CE470 (Sept2010) - Chapter 6

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CE470 (September 2010 – S16-09) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website. VI - 1
Chapter 6
Flexural Members (Beams and Girders)

_________________________________________________________________________________
6.1 S16-09: Design for Flexural Loading

The following Clauses from S16-09 have to be considered in the design of beams,
girders and trusses. This course is focused primarily on Clauses 13.5 and 13.6.
Clause 8: Analysis of structure
Clause 9: Stability of structures and members
Clause 10: Design lengths and slenderness ratios
10.1: Simple span flexural members
10.2: Continuous span flexural members
Clause 11: Width (or diameter)-to-thickness ratios: Elements in compression
Clause 12: Gross and net areas (Clause 12.1 redirects to Clause 14).
Clause 13.4: Shear
Clause 13.5: Bending – Laterally supported members
Clause 13.6: Bending – Laterally unsupported members
Clause 13.7: Lateral bracing for members in structures analyzed
plastically
Clause 13.11: Block shear – tension members, beams and plate connections.
Clause 14: Beams and girders
Clause 15: Trusses
Clause 16: Open-web steel joists
Clause 17: Composite beams, trusses and joists
Clause 19: General requirements for built-up members
Clause 21: Connections
Clause 22: Design and detailing of bolted connections
Clause 23: Installation and inspection of bolted joints
Clause 24: Welding
Clause 26: Fatigue
Clause 27: Seismic design requirements
Clause 28: Shop and field fabrication and coating
Clause 29: Erection
Clause 30: Inspection
Tables & Annexes:

Table 2: Maximum width idth-to-thickness ratios: Elements in flexural compression.
c
Annex C: Crane-supporting
upporting structures.
Annex D:: Recommended maximum values for deflection for specified pecified design
live, snow
now and wind loads.
Annex E: Floor vibrations.
ibrations.
The Commentary in the Handbook has information on the requirements of
S16-09 Part One, and Part F Five deals exclusively with “flexural members
embers” and the
“Blue Tables”. The “reference
eference publications are the same as for “columns”.
Guide to STABILITY DESIGN CRITERIA for METAL
STRUCTURES
6th Edition (February 2010) edited by R.D. Ziemian,
Ziemian and
available for purchase from CISC at www.cisc-icca.ca
www.cisc
Previous editions of this text provided the background to
many of the requirements of CAN/CSA S16 & S16.1 and
S16-01 and S16-09. It has extensive coverage on theory and
design of axially-loaded
loaded members, lateral-torsional
lateral buckling
of beams, asymmetric sections in bending
ending or in
compression, as well as topics such as frame stability and
cantilever beams. It is one of the most comprehensive texts
on the subject of stability theory and design of steel
members. Buckling is covered in: Chapter 2 STABILITY THEORY,
Chapter 5 BEAMS, Chapter 6 PLATE GIRDERS,
Chapter 7 BOX GIRDERS, Chapter 8 BEAM-COLUMNS,
Chapter 9 HORIZONTALLY-CURVED STEEL GIRDERS,
Chapter 12 BRACING, Chapter 15 MEMBERS WITH ELASTIC LATERAL RESTRAINT.
Crane-Supporting
Supporting Steel Structures: Design Guides
These are available from CISC at www.cisc-icca.ca , and AISC at www.aisc.org .

6.2 Basics of Beam Behavior

6.2.1 Definition of a Beam
A beam is any structural member loaded transverse (perpendicular) to its span. It
carries the load by shear and bending moments (no catenary action, no axial load).
Various names are given to these flexural members, depending on their location
and function in a structure. The names include: beams, girders, spandrels,
castellated beams, composite beams, stub girders, joists, lintels, purlins, girts
…(see CISC Handbook pages 7-28, 29). All are primarily designed to resist
bending action and deform and behave within the limitations of “small deflection
theory”. Curved girders are not within the scope of this class.
A special type of beam, the plate girder, is constructed by welding lengths of plate
to form a WWF (welded wide flange). Its purpose is to carry loads over long
spans, or heavier loads beyond the range of commercially available sizes.
Composite beams are steel beams coupled to a concrete floor or roof slab by shear
connectors to act as a combined/composite cross-section (plane sections remain
plane) with concrete in compression and the steel section mostly in tension.
Stub girders are composite beams also but the main steel beam has short stubs of
a lighter section welded on top to permit utilities to pass between the concrete slab
and the main beam. The structural action is similar to Vierendeel panels/ trusses.
6.2.2 Beam design considerations for Flexure

For limit states design, flexure is investigated by comparing the applied factored
bending moment diagram (Mf loading), to the beam’s factored bending
resistance, Mr or M’ r . The main aim is to determine the bending resistance of the
member. For some sections, it may be the full-yield plastic moment capacity of the
cross-section while for lighter cross-sections it may only be first-yield elastic
moment capacity. As well, lateral bracing/support of the compression flange is the
criteria which determines how much of full capacity can be attained. Fully-braced
beams reach Mr, while unbraced beams can only attain a lesser value of M’ r . The
maximum unbraced length of the compression flange for which Mr is attainable is
designated as Lu ; beyond this length the beam flange is no longer capable of
bracing itself laterally and flexural design capacity has to be reduced to M’ r .
The governing parameters in determining moment capacities are:
• class of section for bending (local buckling)
• lateral stability ( bracing , Mr or Mr’)?

6.2.3 Types of Lateral Support (Bracing) for Beams

a) Continuously supported [composite beams, floor slabs, roof or other diaphragms, ..]
concrete slab
metal deck
shear studs/connectors
steel beam
b) Intermittent support: by beams or joists with floor-plane bracing, or,

anchored to: hard points, diaphragms, or braced bays.
L Lu Mr
supports must be capable of preventing twisting and lateral displacements of

the member (Clause 9.2.4) unless otherwise accounted for in the design.
bracing must have sufficient strength and stiffness (Clause 9.2.5 and 9.2.6).
c) Laterally unsupported beams
if, L ≥ Lu , then Mr’< Mr
if L Lu, full-moment capacity Mr is calculated according to Clause 13.5.

if L > Lu, then the beam is unbraced and is weaker because of lateral torsional
buckling or LTB. “lateral” displacement transverse or ⊥ to the span of the
beam; “torsional” twisting displacement about the beam’s longitudinal axis.
Lu is the length beyond which the beam needs help (lateral bracing) to attain Mr ,
if, L > Lu the flexural capacity is reduced to M’
r according to Clause 13.6.
6.2.4 Beam Behavior in Shear

The cross-section of the structural shape must also have adequate capacity to resist
maximum design shear loads in the beam (Clause 13.4).
Stiffened webs may carry “diagonal tension fields” according to Clause 13.4.1.2.
Clause 13.4.5 requires beam copes and gussets to be checked to Clause 13.11
“block shear”.
6.2.5 Failures of a Localized Nature

Local-type compression failures of plate elements takes two forms:
(i) Web Crippling - due to large loads on too short a length of web. Most likely to
occur at reaction points/ supports or load application points (Clause 14.4).
(ii) Local Buckling - the width/thickness (b/t) ratios of individual plate elements
of the cross-section are too slender to carry the longitudinal compressive stresses
caused by Mf and buckle (Clause 11). This phenomenon is the same as local
buckling of columns except limits on b/t ratios depend on the “class” of the beam.
6.2.6 Deflections
To avoid unsightly sagging, and possible damage to architectural finishes, the
beam section must not only be strong enough to carry factored loads but must also
be stiff enough to prevent excessive deflections under service (specified) loads.
Deflections are checked according to S16-09 Annex D. The Handbook also
provides several Tables (page 5-146) for shear, moment and deflection diagrams.
6.3 Local Buckling of Structural Shapes used as Beams

