METROLOGIA 2003 – Metrology for the Quality of Life

Brazilian Society for Metrology (SBM)

September 01-05, 2003, Recife, Pernambuco – BRAZIL

METROLOGY IN THE FOOD CHAIN: A HOLISTIC APPROACH

Peter Bode 1
1
Delft University of Technology, Interfaculty Reactor Institute, Mekelweg 15, 2629JB Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract: Many scandals in the food industry have produces worth of about 700 million USD [4] and an effect
undermined the trust of consumers. Brazil has, like other to the tourist industry of 70 million USD. Given the fact that
countries, social and economical reasons to restore this trust. Brazil is amongst the top 15 food exporting countries in the
The consumers are entitled to fair, objective and correct world, with major importers like Japan, USA and the EU,
specifications of the food they eat. This requires more care there is an obvious need for continuous care to increase the
to the measurements in the food chain, at all levels. consumers’ trust in food “Made in Brazil”.
International developments for consumer protection are
Animal by-products are an important constituent of the
described. Suggestions for a holistic approach towards
daily food in many cultures. Livestock farming has changed
metrology in the food chain are given.
considerably too in order to keep pace with the growing
Keywords: metrology, food chain. demands to productivity. Cattle are not longer feeding
themselves with just grass and hay, but depend increasingly
on man-made animal feed. The production of animal feed is
1. INTRODUCTION one of the most important sectors of activity in agriculture.
Approximately 120 million tons of fodder and other feeding
Food encompasses all the item man eats and drinks stuff are produced inside the EU [5]. Initially, the rules on
because he likes them. In the past, man was eating the food animal feed from the 1970's put the emphasis on further
grown in his own backyard (or region). Man ‘knew’ what he increase of the productivity of livestock farming, facilitating
was growing, how he treated the soil, how he fed his the free circulation of animal feeding stuffs in the internal
chicken and thus man trusted his own food. This traditional market and providing information to the stock breeders on
pattern has changed in many places in the world. food characteristics. Today emphasis has shifted more
Urbanization and economic growth, modern food towards the protection of human and animal health and to
technology and shifts in the diet (e.g. low variety to high some extent to environmental protection. The quality of
variety; low fat to high fat content; high fiber to low fiber animal feed is in focus for two reasons: firstly and
content) also introduced global changes in food-related obviously, since it is the start of one of the food cycles and
problems. People in many countries eat nowadays food that secondly since more regulations have been implemented
may come from anywhere in the world. Their criteria for the
regarding animal welfare.
selection of food have changed too. People select food on its
taste, appearance, availability, and variety, all under ethical
constraints and to some extent on basis of nutritional value.
But consumers also want safe food and super service by the 2. PROBLEMS WITH OUR FOOD
producers. A recent survey in The Netherlands showed that During the end of the 20th century mankind was alarmed
consumers pay much more attention to production and that his food supply is contaminated by a variety of
expiration dates (92 %) and price (85 %) than to ingredient agrochemicals, by water and air pollution, by hormone
(51 %) or additives (23 %) [1]. In many countries now good residues in animal by-products, and by microorganisms.
farming practice (organic farming, animal welfare) is also a “Contaminants” is the summarizing term for these
consideration affecting the consumer’s choice. In view of substances that are unintentionally added to food and
this the question arises how to reduce the probability that present therein in the form of a residue from production,
one gets ill and, even worse, might die from the consumed manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing,
food. packaging, transport or storage or as a result of
Food is big business too. The restaurant industry in the environmental contamination (see Table 1). The list of
USA covered in 2002 11.6 million jobs, which is 8 % of all substances is phenomenal and new contaminants are ‘daily’
jobs in that country, making it the biggest employer outside added. Some of these contaminants are known to cause
the government The economic impact of this sector is health problems, for the majority the medium and long-term
estimated to 1 trillion USD [2]. The import by the USA of effects are still not known. The food scandals move swiftly:
agricultural products from Latin America was in 2001 dioxin in Belgian chicken, UK beef (BSE), nitro-furanes in
equivalent to about 18 billion USD [3]. Problems with Brazilian chicken are well known examples.
imported food have large and widespread consequences: A
cholera epidemic in Peru in 1991 caused a loss of fish
 Table 1. Classification of major contaminants in food Numbers) and flavorings, food supplements, hygiene,
irradiation, novel food (genetically modified), natural
- Agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, fertilizer
mineral waters, organic products and packaging.
residues
An overall EU framework for the national control
- Antibiotics and hormones in animal by-products
systems that oversee all parts of the food production chain
- Bacteria and fungi will be achieved. The EU’s Food and Veterinary Office in
Dublin exercises the control function at the EU level.
