The Continued Design and Development of the

University of California, Davis FutureCar

Brian Johnston, Timothy McGoldrick, David Funston, Harry Kwan, Mark Alexander,
Frank Alioto, Nicolas Culaud, Olivier Lang, H.A. Mergen, and Richard Carlson
and faculty advisors Dr. Andrew Frank and Dr. Andrew Burke
University of California, Davis
College of Engineering

ABSTRACT

The UC Davis FutureCar Team has redesigned a 1996

Ford Taurus as a parallel hybrid electric vehicle with the goals
of tripling the fuel economy, achieving California ultra low
emissions levels (ULEV), and qualifying for partial zero
emissions vehicle (ZEV) credits in California. These goals
were approached using a highly efficient powertrain, reducing
component weight, and improving stock aerodynamics. A
charge depletion driving strategy was chosen to maximize
energy economy and provide substantial all-electric operating
capabilities. The UC Davis FutureCar couples a Honda 660 cc
gasoline engine and a UNIQ Mobility 48 kW-peak brushless
permanent magnet motor within a compact, lightweight, and
reliable powertrain. The motor is powered by a 15.4 kWh
Ovonic Nickel Metal Hydride battery pack. The body of the
vehicle has been reshaped using carbon fiber composite panels Challenge. The magnitude of these tasks can only be met
to improve airflow characteristics and reduce weight. At the through significant revision of virtually every original Taurus
1997 FutureCar Challenge, the vehicle achieved an equivalent system. The most critical areas for design considerations were
fuel consumption of 5.64 L/100 km (41.7 mpg) on the federal identified as:
urban driving schedule and 3.74 L/100 km (62.8 mpg) on the • powertrain configuration,
federal highway driving schedule for a combined fuel • reduction of vehicle weight,
consumption of 4.79 L/100 km (49.1 mpg). This represents a • improvement of aerodynamic efficiency,
doubling of the stock vehicle’s fuel economy. Driving range • optimization of control strategy,
exceeded 400 km on the combined driving schedules. The • reduction of accessory system power loads, and
vehicle accelerates from 0 to 100 kph in 14.4 seconds and has • extensive emissions controls.
an all-electric range of 105 km.
UC Davis Stock Ford
FutureCar Taurus
INTRODUCTION
FUDS and FHDS 400 km 600 km
The University of California, Davis, FutureCar Team was Range HEV
selected as one of twelve North American universities to Freeway Range 900 km 600 km
participate in the 1996-97 FutureCar Challenge sponsored by ZEV Range 130 km 0 km
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the U.S. Council 0 to 100 kph 12.0 sec 12.5 sec
for Automotive Research (USCAR). The competition Acceleration (HEV)
challenges engineering students to redesign a mid-size sedan
to achieve three times its current fuel economy without Emissions California ULEV* Federal Tier 1*
sacrificing performance, utility, or cost. Supplementing these Equivalent Energy 2.9 L/100 km 9.4 L/100 km
goals, UC Davis focused on meeting anticipated California Efficiency (80 mpg) (25 mpg)
legislation which recognizes the significant emissions Curb Weight 1150 kg 1500 kg
reduction capability of some hybrid electric vehicle designs. Aero Drag: CD 0.26 0.30
Innovations resulting from extensive research and prototype
testing can help advance automotive technology while Passenger Capacity 5 passengers 6 passengers
exposing emerging engineers to practical designs of future * Note: California ULEV is a more stringent emissions standard than
vehicles. Federal Tier 1.
The UC Davis FutureCar Team set forth several goals,
which are listed in Table 1, to win the 1997 FutureCar Table 1. UC Davis FutureCar design goals.
VEHICLE CONFIGURATION CHOICE energy at the motor (at an average efficiency of 80% to 85%).
SIMPLEV2 simulations show that, depending on control
Three primary vehicle types were considered to meet the strategy and APU sizing, up to 70% of the energy produced by
fuel economy, emissions, performance, and range goals for the the APU during on/off use will be stored in the batteries
UC Davis FutureCar. They are an internal combustion engine before reaching the motor. This net APU energy is further
vehicle, an electric vehicle, or a hybrid electric vehicle. reduced by charge/discharge losses in the batteries (at an
The first choice is to maintain the same basic efficiency of about 80%). The overall affect of these losses is
configuration as the stock Taurus—an internal combustion an energy conversion efficiency between the APU and the
engine vehicle (ICEV). ICEVs can easily achieve the range wheels of 60% to 67%.
goal, while the emissions goal can be met with advanced The ability to recharge its batteries while driving allows
catalyst technology and engine controls. In order to meet the the series HEV to have low electrical energy storage. Thus, a
fuel economy goal, the vehicle would have to weigh about small battery pack can be used without limiting HEV range.
600 kg, have very low aerodynamic drag, and require a small However, constant recharging of the batteries to maintain this
engine which sacrifices acceleration performance. Achieving range has an emissions penalty. Analysis based on the
the weight reduction and low aerodynamic drag through the California electricity generation mix (i.e. by coal, natural gas,
conversion of a stock Taurus is impractical. oil, nuclear, etc.) shows that if the batteries were charged only
The second choice is an electric vehicle (EV). EVs can from the electricity grid, the range accrued while operating
easily achieve the emissions goal and their overall powertrain without the engine would produce emissions an order of
efficiency is approximately three times greater than an ICEVs. magnitude less than an engine running at California ULEV
However, they are limited by current battery technology to levels.3 The small battery pack also reduces the ability of the
under 200 km range in a practical mid-size vehicle. The HEV to operate in an EV mode for extended periods. This
weight and packaging requirements of a large battery pack would diminish the incentive for people to drive the series
make achieving the fuel economy goal unrealistic when HEV as an EV and lessen its overall emissions reducing
converting a vehicle. capabilities.
The third choice is a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). A
HEV combines the best features of both the ICEV and the EV. PARALLEL HEV - A parallel hybrid provides the driving
A HEV utilizes two separate power sources to provide the power to the wheels through a combination of an electric
power necessary for driving the vehicle, allowing each motor and an IC engine. Unlike the series configuration, the
component to be used within its optimal efficiency range. The engine is mechanically coupled to the transmission. Because
use of an internal combustion engine allows longer range with of this, technologies which do not have reasonable part load
a smaller battery pack, while the electric motor enables a more and/or rapid on/off capabilities (gas turbines, stirling engines)
efficient drivetrain with high performance and very low cannot be used.
emissions. The direct coupling of the engine and transmission
Of the three vehicle choices considered, a HEV was eliminates losses which occur in the generator and motor in a
chosen for its potential to best meet the UC Davis FutureCar series configuration. The penalty for avoiding these losses is
goals. Two HEV configurations are possible—series or that the engine must operate over a wider performance range
parallel. The choice between a series versus a parallel which reduces the overall engine efficiency. However, this
configuration is not straightforward. Many major automobile effect can be minimized by operating the engine within a
manufacturers are focusing on the series configuration with window of torques and speeds where it is most efficient. This
the expectation of a highly efficient fuel cell as the powerplant is achieved in three ways. First, the engine is sized only as
in the long term. But, in the short term or if fuel cells do not large as is necessary to maintain highway speeds on a
prove to be as efficient as hoped, the trade-offs become less reasonable grade (usually one quarter to one third the power of
obvious. This is evidenced by the fact that some companies a conventionally sized engine). Using a small engine reduces
are currently developing parallel hybrid vehicle concept cars the time the engine operates at part throttle where it is least
and Toyota plans to market a parallel hybrid in 1998.1 efficient. The torque lost by using the smaller engine is
compensated by the electric motor. Second, part throttle
SERIES HEV - A series hybrid provides all driving engine use is further reduced by using the electric motor to
power to the wheels through an electric motor. When the state drive the vehicle at lower speeds (where the torque
of charge of the batteries is above a certain threshold, they are requirements are low and the engine efficiency is poor). This
the sole power source for the motor. As battery charge also improves fuel economy by eliminating engine idle.
becomes depleted, an auxiliary power unit (APU)/generator Finally, a multi-gear transmission enables engine operation to
set provides electricity to the motor and can simultaneously be limited to the speeds where it is efficient. These strategies
recharge the batteries. also help maintain engine operation within a region where the
One advantage of this configuration is that the APU is emissions levels are low.
decoupled from the instantaneous demands of the road so that While a parallel hybrid can be made to sustain the battery
almost any power generating technology can be used. If the charge by using the motor as a generator, further efficiency
APU is an internal combustion engine, it can run in a narrow gains can be made by never charging the battery from the
torque and speed range where its efficiency can be maximized engine.4 Such a charge depletion parallel hybrid would be
while minimizing emissions. On the other hand, the high recharged only from the electricity grid which produces
efficiency of the APU is compromised by the many energy energy at thermodynamic efficiencies up to 45%.5 As a result,
conversions required to drive the wheels. When the APU is the battery charge/discharge losses will not accrue to the
running, but not charging the batteries, the energy it produces engine, thereby increasing the overall vehicle efficiency.
is reduced by first converting the mechanical energy into The major challenge for the charge depletion parallel
