X-Ray Fundamentals Part 3 V1.7 Theory Training
X-Ray Fundamentals Part 3 V1.7 Theory Training
X-Ray Fundamentals Part 3 V1.7 Theory Training
Fundamentals
Training
Welcome
Welcome to X-ray Fundamentals Part 3 – Theory training.
• Introductions
• Organization and role
• Safety / Convenience
– Location of building exits (e.g., fire drill)
– Location of restrooms / cafeteria / vending
machines
• Timing: Class times / schedule
• Courtesy: Cell phones, Blackberries, etc.,
turned to “off” or “silent.”
• Parking lot for unanswered questions
Introduction
The courses in the X-ray
Fundamentals Training Curriculum
are designed to introduce new
service professionals to the subject
of diagnostic X-ray equipment for the
purpose of building a foundation
upon which all subsequent X-ray
equipment training will be based.
DAY 4: DAY 5:
•X-ray Room Requirements •Regulatory & Acceptance
•Filtration and Compliance
•Measurement •Safety
•Image Quality •Final Exam
•Training Evaluation
•END Friday 12:00 p.m.
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Fundamentals
Module 3: X-ray Terminology
Training
WW X-ray
Fundamentals
Training
Module 2: X-ray History
Objectives
Welcome to the X-Ray History
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the origin of the term “X-ray.”
• Explain who discovered X-rays.
• Explain how X-rays are used today.
• Describe the highlights in the
development of X-rays.
History of Radiography
• X-ray were discovered in 1895 by
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, but many
scientists before him paved the way
for his discovery. Many major
discoveries relating to electricity had
been made during the three centuries
that preceded the discover of X-rays,
but it was the study of electrical
discharges under high voltage in
vacuum tubes that led to the actual
discovery of X-rays.
• Scores of scientists had
experimented with electrical
discharges through different types of
vacuum tubes, and many of them
had produced X-rays but did not
recognize them as a new type of ray.
Timeline
1895 X-rays, discovered by German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. He also
produced the first X-ray picture of the body (his wife's hand) in December.
1896 January: First images of fractured bone, followed by gallstones,
arteriosclerosis, arteries using contrast injection, chest, kidney stones,
fluoroscopy images using fluorescing screen, stomach and intestines using
barium sulfate as the contrast medium.
1900 Chest X-ray: widespread use of the chest X-ray allowed for early detection of
tuberculosis (most common cause of death at the time).
1929 Cardiac Catheterization first performed by Werner Forssmann on himself.
1945 Coronary artery imaging: visualization of blood vessels that feed the heart.
Timeline (con’t.)
1978 Digital Radiography: TV signal from the X-ray system is converted to a digital picture
which can then be enhanced for clearer diagnosis and stored digitally for future review.
1983 Fuji commercialized the first computed radiography CR system utilizing storage phosphor
technology (from Kodak phosphor screen).
1985 Clinical Networks were first implemented to allow digital diagnostic images to be shared
between physicians a via computer network, allowing a doctor in Boston to review a CT
examination from a patient in Beijing, China.
1989 Spiral CT allows fast-volume scanning of an entire organ during a single, short patient
breath hold of 20 to 30 seconds.
1994 Kodak introduced the KDS CR System 400 (Model 5110).
1997 DRC introduced the first amorphous selenium Detector array (dual panel) for clinical use.
2000 Kodak starts the DR business (first four Kodak DR products used the DRC detector).
2007 Kodak sells its Health Imaging division in May 2007, and Carestream Health is born.
2009 June: Carestream launches the DRX-1 Detector – the first wireless flat panel digital
receptor in a 35 x 43 cassette format with GOS scintillator.
October: Carestream launches the DRX-Evolution digital radiography system – the
system goes on to win several design awards and is considered an industry leader.
2012 June: Carestream launches the DRX-Revolution mobile X-ray system.
Skill Check
Q: Who is given credit for the discovery of
X-rays?
A: Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
Summary
You have completed the X-ray
History module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the origin of the term “X-ray.”
• Explain who discovered X-rays.
• Explain how X-rays are used today.
• Describe the highlights in the
development of X-rays.
Objectives
Welcome to the X-Ray
Terminology module.
When you complete this
module, you will be able to:
• Explain the common terms used in
X-ray technology.
• Describe projections.
Projections
For two-letter acronyms, the first letter indicates where the X-ray enters
and the second letter indicates where the beam exits.
For three-letter acronyms, the first two letters indicate where the X-ray
enters and the third letter indicates where the beam exits.
PA
Posterior Anterior
RPO LPO
Right Posterior Oblique Left Posterior Oblique
RL LL X-ray Direction
Right Lateral Left Lateral
RAO LAO
Right Anterior Oblique Left Anterior Oblique
AP
Anterior Posterior
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Skill Check
Q: For mobile imaging, which is used
most often, AP or PA?
A: AP
Summary
You have completed the X-ray
Terminology module.
You are now able to:
• Explain the common terms used in
X-ray technology.
• Describe projections.
Objectives
Welcome to the Basics of Physics
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Define what an X-ray is.
• Describe the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• Describe the difference between
photographs and radiography.
• Identify the characteristics of X-rays.
• Describe how X-rays are produced.
• Describe the interaction of X-rays with
matter.
• Explain scatter.
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X-rays have more energy than light rays, so they can penetrate
and travel through materials that light rays cannot.
X-ray Characteristics
• X-ray photons travel at approximately the speed of light.
• X-ray photons move rectilinearly, meaning they travel in a straight path
away from the source until they interact/collide with another object.
• X-ray photons are part of the spectrum that has ionizing characteristics.
Ionization is the physical process of converting an atom or molecule into
an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as electrons.
• X-ray photons have a photoelectric effect: This means the energy
produced can be viewed by exposing film or capturing on TV system.
• X-ray photons do not yield to electric, magnetic, or high-frequency fields.
• Depending on the density and thickness of matter, X-rays can penetrate
matter, where they undergo an attenuation, producing secondary or
scatter radiation with a lower penetration intensity.
• X-ray photons cause a biological effect. For example, they affect tissue.
Absorption
X-ray Interactions
There are three main interactions of diagnostic X-
Scattered X-ray rays with matter:
X-ray
1.Coherent Scattering: Interaction between a low
Coherent Scattering
energy photon and an atom: the photon does not lose
energy but it deviates by the incident radiation. It
X-ray contributes to create the gray fog (less than 5%) seen in
the resulting image.
Ejected Electron
Photoelectric Absorption 2.Photoelectric Absorption (secondary radiation): The
incident photon is absorbed creating an ionization of the
Scattered X-ray atom: a photoelectron is emitted. All of the X-ray photon’s
energy is absorbed by the patient.
X-ray
Scatter
• Decreases the contrast in the image.
– Contrast is important for diagnostic capability.
• Provides no value to the medical image.
• Reduced or eliminated by use of grid (more about grids later).
• Any object/material in the X-ray beam can be a source of scatter
(e.g., the patient is typically the primary source of scatter).
• Compton Scatter is typically the highest contributor to scatter in
medical imaging.
Skill Check
Q: X-rays are a form of __________
energy just like light rays and micro-
waves.
A: electromagnetic
Summary
You have completed the Basics of
Physics module.
You are now able to:
• Define what an X-ray is.
• Describe the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• Describe the difference between
photographs and radiography.
• Identify the characteristics of X-rays.
• Describe how X-rays are produced.
• Describe the interaction of X-rays
with matter.
• Explain scatter.
Objectives
Welcome to the Medical
Imaging Equipment module.
When you complete this
module, you will be able to:
• Describe how X-rays are used in
medicine.
• Identify the requirements of a
basic X-ray system.
• Describe the types of X-ray
systems used in medicine today.
9 5 6
A.T. 8
6
4 2
3
5. BLD / Collimator
1. X-ray Tube 6. Bucky (Grid, AEC, Receptor)
2. X-ray Generator 7. Tube Support - Ceiling Suspension
3. X-ray Control Desk 8. Patient Support
4. HV Transformer 9. Radiation Protection
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Courtesy of GE Corp.
