Education

A pictorial guide for the second

trimester ultrasound
Abstract
Introduction: The second trimester ultrasound remains an important screening tool for detecting
fetal abnormalities. This pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound is designed to assist
practitioners to produce a high quality diagnostic survey of the fetus by demonstrating and describing
recommended images.
Methods: Each image is discussed in detail and has an associated drawn line diagram to aid in the
identification of the important features of that image. There is a description of the salient landmarks
and relevant measurements.
Michael Bethune1,2 Result: The authors hope this article may act as a useful guide to all practitioners performing second
FRANZCOG, DDU, COGU trimester ultrasounds.

Ekaterina Alibrahim1 Keywords: imaging, prenatal ultrasound, second trimester routine ultrasound.
FRANZCR
Introduction
Braidy Davies1 examination is only complete if all of these images
The second trimester ultrasound is commonly
are presented. Rather, we are suggesting that each
Grad Dip US, AMS performed between 18 and 22 weeks gestation.
labelled landmark is worth examining carefully
Historically the second trimester ultrasound was
during a second trimester ultrasound. Although
Eric Yong1 often the only routine scan offered in a pregnancy
the important features are described it is beyond
MBBS, BMed Sci and so was expected to provide information
the scope of this article to discuss the associated
about gestational age (correcting menstrual dates
pathologies of each feature.
1
Medical Imaging if necessary), fetal number and type of multiple
This guide is presented roughly in cephalic
Department pregnancy, placental position and pathology,
to caudal order, but where possible grouped by
The Mercy Hospital for as well as detecting fetal abnormalities.1 Many
organ system. Operators would benefit from a
patients now have several ultrasounds in their
Women systematic approach to ensure that all structures
pregnancy with the first trimester nuchal
Melbourne are seen even in difficult circumstances, as it can
translucency assessment becoming particularly
Victoria be possible to miss a structure, especially when
common.2 The second trimester ultrasound is
there are active fetal movements.
Australia now less often required for dating or detection
of multiple pregnancies but remains very
2
Specialist Women’s Recording the ultrasound
important to detect placental pathology and,
It is useful to have some record of the examination
Ultrasound despite advances in first trimester anomaly
for future reference. Video clips or DVD recording
Box Hill detection, remains an important ultrasound for
of the scan has the advantage of providing moving
Melbourne the detection of fetal abnormalities. In order to
images, which is particularly helpful when
maximise detection rates there is evidence that
Victoria assessing the fetal heart. A series of still images
the ultrasound should be performed by operators
Australia is however easier to store and refer to in the
with specific training in the detection of fetal
future. Images should clearly display identifying
abnormalities.3
Correspondence to email information such as the patient’s full name; birth
[email protected] Second trimester ultrasound landmarks date; medical record or identification number;
This pictorial guide is provided as, despite a large date of the ultrasound examination; and site
volume of literature on the subject, it is difficult where the examination was performed (hospital
to find a single publication that describes the or private practice),4 ensuring compliance with
landmarks and range of images which are most local legal requirements.
useful to look for when performing the second
trimester ultrasound. These images were all Biometry
obtained on GE Healthcare Voluson E8 or 730 There are a number of measurements to take
machines (GE Healthcare, Sydney, Australia). during the examination. Some measurements of
The images provided are representative. Some fetal size should be included in the formal report of
examinations may yield significantly better each examination. The minimum measurements
images while other examinations, especially to report are: biparietal diameter (BPD), head
in large patients, may yield much less clear circumference (HC), abdominal circumference
images. The authors are not suggesting that an (AC), and femur length (FL).5–7 Other biometry

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 A pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound

Figure 1: Biparietal diameter plane.