The performance of a particular beam’s cross-section, both in the elastic and
inelastic regions of material behavior, is considered in evaluating its bending
capacity. The elastic and fully-plastic behavior in bending is categorized according
to “class”. If a beam is fully-supported against lateral buckling of the compression
flange, the fully-plastic moment condition can only be reached by beams whose
web and flange elements are stocky enough not to buckle locally and prematurely.
Therefore, assuming that overall flexural stability of the beam is maintained, the
maximum moment the cross-section can resist will depend on how the plate
components (i.e. flanges and web) behave with increasing stresses, and at what
stage local buckling of the plate elements occurs.
As discussed in the previous Chapter, four separate “classes” of beam shapes are
defined with classification depending on the yield stress (Fy) and the
width/thickness (b/t) ratios of the elements [Clauses 11 and Commentary, Table 2,
and, Figure 2-8, Tables 4-2 and 5-1].
Clause 11.1.1 defines the following 4 classes of beam sections:
(a) Class 1 plastic design section (Mp+ rotation)
Plastic sections are stocky enough to meet the requirements of “plastic design”.
Here buckling must not occur until after the plastic moment has been developed
and considerable "plastic hinge" rotation has occurred. Plastic design theory
requires statically-indeterminate beams to collapse only after the formation of
more than one plastic hinge. As loading increases, the beam cross-section at the
highest moment location will start to yield and continue until fully plastic. This
zone must then remain stable without local buckling as more load is added and
simply rotate as a hinge at constant moment capacity (Mp); other cross-sections of
the beam keep increasing in moment. This increased load-carrying capacity of
indeterminate beams after first-hinge formation is the basis of “plastic design”.
(b) Class 2 compact sections (Mp) – these sections are lighter than Class 1.
Local buckling of the plate elements will not occur until after the entire cross-
section has yielded and reached plastic moment Mp; rotation beyond this point is
not required as it was for Class 1 sections. These are “compact” sections.
(c) Class 3 non-compact sections (My) – these sections are lighter than Class 2.
A non-compact flexural section is proportioned so that local plate failures do not
occur before extreme fibres of the cross section have started to yield from flexure.
(d) Class 4 slender sections ( My) – these sections are lighter than Class 3.
They are so thin that local buckling occurs before the section reaches yield. Class 4
sections are designed to a different Standard CSA S136 - Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members. However, similar to column Clause 13.3.3, under certain
conditions Class 4 beams may be permitted according to S16 Clause 13.5(c).
Local Buckling classifications of Columns and Beams:

[S16-09: Tables 1, & 2; CISC Handbook: Figure 2-8 and Tables 4-2, 4-3, 5-1]
Note: in the limits below, the smaller the numerator, the stockier (less slender) the element.
2bel (Figure 2-8) t
Class 1: “Plastic” Beams b (Part 6)
( the heaviest Class) Note:- previous editions
used b instead of bel
bel ≤ 145
t ¦ √F
y d
h
h ≤ 1100 w
w
√Fy
t
Class 4: (this is lightest and flimsiest Class):

Class 2: “Compact” Beams Class 4 sections were not permitted by earlier S16
“editions” but were to be designed to CSA-S136
bel ≤ 170 Cold Formed Steel Structural Members
t
√ Fy S16-09 (10th Edition) permits use of Class 4 sections as
beams subject to conditions in Clause 13.5.(c).
h ≤ 1700 a) if web and flanges both exceed the b/t ratios of Class
3, then must use S136.
w
√ Fy b) if only the web exceeds Class 3, then use Clause 14.
c) if only the flanges exceed Class 3 (Clause 13.5.c.(iii))
then notionally discount the excess b until they
become Class 3, and also bel/t 60 (cantilevered flanges)
Class 3: Columns and or, use a reduced yield stress value to meet Class 3.
“Non-Compact” Beams
bel ≤ 200 (Columns and Beams)

t
√Fy
h ≤ 670 (Columns), 1900 (Beams): Axial Strain Gradient affects local buckling,
w F F
y y
i.e. column uniform compression causes buckling sooner
than a linear strain gradient in a beam web!
6.4 Braced Beams: Overall Bending Strength (Clause 13.5)
Mr Mf
where,
Mr moment resistance of beam,
Mf bending moment caused by applied factored loads
Laterally Braced Beams (Clause 13.5)

(a) Mr for Class 1 and Class 2 sections
1
1 Sec 1-1
Criteria: Local buckling will not occur until the section is completely plastified
Mr = φ Z Fy = φ Mfully-plastic
____________________________________________________
(b) Mr for Class 3 sections

1
1 Sec 1-1
criteria: Local buckling will not occur until the extreme fibers start to yield
Mr = φ S Fy = φ Myield
- for simplicity, first consider a beam with rectangular cross-section.

linear stress to Fy at extreme fibres: C=T= ½ (Fy b h/2)= (Fy) (b h/4).
My= C (2/3)(h/2) + T (2/3)(h/2) = (Fy) (b h2/6) this is the Elastic Section Modulus
• locate the ENA (elastic neutral axis)
1
Sec 1-1
1
______________________________________________________________________
Mp = ? • locate the PNA (plastic neutral axis)
Fy
hd
b Fy
Fy at all fibres: C=T= (Fy b h/2)= (Fy) (b h/2).
My= C (1/2)(h/2) + T (1/2)(h/2) = (Fy) (b h2/4) this is the Plastic Section Modulus
- the “shape factor” is defined as:
Plastic Section Modulus
Z / S = (b h2/4) / (b h2/6) = ____________
Elastic Section Modulus
- shape factors for geometric shapes are given in texts on “Plastic Design”.
- a W-shape usually has a shape factor somewhere in the range of 1.10-1.20
Clause13.5: Bending: laterally-supported members

S16-09:
(a) for Class 1 and Class 2 sections:
M r = φ Z Fy = φ M p
(b) for Class 3 sections:
M r = φ S Fy = φ M y
Problem 6.1: Zx for a laterally-supported rolled beam.

given: W 410 x 54 section
required: Zx
1. calculate Mp using “Basics of Equilibrium” for plate components and then Zx
10.9
Fy
403 ? C-to-T
moment arm
7.5
177 Fy
Σ Acomponents= 6717.6 mm2
___________________________________________
2. calculate Zx by locating centroid of T and using 1st-Moment of Areas:
177 10.9 AT= (169.5mm x 10.9mm) + (201.5mm x 7.5mm)= 3358.8 mm2
2
or, AT= (177mm x 10.9mm) + (190.6mm x 7.5mm)= 3358.8 mm
201.5
7.5
__________________________________________
3. check Zx by using “W-Shape” Tables (page 6-48)
W410x54: A= 6810 mm2 = 2 (3405 mm2 ), a.c.t. calculated A = 6718 mm2 (without fillets)
compare to Z(tables)= 1050 x 103 [mm4] (with fillets included in the calculations).
Problem 6.2: Mr for a laterally-supported rolled beam.

given: W410 x 54 section [G40.21M-350W]
Superimposed Dead Load = 11.15 kN/m (non-factored and self weight not included).
Live Load = 29 kN/m (nf)
Dead Load = self-weight + 11.15 kN/m
6 000
lateral bracing
[top view]
Lb ≤
Lb ≤
Lb ≤ Lb ≤
required: is the beam adequate for bending according to S16-09 ?
Clause 7.2.1: find Mf and Mr find | φ R Σ αi Si
self-weight of W410 x 54 = 54 kg/metre= 0.524 kN/metre (page 6-48)
qf = 1.25 (11.15 + 0.524)kN/metre + 1.5 (29 kN/metre) = 58.1 kN/m (f)

2 2
Mf = q L / 8= (58.1 kN/m) (6 metres) / 8 = ______________
Clause 11: determine Class – required for calculating Mr
Clause 13.5.a): fully-braced, Class 1 & 2