Dental
systems
Skill Check
Q: What are the three required components of
an X-ray system?
A: X-rays source; power supply and control;
image receptor
Summary
You have completed the
Medical Imaging Equipment
module.
You are now able to:
• Describe how X-rays are used in
medicine.
• Identify the requirements of a basic
X-ray system.
• Describe the types of X-ray
systems used in medicine today.
Objectives
Welcome to the Electrical Basics
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Identify the four basic characteristics
of electricity.
• Describe the difference between DC
and AC current.
• Explain AC RMS and DC.
• Describe single-phase supply and power.
• Explain the principles of transformers.
• Describe three-phase electric power systems.
• Describe R, L, or C AC circuit (V and I).
• Describe real power versus true power.
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• Voltage (Pressure)
• Amperes (Flow)
• Ohms (Resistance) Resistance
Voltage
• Watts (Power)
The flow of electrons through a circuit can
be compared (and commonly is) to the
flow of water through a pipe. Current
The rate of flow of water is analogous to
Amperes, Ohms to pipe diameter,
Voltage to water pressure, and Watts to
liters of water.
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Ohm’s Law
P = Power, in watts (W)
I = Current, in amperes (A)
E = Electromotive force, in volts (V)
R = Resistance, in ohms (Ω)
DC and AC
Direct Current Alternating Current
(DC) (AC)
I I
I I
AC RMS and DC
RMS is a "DC equivalent" measurement to any AC voltage
or current: whatever magnitude of DC voltage or current
would produce the same amount of heat energy dissipation
through an equal resistance.
5 A RMS
5W
Power
10 V RMS 2Ω Dissipated
5A
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Single-phase Supply
The live and neutral conductors
should be considered as the
“power supply” to the premises. Live
Supplier’s
Distribution Premises
Although the live and neutral System
conductors both carry current, Neutral
only the live conductor is at a
voltage that could be harmful.
Earth
Connection
The neutral conductor will To Earth
normally be at the same voltage
Joint
as the earth conductor. In fact,
at some point the neutral and Terminal
the earth will be connected
together.
Single-phase Power
Power consumed by a single-phase load is determined by
using the following formula:
P =V x I
Transformer Principle
Transformer
AC Voltage Induced AC
Source Voltage
Three-phase Voltages
Three-phase electric power systems have at least three conductors
carrying voltage waveforms that are 120°(1/3 of a cycle) offset in time.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
1.0
0.5
0
90° 180° 270° 360°
-0.5
-1.0
120° 120°
Three-phase Power
The use of three-phase power has
VAB=Vphase
some advantages over the use of
single-phase power: VAN=Vphase/1.73
(e.g., 400/1.73=230)
• Delivers 1.73 times the power as
compared to a single-phase source
• Much thinner and lighter wires
A B
L1 L2
120°
A B
N
120° 120°
DELTA
WYE
L3 C
C
Star Point
L1
Vp A2
Vline
Star Point B2 C2
Vline
A1
L2
Vline C1
B1
L3
L1 L2 L3
L1
A2
Vline
L2 B2 C2
Vp A1
Vline
Vline
B1 C1
L3 L1 L2 L3
• Vp = V line
• I line = I phase x 1.732 (1.732 = square root of 3)
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Three-phaseTransformer
Primary and secondary windings could be connected in either Delta or Y
configurations to form a complete unit.
Y-Y, ∆- ∆
The secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary
waveforms when the primary and secondary windings are connected the
same way. This condition is called “no-phase shift.”
Y-∆, ∆-Y
The primary and secondary windings are connected differently than the
secondary voltage waveforms will differ from the corresponding primary
voltage waveforms by 30 electrical degrees. This is called a “30-degree
phase shift.”
Three-phase
Transformer Core
480 V
415 V
400 V
380 V
380 V
400 V
415 V
480 V
380 V
400 V
415 V
480 V
Three-phase Power
Power consumed by a three-phase load is determined by using the
following formula:
P = 1.732 x V x I x Pf
R L or C AC Circuit (V and I)
e=
Resistor
i =
R = 100 Ω +
100 Ω
X=0Ω
Z = 100 Ω ∠ 0° Time
-
Inductor
e=
R=0Ω
100 mH i =
X = 100 Ω +
159.15 Hz
Z = 100 Ω ∠ 90° Time
-
Capacitor
e=
R=0Ω
100 µF i =
X = 100 Ω +
159.15 Hz Z = 100 Ω ∠ -90° Time
-
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R L or C AC Circuit (Power)
Resistor e=
i =
R = 100 Ω + p=
100 Ω
X=0Ω
Z = 100 Ω ∠ 0° Time
-
Inductor e=
R=0Ω i =
100 mH p=
X = 100 Ω +
159.15 Hz
Z = 100 Ω ∠ 90° Time
-
Capacitor e=
i =
R=0Ω p=
100 µF X = 100 Ω +
159.15 Hz Z = 100 Ω ∠ -90° Time
-
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The ratio of real power to apparent power is called the power factor.
Skill Check
Q: What are the four basic characteristics of
electricity?
A: Voltage, Amperes, Ohms, and Watts
Summary
You have completed the Electrical
Basics module.
You are now able to:
• Identify the four basic characteristics of
electricity.
• Describe the difference between DC and
AC current.
• Explain AC RMS and DC.
• Describe single-phase supply and power.
• Explain the principles of transformers.
• Describe three-phase electric power
systems.
• Describe R, L, or C AC circuit (V and I).
• Describe real power versus true power.
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Fundamentals
Training
Module 7: Mains
Objectives
Welcome to the Mains module.
When you complete this module, you
will be able to:
• Identify mains terminology.
• Describe mains variation and unbalance.
• Describe mains current.
• Describe real power versus apparent power.
• Describe mains impedance.
• Describe resistance, reactance, and impedance.
• Describe mains impedance.
• Describe an X-ray generator mains specifications.
• Explain grounding.
• Identify best practices for grounding.
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Mains Terminology
In order to supply an X-ray generator, the Mains has to
comply with the following specifications:
1.Nominal voltage (the way of naming a range of voltage to a
standard)
2.Mains variation and unbalance
3.Line current (peak and stand by)
4.Max peak incoming power (or apparent power)
5.Mains impedance
Mains Current
Peak current:
The figure is the maximum instantaneous current in the line.
Stand-by current:
The figure is the current required by the system in stand-by mode.
Mains Impedance
Line impedance is the sum of resistance, Branch
inductance, and capacitance found in every Transformer
Circuit
electrical device.
Service
Common sources of line impedance include
Feeder
copper conductors, transformers, contactors,
fuses, and terminals.
Utility
Every electrical device contributes a small
amount to the total line impedance. Circuit
Breaker
Line impedance causes several power quality
problems. Excessive impedance causes voltage
sags when facility loads are energized, especially
loads that have high inrush currents like X-ray
systems.
Mains Impedance
Mains impedance has a major influence on the output power of the X-ray
generator.
0-5
80 A 200 mA
a.) The X-ray system is asked to generate 200
mA of tube current @ 100 kVp. This is a 20
kW exposure.
290 V 250 V 100 kV Due to the mains impedance, the voltage
drops by 40V and in order to make the 20kW
exposure, the current on the primary windings
must increase to 80 Amps of peak current in
a.) 1:400 the primary winding of the HV transformer.
0-5 500 mA
200 A
a.) The X-ray system is asked to generate 500
mA of tube current @ 100 kVp. This is a 50
100 kV kW exposure.
350 V 250 V
Due to the mains impedance, the voltage
drops by 100V and in order to make the 50kW
exposure, the current on the primary windings
b.) must increase to 200 Amps of peak current in
the primary winding of the HV transformer.
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Grounding
The word grounded means connected to
the earth.
Grounding (con’t.)
The equipment grounding conductor shall be green with a yellow stripe.
No other colors are specified.
Importance of Grounding
Electrical grounding is important
because it provides a reference voltage
level (called zero potential or ground
potential) against which all other
voltages in a system are established and
measured.