electricity in the generator (at an efficiency of 90% to 95%) configuration is to achieve a long range during city driving
and then converting from electricity back to mechanical
2
where the electric motor is primarily used. To meet this VEHICLE CONTROL STRATEGY
challenge, a fairly large battery pack is used to increase hybrid
and EV range. The longer all-electric range would allow the The UC Davis charge depletion control strategy has two
car to be used by most drivers in the EV mode, making a large primary goals. The first is to maximize fuel economy and
impact on reducing emissions in polluted areas. Extending the range and reduce emissions while maintaining or improving
urban HEV range is achieved by optimizing the vehicle stock vehicle performance. The second is to provide a
control strategy. The lower the speed at which the engine seamless interface between the driver and powertrain.
turns on during city driving, the lower the energy supplied by For the hybrid powertrain, the electric motor accelerates
the battery pack. The result is a need to balance between the vehicle from rest to a speed of 24 kph. At this speed, the
minimizing the window of engine operation to maintain high engine is turned on when the driver shifts from first to second
efficiency and maximizing that same window to provide long gear. Simulations show that fuel economy has a weak
urban range. dependence on the speed at which the internal combustion
engine is turned on. However, range increases greatly as the
CHOOSING A HEV CONFIGURATION - The series engine turn-on speed is decreased because vehicle operation is
and parallel descriptions highlight the fact that there are biased toward gasoline use. Once the engine is turned on, it
advantages and disadvantages of each configuration. Using a can efficiently provide all the power required for driving at
FORTRAN vehicle simulation program to predict the highway speeds up to 110 kph in 5th gear. It can also provide
efficiencies of nine different hybrid configurations6, the choice the power required to climb a 6% grade, though at lower
becomes clear. Based on three major considerations: efficiency and speed. To climb at higher speed requires
efficiency, all-electric operation, and implementation, the final assistance from the electric motor. The motor also
decision of the UC Davis FutureCar Team was to pursue a supplements engine power for better acceleration
charge depletion parallel hybrid. performance. This vehicle control strategy allows the UC
Efficiency - In general, a charge depletion parallel hybrid Davis FutureCar to achieve a 400 km range without
should be more efficient because of fewer onboard energy recharging or refueling
conversions and access to energy at powerplant efficiencies The main advantage to turning on the internal combustion
over 40%. The FORTRAN simulation shows this style of engine during the upshift is to deliver a smooth transition from
hybrid to be 9.3% more efficient than an electric vehicle, all-electric operation to hybrid operation. With the clutch
11.4% more efficient than a power-assist charge sustaining depressed, the powertrain is decoupled from the road and the
parallel hybrid, and 18.4% more efficient than the best series impact torque of the engine startup is isolated from the
hybrid design simulated. These results are further passenger compartment. The engine is started using residual
corroborated by a National Renewable Energy Laboratory electric motor inertia, eliminating the need for a starter motor
(NREL) study which asserts that a parallel charge sustaining and further simplifying operation for the driver. The transition
design will be 4% better than a series hybrid with similar from electric to hybrid operation during the upshift from first
components.7 to second gear is the best trade-off between driveability and
All-electric operation - The California Air Resources range capability.
Board (CARB), the state government body sanctioning The internal combustion engine is turned off and
transportation environmental policy, mandates that by 2003, disengaged from the transmission at speeds below 19 kph.
10% of vehicles sold in California (approximately 100,000 This eliminates engine idle when the vehicle is at rest or
vehicles) must be Zero Emissions Vehicles (ZEV). Battery- driving in very slow traffic. As a result, fuel economy is
only electric vehicles qualify as a ZEV, but there is doubt due increased and emissions are reduced.
to range and battery cost of their ability to sell. As a result, In addition to the normal mode which implements the UC
hybrid electric vehicles have gained popularity. CARB is Davis control strategy, the vehicle has an EV mode. If drivers
currently considering legislation which would allow hybrid know that their daily driving needs will be less than the all-
electric vehicles to receive partial ZEV credit. To do so, a electric range, they can choose this mode to further reduce
hybrid must meet a minimum all-electric driving range vehicle emissions. Moreover, drivers will be able to lower
(80 km), use a battery with a minimum energy density their operating costs due to the lower price of electricity per
(60Wh/kg), and have very low emissions (1/2 ULEV). The delivered kWh as compared to gasoline.
UC Davis FutureCar Team has anticipated the numerical
values of the hybrid requirements. Sources within CARB CONTROL SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION - The heart
indicate these requirements are still under development. of the control system is a Z-World Engineering “Little Giant”
The UC Davis style of charge depletion parallel hybrid is programmable microcontroller. This system operates at
ideally suited to meet the anticipated partial hybrid emissions 9.2 MHz with 256k of RAM and a 64k EPROM to store the
credits. control algorithm. The Little Giant monitors accelerator pedal
Implementation - Previous experience and observation position, vehicle speed, status of engine (on or off), and clutch
show that the true test of a vehicle lies in its implementation. pedal position (depressed or released). Using this information,
A major hurdle in implementing a parallel configuration is the the microcontroller implements the UC Davis control strategy
coupling of the engine and the motor. The UC Davis team has with outputs to the electric motor and gasoline engine. The
four years of experience with previous hybrid vehicles in both microcontroller then provides feedback to the driver about the
coupling and blending the torque of the two components. The throttle requests to each powertrain component.
team has also become very familiar with the control system Accelerator input to the microcontroller is designed to
required to successfully implement the parallel configuration. maximize control resolution available to the driver through the
Information acquired from engine dynamometer and battery various operating modes. The microcontroller’s interpretation
performance tests conducted on a previous powertrain of accelerator pedal position depends first on engine status.
provided insight towards optimizing the current design.8 While the vehicle is operating in the all-electric mode, the full
range of pedal motion is interpreted as torque requests from
3
the motor and is sent to the motor controller. Once the engine SIMULATIONS AND TESTING - In simulating the car,
is turned on, the first 30% of pedal travel is interpreted as two different computer models were used. The first, AVTE,
torque requests from the engine, while the remaining 70% is was developed at the UC Davis Institute of Transportation
interpreted as torque requests from the motor. The torque Studies. It is a MATLAB based program which uses
requests for the engine are then sent by the microcontroller to efficiency maps of the powertrain components to calculate
a servo-motor attached to the engine throttle. The use of the fuel and electricity usage. The second, a FORTRAN program
microcontroller/servo-motor system limits the rate at which written by FutureCar Team members, uses fuel flow and loss
the throttle position changes. This reduces the high emissions maps to predict fuel and electricity consumption. Two
levels associated with rapid transients in throttle position. different programs were used in order to check program
In addition to acceleration control, the control system validity. AVTE predicted 5.88 L/100 km (40 mpg) on a
provides a means for regenerative braking which increases federal urban driving schedule and the FORTRAN program
energy efficiency by returning energy to the battery pack predicted 4.90 L/100 km (48 mpg), but the car actually
while braking. Although this feature could have been obtained 5.39 L/100 km (44 mpg) on a dynamometer test.
implemented in the program for the microcontroller, a separate AVTE and the FORTRAN program showed similar
electronic circuit was chosen instead for safety reasons. changes to fuel and power consumption with the same changes
Should the microcontroller malfunction and lock the throttles in vehicle driving strategy. Both programs agreed that
in an open position, the driver’s natural panic reaction would improvement in gas mileage is relatively insensitive to
be to forcibly apply the brakes. This would automatically improvement of the physical characteristics of the vehicle.
initiate regenerative braking through its separate circuit which Results from AVTE in Table 3 show the required reductions
would still be operational. Because of the built-in safety in any one physical characteristic of the vehicle in order to
features of the motor controller, a regenerative braking signal obtain a 5% increase in energy economy.
overrides any throttle request to the electric motor. The
braking provided by the electric motor also stops the IC Physical Characteristic Percent Reduction
engine. Having separate systems increases reliability because Weight 13.1%
concurrent failure is less likely than a single system failure.
Rolling Resistance 25.7%
Another safety feature implemented in the control
program is the use of an onboard watchdog timer. This is a Drag Coefficient 18.7%
hardware component that automatically restarts the control Frontal Area 18.6%
program if it does not reset the watchdog timer every 1.6
seconds. The control program normally resets the watchdog Table 3. Required improvement in any one physical
every few fractions of a second so that it will not trigger the characteristic to obtain a 5% increase in energy economy.
automatic program restart. If the program crashes, it cannot
reset the watchdog timer. The timer then resets the vehicle
control program so the FutureCar remains operational. POWERTRAIN DEVELOPMENT