1 Biparietal diameter
2 Cavum Septum pellucidum
3 Thalami Figure 2: Transventricular plane.
4 Hypoechoic skull sutures The lower right images demonstrate that angling the fetal head can
5 Third Ventricle improve visualisation of the near field lateral ventricle.
6 Choroid 1 Near field posterior horn of lateral ventricle
7 Posterior Lateral ventricle 2 Choroid
8 Corpus callosum 3 Far field posterior horn of lateral ventricle
4 Cavum Septum Pellucidum (CSP)
which could be reported include: humerus length (HL), nasal
5 Corpus callosum (CC)
bone length (NB), nuchal fold (NF), cerebellar diameter (TCD),
cisterna magna and cervical length. A combination of BPD and
HC measurements can be used to calculate an estimated date of Figure 1: Biparietal diameter plane
delivery (EDD).8 This is a cross section of the fetal head obtained at the level
of the thalami. The cerebellum, orbits and ears should not be
General scanning principles visualised in this scanning plane. The falx should be positioned
Many machine pre-sets are a compromise of resolution and horizontal and equidistant from both parietal bones to avoid
persistence and it is important to have a high resolution pre-set acynclitism (head tilted to one side). The operator should
available. A separate pre-set with higher frame rates and higher look for a symmetrical appearance to both hemispheres. The
contrast is useful for cardiac images. When taking images the continuous midline echo representing the falx is broken in the
structure of interest should occupy about 75% of the screen to anterior third by the cavum septum pellucidum (CSP). Behind
maximise resolution. Write zoom (pre-acquisition) is the zoom this in the middle of the falx a thin slit representing the third
mode of choice as it has higher resolution than read zoom (post ventricle is often visible.
acquisition). The BPD measurement is obtained from outer skull bone to
Because of the risk of artefacts it is often useful to visualise inner skull bone (leading edge to leading edge), perpendicular
the major structures in at least two planes. The measurement to the falx at the maximum diameter.12 The HC is measured as
techniques recommended here are widely accepted techniques, an ellipse around the outside of the skull bones. Both of these
however some charts may use different techniques and each measurements can be used to confirm gestational age. A head
operator should measure in accordance with the charts agreed circumference measuring less than 3 standard deviations from
within their own work place and population. the mean may indicate microcephaly.13
Amniotic fluid assessment is usually subjective9 but maximum Slight gaps in the echogenic skull bone outline are evident
vertical pocket or amniotic fluid Index (AFI) can be used if there and represent the skull sutures. There should be a normal oval
is concern about excess or insufficient amniotic fluid. skull shape with no depression of the petrous temporal bones
Fetal movements should be observed and commented upon. and no angulation near the sutures. The normal bone density of
It is essential to see flexion or extension of a limb at least once the skull should be more echogenic than the falx.
during the scanning process to reduce the chance of missing
a case of arthrogryposis.10 Similarly the opening of the hands Figure 2: Transventricular plane
to exclude clenched fingers is important to rule out several This image is a cross-section of the head just above the BPD-
syndromes.11 plane, at the level of the atrium of the lateral ventricles but
still with the CSP in view. The image usually demonstrates a
The fetal head substantial length of choroid plexus superior to the level of the
The standard axial fetal brain planes include the biparietal thalami.
diameter, the transventricular plane and the cerebellar plane The lateral ventricular measurement can be taken from inner
(Figures 1–3). Many of the fetal measurements are taken from wall to inner wall at the level of the glomus of the choroid plexus.
these planes including the BPD and HC. Measurements of the The lateral ventricle should be measured at right angles to the
Cerebellum, Cisterna Magna and Nuchal fold can be useful. falx.12 Over the gestational range 15 to 40 weeks 10 mm or larger
Further images of the head which may add value include the is considered abnormal.14
mid sagittal plane to view mid line brain structures, coronal It may be advantageous to measure the near field ventricle as
cerebellum and coronal face (Figures 4–6). well as the far field lateral ventricle. Angling the probe to place

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Figure 3: Cavum septum pellucidum. Figure 4: Cerebellar plane.

The corpus callosum is visible as a hypoechoic region just anterior to 1 Cavum Septum Pellucidum
the CSP. 2 Cerebellar lobes
3 Cerebellar vermis
4 Cisterna Magna
5 Nuchal Fold
6 Cerebral peduncles
7 Falx
8 Thalami

Figure 5: Corpus callosum.

1 Corpus callosum
2 Cavum Septum Pellucidum
3 Nasal bone

the falx at ~15° to horizontal may facilitate visualisation of the Figure 6: Coronal cerebellum.
near field ventricle. 1 Cerebellar lobe
2 Cerebellar vermis
Figure 3: Cavum septum pellucidum 3 Falx
It is beneficial to look carefully at the CSP to ensure it is 4 Posterior horn of lateral ventricle
distinguished from the third ventricle and to identify the 5 Cisterna magna
corpus callosum. Just anterior to the CSP there is often a fine
hypoechoic ‘U’ shaped structure representing the anterior leaflets line to outer bone in the midline (following an imaginary
of the corpus callosum. The CSP is an important landmark for continuation of the falx). Less than 6 mm is considered normal
development of the corpus callosum, if it is not visualised then up to 22 weeks.
there is a risk of a range of brain abnormalities.15 When measuring the nuchal fold angling the probe to place
the falx at ~15° to horizontal may provide a sharper image of
Figure 4: Cerebellar plane skin line and bone. This may minimise the chance of beam width
This plane is inferior to the BPD plane with the probe tilted artefact causing a thickened nuchal fold measurement.
backward into the posterior fossa. The plane is correct when one
can visualise the thalami and cavum septum pellucidum in the Figure 5: Corpus callosum
same plane as the cerebellum.12 This is a mid-sagittal image through the fetal head. A mid
The cerebellum is a dumbbell shaped structure, with sagittal plane can often visualise most of the length of the corpus
symmetrical lobes. The central vermis is slightly more echogenic callosum. Visualisation of the corpus callosum can be facilitated
than the lateral lobes. by trying to angle the probe so as to scan through the area of
The trans-cerebellar diameter is the widest measurement the anterior fontanelle. The corpus callosum connects the left
across the cerebellum, perpendicular to the falx. Cerebellar size and right lobes of the brain. It sits superior to the cavum septum
in millimetres correlates with gestational age up to 20 weeks pellucidum and extends backwards as a hypoechoic line. The
and is larger than gestational age after this time. A cerebellum presence of the corpus callosum can be confirmed with color
measuring 2 mm less than gestational age is a concerning Doppler of the pericallosal artery.18
finding.16
The cisterna magna can be measured from the posterior Figure 6: Coronal cerebellum
margin of the cerebellar vermis to the inside of occipital bone This is a coronal image through the back of the fetal head.
in the midline (following an imaginary continuation of the falx). This image may be useful to demonstrate normal depth of the
A measurement of 2–10 mm is normal in the second and third cerebellar vermis. The cerebellar lobes should be equal size. The
trimesters.17 vermis of the cerebellum should be more than 1/2 the height of
The nuchal fold is a measurement taken from outer skin the lobes.19

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 A pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound

Figure 7: Coronal Orbits. Figure 8: Coronal lips and nose

1 Orbit 1 Two nostrils
2 Lens of the eye 2 Upper lip
3 Nasal bridge 3 Lower lip
4 Chin

Figure 9: Axial orbit and lenses.

