulf of Riga, 411
Ewaso Narok River (Kenya), 95 Guyana, 162
Ewaso Ng’iro River (Kenya), 95, 97
H
F
Hainan Island, 167
Finland, 6, 51, 54, 111, 175, 183, 261, Hamburg (Germany), 340
277, 410, 464 Hampshire (U.K.), 408, 410
Finnish Lake District, 489 Hanoi (Vietnam), 168
Flathead Lake (U.S.A.), 60, 450 Hawaii (U.S.A.), 5, 16, 109, 110, 145,
Florida (U.S.A.), 143, 144, 154, 146, 151, 152, 680
359, 360, 361, 363, 662, Hi Chi Minh, 168
665, 680 Hiimaa (Estonia), 183
Former Yugoslavia, 308 Hoan Kiem Lake (Vietnam), 168
France, 4, 31–34, 37, 39, 40, 48, 49, Hong Kong, 167
53, 54 Horn of Africa, 193
Fucecchio (Italy), 386, 522 Huaniao, 167
Hudson River, 5, 308, 658
G Hutt River (Australia), 580, 583,
588, 589
Galana River (Kenya), 95
Galapagos, 144, 145, 153, 154 I
Georgia (U.S.A.), 308
Germany, 29, 31–34, 39, 40, 42, 43, Iberian Peninsula, 31, 39, 123, 129,
45, 46 130, 143, 148, 260, 298,
Gilgil River (Kenya), 93, 94, 97 308, 566
Gironde River (France), 54 Iceland, 109, 111, 113, 184
Gor’kovsky Reservoir, 481 IJselmeer (The Netherlands), 40
Great Britain, 183, 308, 501, 632 Illinois (U.S.A.), 243, 354, 360
Great Lakes (North America), 4, 5, 6, 7, India, 169, 215
10, 11, 13, 17, 56, 243, 277, Indian Ocean, 95, 127
278, 280, 308, 351 Indonesia, 162, 168, 169
Great Ouse River (U.K.), 403, 514 Iran, 55, 78
Greece, 32, 53, 78, 82, 109, Ireland (Republic of Ireland), 11, 31,
110, 112, 296, 308, 323, 39–41, 48, 61, 260, 339,
640, 670 451
Guadalquivir River, 130, 323, 385, 523, Irian Jaya, 169
563, 566 Irtysh River, 480
Guadeloupe, 162 Israel, 162, 164, 664
Guadiana River, 131, 326, 386, 550 Italy, 31–33, 43, 48–50, 53, 57, 78
Guam (Mariana Islands), 162 Itchen River (U.K.), 184, 410
J Lake Geneva, 498, 640

Lake Hallwill (Switzerland), 442
Jamaica, 362, 680 Lake Ilmen, 47, 481
Japan, 162, 169, 215, 389, 509, 529, 680 Lake Kununurra (Australia), 582
Java, 169 Lake Ladoga (Russia), 31, 39, 47, 55,
Jubba River (Somalia), 199 480–490, 643, 647–648,
651, 654
K Lake Leman (Switzerland), 217
Lake Maggiore (Italy), 112
Kagera River (East Africa), 93 Lake Malawi (eastern Africa), 14
Kajjansi (Uganda), 93, 99 Lake Michigan, 12, 312, 351, 598
Kalimantan, 169 Lake Mikolajskie (Poland), 442
Kansas (U.S.A.), 564 Lake Naivasha (Kenya), 93, 94, 96–98,
Karati River (Kenya), 93 203, 531
Karelian Isthmus, 47, 482 Lake Neusiedler (Austria), 327
Kau Sai Chau, Sai Kung, 167 Lake Ol Bolossat, 95
Kaunas Water Reservoir (Lithuania), 464, Lake Onega (Russia), 31, 39, 47,
465 480–482, 485, 486, 643, 647,
Kenya, 91, 93–99, 200, 203, 443, 444, 648, 651, 654
531, 532 Lake Ontario, 310, 316, 446, 448, 451,
Kiel Canal, 54, 403 547
Kinangop Plateau (Kenya), 93 Lake Opinicon (Canada), 320, 321, 324
Korea, 162, 168, 680 Lake Otradnoe, 481
Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 168 Lake Paradox, 315, 316
Kuibyshevsky Reservoir, 481 Lake Peipsi-Pihkva, 480–482, 484, 486
Kunming, 167 Lake Prespa, 109
Kuronian Lagoon (Lithuania), 46 Lake St. Clair, 277, 278, 280, 351, 442
Lake Tahoe (U.S.A.), 449
L Lake Tanganyika, 93, 199
Lake Trasimeno (Italy), 262–267, 269,
Lake Alanconie (U.S.A.), 314 598, 599–602, 604–606,
Lake Baikal, 31, 39 614–620
Lake Baikal basin, 480, 481 Lake Victoria, 4, 5, 11, 12, 91, 93,
Lake Balaton (Hungary), 58, 442, 497 95, 96–99, 199, 200,
Lake Banyoles (Spain), 133, 293, 295, 443–446
308, 311, 315, 320, 323, 326 Lao PDR, 169
Lake Baringo (Kenya), 200 Latvia, 109, 112, 410, 464
Lake Beloe (Russia), 481, 482 Le Havre (France), 54
Lake Bourget (France), 442 Lee River (U.K.), 403, 408
Lake Bunyonyi (Uganda), 93 Lena River, 46, 480
Lake Constance (Germany), 43, 244, 498 Lithuania, 31, 46, 59, 111, 184, 410,
Lake Dusia (Lithuania), 467, 473 464, 466, 468, 469, 473, 640
Lake Egridir (Turkey), 403 Little Round Lake (Canada), 320, 324
Lake Erie, 355 London, 20, 40, 54
Lake Flora (U.S.A), 314 Looncall Lake (Canada), 317, 318
Lake Garda (Italy), 43, 112, 244, 497, Lough Neagh (Northern Ireland), 39
498, 500–503 Lower Guadalquivir Basin, 523, 563, 566
Lumphini Park (Thailand), 167 Nevada, 16

