Cheater Power in Postmodern Era
Cheater Power in Postmodern Era
Cheater Power in Postmodern Era
the reach of the state in constructing economic power beyond state control; the
opportunities for and constraints on ethnic, gender and other group or
categorical empowerment offerred by institutions such as United Nations
agencies and forums, multinational Non-Governmental Organisations, the
European Union, the International Court of Justice, the Internet and the global
media, among many others; the possibilities for empowerment by
manipulating the interstices between local, regional and central levels of state
bureaucratic organisation; and issues of ‘management’.
when systems of meaning are created and enforced by groups with the most
power.
Shifting the goalposts of meaning, then, for Yelvington presumes a prior capacity to
make new meanings stick. Similarly, for Parkin (1982: xlvii), ‘performative
language’ as ‘being’ ‘entails questions of personal autonomy, self-definition, and
power, which only some in any society can ask and answer’. But for Parkin,
speaking is also implicated in the ongoing construction of status and the
‘apprehension’ of the power of discourse.
Wikan (1993:206, 193) has also expressed scepticism about words and what they
convey: ‘wordstuck…anthropology’s romance with words, concepts, symbols, text
and discourse may be counterproductive’ in understanding precisely how
intersubjective communication of meaning occurs. Not only do words express and
reinforce the existing power of representative spokespersons (usually older males) to
define what is; not only are precise words frequently misleading in their literal
meanings; not only do people change their minds and re-word at will, but, above all,
Wikan argues, the power of ‘resonance’ as the fusion of emotion and rationality is
what ‘evokes shared human experience’ (1993:208) and the transmission of
meaning. Conveying meaning, as Kendall (1982:205–6) indicates, may be indirect,
involving encoded or concealed challenges to existing influence in apparently simple
messages. Thus relaying greetings also relays knowledge of social relationships with
political potential.
Pro-Foucauldian analysis after Foucault seems largely to have ignored, rather than
refuted, such points, particularly Scott’s observation (1985, 1990) that currently
disempowered people subvert dominating structures and relationships and come
some way towards achieving their goals precisely by not voicing their resistance to
hegemonic power openly, but by exercising some other capacity or resource.
empowered, are apparently routine, at least among those in the UK using ostensibly
people-friendly law to dissolve their marriages (Collins 1994).
Empowerment, of course, implies that all intervening brokers should be eliminated
from the consumer’s capacity to choose. Adjudicators, mediators, advocates, advisers and
representatives are all, by definition, irrelevant, deprived of their former capacity to
control and alienate empowered people and/or their interests. Yet, as Filer (this volume)
10
argues, the devolution of power from state to community may increase rather than
decrease the potential for brokerage, not least among anthropologists (among whom there
is, of course, already an impressively large discourse on advocacy and mediation). And
those who have examined the devolution of development assistance from economically
advanced states to non-governmental organisations (the new brokers in direct contact
with aid-recipients—state, collective or individual), have been very critical of its
outcomes (see Hopa, Werbner, this volume).
The mystifying rhetoric of empowerment as expansible, vocal power is the
offspring of an optimistic postmodernism linked to democratic and negotiated
organisational structures. These, in turn, are related to rational social preferences
arising from individual choices. Yet any such liberal democratic transfer of power
from those who currently have it to those who do not, could (and should) be
expected, not to slip past unnoticed, but to engender resistance in those whose ability
to get what they want is affected by others’ access. Conceptualising power as
postmodern, warm-fuzzy, expansible not only conceals its hard edges; this cloak of
opacity also discourages nasty questions of who benefits and how, and runs the
danger of collapsing objectives, processes and outcomes alike into an
undifferentiated rhetorical empowerment. Dismantling structures has been a real
process as well as an iterative voice, and we have heard little about the power plays
involved—except from Cockburn (1991, 1994)and, perhaps, in novelists’
explorations of glass ceilings as a contradiction of publicly articulated policy. Hence
it is not altogether odd that Gramsci and issues of hegemony and consent (Gramsci
1972) appear very rarely in Foucauldian and postmodernist discourses on
(dis)empowerment, even among those who have analysed the spatial, presentational,
kinaesthetic, status and ritual components (see Collins 1994; Edwards 1994) of what
might be called silent— Scott’s (1985, 1990) publicly unvoiceable—power.