Mr= φ Z Fy = 0.90 (1050 x103 mm3) ( 0.350 kN/mm2)
= .
- a.c.t page 5-96 BLUE TABLES Mr= 326 kN.metres (Fy= 345 MPa)
Mr= 330.7 kN.metres (Fy= 350 MPa)
6.5 Beam Shear Strength (Clause 13.4)

where,
Vr > Vf Vr = Factored Shear Resistance
Vf = Shear caused by Factored Loads
Shear in Beams:
Concrete Beam
________________________________________________________________________
13.4 SHEAR Clause 13.4.1 “Webs of Flexural Members with Two Flanges”
Steel Beam
Clause 13.4.1 Vr = Aweb Fs ,

where Fs depends on a page of equations based on:
h/w web slenderness ratio, and
a/h aspect ratio of stiffener spacing.
- also see Shear Tables (Handbook pages 5-9 5-11).
Web Slenderness (h/w):
tf
h= d – 2 tf
d x x
tf
CISC Handbook Commentary Figure 2-12 vividly displays the 4 curves for
shear capacity of beam webs as a function of the web slenderness parameter (h/w).
These are the equations of Clause 13.4 and the Commentary explains the
behaviour in each range of h/w.
Much of the work on shear and “diagonal tension fields” was pioneered by Basler
(1961). Also, see Clause 13.4.1.2.
Part Five (pages 5-9 to 5-13) of the Handbook also provides design aids in tabulated
form based on these equations and an example problem.
Stiffeners
a a = aspect ratio
h
Basler’s 4-part design curves for shear capacity of beam webs in Figure 2-12 are:
1) Full-yielding followed by deformation and strain hardening to provide an upper
limit horizontal straight curve at 0.66Fy.
2) Transition from 0.66Fy to Von Mises “shear yielding” at Fy/ 3 = 0.577 Fy.
3) Inelastic buckling (Fcri) followed by post-buckling strength due to tension
fields (Ft) across stiffened panels.
4) Elastic buckling (Fcre) followed by post-buckling strength due to tension fields
(Ft) across stiffened panels.
Problem 6.3 [same beam as problem 6.2]

given: W410 x 54 section [G40.21M-350W]
Superimposed Dead Load = 11.15 kN/m (nf)
Self weight (not included) = 54 kg/metre= 0.524 kN/metre.
Deflection limit: residential dwelling with plastered ceiling.
Live Load = 29 kN/m (nf)
Dead Load = self-weight + 11.15 kN/m= 11.674 kN/m (nf)
6 000
lateral bracing
[top view]
Lb ≤ Lb ≤
Lb ≤ Lb ≤
required: is the beam adequate on the basis of:

(a) shear ?
(b) deflection ?
1. calculate, Vf = ½ (6 metres) (58.1 kN/metre) = 174.3 kN (f)
2. find Vr
Clause 13.4.1.1: Vr = φ Aweb Fs
Note: S16-09 is different from S16-01: STIFFENED WEBS are separated from UNSTIFFENED WEBS,
unstiffened webs are simply a special case for which the “shear buckling coefficient” kv= 5.34
[Shear (cont’d)]
2nd method: BLUE TABLES Vr= 619 kN, (Fy= 345 MPa)
Vr= 628 kN, (Fy= 350 MPa)
3rd method: Part Five Tables (page 5-11) and no stiffeners:
(b) check deflection (service live load), Annex D, [Table D1]
Live Load = 29 kN/m
6 000
6.6 Unbraced Beams: Mu for Lateral-Torsional Buckling

Similar to the Euler equation, Pcr=π π2 E I / L2, for elastic lateral buckling of
columns, there is an elastic critical buckling moment for laterally unsupported
beams. For beams loaded through the shear centre and carrying uniform or
constant bending moment, the equation can be derived as:
π/L)
Mu(critical)= (π π/L)2 E2 Iy Cw
E Iy G J + (π
The derivation of this equation is not done in this class but its fundamental
principles, basis and application in S16-09 will be discussed in detail. Theoretical
derivation dates back to 1905(Timoshenko). The 2010 Guide to Stability Design
Criteria for Metal Structures (6th Edition, page 205) refers to Timoshenko and
Gere (1961) “Theory of Elastic Stability” for the derivation.
Lateral-torsional buckling (LTB) is a limit state of structural flexural capacity. At a
load of Mu(cr), the beam buckles sideways from its original web-vertical orientation
and rotates in a deflected mode consisting of lateral displacement and twisting with
an accompanying loss of moment capacity compared to its original orientation.
The figure below illustrates the concept of loss of flexural capacity with orientation
of the cross-section.
utrans
Clause 13.5
Clause 13.6 Mxx (strong-axis bending) –
- reduced Mxx capacity maximum flexural capacity if
caused by lateral-torsional web stays in this vertical plane.
buckling., ( LTB ).
- minimum flexural capacity, weakest orientation because Myy < Mxx

- this is the “minimum energy state” and requires no bracing!
In the Mu critical buckling equation, the terms are:
π/L)
Mu= (π π/L)2 E2 Iy Cw
E Iy G J + (π .
Mu unsupported beam’s critical elastic buckling uniform moment, where,

L unsupported length of beam’s compression flange susceptible to lateral-
torsional buckling. It is the distance between brace points, note that
an inflection point is not a brace point for design purposes.
Iy weak-axis Moment of Inertia (i.e. 2nd Moment of Areas about yy-axis),
E Modulus of Elasticity= 200x103 MPa (for steel) = 200 kN/mm2
G Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus) E / [2(1+υ υ)] = 77x103 MPa (steel),
J St. Venant’s torsional constant for use in the CCS (closed circular shaft)
equations: τ = ρ / J, and, = L / (J G), ( angle of twist ),
is often used instead of to denote “angle of twist”, d /dL rate of twist.
Cw torsional warping constant (2nd Moment of Inertias).
This last term, Cw, warrants more discussion. It is the classical “2nd-moment” of
“2nd-moment of areas”. It determines how the applied torsional load in the member
is shared cumulatively along the span by the following 2 torque mechanisms:
i) St. Venant torsion, also known as “pure” or “uniform torsion”.
ii) “restrained-warp torsion”, also known as “non-uniform torsion”,
Together, these two torque mechanisms carry the applied torque, along the span (z),
according to the equation for total torque, = 1 + 2 , where:
i) 1= J G ( /L), or,
in more general terms, 1= J G (d /dz) = J G ’
where, (d /dz)= ’ = ’ rate of twist.
and,
ii) 2= E Cw (d3 / dz3) = E Cw = E Cw
’’’ ’’’
note, ii) is derived from the previously and

2 2
repeatedly-used, M= E I d y / dx .
Unfortunately, common usage is to refer to
“restrained-warp torque” as “warping torque”.
There is no harm in this provided the user
understands that just the opposite is true. 2 torque mechanism develops, not
because the cross-section is allowed to warp, but because it is restrained from
warping and normal stresses develop from the “restrained flange” bending laterally.
The Commentary describes 2 as “cross-bending of the flanges”.
calculation of Cw for a W-shape (“thin-walled open section”):

Torque causes the cross-section to twist as shown below and the applied torque is
carried by lateral bending of the flanges in opposite directions. For this reason, 2
is sometimes referred to as a “flange-bending torque”; a shear-force couple
carries the torque load by weak-axis bending of the W-shape BUT THE FLANGES
DISPLACE IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.
Normal stresses, ⊥ to the flange’s cross-section develop in bending, instead of the
in-plane shear flow stresses of St. Venant torque mechanism 1.
+
V
h
consider a beam with a torque 2 along its longitudinal axis Z ,

the couple can be resolved into flange loads as V = 2 / h 2= (V) (h)
the angle of twist = ∆ / (h/2), where ∆ lateral y-displacement of the flange,
dy/dz = (h / 2) (d / dz) d3y/dz3 = (h / 2) d3 / dz3
from before: M / EI = d2y/dz2 , and, shear V= dM / dz = E I d3y / dz3
3 3 3
thus, 2= (h) (V) 2 = (h) (E I d y / dz ) = (h / 2) (h E I d / dz3)
= (h2 / 2) (E I d3 / dz3)
or, 2 = ( E Iflange h2 / 2) (d3 / dz3)

