Dag6 Irm-216223

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCE MANUAL
James Tyner
Kent State University
Diversity Amid Globalization

World Regions, Environments, Development
Sixth Edition
Rowntree • Lewis • Price • Wyckoff

Contents
CHAPTER 1 –Diversity Amid Globalization………..………………………………………………..1
CHAPTER 2 – The Changing Global Environment………….……………………………………15
CHAPTER 3 – North America…………..………………………………………………………………24
CHAPTER 4 – Latin America…………….……………………………………………………………..35
CHAPTER 5 – The Caribbean……………….………………………………………………………….46
CHAPTER 6 – Sub-Saharan Africa………...................................................................55
CHAPTER 7 – Southwest Asia and North Africa.………………………………………………..66
CHAPTER 8 – Europe…………………………………….……………………………………………….77
CHAPTER 9 – The Russian Domain.………………………………………………………………….86
CHAPTER 10 – Central Asia……………………………………………………..……………………..95
CHAPTER 11 – East Asia…………………...................................................………………104
CHAPTER 12 – South Asia………………………………………………….………………………….115
CHAPTER 13 – Southeast Asia………………………………………………..……………………..126
CHAPTER 14 – Australia and Oceania…………………………..…………………………………138
Chapter 1: Concepts of World Geography
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Identify the different components of globalization, including their controversial aspects
• List several ways in which globalization is changing world geographies
• Describe the conceptual framework of world regional geography
• Summarize the major tools used by geographers to study Earth’s surface
• Explain the concepts and metrics used to document changes in global population and settlement
patterns
• Describe the themes and concepts used to study the interaction between globalization and the
world’s cultural geographies
• Explain how different aspects of globalization have interacted with global geopolitics from the
colonial period to the present day
• Identify the concepts and data important to documenting changes in the economic and social
development of more and less developed countries (MDCs and LDCs)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Converging Currents of Globalization
A. Globalization: One of the most significant challenges in the 21st century is globalization—the
increasing interconnectedness of peoples and places
1. Economic forces may be driver of globalization, but consequences affect all aspects of land
and life
2. Globalization is ubiquitous but it also reflects diversity
B. Economic Globalization: major component of globalization; refers to economic reorganization
1. Attributes of Economic Globalization
a. Global communication systems
b. Transportation systems
c. Flexible forms of capital accumulation
d. Global agreements promoting free trade
e. Transnational business strategies
f. Dominance of market economies and private enterprises
g. Abundance of planetary goods and services
h. Economic disparities between rich and poor regions
i. Significant international migration systems
C. Globalization and Changing Human Geographies
1. Economic changes trigger cultural changes
2. Significance of spread of Western consumer culture
3. Cultural globalization is not one-way
4. Globalization has demographic dimension
a. New forms of migration are emerging
5. Criminal element of globalization
a. Terrorism, drugs, pornography, slavery, prostitution
D. Geopolitics and Globalization: not restricted by territorial or national boundaries
1. Globalization may have weakened political power of individual states
2. Power of regional economic and political organizations may have strengthened
E. Environment and Globalization: globalization is creating and intensifying environmental
problems
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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

1. Local ecosystems disrupted
2. Worldwide environmental problems aggravated
a. Climate change
b. Air pollution
c. Water pollution
d. Energy issues
e. Deforestation
F. Controversy about Globalization: both supporters and critics
1. Pro-Globalization arguments: logical, inevitable; promotes growth and development; will
result in economic convergence
2. Critics of Globalization: not a ‘natural’ process; increases disparities between rich and poor;
free-market is a myth; system is inherently unstable
3. A Middle Position: holds that claims of proponents and critics are exaggerated; argue that
economic globalization is unavoidable; globalization holds both promises and pitfalls;
globalization can be managed
G. Diversity in a Globalizing World: Although some argue world is becoming blandly
homogenous, others find marked differences and vast diversity
1. Politics of diversity demands attention
H. Flat and Spiky Worlds: metaphors to describe today’s globalized world
1. World becoming flat: metaphor for ability of financial capital and production to flow easily
from place to place