Luxembourg, 31, 39, 109, 112, 640 New Brunswick (Canada), 308
New Mexico (U.S.A.), 15
M New Zealand, 5, 30, 110, 126, 127, 162,
234, 260, 270, 351, 437, 438,
Macedonia, 78, 109, 113 445, 448, 529, 589, 698
Madagascar, 91 Nice (France), 77, 80, 85
Main River (Germany), 46 Nile River Basin, 193
Main-Danube-Canal, 32–35, 41, 45, 46, Njunu Springs, 95
52, 58, 59, 61, 234, 238 North America, 4–17, 3, 32, 33, 35,
Malaysia, 162, 164, 168 37–40, 48–50, 53 9
Malewa River (Kenya), 93, 95, 97 North Sea, 41, 58, 238, 339, 341, 343,
Mallorca, 148, 383 344, 474
Malta, 78, 105, 109 Northern Invasion Corridor, 35, 56, 482,
Manokwari, 169 640–651, 653, 654
Marshall Islands, 146 Northern Ireland, 11, 39, 40, 451
Martinique, 162 Northern Territory (Australia), 153, 578,
Massachusetts (U.S.A.), 321, 360 580
Massaciuccoli Lake (Italy), 57, 383, 386, North-western Russia, 482
396, 524 Norway, 29, 30, 48, 60, 111, 113, 292,
Mau Escarpment (Kenya), 93 630, 632, 659
Mediterranean, 218 Novosibirsky Reservoir, 483
Melaka, 168 Nyahururu, 95
Menorca, 144, 148 Nzoia River, 95
Mexico, 15, 39, 126, 176, 177, 385, 386,
510, 680 O
Michigan (U.S.A.), 312, 351, 353, 546
Mincio River, 503 Ob’ River basin, 483
Mississipi River, 13 Oceania, 8, 627
Mississippi-Missouri river system, 308 Oder or Odra Basin, River, 44, 464–466
Mittelland Canal, 41, 465, 474 Okinawa, 169
Monck Lake (Canada), 316 Ontario (Canada), 308, 316, 320,
Montana (U.S.A.), 5, 450 354–356, 446, 453, 454, 688
Moscow River, 276 Oregon (U.S.A.), 446, 684, 686
Moselle River, 245, 375, 376, 497 Otonabee River (Canada), 317, 318, 324
Mount Kenya, 95 Outer Hebryds, 183
Myanmar, 169
P
N
Panama, 14, 162
Nairobi (Kenya), 91, 93, 95, 98, 99 Panama Canal, 14, 665
Narembeen (Australia), 583 Pangani River, 199
Neman River or Nemunas River, 46, 464, Paraguai-Paraná River Basin, 416
466, 468 Penang, 168
Neva Bay, Estuary, River, 31, 39, 47, Peninsular Malaysia, 168
464, 473, 480–482, 483, 485, Pennsylvania (U.S.A.), 314, 514
486, 488 Perak, 168
Peru, 450 Ruhumba River, Swamps (central Africa),

Piave River (Italy), 110 93
Pina River, 276 Russian Federation, 640
Po River (Italy), 110, 112 Ruzizi River, 93
Poland, 31, 33, 42, 33, 49, 53, 57, 105, Rwanda, 93
109, 112, 292, 295, 308, 442, Rybinsky Reservoir, 481
465, 529, 670
Polynesia, 162 S
Ponto-Caspian Area, Basin, Region, 5,
30–35, 39, 42, 45–48, 56, 58, Saar River (western Europe), 57
60, 234, 238, 246, 275, 276, Sabah, 168
280, 403, 408, 468, 470, 495, San Francisco Bay, 6, 361, 370, 452,
497, 645 515, 570
Portugal, 5, 109, 111, 113, 32, 250, 296, Sardinia, 110, 112, 146, 179, 180, 186
307, 308 Scandinavia, 56, 176, 250, 403, 508,
Posolskiy Bay, 482 516
Pregel River, 466 Scotland, 39, 40, 260, 532
Pripet-Bug canal, 44, 466 Sea of Azov, 276
Puerto Rico, 151, 362, 680 Sea of Marmara, 276
Pyasina River, 46, 480 Selenga River, 46, 480
Pyrenees, 147 Severn Estuary, River (U.K.), 403
Severnaya Dvina River, 644, 648
Q Shadow Lake (Canada), 321, 321
Shebelle River, 199
Qingshiqiao, 167 Siberia, 39, 47, 480
Queensland, 164, 580 Singapore, 162, 164–167, 659
Slovak Republic, 105, 110, 112
R Slovenia, 110, 112, 179, 186, 187, 308,
316, 317
Raia River (Portugal), 327 Somalia, 199
Reno River (Italy), 110, 112, 383 Somerset (U.K.), 408
Republic of Korea, 168 South Africa, 162, 164, 193, 195, 437, 698
Republic of Moldova, 640 South America, 8, 110, 146, 169, 176,
Reunion, 162 199, 202, 216, 237, 241, 260,
Rhine Basin, River, 35, 408 416, 455
Rhine-Herne Canal, 44 South-east Asia, 201, 234, 236, 237
Rhine-Main-Danube Canal, 234, 238 South-eastern United States, 161
Rhine-Rhône Canal, 52, 57 Southern Bug River, 276
Rhône River, 57, 221, 321 Spain, 5, 6, 45, 48, 50, 57, 105, 109,
Rhône-Saône-Seine Canal, 57 111, 112, 131, 132, 144–145,
River Burnaya, 482 150, 162, 163, 176, 187,
River Doce basin (Brazil), 415 295, 308, 310, 313, 315, 320,
Romania, 50, 57, 109, 110, 112, 176, 326, 350, 383, 384, 403, 508,
308, 315, 326, 409, 640 516, 520, 523, 525, 527, 530,
Rotterdam, 340 352, 545, 562, 563, 566, 567,
Round Lake (U.S.A.), 316, 320, 324 634, 670, 672, 673
Rufiji River (Tanzania), 199 Sparkling Lake (U.S.A.), 524
Sri Lanka, 162, 169 United Kingdom (U.K.), 109, 110, 112
St. Petersburg, 56, 464, 489, 653 United States of America (U.S.A.), 4, 5,
St. Lawrence River, 308, 616 9, 11
Stanborough Lake (U.K.), 403
Stockholm, 424 V
Stour River (U.K.), 41, 52
sub–Saharan Africa, 147 Valencia, 132, 164
Sudan, 96 Vel’ké Čunovo (Slovakia), 317
Suez Canal, 342, 343 Venezuela, 680
Sumatra, 169 Victoria (Australia), 4, 5, 11, 12, 91, 93,
Sweden, 48, 50, 51, 60, 98, 217, 237, 95–98, 200, 443, 445, 446,
424, 508, 516, 530, 545, 563, 578, 583
566, 630, 670 Victoria Falls, 199
Switzerland, 109, 110, 112, 146, 150, Vienna, 42, 58, 78, 237, 278, 616
154, 217, 309, 383, 385, 442, Vietnam, 168
510, 640 Vistula River, Lagoon, Valley, 46,
Szczecin Lagoon (Baltic Sea area), 464, 465 464, 465, 466, 470, 471,
488
T Volga Basin, River, 47, 408
Volga-Baltic canal, waterway, 640, 644,
Taipei, 169 645, 648
Taiwan, 169 Volga-Don canal, 640, 643–645
Tajo River (Iberian Peninsula), 131 Vuoksa River (northern Europe), 482
Tanyards pond (U.K.), 317, 318
Tanzania, 5, 93, 199, 443 W
Tasmania, 515, 578
Terengganu, 168 Wales, 40, 53, 402, 410
Test River (U.K.), 410 Wash (U.K.), 43
Texas (U.S.A.), 11 Weser River (Germany), 40, 44, 54
Thailand, 162, 164, 167, 168 Weser-Dattel Canal, 44
Thames Estuary (U.K.), 403 Western Australia, 153, 260, 578, 579,
The Netherlands, 37, 39, 40, 43, 45, 49, 582, 584
52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, White Sea, 55, 640, 643, 644, 647,
105, 109, 111, 112, 216, 238, 648
244, 292, 308, 383, 640, 659, White Sea-Baltic Sea waterway, 640
670, 672, 680 Willamette Valley (U.S.A.), 684, 685
Tiber River (Italy), 110, 112, 262 Wisconsin (U.S.A.), 314, 351, 477,
Topla struga oxbow (Slovenia), 316 517, 522, 524, 529, 546,
Transvaal, 164 562
Traunsee (Austria), 43, 244 Woburn Estates (U.K.), 403
Trout Lake (U.S.A.), 447, 517, 522, 529
Tunguska River, 46, 480 Y
Turkey, 77, 78, 516
Yenisey River, 480
U
Z
Uganda, 92, 93
Ukraine, 45, 50, 110, 112 Zambezi River (central Africa), 199
Taxa common names
A B
Algae, 5, 52, 58, 59, 113, 202, 210, 242, Bacteria, 82, 179, 442, 658, 665
311, 442, 444, 448, 507, 521, Birds, 6, 37, 50, 98, 113, 148, 169, 178,
528, 544, 549, 600 179, 242, 279, 450, 524, 532,
American bullfrog, 142, 143, 145, 148, 671
151, 669, 679 Bivalves, 109, 113, 241, 242, 370,
American mink, 175–177, 179, 183, 372, 438, 441, 455, 522,
186, 187, 447, 628 600
Amphibians, 83, 96, 133, 141–143, 145, Branchiopods, 37, 38
147–149, 151, 154, 183, 440, Branchiurans, 37
445, 524, 544–546, 670, 680, Bryophytes, 210, 211, 213
685
Amphipods, 6, 30, 37–39, 44, 58, 61, C
310, 446, 466, 469, 473, 480,
481, 486 Caddis flies, 486
Angiosperms, 202, 210 Canadian beaver, 175, 630
Anurans, 446, 545, 680, 682, 683 Centrarchids, 292, 308, 686
Aquatic invertebrates, 98, 415, 503, Chelonians, 163, 165, 169, 170
614 Chinese mitten crabs, 62, 359
Aquatic macrophytes, 210, 213, 261, Chinese snakehead, 359, 363
309, 418, 520 Chironomids, 327, 473, 483, 486, 488,
Aquatic plants, 96, 97, 109, 194, 195, 567–572
210, 218, 222, 223, 236, 424, Cichlids, 4, 14, 237, 443, 445
560 Cladocerans, 6, 8, 56, 60, 61, 312, 349,
Arthropods, 17, 144, 145, 153, 439 442, 450, 643, 650
Asian carp, 548 Coleopterans, 97
Asian clams, 239 Copepods, 6, 37, 498
Atyid prawn, 444 Crayfish, 6, 8, 11, 15, 35, 37–39
721
722 Taxa common names
Crustaceans, 5, 8, 30, 35, 38, 58, 61, 62, I