1 Orbit
Figure 10: Upper lip and palate.
2 Lens
1 Upper lip
3 Nasal bridge
2 Hard palate.
The fetal face
The facial structures can be examined both coronally and axially.
The orbits, nose and mouth need to be separately visualised
(Figures 7–11). Areas which warrant particular attention are the
size and spacing of the eyes as well as the upper lip (which is
best imaged in two planes). There are a number of ultrasound
techniques which have been suggested to improve detection
of facial abnormalities including measurement of facial angles
and 3D ultrasound techniques,20,21 these techniques are usually
employed when there is a suspicion of an abnormality rather Figure 11: Lower lip and mandible.
than in the routine setting and are beyond the scope of this paper. 1 Lower lip
Shortening (hypoplasia) of the nasal bone has been associated 2 Mandible
with Down syndrome22 (Figure 12).
approximately equal size and should be evenly spaced. The width
Figure 7: Coronal orbits of the nasal bridge between each orbit is approximately the same
This is a coronal image of the back of the face, through the orbits. as the size of each orbit – dividing the face into thirds.
The orbits should be equal size with the gap between each orbit
approximately the same as the width of each orbit (dividing the Figure 10: Upper lip and palate
face into thirds). The lenses can be seen as central circles that This is a transverse image used to obtain a cross section through
should not have internal echogenicity. Lens opacity may indicate the upper lip and hard palate. It demonstrates an intact skin line
congenital cataracts. of the upper lip (no cleft). Behind this is an echogenic intact
hard palate; this confirms the correct plane, and is useful to
Figure 8: Coronal lips and nose distinguish palate involvement if a cleft lip is present. The hard
This image is obtained by moving the scanner forward from palate has internal areas of reduced echogenicity representing
the coronal orbital view to the very front of the face. This image tooth sockets. This image does not exclude cleft of the soft palate
demonstrates two nostrils and a separate intact upper lip. or secondary hard palate.
Being able to visualise the tip of all four structures (the nose,
upper lip, lower lip, and chin) in the same coronal image makes Figure 11: Lower lip and mandible
micrognathia an unlikely finding. This is a transverse image obtaining a cross section through the
lower lip and jaw. The image demonstrates an intact lower jaw
Figure 9: Axial orbit and lenses line. The width of the mandible should be similar to the width
This is a transverse section of the fetal face though the orbits. The of the maxilla and may be reduced in micrognathia. Again tooth
face needs to be looking up for best views. The orbits should be sockets are apparent.

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Figure 12: Profile and nasal bone

1 Nasal bone
2 Nose
3 Mandible
4 Hard palate.

Figure 13: Cordes Technique. The operator places his left hand in front
of the screen with the palm on the spine and the fingers pointing at
the sternum – the thumb of his left hand now points to the left side of
Figure 14: Diaphragm and lungs.
the fetus.
1 Stomach
2 Diaphragm hand of the operator is placed in front of the ultrasound screen
3 Heart positioned as an ‘L’ shape with the tips of fingers pointing towards
4 Lungs the fetal sternum and the palm placed on the fetal spine, the
thumb will now be pointing towards the left side of the fetus.28
Figure 12: Profile and nasal bone Both hemidiaphragms can be visualised sagittally (Figures 14
This is a mid-sagittal image best taken with the angle of the and 15). The lung fields should be carefully inspected for cystic
face at about 45°.22 The skin line over the nose should be close or echogenic areas.
to horizontal. This is a slightly more laid back angle than the The heart is a difficult organ to assess due to the size, rapid
corpus callosum view. A slight gap between the nasal bone and movements and large number of small parts. It is unfortunately
the frontal bone should be visualised to help identify the extent also a common site for abnormalities. This is an area of the
of the nasal bone. examination which is best done in real time or saved as a video
The full length of the echogenic calcified nasal bone can be clip. As well as the internal cardiac structures the examiner must
measured. The 2.5th centile for the nasal bone measurement has be sure that the heart is correctly positioned on the left side of
been reported as 4.4 mm at 18 weeks and 5 mm at 20 weeks.23 the chest, with the interventricular septum at about a 45° angle
Other authors have used the 0.75th multiples of the median and is of normal size.
(MoM) being 3.6 mm at 18 weeks and 4 mm at 20 weeks.24 A The axial images presented here are based on the five short
hypoplastic nasal bone has been associated with an increased axis views29 (Figures 17–24). These views can also be assessed
risk of Down Syndrome.25 with color and/or power Doppler. Sagittal views of the chest can
There should be no frontal bossing – no forward sloping be also used to show the fetal arterial vessels (Figures 25–28).
of the forehead. The tip of the nose, upper lip, lower lip, and The heart rate should be noted throughout the scanning time
chin should line up along the same imaginary line. If the chin to look for arrhythmias and can be recorded (Figure 29). Extra
is significantly behind this imaginary line then micrognathia is views of the systemic venous return to the right atrium can be
suspected.26 readily obtained (Figure 30).