2. World is spiky, consisting of peaks and valleys: metaphor that some locations are privileged
(peaks) whereas others are not (valleys)
II. Geography Matters: Environments, Regions, Landscapes: geography—to describe the world;
different conceptual approaches, including physical and human geography; systematic/thematic and
regional geography; approaches are complimentary
A. Areal Differentiation and Integration
1. Areal differentiation: description and explanation of differences that distinguish one piece of
the world from another
2. Areal integration: the connections between different places and how they are linked
3. Global and Local: all scientific inquiry has sense of scale; although geographers may work at
different scales, they don’t lose sight of interactivity and connectivity among scales
B. Regions: Formal, Functional, and Vernacular: regions—units of spatial similarity
1. Formal regions: defined by some aspect of physical or cultural geography
2. Functional regions: defined by certain activity
3. Vernacular regions: defined solely in people’s minds as spatial stereotypes
C. The Cultural Landscape: Space into Place: Humans transform space into distinct places that
are unique and loaded with meaning and symbolism
1. Cultural landscape: the visible, material expression of human settlement; the tangible
expression of the human habitat
III. The Geographer’s Toolbox: Location, Maps, Remote Sensing, and GIS: Geographers use
different tools to analyze the world
A. Latitude and Longitude: universally accepted coordinate system
1. Lines of latitude, called parallels, run east-west and used to locate places north or south of
equator
2. Lines of longitude, called meridians, run north-south and used to locate places east or west of
prime meridian (located at 0 degrees longitude in Greenwich, England

3. Parallels of latitude used to mathematically define the tropics
B. Global Positioning Systems (GPS): absolute location on Earth is achieved through satellite-
based GPS
C. Map Projections: different ways maps are projected onto a flat surface; hundreds of map
projections have been created in attempt to find best and most accurate way of mapping the world
D. Map Scale: mathematical ratio between map and surface area being mapped
1. Representative fraction: numerical value of map scale; large-scale maps cover small areas in
great detail; small-scale maps cover large areas in less detail
2. Graphic or linear scale: visually depicts in horizontal bar distance the relationship between
map and surface area being mapped
E. Map Patterns and Legends
1. Reference map: shows location of certain features
2. Thematic map: displays spatial phenomena
3. Choropleth map: map different levels of intensity of data or movement
4. Legend: provides details to help understand map
F. Aerial Photos and Remote Sensing
1. Much information derived from electromagnetic images taken from aircraft or satellites
2. Technology has many scientific applications
G. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): spatial databases used to analyze geographic problems
IV. Themes and Issues in World Regional Geography: Present text-book adopts regional perspectives;
each 12 regional chapters employs same five-part thematic structure—physical and environmental;
population and settlement; cultural coherence and diversity; geopolitical framework; and economic
and social development
V. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: The Changing Global Environment; provides
information on physical geography of regions and environmental issues
VI. Population and Settlement: People on the Land; different rates of population growth; various forms
of population planning; importance of migration
A. Population Growth and Change
1. Natural population increase: Rate of natural increase (RNI) provides annual growth rate of
country or region as percentage; produced by subtracting deaths from births in given year
a. Crude birth rate (CBR): gross number of births per 1,000 population in given year
b. Crude death rate (CDR): gross number of deaths per 1,000 population in given year
2. Total Fertility Rate: synthetic number that measures the fertility of statistically fictitious yet
average group of women moving through child bearing years
3. Young and Old Populations: indicators of momentum for continued population growth;
common statistic is percentage of population under age 15
4. Population Pyramids: graphic representation of age and sex distribution of country or
region; used to illustrate rapid, slow, or negative population growth
5. Life Expectancy: average length of a life expected at birth of typical male or famel in
specific country
6. Demographic Transition: conceptual model used to track changes in birth rates and death
rates over time; commonly depicts five ‘stages’ of population growth

B. Global Migration and Settlement: considerable changes in volume and geography of
international migration; various factors contributing to migration