- Biological contaminants –endotoxins
Consumers will be better informed through improved
- Bleaches, solvent residues, waxes, dyes
food labeling rules.
- Contaminants from packaging, shipping and storage
The EU launched already in 1992 the Rapid Alert
- Contaminants from processing (chemicals) System for Foodstuffs (RASFF) to ensure that member state
countries inform each other in case of suspected food
- Insects, rodents, parasite eggs
problems. Australia developed and launched in 1995 its Safe
- Metals (e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium) Quality Food (SQF) Management system which includes
tailored codes for primary producers (based on HACCP) and
- Organo-chlorinated compounds for food processing industry (based on HACCP and ISO
- Radionuclides 9000). Other countries follow SQF and its headquarters in
Lausanne, Switzerland illustrates its international scope.
Labeling is another point of concern. Nomenclature and
It seems to be inevitable that we have to live claims that have not been scientifically proven often confuse
contaminants entering our food. As long as we know which consumers. In 1979 the EC issued the first directive on food
contaminants and how much of them. Obviously, labeling, to be followed by several amendments. In 2000 the
contaminants must be kept at the lowest possible levels but Quantitative Ingredient Labeling (QUID) amendment came
the scandals of the past decade have initiated a lot of public into force, prescribing the quantitative declaration of major
concern on the quality and safety of our food. These ingredients. EU directives also regulate nutritional labeling
scandals boosted and initiated food quality and food safety and labeling of food additives. Similar actions were taken in
surveillance programs. Brazil [7].
The Codex Alimentarius recommends that laboratories
3. INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS ON FOOD responsible for control of exported and imported food
SAFETY products comply with the ISO/IEC International Standard
17025:1000, and ultimately in the accreditation of the
Consumer protection exists already for many years in the laboratory by a certified body [8]. Directive 93/99/EEC of
food industry. Many countries have made national directives the European Union states that food control laboratories are
for the control of the quality and safety of food. The FAO required to become formally accredited to an internationally
and WHO initiated in 1961 a ‘food code’ that later resulted recognized standard such as ISO/IEC 17025:1999,
in the Codex Alimentarius, an internationally accepted set of participate in proficiency test schemes and use validated
standards related to the production and trade of food. The methods by July 1999.
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points approach (HACCP)
is also now accepted in many countries as a standard to The roles of the stakeholders are clear: Farmers are
identify problems in all steps in the food industry (from responsible for producing safe food. The food processing
farmer to supermarket). The European Union has chosen for industry is responsible to prevent deterioration and for the
an integrated approach on food safety, from ‘farm to fork’, packaging of food. The retail sector is responsible for safe
based on the slogan ‘Prevention is better than curing”. With storage conditions. The consumers have to adapt good
the introduction of the White Paper on Food Safety and the hygiene practices. This group is the weakest link in the food
Communication on the Precautionary Principle in early chain since there are hardly opportunities for control.
2000, the European Commission's Health and Consumer Finally, the Government is responsible to support the
Protection Directorate General presented its blueprint for infrastructure to re-assure the consumers by advisory,
maximum health protection for the consumers of Europe’s regulatory and enforcement actions.
food [6]. The White Paper on Food Safety outlines a Many of these actions require measurements, for quality
legislative action plan comprised of four major initiatives: assessment and for safety assessment. All measurements
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), established in need a metrological basis to attain results that are beyond
January 2002, provides independent scientific advice on doubt, internationally comparable and therefore
food safety and related matters. internationally acceptable.