The earth, which forms the ultimate ground, has the ability to absorb
or dissipate an unlimited amount of electrical charge.
The function of the protective conductor, or earth, is to provide a low resistance path
for fault current so that the circuit protective devices operate rapidly to disconnect
the supply.
The purpose of a ground, besides the protection of people, plants, and equipment,
is to provide a safe path for the dissipation of fault currents, lightning strikes, static
discharges, EMI and RFI signals, and Interference.
Improper grounding can create a lethal hazard – protection of people is the prority.
Correct grounding is also essential for correct operation and safety of electrical
equipment.
Grounding Example
Example: DR7500
Hospital Ground
Power Ground
Generator
Console
System Ground
System Ground
TDU HT Tank
Tube
Housing
Ground
System Ground
Table Tube
System Ground Crane
Wall
Stand
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Best Practices
The ground conductors must be properly connected according with the
system ground plan.
Never take assumption that the GND is correct because nobody has
touched the cables since installation. One GND cable could be loosen or
even disconnected/interrupted by someone else’s mistake.
Skill Check
Q: What is peak current?
A: The maximum instantaneous current in the
line.
Summary
You have completed the Mains
module.
You are now able to:
• Identify mains terminology.
• Describe mains variation and unbalance.
• Describe mains current.
• Describe real power versus apparent power.
• Describe mains impedance.
• Describe resistance, reactance, and
impedance.
• Describe mains impedance.
• Describe an X-ray generator mains
specifications.
• Explain grounding.
• Identify best practices for grounding.
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Fundamentals
Training
Module 8: Exposure
Control Factors
Objectives
Welcome to the Exposure Control
Factors module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe exposure control factors.
Exposure Factors
The X-ray beam is described in terms of Quantity and Quality.
QUANTITY >>> mA
QUALITY >>> kV
Soft radiation Hard radiation
Lower energy Higher energy
↓kV ↑kV
Longer wavelength Shorter wavelength
Exposure Factors – kV
kV – The commonly-used term to describe the tube voltage and is
synonymous with the energy of the X-ray photons.
kV = X kV = X + kV = X ++
Exposure Factors – mA
mA – milliamperes
mA is the measure of the tube current, or the flow of electrons across the X-ray tube
during the exposure.
The hotter the filament, the more electrons are available to form the electron stream.
When the mA is multiplied by the time of exposure, the result is mAs. For a given
kVp setting, the amount of X-ray dose produced increases linearly with mAs.
kV
selected value. Exposure Time
AEC Chamber
Selection
Exposure Time
Selection
Exposure Parameter
On/Off Dedicated Small/large
for Patient Sizes
Programming Focus
“Station” Selection for Different
(i.e., Bucky, Wall Bucky) Organs
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Skill Check
Q: What does a change in kV do to the X-ray photons being produced?
A: Changes the energy of the photon, which affects penetrating ability.
Summary
You have completed the
Exposure Control Factors
module.
You are now able to:
• Describe exposure control factors.
Objectives
Welcome to the X-ray Tube
Assembly module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Explain what an X-ray tube is.
• Identify the components of an X-ray
tube and their function.
• Explain the function of an X-ray tube.
• Explain “heel effect.”
• Explain a rating chart.
• Explain anode heat.
• Identify common X-ray tube problems.
X-ray Tube
An X-ray tube is an energy converter. It receives electrical energy and
converts it into two forms: X-radiation and heat. The heat is an undesirable
byproduct. X-ray tubes are designed and constructed to maximize X-ray
production and to dissipate heat as rapidly as possible.
Lead
Steel Lining
Housing
Expandable
Gasket
Insulating Lead
Primary
Oil Beam Lining
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Tube Assembly –
• Includes both the insert and the housing.
1. Applying current to the filament(s), electrons are boiled off of the filament forming an
electron “cloud”. The filament(s) are part of the cathode (-) of the x-ray tube.
2. High voltage is applied, creating a large potential difference between the anode (+)
and cathode (-) of the x-ray tube, causing the electrons to flow to, and impact the
surface of, a target located at the anode end of the tube.
3. The impact of the electrons with the target creates an electromagnetic reaction that
results in the conversion of the electrons into x-ray photons
As a result of the interaction between the electrons and the target material, about
95% to 99% of the energy is converted into heat, and about 1% to 5% is converted
into X-ray energy.
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Housing – Function
The housing provides:
• X-ray shielding
• Connections for HV and
filament supply to the
insert
• Electrical insulation
• Stator support (rotating
target)
• Insert cooling
• Beam pre-collimation
• Safety and temperature
sensor
High Voltage
Rotor Connections
“Federal Plugs“
Anode Cathode
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270°
135° 180° 225° 270° B – 155
B – 165
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X-ray tubes with stationary anodes are often used in dental X-ray
machines, some portable machines, and other special purpose
units, which do not require high tube currents and power.
The rotating anodes operate at 3000 - 3600 rpm for low speed, or
9000 -10400 rpm for high speed. Actual speed may vary depending on
line input frequency, tube specs, and tube condition. High speed
operation typically is required for exposures of ~50 kW or higher.
The rotating speeds are chosen to prevent tube failure due to rotation
resonant frequencies. The critical speed is typically about 5500 rpm
and for this reason either boosting or braking must allow the stator to
pass through this point quickly.
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Stationary
Anode
Tube
Window
Armature
Filament
Leads
Filament Rotating
Molybdenum Portion
Focusing Cup
Neck
Electron Beam
X-ray
Beam
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Differing filament α1 α2
size and differing
target angle can α1> α2
result in the same
f1 = f2
focal “SPOT” size. f1 f2
Example – At an SID of 1
meter, the following target
angles can produce a
maximum useable field
size of:
• 12º, resulting in ~43cm
(17”)
• 14º, resulting in ~91cm
(36”)
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Practically the anode heat capacity is the quantity of the job which the anode is
able to perform in a time frame.
For a 400 kHU rated tube, when the HU% reaches 100%, the anode
(target) has reached 400 kHU or 300 kJ.
Anode Heat
Anode Heat Capacity
Key points:
•Target heating is calculated by the generator’s heat unit calculator;
housing temperature is not.
•The target’s HU%, no matter how low it is maintained. It still represents
actual heat, and that heat eventually is transferred to the oil and the
housing through convection.
A B C D
Anode conditions:
A focal track corrupted
B focal track damaged/burned
C anode damaged by exposures without rotation
D focal track/anode OK
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A E
E
E = Electron
A = Air Molecule
A
Skill Check
Q: The ______ is the positive electrode of the
tube, and is where the +kV is connected.
A: Anode
Summary
You have completed the X-ray
Tube Assembly module.
You are now able to:
• Explain what an X-ray tube is.
• Identify the components of an X-ray
tube and their function.
• Explain the function of an X-ray tube.
• Explain “heel effect.”
• Explain a rating chart.
• Explain anode heat.
• Identify common X-ray tube problems.
Objectives
Welcome to the X-ray Generator
Basics module.
When you complete this module, you
will be able to:
• Describe the basic form of the X-ray
generator.
• Explain mains compensation.
• Explain filament control.
• Describe the X-ray tube rotor control
circuit.
• Describe high-voltage generation.
• Explain converter history.
• Explain low to high frequency.
• Explain “single-tank” X-ray tube.
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X-ray Generator
Function / Item LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2
Description of generator’s function in the supplying of the various system Theory / lab Lab
components
Functional description of tube safety and loading control. Theory / lab Lab
Functional description of the rotor supply and control. Theory / lab Lab
External Interfacing (e.g., room door contacts, room warning lights, etc.) Theory / lab Lab
Filament Pre-heating
The current value to make Time Required to Heat
the filament able to quickly An X-ray Tube Filament
reach the required
With
temperature during
4A “Pre-heat”
radiographic preparation.