1. Net Migration Rates: statistic that indicates whether more people are entering or leaving a
country; positive figure means population is growing because of in-migration; negative figure
means population is declining because of out-migration
2. Population Density: average number of people per unit of area; conveys important
information about settlement patterns
3. An Urbanizing World: Focal points of contemporary, globalizing world are cities
a. Urbanized population: percentage of country’s population living in cities
VII. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: The Geography of Change and Tradition; entails an
examination of both tradition and change, of tensions and conflict, of global patterns and unique local
customs
A. Culture in a Globalizing World: basic definition of culture—culture is learned, not innate, and
is behavior held in common by a group of people, empowering them with a ‘way of life’; culture
has abstract and material dimensions—speech, religion, ideology, value systems, housing, food,
music; culture is a process, not a condition
1. When Cultures Collide: cultural change often takes place within context of international
tensions; active promotion of one cultural system at expense of another is cultural
imperialism; reaction against cultural imperialism is cultural nationalism—process of
protecting and defending a cultural system against diluting or offensive cultural expressions
2. Cultural Hybrids: blending of forces to form a new, synergistic form of culture
B. Language and Culture in Global Context: language is major characteristic that differentiates
and defines one cultural group from another; language folds together many other aspects of
cultural identity, such as politics, religion, commerce, and customs
1. Languages: linguists have grouped languages in families and subfamilies; dialects are
associated with specific regions and places; lingua franca are common tongues that facilitate
communication
C. Geography of World Religions: religion as important defining trait of cultural groups
1. Universalizing religions: attempt to appeal to all peoples, regardless of location or culture;
usually entail proselytizing or missionary program that actively seeks new converts
2. Ethnic religions: identified closely with specific ethnic, tribal, or national group; normally
do not actively seek new converts; people are born into ethnic religions
3. Christianity: world’s largest religion in both areal extent and number of adherents; many
different branches
4. Islam: entails many different branches; two major groups include Shi’a Islam and Sunni
Islam
5. Judaism: parent religion of Christianity and closely related to Islam
6. Hinduism: closely linked to India
7. Buddhism: originated as reform movement within Hindusim; two major branches include
Theravada and Mahayana
8. Secularism: people consider themselves either non-religious or outright atheistic
D. Gender and Globalization
1. Gender: sociocultural construct linked to values and traditions of groups regarding the two
biological sexes; central is notion of gender roles—cultural guidelines that define appropriate
behavior for each gender within specific context
E. Sports and Globalization: all sports inform us about world’s diverse cultural geography;
influence of American sports abroad; global sports television
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VIII. Geopolitical Framework: Unity and Fragmentation: geopolitics—close link between
geography and politics
A. World Political Systems: world’s complex geopolitical fabric composed of different
governmental systems; type of government often determines country’s internal and external
socioeconomic policies
1. Who has power? Question of whether governmental power rests with country’s citizens, one
person, or small authoritarian group; examples include dictatorships, monarchies,
democracies
2. Governments and Socioeconomic systems: three distinct systems
a. Capitalism: private ownership of property, goods, business; means of production owned
privately; privileges free market
b. Communism: ownership of all property and goods by working class
c. Socialism: no pretense of worker ownership; government owns industry and utilities;
government provides public with health, welfare and education services
B. The Nation-State Revisited: world consists of about 200 countries; sovereignty—ability of a
government to control activities within its borders; sovereignty linked to concept of nation-
state—nation describes large group of people who share sociocultural traits and state refers to
political entity that has delimited boundaries; globalization has weakened vitality ofnation-state
concept
1. Decentralization and Devolution: outright political separation and full governmental
autonomy is referred to as devolution; decentralization is removal of power from central
government to smaller governmental units