By direct comparison to the theoretical restrained-warping torque equation,
2= E Cw (d
3
/ dz3),
the following value of Cw is typically used for W-shaped beams:
Cw = (Iflange h2 / 2)
Note: the value of Iflange is typically taken as ½ Iyy of the entire W-shape since the
web contributes almost nothing to Iyy and the expression for Cw then becomes:
Cw = (Iflange h2 / 2) (Iyy-Beam h2 / 4) , because I(one flange) (½) (Iyy-beam).
Also note Cw has units of [mm6, in6, ..], it is a second moment of inertias; it is not
like the second moment or areas Ixx , Iyy, Ixy which have units [mm4, in4, ..].
Additional references on torsional analysis and behavior are:

1. Bethelehem Steel’s “Blue Book on Torsion” which is reprinted by AISC as:
2. CISC have a free on-line publication (19

pages) on “Torsional Section Properties of
Steel Shapes” (same as in the chapter on
COLUMNS) and available from:
www.cisc-
icca.ca/resources/tech/updates/torsionprop/
6.7 Unbraced Beams: Clause 13.6 -

Laterally Unsupported Beams
S16-09 uses Mu(critical) for elastic lateral-torsional buckling of beams as a
cornerstone, similar to Pcr for column lateral buckling, to establish a set of design
rules for the full range of beam behaviour (plastic, elastic-plastic and elastic) as
described next.
S16-09 Lateral Torsional Buckling criteria based on Mu,

where, Mu critical elastic buckling moment of an unbraced beam.
1. Local Buckling if, L Lu

- no Lateral Torsional Buckling,
-the beam’s compression flange is stiff
enough laterally to brace itself,
- local buckling controls the behaviour, and,
Mr=φ Mp (class 1&2); Mr=φ My (class 3).
2. Lu L Le ( Inelastic LTB Beams)

2. Inelastic Lateral-Torsional Buckling:
- analytical solution is difficult and requires too many simplifying
assumptions to be accurate,
- S16-09 uses empirical equations from SSRC (Structural Stability
Research Council – the “gray book” on Stability):
a) Class 1 & 2: ifMu > Mp, inelastic action
∴ use, Mr=1.15 φ Mp {1 – 0.28 Mp/ Mu}
b) Class 3 & (some 4): if Mu > My, inelastic action
∴ use, Mr=1.15 φ My {1 – 0.28 My/ Mu}
3. L Le ( Elastic LTB Beams)

3. Elastic Lateral-Torsional Buckling
- S16-09 uses the theoretical expression for Mu and, multiplies it by ω2 to adjust
for non-uniform moment diagrams, and sets Mr= φ Mu for all Classes,
- this applies to Class 1 & 2 whenever Mu Mp , and,
to Class 3 (and some Class 4 –see Clause 13.6.b.i ) whenever Mu My ,
where Mu is given by the equation:
ω2 π 2
Mu =
L
π
{ }
Ε Ι y G J + E I y Cw
L
6.8 Lu and Le for Laterally Unsupported Beams

(Clause 13.6 )
S16-09, Figure 2-14, shows these equations graphically; a copy of this graph for
Class 1 and 2 sections is shown below with the notation Lu and Le added.
Figure 2-14 (CISC Handbook)
In the summary chart presented earlier and in the above graph, ω2 is a moment
gradient coefficient to allow for bending moment diagrams which are non-
uniform. A uniform moment diagram was assumed in the derivation of the critical
buckling moment Mu. Clause 13.6(a) describes how ω2 is calculated from the
actual moment diagram on the beam due to the applied loading. It is based on
sampling points of the moment diagram at the ¼ points along the span. It is
always greater than or equal to 1.0, but S16-09 imposes an upper limit of 2.5.
Lu and Le are critical fundamental concepts to understanding the behaviour of

beam buckling.
Lu is defined as the unbraced length of compression flange at which the “local
buckling” curve and “inelastic lateral-torsional buckling” meet. Left of this point,
the failure is by local buckling. Right of this point the failure is inelastic overall
lateral-torsional buckling.
Le is defined as the unbraced length of compression flange at which the “inelastic
lateral-torsional buckling” and “elastic lateral-torsional buckling” curves meet.
The point of separation has been observed and assigned as being approximately
Mp for class 1 and 2 sections, or, My for class 3 and some class 4 sections.
Lu and Le are both calculated from the following equation by selection of Mu :
π/L)
E Iy G J + (π
- to start, if the above equation is squared, then it becomes a normal quadratic in
π/L)2 as the prime variable. To solve for (π
(π π/L)2 proceed as follows:
- let: α1 E Iy G J, and, α2 E2 Iy Cw
π/L) [α1 + α2 (π
- and the quadratic equation becomes: Mu = (π
2
π/L) ] 2 2
2
π/L) is:
- the solution of this quadratic for the prime variable (π
(1) π/L) = {– α1 ± [α1 + 4 α2 Mu ] } / (2 α2)
(π 2 2 2
______________________________________________________
a) to calculate Lu for Class 1 and 2 sections, use the following method:
L=Lu, is where the Local-Buckling and Inelastic-Buckling curves meet (Fig. 2-14, Commentary).
• from Clause 13.6(a)(i) let, Mr / φ = 1.15 Mp {1 – 0.28 Mp/ Mu} =Mp
• solve for: Mu(L=Lu) = 0.28 Mp/ [1 -1/1.15],
= 6.44/3 Mp = 2.146667 Mp (exceeds Mp because it’s an
elastic Mu curve, which has no bounds , as L 0 ).
• now substitute this value of Mu into equation (1) above and solve for (π/Lu)2.
The procedure is similar for Class 3, and some Class 4 sections (see Clause
13.5.13.5 (c) and 13.6.6(b)), but using My in place of Mp.
______________________________________________________
b) to calculate Le for Class 1 and 2 sections, proceed as follows:
L=Le, is where the Inelastic-Buckling and Elastic-Buckling curves meet (Fig. 2-14, Commentary)
• from Clause 13.6(a)(ii) let, Mr / φ = Mu = Mp
.
• using this value of Mu, substitute into equation (1) above to calculate (π/Le)2.
The procedure is similar for Class 3, and some Class 4 sections (Clause 13.5.(c)
and Clause 13.6.(b)), but use My in place of Mp.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
The “Blue Tables” (“Beam Selection Tables”) in Part 5 of the Handbook are an
extremely effective and efficient design aid for beams. The Mu and Lu and Le
equations above are used to tabulate Mr and Mr’values for various spans (L) for
W, WWF, and S sections. Figure 2-14 should always be visualized when using
these Tables.
Problem 6.4: Mr’ for laterally-unsupported rolled W-shape beam