3A
(Typical 2.5 Amp)
2A Without
“Pre-heat”
1A
0A
0 1 2
Emission Curves
Filament current
vs. Tube current)
S = speed RPM
Vac (50/60 Hz) f = frequency
60 = seconds in a minute
3000/3600 rpm n = couple of magnetic poles
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p.173
Filter
50 Hz * 3 > 150 Hz > 9000 rpm
60 Hz * 3 > 180 Hz > 10400 rpm
mA 250
200
Low
Speed
150
100
50
Provides boost, run, brake voltages and boost timing to suit the X-ray tube stator.
Provides dynamic braking for high speed operation (DC voltage) to prevent
dangerous resonant frequency which occurs at ~5600 rpm.
Speed
8500
Boosting
Normal
Running
Braking
t
Exposure Radiation Boost Run Brake
Start Start
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p.176
Chopper
Controller
&
Mains SWR
Control
Frequency
Capacitance smoothes the DC voltage The purpose of the diodes is to keep the current flow in
and absorbs a return current from the the resonant circuit, after “zero crossing,” which turns
converter circuit. off the SCR.
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p.180
D1 D2
400 Vac
Th1 Th2
Th3 Th4
D3 D4
Safety 40-150 kV
contactor
Dumping
resistors
Th1 Th2 Th3 Th4
Thyristors control
(fire frequency
control generator) C
High
Voltage
Soft start
relay
Transformer
x-ray
KV feed back tube
KV set KV actual
point value
High-voltage Generation
Charging Discharging
• If the current flows through the C through C through
primary winding of the High Converter Converter
Tension generator, a voltage is
induced in the secondary winding. Kv
Set Point
• The voltage is then rectified and
charges the capacitor C.
• The capacitor C discharges
through the X-ray tube (tube
current).
• Just after the first pulses the kV Fire Pulses
feedback starts and the firing
pulses are sent more frequently.
• The fire frequency of the thyristor
determines the amplitude of the
voltage at the X-ray tube.
Power On Starter
Circuit Power Device
High-voltage
T1 Supply Transformer
+24 V M
5V
+15 V
-15 V
T2 Rectifier Inverter
L1
L2
3
L3
Filament
Service LS
Heating
PC
Generator
System Operating Control
Control Desk
Q: Why?
A: Without the center tap, the insulation
requirements of the high-tension cables
would be double and the cables would then
be cumbersome and more expensive.
Converter History
Generator Type High Voltage Converter
Transformer Component
Average Voltage
Advantages
Comparing with 12-pulse generator at same performances.
Converter Generator:
• Smaller and cheaper construction
• Very small high-voltage transformer due to high frequency
• kV/mA real time control (feedback)
• Better reproducibility and linearity at same performance
• Lower high-voltage ripple at high power
Filament
Transformer HT
Transformer
Lead
Lining
Oil Mid-point
Expansion Of HTT at
Bellows Earth
Potential
Radioluscent
Window
Skill Check
Q: What is the primary purpose of the
generator?
A: To provide the necessary voltage required
to allow the X-ray tube to conduct (voltage
may be adjustable) and provide current to
the filament (current may be adjustable).
Summary
You have completed the X-ray
Generator module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the basic form of the
X-ray generator.
• Explain mains compensation.
• Explain filament control.
• Describe the X-ray tube rotor
control circuit.
• Describe high-voltage generation.
• Explain converter history.
• Explain low to high frequency.
• Explain “single-tank” X-ray tube.
Objectives
Welcome to the High-voltage
Cables module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Explain the function of high-voltage
cables.
• Explain safety precautions.
• Explain maintenance.
• Explain HT cables – connections.
High-voltage Tank
Cathode H.V. Anode H.V. Cable
Cable Receptacle Receptacle
(-) (+)
L C
S
XC XC
P2 P1
G
M1 XL
High-voltage X-ray
Transformer
Federal
plugs
Woven conductive
shield (connects to
ground for safety) Common
Outer protective
insulation
Large focus Small focus
High-voltage Cables
During beginning of exposure the HV cables are capacitors for several tens of
micro-seconds and the current reaches peak values up to 4000 mA.
•Insulation resistance Mega Ohms
•Capacitance 240 pF/m (to gnd)
The accumulated energy could be very high and a direct discharge to GND could
be destructive for electronic circuits . For this reason a charged cable MUST NOT
discharged/connected to GND before waiting at least five minutes.
WARNING:
The cable charge lasts for hundred of
microseconds if the tube current is at
least 20 mA, but if there is no tube
current, the charge lasts for 20 minutes.
Safety
When replacing a cable, remove the cable-end first at
the X-ray tube, and then at the high-tension transformer.
This especially applies if the safety earth shield is
damaged at the X-ray tube end.
The location where the cable connection nuts (“collar”) screw onto the
tube housing and secure the cable is a good grounding point. The
unpainted portion of the tube is an excellent grounding point as long as
the dedicated ground connection between the tube and the tank is
present.
Unrestricted Internal Use
Carestream Health, © 2014
p.200
Maintenance
Follow these maintenance procedures:
• Prior to inserting the high voltage cables into the receptacles, both
must be thoroughly cleaned and dry.
• Carbon traces from previous arcing, if any, must be completely
removed.
• Cables must be replaced if they are darkened or swollen near the
cable terminals, or if the insulation appears stressed or damaged.
• Check the integrity of the terminal pins and restore their spring action if
needed.
• To Insert the cable into the socket, find the location key, fully insert
connector, thread cable nut (collar) and hand-tighten only.
• When the X-ray tube has gone thru warming/cooling cycles, re-check
the cable nut (collar) and ensure it is tight. Do not use tools; tighten by
hand.
Maintenance (con’t.)
• The HV plugs must be cleaned using alcohol.
• The use of the insulating washer is MANDATORY.
• The washers should be replaced anytime the cables have been
disconnected from the x-ray tube.
• The HV cable pins have to ensure a good electrical connection (for the
filament supply on Cathode side). In case of broken pins the entire
cable must be replaced.
• Refer to Service Bulletin 6H8281.
Maintenance (con’t.)
• Connections at high voltage
(HT) tank - use insulation oil
only.
• Connections at x-ray tube -
use silicon washers moistened
with few drops of oil to ensure
proper air-tight seal.
High-tension Connections
HT cables used in our DR systems are rated to carry 75,000 Volts.
Due to the high voltage potential present in the connection, proper insulation
methods must be used to prevent short-circuits (arcing) between the pins of the
connector and the securing nut/collar, which is at ground potential.
We use oil in the HT Tank connections. Oil is a very effective insulator. Since the
tank does not rotate as does the x-ray tube, oil will remain in the connectors due
to gravity.
• Note: The biggest consumer of oil in the connections is the checking and
cleaning of the connectors, as may be done during a PM.
For the X-ray tube connections, we use silicon washers moistened with oil. TL5515
is the number for the kit that contains oil and washers.
• Note – Silicon washers do not normally need to be checked unless high voltage
errors have occurred and the connections are thought to potentially be the root
cause. If the connection is inspected, a new washer moistened with oil should be
used.
• How to install the silicon insulating washer. (click on text to the left)
Skill Check
Q: High-voltage cables must be able to
withstand more than ___ kV, plus a safety
margin.
A: 75
Summary
You have completed the High-
voltage Cables module.
You are now able to:
• Explain the function of high-voltage
cables.
• Explain safety precautions.
• Explain maintenance.
• Explain HT cables connections.
Objectives
Welcome to the Collimation
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Explain the purpose of collimation.
• Identify the components used in
collimation.
• Identify issues with collimation.
Collimation
X-ray Tube
Housing
Cone
X-ray Collimation
X-ray collimator or beam-limiting device (BLD) is a device attached to
the opening of the X-ray tube housing for the purpose of regulating the
size and shape of an X-ray beam.
Basic functions:
• Protect the patient by reducing the beam to eliminate unnecessary
X-ray radiation.
• Reduce the scatter radiation.
• If supplied with light localizer, show the X-ray field size/shape using
projected light to aid in positioning (light beam collimator).
• Identify the center of the beam (projected cross-hairs).
• Optional added filtration selection.
The collimator is to be mounted to the x-ray tube at an FDD/tube distance depending on collimator
spec’s (A+B+C)
Focal spot
Collimator rotating flange
Coll.