C. Colonialism, Decolonialization, and Neocolonialism: colonialism refers to formal
establishment of rule over a foreign population; decolonization refers to process of colony’s
regaining control over its own territory and establishing a separate, independent government;
neocolonialism refers to ways that newly independent states remain controlled, especially in
economic and political matters, by another state
D. Global Conflict and Insurgency: insurgency—challenges by rebellious and separatist groups
within a state; terrorism—violence directed at nonmilitary targets; counterinsurgency—military
response to global terrorism and insurgency
IX. Economic and Social Development: The Geography of Wealth and Poverty
A. More and Less Developed Countries: uneven distribution of economic power; core-periphery
model to describe economic core areas and lesser developed periphery; north-south tensions—
implying richer, Northern Hemisphere countries still at odds with poorer, Southern Hemisphere
countries; third world—term often used erroneously as synonym for developing countries
(historically used to describe countries that were not aligned with either capitalist first world or
communist second world); text-book adopts relational terms of ‘more development country’ and
‘less developed country’
B. Indicators of Economic Development: development has both qualitative and quantitative
dimensions and refers to structural changes; growth refers to increase in size of system
1. Gross Domestic Product and Income: traditional measure of size of country’s economy is
value of final goods and services produced within borders—the gross domestic product
(GDP); when combined with net income from outside borders through trade and other forms
of income—gross national income (GNI); GNI ignores nonmarket economic activity and
does not take into account ecological degradation or depletion of natural resources; GNI per
capita—obtained by dividing GNI by country’s population; purchasing power parity (PPP)—
takes into account the strength or weakness of local currencies

2. Economic Growth Rate: country’s rate of economic growth measured by average annual
growth of its GDP over five-year period
C. Indicators of Social Development: conditions and quality of human life
1. Human Development Index: combines data on life expectancy, literacy, educational
attainment, gender equity, and income
2. Poverty and Mortality: international definition of poverty is living on less than $2 per day;
deep poverty is less than $1.25 per day; under age 5 mortality is number of children in that
age bracket who die per 1000 of general population
3. Adult literacy: indicator of development based on reading and writing skills
4. Gender Equity: attempt to measure the relative position of women to men in terms of
employment, empowerment, and reproductive health
KEY TERMS
Areal differentiation (p. 13)
Areal integration (p. 13)
Bubble economy (p. 10)
Choropleth map (p. 17)
Colonialism (p. 39)
Core-periphery model (p. 42)
Counterinsurgency (p. 41)
Cultural imperialism (p. 30)
Cultural landscape (p. 14)
Cultural syncretism or hybridization (p. 31)
Culture (p. 29)
Decolonialization (p. 39)
Demographic transition model (p. 25)
De-territorialization (p. 36)
Diversity (p. 4)
Economic convergence (p. 9)
Ethnic religion (p. 32)
Formal region (p. 13)
Functional region (p. 13)
Gender (p. 34)
Gender equity (p. 47)
Gender roles (p. 34)
Geographic information system (GIS) (p. 18)
Geography (p. 12)
Geopolitics (p. 37)
Globalization (p. 4)
Global positioning systems (GPS) (p. 16)
Graphic or linear scale (p. 17)
Gross domestic product (GDP) (p. 44)
Gross national income (GNI) (p. 44)
Human Development Index (HDI) (p. 46)
Insurgency (p. 40)
Less developed country (LDC) (p. 43)
Life expectancy (p. 25)
Lingua franca (p. 31)
Map projection (p. 16)
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Map scale (p. 16)
Meridians (lines of longitude) (p. 15)
More developed country (MDC) (p. 43)
Nation-state (p. 38)
Net migration rate (p. 27)
Parallels (lines of latitude) (p. 15)
Population density (p. 27)
Population pyramid (p. 24)
Prime meridian (p. 15)
Purchasing power parity (PPP) (p. 44)
Rate of natural increase (RNI) (p. 22)
Region (p. 13)
Remote sensing (p. 17)
Representative fraction (p. 17)
Secularism (p. 34)
Shi’a Islam (p. 33)
Sunni Islam (p. 33)
Terrorism (p. 40)
Total fertility rate (TFR) (p. 22)
Universalizing religion (p. 323)
Urbanized population (p. 28)
Vernacular region (p. 14)
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 1’S QUESTIONS
Exploring Global Connections

1. Come up with an example of the complicated linkages of globalization based on your own experiences.
Answers will vary. Students should be encouraged to consider the origins of the ordinary commodities
they use, such as food, clothing, and automobiles. This exercise will highlight the global commodity
chains that are involved in the production and distribution of products.