124, 261, 310, 383, 452, 488,
645, 649 Infusorians, 483
Cyprinids, 14, 131, 133, 234, 262, 270, Invertebrates, 13, 39, 96, 98, 124,
403, 408, 410, 549 130–132, 153, 279, 350
Isopods, 37, 57, 234, 310, 312, 488,
D 523
Decapods, 30, 35, 37, 86 K

Dipterans, 451, 488
Dragonfly, 13, 149, 311, 686 Koonacs, 579, 589–591
Dreissenids, 8, 439
L
E
Lizards, 97, 142
Elodeids, 424
M
Ephemeropterans, 451, 483, 488
European mink, 176, 178, 447, 628
Macroinvertebrates, 40, 50, 96, 310, 446,
453, 471–474, 487, 499, 518,
F
519, 522, 524, 544, 560, 563,
686
Filamentous algae, 242, 473, 521, 528,
Macrophytes, 96, 210, 213, 222, 280,
549, 600
311, 351, 408, 507, 509,
Freshwater crabs, 78, 82–86, 97, 99
519–523, 525
Freshwater fish, 5, 9, 10, 14, 124, 292,
Mammals, 6, 98, 148, 183, 188, 238,
302, 359, 370, 402, 406, 409,
439, 523, 527, 630, 671
449
Marron, 579–582, 584–591
Freshwater shrimp, 5, 39
Mayflies, 445, 486
Freshwater turtles, 142, 144
Microalgae, 520–522
Frogs, 13, 17, 145, 681–685, 687,
Microsporidians, 589
688
Molluscs, 111, 113, 124, 163, 280, 310,
311, 327, 372, 485, 604
G Monitors, 142, 148
Mosquitoes, 95
Galaxiids, 445 Mosquitofish, 16, 132, 327, 513, 549,
Gammarids, 39, 40, 46, 245, 439, 470, 550, 584
471, 474, 497–500 Muskrat, 175, 176, 179, 182, 183,
Gilgies, 579, 585, 586, 588–591 185–188
Gobiids, 234, 275 Mussels, 6, 9, 13, 14, 243, 279, 311, 349,
Goldfish, 13, 57, 124, 260–262, 353, 354
265–270 Mysids, 35, 37, 38, 61
Guppies, 95
N
H
Nematodes, 483, 526
Haplochromines, 444 Newt, 150, 237, 513, 545
Herpetofauna, 142–145 Nile perch, 4, 5, 11, 13, 96, 443–445
Taxa common names 723
O Snakes, 142, 145, 148, 155, 680