The fetal chest and heart Figure 14: Diaphragm and lungs
It is important to establish situs. Both the heart and stomach This sagittal image demonstrates intact diaphragms on each
should be seen to be on the left side of the fetus. Establishing side especially posteriorly near the spine, a common site for
situs can be confusing, especially for learning practitioners due diaphragmatic defects. The stomach is visible beneath and heart
to variable fetal positions. above the diaphragm. It is also beneficial to identify homogeneous
One method to confirm visceral situs (sometimes referred appearing lung fields to attempt to exclude echogenic or cystic
to as the Cordes technique) has been demonstrated to be lung lesions.
useful in normal and abnormal situations.27 The technique is to
orientate the fetal head to the right side of the ultrasound screen Figure 15: Coronal situs
with the fetus lying horizontally across the screen. From this This is a coronal section through the thorax and abdomen. The
starting position, rotate the transducer 90° clockwise to obtain heart and stomach are observed to be both left sided with the
a transverse image of the fetus through the fetal heart. If the left diaphragm as an intact line between.

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 A pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound

Figure 15: Coronal situs. Figure 16: Abdominal situs.

1 Stomach 1 Stomach
2 Heart 2 Aorta
3 Scapula 3 IVC
4 Diaphragm 4 Spine
5 Iliac crest

Figure 17: Four chamber view of heart.

1 Right ventricle (RV)
2 Moderator band
3 Left ventricle (LV)
4 Left atrium (LA)
5 Foramen ovale
6 Descending aorta
7 Ribs
8 Pulmonary veins
9 Right atrium (RA)
Figure 18: Four-chamber with blood flow – intraventricular septum.
Figure 16: Abdominal situs Color flow is seen into both ventricles, all of the way to the apex. Flow
This image is a transverse section through the upper abdomen is demonstrated across the foramen ovale.
just below the four-chamber view of the heart. It is the same
section or just above the level of the abdominal circumference. 4 The crux of the heart demonstrates an offset cross
The stomach is a left sided cystic structure that should not cross arrangement of the AV valves. The right valve (tricuspid) is
the mid line to the right side. closer to apex than the left (mitral).
The aorta sits just in front of the spine, slightly to the left of 5 Normal valve opening and closing with no focal valve
the spine. The inferior vena cava (IVC) is anterior to the aorta echogenicities or thickening.
and right sided. 6 The right ventricle has the moderator band at the apex,
closest to the sternum.
Figure 17 and 18: Four chamber view 7 The left atrium has pulmonary veins entering it.
This is an axial view through the lower part of the fetal chest. 8 The foramen ovale leaflet is visible moving in the left atrium,
The best B-mode images are obtained with the apex orientated no more than half way into the atrial cavity.
superiorly. Obtaining a full length of a rib on each side is a good 9 There is a single vessel (descending aorta) behind heart just
technique to avoid an oblique section. to the left of the midline (as defined by the ossification centre
There are a large number of features to demonstrate in this of the spinal body).
image, each should be separately considered. 10 There is occasionally some fluid in the pericardial sac where
1 Size of the heart should be ~1/3 the size of the thorax. a thin rim is likely to be physiological (up to 2 mm).30
2 Axis of the interventricular septum is ~45° pointing to the Color Doppler is best performed with the septum between
left. 45º and horizontal. This allows for improved Doppler detection
3 Left and right sides of the heart should be approximately of flow.
equal size. Both left and right ventricles should extend to the Doppler settings need to be sufficient to demonstrate the
apex of the heart and should be approximately equal in width physiological atrial septal defect of the foramen ovale and
at the level of the atrio-ventricular (AV) valves. complete filling of the ventricles.31

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Figure 19: Left ventricular outflow tract.

1 Right ventricle
2 Left ventricle
3 Rib
4 Spine
5 Descending aorta
6 Left atrium (tip of appendage)
7 Right atrium
8 Ascending aorta (can just see tip of the aortic valve between this
and the left atrium)

Figure 20: LVOT Doppler assessment. Forward flow is seen across the
aortic valve with no obvious turbulence.

Figure 21: Right ventricular outflow tract.

1 Right ventricle
2 Pulmonary valve
3 Pulmonary trunk
4 Ductus arteriosus
5 Descending aorta
6 Right pulmonary artery
7 Superior vena cava
8 Ascending aorta
9 Right atrium

Figures 19 and 20: Left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) Figure 22: RVOT Doppler assessment. No turbulence is seen across the pul-
From the four chamber view rotate the probe slightly towards monary valve, the direction of flow down the ductus arteriosus is correct.
the right shoulder and move the probe slightly in a cephalic
direction.32 This plane will demonstrate the aorta arising from the ascending aorta and SVC. The left pulmonary artery is not usually
left ventricle; its medial wall must be seen to be continuous with visible in this plane; it is directed in a more inferior direction.
the interventricular septum to exclude aortic override. Often the Bifurcation of the pulmonary trunk into ductus arteriosus and
aortic valve can be seen opening and closing in the centre of the right pulmonary artery is important to establish that the vessel
vessel. The ascending aorta is directed towards the right shoulder arising from the right ventricle is going to the lungs.
and turns back to the left at a higher level to form the aortic arch.
Doppler can be used to demonstrate no turbulence across Figures 23 and 24: Three vessels and trachea view (3VT)
aortic valve and to ensure that there is the correct direction of This is the highest transverse plane for evaluating the fetal heart.
flow across this valve. Move the transducer further in a cephalic direction from the
right ventricular outflow tract view, maintaining an axial section.
Figures 21 and 22: Right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) The three vessels are, from left to right: the top of the pulmonary
Still in an axial section move further in a cephalic direction arch, the aortic arch and the SVC.33 The trachea lies to right of
from the four-chamber view. The pulmonary trunk arises from the aorta and behind the SVC and has echogenic walls compared
the right ventricle close to the sternum, it is directed backwards to the other vessels.
towards spine.32 The pulmonary trunk divides into the ductus A ‘V’ shaped ‘arrowhead’ of aorta and ductus is made at
arteriosus which continues directly towards the spine in the their meeting point; the aorta is now directed towards the left
midline; and the right pulmonary artery which curves behind shoulder. The width of the ductus is slightly larger than that