So how might (dis) empowerment be achieved? One view seems to be that
empowerment can be conferred by some on others. Critics seem generally unhappy with
this view: after all, the very conception of the free market on which such a ‘free gift’
rests, is that there are no free lunches. As numerous anthropologists (e.g. Cockburn 1994;
Perring 1994; Wright 1994; Filer this volume) have already noted, devolution of state
functions and finance has allegedly disempowered bureaucratic service-deliverers and
empowered those previously dependent on such bureaucracies. Rolling back the state has
been popular in most liberal democracies (and many other states) over the past couple of
decades, allegedly to give consumers greater choice in education, health care, retirement
benefits, even penitentiary detention. These authors have also indicated that such
empowerment has been, at best, ambiguous. While there is no longer any danger of
‘locating power in the State apparatus,
8 A.CHEATER
making this into the major, privileged, capital and almost unique instrument of the
power of one class over another’ (Foucault 1980:72), declining states nonetheless
remain for the present the self-defined guarantors not only of service-delivery to
their citizens, but also of rule-changing empowerment processes.
Self-empowerment sounds more viable; and networking has apparently allowed
some previously uninfluential individuals collectively to make bigger waves. But
grabbing power (if necessary against resistance, e.g. by publicising hidden and
suppressed conflict: Miller 1976:126) can be a messy business, ranging from
domestic violence to more general warfare, and is generally discouraged by all who
stand to lose by it. Internal redefinition of basic institutional rules (Cockburn 1994)
is more acceptable, but involves processes of negotiation that derive from past
practice and therefore advantage the power-holders, assuming their willingness not
only to negotiate in good faith, but also to withdraw gracefully from their
advantaged positions (Chambers 1997). Both techniques of self-empowerment have
tended to generate later backlash reactions from those disempowered. And in the
final analysis, states still stand as both referees and guarantors of such negotiated
outcomes, if not of more Machievellian techniques of self-empowerment whereby
rules may simply be subverted (Bailey 1969) rather than changed.
A third possibility is the collectively negotiated construction of (new) social rules
based on individual choice. Harking back not merely to Barth (1959, 1966, 1967)
and Rousseau (1946), but also to Greek history, this option seems at once
teleological and internally contradictory. For if the sum of individual choices,
however counted, does allow the demos power, why isempowerment of such current
concern in liberal democracies themselves? And if adjudication is disempowering,
why should rule-enforced negotiations (especially in the absence of complete
information among one or all parties) be empowering? Such discursive claims might
better be questioned than accepted at face value; for, as (Scott 1990:2) has already
noted, the interests of both parties linked by relations of power may be served by
‘misrepresentation’ in ‘the public transcript’.
Such questions suggest that power remains a difficult, elusive concept,
particularly when by definition it is hegemonically embedded in one or other cultural
habitus. Nonetheless, revisiting difficult ground is often useful, and the chapters in
this collection variously address three major issues. The first issue of the relationship
between state power and popular authority is tackled directly by Peter Skalník, and
indirectly by many others. Colin Filer examines the local realities of power devolved
from the system of state-plus-capital to landowning communities in Papua New
Guinea. Peter Wade, Dick Werbner and Dan Yon all dissect state-driven discourses
in the immensely varied contexts of Colombian environmental protection,
Zimbabwean land-use planning, and Canadian schooling. The power of state and
other actors to construct ‘otherness’ is part of Wade’s argument, and central to
Manuel Ramos’s account of the power relations involved in a little-known and
ultimately unsuccessful sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Jesuit attempt to gain a
foothold in Ethiopia. Mystifications of the much (ab)used ‘empowerment’ word,
many but by no means all of them produced by states, are unveiled by Wendy James.
POWER IN THE POSTMODERN ERA 9
In addressing the second issue of changes in the balance of power, both Ngapare
Hopa and Rudo Gaidzanwa are concerned with the empowerment of formerly
colonised people: Hopa with tribal re-empowerment in New Zealand and Gaidzanwa
with individual business-persons in Zimbabwe. Gaidzanwa is also concerned with a
quite different state discourse in Zimbabwe—that of indigenisation, with its implicit
and disputed racial undertones—to Werbner’s scientific one. There are obvious links
to be made between these two discourses, but as yet political actors in Zimbabwe
have not made these links. Both Gaidzanwa and Hopa pursue James’s concern with
mystification into ‘new class’ (Djilas 1957) empowerment through appropriation of
the control of resources previously belonging to others, or intended to benefit others.