Sponges, 598, 602–606
Odonates, 312, 689 Stoneflies, 523
Oligochaetes, 96, 483, 486, 488 Sunbleak, 402, 408–412
Onychopods, 650, 653
Ostracods, 130–132, 526 T
Otter, 6, 97, 507, 524
Terrapins, 162–170
P Toads, 152, 153
Topmouth gudgeon, 133, 327, 402,
Pikeperch, 14, 407, 408, 411 409–412
Plants, 19, 96, 97, 109, 163, 183, Tortoises, 141, 164
193–200 Trematodes, 14, 237
Plecopterans, 451, 488 Trichopterans, 483, 488
Pontogammarids, 464, 470, 471, 473 Trout, 12, 15, 83, 236, 251, 278, 445,
Protists, 666 447, 448, 451, 452, 454, 517,
Pteridophytes, 210, 213 522, 529
Pumpkinseed, 17, 291, 292, 295–300 Turtles, 142, 144, 148, 165, 167, 168,
234, 671
Q
U
Quagga mussel, 9, 349, 441, 449, 452
Unionids, 14, 15, 110
R
V
Ranids, 149, 682, 685
Redclaw, 395, 582, 583, 591
Vascular plants, 5, 213
Red-eared sliders, 146, 162–168,
Vertebrates, 9, 124, 131, 176, 182, 201,
169–171
251, 443, 544, 671
Red piranha, 415–421
Red swamp crayfish, 5, 38, 132, 237,
383–387, 452, 544–546, 567 W
Reptiles, 142, 146, 148, 151, 169, 183,
630, 670, 671 Water hyacinth, 5, 96, 97, 195, 199–204,
Round goby, 276–283 445, 449, 450
Waterflea, 8, 350, 351, 354, 357, 396
S Waterfowl, 37, 39, 50, 178, 238, 242,
348, 350, 351, 532, 680
Salamanders, 142, 147
Salmonids, 7, 439, 445, 448, 449, 528 Y
Scorpions, 95
Sea lamprey, 4, 12, 13, 449 Yabby, 578, 579, 583, 584, 589–591
Semi-aquatic plants, 209, 211
Signal crayfish, 38, 234, 236, 248, 351, Z
545, 547, 548
Snails, 96, 163, 234, 312, 327, 442, 450, Zebra mussel, 13, 42, 132, 243, 251,
508, 514, 521, 522, 525, 532, 279, 280, 311
568, 571 Zoosporic fungus, 151
Species index
A Anodonta anatina, 485

Anodonta woodiana, 106, 108, 109, 110,
Abramis bjoerkna, 129 113
Abramis brama, 129 Anser erythropus, 130
Acanthocyclops americanus, 33, 57 Aonyx capensis, 97
Acartia tonsa, 30, 652 Aphanius fasciatus, 130
Acipenser baeri, 130 Aphanius iberus, 132
Acipenser fulvescens, 278 Aphanomyces astaci, 4, 131, 236, 373,
Acorus calamus, 210, 211, 215, 217, 383, 447, 516, 559
218 Apis mellifera, 152
Actinocyclus normanii, 651 Apocyclops panamensis, 33, 57
Aedes albopictus, 128, 372 Aponogeton distachyos, 211, 215, 218
Aeschynomene elaphroxylon, 198, 201 Argulus foliaceus, 57
Aix galericulata, 130 Argulus japonicus, 33, 57, 128
Alburnus alburnus, 129 Artemia franciscana, 127
Alburnus alburnus alborella, 268 Arundo donax, 197
Alosa pseudoharengus, 14, 447 Arvicola terrestris, 177
Alosa sapidissima, 16 Asellus aquaticus, 44, 47, 244, 473, 481,
Althernanthera philoxeroides, 211, 214, 486, 488, 499, 500, 502
215, 218, 220 Asellus communis, 33, 37, 57
Alytes muletensis, 144, 148 Astacopsis franklinii, 514
Alytes talaioticus, 148 Astacus astacus, 48, 50, 60, 236,
Ambloplites rupestris, 452, 455 248–250, 373, 508, 515–517,
Ameiurus melas, 129 529, 547, 566
Anabaena azollae, 222 Astacus leptodactylus, 32, 37, 48, 60, 77,
Anaecypris hispanica, 326 83, 248–251, 515–517, 529,
Anguilla anguilla, 83, 123, 133, 236, 267, 566
327 Astacus nobilis, 60
Anguilla japonica 124 Ataephyra desmaresti, 52
Anguillicola crassus, 126, 133, 628 Atherina boyeri, 267
725
726 Species index
Atilax paludinosus, 98 Bythotrephes longimanus, 8, 33, 56,