As an introduction to the above topic, consider the situation where the beam in
problem 6.2 was laterally braced only at the ends as shown below:
given: W 410 x 54 section [G40.21M-350W]
Factored load = 58.1 kN/m
The beam is laterally braced at its ends only.
Factored Load = 58.1 kN/m
6 000
Lateral Bracing
[Top View]
required:
(a) using the Handbook, find if the laterally-unsupported beam is adequate for:
• Moment
• Shear
(b) if not, select an appropriate section.
solution:
- from before, Mf = (58.1 kN/m) ( 6 metres)2/ 8 = 262 kN.m
Vf = ½ (58.1 kN/m) ( 6 metres)= 174.3 kN
- from the Handbook (Part Five) Blue Tables select an appropriate section,
(recall the beam was a W410x54 with 331 kN.m of braced flexural capacity).
Mr’=
Vr =
Problem 6.5: calculate: Lu, Le, Mr, Mr’, for a laterally-unsupported Beam.
given: W460 x 82 section (Fy= 345 MPa)
Simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load as shown. The beam is
laterally braced only at the ends.
Factored Load = 58.1 kN/m
6 000
Lateral Bracing
[Top View]
required:
a) compute: theoretical Mu for uniform moment, and S16-09 values of Lu, and Le
ω2 π 2
Mu =
L Ε ΙyG + { } πE
L
Iy Cw
W460 x 82 (tabulated data):
2 b = 191
t
Iy(d - t) L = 6000 mm (given)
Cw =
4 16 E = 200 kN/mm2 (page 1-6)
G = 77 kN/mm2 (page 1-6)
d = 460
Iy = 18.6x106 mm4 (page 6-46)
w 9.9
J = 0.691x106 mm4 (page 6-46)
J = St. Venant'
s Torsional Constant
Σ
1 3
J = bt Cw =918x109 mm6 (page 6-46)
3
W460x82 (calculated “torsional” data):
Cw = (Iflange h2 / 2) (Iyy-Beam h2 / 4)
=
J Σ b t3 =
π/L)
E Iy G J + (π
- let: α1 E Iy G J, and, let: α2 E2 Iy Cw
(1) π/L) = {– α1 ± [α1 + 4 α2 Mu ] } / (2 α2)
(π 2 2 2
______________________________________________________
a) calculate Lu for Class 1 and 2 sections, (W460x82 is Class 1, Table 5-1):
- recall (from Figure 2-14 Commentary):
• - at L=Lu, is where the Local-Buckling and Inelastic-Buckling curves meet.
• from Clause 13.6(a)(i) this point on the M / Mp graph axis is where:
Mr / φ = 1.15 Mp {1 – 0.28 Mp/ Mu} = Mp
inelastic LTB curve local buckling
Mu(L=Lu)= 6.44/3 Mp = 2.146667 Mp
- calculate:
• Mp = (0.345 kN/mm2) (1830x103mm3) = 631.4 kN.m
• Mu= (6.44/3) Mp= (6.44/3) (631.4 kN.m)= 1355.3 kN.m >> Mp shown in
Fig. 2-14 because this is the elastic Mu curve value without regard for Fy and Mp.
α1 E Iy G J= (200 kN/mm2)(18.6x106mm4)(77 kN/mm2) (691x103mm4)

= 19.793 x1016 [kN2 mm4]
α2 E2 Iy Cw= (200 kN/mm2)2 (18.6x106mm4)(918x109mm6)

= 68.3 x1022 [kN2 mm6]
- solve for Lu using Equation (1):

Π 2 − 19.793 x1016 [kN 2 mm 4 ] ± (19.793 x1016 ) 2 + 4(68.3 x1022 ) (1355.3 x103 ) 2 [kN 4 mm8 ]
( ) =
Lu 2(68.3 x10 22 )[kN 2 mm 6 ]
(−19.793 ± 224.887)(1016 )
=
2(68.3)(10 22 ) [mm 2 ]
= +1.501 x 10-6 [mm-2]
Π 2 (106 ) [mm 2 ]
L u= = 2564 mm, a.c.t. Blue Tables (page 5-94), Lu=2560 mm.
1.501
π/L)
E Iy G J + (π
- let: α1 E Iy G J, and, let: α2 E2 Iy Cw
(1) π/L) = {– α1 ± [α1 + 4 α2 Mu ] } / (2 α2)
(π 2 2 2
_________________________________________
b) calculate Le for Class 1 and 2 sections, (W460x82 is Class 1, Table 5-1):

• repeat the calculations from Lu, except as stated in Clause 13.6(a)(ii), use:
Mr / φ =Mu = Mp= ( )(0.345 kN/mm2)(1830x103mm3)= 420.9 kN.m
• α1 E Iy G J= 19.793 x1016 [kN2 mm4] - same as before for Lu

• α2 E2 Iy Cw= 68.3 x1022 [kN2 mm6] - same as before for Lu
- solve for Le using Equation (1):
Π 2 − 19.793 x10 [kN mm ] ± (19.793 x10 ) + 4(68.3 x10 ) (420.9 x10 ) [kN mm ]
16 2 4 16 2 22 3 2 4 8
( ) =
Le 2(68.3 x1022 )[kN 2 mm 6 ]
(−19.793 ± 72.330)(1016 )
=
2(68.3)(1022 ) [mm 2 ]
= +0.3846 x 10-6 [mm-2]
Π 2 (106 ) [mm 2 ]
Le = = 5066 mm, a.c.t. Blue Tables (page 5-94), Le= ?
0.3846
not listed, but can be determined from the
“departure point” in the Mr’values (tabulated)
from the elastic φ Mu values.
c) compute Mu for L= 6000 mm, assume ω2 = 1.0 (“constant moment” field).
π/L)
E Iy G J + (π
- let: α1 E Iy G J, and, α2 E2 Iy Cw
Mu= (π/L) α1+ (π/L)2 α2
• α1 E Iy G J= 19.793 x1016 [kN2 mm4] - same as before for Lu
• α2 E2 Iy Cw= 68.3 x1022 [kN2 mm6] - same as before for Lu
• L= 6000 [mm] - given as the span of the unsupported compression flange.
- calculate Mu(L=6000mm)
Mu= (π/6000mm) 19.793 x1016 [kN mm4] + (π/6000mm)2 (68.3 x1022 ) [kN2 mm6]
= 325.0 x 103 [kN.mm] = 325.0 [kN.metres] < 420.9 [kN.metres]= Mp

therefore, the behaviour is Elastic LTB and Mr’= φ Mu
Mr’= φ Mu = 0.90 (325.0 kN.metres)

= 292.5 kN.metres,
a.c.t. Blue Tables (page 5-94), at L=6 metres, read: Mr’= 292 kN.metres
___________________________________________________
The equations and calculations presented thus far are based on Clause 13.6
“Bending - Laterally Unsupported Beams” and are the basis of Figure 2-14 and
the Blue Tables in Part 5. It must be re-iterated that the equations presented apply
only to doubly-symmetric open cross-sections, and not to mono-symmetric or
asymmetric sections.
It was assumed that the loading was downward and applied at, or below, the SHEAR
CENTRE. If the loading is above the SHEAR CENTRE, the beam is weaker and Mu
capacity is reduced according to Clause 13.6.(a). Also, read the Commentary.
d) calculate Mr’for this W460x82 beam using ω2 (for the actual moment diagram).
• ω2 is defined as a coefficient to allow increased moment resistance of a laterally
unsupported beam segment when subjected to a non-uniform moment gradient.
• according to S16-09 Laterally unsupported members (Clause 13.6 (a) (ii)
ω2 = 4 Mmax / (M2max + 4M2a + 7M2b + 4M2c ) 2.5
Note: ω2 1.0 ( and, ω2= 1.0 for a constant moment diagram). Ma, Mb, and
Mc are values from the bending moment diagram at the ¼ points along the span.
• if the bending moment is linear over the unbraced length, then the old κ
expression from S16-01 may be used:
ω2 = 1.75 + 1.05 κ + 0.3 κ2 2.5 , where
κ ratio of: “smaller end-moment (factored)”/“larger end-moment (factored)”

Note: the absolute value of κ is always less than unity (1.0), but the sign is ±
Case 1: single curvature bending ( κ is “−”) Clause 13.6.a)
κ = -1 ω2(min) =1.75-1.05+0.3= 1.0 (this is the “constant moment diagram” case)
Case 2: double curvature bending (κ is “+”) Clause 13.6.a)