More generally, Filer, Gaidzanwa and Hopa all examine the notion of balance in
what have become known, somewhat coyly, as stakeholder interests in
empowerment processes. Andrew Spiegel and his co-authors, both planners, situate
their attempts to influence housing policy in South Africa against the dramatically
altered balance between state power and popular authority in ‘the new South Africa’.
Prominent among the causes of changes in the balance of power is the issue of
new technology. Backgrounding Wade’s analysis is the development of
biotechnology. Madawi Al-Rasheed examines the use of information technology in
the organisation of opposition to Saudi Arabian state politics, while BobLayton plots
changes in the balance of power against technological and organisational changes in
the French village of Pellaport. He shows how villagers managed their common
lands and dairy production very carefully, while treating the market as an open-
access resource, in ways that advantaged the early adopters of new technologies. As
the (European Community) market came under quota regulation, those too poor to
modernise their production technologies were ultimately forced out of market
competition, effectively by their neighbours who had empowered themselves
through domination of the market through their past technological innovations. Such
empowerment appears systemic rather than personal when viewed from a village
perspective. The outcome may indeed be zero-sum, but no one can sensibly argue
that those who remain farmers have empowered themselves directly at their
unsuccessful neighbours’ expense.
Sigridur Duna Kristmundsdottir notes a different systemic threat to the somewhat
fragile new balance of interests and power between men and women that has
emerged fairly recently in certain nation-states as a result of long political battles:
this threat stems from globalising discourses. She argues that globalising processes
simultaneously strengthen local boundaries in some respects while dismantling them
in others, and, therefore, that the now-global discourse constructing women as the
embodiment of local cultural values and behaviour threatens once more to
disempower previously empowered women. The implication of Gaidzanwa’s
analysis of another globalising discourse, that of indigenisation, might also be seen
as preventing the empowerment of previously disempowered women, at least in
Zimbabwe.
10 A.CHEATER
Kristmundsdottir’s concern with the balance of gendered power flows into the
third issue which some contributors address, namely paradoxes of empowerment.
Simultaneous empowerment and disempowerment (from different perspectives) ‘in
the same moment’ are noted by Ramos and Yon. Thus there may be simultaneous as
well as alternating paradoxes of empowerment, both related to discursive
constructions of essentialised otherness as well as to unvoiced assumptions about the
reach of discursive power. So Werbner’s plea (this volume) for a post-Foucauldian
approach will presumably elicit considerable sympathy. Such an approach might
include, in addition to the deconstruction and public exposure of various kinds of
discourse (the overtly politico-mythological as well as those based on knowledges),
an attempt to distinguish the power of discourse from discursive power, and to relate
both to the construction of power bases by social actors.
If the conference theme elicited fewer detailed ethnographies of fin-de-siècle
power and processes of (dis)empowerment than I had originally hoped, nonetheless
it seems to me that the papers in this collection do expand our (perhaps sceptical)
understanding of a much abused contemporary mystification. Contrary to some
postmodernist arguments, they show that power remains a reality: while using
‘voice’, it is in no immediate danger of dissolving into words. Caveat discursor!
Notes
1 Zed Books, spring 1997 New Titles and Development Studies catalogues.
2 It was the first such conference in half a century of the ASA’s existence to be held
outside the UK. This relocation in itself seems to have had the effect of
‘disempowering’ the organisation’s own membership, based overwhelmingly in the
UK, which comprised less than a quarter of all conference participants. That ASA
members contributed half of the papers in this collection, therefore, may reflect its
globalising recuperation of power through publication.
3 This and the following are quotes from my conference proposal elected by the
1995 ASA Annual Business Meeting.
4 In both cases, millions of quiet but allegedly angry people lined the streets of their
respective capital cities, displaying Canetti’s (1973) power of the many. However,
temperatures of • 10°C in mid-winter Beijing contrasted with a sunny summer day
in London; and Beijingers learned of Zhou’s death and transportation route not
from the popular press, but by word of mouth from a hospital leak. They risked a
great deal in making this political gesture of support for rule-bound state authority,
embodied in premier Zhou as the ‘upright official’ of Chinese tradition confronting
the disorderly party power wielded—also through mass mobilisation—by Mao
Zedong. In contrast, support for Diana was popularly interpreted as anti-
institutional, and especially anti-monarchist. It may also have reflected especially
female frustration with, if not also disempowerment by, male-dominated
institutional practices.