Flange
outer face
Collimator Blades
Blade selection / orientation (referring to the patient’s long axis).
Cross
Long
Manual collimator –
• Manual collimator do not automatically adjust to the size of th eimage receptor.
• To establish a desired x-ray field size, the operator must MANUALLY adjust the
blade/shutter controls.
• Manual collimators can have motors, and the motors may be used to automatically
establish ‘pre-set’ field sizes – this is different than automatically sizing to the actual
receptor size.
Fixed diaphragms/cones –
• dental x-ray systems are an example of e product that may provide only a fixed field size.
• May be used in conjunction with a collimator and attached to the collimator output (i.e.,
sinus cone/diaphragm)
p.214
Skill Check
Q: What is the primary purpose of the X-ray
collimator or beam-limiting device (BLD)?
A: To regulate the size and shape of an X-ray
beam.
Summary
You have completed the Collimation
module.
You are now able to:
• Explain the purpose of collimation.
• Identify the components used in
collimation.
• Identify issues with collimation.
Objectives
Welcome to the Bucky module.
When you complete this
module, you will be able to:
• Identify the inventor of the Bucky.
• Identify the assemblies of a Bucky.
What Is a Bucky?
Named after Gustav Bucky, inventor
of the anti-scatter grid. Typically, a
true Bucky cabinet will have a
moving grid.
• AEC Grid
• Receptor Detector
Bucky Assembly
AEC Measuring
Device
Grid
Patient
Tray
• Screen Film
• Phosphor CR Plate
• Digital Detector
X-ray Beam
Cassette Tray
Philips
Skill Check
Q: Gustav Bucky is the inventor of the
________.
A: Anti-scatter grid
Summary
You have completed the X-ray
Generator module.
You are now able to:
• Identify the inventor of the Bucky.
• Identify the assemblies of a Bucky.
Objectives
Welcome to the Anti-scatter Grid
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe a stationary grid and its
components.
• Describe the “Bucky factor.”
• Describe problems with grid handling.
• Describe grid versions.
Stationary Grid
A stationary cross-hatch grid was described
by Dr. Gustav Bucky in 1913.
Moving Grid
Dr. Hollis Potter showed in 1920 that the pattern of the stationary cross-
hatch grid could be eliminated by using a grid made up of strips parallel to
the length of the table, which moved perpendicular to the table during an
exposure. The motion blurs the grid lines and makes them
indistinguishable on the image.
Grid Composition
The grid is a device typically
composed of thin alternating strips
of lead and spacer material, which
is covered with a radiolucent
material, able to reduce X-ray
scatter resulting in improved
structure contrast in the image. Scatter
Source
A grid bears some resemblance
to Venetian blinds.
Grid Components
Primary Beam
Absorbed
Unabsorbed Scatter
Scatter Radiation
Radiation
Image
Receptor X-ray Transparent Interspace
Grid Comparison
Portable Chest X-ray Without Grid Portable Chest X-ray With 8:1 Grid
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GRID
Grid Focus (f ) 0
Bell Effect
Different uniformity of brightness
is called the “bell effect.”
Distance = A
Focal
Distance = A
Flat/uniform exposure
Bell effect from poor
by adhering to
grid focus selection.
focal distance.
Grid Focus
Distance = A
Near
stance - A
35 cm
Dis
Focused
Focal
Focal Dist. = A
Distance = A
Far
The absorption of the primary beam also increases with higher grid ratio.
Ideal Grid
1.0
.8 Primary Radiation
Grid
.6 Real Grid
Penetration
.4
.2 Scatter
Real
Ideal
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Grid Ratio
Bucky Factor
The grid also attenuates
primary radiation. Therefore,
the exposure time has to be
increased in order to reach the Exposure
same exposure level on the With
film. Exposure
Without
The Bucky factor is the ratio of
measured exposure without
the grid in place to that with,
using the same X-ray Grid
exposure setting.
IEC 60627
IEC 60627 defines:
• True central line
• Focus distance
• Annex A from IEC 60627
(See calculation on the right.)
• Upper and lower application
limits
• Grid ratio
• Transmission loss
• Grid de-centering
Annex A from IEC 60627 can
be used to calculate the
actual application limits for a
grid.
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p.243
Correctly-centered,
Focused Beam De-centered Beam
Different Uniformity of
Brightness Side to Side
Grid Versions
Oscillating
Exposure Enable
t
The grid movement enables the exposure.
Motorized
t
The grid movement enables the exposure.
Skill Check
Q: Why do we use anti-scatter grids?
A: To reduce or eliminate scatter radiation.
Summary
You have completed the Anti-
scatter Grid module.
You are now able to:
• Describe a stationary grid and its
components.
• Describe the “Bucky factor.”
• Describe problems with grid handling.
• Describe grid versions.
Objectives
Welcome to the Automatic
Exposure Control module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the purpose of automatic
exposure control.
• Describe how AEC functions.
• Describe exposure parameters.
• Describe potential problems.
AEC
• AEC automatically varies the exposure time to produce the same image quality (density) over a
wide range of KV settings, patient sizes and other variables.
• An ionization chamber consists of two thin parallel sheets of aluminum across which DC voltage
is applied.
• Struck by radiation, some of the atoms of the enclosed air release electrons and become
positively charged particles or “ions.”
• These ions under the influence of the electrical field across the chamber migrate to the negative
electrode causing a current flow.
• The ionization is directly proportional to the amount of radiation. This information is fed back to
the X-ray generator to stop the X-ray exposure when the proper amount has been received.
• The region of an object which is of diagnostic interest is called the dominant. The imaging region
of interest should maintain a specific average optical density and therefore the AEC takes care
that the right amount of dose is reaching the dominant.
• AEC is suitable for all types of exposures, however AEC is often not used for small body parts
such as extremities and pediatrics. The measuring field of the sensor (ionization chamber,
photomultiplier or solid state radiation detector) must be positioned properly relative to the
dominant during positioning of the patient.
• The measuring field of the sensor (ionization chamber, photomultiplier or solid state radiation
detector) must be positioned properly relative to the dominant during positioning of the patient.
Assuming all exposure factors and the object being imaged are kept constant, the AEC will
terminate the exposure at the same exposure time. If the object in the beam changes, and is
more dense, more of the x-ray will be absorbed by the object, taking longer for the desired
amount of exposure to reach the AEC (and receptor).
AEC
AEC
kV
kV
A.E.C. Functions
The primary purpose of the AEC circuit is to ensure the
receptor is delivered a consistent exposure level from
patient to patient and exam to exam over.
Receptor Response
DV
Desirable
Behavior
kV
DV
Actual
Behavior
0 70 kV
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p.258
DV
0 70 kV
kVp Compensation
Depending on the Beam energy
(driven by kVp), imaging receptors
are responding in a non linear way.
For a constant exposure dose:
• Low kVp Low OD/DV
• High kVp High OD/DV
kVp compensation is the ability of an
AEC to maintain constant receptor
output when the kV setting is
changed.
This means that the CUT OFF
DOSE will be different depending on
the kVp setting.
AEC Functions
An AEC device has four functions:
• Sample radiation transmitted through the patient.
• Integrate an electrical signal which is proportional to the accumulated
radiation reaching the image receptor. Describe exposure parameters.
• Set a reference signal which is dependent upon the exposure factors,
field size, image receptor sensitivity, and required optical density.
• Provide a terminate signal to the generator, in order to stop the X-ray
beam when the proper exposure is reached.
AEC Circuitry
Tube Load kV
Controller Selector
HT Tank Control
and Heat
Integrator Desk
Object
Measuring Device
e.g., Ionization Chamber
AEC
The use of an AEC device does not relieve the operator of the
responsibility of using good quality radiographic technique.
Skill Check
Q: What are the exposure parameters you set
up for an AEC exposure?
A: kVp, mA and mAs (or time)
Q: Why mAs?
A: The mAs value is the exposure backup.
Summary
You have completed the
Automatic Exposure Control
(AEC) module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the purpose of automatic
exposure control.