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 A pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound

Figure 23: Three vessels and trachea view (3VT).

1 Pulmonary Arch
2 Aortic Arch
3 SVC
4 Trachea
5 Spine
6 Rib

Figure 24: Three vessels and trachea view (3VT), Doppler assessment.
The correct direction of flow (away from the heart) is demonstrated in
both the aorta and ductus Arteriosus.

Figure 25: Aortic arch.

1 Aortic arch
2 Three head and neck vessels arise from the aorta
3 Descending aorta
4 Spine
5 Heart

Figure 26: Aortic arch, Doppler assessment.

Figure 27: Ductal arch.
1 Ductal arch arises anteriorly from the heart.
2 Pulmonary valve
3 Descending aorta
4 Heart

of the aorta. In approximately 1% of fetuses an aberrant right

subclavian artery can be seen passing behind the trachea towards
the right shoulder, this has been associated with an increased
risk of trisomy 21.34

Figures 25 and 26: Aortic arch

This is an oblique sagittal view. The aortic arch arises from the
middle of the heart and has a curved ‘walking stick’ shape to its
arch. Three head and neck vessels arise from the aorta. The arch
can be seen to be continuous with the descending aorta with no Figure 28: Ductal arch, Doppler assessment.
arch interruption or narrowing to suggest coarctation. Demonstrates flow away from the heart with no obvious turbulence or
Doppler Assessment should aim to demonstrate complete reverse flow and no tributaries directed towards the neck.
filling of the aorta with color, and forward flow away from the
heart with no obvious turbulence. Filling of the three head and No turbulence is seen in the arch, the head and neck are
neck vessels is ideal but not always obtainable. identified.

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Figure 30: SVC & IVC.

1 Superior vena cava
2 Right atrium
3 Inferior vena cava
4 Diaphragm
5 Spine
Figure 30: SVC & IVC into the right atrium
This is an optional image not frequently included in the routine
Figure 29: Fetal heart rate. examination but it is easy to obtain and is useful when evaluating
potential abnormalities. The image is obtained by a para-sagittal
section just to the right of the mid line and just to the right of the
ductal arch view.
The superior vena cava and IVC can both be seen entering
the right atrium; this can be confirmed with color Doppler
assessment.

The fetal abdomen

The abdominal circumference is a standard biometry
Figure 31: Abdominal circumference. measurement6,7 (Figure 31). The umbilical cord insertion should
1 Umbilical vein be imaged to look for abdominal wall defects (Figure 32). The
2 Middle portal vein renal tract is reviewed by imaging urine in the bladder with
3 Stomach surrounding umbilical arteries (Figure 33) and assessing the
4 Spine kidneys. The fetal kidneys should be imaged in 2 planes, both
5 Rib coronal and axial (Figures 34 and 35). Although not essential,
visualising the renal arteries can help with kidney identification
Figures 27 and 28: Ductal arch especially if unilateral renal anomalies are suggested (Figure 36).
This is a mid-sagittal view of the fetal chest, best obtained with
the fetus lying supine. Shadowing from the spine can make this a Figure 31: Abdominal circumference
difficult view to obtain when the fetus is prone. The ductal arch is This image is a transverse section of the upper part of the fetal
directed straight back towards the spine with no head and neck abdomen. This view is directly inferior to the 4-chamber view.
vessels arising from it. The ductus arteriosus is continuous with In difficult cases it can be obtained by placing the fetal spine
the descending aorta. In contrast to the curved appearance of horizontally across the screen with the stomach visible in the
the aortic arch there is a straight ‘hockey stick’ appearance to centre of the screen and then rotating the probe 90º.
the ductal arch. The pulmonary valve can often be visualised The stomach should be visualised in the left side of the
opening and closing. No head or neck vessels can be seen arising abdomen. A ‘J’ shaped hypoechoic structure is seen in the
from this arch. midline; it should be 1/3 of the way across the abdomen and
represents the internal portion of the umbilical vein branching
Figure 29: Fetal heart rate to the right portal vein.
The heart rate can be observed throughout the fetal heart The Abdominal Circumference is measured around the
evaluation. Formal measurement of the heart rate is only a outside of the skin line. It is important that this section is
snapshot and there is considerable heart rate variation, especially correctly obtained to minimise measurement error. A number of
with fetal movements. Heart rate can be measured with M-mode features can be used to assess if the section is correct: The section
or pulse wave Doppler. Pulse wave has an added benefit of should be circular not oval; the kidneys should not be visible
allowing the mother to heart the heartbeat but involves higher in the section; the cord insertion should not be visible; and the
energy levels. Extra information can be gained by placing the M ‘J’ should not extend all of the way to the skin line anteriorly
mode through both a ventricle and atrium to demonstrate the (umbilical vein should not be visible to out to the skin line). If
heart rate in both structures. these features are incorrect then the section may be oblique and
The normal baseline fetal heart rate in the second trimester the AC may be overestimated.
is 120–160 beats per minute. A regular rhythm should be Occasionally the gall bladder is visible as a tear shaped
demonstrated. hypoechoic structure situated to the right anterior of the

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Figure 33: Bladder and umbilical arteries.