κ =+1 ω2(max) =1.75+1.05+0.3 = 3.1, but Clause 13.6.a) sets an upper limit of 2.5
ω2 π 2
Mu =
L Ε ΙyG J + { } πE
L
Iy Cw
ω2 = 4 Mmax / (M2max + 4M2a + 7M2b + 4M2c ) 2.5

Mb= ql2/8
Ma= ql2/32 Mc= ql2/32
| | | | |
a=¼L b=½L c=¾ L
6.9 Buckling of Mono-Symmetric Shapes

The equation:
π/L)
E Iy G J + (π .
discussed in the previous sections applies only to doubly-symmetric cross-

sections, such as rolled W-shapes and other sections where the shear centre and
centroid of the cross-section coincide.
For sections with mono-symmetry, such as a W-shape with unequal flanges or a
T-shape, the Mu equation becomes more complicated because the centroid and the
shear centre (also, the centre-of-twist) do not coincide. For these cases, an
additional factor βx enters the equation and it is often referred to as the coefficient
of mono-symmetry. Now, new in S16-09, Clause 13.6(e), has design equations for
these beams. The new variables are: ω3, and βx (“asymmetry parameter for
singly-symmetric beams”). For singly-symmetric shapes not covered by S16-09,
the designer is required to use a “rationale approach” which means something like
SSRC’s “Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures” (6th Edition).
Mono-symmetric sections are not covered in this course.
6.10 Bracing Requirements for Beams
The location of brace points to prevent or restrain lateral-torsional buckling
determines the parameter L for use in the Mu equation. As it was for “columns”,
these brace points cannot be taken for granted but must be designed. Analysis of
bracing systems can become very complicated because the magnitude of the
bracing force increases with increased deflection at the brace point and the beam
becomes only “partially-braced” instead of “fully-braced”. This is not within scope
of this class.
S16-09 Clause 9.2.3 “Function of Bracing” explicitly states that the function of
bracing is to provide lateral support to columns and compression flanges of beams
and trusses. Furthermore, bracing and its supports and connections shall:
(i) be proportioned to resist the forces that develop at the brace points, and,
(ii) limit the lateral displacement of the brace point.
Clause 9.2.4 states that at supports:
“Twisting and lateral displacements shall be prevented at the supports of a
member or element unless otherwise accounted for in the design”.
Clause 9.2.5 “Simplified Analysis” requires that the bracing be designed for:
(i) strength: 2% of the factored longitudinal compressive force acting transverse to
the beam, and in the plane of buckling, at each brace point, and,
(ii) stiffness: such that ∆brace ∆o, where ∆o is the initial misalignment maximum
tolerance for the member as permitted in Clause 29.7 “Erection tolerances”.
As an alternative approach, Clause 9.2.6 “Detailed analysis”, gives two

procedures which may be used in lieu of the “Simplified Analysis”. These are:
Clause 9.2.6.1: “Second-order analysis”,
“2nd-order analysis” is very important but will not be covered in this course,
and,
Clause 9.2.6.2: “Direct method” example done in chapter on “Columns”.
Floor slabs, roof decks and floor in-plane trusses which are used as “diaphragms”
can be designed to provide:
(i) bracing to compression flanges of beams as discussed in Clause 9.2.7,
and,
(ii) support to columns by holding ends of the column in place (KL), Clause 9.2.3,
and,
(iii) overall lateral stability to the entire structure as described in Clause 9.1,
and,
(iv) distribution of lateral loads from the floor to the “braced bays” and “rigid
frames” of the building/ structure which in turn take the loads to the foundations.
Other “stability issues” are discussed in Clause 9.2 “Stability of Members”.
The key issue to remember for beam bracing is that to prevent lateral-torsional
buckling (LTB) there are two displacement degrees-of-freedom to be restrained:
one is the lateral translation due to sideway displacement, and the other is the
rotation due to twisting of the cross-section (as sketched earlier in this chapter).
Additional information on the subject of bracing and “partial bracing” systems can
be obtained from the work of J.A.Yura which was pioneered by G.Winter (1958).
Two references from some of Yura’s many works on this subject are:
• “Fundamentals of Beam Bracing” by Joseph A. Yura, AISC Engineering
Journal/ First Quarter/2001 (pages 11 26).
• “Beam Buckling and Bracing” by J.A.Yura, at short courses presented almost
annually at NASCC Steel Conferences sponsored by SSRC and AISC.
An in-depth examination of various bracing systems is not within the scope of this
course but by no means is the design of adequate bracing to be regarded as
“secondary”. Its role is vital to stability of the members and the structure as a
whole. In literature, the consensus is, that in the event of an error:
“it is better (i.e. safer) to have under-designed members and over-designed
bracing, than it is to have over-designed members and under-designed bracing”.
This recognizes the post-buckling capability of over-braced members.
The examples which follow look at positioning (location) of brace points, but not
at the strength-&-stiffness design of the bracing itself.
Problem 6.6 Spacing and location of brace points for laterally-supported

beams (Clauses 13.5 and 13.6)
given: W 410 x 60 section (G40.21M-350W) continuous beam.
Determine the location of brace points as required by Clauses 13.5 and 13.6 to
make this a laterally braced beam.
P P
2 750 2 750
W410x60 W410x60
5 500 5 500
Lateral Bracing
required:
a) Pfactored (1st hinge forms), moment and shear strength.
b) provide additional lateral bracing (if required).
solution:
• bracing required at least at all support locations (Clause 9.2.4)
3 locations.
• any other locations?
a) Pfactored (1st hinge forms), and shear strength.
- draw the elastic Shear Diagram; use Handbook: Case 13 (page 5-150), or page5-161.
(do not show self-weight shear on this diagram)
P P
W410x60 W410x60
- draw the Elastic Bending Moment diagram:

P P
W410x60 W410x60
- W410x60 Beam (geometric properties page 6-48)

Class 1 [Table 5-1]
Clause 13.5 (Laterally Supported, Class 1) Mr= φ Mp
Mr= (0.90) (1190x103 mm3) ( 0.350 kN/mm2) --- Note: could use 345Mpa
= (0.90) (416.5 kN.metres)
= 375 kN.metres a.c.t. Mr= 369 kN.metres, at 345 MPa (page 5-96)
[Blue Tables]
- provide additional lateral bracing as required:
5 500 5 500
Lateral Bracing
Problem 6.7 “Lcr” Bracing requirements for members analysed plastically

(Clause 8.3.2, Clause 13.7(a))
given: W410x60 (G40.21M-350W) continuous beam (same as Problem 6.6).
Note: Clause 8.6 requires Class 1 sections for earthquake plastic hinges.
Determine the location of brace points as required by Clauses 13.7 to make this a
laterally braced beam. This is also a good exercise in “plastic hinge mechanisms”.
required:
a) Pultimate and required shear strength (based on complete collapse mechanism).
b) provide additional lateral bracing (if required).
solution:
• bracing required at least at all support locations (Clause 9.2.4)
3 locations.
• any other locations? (Clause 8.6)
- calculate Pcollapse mechanism, assume Pf = 0.
P P
L L L L
2 2 2 2
Plastic Hinges
Collapse Mechanism
method 1: Plastic Analysis: Upper Bound Theorem and Virtual Work
Work Done by External Forces = Internal Work Done by rotation at Plastic Hinges.
- method 2: determine collapse load using the Mp bending moment

diagram and the PL/4 “base moment” diagram.
L/2 = 2 750 Pu Pu L/2 = 2 750
L = 5 500 L = 5 500
Mp Mp
Moment Diagram
at Collapse
Mp
- determine Pu and Pf
Pu = 6 Mp / L
=
Pf = φ Pu
(b) Shear Strength