• Describe how AEC functions.
• Describe exposure parameters.
• Describe potential problems.
Objectives
Welcome to the Receptors
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the function of a receptor.
• Describe the function of digital
radiography.
• Describe DR detectors.
Receptor
An image can be captured in three modes:
• Film/screen
• Computed Radiography (CR)
• Digital Radiography (DR)
Receptor (Analog)
Analog film still used but it is slowly being replaced by new technologies (CR, DR).
Analog
Present
View
Panel
Receptor (CR)
CR: used in combination with existing X-ray systems.
SP Reader Image Proc.QA
Review Distribution
CR
Storage
Phosphor
Plate
Analog Film
Storage
Photomultiplier Galvo
Mirror
(Electronically
Detector and Filter Controlled)
Photomultiplier
Fast Scan
Moving Table
Low Scan
Clock/Sync
Data Acquisition
Digital Reader Control
Computer
Bessel Filter
Monitor
(Nyquist Filter) A/D
QCW
Receptor (DR)
DR receptors represent the latest technology.
DR
DR Detectors (con’t.)
The scintillator converts the X-ray photons Selenium / A-Si array combination forms
into light, and the a-Si array converts the capacitor elements, which converts X-ray
light into an electronic charge. photons directly into an electronic charge.
aSi aSi
Array Collection
High light scatter. Reduced light Array Electrical signals with
Unrestricted Internal Use scatter. no scatter.
Carestream Health, © 2014
p.276
New Detectors
Due to the cost of film and also film chemistry, it is likely all x-ray
systems will eventually be equipped with the new detectors.
– (similar to digital cameras versus film cameras)
Skill Check
Q: What are the three common receptor types
in in general radiography today?
A: Film/screen, computed radiography (CR),
and digital radiography (DR)
Summary
You have completed the
Receptors module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the function of a receptor.
• Describe the function of digital
radiography.
• Describe DR detectors.
Objectives
Welcome to the Exposure
Sequence module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the exposure process.
• Describe the Bucky exposure
process.
• Describe serial changer exposure.
• Describe the exposure process
sequence.
Stand-by
1. Stand-by
a. Collimators ready Preparation
b. Filament pre-heating
c. Stand(s) ready
Exposure
Preparation
2. Preparation
a. Anode rotation.
b. Console parameters are locked
and applied.
c. Filament current at correct set
point.
d. Interlocks (tube, door) OK.
Exposure
3. Exposure
a. Exposure request.
c. HT on (75%).
End of Exposure
4. End of exposure
a. Received EXP END from:
i. Timer circuit manual
ii. AEC (automatic)
Stand-by
Bucky Exposure
X-ray Power Cabinet/
Hand Switch Generator HT Tank OTC
Control Table
HSS
Filament
Bucky in Motion
Bucky Start
Selection
X-ray Tube
Bucky (Table or To Bucky
Wall Stand) Stand
Bucky
Selection Grid in
Motion
Power Cabinet/
HT Tank OTC
X-ray Tube
Table Top
(Free Cassette)
HSS
Filament
Bucky in Motion
Bucky Start
To Bucky
Selection
Bucky in Motion
Bucky Start
X-ray Tube
Remote Control
Table
To Bucky
Remote Control
Table Stand
Selection
Grid in Motion
Shutter in Position
Carriage in
Remote Control Exposure
Table Console Position
Skill Check
Q: What are the four parts of the exposure
process?
A: Stand-by, preparation, prep ready, and
exposure.
Summary
You have completed the
Exposure Sequence module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the exposure process.
• Describe the Bucky exposure
process.
• Describe serial changer exposure.
• Describe the exposure process
sequence.
Objectives
Welcome to the X-ray Room
Requirements module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe X-ray room requirements:
– Warning lights
– Safety interlocks
Warning Lights
Rooms that are used for medical diagnosis by X-ray normally have a warning light
to alert personnel who may inadvertently enter the room during operation of the
machine.
The lamp type, color, and wording depends upon the health care facility’s safety
guidelines and/or the country/region safety regulations.
Most modern generators provide a powered circuit and/or available relay contacts
to drive the room warning lights.
In some cases, the FE has to build a simple interface with a relay to electrically
separate the system supply from room light voltage.
Not all facilities require the use of a room warning light, but most modern and
reputable generators will allow the interfacing of the room warning light if
necessary
Generator
X-ray ON Cabinet
Red
System ON 4 System
White 3 ON
2 Normally Open
1 Contacts
Ground
X-rays
ON
Skill Check
Summary
You have completed the X-ray
Room Requirements module.
You are now able to:
• Describe X-ray room requirements:
• Warning lights
• Safety interlocks
Objectives
Welcome to the Filtration module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the purpose of filtration.
• Describe how filters are made.
• Describe how filtration is measured.
Filtration
The purpose of a filter is to affect the quality of an X-ray beam by
absorbing a portion of the generated radiation before it reaches the
patient.
Most of the low-energy beams are absorbed in the first tissues and only
the higher energy photons penetrate through the patient to expose the
receptor.
The first few centimeters of tissue receive more radiation than the rest of
the body.
Filtration (con’t.)
The filter’s function is to protect the patient from needless radiation,
reducing skin exposures by as much as 80%.
For diagnostic X-ray units, filters are usually made using thin sheets
of aluminum and/or copper. For mammography X-ray systems, the
filtration is often made of molybdenum and/or rhodium.
When filters are used, and even when it is necessary to increase the
exposure time or mA to get the same film density, the patient may
absorb less radiation than they would from an unfiltered beam.
Filtration Measurement
Internationally, the filtration is measured in “aluminum equivalence,”
which is the thickness of aluminum that would produce the same degree
of attenuation of the material in question.
Total Filtration
Valid for DC, HF, and 3-phase From HVL @ xx kV, we
12- and 6-pulse Units can extrapolate the Total
7
100 kV
Filtration with the graph
90 kV on the left.
6
80 kV
HVL @ 80kV= 3.75 mm Al
HLV mmAl
5
70 kV gives a Total Filtration of
4 4.5mmAl..
4.5mmAl
60 kV
3 50 kV
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Total Filtration mm Al
Compensation
Typical Filtration Dependence Compensation graphs of Unfors
pf kVp Sensor, CONV.
300 and 400 series for kV and
dose measurement.
Skill Check
Q: What is the purpose of a x-ray filter?
A: To reduce the amount of lower energy x-
rays reaching the patient.
Summary
You have completed the Filtration
module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the purpose of filtration.
• Describe how filters are made.
• Describe how filtration is measured.
Objectives
Welcome to the Measurement
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the principles of X-ray
measurement.
• Describe the instruments used to
measure X-rays.
• Describe how a digital scope
functions.
• Describe proper grounding.
• Describe the function of scope
probes.
X-ray Measurement
Measurement Item / Tool Result Level 1 Level 2
Parameter
kV, exposure time, dose, Non-invasive x-ray Numeric value Theory Lab
(HVL, mAs – SOLO only) multi-meter
(e.g., UNFORS 407,
SOLO R/F, Xi)
X-ray field lamp output Light meter Numeric value Theory Lab
Body dose
(effective dose)
Image
receptor
X-ray tube
Surface dose or without
Dose area product patient incident dose
Exit dose
p.315
One Gray (symbol Gy) is the absorption of one joule of radiation energy
by one kilogram of matter.
1 Gy = 1 J/kg = 1 m2·s–2
DAP
DAP (con’t.)
The measuring chamber is connected to
the DAP interface/display in order to show
the dose figures to the operator.
kVp
Definition: The maximum voltage applied across an X-ray tube. It
determines the kinetic energy of the electrons accelerated in the X-ray
tube and the peak energy of the X-ray spectrum.
Cable
Charge
Peak
Unit of measurement = ms
(0.001 s)
Range = 1 to 6000 ms
kV
X-ray exposure timers are either available as single function devices or on kVp
meters, exposure meters, or other multimeter systems
p.323
Non-invasive Measurement
Measurements of dose and kVp are possible in a “non-invasive” way using
X-ray multimeters.