Atyaephyra desmaresti, 5, 32, 238 350, 353, 355, 357, 451,
Austropotamobius italicus, 86, 130, 131 645, 652
Austropotamobius pallipes, 11, 48, 51, 53,
83, 86, 130, 131, 248–250, C
395, 508, 513, 515, 516, 529,
589, 628, 629 Caiman crocodylus, 237
Austropotamobius sp., 248 Callinectes sapidus, 32, 53, 652
Austropotamobius torrentium, 248, 250, Callitriche peploides, 211, 215, 218
515, 516 Callitriche terrestris, 211, 215, 218
Azolla caroliniana, 210 Cambaroides japonicus, 515, 529
Azolla filiculoides, 196, 199, 211, 215, Cancer fluviatilis, 77, 85
218, 222 Cancer potamios, 77
Azolla mexicana, 210, 211, 215, 218, Canna indica, 197, 201
222 Capreolus capreolus, 237
Azolla sp., 213 Carassius auratus, 4, 13, 129, 236, 259,
260, 264, 267, 269
B Carassius auratus gibelio, 260, 259
Carassius carassius, 259, 261, 269
Baetis rhodani, 486 Carassius gibelio, 411
Balanus improvisus, 60 Carassius sp., 57
Barbatula barbatula, 279 Carcinus maenas, 29, 396
Barbus graellsii, 83 Carettochelys insculpta, 165
Barbus meridionalis, 83 Caridina nilotica, 444
Batagur baska, 165 Caridina serratirostris, 583
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, 151, 154, Castor canadensis, 175
671, 680 Castor fiber, 130
Biomphalaria sudanica, 450, 532 Catostomus latipinnis, 514
Bithynia sp., 522 Catostomus occidentalis, 262
Bithynia tentaculata, 485 Caulerpa taxifolia, 210, 629, 630
Blackfordia virginica, 651 Ceratophyllum demersum, 197
Blicca bjoerkna, 327 Ceratophyllum submersum, 521
Boeckella triarticulata, 33, 57 Cercopagis pengoi, 6, 29, 33, 56, 448, 643,
Boiga irregularis, 142 652
Bosmina longirostris, 446 Cervus elaphus, 237
Bothriocephalus acheilognathi, 126 Chaetogammarus ischnus, 468
Bothriocephalus opsarichthydis, 126 Chaetogammarus warpachowskyi, 464, 467,
Bougainvillia megas, 651 468
Branchiura sowerbyi, 126 Channa asiatica, 359–362
Branta canadensis, 130 Chara hispida, 521
Bucephalus polymorphus, 14 Chara sp., 568
Bufo bufo, 545 Charmaeles ellioti, 95
Bufo calamita, 546 Chelicorophium curvispinum, 31, 41, 42,
Bufo marinus, 142, 146, 148, 149, 150, 45, 46, 466, 468, 497
152, 154, 155, 439 Chelicorophium robustum, 31, 42
Bufo mauritanicus, 130, 143 Chelydra serpentine, 169
Bufo terrestris, 446 Cherax albidus, 583
Species index 727
Cherax cainii, 579, 580, 582, 585, 591 Cyperus reflexus, 211, 215, 218
Cherax destructor, 32, 48, 128, 509, 511, Cyprinodon pecosensis, 15
515, 528, 531, 533, 580, 583, Cyprinodon tularosa, 547
591 Cyprinodon variegates, 15
Cherax preissii, 580, 583, 589 Cyprinus carpio, 5, 13, 57, 129, 259,
Cherax quadricarinatus, 395, 509, 511, 402, 548
580, 582, 585, 591 Cypris sp., 127
Cherax sp., 579 Cyrtobagus eichhorniae, 97
Cherax tenuimanus, 579, 580, 591
Chironomus sp., 499, 500, 502 D
Chironomus tentans, 327
Chondrostoma lemmingii, 550 Dactylogyrus anchoratus, 125
Chondrostoma willkommii, 550 Dama dama, 237
Chroomonas acuta, 651 Daphnia longiremis, 450
Chrysemys picta, 673, 674 Daphnia lumholtzi, 351, 420
Cladophora sp., 470, 473 Daphnia retrocurva, 446
Clostridium botulinum, 279 Dendrobates auratus, 146, 152
Clupeonella cultriventris, 652 Diacyclops thomasi, 446
Cobitis bilineata, 129 Dikerogammarus bispinosus, 31, 44, 244
Cobitis paludica, 550 Dikerogammarus haemobaphes, 31, 42–44,
Corbicula fluminalis, 106, 108, 109 244, 463, 466, 468, 471, 497
Corbicula fluminea, 8, 10, 106, 108, 109, Dikerogammarus sp., 44
126, 240–245, 251, 370, 619 Dikerogammarus villosus, 5, 4, 31, 42–46,
Cordylophora caspia, 125 58, 61, 239, 244, 246, 247,
Coregonus hoyi, 17, 447 251, 372, 446, 463, 468,
Coregonus lavaretus, 498 495–502
Cornigerius maeoticus, 33, 56, 643, Discoglossus pictus, 129
650, 652 Dolerocypris sinensis, 127
Cornigerius maeoticus maeoticus, 56 Dreissena bugensis, 6, 441, 452, 651
Corophium devium, 41 Dreissena polymorpha, 4–6, 11, 13, 42,
Corophium sowinskyi, 31, 42 45, 106, 108, 110, 112, 113,
Cortadaria selloana, 211, 215, 218 126, 132, 240, 243, 244,
Cottus bairdi, 278 310, 347, 353, 357, 370, 375,
Cottus beldingi, 547 420, 441–443, 452, 453,
Cottus gobio, 279, 514, 547 455, 485, 497, 507, 597,
Cotula corono, 215 598–602, 604, 605, 614–621,
Cotula coronopifolia, 211, 218, 220 644, 651
Crangonyx pseudogracilis, 31, 39, 40 Dreissena rostriformis bugensis, 349, 396
Craspedacusta sowerbyi, 125 Dreissena sp., 11, 13, 113, 357
Ctenopharyngodon idella, 13, 130, 234, Dugesia tigrina, 125
236, 548 Dumortiera hirsuta, 211, 215, 218
Cuora amboinensis, 166
Cuora trifasciata, 165 E
Cyperus difformis, 211, 215, 218
Cyperus eragrostis, 211, 215, 218 Echinogammarus berilloni, 31, 39, 45
Cyperus esculentus, 211, 215, 218 Echinogammarus ischnus, 6, 31, 44–46,
Cyperus papyrus, 201 58, 244
728 Species index
Echinogammarus stammeri, 43, 244, 499, Ferrissia wautieri, 106, 107, 110, 111,
500, 50 130
Echinogammarus trichiatus, 31, 45, 238 Ficopomatus enigmaticus, 127, 133, 651
Echinogammarus warpachowskyi, 31, 45 Fundulus heteroclitus, 129
Egeria densa, 211, 213, 215–218, 221,
223 G
Eichhornia crassipes, 5, 96, 97, 196, 199,
203, 211, 214, 215, 218, 220, Gallotia galloti, 148
445 Gambusia affinis, 16
Eleocharis bonariensis, 211, 215, 218 Gambusia holbrooki, 129, 132, 513, 549,
Eleutherodactylus coqui, 142, 146, 151 584, 588
Elminius modestus, 30 Gambusia sp., 452
Elodea canadensis, 212, 215, 217, 218, Gammaracanthus lacustris, 480
221–225, 424 Gammarus chevreuxi, 45
Elodea ernstiae, 212, 215, 218 Gammarus duebeni, 11, 39, 40, 43, 61,
Elodea nuttallii, 212, 213, 215, 217, 218, 244, 470
221–225, 424 Gammarus duebeni celticus, 39, 40, 451,
Elodea sp., 209, 210 , 217, 223, 429, 497
430 Gammarus fasciatus, 46, 47, 482–488,
Empetrichthys latos, 262 490
Emys orbicularis, 147, 148, 150, 154, Gammarus fossarum, 39, 45, 245–247
163, 164, 447, 628, 671 Gammarus lacustris, 39, 47, 61,
Engaewa sp., 579, 590 468–472, 481, 482, 484,
Ephydatia fluviatilis, 598, 599, 601, 604, 486, 488
605 Gammarus pulex, 5, 31, 39, 40, 45, 244,
Ephydatia mülleri, 598 451, 470, 480, 497
Eriocheir sinensis, 10, 29, 32, 37, 38, Gammarus roeseli, 5, 31, 39, 245–247,
53–55, 60, 86, 128, 237, 359, 497
388, 452, 644, 645, 648, 652 Gammarus sp., 45
Escherichia coli, 658 Gammarus tigrinus, 5, 31, 39, 40, 43, 45,
Esox lucius, 129, 262, 326, 403 244, 471
Esox sp, 57 Gammarus varsoviensis, 470
Eudiaptomus gracilis, 33, 57 Gammarus zaddachi, 40, 45, 470
Eudiaptomus padanus, 57 Gasterosteus aculeatus, 237
Euhrychiopsis lecontei, 327 Gila intermedia, 514
Eunapius fragilis, 598 Glyceria maxima, 451
Evadne anonyx, 30, 56, 644, 650, 652 Glyceria striata, 212, 215, 219
Evadne prolongata, 650 Gmelinoides fasciatus, 4, 31, 39, 471,
480–483, 486–489, 648
F Gobio albipinnatus, 279
Gobius niger, 278
Fallopia x bohemica, 212, 215, 219, 222 Gymnocephalus cernuus, 6, 327
Fallopia japonica, 212, 214, 215, 218 Gyraulus (Gyraulus) chinensis, 106, 107,
Fallopia sachalinensis, 212, 214, 215, 218 110, 111, 113, 126
Fascioloides magna, 237 Gyrodactylus cyprini, 125
Ferrissia clessiniana, 111, 130 Gyrodactylus katharineri, 125
Ferrissia fragilis, 111 Gyrodactylus salaris, 125, 628, 630
Species index 729
H J
Haitia acuta, 106, 107, 110, 111 Jaera istri, 33, 57, 58
Haliplanella lineata, 125 Jaera sarsi, 57, 58
Helisoma anceps, 105, 107, 109 Juncus tenuis, 212, 216, 219
Helisoma duryi, 104–107, 109
Helisoma sp., 113 K
Hemichromis letourneauxi, 237
Hemichromis fasciatus, 237 Katamysis warpachowskyi, 34, 60
Hemimysis anomala, 34, 37, 59, 62,
238 L
Heosemys spinosa, 165
Heptagenia sulfurea, 486 Lagarosiphon major, 212, 216, 217, 219,
Heracleum mantegezzianum, 212, 215, 221
219 Lates calcarifer, 582
Herichthys facetum, 129 Lates niloticus, 4, 13, 96, 443
Hibiscus roseus, 210, 212, 215, 219 Lemna aequinoctialis, 212, 216, 219, 225
Hucho hucho, 129 Lemna minuta, 212, 213, 216, 218, 219
Hyalella azteca, 31, 39 Lemna perpusilla, 212, 216, 219
Hydrilla verticillata, 197, 212, 214, 215, Lemna turionifera, 212, 216, 219, 225
217, 219 Lepidomeda vittata, 548
Hydrilla sp., 202 Lepomis cyanellus, 4, 311, 314
Hydrocleys nymphoides, 197, 202 Lepomis gibbosus, 4, 17, 129, 234,
Hydrocotyle ranunculoides, 198, 212, 215, 268, 289, 290, 307, 314,
219 546, 549
Hydrodictyon reticulatum, 211, 215, 219 Lepomis macrochirus, 4, 17, 149, 309, 314,
Hydropsyche contubernalis, 42 547, 686
Hyla cinerea, 446 Lepomis megalotis, 314
Hyla regilla, 446 Leptodactylus eschscholtz, 509
Hypania invalida, 651 Leptodora kindtii, 450
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, 234, 236, Lernaea cyprinacea, 127, 133
548 Lernea sp., 262
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis, 234, 236 Leucaspius delineatus, 402, 408
Limnomysis benedeni, 34, 58, 59
I Limnoperna fortunei, 8, 449, 455
Lindernia dubia, 212, 216, 219
Ictalurus catus, 13 Linepithema humile, 396
Ictalurus melas, 267 Ludwigia grandiflora, 212, 214, 216, 218,
Ictalurus punctatus, 130, 402 219, 223
Ilyodromus viridulus, 127 Ludwigia peploides, 212, 214, 216, 218,
Impatiens balfouri, 212, 215, 219 219, 221
Impatiens glandulifera, 212, 214, 216, Ludwigia sp., 209, 210, 216, 217, 220,
218, 219 221, 225
Indotestudo elongata, 168 Lutra lutra, 524
Ipomoea aquatica, 198, 201, 203 Lymnaea sp., 522
Ipomoea carnea, 197 Lymnaea stagnalis, 522
Isocypris beauchampi, 127 Lythrum salicaria, 5, 448
730 Species index
M N
Macrobrachium australiense, 583 Najas graminea, 212, 216, 219