ENGINE SELECTION - The engine for the 1997 UC

VEHICLE PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS Davis FutureCar has certain criteria to meet. First, the engine
must have sufficient power to maintain highway cruising
Vehicle simulations were performed to determine speeds ensuring a highway range limited only by the gas tank
cruising, climbing, and acceleration power requirements for size. The engine must also provide some power for hard
the powertrain. These results aided in the selection of the accelerations and hill climbing. At 100 kph, the expected
engine, electric motor, transmission, and battery pack. The power requirement for the engine is 12 kW. Therefore, the
following table presents the guidelines used in designing the engine needs to produce this power at a reasonable engine
UC Davis FutureCar. The simulations are based on a 1500 kg operating speed (2000 rpm to 3500 rpm). To meet the fuel
vehicle test weight with a frontal area of 2.18 m2, a drag economy and emissions goals, the engine must also operate
coefficient of 0.27, and a rolling resistance coefficient of with high efficiency and low emissions over a wide range of
0.007. torques and speeds. Finally, the engine needs to be compact
and lightweight.
Performance Energy/Power Fuel Options - After specifying engine criteria, five fuel
Required types were considered: methanol, ethanol, compressed natural
100 kph cruising power 12 kW gas (CNG), diesel, and reformulated gasoline (RFG).
Methanol and ethanol have been suggested for use in reducing
100 kph cruising power 6% grade 35 kW automobile emissions, but no significant advantage is
65 kph cruising power 6 kW apparent, especially when compared to RFG.9 While the fuels
allow for compression ratios higher than those of gasoline
65 kph cruising power 6% grade 22 kW engines, this efficiency gain is offset by the inefficiencies in
Peak power for 0-100 kph in 12 seconds 75 kW the actual production of the fuels.10
The advantages of CNG are very low emissions and the
Energy for 125 km ZEV range on FUDS 18 kWh
potential for efficiencies greater than a gasoline engine due to
Energy for 95 km ZEV range on FUDS 14 kWh a higher compression ratio. The disadvantages of the fuel are
storage size and storage weight as well as fuel availability.
Since natural gas is a gaseous fuel, its volumetric energy
Table 2. Vehicle design requirements.
density (kWh/L) is significantly less than that of liquid fuels.
This can be improved by storing the gas at pressures of

4
20 MPa to 25 MPa (3,000 psi to 3,600 psi), but would still fall team’s first choice, but proved to be unavailable in the
short of the densities of gasoline and diesel fuels. As a result American market.
of low energy density, the storage volume required to provide The chosen engine was a 660 cc, three cylinder water-
sufficient range would intrude into the passenger compartment cooled Honda engine. This engine provides accurate fuel
or trunk space. Furthermore, the combination of a low management with a closed-loop, multi-port sequential fuel
gravimetric energy density (kWh/kg) and the mass of the high injection system. It has an overhead cam and four valve-per-
pressure tank adds significant weight to the vehicle. Finally, cylinder valve-train configuration for proper air/fuel flow and
the infrastructure required to provide CNG for a mass fleet combustion control. The exhaust is treated with a close-
does not yet exist. coupled catalytic converter which has a short heat-up time and
Diesel fuel has the advantages of fuel density, engine high catalyst efficiency. The cast aluminum cylinder block
efficiency, and hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. and heads conform to the criterion to be lightweight.
The fuel has high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities The Honda engine is relatively small, very durable, and
which allow for lightweight and compact fuel storage. The runs smoothly under part throttle, full throttle, and transient
cycle used to burn diesel fuel operates without throttling losses operation. The engine puts out 12.0 kW with its lowest fuel
at a high compression ratio, resulting in a peak efficiency of consumption at 2800 rpm and produces 34.3 kW at 6000 rpm
35% to 40%. Finally, the lean operating characteristics of the which meets the necessary power requirements (Table 2). It
diesel engine result in low hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide also starts quickly which is necessary under the high-speed
emissions. One disadvantage of the lean operating start-up characteristic of the FutureCar powertrain. The
characteristic is that the engine must be larger than a Honda engine gives the vehicle an efficient, low-emitting, and
comparable spark ignition engine. Another disadvantage is reliable internal combustion engine capable of fulfilling the
that the high pressure, high temperature, and lean combustion needs of the parallel powertrain.
environment leads to high nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.
This problem is exacerbated by the unavailability of catalysts ELECTRIC MOTOR/CONTROLLER SELECTION -
which can reduce NOx in a lean exhaust environment. Finally, The primary criteria for selecting an electric motor were high
the combustion of diesel fuel produces significantly more efficiency, low weight, high power, and an operating voltage
particulate emissions than gasoline. which matches that of the battery pack. The UNIQ 218G,
Reformulated gasoline (RFG) has high volumetric and Hughes Dolphin 50, and AC Propulsion AC-100 were
gravimetric densities which allow a small and lightweight fuel considered. Table 4 provides specifications for these motors.
storage system. The reformulation of the fuel and
stoichiometric operation of the engine produce low UNIQ Hughes AC Propulsion
hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and 218G Dolphin 50 AC-100
particulate emissions. Stoichiometric engine operation also System Weight [kg] 58.6 90 77.1
allows a 3-way catalyst to be used to simultaneously reduce all Continuous Power [kW] 32 38 41
three primary pollutants. Compared to diesel, the use of RFG
results in an efficiency sacrifice (peak efficiencies are 30% to Peak Power [kW] 48 50 100
32%) which is balanced by lower engine weight and Peak Torque [N-m] 165 160 149
simplified packaging. In addition, the lower particulate Maximum Speed [rpm] 6,000 9,000 12,000
emissions are valuable in light of recent findings linking Peak Sys. Efficiency [%] 95 93 91
particulate emissions to long-term health effects. Aside from Cooling Method Liquid Liquid Air
its chemical attributes, RFG represents the most established
and widespread fuel infrastructure and is the most familiar fuel Input Voltage [VDC] 180 300 336
to consumers. The UC Davis FutureCar Team chose RFG
after considering the various fuel types. Table 4. Electric motor options.
Engine Options - After specifying the engine
characteristics and the fuel type, several specific spark ignition Both the Hughes and AC Propulsion systems are AC
engines were considered for this powertrain. The first option induction motors. These systems operate over a wide speed
was to convert a 1000 cc, three cylinder Otto-cycle engine to range with relatively high peak efficiencies. The Hughes
run on an Atkinson cycle. In order to do this, the effective system could provide the necessary power and torque for the
compression ratio of the engine is increased and the valve UC Davis powertrain, but the weight was considered to be
timing changed so that less charge is drawn into the excessive and the high voltage requirement was incompatible
combustion chamber. This maintains the same compression with the battery pack. The AC-100 provides higher power
ratio while increasing the expansion ratio. The overall effect than needed. This power capability would seldom be utilized,
is that the pumping losses are reduced and the volumetric and resulting in extended part load operation. In addition, the
thermodynamic efficiencies are improved. While showing excess weight, lower efficiency, and high input voltage
promise for improved efficiency, this option was not pursued requirement of the motor eliminated it from consideration.
due to the lead time required for development and testing. The UNIQ Mobility 218G brushless permanent magnet
The second option was to use a two-stroke engine from motor/controller system has the highest efficiency and is the
Orbital Engine Co. In this engine, air and fuel are injected lightest of the three considered. The peak power of 48 kW
directly into the cylinder. This reduces pumping/throttling combined with 22 kW from the Honda engine at 4200 rpm
losses, provides excellent fuel atomization, and eliminates the provides the desired 70 kW for acceleration as (Table 2). The
bypass of raw fuel from the intake to the exhaust common in UNIQ motor is well matched to the Honda engine in that the
two-stroke cycles. This engine is small and lightweight as well highest efficiencies occur between 2500 rpm and 3200 rpm
as efficient and clean burning. The Orbital engine was the and the maximum speed is 6000 rpm. The UNIQ system was
chosen for its power output, high efficiency, and low weight.