2. Choose a foreign place in a different part of the world and discuss how globalization affects the lives or
people in that place. Answers will vary. Students should be encouraged to consider how globalization
affects people and places differently. In some places for example there are relatively minimal global
connections; in other places the forms of connections vary greatly. For example, in many island-
environments, global connections may appear in the form of tourism; in other locations, it may appear as
export-processing zones.
Working Toward Sustainability

1. Does your college or community have a sustainability plan? If so, what are the key elements? Answers
will vary. Students should be encouraged to consider the various ways in which sustainability is defined
and understood by different agencies; attention should also focus on the ‘target’ of these efforts, e.g.
rivers, soil, wildlife habitat, or farming.
2. How might the concept of sustainability differ for a college or university in, say, India or China? Look on
the Internet to see what you can learn about sustainability programs in foreign colleges. Answers will
vary. Students should consider how political and economic systems, as well as cultural beliefs and
practices, influence both the conceptual definition of sustainability and how this influences the material
practices pursued at these universities.
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People on the Move
1. Does your community include international migrants? If so, where did they come from? What are the
push and pull forces that influence migration decisions? Answers will vary. Students will want to
understand the social connections that have influenced migration into their community; attention should
focus especially on economic and political conditions in the areas of origin and destination, such as
conflict, unemployment, or job creation.
2. Now choose a foreign city in either Europe or Asia and, using the Internet, collect information on its
international migration population. Answers will vary. Students should consider broadly how the city in
question is connected to the global economy as well as historical connections between the country or
countries of origin and the country of destination.
The Human Habitat

1. What city that you have visited has the most unique and memorable cityscape? Why? Answers will vary.
Students may focus on the built landscape and architectural styles; students might also consider the types
of materials used in building construction.
2. Find a major city in another part of the world; and discuss its urban morphology and cityscape. Answers
will vary. Students should focus on the historical origin and growth of the city; the various cultural
impacts on the city; and how changing economic systems may have influenced the physical layout of the
city.
Everyday Globalization
1. Identify a commonplace item or activity in your life that has an interesting backstory involving
globalization. Answers will vary. Students should consider first how the item or activity is connected to
the global economy; and also how the item or activity has diffused over time and space. Students for
example may consider the global connections associated with the production and distribution of cell-
phones; alternatively, students might examine the diffusion of musical genre.
2. How has globalization changed higher education? Answers will vary. Students should consider the
exchange of students between universities; the movement of faculty between universities; and the
exchange of ideas that is facilitated by globalization.
Section Review Questions

1.1 Describe and explain five components of economic globalization. There are many components of
economic globalization. Global communication systems (such as the Internet) link regions and most
people instantaneously. Transportation systems are capable of moving goods quickly by air, sea, and
land. Transnational business strategies, pursued by multinational corporations, facilitate international
trade between regions. Flexible forms of capital accumulation allow for businesses to modify their
economic activities rapidly in response to changing consumer demands. International migration has
increased precipitously in recent decades as a result of economic inequalities, improved transportation
systems, and global communication systems.
1.2 What is the relationship between the end of the Cold War in 1990 and economic globalization? With the
demise of the Soviet Union and the Communist Bloc, many new regions have been opened to free-market
(capitalist) forces. Consequently, many areas that had previously been excluded from, or exhibited limited
participation in, the global economy have been rapidly included.

1.3 Summarize three elements of the controversy about globalization. Proponents of globalization argue that
globalization is a natural and inevitable process; opponents challenge this claim, arguing that
globalization has resulted from particular economic and political decisions. Proponents of globalization
argue that an expansion of the global economy will result in a convergence of regions-that disparities
between wealth, for example, will disappear; opponents of globalization argue that the opposite has, and
will continue to occur—that inequalities will be intensified. Proponents of globalization argue that
economic convergence will result in greater stability (and less conflict) between regions; opponents argue
that the opposite is true—that globalization augments inequalities and thus engenders greater conflict.