Manouria impressa, 168 Najas horrida, 198, 202
Marenzelleria neglecta, 651 Nasturtium officinale, 197
Margaritifera auricularia, 132 Natrix maura, 144, 145, 148
Mauremys caspica, 148, 163, 164 Neogobius fluviatilis, 652
Mauremys leprosa, 146, 163, 164 Neogobius gymnotrachelus, 238
Mauremys sp., 671 Neogobius iljini, 652
Melanoides tuberculata, 104, 106, 107, Neogobius kessleri, 234, 238
113 Neogobius melanostomus, 6, 13, 238,
Melanopsis etrusca, 104 275–281, 283, 344, 652
Mercierella enigmatica, 127 Nesameletus ornatus, 445
Microcondylaea compressa, 108 Nitocra incerta, 6
Microcystis sp., 520 Noemacheilus barbatulus, 514, 547
Micropterus dolomieu, 452, 453, 455, 546 Norops sagrei, 142
Micropterus salmoides, 4, 10, 98, 129, Nymphaea sp., 202
267, 301, 325, 550 Nymphoides sp., 202
Mimosa pigra, 196, 200
Mnemiopsis leidyi, 649, 651 O
Modiolus striatulus, 455
Monoporeia affinis, 480 Obesogammarus crassus, 31, 46, 463, 464,
Morone chrysops, 13 467, 468, 471
Morone saxatilis, 13 Obesogammarus obesus, 31, 46, 245
Mugil cephalus, 326 Ocadia sinensis, 165, 168
Mustela lutreola, 176, 447, 628 Octodiceras fontanum, 210, 211, 215, 219
Mustela putorius, 178 Oncorhynchus apache, 447
Mustela vison, 129, 175, 177, 183, 184, Oncorhynchus gilae, 447
439, 447, 628 Oncorhynchus kisutch, 130
Mylopharyngodon piceus, 236 Oncorhynchus mykiss, 13, 129, 234, 236,
Myocastor coypus, 129, 175, 177, 183, 447, 448
184, 203, 628 Oncorhynchus nerka, 450
Myoxocephalus thompsoni, 278 Oncorhynchus sp., 14
Myriophyllum aquaticum, 196, 212, 216, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, 448
217, 219 Ondatra zibethicus, 129, 175, 177, 183, 628
Myriophyllum heterophyllum, 212, 216, Orchestia cavimana, 31
219, 223 Orconectes immunis, 32
Myriophyllum sp., 217 Orconectes juvenilis, 514
Myriophyllum spicatum, 5, 196, 223, 327, Orconectes limosus, 5, 32, 37, 48–50, 60,
449 236, 248– 250, 373, 509, 511,
Mysis relicta, 60, 450 528, 529, 566
Mytilaster lineatus, 651 Orconectes luteus, 564
Mytilopsis leucophaeata, 126, 651, Orconectes nais, 564
653 Orconectes neglectus, 564
Mytilopsis sallei, 455 Orconectes propinquus, 447, 517, 530
Orconectes punctimanus, 564
Species index 731
Orconectes rusticus, 32, 37, 447, 488, 455, Phragmites sp., 201
509, 511, 514, 515, 517, 518, Phyllodistomum folium, 126
520–523, 525, 529, 530, 533, Physa acuta, 327, 522, 567
546, 562 Physa fontinalis, 111
Orconectes sp., 515 Physa gyrina, 514
Orconectes virilis, 32, 37, 62, 511, Physa pisana, 111
514, 517, 518, 530, 546, Physella acuta, 126, 131, 132
547 Physella heterostropha, 132
Oreochromis niloticus, 11, 444, 548 Pimephales promelas, 547
Osmerus mordax, 13 Pistia stratiotes, 196, 199, 203, 212, 214,
Osteopilus septentrionalis, 446 216, 219, 220
Oxyura jamaicensis, 130, 628 Platithys flesus, 278
Oxyura leucocephala, 628 Pleurodeles waltl, 545
Podonevadne angusta, 650
P Podonevadne camptonyx, 650
Podonevadne trigona, 650, 652
Pacifastacus fortis, 446, 515, 529, 532 Poecilia reticulata, 129, 237
Pacifastacus leniusculus, 32, 38, 48, 50–52, Polyphemus exiguus, 650
128, 234, 236, 248–251, 351, Pomacea canaliculata, 8
373, 446, 448, 509–519, Pomatoschistus minutus, 278
520–522, 528, 529, 531, 533, Pontederia cordata, 196, 212, 214, 216, 219
545, 563–566, 629 Pontogammarus robustoides, 4, 31, 46,
Pacifastacus nigrescens, 446, 515 463– 473
Palaemon macrodactylus, 32, 52, 128 Potamogeton amplifolius, 311
Pallasea quadrispinosa, 480, 481, 486 Potamogeton gramineus, 486
Paralithodes camtschaticus, 29 Potamogeton pectinatus, 562, 565
Paramysis intermedia, 34 Potamon aff. ibericum, 78, 81, 83, 86
Paramysis lacustris, 34, 466 Potamon albanicum, 84
Paranephrops planifrons, 529, 564 Potamon edulis, 86
Paranephrops zealandicus, 589 Potamon fluviatile, 32, 53, 77, 86
Paspalum dilatatum, 212, 216, 219, 212, Potamon ibericum tauricum, 32 , 82
216, 219 Potamon meandris, 84
Pelobates cultripes, 545 Potamon potamios, 78, 84
Pelochelys cantorii, 165 Potamon sp., 32, 53, 78
Pelodiscus sinensis, 130, 164, 165, 168 Potamon tauricum, 84
Pelodytes punctatus, 545 Potamon (Centropotamon) hueceste hueceste,
Pelomedusa subrufa, 164 80
Perca flavescens, 311 Potamon (Centropotamon) magnum
Perca fluviatilis, 85, 86, 129, 267, 326 vangoelium, 80
Perccottus glenii, 652 Potamon (Eutelphusa) fluviatile, 78, 81, 85
Percina caprodes, 278 Potamon (Pontipotamon) aff. ibericum, 78,
Perna perna, 619 79
Perna viridis, 455 Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum meandris,
Petromyzon marinus, 4, 12, 449 79
Phragmites australis, 448, 451, 600, 601, Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum tauricum,
604 79, 83, 86
732 Species index
Potamon (Pontipotamon) ibericum, 78, 79, 151–153, 446, 546, 669,