5 Telecom New Zealand/New Zealand Police (1997) Stop Bullying: Advice for
Caregivers (pamphlet).
POWER IN THE POSTMODERN ERA 11
6 The Vice-Chancellor of one university at which I worked averred that ‘good practice’
could itself be institutionalised through ‘constant iteration’, and repeated this view at
every conceivable opportunity, as if the words might effect themselves. Some
academics thought the institution had a problem with the Vice-Chancellor’s strategy,
since ‘good practice’ would have to be agreed and established before it could be
‘iterated’—and that would upset the existing balance of practical power
among academic staff!
7 Parsons (1971).
8 Academics’ views of managerial roles within university bureaucracies seem to fall into
this category, as noted in the famous inverted relationship between the value of the
stakes (the small swag-bag allotted to a chairperson of department to protect his/ her
back from competitive colleagues) and the virulence of the competition for such
roles (see also Bailey 1977).
9 As identified by anthropologists and other social scientists.
10 Defining ‘community’ in such contexts is itself powerfully problematic.
References
Bailey, F.G. (1969) Strategems and Spoils: A Social Anthropology of Politics. Oxford:
Basil Blackwell.
——(1977) Morality and Expediency. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Barnes, J.A. (1994) A Pack of Lies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barth, F. (1959) Political Organisation among Swat Pathans. London: Athlone Press.
——(1966) Models of Social Organisation, RAI Occasional Paper 23. London: Royal
Anthropological Institute.
——(1967) On the study of social change. American Anthropologist 69, 6:661–9.
Blau, P.M. and Scott, W.R. (1963) Formal Organisations. San Francisco: Chandler
Publishing.
Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Canetti, E. (1973) Crowds and Power. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Chambers, R. (1997) Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last. London:
Intermediate Technology Publications.
Cheater, A.P. (1991) Death ritual as political trickster in the People’s Republic of China.
Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 26:67–97.
Cockburn, C. (1991) In the Way of Women: Men’s Resistance to Sex Equality in Organisations.
London: Macmillan.
——(1994) Play of power: women, men and equality initiatives in a trade union. In
Anthropology of Organisations (ed.) S.Wright. London: Routledge.
Collins, J. (1994) Disempowerment and marginalisation of clients in divorce court cases.
In Anthropology of Organisations (ed.) S.Wright. London: Routledge.
Djilas, M. (1957) The New Class. New York: Praeger.
Edwards, J. (1994) Idioms of bureaucracy and informality in a local Housing Aid Office.
In Anthropology of Organisations (ed.) S.Wright. London: Routledge.
Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge, (ed.) C.Gordon. New York: Harvester/
Wheatsheaf.
Capítulo 1
Poder en la era posmoderna
Angela Cheater
2 UN TRAMPOSO
el alcance del estado en la construcción del poder económico más allá del
control estatal; las oportunidades y limitaciones para el empoderamiento
étnico, de género y de otro grupo o categórico ofrecidas por instituciones tales
como organismos y foros de las Naciones Unidas, organizaciones no
gubernamentales multinacionales, la Unión Europea, la Corte Internacional de
Justicia, Internet y los medios mundiales, entre otros. muchos otros; las
posibilidades de empoderamiento manipulando los intersticios entre los
niveles locales, regionales y centrales de la organización burocrática estatal; y
cuestiones de 'gestión'.
Como se refleja en este libro, algunos participantes de la conferencia compartieron
mis suposiciones de que el poder opera en las "superficies duras" de la realidad
estratificatoria (Geertz 1973) pero, enfatizando los límites de autoridad y poder
editorial (ambos usados aquí en el sentido weberiano), contribuyentes en lugar de las
elecciones del editor han definido el contenido final de esta colección.