5
 TRANSMISSION SELECTION - A manual transmission IMPLEMENTATION - After choosing the major
was chosen over an automatic transmission to take advantage powertrain components, the necessary coupling mechanisms
of its higher operating efficiency and lower weight. The between the engine, electric motor, and transmission were
transmission must be rated for 140 N-m of torque and be chosen. The offset design requires a belt or chain to link the
compact and lightweight. In order to maximize engine electric motor to the transmission. A chain drive is attractive
efficiency at a freeway cruise speed of 100 kph, an overall since it is narrower than comparable belt systems. However,
fifth-gear ratio (including final drive) of approximately 3:1 is to retain high efficiencies an oil bath would be required,
required. Transmissions from the following four production adding complexity and maintenance to the system. Belts have
vehicles were considered for the UC Davis FutureCar: Toyota the advantage of being highly efficient, lightweight, and
Paseo, Honda Civic EX, Mazda MX-3, and Geo Storm GSi. virtually maintenance free. A Dayco RPP Panther series belt
Their characteristics are shown in Table 5. drive system was chosen for the vehicle. This system has the
advantages of a typical belt system and produces less noise
Toyota Honda Mazda Geo Storm than other belts due to its reinforced, parabolic tooth profile.
Paseo Civic EX MX-3 GSi For the UC Davis control strategy, the engine must be
easily coupled and de-coupled from the transmission. A Pitts
5th Gear Ratio 3.21:1 2.98:1 2.99:1 2.84:1 electromagnetic, automotive compressor clutch was chosen for
Max. Torque [N-m] 123 145 133 163 this application. This clutch was selected for its relatively
narrow size, low weight, and ability to transmit the engine
Weight [kg] 33.6 33.1 31.8 40.8
torque up to the maximum speed of 6000 rpm. The clutch is
Width [m] 0.343 0.343 0.368 0.318 rated for 160 N-m whereas the maximum torque of the engine
is 55 N-m. The reduced inertia of the cut-down stock engine
Table 5. Transmission options. flywheel necessitated the over-rated clutch to prevent slipping
from generated torque spikes as each cylinder fires. The Pitts
The Toyota and Mazda transmissions, while of clutch also uses a stationary field which requires only 60 W.
appropriate physical size, were eliminated from consideration The stationary field eliminates the need of brushes and the
because their maximum torque ratings were too low for the periodic maintenance of replacing them.
powertrain. The size and torque ratings of the Geo In constructing an efficient powertrain, it was important
transmission were more than adequate for this application, but to maintain extremely close alignment between components.
the weight was excessive. The five-speed Honda Civic EX Misalignment leads to energy losses as well as reduced
transmission was chosen because it provided the appropriate component life due to vibrations. Use of a coordinate
torque capacity and fifth-gear ratio within a lightweight, measuring machine as well as a computer numerically
compact package. controlled milling machine allowed higher accuracy to be
achieved over standard machining practices. Another
POWERTRAIN CONFIGURATION - Within the parallel important tool used to align, size, and package the powertrain
hybrid arrangement, the selected engine and motor could have was a full scale mock-up of the Taurus’ engine compartment.
been combined in two possible configurations. The first A simple steel box tube cage was made to represent the critical
design locates the electric motor in-line between the portions of the engine bay such as the main side beams and
transmission and engine. This would eliminate the need for a fire wall. This allowed complete accessibility to the
lateral belt or chain system between the two drive components powertrain from all angles during design and fabrication.
for an offset design. Its implementation would be Simplicity, reliability, and low weight were the major
mechanically simpler and potentially more reliable, but this objectives for the design of the powertrain hardware.
configuration could not be pursued due to the limited space Simplifications in the design were made by adapting existing
available within the Taurus engine compartment. The second automotive components. For example, an entire Civic clutch
design considered and chosen offsets the electric motor from assembly (flywheel, spring plate, clutch disc, and slave
the engine and transmission. Figure 1 illustrates this design. cylinder) was used in conjunction with the Civic transmission.
Greater reliability was realized through using systems that
have been thoroughly tested for automotive use. Low weight
was achieved by using high strength aluminum alloys (6061-
T6 and 7075-T6) for the powertrain chassis. The alloys are
fairly inexpensive, weldable, and easily machined to meet
strict tolerances.
The powertrain design was kept mechanically simple by
minimizing the number of power transmitting components.
This provided for greater reliability as well as ease of
manufacturing. A prime example of this concept is the
coupler between the electromagnetic clutch and the
transmission. This component transmits the torque from both
the electric motor and the engine to the transmission. Vents
placed in the outer surface of the coupler allow sufficient
cooling of the electromagnetic clutch friction surface. The
coupler is supported on the engine side by the single-row ball
bearing of the electromagnetic clutch, and on the transmission
end by another single-row ball bearing. The dynamic
components of the powertrain are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 1. Powertrain configuration.
6
 Battery Electro- SAFT Ovonic
Specifications source NiCd NiMH
Horizon STM 5.100 13-EV-90
Specific 50 45.7 70
Energy [Wh/kg]
Volumetric Energy 103 85 166
Density [Wh/L]
Capacity [Ah] 112 100 90
Energy Content [Wh] 1344 600 1188
Peak Power @ 300 250 220
20% SOC [W/kg]
Voltage [V] 12 6 13.2
Mass [kg] 27 13 17.8
Volume [L] 13.1 7.0 7.5
Sealed Yes No Yes

Table 6. Manufacturer’s battery specifications.