Food safety legislation will evolve into a more

comprehensive and coherent legal framework that will 4. METROLOGY IN THE FOOD CHAIN: THE
address animal feed, animal health and welfare, CONVENTIONAL APPROACH
contaminants and residues, food additives (including E
 The term “metrology” is used to describe the science of aiming at the production of safe food of known, acceptable
measurement. Many metrologists interpret this towards the quality.
following three tasks:
Production of safe food requires that all involved in the
The definition of internationally accepted units of food chain recognize that the responsibility lies with those
measurement who produce, process and trade in food. It covers the entire
food chain from primary production (farmers, fishermen) to
The realization of units of measurement (like the Avogadro
final consumption including e.g. the slaughterhouse
constant) by scientific methods
operators, food processors, transport operators and
The establishment of traceability chains in documenting the wholesale and retail distributors. Relevant information
accuracy of measurement regarding the safety of food should be passed on to the next
person in the food chain.
In this view, the challenges for metrology in the food
chain are with the last task, the establishment of traceability Measurements are needed in each step in the food chain,
chains needed to anchor results to standards that do not to be made by the vendors and buyers (consumer) of
change with time. It is the key to achieve comparability in products. The vendor will base his product specifications on
measurements of the same measurand in different matrices measurement results and the buyer may wish to make new
carried out at different places and/or different dates. measurements to verify the vendor’s specifications. Vendors
in the food chain are e.g. the farmers, cooperatives, pre-
Currently, the focus is at the food-processing sector.
processors, manufacturers, distributors and shops. In
Industry has to demonstrate the quality of its products and
addition, side-chains can be distinguished: a farmer buys
food safety/quality authorities have to verify this. Food
fertilizer, bags and scales; a manufacturer may have to buy
quality testing laboratories have to demonstrate their ingredients, additives, equipment, packaging material and
performance on basis of method validation, proficiency other supplies. The farmer needs measurements of e.g. the
testing results and internal quality assessment. Method
water and soil quality; he needs to know the quality of the
validation, in particular for novel contaminants like e.g.
fertilizers and agrochemicals, the content of his bags, the
pesticide residues, is not as simple as for e.g. metals. There
calibration of his scales. These have impact to the farmer’s
is an obvious need for validated analytical procedures and product, to be sold to the next partner in the food chain,
for proficiency testing. Moreover, there is a shortage of which in his turn also largely depend on measurements of
standards and quality control/reference materials since the
known quality. But how well can a farmer rely on a label or
list of contaminants is still growing. Institutes of the Joint
on a certificate of analysis? Are the people behind the
Research Centers of the European Union (like the Institute
measurement really competent doing so? Are they using
for Reference Materials and Methods and the Institute for
validated methods? All these measurements in the food
Health and Consumer Protection) have initiated a large chain emphasize that the quality of a product can only be
project for the safety and quality of food and feed in which maintained or reduced; it cannot be improved: “Garbage in,
several of these items are being approached [9]. Example are
garbage out”. Once the results of these measurements are
the development of robust validated methods for e.g.
within specifications, the probability of producing poor
mycotoxins, trace elements and dioxins, development of fast
quality food will reduce.
screening methods and development of certified reference
materials. Similar actions have been taken in other regions It was mentioned in the above that e.g. the EU identified
of the world. the need for an integrated approach towards food safety,
identifying all stakeholders and their responsibilities, and
offering tools for food control mechanisms and regulations.
5. METROLOGY IN THE FOOD CHAIN: THE These tools are also based on measurements and
HOLISTIC APPROACH consequently, metrology in the food chain encompasses
more than developing reference materials and validated
Food quality control is an action taken during the methods for the control in the food processing industry and
processing or even after distribution of the products. Many of the final product. Education, in the broadest sense, is a
things may go wrong in food production in spite of already vital component. A holistic, bottom-up awareness is needed
implemented food control measures. Raw materials may be on the impact of reliable measurements according to
of poor or variable quality; equipment may work unreliable; internationally accepted guidelines or standards at all levels
there may be limited training opportunities to obtain in the food production, followed by implementation of
adequate human resources. In addition, the legislation and metrological principles at these levels. Good laboratory
regulation may be not well developed and there may be a practices, education in quality control and quality assurance
lack of adequate political, financial and technical support for are needed within this massive web of stakeholders in the
an efficient monitoring and surveillance system. A certain food chain. Quality control will, in its turn, take advantage
fraction of the products will be rejected at some stage: of improved knowledge on metrological principles in
before leaving the production plant, during retail or upon chemical, microbiological and physical measurements.