En las dos décadas transcurridas desde que la teoría transaccional intentó lidiar
con estos problemas, parece haber habido un alejamiento irrevocable de la distinción
weberiana (Weber, 1947) entre el poder (como la capacidad de provocar el
cumplimiento contra la resistencia) y la autoridad (como el derecho esperar
cumplimiento). Este cambio le debe mucho a Michel Foucault y al posmodernismo,
y posiblemente refleja la pérdida constante de la autoridad del estado tanto para
organizaciones subnacionales como globales. Foucault distingue entre "formas de
poder reguladas y legítimas" centrales y "poder capilar" en las "extremidades"
(1980: 96), lo que tal vez refracta algo diferente la antigua distinción de Blau y Scott
(1963) entre una organización "formal" y "informal" 'relaciones que sustentan su
funcionamiento. También puede ser paralelo, aunque difiere de la comprensión de
Skalník (1989, este volumen) del poder como derivada del estado en contraste con la
autoridad arraigada en la aprobación popular. La acción popular, connotando la
rebelión desde abajo contra la burocratización del poder, y la "justicia popular" anti-
judicial son recomendadas positivamente por Foucault (1980: 29, 34-5) para
contrarrestar el poder judicial burocratizado. La autoridad populista, en cambio,
puede parecer inicialmente oximorónica. Sin embargo, dos veces en el último cuarto
de siglo, el mundo ha sido testigo de los efectos dramáticos de tal autoridad en
acción, en ambos casos asociados con la muerte de ritos funerarios para personas
extremadamente populares: Zhou Enlai en China en 1976 (Cheater 1991), y Diana,
Princesa de Gales en el Reino Unido en 1997. En estos dos muy
diferentes 4 ejemplos (uno nacional, el otro global), la autoridad popular expresada
en el luto público masivo alteró claramente, de diferentes maneras, al menos la
expresión simbólica del estado derivado (incluido el poder imperial y
monárquico). Tal vez el gobierno indio (con el funeral de Gandhi en mente) percibió
los peligros de tal expresión popular al reforzar preventivamente su autoridad al
declarar un funeral de estado para la Madre Teresa como un icono extranjero pero
domesticado de los pobres sin poder de ese país.
Aquí también hay un indicio de ese uso contemporáneo del "empoderamiento" que
implica el impulso de individuos, solos o en combinación, para obtener lo que
quieren. Además, en consonancia con los principios transaccionalistas, Foucault
(1980: 99) aboga por un análisis "ascendente" del poder centrado en sus "técnicas y
tácticas de dominación" (1980: 102), que inicialmente parecen contradecir cualquier
análisis ascendente.
Pero tal enfoque nos ayuda a comprender cómo las personas socialmente iguales
(colegas académicos, por ejemplo) pueden ejercer poder sobre los demás y para sí
mismos -y obtener lo que quieren cuando lo desean- simplemente ignorando las
reglas normales de la interacción social cortés; por ejemplo, irrumpir en un grupo e
interrumpir su conversación a mitad de la oración, de modo que los que se ven
obstaculizados por sus propias reglas internalizadas de cortesía ni siquiera expresen
su malestar por tal rudeza, sino que sigan conversando dócilmente cuando la
interrupción se retire. Y, por supuesto, si la interrupción fuera un niño (y por lo tanto
no socialmente igual a los adultos que conversan), este ejemplo sería uno de
dominación ejercida desde abajo. Quizás la preocupación de mediados de la década
de 1990 en algunos círculos británicos por la falta de modales refleje precisamente
tal empoderamiento, al derrocar no solo a las políticas (clasificadas por clase) , sino
más ampliamente al acuerdo colectivo sobre el comportamiento socialmente
apropiado. El cambio dehabitus debe, por definición, privar de poder a quienes
operan según las reglas de un habitus más antiguo que se somete a reemplazo
(Bourdieu 1977). Más allá de la escala de la descortesía, los insultos absorbidos sin
represalias también restan poder a sus destinatarios, y se acercan a una definición
oficial de Nueva Zelanda de intimidación como "el poder ... para herir o rechazar a
otra persona". 5 Si bien tales mundaneidades de poder a nivel personal pueden
considerarse indignas de reconocimiento social, publicitar conflictos previamente
suprimidos puede alentar a las "víctimas" individuales a empoderarse a sí mismas,
porque, como señala Miller (1976: 127), "es prácticamente imposible iniciar abrir
conflictos cuando eres totalmente dependiente de la otra persona o grupo por el
material básico o los medios psicológicos de existencia ".
4 UN TRAMPOSO
vacila ... está ... equivocado; el poder puede retirarse ... reorganizar sus fuerzas,
invertir en otro lugar "(1980: 56).
[R] ulos de derecho ... proporcionan una delimitación formal de poder; ...
efectos de verdad que este poder produce y transmite ... a su vez reproducen
este poder. [M] relaciones de poder anquilosadas que impregnan, caracterizan
y constituyen el cuerpo social ... no pueden ser establecidas, consolidadas o
implementadas sin la producción, acumulación, circulación y funcionamiento
de un discurso.