- find “collapse load” Shear using Freebody Diagram
Pu =
Mp =
A B
VAB VBA
2 750 2 750
Shear Diagram
- find maximum factored shear, compare to Vr (use all 3 methods for this problem)
(c) provide Clause 13.7 lateral bracing (as req’d) in addition to those at supports.
last set of Plastic Hinges
[occur simultaneously]
W410x60 first plastic hinge
L = 5 500 L = 5 500
Mp Mp
Mp
2 750 2 750 2 750 2 750
L cr L cr
- assume bracing required for Clause 13.7(a) “static plastic analysis” and “seismic
design” structures in accordance with Clause 27.3(a) “moderately-ductile
moment-resisting frames” (MD MR Frames) and Clause 27.7.9.3 “beams outside
the link”:
Lcr/ry = (25000 + 15000 κ) / Fy
κ ratio of “smaller end-moment (factored)”/“larger end-moment (factored)”
The absolute value of κ is always less than unity (1.0), but it is ± as follows:
• single-curvature bending (κ is “−”) Clause 13.6.a)
• double-curvature bending (κ is “+”) Clause 13.6.a)
single curvature κ = −1 Lcr= ry (10000 / Fy )= 39.9mm (10000/350)= 1140 mm
one end pinned κ= 0 Lcr= ry (25000 / Fy )= 39.9mm (25000/350)= 2850 mm
double curvature κ = +1 Lcr= ry (40000 / Fy )= 39.9mm (40000/350)= 4560 mm
Lcr is the applicable value of the above but not greater than Lu .
Lateral bracing (continued) W410x60
A B
2 750 2 750
Mr =375 kN.m
1 375
Mr =375 kN.m = φ Mp
W410x60 (page 5-96) [Blue Tables]
1 375
Symmetrical
CL
1834 < Lu 1 834 1 834

(Lu= 2390)
fully-braced against LTB, (at 1/3 points).

6.11 Rolled Beams with Reinforcement (cover plates)

A “reinforced” beam consists of a standard rolled shape with additional plates, channels
or other shapes welded or bolted to either one or both flanges. The reasons for reinforcing
a rolled section include:
(i) economy - reinforce only portions of beam lengths carrying the larger moments,
(ii) reduction in weight,
(iii) standard rolled shapes may not be available or have the required strength,
(iv) extra lateral stability (as for crane girders),
(v) the member might be part of any existing structure and needs repairs or extra
capacity. Beware of making the flanges too large for the existing web!
The problem below has coverplates on both top and bottom flanges to strengthen the
beam. A more common application is to use a -shape on the top flange only as for
monorails, and crane beams or girders.
Problem 6.8: Doubly-symmetric beam reinforced with coverplates.

given: A simply supported beam with a laterally-supported compression flange is to carry
a uniform factored load of 140 kN/m including the self weight of the beam.
The beam is a W460x82 (Blue Tables: Mr= 568 kN.m at Fy=345 MPa, Lb 2560mm) but
this beam is found to be only G40.21M-300W, (Fy=300 MPa).
required:
(a) check if this section is adequate for flexure,
(b) if this section is not adequate, design 8 mm thick cover-plates (300W steel), welded
to both flanges of the rolled shape. Note, it is more common to weld to the
compression flange only.
- size of coverplates (width = ?),
- length of coverplates= ?,
- fastening of coverplates to beam= ?.
Factored Load=140 kN/m
L= 6000 mm
Lateral Bracing
Lb(built-up beam)
solution:
(a) check if the W460x82 section is adequate
- maximum moment due to factored load= q L2/ 8 = (140 kN/m) (6 m)2/ 8
= 630 kN.m (f)
- maximum shear due to factored load= q L / 2 = (140 kN/m) (3 m) = 420 kN (f)
W460x82:
- from page 6-46, Handbook: Zx = 1830x103 mm3
Mr= φ Zx Fy = (0.90) (1830x103 mm3) ( 0.300 kN/mm2) fully-braced laterally.
= 494 kN.m < 630 kN.m (req’ d capacity),
∴ need coverplates for: 630 kN.m - 494 kN.m= 136 kN.m
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) coverplate design:

- coverplates may be “ flat bar” or cut from plate sheets.
size of coverplates for W460x82:
8 mm
191
moment to be carried by
coverplates =136 kN.m ,
let factored moment provided by
the coverplates = Mcp
coverplates assume and check later that
moment arm the coverplates will be at least
= 468 mm class 2 (W460x82 is class 1).
d(W460)=460
Mcp = φ (Acoverplate)(Fy)(moment arm)
=2[0.90(8mmx150mm)(0.300kN/mm2)(234mm)]
= 152 kN.m > 136 kN.m ∴ okay.
bcp=150?
- verify “ class” assumption and check if there is sufficient room for welding
bcp
- to qualify as a Class 2 section:
t
525
b/t [Figure 2-8]
Fy
b/t= 150mm/ 8mm= 18.75
525/ Fy = 525/ 300= 30.3, ∴ okay
- sufficient room for welding? bflange – bcoverplate= 191mm – 150mm= 2(20.5mm) okay
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Clause 14.2.2 applies to bolted coverplates as well:

191
Acover plate 0.70 Aflange
150 16
Acover plate= 8mm x 150mm= 1200 mm2
8
Aflange=16mm x 191mm= 3056 mm2
Acover plate=1200 mm2 < 70% Aflange= 2140 mm2

∴ okay.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Moment of Inertia of total cross-section = 2 (8mm x 150mm) (234 mm)2 + IxxW460x82

= 131.4 x 106 [mm4] + 370 x 106 [mm4]
= 501.4 x 106 [mm4]
8 150
460 + 4 + 4 = 468
460
150
length of coverplates:
Theoretically, coverplates are required only over the beam length where the moment
exceeds the moment capacity of the original beam. However, the ends need sufficient
anchorage distance beyond the theoretical cutoff point.
qf =140 kN/m
420 kN 420 kN
6 000
Mf=630 kN.m
MW460x82=494 kN.m
method 1:
Free-Body Diagram: Mcp=136 kN.m
. 2
494 [kN m]= 420x –140x /2
2
- solve the quadratic equation : 70x – 420x + 494 = 0
x coverplate theoretical Length= Lcp= L – 2x

x
V=420 kN
method 2: Slope of the Shear Diagram:

- get the same equation as above
but graphically, from slope= (0 - 420 kN.m)/(3metres) = -140 kN/metre.
Shear
L/2 – x= 3– x
- from areas and slope of Shear Diagram;
Mx= 494[kN.m]= ½ [420 + (3 - x) (140)] [x]
70x2 – 420x + 494 = 0 (same as method 1, FBD) x= 1.606 metres
and, x= 4.394 metres
∴ Lcp= L – 2x = 2.788 metres
method 3: reduced-span Parabola: q L

2
cp /8 = q (L 2x)2 / 8 =136 kN.m
L 2x= 2.788 metres, x= 1.606 metres
theoretical length of coverplates anchorage
actual length of coverplates

fastening of coverplates:
- horizontal Shear Stresses develop at the interface of the coverplate to the flange
because “ plane sections remain plane” and there exists a strain differential across the
faying surface (shear surface).
- concept: similar to Glued Laminated Wood Beams:
b
horizontal shear stress:
τ = VQ
Ib
_____________________________________________________________________
horizontal shear stress:
τ =
VQ [kN/mm2]
Ib
horizontal “ shear flow” :

VQ [kN/mm]
q bτ =
I
_____________________________________________________________________
Q 1st statical moment of area above (or, below) the shear plane. Moments are
taken about the neutral axis of the cross-section!
fastening of coverplates (cont’ d):

shear flow, q bτ = V Q / I
8 150
y = 234 mm
N.A.
The welds resist longitudinal (horizontal) shear between coverplates and the W-section.
Horizontal shear stress = V Q / (I t) , where t =weld thickness resisting horizontal shear.
Rather than working with shear stresses, use: "shear flow" q τ t =V Q / I .
V = 420 kN – (140 kN/m) (1.606 m) - from Shear Diagram at ends of coverplate.