Battery Pack Electro- SAFT Ovonic

Figure 2. Powertrain internal components. Specifications source NiCd NiMH
[18 kWh] Horizon STM 5.100 13-EV-90
No. of Modules 13 30 15
TRACTION BATTERY Mass [kg] 351 390 267
Volume [L] 170 210 113
BATTERY SELECTION - A critical component in the Power @ 20% 105 97.5 58.7
design of an efficient charge-depletion hybrid vehicle is the
SOC [kW]
traction battery. It must have high energy density to minimize
the weight required to provide sufficient energy storage for a Voltage [V] 156 180 198
long all-electric range. The battery must also have a high
volumetric energy density to avoid large packaging Table 7. 18 kWh battery pack characteristics.
requirements within the vehicle. This is especially important
when converting an ICEV into a HEV. It needs a power THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM - The Ovonic
density which will provide good acceleration performance. In NiMH battery is temperature sensitive and thus requires a
addition to these performance characteristics, the battery thermal management system that will keep the batteries within
should be maintenance free to avoid burdening the consumer. the necessary operating temperature range. To accomplish
Vehicle simulations show that an 18 kWh battery pack is this, the UC Davis Team designed a battery box which
required to achieve the all-electric range goal of 125 km. The provides the recommended cooling air of 500 L/min per
battery pack must also provide 50 kW to accelerate from 0 to module. Referring to Figure 3, the numbered arrows indicate
100 kph in 12 seconds. With these pack and module specifics the cooling air flow path through the box. Cooling air from
in mind, three batteries were considered for use in the under the vehicle (1) enters the plenum located under the
FutureCar: the Electrosource Horizon SLA, the SAFT NiCd batteries through the holes on the sides of the box. The area of
STM 5.100 and the Ovonic NiMH 13-EV-90. Table 6 shows these holes is 25% greater than the open area between the
the manufacture’s specifications for each battery type and batteries to ensure an adequate inlet volume of air. The air (2)
Table 7 shows the characteristics of an 18 kWh battery pack then travels from the bottom air plenum to the top air plenum
composed of each of the three batteries under consideration. along the battery sides. The 6 mm gap between the batteries
The Ovonic NiMH battery pack has the lowest mass, increases the velocity of the air to enhance heat removal.
volume, and peak power. However, this relatively low peak From the top plenum, the heated air (3) is drawn to the ends of
power still meets the minimum requirement of 50 kW for the the box by blowers and then expelled out the bottom of the
vehicle while at a significantly lower weight and volume. The box through the exhaust holes (4). The exhaust holes have the
Ovonic NiMH battery pack voltage is well matched with the same area as the inlet holes and the top and bottom plenums
UNIQ Mobility 218G motor/controller system so that the have the same volume.
system's highest efficiency and power can be realized. The To further ensure that the batteries remain at the proper
batteries are also sealed for maintenance-free operation. For operating temperature, a battery monitoring system (BMS) has
these reasons, the Ovonic NiMH battery was chosen for use in been developed to measure individual module temperatures,
the UC Davis FutureCar. voltages, and current. This system works in conjunction with
After becoming familiar with the charge/discharge the microcontroller which manages engine and electric motor
characteristics of the Ovonic NiMH batteries, the fifteen- operation. Monitoring module temperatures allows the BMS
module pack was reduced to thirteen modules to ensure that to protect the battery pack from overheating while it is
the maximum motor controller voltage was not exceeded powering the vehicle, charging, or at rest. If the batteries
during charging or regenerative braking. This reduced the reach 55°C while driving, the system signals the
energy storage of the pack to 15.4 kWh which limits the all- microcontroller to limit the power output of the electric motor
electric range to 105 km. However, the pack is still able to until the batteries drop below 45°C.
provide the required peak power output of 50 kW.
7
 Parameters