• UNFORS 407 (UNFORS has changed its name to RAYSAFE.)
• RAYSAFE SOLO or Xi
• Keithley Triad kit
• Radcal 9010/9015
• RTI PMX-III
The values obtained are affected by the beam filtration and selected kVp
(not for Raysafe SOLO or Xi).
The Unfors RAD X-ray Systems are optimized to meet the basic needs of simultaneous
measurements of kVp, dose, rate and time on all types of Radiographic machines.
Model 407
Compensation – Dose
Typical Filtration Dependence of Dose and
Dose Rate Sensors, DENT, CONV, and I.I.
Correction Factor
kVp Meter
The kVp meters can provide an accurate measurement in seconds.
In its most basic form, the kVp meter consists of a pair of matched,
closely-spaced detectors (diodes) filtered by different thicknesses of an
attenuating material.
The ratio of the signals from the diodes at any instant in time is a function
of the X-ray tube potential (kV) at that time.
Signal analysis methods within the kVp meter, sensitive to the peak X-ray
tube potentials produced during the X-ray exposure, provide a direct
measurement of the kVp.
This digitally-displayed kVp is usually some type of average of the relative
peaks of the tube potential over the exposure time.
Compensation – kVp
kVp
mAs Meter
Nuclear associates (Fluke) The mA/mAs meter is
used for the invasive
measurement of
current flowing through
an X-ray tube or for the
measurement of the
tube current-exposure
time product.
Keithley
The device is electrically connected in the
ground return lead of the secondary of the X-ray
generator transformer. The measurement is
frequently accomplished using test points
provided within the generator.
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mAs
jumper
mAs
meter
mAs Meter
The instrument is intended for use by qualified
SAFETY
personnel who recognize shock hazards and are
familiar with the safety precautions required to
avoid possible injury.
Always expect a shock hazard at the input
terminals when the mAs meter is connected to
the X-ray generator and the generator is
powered.
Do not make any contact with the unit during
exposures.
The voltage potential at the input could exceed
the insulating capacity of the case and test leads
under fault conditions.
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope Graph
The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device.
It draws a graph of an electrical signal.
In most applications the graph shows how signals change over time:
• The vertical (Y) axis represents voltage.
• The horizontal (X) axis represents time.
Acquisition System
Vertical System Processing
Analog to Digital
Vertical
Attenuator Digital Memory Display
Amplifier
Converter
System
Horizontal System
Probe
Sample
Trigger Clock
System
Step Pulse
Frequency of a Signal
If a signal repeats, it has a frequency.
The frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and equals the number of times
the signal repeats itself in one second.
1 2 3
Frequency
S Cycles per
Second = 3 Hz
Period
1
Second
Triggering
Triggering means synchronizing the time base (x axis) with the repeating
waveform of the signal.
Untriggered Triggered
Display Display
Voltage
Current
Phase = 90°
Meter Grounding
• Proper grounding is an important step when setting up to take
measurements.
• Properly grounding the oscilloscope protects you from a
hazardous shock and protects your circuits from damage.
• Grounding the oscilloscope is necessary for safety. If a high
voltage contacts the case of an ungrounded oscilloscope, any part
of the case, including knobs that appear insulated, it can give you
a shock. However, with a properly grounded oscilloscope, the
current travels through the grounding path to earth ground rather
than through you to earth ground.
• To ground the oscilloscope means to connect it to an electrically
neutral reference point (such as earth ground). Ground your
oscilloscope by plugging its three-pronged power cord into an
outlet grounded to earth ground.
Meter Grounding
• Grounding is also necessary for taking accurate measurements
with your oscilloscope. The oscilloscope needs to share the same
ground as any circuits you are testing.
• Some oscilloscopes do not require the separate connection to
earth ground. These oscilloscopes have insulated cases and
controls, which keeps any possible shock hazard away from the
user.
Scope Probes
Most passive probes have some degree of attenuation factor, such as
10X, 100X, and so on. By convention, attenuation factors, such as for the
10X attenuator probe, have the X after the factor.
10 V p - p x pF
Signal
1 MΩ
Probe 20 pF
Compensation
Adjustment
Input Coupling
Coupling refers to the method used to connect an electrical signal from one
circuit to another.
0V 0V
Vertical Controls
Position and Volts per Division
• The vertical position control lets you move the waveform up or down to
exactly where you want it on the screen.
• The volts per division (usually written volts/div) setting varies the size of
the waveform on the screen. A good general purpose oscilloscope can
accurately display signal levels from about 4 millivolts to 40 volts.
• Often the volts/div scale has either a variable gain or a fine gain control
for scaling a displayed signal to a certain number of divisions.
Horizontal Controls
Position and Seconds per Division
• The horizontal position control moves the waveform from left and right to
exactly where you want it on the screen.
• The seconds per division (usually written as sec/div) setting lets you
select the rate at which the waveform is drawn across the screen (also
known as the time base setting or sweep speed). This setting is a scale
factor. For example, if the setting is 1 ms, each horizontal division
represents 1 ms and the total screen width represents 10 ms (ten
divisions). Changing the sec/div setting lets you look at longer or shorter
time intervals of the input signal.
Trigger Position
• The trigger position control may be located in the horizontal control
section of your oscilloscope. It actually represents "the horizontal
position of the trigger in the waveform record." Horizontal trigger
position control is only available on digital oscilloscopes.
• Varying the horizontal trigger position allows you to capture what a
signal did before a trigger event (called pre-trigger viewing).
• Digital oscilloscopes can provide pre-trigger viewing because they
constantly process the input signal whether a trigger has been
received or not. A steady stream of data flows through the
oscilloscope; the trigger merely tells the oscilloscope to save the
present data in memory.
• In contrast, analog oscilloscopes only display the signal after
receiving the trigger.
Triggering on
3V the negative
slope with the
level set to 3 V
Voltage Peak
Voltage
Peak-to-Peak
0 Volts
RMS Voltage
Skill Check
Q: The __________ is the measurement of the
radiation delivered to the receptor for the
field area (Gy *sq cm).
A: Dose area product
Summary
You have completed the
Measurement module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the principles of X-ray
measurement.
• Describe the instruments used to
measure X-rays.
• Describe how a digital scope
functions.
• Describe proper grounding.
• Describe the function of scope
probes.
Objectives
Welcome to the Image Quality
module.
When you complete this module,
you will be able to:
• Describe the factors that contribute to
image quality.
• Describe the effects of enlargement
or magnification.
• Describe the effects of signal to noise
ratio.
Image Quality
What factors contribute to image quality?
Radiograph
Positioning Exposure
Capabilities of Parameters
Equipment
Receptor
DIAGNOSTIC Quality
Condition of
QUALITY
the Patient
Medical and
Technical
Clinical
Experience
Indication Diagnosis
Image Quality
Evaluation factors for image quality.
Contrast
Density
Resolution
Image Quality
Contrast
kV Scatter
“Generation” “Interception”
kV Collimation Compression
Volume
Contrast (con’t.)
Scattered radiation reduces the image contrast in a direct relation.
Amount of Scatter
Contrast (con’t.)
Scattered Radiation
Collimation
Contrast (con’t.)
Scattered Radiation
Density
Density
Object
kVp mA s SID
Characteristics
Density (con’t.)
Density
Linear with
Dose
Linear with
mAs
Resolution
Resolution
Intensifying
Focal Spot Enlargement Receptor
Screen
Size Factor
Resolution – Geometry
Geometry
Enlargement Factor
• Blurring
• Dimension
• Distortion
Focal Spot Size
Enlargement or Magnification
show calculator
And do flash-light demonstration
Focal Spot
Object
Magnification
Image Size = ____
___________ SID
Object Size SOD
“Point“ Real
Focal Spot Focal Spot
Blurring Zone or
Penumbra
Less Sharpness
Distortion
show calculator
F1
F2
View 1
View 2
b a
Resolution – Movements
Movements
Equipment design
Mechanical less stable positioning
no immobilization features
Cold
Conditioned contractions
nervous tension
...