(Foucault 1980: 93)
PODER EN LA ERA
POSTMODERNA 5
cuando los sistemas de significado son creados y aplicados por grupos con
más poder.
Por lo tanto, cambiar las metas del significado para Yelvington supone una
capacidad previa para hacer que los nuevos significados se mantengan. De manera
similar, para Parkin (1982: xlvii), el "lenguaje performativo" como "ser" implica
cuestiones de autonomía personal, autodefinición y poder, que solo algunos en una
sociedad pueden preguntar y responder ".Pero para Parkin, hablar también está
implicado en la construcción en curso del estado y la "aprehensión" del poder del
discurso.
Wikan (1993: 206, 193) también ha expresado escepticismo sobre las palabras y
lo que transmiten: "wordstuck ... el romance de la antropología con palabras,
conceptos, símbolos, textos y discursos puede ser contraproducente" al comprender
cómo ocurre la comunicación intersubjetiva del significado. Las palabras no solo
expresan y refuerzan el poder existente de los portavoces representativos
(generalmente hombres mayores) para definir lo que es; no solo las palabras precisas
son frecuentemente engañosas en sus significados literales; las personas no solo
cambian de opinión y vuelven a redactar a voluntad, sino que, sobre todo, argumenta
Wikan, el poder de la "resonancia" como la fusión de la emoción y la racionalidad es
lo que "evoca la experiencia humana compartida" (1993: 208) y el transmisión de
significado. Transmitir significado, como lo indica Kendall (1982: 205-6), puede ser
indirecto, involucrando desafíos codificados u ocultos a la influencia existente en
mensajes aparentemente simples. Por lo tanto, transmitir saludos también transmite
el conocimiento de las relaciones sociales con el potencial político.
Los patrones de dominación pueden ... acomodar ... la resistencia mientras ... [no]
se reconozca públicamente y sin ambigüedad ... voz bajo dominación ... [incluye]
rumores, chismes, disfraces, trucos lingüísticos, metáforas, eufemismos, cuentos
populares, gestos rituales, anonimato ... cada uno el rendimiento oral puede ser
matizado, disfrazado, evasivo y sombreado de acuerdo con el grado de vigilancia
de la autoridad a la que está expuesto ... la particularidad y elasticidad de la cultura
oral ... le permite llevar significados fugitivos en una seguridad comparativa.
(Scott 1990: 57, 137, 162, énfasis original)
6 UN TRAMPOSO
Un enfoque en las capacidades o los recursos, incluidas las redes sociales, lleva a
la difícil pregunta de si hay una cantidad de poder. La visión liberal democrática (a
la vez parsoniana 7 y posmoderna), del poder como infinitamente expansible, es la
del mercado libre: cuando la torta se expande y el empoderamiento es vocal (a través
de las urnas o los medios de comunicación), las cuestiones de quantum y
distribución son más fácil de fudgear Es más probable que se encuentre la visión de
suma cero del poder entre aquellos que compiten por algunos, 8 si lo definen como
basado en armas (James, este volumen), recursos terrestres y terrestres (Filer, Hopa,
este volumen) o acceso a recursos controlados por el estado (Al-Rasheed,
Gaidzanwa, este volumen). Como Wright (1994: 163) ya ha indicado, el término
"empoderamiento", cuando se usaba en la década de 1970 con referencia al Tercer
Mundo, se entendía inicialmente como "el desarrollo de actividades económicas bajo
el control de los más débiles ... de modo que tenían sus propios recursos para el
desarrollo '. Al menos en su concepción de suma cero, el poder implica claramente
el control de los recursos en lugar de, o además de, la "voz".