84, 86 670–676, 679
Potamon (Potamon) potamios hippocratis, Rana clamitans, 688
79, 80 Rana esculenta, 513
Potamon (Potamon) potamios karamani, 80 Rana klepton esculenta, 130, 146,
Potamonautes loveni, 97 149, 150
Potamopyrgus antipodarum, 106, 107, 110, Rana kurtmuelleri, 150
126, 234 Rana lessonae, 130, 146, 149, 150, 154
Potamopyrgus jenkinsi, 126 Rana perezi, 146, 148, 545
Proasellus coxalis, 33, 57 Rana pipiens, 688
Proasellus meridianus, 57 Rana pretiosa, 149, 687
Proasellus meridionalis, 33, 57 Rana ridibunda, 130, 146, 149, 150
Procambarus acutus acutus, 515 Rana temporaria, 513
Procambarus clarkii, 5, 9, 11, 15, 29, 32, Rangia cuneata, 5
38, 48, 50, 86, 91–93, 95–99, Rapana venosa, 344, 651
128, 132, 203, 237, 248–250, Rastrineobola argentea, 444
373, 383–386, 388–391, Rhithropanopeus harrisii, 32, 38, 53, 128,
395–397, 452, 509–511, 513, 652
515, 518–520, 522, 523, 525, Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum, 197
527, 528, 531–533, 544–546, Rutilus rutilus, 129
548–550, 560–563, 565– 570,
579, 615, 620, 629 S
Procambarus sp., 32, 49, 62
Proterorhinus marmoratus, 6, 652 Saccostrea cucullata, 619
Pseudemydura umbrina, 584 Sagittaria latifolia, 212, 216, 219
Pseudemys concinna floridana, 673 Salamandra salamandra, 545
Pseudemys sp., 165 Salivinia molesta, 196
Pseudodactylogyrus anguillae, 125 Salmo clarkii, 447
Pseudodactylogyrus bini, 125 Salmo salar, 447
Pseudo-nitszchia seriata, 651 Salmo trutta, 15, 448
Pseudorasbora parva, 129, 133, 234, 237, Salmo trutta fario, 83
268, 327, 402, 409, 652 Salvelinus alpinus, 60
Pseudosolenia calcar-avis, 651 Salvelinus fontinalis, 129, 236, 447
Pseudosuccinea columella, 106, 107, 109, Salvelinus namaycush, 12, 278, 451, 452,
113 546
Pseudowolffia sp., 198 Salvinia molesta, 199, 203
Pungitius pungitius, 237 Salvinia natans, 210, 211, 215, 219
Pygocentrus nattereri, 415 Sander lucioperca, 129, 402, 403
Pylodictis olivaris, 411 Scardinius erythrophthalmus, 129
Pyxidea mouhotii, 168 Scardinius sp., 57
Schistosoma haematobium, 532
R Schistosoma mansoni, 450
Schizopera borutzkyi, 6
Rana aurora, 17, 149, 446 Schoenoplectus prolifer, 212, 216, 219
Rana aurora draytonii, 669 Scinax quinquefasciatus, 144, 145, 154
Rana boylii, 446 Scirpus mucronatus, 210, 212, 216,
Rana catesbeiana, 4, 12, 13, 17, 130, 219, 210
142, 143, 146, 148, 149, Scirpus pungens, 212, 216, 219
Species index 733
Scirpus validus, 311 Trachemys scripta, 129, 163, 164,