Figure 32: Umbilical cord insertion. 1 Bladder
1 Umbilical arteries 2 Umbilical arteries
2 Skin line 3 Thighs
3 Spine

Figure 35: Coronal kidneys.

1 Kidney
Figure 34: Axial kidneys. 2 Renal pelvis
1 Spine 3 Aorta
2 Kidney 4 Iliac arteries
3 Renal pelvis 5 Iliac crest

umbilical vein. The Adrenal glands can sometimes also be seen

in this section. There should be no cystic dilatation of the bowel
or abdominal cysts visible.
Figure 32: Umbilical cord insertion
This is a transverse section of the abdomen inferior to the
abdominal circumference. The best views are obtained with the
cord insertion near the three or nine o’clock position. The skin
line should be clearly visualised on both sides of the insertion.
The base of the cord should insert cleanly into abdominal wall
with no evidence of associated mass to suggest gastroschisis or
omphalocele.
Figure 33: Bladder and umbilical arteries
This is a transverse section of the abdomen at the level of the
bladder. Fluid should be seen within the bladder at some stage
during the examination. A large bladder may be ‘keyhole’ shaped Figure 36: Renal arteries. Coronal section with the aorta horizontal
and may indicate urethral obstruction (partial or complete). facilitates demonstrates of flow from the aorta to each renal artery.
Color or power Doppler is used to identify the two umbilical
arteries that surround the bladder and then are directed towards
posterior direction. The normal renal pelvis measures ≤ 4 mm in
the cord insertion.
the second Trimester.35
These arteries need to be traced around the bladder towards
the cord insertion to differentiate them from the iliac vessels that
Figure 35: Coronal kidneys
are seen more laterally in the pelvis directed towards the thighs.
This is a coronal section through the back just anterior to the
It is important to ensure that the Doppler settings are suitable for
fetal spine. A kidney should be seen on each side of the aorta.
low flow to maximise the ability to detect both arteries.
Each kidney is ‘C’ shaped around a single renal pelvis.
Figure 34: Axial kidneys The axis of each kidney is roughly parallel to the aorta; if
This is a transverse section of the abdomen. Placing the spine they angle towards each other at the caudal ends then this may
uppermost obtains the best image. The kidneys can be seen on indicate a horseshoe kidney. Each kidney should be similar sized
either side of the spine. (20–22 mm length in the second trimester) with no renal cysts
Each hypoechoic renal pelvis can be measured in the anterior visible.

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Figure 37: Spine and skin line – longitudinal. Figure 38: Coronal spine.
1 Skin line 1 Iliac crest
2 Bladder 2. Sacrum
3 Abdominal Aorta 3 Vertebrae
4 Vertebrae 4 Ribs

Figure 39: Coronal spine – sacrum. Figure 40: Axial spine images.
1 Iliac crest Four images of different levels of the spine clockwise from upper left
2 Sacrum to lower left: cervical spine, thoracic spine, abdominal spine, lumbar
3 Vertebrae spine.
1 Vertebral body
Figure 36: Renal arteries 2 Ossification centre in vertebral lamina.
This is a coronal section through the back just anterior to the 3 Intact skin line
fetal spine, the same section as Coronal Kidneys. Low flow 4 Clavicle
settings are needed to detect both arteries. The arteries should 5 Rib
extend all of the way into the renal pelvis. 6 Heart
7 Kidney
The fetal musculoskeletal system 8 Iliac crest
It is beneficial to image the fetal spine throughout its length and 9 Bladder
the spine is best imaged in three planes: coronal, sagittal and
axial (Figures 37–40). extends just beyond the iliac wing. Tapering of the spine in the
Each of the twelve long bones should be separately visualised sacrococcygeal region is normal. The examiner should carefully
(Figures 42–47). Although both femurs could be measured it is assess for angulation or deformity of the spine and ensure that
probably sufficient to only measure one provided both have been no hemivertebrae are seen. A slight expansion of the width of the
seen to be of similar lengths. When imaging the long bones the lumbar spine is common.
operator should ensure they are not angulated or bowed, that
they are echogenic and are of an appropriate length. If there is Figure 39: Coronal spine – sacrum
doubt about long bone length then they can each be individually This is a coronal image through the back designed to more
measured and checked against standardised charts.36 Hands and carefully assess the base of the spine. Sacrococcygeal tapering
feet should be separately imaged taking particular care to ensure of the spine is normal; the sacrum extends just below the iliac
that both left and right sides are separately seen (Figures 45 and wing. Separation of the lateral ossification centres or lack of
48). visualisation of the central ossification centres may indicate a
spinal defect. Occasionally the central ossification centres are
Figure 37: Spine and skin line – longitudinal not seen due to shadowing artefact from the adjacent iliac wing,
This is a sagittal midline section; best views are obtained angling away from a true coronal image to an oblique coronal
if the fetus is prone. There should be an intact skin line i.e. a image should help avoid this shadow artefact.
continuous skin line overlying the back, especially over the
sacral region. There should be no spinal angulation or deformity. Figure 40: Axial spine images
At the inferior end there should be sacrococcygeal tapering of The whole spine should be assessed in transverse section, this
the spine. is best done by running up and down the spine in real time but
representative images of each part of the spine can be taken.
Figure 38: Coronal spine The three ossification centres form an approximately equilateral
This is a coronal image through the back. Often more than triangle throughout the length of the spine. Spreading of the
one image is required to see the whole spine. The sacrum laminae to form a more obtuse angled triangle may indicate