import in other countries. It will effect in economic losses
and further reduction of trust. Like in all manufacturing and
production, also the food industry would benefit if quality
6. DISCUSSION
assurance rather than quality control could be implemented,
 One of the characteristics of food safety and food quality capabilities of a primary ratio method [11], can be
control is that the type of contaminants is unpredictable. For successfully applied to determined some agrochemical
instance, the number of inorganic elements –hereby residues. Recently, a significant number of studies indicated
avoiding the misleading term ‘heavy metals’ [10]- is fixed, that traditional analytical methods such as gas
the impact of most elements to human health is known and it chromatography and GC-MS could only provide
is in principle possible to prepare reference standards for all information about the known organochlorines, which
existing elements, even before problems arise. The situation contributed to less than 1-20 % of the total extractable
is entirely different for the other contaminants listed in organochlorinated compounds and thus doe not reflect the
Table 1. The variety of organic residues of agrochemicals, actual contamination. INAA is the only analytical method
chemicals used in food processing, bacteria and fungi is currently available for simultaneously determining various
much larger. Moreover, the impact to health is now always extractable organohalogens [12]. It should be noted,
well known and the occurrence of a food contamination referring to the previous paragraph, that INAA is one of the
problem tend to come unexpectedly. In case of a new crisis, very few techniques with neglectable chemical matrix
it is well possible that reference materials and validated effects.
methods may be not available.
Achieving reliable analytical results of known quality
However, food quality and food safety is more than a and uncertainty is one important aspect of food quality and
national or regional problem. The globalization of the trade food safety assessment. One of the other cornerstones is the
in food products makes its control an international problem. assurance of the representativeness of the analytical result
An internationally co-ordinated approach to provide the for the sampled consignment. Metrologists should also be
metrological basis for the associated measurements seems to concerned on this aspect, which applies throughout the
be justifiable too. National programs on the development of entire food chain. Standard methods exist for sampling of
reference materials, typically for the national food e.g. granular material –like corn and beans- in which the
production seems somehow to be a costly duplication of minimum sample mass is based on the equations, developed
work whereas opportunities are missed to widen the by Pierre Gy [13]. However, also the sampling theory is
diversity of reference materials. Is there really a need to subject to continuous improvement and it has recently been
have reference materials of e.g. cadmium in Thai shrimps, shown [14] that Gy’s predicted minimum sample mass may
cadmium in Chilean shrimps, cadmium in Russian shrimps? be as well a large overestimation –thus causing unnecessary
The new food and feed safety projects of the Joint Research high processing costs- as a substantial underestimation –
Centers of the EU address only a selected group of resulting in non-representative results. Since the quality
problems, for which measures have to be developed, assessment of food has high economic and social
prioritized on basis of recently encountered problems. But implications, a mechanism should be present for evaluation
there are obviously more reference materials needed. It of such new sampling theories and eventual implementation
would be quite valuable if this initiative could be thereof in (inter) national standards.
complimented by similar actions in other regions of the
University laboratories need to be the national metrology
world, but focused on other measurands and matrices even if
institute’s partner in the development and implementation of
they have no immediate national priority. FAO and/or WHO
the metrological aspects for a national food quality and –
might fulfill a stimulating role in such an internationally co-
safety program. Universities have expertise on the frontline
ordinated project. The metrological aspects could then be
of scientific developments. More than field laboratories or
anchored if the involved national metrology institutions
commercial institutions, they have access to scientific
assure their comparability by participating in BIPM key-
networks and opportunities to develop novel, more sensitive
comparisons.
and more selective measurement methods and the associated
Another practical problem arises with the analytical quality control and quality assurance procedures.
methodology. Results of many methods appear to be to
However, it is not only these metrological actions –
some extent depending on the nature (matrix) of the material
development of reference materials, robust validated
analyzed. It is an impossible to task to keep pace with the
methods, proficiency testing schemes and focus on correct
realization of matrix-matching calibrants and quality control
evaluation of measurement uncertainty- that guarantee a
standards. Here is a big challenge for analytical chemists,
correct characterization of the food product, nor is it the
viz. the development of robust, validated analytical
sophisticated equipment and library facilities. The reliability
procedures with a known impact of the matrix, as well as the
and fitness for purpose of analytical results depend
development of methods with no influence of the matrix.
increasingly on the qualification and skills of the analyst.