Voltage, Temperature, Current

Data Collecting Scaling

Acquisition Data Circuit

Microcontroller
- Data Processing
- Display
- Command
- Communication

Screen Engine - Motor Battery Fans

Controller
Figure 3. Battery box schematic.
Figure 5. BMS function analysis.
The BMS signals the microcontroller to limit the power
output of the electric motor if module voltage drops below 8 Monitoring voltage - Reading voltage was the most
volts. This allows maximum use of the energy stored in the challenging part of developing the BMS. To fulfill the
battery pack which in turn provides the 105 km all-electric requirements for isolation, a combination of fuse and
range. Pack current is monitored to determine net Ah and optocoupler was used. Each voltage module is protected by a
kWh out of the battery pack. This information in conjunction fast-acting fuse of .375 amps. Downstream, the optocoupler
with module temperature is used by the Magne Charge battery provides a galvanic isolation up to 2500 VRMS. This chip,
charger to optimize charging efficiency. once integrated with a simple amplifying circuitry, provides a
The UC Davis FutureCar Team designed the BMS to be a proportional voltage output using the light of a photodiode to
modular system capable of real-time measurements and drive a phototransistor. The output reading needed to be
communication. Each battery module has a separate board for filtered as the output signal of the optocoupler is a square
measuring voltage and temperature. A modular design was wave (f=230 KHz). For the selected battery module range of
chosen for ease of manufacture and simple replacement. 8 to 17 volts, an accuracy of 1% was achieved by calibrating
Figure 4 illustrates the modular design. A flow chart of the each voltage module.
BMS functions is shown in Figure 5. Monitoring current - Hall effect probes provide full
isolation while delivering an accurate linear response.
Voltage Module Data Processing - A Little Giant microcontroller is used
Power together with four mutliplexers to simplify data acquisition
Connector and analysis and to command several systems. Temperature is
sampled every 2 minutes and voltage and current are sampled
every .1 second.
Providing power to the components - A fluctuating power
supply adversely affected the accuracy of the voltage
measurements. The optocouplers are powered by the battery
modules. The remaining circuits receive power through a
DC/DC converter which regulates the voltage supply to a
Output stable 11.91 volts.
Connector
Card Edge
Connector BATTERY BOX FABRICATION - The battery boxes
were designed and fabricated to be strong, lightweight,
Figure 4. Modular plug-in boards. compact, and provide protection to vehicle occupants. The
boxes are constructed of 5052 aluminum sheet which has good
In designing the BMS, the following problems had to be strength, weldability, and bending properties. The batteries sit
overcome: potential difference of up to 210 volts, output on three aluminum 6061-T6 C-channel sections which serve
current up to 300 amps, physically rough and electronically the dual purpose of increasing the stiffness of the box floor
noisy environment, and linearity and stability of the and raising the batteries to create the bottom plenum.
measurement throughout an adequate range. Phenolic G10, a glass-fiber reinforced composite material with
Monitoring temperature - The use of thermistors provides exceptional electrical properties, lines the aluminum box
a linear response of 10mV/°C. Voltage isolation and thermal walls, floor, and top to electrically insulate the battery pack
conductivity is achieved through the use of nonconductive from the vehicle. Polycarbonate spacers which fit on the top
epoxy. The output signal required filtering since it is a and bottom of each module maintain the required 6 mm
triangular wave (f=43 Khz).
8
cooling gap and prevent battery movement in the box. RUNNING EMISSIONS - The EHC, located between the
Polycarbonate was chosen for its good electrical properties to Honda OEM close-coupled and primary catalysts, acts as the
prevent a high voltage leak (without these insulating materials, main exhaust treatment after engine start-up until the other
the non-isolated stainless steel cans which encase each NiMH catalysts reach their light-off temperatures. The close-coupled
cell could provide a high voltage path to the box walls). A catalyst heats up quickly due to the high temperature exhaust
rubber gasket completely seals the battery box from the gases. At the same time, the primary three-way catalyst from
vehicle occupants and improves cooling by only allowing air Car Sound Exhaust Systems heats up rapidly from the
into the box from the designated inlets. oxidation reactions occurring in the EHC. All three catalysts
are located within 90 cm of the exhaust ports and are wrapped
BATTERY PACK LOCATION - For a conversion with insulating exhaust tape to prevent cool-down when the
vehicle, the location of the batteries requires careful engine is off. The added EHC and primary three-way catalyst
consideration. Initially, the trunk may be considered a logical are designed for much larger engines with higher exhaust flow
place to put the batteries. However, this would reduce rates than the Honda. As a result, the added back pressure to
consumer utility and bias the weight distribution to the rear. the exhaust system is negligible to engine performance and the
This bias would change the vehicle from an understeer car to long residence time of the exhaust gases increases conversion
an oversteer car which is both unsafe and unfamiliar for most efficiencies. This system is similar to the three-part catalytic
drivers. converter used on a ULEV certified Honda Civic engine11.
The UC Davis team located the batteries between the
front and rear wheels, eight modules under the front seats and EVAPORATIVE EMISSIONS - The stock Taurus fuel
five under the rear seat. To do this, the stock front seats were system was redesigned to more effectively contain evaporative
replaced and the floor was lowered 90 mm. The replacement emissions during vehicle operation and non-use conditions.
front seats are 8 kg lighter and retain original height. This system is completely sealed during normal operation
Lowering the floor created additional packaging space under (ambient air temperatures between -25°C and 50°C) to
the vehicle and changed the ride height to 125 mm. The eliminate all evaporative emissions. This necessitated the
weight distribution remained biased to the front and about the design of a tank that withstands pressurization and protects
same as the stock Taurus. The low concentrated mass of the vehicle occupants. Using a scaled down model of the sealed
battery pack improved vehicle handling by reducing roll when tank, the maximum pressure was found to be 240 kPa (35 psi)
cornering. at 50°C. In the unlikely event of excessive pressure build-up
in the tank, an over-pressure relief valve opens at 275 kPa
(40 psi). This bleeds vapors into the engine intake manifold.
EMISSIONS AND FUEL SYSTEMS The lightweight, cylindrical aluminum gas tank has passed a
pressure test to 310 kPa (45 psi). A one-way check valve
The UC Davis FutureCar is capable of driving 105 km in allows air to enter the tank if a vacuum develops. The sealed
ZEV mode, during which it produces no tailpipe emissions. fuel tank is located under the vehicle between the frame rails
For its hybrid mode, the powertrain control system was and between the rear battery box and suspension mounts. This
developed to minimize start-up, running, evaporative, and location should provide adequate protection to occupants in an
refueling emissions. The UC Davis team has modified the accident or if the tank ruptures.
conventional emissions and fuel systems to ensure that these
emissions are kept below California ULEV levels. These REFUELING EMISSIONS - Onboard refueling vapor
modifications are addressed below. recovery (ORVR) systems are being developed as a means of
combating refueling emissions so that future emissions
ENGINE START-UP - Start-up emissions are standards can be met. Compared to conventional systems,
significantly reduced by the use of a time delayed engine start- ORVR systems require larger carbon canisters, more vapor
up. This delay causes no loss in driveability since the electric lines, complex nozzle seals, and mechanical pumps. This
motor is the primary power source for the vehicle at low increases weight, cost, and complexity and makes failures
speeds. Once the engine turn-on speed is reached, the more likely and difficult to repair.12
microcontroller activates the engine start-up sequence which Fire safety concerns regarding ORVR systems have been
primes the fuel pump and activates a 12–volt Corning raised by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
electrically-heated catalytic converter (EHC). After the EHC (NHTSA). One example of NHTSA concerns is a simulation
reaches its light-off temperature, the engine is started by of a failed refueling vapor vent hose which, if accidentally
closing the electro-magnetic clutch and powering up the disconnected or improperly installed, could result in a
engine control unit. If the catalytic converter is already hot sustained flame .6-.9 meters in length.13
from previous engine operation, the heating period is ORVR systems can also make refueling lengthy and
bypassed. troublesome in hot weather. One system, provided by the oil
The cold-start emissions typical of a conventional engine industry to prove the viability of onboard systems, repeatedly
have been further minimized by eliminating cold-start shut off during refueling and caused driveability problems for
enrichment. This enrichment normally ensures smooth 10-15 minutes afterwards.14 For these reasons, ORVR
operation during engine warm-up. Since the engine is always systems seem illogical and impractical for future vehicles.
operated at high torque, the enrichment is unnecessary. To Handling refueling emissions with increased usage of
eliminate the cold-start enrichment, the coolant temperature Stage II vacuum nozzles presents a better solution for
sensor is bypassed during the warm-up period. When the collecting refueling emissions. Standards could be set and
engine reaches normal operating temperature, the sensor is enforced sooner and more easily for gas station recovery
reconnected to the fuel injection computer and normal systems. The effects of using Stage II nozzles would be
operation begins. realized much sooner than ORVR systems since it would be

9
unnecessary to wait until a majority of the operating fleet torque provided by the motor. As the pedal is depressed
consists of cars produced after a certain date15. Stage II beyond 30%, the hydraulic brakes add braking torque to the
nozzles affect all automobiles, not just new ones, and would maximum provided by the electric motor. The use of variable
not incur the increased repair and safety problems of ORVR regenerative braking produces a braking feel similar to a
systems. conventional vehicle while providing a more efficient use of
The UC Davis team has developed a refueling system to the vehicle’s kinetic energy.
be used with Stage II nozzles which minimizes refueling To ensure the safety of the new braking system, the
emissions. For this system, reformulated gasoline vapors are mechanical brakes are designed to stop the vehicle from 100
contained at tank pressure by a flapper valve when the filler kph in 45 meters (0.83 g’s) without the use of regenerative
cap is removed. The valve opens when the pump nozzle is braking. Using this performance guideline and changing the
inserted allowing the vapors inside the tank to be collected by brake duty cycle, the stock system was downsized to reduce
the vapor recovery systems on Stage-II refueling nozzles weight. This is possible since the mechanical brakes are not
currently found throughout California. This is a low cost, required to sustain heavy extended braking periods when
lightweight, simple solution to prevent refueling emissions. descending hills. Regenerative braking also eliminated the
Figure 6 shows a schematic of this system. need for a power assisted mechanical system.
Effective manual brakes proved feasible by altering key
parameters in the braking system. The mechanical advantage
of the pedal was increased from 3:1 to 5:1 to generate the
required pedal force of 335N. The master cylinder diameter
was decreased from 25 mm to 20 mm for increased line
pressure. New brake calipers were then chosen for their piston
diameters to self-proportion the braking forces. The front
OEM single piston calipers were replaced with four piston
aluminum calipers for a weight reduction of 7.0 kg. The rear
drum brakes were converted to disk brakes using lightweight
Honda CRX calipers with an integrated, cable-actuated
parking brake. All four rotors were constructed with
aluminum wheel mounts and ceramic coated titanium alloy
rotor surfaces. The combination of the titanium base material,
ceramic coating, and the harder brake pad material performs
with a higher coefficient of friction, better strength to weight
ratio, and better thermal properties over cast iron and mild
Figure 6. Fuel System Schematic. steel rotors. The redesigned braking system resulted in a 9.0
kg (or 70%) reduction over the OEM front rotors and an
Current laws concerning onboard vapor recovery systems additional 3.8 kg savings by replacing the rear drum brakes.
for automobiles in the future may exclude the UC Davis fuel
system since it does not collect refueling emissions. However,
the laws represent only the latest round in the debate about AERODYNAMICS AND BODY DESIGN
whether refueling emissions should be collected by gas
stations or by vehicles. Two key methods for improving vehicle efficiency are
reducing aerodynamic drag and vehicle weight. To achieve
this, the body was redesigned and built with several primary
SUSPENSION AND BRAKING SYSTEMS goals. They are to reduce the coefficient of drag (CD) to .26
from .30, fabricate stiff lightweight panels, and maintain
The primary goals of suspension modifications were to driveability, visibility, and accessibility of powertrain
improve handling and reduce weight without changing the compartment, trunk, and wheels. The final body design
vehicle’s ride. The stock rear springs were replaced with resulted from aerodynamic testing of the 1996 Taurus,
springs that are 20% stiffer to compensate for the altered front literature research, and consultation with professional
to rear weight ratio (the location of the batteries shifted the aerodynamicists.
weight ratio from 60:40 to 58:42). The rubber rear sway bar
bushings were replaced with polyurethane to help reduce the TESTING OF STOCK TAURUS - The aerodynamics of
response time lag due to this weight shift. The components the original vehicle were analyzed to determine areas where
left unchanged were those in which no significant weight improvements could be made. This analysis was done on
reduction or handling benefit could be accomplished. These several levels. Coast-down tests were conducted using a
parts include: the front cast aluminum steering knuckles, the Datron speed sensor and data acquisition system. The vehicle
front sway bar, the hollow rear sway bar, the composite front was tested both in the stock configuration and with several
sway bar end links, and the stamped steel control arms. temporary body modifications. These modifications included:
The operation of the braking system has been redefined to covered radiator cooling inlets, faired rear wheels, faired
include regenerative braking and mechanical brakes. windshield wipers, covered rear door handles, and removed
Regenerative braking is now the primary braking system so side-view mirrors. Unfortunately, the results of the coast-
that energy recovery is maximized. The purpose of down tests were inconclusive due to irrepeatable and erratic
mechanical brakes is then to provide braking power beyond values for each run. However, the modifications to the body
regenerative braking and for emergency situations. The first did provide useful insight into how the final body might be
30% of the brake pedal throw varies the amount of braking shaped.