1.4 What are the characteristics of ‘flat’ and ‘spiky’ worlds? These are metaphors to describe the globalized
world in socioeconomic terms. The concept of ‘flat’ worlds refers to one in which financial capital and
production flow easily from one place to another; the term ‘spiky’ worlds counters this metaphor, calling
attention to the observation that political, economic, and social barriers exist, leading to a situation
whereby the flow of ideas and goods may be encouraged or inhibited. Some areas are privileged whereas
others are not.
1.5 Explain the difference between areal differentiation and areal integration. Areal differentiation refers to
the difference between and within regions. Areal integration refers to the levels (and forms) of
interactivity and interconnectivity between and within regions.
1.6 How do functional regions differ from formal and vernacular regions? Functional regions are defined by
the clustering of similar activities (or functions), such as types of industries. Formal regions are defined
by shared cultural or physical traits, such as climate and vegetation. Vernacular regions are ‘spatial
stereotypes’ that do not have any material expression on the landscape but rather exist in people’s mental
maps.
1.7 How is the concept of the cultural landscape related to areal differentiation? Cultural landscapes reflect
the material and symbolic landscape—cultural values, ideologies, belief systems, as well as shelter, foods,
and clothing. A focus on the areal differentiation within and between regions would highlight different
forms of cultural landscapes—as evident, for example, in different house types or agricultural practices.
1.8 Explain the difference between latitude and longitude. Lines of latitude (parallels) run east-west and
measure the angular distance north or south of the equator. Lines of longitude (meridians) run north-south
and measure the angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
1.9 What does a map’s scale tell us? Describe three different ways map scale is portrayed. Map scale refers to
the ratio between a unit mapped and the unit on the Earth’s surface; thus, we would want to know, for
example, how many inches on the Earth’s surface correspond to one inch on the map. This is a
representative fraction—it is the ratio between the map and the area being mapped. A graphic or linear
scale is a visual depiction of scale, usually portrayed as a horizontal bar. A verbal scale refers to the area
on the surface related to the area mapped; it is indicated linguistically, such as ‘one inch on the map
equals five miles on the Earth’s surface.’
1.10 What is a choropleth map? A choropleth map is a map that depicts different levels of intensity of data,
such as per capita income or population density.
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1.11 What is remote sensing? Give an example. Remote sensing refers to collection, storage, and analysis of
information derived from electromagnetic images taken from aircraft or satellites. The Landsat satellite
program launched by the United States in 1972 provided data that can be used to detect changes in the
environment, such as deforestation.
1.12 How is the rate of natural increase calculated? Give an example. The RNI is calculated by subtracting the
number of deaths (usually expressed as the crude death rate) from the number of births (usually expressed
as the crude birth rate) in a given year. For example, consider that Place A has a crude death rate of 32
deaths per 1000 population and a crude birth rate of 47 per 1000 population. Subtracting 32 from 47 gives
a rate of natural increase of 15 per 1000 population.
1.13 What is the total fertility rate? The total fertility rate is a synthetic measure that is used to indicate the
statistical average number of children that would be born to a woman on the assumption that she passed
through her reproductive years conforming to the age-specific fertility rates.
1.14 Describe and explain the demographic transition model. The DTM is a model based on crude birth rates,
crude death rates, and the rate of natural increase. It suggests that populations in a given region will
undergo a series of transitions, as first death rates begin to fall and, later, birth rates fall. It is premised
that initially, regions have high births and death rates, and thus little population growth; as deaths decline,
while births remain high, there is a period of rapid population growth. Over time, it is expected that birth
rates will also decline, thus leading to later stages where births and deaths cancel each other, resulting in
little population growth. A final stage is premised whereby death rates might exceed birth rates, thus
leading to a condition of population decline.
1.15 How is a population pyramid constructed, and what kind of information does it convey? A population
pyramid is a graphic representation of an area’s age and sex composition. It conveys the percent of a
population that is male or female in different age classes, from young to old. It is useful for comparing
different population structures and to indicate structural changes of a population over time.
1.16 Define cultural hybridization and give an example. Cultural hybridization refers to the blending of two or
more cultural practices. An example is the introduction of foreign words into an existing language, such
as the emergence of ‘Spanglish’.