Peristaltic
Involuntary pulsations
...
Movements
Focal
Object Movement Spot
Penumbra
Signal to Noise
Signal/Noise
Intensifying
Screens
• Blurring
• Sharpness
• Scattering
Receptor
Skill Check
Q: What are the three evaluation factors for
image quality?
A: Contrast, density, and resolution.
Summary
You have completed the Image
Quality module.
You are now able to:
• Describe the factors that contribute
to image quality.
• Describe the effects of enlargement
or magnification.
• Describe the effects of signal to
noise ratio.
Objectives
Welcome to the Regulatory
module.
When you complete this
module, you will be able to:
• Describe why regulation is
important.
• Describe Carestream Health’s role
as a manufacturer and assembler.
• Describe what is included in an
Acceptance and Compliance test
file.
Regulatory
Diagnostic imaging X-ray equipment is regulated by various regulatory
agencies around the world.
Regulatory (con’t.)
In terms of regulated X-ray performance, our equipment must meet
requirements such as:
• FDA 21 CFR Part 1020.30 and 1020.31
• IEC 60601-2-54.
For more information, refer to your location’s regulatory representative.
Regulatory (con’t.)
For mobile imaging equipment, the device must meet all of the standard
requirements for diagnostic X-ray equipment, but there is one mobile-
specific requirement that Segway must adhere to: Source to Skin
Distance.
1. X-ray systems designed for use with an intraoral image receptor shall
be provided with means to limit the source-skin distance to not less
than:
• Eighteen cm if operable above 50 kVp; or
• Ten cm if not operable above 50 kVp.
2. Mobile and portable X-ray systems other than dental shall be
provided with means to limit the source-skin distance to not less than
30 cm.
1. Manufacturer
2. Assembler
Requirements of Manufacturer
The requirements of Carestream Health as an X-ray equipment
manufacturer are:
• Provide installation (assembly) instructions (These can be produced
by, or leveraged from, supplier documentation.).
• Provide service documentation (periodic maintenance, replacements,
etc.).
• Maintain a Device History Record (DHR).
• Equipment must be produced in accordance with, and be able to meet,
regulatory requirements (performance, labeling, etc.).
Requirements of Assembler
Assembler – person(s) performing the installation/assembly of the
equipment (does not have to be the manufacturer).
IEC 61223-3-1
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the leading global
organization that prepares and publishes international standards for all
electrical, electronic and related technologies. These serve as a basis for
national standardization and as references when drafting international
tenders and contracts.
• The 61223 norm (prepared by subcommittee 62B) addresses the
Evaluation and Routine Testing in Medical Imaging Department.
• Part 3-1 (in the previous norm) addresses the Acceptance Test—
Imaging Performance of X-ray Equipment for Radiographic and
Radioscopic Systems.
IEC 61223-3-1
Scope
This part of IEC 61223 applies to those components of X-ray equipment
which influence the image quality and patient dose of diagnostic X-ray
systems using radiographic and radioscopic imaging systems.
Objective
This standard defines:
• The parameters which describe the performance of X-ray equipment
with regard to imaging properties and patient dose.
• Methods of testing whether measured quantities related to those
parameters comply with the specified tolerances.
IEC 61223-3-1
Overview
The aim of an Acceptance Test is to demonstrate that the specified
characteristics of the equipment lie within the specified tolerances. Some
requirements are enforced by legislation.
Before any Acceptance Test according to this standard is carried out, the
equipment must be installed and put into service according to the set-up
procedure as given in the manufacturer's documentation.
In order to obtain the total filtration value of the X-ray assembly, the HVL
is used.
After the HVL calculation a conversion table is used to obtain the total
filtration of the system.
The linearity test is used to ensure the x-ray generation portion of the
system produces a linear response in terms of mGy/mAs between any two
adjacent mA stations.
In other words, if you double the mA, you double the dose and mAs.
Imaging plane
readings.
x-ray tube
collimator
Bucky
&
AEC Accuracy
Programmed ECF (density) s teps % increase/decrease
+1
+2
+3
-1 (enter the "-" sign, ex . "-20")
-2 (enter the "-" s ign)
-3 (enter the "-" s ign)
Measured Results Expected Results Tolerance = +/- 10%
Exposure #1 @ 0 ECF (mR or Gy)
Exposure #2 @ +1 ECF (mR or Gy) 0 FAILED
Exposure #3 @ +2 ECF (mR or Gy) 0 FAILED
Exposure #4 @ +3 ECF (mR or Gy) 0 FAILED
Exposure #7 @ -1 ECF (mR or Gy) 0 FAILED
Exposure #8 @ -2 ECF (mR or Gy) 0 FAILED
Exposure #9 @ -3 ECF (mR or Gy) 0 FAILED
Equipment complianc e for AEC Ac curacy? FAILED
Skill Check
Summary
You have completed the
Regulatory module.
You are now able to:
• Describe why regulation is
important.
• Describe Carestream Health’s role
as a manufacturer and assembler.
• Describe what is included in an
Acceptance and Compliance test
file.
Objectives
Welcome to the Safety module.
When you complete this
module, you will be able to:
• Identify the factors in X-ray safety.
• Identify precautions.
• Identify X-ray user rules.
• Identify the main causes of
accidents.
Introduction to Safety
Diagnostic imaging X-ray
equipment poses safety
threats from the following:
• X-ray exposure
• Electrical –
Shock/electrocution
hazard Caution – Risk of Caution –
• Mechanical – Weight of Ionizing Radiation High Voltage
supported objects,
equipment movement,
pinch/crush hazard, etc.
Safety – Electrical
Electrical requirements for X-ray
equipment:
• In order to produce X-rays, electrical
energy is required.
• The X-ray tube for a typical general
radiography diagnostic X-ray machine
typically requires greater than 35K Caution –
volts to conduct. High Voltage
• The operating range of most
mobile/portable equipment is 40K to
~125K volts.
• The operating range of most
stationary X-ray equipment is 40K to
150K volts.
Safety – Mechanical
Mechanical hazards pertaining to X-ray equipment
may include:
• Lifting hazard - component or part weight
– X-ray tube assemblies in CSH DR systems
typically weigh ~23 kg (~50 lbs).
– Ralco 302 series collimator weighs ~9.8 kg
(~22 lbs).
• Fall/drop hazard: Components suspended from
above or held vertical must be installed correctly
to ensure safe operation.
– OTC: Should be attached to ceiling support,
must have end-stops installed properly, must
be secured properly.
– Wall Stand: Should be held vertically by
attachment to ceiling or wall, and must be
secured properly.
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Safety Guidelines
General Rules:
A fundamental precept of radiation safety is that the individual must
assume the responsibility not only for their own safety, but must
ensure their actions do not result in hazards to others.
Always be aware:
• The direction of the X-ray beam. (Where is the tube/collimator
pointing?)
• The people in the equipment room.
• The exposure technique factors. (Use the lowest possible.)
All equipment in the X-ray lab/room must be properly shielded and
regularly checked for X-ray leakage. However, everyone must
understand the basic principles and dangers associated with X-
radiation exposure and how this can be avoided.
Departmental Radiation Protection Supervisors provide the necessary
guidance and supervision to workers using X-ray emitting equipment.
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Accident Prevention
Good practice:
• ALWAYS assume a hazard exists.
• Do not attempt a task you are not qualified for.
• Plan every job.
• Anticipate unexpected events.
• Use the right tool for the job.
• Use procedures as tools.
• Isolate the equipment.
• Identify the hazards.
• Isolate or minimize hazards.
• Protect the person.
• Minimize distractions in the work area.
• Follow applicable procedures for the task.
Remember: Accident prevention depends on you!
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Skill Check
Q: What is the primary reason for radiation
damage in organic cells?
A: Ionization
Summary
You have completed the Safety
module.
You are now able to:
• Identify the factors in X-ray safety.
• Identify precautions.
• Identify X-ray user rules.
• Identify the main causes of
accidents.
Conclusion
Congratulations! You have completed the modules for
X-ray Fundamentals Part 3 Theory training.