108 AJUM August 2013 16 (3)

 A pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound

Figure 41: Femur.

1 Femur Figure 42: Leg bones.
2 Posterior acoustic shadow The tibia and fibula are noted to be the same length.
1 Tibia
2 Fibula

Figure 43: Heel.

There is a right angle between the sloe of the foot and the leg bones.
1 Tibia
2 Fibula Figure 44: Feet.
3 Heel Five toes are identified on each foot.

Figure 46: Forearm.

Figure 45: Humerus. The ulna is longer than the radius at the elbow.
The humerus is identified on each arm; the posterior acoustic shadow
is noted.
exclude talipes the heel should be ‘square’ with the sole of the
open spina bifida. The operator should look for an intact skin foot orientated at right angles to the leg bones. The sole of the
line over the spine throughout, taking particular attention to foot and the length of tibia and fibula should not be able to be
ensure that there are no cysts or masses visible on the back. seen in the same image.

Figure 41: Femur Figure 44: Feet

The calcified bone is actually the femoral diaphysis, the This image is used to ensure that there are a correct number of
epiphyseal ends do not calcify until later in pregnancy. The image toes on each foot. The leg should not be visible in same plane
should be taken with the femur horizontal (perpendicular to the as the sole of the foot. The second toe can be longer than the
ultrasound beam).37 This makes it easier to see the full extent of great toe. There should be no cleft in the foot. The toes are best
the bone and avoid foreshortening. When the full length of the counted when they are pointing up towards the transducer.
femur is on the screen there is often a posterior acoustic shadow
noted. Figure 45: Humerus
Measure the femur horizontally across the ossified diaphysis The humerus is best measured with it lying horizontal across the
down the middle of the shaft of the bone avoiding any triangular screen (perpendicular to the sound beam).37 This makes it easier
echogenic extensions (seldom seen before the third trimester). A to see the full extent of the bone and avoid foreshortening. Less
measurement less than the 2.5th centile may increase the risk of than the 2.5th centile may increase the risk of aneuploidy and
aneuploidy and raise concerns about skeletal dysplasia.38 raise concerns about skeletal dysplasia.38

Figure 42: Leg bones and Figure 43: Heel Figure 46: Forearm
Two long bones should be seen in each leg. The tibia and fibula Normally both bones terminate at the same level at the wrist but
are of equal length. A sagittal side on image of each leg will the ulna is longer than the radius by 2–3 mm at the elbow. Both
demonstrate the ankle to be correctly orientated. In order to ulnas are lower in the images with wrists on the right of each

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Bethune, et al.

Figure 47: Hands.

The hand is best imaged open palmed, the full length of the fingers is
seen, and the thumb is not adducted

Figure 48: Male gender sagittal and axial.

The top image and diagram are mid sagittal and demonstrate the geni-
talia separate to the cord insertion. The bottom axial image and diagram
confirms the presence of penis and scrotum between the legs.
1 Penis
2 Scrotum
3 Leg

demonstrates penis and scrotum caudally to the cord insertion.

Secondly a transverse image, just below the level of the bladder,
Figure 49: Female gender sagittal and axial. best taken with the knees separated. Penis and scrotum are seen
The top image and diagram are mid sagittal and demonstrate the flat between the thighs in this image. Testes are undescended at this
mons pubis below the cord insertion. The bottom axial image and dia- gestation, and usually descend later in the third trimester.
gram show the three lines of the labia. Figure 49: Female Gender sagittal and axial
1 Bladder As with the male genitalia the female external genitalia are best
2 Mons pubis assessed by looking from two directions. The first image is a
3 Umbilical cord mid-sagittal image of the lower abdomen demonstrating the flat
4 Labia mons pubis caudal to the cord insertion. Secondly a transverse
5 Thigh image, just below the level of the bladder, best taken with the
knees separated. No penis is seen between the thighs, rather
image. It is important to identify the full length of the radius as
there are three lines representing the labia visible.
radial ray defects can occur.39
Other structures
Figure 47: Hands The placenta should be visualised throughout to look for
Each hand needs to be separately imaged. Hands need to be seen abnormalities, placenta previa, or hemorrhages (Figure 50).
to open fully at least once during the scanning time, and should The operator should check the entire internal surface of the
be seen to open at least once. If the hands remain clenched myometrium to ensure that there is no succenturiate lobe. The
throughout the scan then there is a risk of trisomy 18.40 The position of the placenta needs to be established to see if it is
thumb should not be persistently adducted.41 close to the internal os (Figure 51). The maternal cervical canal
can also be measured, preferably with an empty or near empty
The fetal gender maternal bladder (Figure 51).
Rarely genital abnormalities are seen prenatally and therefore Color or power Doppler over the internal os may help
it is useful for the sonographer to examine this area. Some exclude vasa previa (Figure 52). If there is any suspicion of
departments will allow parents to know the gender of the fetus. shortening of the cervix or low lying placenta then a transvaginal
If the external genitalia are to be visualised for sex determination scan often provides more accurate measurements43 (Figure 53).
then imaging in both mid-sagittal and axial planes is Many centres will perform a transvaginal scan to assess the
recommended to minimise error42 (Figures 48–49). placental site and cervix more accurately if there is any doubt
about placental position.
Figure 48: Male gender sagittal and axial A review of the uterine wall looking for fibroids or bicornuate
The male genitalia are best assessed by taking two images. Firstly a uterus and a review of the adnexae for ovarian cysts is suggested
mid-sagittal image of the lower abdomen below the cord insertion (these images are not presented in this publication).