1.17 Define gender roles, and illustrate your answer with examples from both modern and traditional cultures.
Gender roles are cultural guidelines that define appropriate behavior for each gender within specific
contexts. In some traditional societies gender roles might rigidly define the difference between women’s
work and men’s work. In more modern societies these rigid distinctions may be more fluid and blurred.
1.18 What are two categories of Islam? Describe the geographies for each. Islam is divided into two main
branches. Shi’a Islam is dominant in Iran and southern Iraq. Sunni Islam is found from the Arab-speaking
lands of North Africa to Indonesia.
1.19 What is a lingua franca? Provide two examples. When people from different cultural groups cannot
communicate directly in their native languages, they may agree on a third language to serve as a common
tongue; this is a lingua franca. Throughout much of eastern Africa Swahili has served as lingua franca. In
many parts of the world today, English has emerged as a pervasive lingua franca.
1.20 Describe the socioeconomic differences among communism, socialism, and capitalism. Capitalism is
based on private ownership of property, goods, and businesses; it is based on idea of the free market.
Communism is based on the ownership of all property and goods by the working class, with restricted
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private ownership. Socialism differs from communism in that the government owns all industries and
utilities. Decisions are not based on free market principles but rather on the government.
1.21 Why is it common to use two different concepts—nation and state—to describe political entities? By
convention a nation refers to a group of people who share a common cultural identity; nations may or may
not be associated with a particular territorial state. A state is a recognized political entity that exhibits
sovereignty—internal control of its own governance, with legally defined and recognized territorial
boundaries. Many states are associated with a single, or dominant, nationality: a nation-state. Many
nationalities that do not currently have their own state aspire to achieve one.
1.22 Explain the differences between colonialism and neocolonialism. Colonialism refers to the explicit
control and dominance of one region (perhaps a formerly independent political entity) by another state.
Neocolonialism is a more recent variant where a nominally independent state is heavily influenced—if
not dominated—by another state. Neocolonialism is usually not associated with occupation, but rather
through unfair or unequal trade relations and other forms of political interference.
1.23 Describe the differences between counterterrorism and counterinsurgency. Counterterrorism usually
entails military operations to combat terrorist organizations. Counterinsurgency refers to the use of both
military and other political and economic policies to address insurgencies, both at home and abroad.
1.24 Explain the difference between GDP and GNI. The GDP refers to the gross domestic product; it is the
value of all final goods and services produced within a country’s borders. The GNI, or gross national
income, includes both the GDP and all net income from outside that country’s borders derived through
trade and other forms. Neither measure takes into account informal economic activities.
1.25 What is PPP, and why is it useful? Purchasing power parity is a statistical measure based on a
modification of GNI per capita; it takes into account the strength or weakness of local currencies and thus
facilitates the comparison between two or more regions. In short, it provides a more accurate sense of the
local cost of living.
1.26 How does the UN measure gender inequity? Explain why this is a useful metric for social development. A
common measure of gender equity is the ratio of male to female students enrolled in elementary and
secondary schools. It is predicated on the assumption that access to education significantly influences
literacy and, by extension, provides an indication of the overall status of women in any given society.
1.27 What are some reasons for the differences in adult literacy rates around the world? There are many factors
that account for literacy differences around the world. There are for example cultural factors which will
influence whether boys and girls have equal access to education. Poverty is an important limiting factor,
whereby families that live in poverty are unable to send their children to school. Governments may also
be more or less willing to invest resources into education.
End of Chapter Questions
1.1 Why are so many U.S. call centers located in India? In answering this question students should focus on
the different educational policies in both the U.S. and India; the interconnectivity between the two
countries; and the overall economic conditions (e.g. employment levels and wage-rates).
1.2 How has globalization affected—for better or worse—the local economy in your area? Answers will vary.
Students should focus on the broader trends of industrialization and de-industrialization; the in- or out-
migration of peoples; and the influence of globalization on cultural and material practices (e.g. dance and
music styles or architecture).