= 195 kN
IW460x82+coverplates = 501.4 x 106 [mm4] - as calculated earlier.
Q = (8mm x 150mm) (234mm)1 1st statical moment of area.

= 280.8 x 103 [mm3]
V Q / I =195 kN) (280.8 x 103 mm3) / (501.4 x 106 mm4)

= 0.109 kN/mm use qmin (5mm) fillet welds with a capacity of 0.682 kN/mm
[Table 3-24]
- use, Mw=1.0 (Clause 13.13.2.2) welds
- welds do not have to be continuous but can be intermittent unless otherwise required for
corrosion sealing, or because of dynamic or cyclic load and fatigue considerations.
maximum spacing (to prevent local failures etc.)

(Clause 19, and Figures 2-56 and 2-57)
- from the calculated requirement of 0.109 kN/mm, and a 5mm fillet weld, the required
spacing of minimum-length welds (40mm) is:
smax= 2 (0.682 kN/mm)(40mm)/ (0.109 kN/mm)= 500 mm on-centre.
- however, although theoretically adequate to carry the horizontal shear, this spacing is
too large to prevent local failures, separation and buckling of the coverplates. Therefore,
S16 has a set of rules for guidance in Clause 19 “Built-up members”, and Figures 2-56
and 2-57.
s s
Compression - if welds are not staggered (Clause 19.1.3(b)):

s = 330 t / Fy 300mm ; where, t = thickness of the outer plate;
= 152 mm
- if welds are staggered (Clause 19.1.2(a)):
s = 525 t / Fy = 243 mm 450mm
Tension (Clause 19.2.2)
s = 36 t , but not more than 450 mm, where t is the thickness of the thinner plate,
= 36 (8 mm) = 288 mm
Use the same spacing for both top (compression) and bottom (tension) coverplates with a
spacing, s = 240 mm (staggered), or if the welds are unstaggered use s 150 mm.
NOTE: A smaller fillet size could have been used for strength purposes at these spacings,
but a 5 mm is the smallest practical fillet size typically used for structural purposes.
It is standard practice in many applications to use 6 mm welds as a minimum size.
anchorage requirements (Clause 14.2.4)

Clause 14.2.4 requires extension of the coverplates beyond the theoretical cut-off points
to allow mechanical fasteners or welds to fully develop the required force in the
coverplate at the theoretical cut off point. This allows for shear lag effects and finite
lengths of welds and connectors. The concept of extra length for anchorage is similar to
“ development lengths” of rebar in reinforced concrete.
criteria:
theoretical length of coverplate= ?
force at cutoff= ? (M=494 kN.m)
8 150
y = 234 mm
460
150
Clause 14.2.4: requires that coverplates are anchored beyond cutoff for a force of:
Pcutoff= Acoverplate σcoverplate = (Acoverplate ) (Mf(cutoff point)) ( yn.a.-to-plate centroid) / Iplated section
Pcutoff = (8mm x 150mm) (494 kN.metres) (234mm) / (501.4 x 106 mm4) = 277 kN (f)
- weld length req’ d= 277 kN/ 0.682 kN/mm = 407 mm 150mm transverse +
2 x (130mm/0.85) longitudinal welds.
Also, for welded connections, Clause 14.2.4 has additional a’requirements for
development length, within which the force Pcutoff must be developed. There are 3
different conditions: (a), (b) and (c).
Both (a) and (b) are based on weld size relative to tcoverplate , while (c) is based on the
presence or absence of a transverse weld at the end of the coverplate.
It is probably best to choose (a) by upsizing the weld to 6mm:
(a) weld size ¾ tplate.
6 mm continuous fillet welds along the sides and across the end, means that
Clause 14.2.4. (a) applies, and, ∴ a = b = 150 mm.
total length of coverplate = 2788 + 150 + 150 = 3088 mm use 3100 mm.
“ Base metal” weld failure (Table 3-22)= 202 MPa > (shear throat capacity / 2)
theoretical cutoff point for Moment
a’
- details summarized:
150 x 8 coverplate x 3100 mm (top & bott. )
6 40 @ 240
6 150 6 150 (staggered)
1450 1550
CL
- check Shear, Vf = 420 kN < Vr= 812 kN, ∴ okay,

(coverplates do not increase shear capacity significantly).
Deflections
Deflections can be checked using any accepted software program. Output is verified by
hand calculations using basic equations or closed-form solutions. The stepped moment of
inertia of the beam can be used in the calculations for deflections.
[end of Chapter VI “ Beams” ]

CE470 (Sept2010) - Chapter 6

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THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT

TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.

Flexural Members (Beams and Girders)

6.1 S16-09: Design for Flexural Loading

Tables & Annexes:

These are available from CISC at www.cisc-icca.ca , and AISC at www.aisc.org .

6.2 Basics of Beam Behavior

6.2.2 Beam design considerations for Flexure

The governing parameters in determining moment capacities are:

• class of section for bending (local buckling)

• lateral stability ( bracing , Mr or Mr’)?

6.2.3 Types of Lateral Support (Bracing) for Beams

b) Intermittent support: by beams or joists with floor-plane bracing, or,

supports must be capable of preventing twisting and lateral displacements of

c) Laterally unsupported beams

if, L ≥ Lu , then Mr’< Mr

if L Lu, full-moment capacity Mr is calculated according to Clause 13.5.

6.2.4 Beam Behavior in Shear

6.2.5 Failures of a Localized Nature

6.3 Local Buckling of Structural Shapes used as Beams

Local Buckling classifications of Columns and Beams:

Class 4: (this is lightest and flimsiest Class):

bel ≤ 200 (Columns and Beams)

6.4 Braced Beams: Overall Bending Strength (Clause 13.5)

Laterally Braced Beams (Clause 13.5)

(b) Mr for Class 3 sections

- for simplicity, first consider a beam with rectangular cross-section.

Clause13.5: Bending: laterally-supported members

Problem 6.1: Zx for a laterally-supported rolled beam.

Problem 6.2: Mr for a laterally-supported rolled beam.

Dead Load = self-weight + 11.15 kN/m

required: is the beam adequate for bending according to S16-09 ?

Clause 7.2.1: find Mf and Mr find | φ R Σ αi Si

self-weight of W410 x 54 = 54 kg/metre= 0.524 kN/metre (page 6-48)

qf = 1.25 (11.15 + 0.524)kN/metre + 1.5 (29 kN/metre) = 58.1 kN/m (f)

Clause 11: determine Class – required for calculating Mr

Clause 13.5.a): fully-braced, Class 1 & 2

6.5 Beam Shear Strength (Clause 13.4)

Clause 13.4.1 Vr = Aweb Fs ,

Web Slenderness (h/w):

Problem 6.3 [same beam as problem 6.2]

Dead Load = self-weight + 11.15 kN/m= 11.674 kN/m (nf)

required: is the beam adequate on the basis of:

1. calculate, Vf = ½ (6 metres) (58.1 kN/metre) = 174.3 kN (f)

3rd method: Part Five Tables (page 5-11) and no stiffeners:

(b) check deflection (service live load), Annex D, [Table D1]

Live Load = 29 kN/m

6.6 Unbraced Beams: Mu for Lateral-Torsional Buckling

- minimum flexural capacity, weakest orientation because Myy < Mxx

In the Mu critical buckling equation, the terms are:

Mu unsupported beam’s critical elastic buckling uniform moment, where,

note, ii) is derived from the previously and

calculation of Cw for a W-shape (“thin-walled open section”):

consider a beam with a torque 2 along its longitudinal axis Z ,

or, 2 = ( E Iflange h2 / 2) (d3 / dz3)

Additional references on torsional analysis and behavior are:

2. CISC have a free on-line publication (19

6.7 Unbraced Beams: Clause 13.6 -