Sesbania punicea, 201 168–170
Sida crystallina, 311 Trachemys scripta scripta, 673
Silurus glanis, 129, 326 Trichocorixa verticalis, 128
Simocephalus sp., 311 Triturus boscai, 545
Sinanodonta woodiana, 243 Triturus carnifex, 150
Skeletonema subsalsum, 651 Triturus cristatus, 150
Spartina alterniflora, 212, 214, 216, Triturus marmoratus, 545
217, 219, 220, 222 Triturus vulgaris, 513, 545
Spartina anglica, 631 Triturus vulgaris graecus, 237
Spartina maritima, 222 Tropidonophis mairii, 155
Spartina x townsendii, 212, 214, 216, 219, Typha angustifolia, 448
220, 222 Typha domingensis, 201
Spartina versicolor, 214 Typha latifolia, 451
Speleomantes ambrosii, 147 Typha sp., 198
Speleomantes italicus, 147
Spirodela oligorhiza, 212, 216, 219 U
Spirodela sp., 198
Spongilla lacustris, 598, 604, 605 Unio tumidus, 485
Squalius alburnoides, 549
Squalius pyrenaicus, 550 V
Stenocypris major, 127
Stenopelmus rufinasus, 128 Valencia hispanica, 132
Stizostedion lucioperca, 14, 326 Vallisneria spiralis, 210, 212, 216, 219
Stizostedion vitreum, 546 Varanus indicus, 146
Strandesia vavrai, 127 Varanus niloticus, 148
Strandesia vinciguerrae, 127 Vibrio cholerae, 450, 658
Stratiotes aloides, 210, 212, 216, 219 Viviparus viviparus, 485
Synidotea laticauda, 128 Vossia cuspidata, 198, 203
T W
Tanycypris sp., 127 Wlassicsia pannonica, 127

Taricha torosa, 545 Wolffia sp., 198
Taudactylus acutirostris, 151 Wolffiella sp., 198
Teredo navalis, 651
Testudo sp.141 X
Thalassiosira incerta, 651
Thelohania parastaci, 589 Xenopus laevis, 142, 147
Thelphusa fluviatilis, 85 Xenostrobus secures, 455
Tinca tinca, 130, 131, 262 Xiphophorus helleri, 237
Tinca sp., 57 Xiphophorus maculatus, 237
Trachemys decussata, 673 Xironogiton victoriensis, 126
Trachemys scripta elegans, 142, 143, 148,
151, 161, 162, 163, 166, 168, Z
170, 439, 446, 628, 670–676
Trachemys scripta ornata, 673 Zoarces viviparus, 278

Biological Invaders in Inland Waters

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BIOLOGICAL INVADERS IN INLAND WATERS:

PROFILES, DISTRIBUTION, AND THREATS

Series Editor: JAMES A. DRAKE

ISBN 978-1-4020-6028-1 (HB)

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

1 Biological invasions in inland waters: an overview 3

2 Invasive crustaceans in European inland waters 29

3 Non-indigenous freshwater crabs in France: a new occurrence

4 Status and ecosystem interactions of the invasive Louisianan

5 Non-indigenous freshwater molluscs and their distribution

6 Non-indigenous animal species naturalized in Iberian

7 An overview of the natural history of non-indigenous

8 The red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans)

9 Semiaquatic mammals introduced into Italy: case studies

10 Invasions by plants in the inland waters and

11 Non-indigenous aquatic and semiaquatic plant

Profiles of invaders 231

12 Ecological traits of aquatic NIS invading

13 Growth and reproduction of the goldfish Carassius auratus:

14 Epigenetic context in the life history traits of the round goby,

15 Growth and life history traits of introduced pumpkinseed

16 The biological flexibility of the pumpkinseed: a successful

Patterns and pathways of invasions 337

17 Marine vs. freshwater invaders: is shipping the key vector

18 Modeling biological invasions of inland waters 347

19 Biomonotony: definition and assessment for

20 Genetics and invasion biology in fresh waters: a pilot study

21 Do estuaries act as saline bridges to allow invasion of new

22 Which factors determine non-indigenous fish dispersal?

23 The relationship between biodiversity and invasibility in

Impacts of invaders 435

24 Measuring the impact of freshwater NIS: what are we missing? 437

25 Invasion of the Baltic Sea basin by the Ponto-Caspian

26 Changes in the aquatic systems of north-eastern Europe after

27 The predatory impact of Dikerogammarus villosus on fish 495

28 Understanding the impact of invasive crayfish 507

29 Predation of invasive crayfish on aquatic vertebrates:

30 Assessing the trophic ecology of crayfish: a case study of the

31 Introduction and spread of crayfish (Parastacidae)

32 The zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha:

33 Seasonal effects on the antioxidant response and metal

Managing invasions 625

34 Towards a European strategy to halt biological invasions

35 A risk assessment of biological invasions in the inland

36 Logistics of shipboard and dockside testing of ballast water

37 Virtues and shortcomings of EU legal provisions for

38 Problems and opportunities managing invasive Bullfrogs:

Concluding remarks 695

39 A role for scientists 697

General keywords 703

Miguel Angel Bravo-Utrera

Loke Ming Chou

Yury Yu. Dgebuadze

Pek Kaye Abigayle Ng