110 AJUM August 2013 16 (3)

 A pictorial guide for the second trimester ultrasound

Figure 50: Placenta and cord insertion.

The cord inserts centrally into an anterior placenta. Identification of Figure 51: Placental site and cervical length.
the insertion point is facilitated by the use of color or power Doppler. 1 Placenta
2 Lower placental edge
3 Cervical canal
4 Fetal limbs

Figure 52: Doppler over the internal os.

No vasa praevia is seen overlying the internal os

Figure 50: Placenta and cord insertion

The placenta is quite uniform in appearance at this gestation.
Small hypoechoic vascular lakes can appear and do not appear
significant.44 These usually will not show flow with power
Figure 53: Transvaginal cervical length.
Doppler. Large lakes, greater than 2 cm by 2 cm, may increase
The hypoechoic cervical canal is demonstrated; the vaginal probe is
the risk of small for gestational age in the third trimester.45 The
not sitting hard up against the cervix and therefore is not artificially
placenta should be less than 4 cm thick.46
elongating the cervical canal measurement.
It is advisable to scan through the placenta to attempt to find
1 Cervical canal
where the cord inserts into the placental mass.47 This is easy with
2 Fetal head
an anterior placenta but can be difficult to locate if the fetus is
3 Maternal bladder
lying on a posterior cord insertion. If the cord inserts to the
margin of the placenta then it should be reported as a marginal to relax. Many centres will perform a transvaginal scan to assess
insertion and it is helpful to specify the side of insertion (e.g. the placental site more accurately if there is any doubt about
upper left, lower right). If the cord inserts into the uterine wall placental position.50 Color or power Doppler over the internal
and vessels then course around the wall to insert into the side of os is a quick technique to exclude a vasa previa. Occasionally
the placenta then this is described as a velamentous insertion. the cord is draped over the cervix and this can lead to erroneous
Either marginal or velamentous insertions can increase the risk diagnosis of vasa previa, it is worthwhile checking again after
of succenturiate lobes and vasa previa. These abnormalities asking the mother to roll from side to side to see if the cord
should be scanned for carefully.48 moves to a different position.
Placing a Doppler box over the internal os is useful to exclude
Figures 51 and 52: Placental site and cervical length vasa previa (Figure 52). One must be sure that any vessel seen is
This image is obtained by taking a mid-sagittal view through not just a mobile loop of umbilical cord. If a vasa previa is found
the cervix. Ensure that the cervical canal can be seen as a an attempt at locating a succenturiate lobe should also be made.
hypoechoic line. The closest edge of the placenta should be
located; sometimes this is not in the mid line but situated more Figure 53: Transvaginal cervical length
laterally. The distance from the lowest edge of the placenta to If a measurement of cervical length is requested (usually because
the internal os should then be measured. A low lying placenta is of a risk factor for cervical incompetence), or the cervix appears
suggested if the placenta lies less than two cm from internal os.49 short on abdominal views, the cervix should be assessed trans-
Accurate measurements cannot be obtained with a contraction vaginally with an empty bladder.51 The operator should aim
of the myometrium occurring and time must be given for this to obtain a mid-sagittal view of the cervix demonstrating the

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Bethune, et al.

hypoechoic cervical canal. Withdrawing the vaginal probe a diagnosis. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2011; 66 (6): 369–77.
short way is useful to ensure the probe is not pressing on the 11 Rypens F, Dubois J, Garel L, Fournet JC, Michaud JL, Grignon A.
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cervical measurement and may prevent opening of the canal 811–29.
12 International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.
with fundal pressure. The cervix should be measured with and
Sonographic examination of the fetal central nervous system:
without fundal pressure.52 The shortest length measured with
guidelines for performing the ‘basic examination’ and the ‘fetal
fundal pressure is the most important measurement.51 neurosonogram’. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2007; 29: 109–16.
13 Bromley B, Benacerraf BR. Difficulties in the prenatal diagnosis of
Conclusion microcephaly. J Ultrasound Med 1995; 14: 303–05.
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Other images will be required if an abnormality is suspected or lateral ventricular atrium. Radiology 1988; 169: 711–14.
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17 Filly RA, Cardoza JD, Goldstein RB, Barkovich AJ. Detection of
in this manuscript to be obtained at each ultrasound. The
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20 Kurjak A, Azumendi G, Andonotopo W, Salihagic-Kadic A. Three-
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