10
 Qualitative information on the vehicle aerodynamics was the windshield. The hood gaps above the front fenders have
gathered by running several tuft tests. To help visualize the been lowered to run along the tops of the wheel well openings.
airflow over the surface of the body, several hundred 5 cm This provides a continuous surface for the air flowing along
pieces of string were attached to one side of the vehicle. the sides of the nose toward the A-pillars. With these changes
While driving at 100 kph, the pattern and behavior of the tufts (see Figure 7), the entire top half of the nose is smooth and
were recorded on videotape. Runs were conducted with the seamless, and should support a laminar boundary layer. A
unmodified body and the modified body (i.e., faired rear two-dimensional flat-plate approximation indicates that the
wheels, no side-view mirrors, covered rear door handles, etc.). flow may be laminar over the entire length of the hood.
The videotapes showed the direction and characteristics of the Wheels and wheel wells add as much as 0.07 to 0.09 to
air flow along the surface of the vehicle. In areas where the the drag coefficient of a basic body shape.16 This is due to the
flow was attached, the tufts laid flat against the body and did interference of the unsteady flow entering and exiting unfaired
not flutter. In areas where the flow was separated and wheel wells with the basic body flow. The rear wheel wells
disturbed, the tufts fluttered erratically. have been covered with wheel fairings to minimize separation
Several areas on the unmodified body were observed to along the sides of the vehicle. The bottom of the wheel wells
exhibit separated flow: behind the unfaired front and rear are also closed off as much as possible to decrease entering
wheels, around the side-view mirror, behind the A-pillar of the air.
front side window, and at the base of the rear window. For the The underside of the vehicle has been covered with a
modified body, the flow behind the removed side-view mirror smooth surface from nose to tail to greatly improve airflow.
and faired rear wheel appeared less turbulent. In contrast, the powertrain, exhaust, fuel tank, spare tire, etc.
created a very irregular surface for the airflow on the stock
BODY MODIFICATIONS - For an automobile, the Taurus which increased drag.
overall drag force is dominated by pressure effects such as the At the base of the rear window, the separation was due to
separation observed in the tuft tests, rather than skin-friction the increasing window slope and the onset of a concave
effects. Therefore, the majority of the changes made in the section just before the trunk lid. The result was that the air
body shape were aimed at reducing the size of the vehicle’s flow did not have enough energy to remain attached to the
pressure wake. This was accomplished by reducing or surface. This separation has been minimized by reshaping the
eliminating the separation caused by discontinuities in the rear window and trunk lid in order to reduce the rear window
body such as wheels, wheel wells, mirrors, and door handles. angle and eliminate the concave section. Figures 8 and 9
In addition to reducing the pressure wake, the shape of the explicitly show the difference in air flow over the rear window
vehicle body was modified to create a pressure gradient which for the unmodified and modified Taurus body.
promotes attached flow along the entire length of the body.

Figure 8. Tuft testing of stock 1996 Ford Taurus.

Figure 7. Vehicle Body Modifications.

The nose and hood of the vehicle were altered to reduce

separation and encourage smooth airflow. The radiator
cooling inlets were moved to the underside of the nose. The
headlights and turn signals have been covered with
polycarbonate lenses formed to the shape of the nose. The
front hood seam was moved below the stagnation point on the
nose, creating an undisturbed surface extending to the base of Figure 9. Tuft testing of UC Davis FutureCar.
11
 These changes keep the air flow attached to the body from HEATING, VENTILATION, AND AIR CONDITIONING
the nose to the rear edge of the trunk. This edge has been
sharpened on the top and bottom to provide a distinct The UC Davis team focused on innovative and efficient
separation point for the trailing vortices. The sharp edge heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) designs to
avoids the varying separation points of a curved trailing edge. satisfy varying occupant comfort requirements. Reversible
These variations lead to unsteady aerodynamic characteristics heat pumps, solid state thermoelectric devices, and refrigerator
and a larger pressure wake. cooling systems were researched. System design criteria
The tail of the vehicle has been extended so that the trunk included total energy consumption, conditioning ability,
now ends at the rear edge of the bumper. The lengthened weight, packaging, and component availability. A reversible
taper of the sides of the tail created a smaller rear area and heat pump HVAC system showed the best potential for
reduced the pressure wake. In addition to the extension, the meeting the design criteria.
back surface of the tail has been hollowed-out in the center. Based on a concept introduced by Department of Defense
This cavity caused a tumbling effect in the trailing wake and research on personnel cooling, the HVAC system was
further reduced the size of the pressure wake. designed to give the occupants the perception of feeling cool
As a final change, the side-view mirrors have been without cooling the entire cabin. A two speed, squirrel cage
replaced with CCD cameras using small externally-mounted fan blows conditioned air across occupants’ bodies towards
lenses. The lenses are 15% the size of the stock mirrors. their heads through vents in the center console. A vent is
Small flat-screened monitors placed on either side of the directed at each front passenger and two vents condition the
steering wheel make drivers aware of their surroundings rear passengers. The fan is dual wound which eliminates the
without significant head movement. In addition to improving energy losses associated with drop-down resistors typically
aerodynamics, removing the mirrors eliminated the blind spot used for variable speeds in conventional HVAC systems.
because the cameras have a 78° field of view. Localized heating and cooling allows the HVAC system
capacity and component sizes to be reduced. A Sanden
BODY PANEL MANUFACTURING - To implement the TRS050 scroll compressor and Showa condenser are used
aerodynamic improvements, the shape of the Taurus had to be from a Honda Today. This condenser acts as the exhaust
radically changed. The stock Taurus body was used as a exchanger. Two high efficiency, flat pack blowers draw air
reference point for the body modifications. A mold was built through this condenser and direct it out under the car. A
on the front and rear of the original body with foam and body tubular condenser was also used for the interior heat
filler. The mold was shaped and smoothed until the final body exchanger since both exchangers experience high fluid
shape was obtained. Tools were formed on the front and rear pressures. A bi-flow expansion valve was not available at the
molds using a fiberglass chopper-gun to obtain exact negatives time of production, so dual one-way expansion valves were
of the body shape. Next, the honeycomb core and pre- used with dryers and check valves to control flow direction. A
impregnated carbon fiber sheets were laid-up in the tools four-way reversing valve is used to direct the refrigerant (R-
forming the laminated composite panel structure. The panels 134a) for the desired interior conditioning. The compressor is
were then vacuum-bagged to draw out trapped air and cured in driven by a high efficiency, high voltage permanent magnet
McClellan Air Force Base’s autoclave at 150°C and 70 kPa motor. Outlet air temperature is determined by controlling the
(10 psi). In the final step, the panels were trimmed, mounted, motor and compressor speed. This allows more efficient
smoothed, and painted. temperature control over conventional systems because
The choices of materials and manufacturing processes compressor power consumption is directly related to cooling
used for constructing the UC Davis FutureCar body were load. The reversible heat pump plumbing schematic is shown
tailored to the capabilities of available facilities. Carbon fiber in Figure 10.
composite panels were chosen because of their light weight,
high strength, and ease of shaping. However, in mass Exhaust Heat Interior Heat
production, these panels could be replaced with Sheet Molded Exchanger Exchanger
Composite (SMC)17, Structural Reaction Injection Molding
(SRIM)18 composites, or Glass-mat thermoplastics. SMC and
SRIM composites, currently found on production vehicles, use
thermoset resins and are only partially recyclable. Glass-mat
thermoplastics surpass SMC technology because they absorb
between 2.5 to 3 times more impact energy and are 100%
recyclable.19 Compressor