Para aquellos que usan la concepción de suma cero de un quantum fijo de poder,
un enfoque foucaultiano no solo es poco atractivo, sino que también es
peligrosamente mistificante, y no solo porque, como ha señalado Cockburn (1994:
111), es totalmente insensible al formas en que el poder tiene género, se racializa y
clasifica. De manera más general, el propio discurso de empoderamiento,
particularmente pero no solo en el contexto global de la desigualdad y el desarrollo
9
del Tercer Mundo, puede oscurecer las relaciones de poder "reales" o hegemónicas
que
unen estados, desarrolladores y empoderadores a personas pobres que carecen de
recursos (James , Filer, este volumen) y por lo tanto hacen que los ya vulnerables
sean aún menos capaces de defender sus intereses autoidentificados. El mismo
lenguaje del empoderamiento, argumenta James, enmascara cualquier connivencia
entre el empoderamiento al "aislar" sus relaciones de poder del "discurso público":
tal investigación puede ser particularmente importante cuando el ejercicio del poder
está asociado popularmente con el empoderamiento (Barnes 1994: 78) y, por su
exposición pública de tal enmascaramiento, los científicos sociales intervendrán
ellos mismos en el equilibrio del poder.
con poder, son aparentemente rutinarios, al menos entre aquellos en el Reino Unido
que usan leyes ostensiblemente amigables con las personas para disolver sus
matrimonios (Collins 1994).
Entonces, ¿cómo se puede (des) empoderar? Una opinión parece ser que el
empoderamiento puede ser conferido por unos a otros. En general, los críticos parecen
estar descontentos con este punto de vista: después de todo, la misma concepción del
mercado libre en la que descansa ese "obsequio" es que no hay almuerzos gratis. Como
numerosos antropólogos (por ejemplo, Cockburn 1994, Perring 1994, Wright 1994, Filer
este volumen) ya han señalado, la devolución de las funciones estatales y las finanzas
presuntamente han restado poder a los proveedores burocráticos de servicios y han
empoderado a aquellos que anteriormente dependían de tales burocracias. Revertir el
estado ha sido popular en la mayoría de las democracias liberales (y en muchos otros
estados) durante las últimas décadas, supuestamente para dar a los consumidores una
mayor opción en educación, atención médica, beneficios de jubilación e incluso
detención penitenciaria. Estos autores también han indicado que tal empoderamiento ha
sido, en el mejor de los casos, ambiguo. Si bien ya no existe el peligro de "ubicar el poder
en el aparato estatal",
8 UN TRAMPOSO
PODER EN LA ERA
POSTMODERNA 9
10 UN TRAMPOSO
Notas
2 Fue la primera conferencia de este tipo en medio siglo de existencia de ASA que se
celebrará fuera del Reino Unido. Esta reubicación en sí misma parece haber tenido el
efecto de "quitar el poder" a la propia membresía de la organización, con una
abrumadora mayoría en el Reino Unido, que comprendía menos de la cuarta parte de
todos los participantes de la conferencia. Que los miembros de ASA contribuyeron la
mitad de los documentos en esta colección, por lo tanto, pueden reflejar su
globalizando la recuperación del poder a través de la publicación.
6 El rector de una universidad en la que trabajé afirmó que 'buenas prácticas' en sí podría
ser institucionalizada a través de 'constante iteración', y se repite este punto de vista en
cada oportunidad concebible, como si las palabras pudieran efectuar ellos
mismos. Algunos académicos pensado que la institución tenía un problema con la
estrategia del rector, ya que 'buenas prácticas' tendría que ser acordada y establecida
antes de que pudiera ser 'iterated'-y que alteraría el equilibrio de poder existente
práctica
entre el personal académico!
7 Parsons (1971).
8 puntos de vista de los académicos de las funciones de gestión dentro de las burocracias
universitarias parecen caer en esta categoría, como se señala en la famosa relación
inversa entre el valor de las apuestas (el pequeño botín bolsa asignado a un presidente
del departamento para proteger a su / su espalda de colegas competitivos ) y la
virulencia de la competencia por tales
roles (véase también Bailey 1977).
Referencias
Barth, F. (1959) Organización política entre Swat pathans. Londres: Athlone Press.
- (1966) modelos de organización social, la RAI Documento ocasional 23. Londres: Royal
Anthropological Institute.
Londres: Macmillan.
- (1994) El juego del poder: las mujeres, los hombres y las iniciativas de igualdad en un
sindicato. En
Foucault, M. (1980) poder / conocimiento, (ed.) C.Gordon. Nueva York: Harvester / Trigos.
12 UN TRAMPOSO
Gordon, C. (1980) Epílogo. En poder / conocimiento (ed.) C.Gordon. Nueva York: Harvester /
Trigos.
Miller, JB (1976) Hacia una nueva psicología de la Mujer. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Academic Press.
Scott, JC (1985) armas de los débiles. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- (1990) dominados y el arte de la resistencia. New Haven, CT y Londres: Yale University
Press.