Several techniques exist that have been demonstrated to Analytical and metrological qualifications: analysts should
have the capabilities to perform specific analytical methods master the fundamental aspects of their technique and the
at a level that meets the requirements of the CCQM’s operating principles of instruments. They must be aware of
definitions for a primary method and a primary ratio the potential sources of error, how to monitor them and to
method. In general, these techniques are quite valuable for take account of them. The latter is a basic requirement for
the determination of inorganic components but they are not method validation. It is unquestionable that more reference
suitable for most of the contaminants identified in Table 1. materials have to be developed for method validation,
As an exception, it has been shown that instrumental instrument calibration or quality control. But these
neutron activation analysis (INAA), which has the metrological actions will only have the desired impact if the
targeted users have the qualifications to understand and to Regulation enforcement
use them properly. The food chain includes not just analysts
No price explosions due to quality measures
at (accredited) food control laboratories. Human capacity
development is equally important as development of To restore trust in the food chain and international
metrological tools. Use and evaluation of control charts, acceptability it is important to implement internationally
basic principles of sampling and sample preparation are acceptable quality practices at all steps in the food chain and
essentials for all workers in the food chain –even the farmer for all related items. Measurement results shall be anchored
who may have to be alert for trends in the temperature of his via transparent traceability chains. Governments shall make
storage facility. Will he be able to understand e.g. the clear to the public that such a policy is effective, that it will
certificate of a calibrated thermometer and a ‘expanded be enforced and that the consumers’ opinion will be taken
combined standard uncertainty with a coverage factor k=2’? into account.
Metrologists have therefore the task to transfer their
knowledge and recommendations, by whatever means, to
the stakeholders in the food chain. Teaching at technical 6. DISCUSSION
schools and universities, or via information bulletins can do
this. There are social and economical reasons to restore
consumer’s trust in the food chain. This requires
Measurements in the food chain involve, as was outlined implementation of internationally acceptable quality
in the above, at least two parties: a vendor and a buyer or a practices at all steps in the food chain, and for all related
customer and an analytical laboratory. There should be a items. Measurement results need to be anchored to standards
partnership between the customer who asks for via transparent traceability chains. The globalization of the
measurements, and the analyst. Analysts should have the trade in food products makes food safety an international
skills to understand the problem of the customer so as to problem that would justify an internationally co-ordinated
ensure the selection of a proper sampling approach, sample approach to provide the metrological basis for the associated
treatment and the most effective analytical method. measurements. National programs on the development of
Customers have to become aware that a measurement or an reference materials, typically for the national food
analysis is not a routine activity that can be done at a low production, seem somehow to be a costly duplication of
price, in contrast to what many vendors of analytical work whereas opportunities are missed to widen the
instruments seem to promise. diversity of reference materials.
The pursued effectiveness of metrology in the food chain
Table 2. Actions for a holistic approach towards metrology in the will only be optimal provided also holistic quality assurance
food chain awareness is implemented in all parts of this chain, with all
stakeholders. Safe food of known quality requires more than
Outreach to all stakeholders in the food-chain developing reference materials and validated methods for
Quality Assurance Awareness building the food processing industry. A holistic, bottom-up
awareness is needed on the impact of reliable measurements
Education at universities and technical schools according to internationally accepted guidelines or standards
Involvement of university laboratories in development of at all levels in the food production, followed by
new (matrix independent) techniques and testing of methods implementation of metrological principles at these levels.
People need to be made aware of the importance and ways
International co-ordination of the development of reference of using the tools. Good laboratory practices, education in
materials quality control and quality assurance are needed amongst all
Development of robust, validated methods stakeholders in the food chain. Metrology is often
interpreted as ‘the science of measurement’ and science is
Development of robust sampling protocols not limited to the development of tools. It also includes
education in the correct implementation of these tools and in
the interpretation of observations made with them.
Would this all (see Table 2) be sufficient to restore the Metrologists have, without doubt, a task in this.
consumer’s confidence in the food chain? Maybe, but
It will not be possible to achieve this without
probably more is needed:
enforcement. A national commitment and the collaboration
Assurance on the origin and authenticity of food is needed of all ministries and agencies concerned with
health agriculture, finance, planning and commerce, as well
Assurance that measurements are right the first time
as the food industry, the biomedical and agricultural
Assurance that measurements are made with internationally scientific community and the consuming public.
recognized, robust and validated methods
Assurance of trained and skilled manpower
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