POWERTRAIN COOLING - The cooling-air inlet Reversing Valve (Heat Mode)

commonly placed in the vehicle nose is a major source of
Reversing Valve (Cool Mode)
aerodynamic drag. Because of this, the engine and electric
motor radiators were moved underneath the front of the nose. Tee
Fans draw air through an inlet that is flush with the belly pan.
This location avoids the drag associated with the stagnation of One-Way Valve
a large volume of air against the flat surface of the intake. It Expansion Valve
also allows the nose to be optimally shaped to encourage
laminar flow. Finally, because the air must now be drawn into Dryer
the vehicle at all times, the degree of engine cooling is more
closely matched to the actual cooling requirements and issues Figure 10. Heat pump plumbing schematic for heat mode.
such as overcooling at high speeds are avoided.
12
 Duct length minimization and packaging restrictions Davis FutureCar is impractical so future hybrid development
determined the system location. If behind the dashboard as in will be based on an aluminum framed vehicle. The final goal
conventional vehicles, long duct lengths are needed for outlets of 2.9 L/100 km (80 mpg) will only be possible if all other
to the rear seats. The dashboard was also considered as an goals are met and the parallel powertrain and charge depletion
ideal location for protecting the vehicle’s control system control strategy are optimized.
hardware. As a result, the system was placed underneath the
rear passenger seat floorboard. Light weight, smooth carbon UC Davis Stock Ford
fiber air ducts enclose both HVAC heat exchangers. FutureCar Taurus
Recirculated air flows with low losses through short ducts to FUDS and FHDS 550 km 600 km
pass through the interior exchanger and exit the vents. The Range HEV
exhaust exchanger takes air from and returns air to the
vehicle’s underside with minimal increase in aerodynamic ZEV Range 105 km 0 km
drag. 0 to 100 kph 14.4 sec 12.5 sec
Overall system weight and energy consumption have been Acceleration (HEV)
reduced from conventional HVAC systems. Future extensions Equivalent Energy 4.8 L/100 km 9.4 L/100 km
of the system include window tinting, an electrically heated Efficiency (49 mpg) (25 mpg)
windshield for efficient defrosting, and photo-voltaic solar Curb Weight 1524 kg 1515 kg
cells for powering fans to lower interior temperature when the Aero Drag: CD 0.26 0.30
car is unoccupied.
Passenger Capacity 5 passengers 6 passengers

CONCLUSION Table 8. Vehicle performance summary.

The UC Davis FutureCar Team has redesigned a 1996
Ford Taurus as a parallel charge depletion hybrid electric ACKNOWLEDGMENT
vehicle. The UC Davis FutureCar incorporates a blend of
advanced and conventional automotive technologies to The authors wish to thank and congratulate all of the members
produce a highly efficient vehicle which could help reduce the of the UC Davis FutureCar Team, otherwise known as Team
environmental impact of future transportation systems. This Fate, for their hard work and perseverance in developing a
vehicle may also qualify for partial ZEV credit in California winning UC Davis FutureCar. The leadership and knowledge
under the anticipated hybrid regulations. of Dr. Andrew Frank who won the NSF Faculty Award and
The UC Davis FutureCar won First Place Overall in the Dr. Andrew Burke make this project possible. Dave Hook and
1997 FutureCar Challenge by scoring 830 out of 1020 points, Michael Akahori provided design and manufacturing
111 points ahead of the second place finisher. The UC Davis assistance. Eric Chattot, Lothlorien Redmond, Eric Galambos,
FutureCar also won the following awards: Jonathan Isaac, and Scott Sutorius significantly contributed to
the editing of this paper.
• Most Energy Efficient Vehicle
• Lowest Vehicle Driving Losses
• Best Application of Advanced Technology
• Best Development & Application of Advanced Materials
• Best Technical Report
• Best Dynamic Performance

A performance summary of the UC Davis FutureCar and

stock Ford Taurus is shown in Table 8. The FutureCar
doubled the Taurus’ fuel economy by achieving 5.64 L/100
km (41.7 mpg) on the FUDS and 3.74 L/100 km (62.8 mpg)
on the FHDS. This fuel economy was verified on a test drive
from Davis, CA to Salt Lake City, UT. The increase in fuel
economy resulted from the significant reduction in
aerodynamic drag and the increased efficiency of the parallel
hybrid powertrain operating under a charge depletion control
strategy. The FutureCar’s acceleration was slightly slower
than the Taurus, but handling was much improved due to the
lowered center of gravity and suspension modifications. Both
vehicles have approximately the same weight and driving
range.
The UC Davis FutureCar reached only two of the team’s
ambitious goals, the FUDS and FHDS combined range and the
reduction of aerodynamic drag. The team’s effort now turns
to achieving the other goals listed in Table 1. A ZEV range of
130 km can easily be attained by increasing the battery pack
energy storage. To meet the acceleration performance of 0 to
100 kph in seconds, the electric motor must be able to produce
75 kW. The desired weight reduction for the current UC
13
 16
1
Press release from Toyota at the beginning of April. Fabijanic, John, “An Experimental Investigation of Wheel-
Well Flows,” SAE 960901. Note: the basic body shape refers
2
SIMPLEV is a program developed by INEL to model series to a generic vehicle shape with a smooth underbelly and
hybrids. without wheels, mirrors, or any other protrusions.
17
3
State of California Air Resources Board, Proposed Jost, Kevin, “Sheet Molding Composite Recycling”,
Amendments to the Low-Emission Vehicle Regulations to Automotive Engineering, v103 n8 (Aug 1995) :40
Add an Equivalent Zero-Emission Vehicle (EZEV) Standard 18
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