12

1.3 Using the landscape as your guide, describe the economy and social structure of this village on the island
of Luzon, Philippines. Based on the photograph, this is an agricultural area; the village is tightly
clustered, thus providing insight into the social and cultural attitudes of community life. One might expect
that the village is limited in its global connections.
1.4 How are geographic tools used by city and county planners in your community? Answers will vary.
Students should consider how GIS is used as a tool in promoting various plans, such as transportation
systems or sustainability programs.
1.5 What are the reasons for the differences in population density in this portion of southern India? There are
many factors that might account for the differences. Students should consider physical explanations, such
as climate and soil conditions; this will influence the type of agriculture practiced and settlement patterns.
Students should also consider differences in infrastructure, such as roads. Lastly, students should consider
population factors, such as differences in birth rates.
1.6 Do a brief study of the population situation in your area of the country in terms of its natural growth, out-
migration, in-migration, and resulting growth or decline. Then explain why your area’s population is
either growing or declining. Answers will vary. Students can utilize census data and data obtained from
local government agencies. In responding to observed changes, students should relate this to broader
changes in economic conditions, such as employment and wage-rates.
1.7 This photo was taken in downtown Prague, in the Czech Republic. What are the signs of global versus
traditional culture? This photo illustrates signage in the Czech language juxtaposed with brand-name
signage of American-based companies.
1.8 Give five examples of cultural hybridization in your local area. Answers will vary. Students can focus on
restaurants and food choices; the presence of immigrant-run grocery stores; hybrid architectural styles;
the prevalence of different languages; and sport activities.
1.9 What are the reasons behind terrorist attacks in Pakistan? What groups are responsible, and what are their
goals? There are many reasons behind the terrorist attacks; some are religious and have to do with the
practice of appropriate behavior; other reasons are more political-economic and relate to the foreign and
domestic policies of the Pakistani government and the relations between Pakistan and other countries.
There are various groups responsible for terrorist activities; two important groups are al-Qaeda and the
Taliban. These groups most simply want to establish their own governments.
1.10 Working in a small group, choose an African country that was a European colony in the early 20th
century, and trace its geopolitical geography and history over the last century. Answers will vary.
Students should focus on the processes of colonization, including the timing and motivations of colonial
occupation. Students should focus also on the level and form of infrastructure developed during the period
of colonialism. Students next should consider the process of de-colonization, including the different
political groups that might have emerged to contest colonial rule. Lastly, students should focus on post-
colonial practices, including forms of government, economic policies, and the establishment of foreign
relations.
1.11 Many clothing factories have sprung up in Bangladesh in the last decade. Why? Make a list of the
positive and negative aspects of this development from a local perspective. Clothing factories have
relocated in large part because of lower wage-rates, low tax rates, relaxed environmental regulations, and
various policies that may prohibit the formation of unions and other forms of labor organizing. The most
positive aspect is that jobs are created; however, the working conditions are often abysmal and wages are
too low.
1.12 In the latest Human Development Index study, the United States ranks number 3 in the world, behind
Norway and Australia. Why doesn’t the United States rank higher? Answers will vary. However, a
fundamental reason is that the United States does not invest as heavily in education and health care as do
other countries, including Norway and Australia.
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FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION
1. What corporations can you name that have a global reach? Consider both U.S. firms operating abroad,
and firms located elsewhere that do business in the United States. What international goods or services do
you purchase?
2. The ‘demographic transition model’ is based on crude birth rates, crude death rates, and the rate of natural
increase. How might the model be modified to consider migration?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Have students form groups and look through their belongings to find labels that identify where various
items were made. Have each group map the origins of these items and report to the class
Looking for additional review and test prep materials? Visit the Study Area in MasteringGeography™ to
enhance your geographic literacy, spatial reasoning skills, and understanding of this chapter’s content by
accessing a variety of resources, including interactive maps, geoscience animations, satellite loops, author
notebooks, videos, RSS feeds, flashcards, web links, self-study quizzes, and an eText version of Diversity
Amid Globalization 6e.
Learning Catalytics, a “bring your own device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom
intelligence system, integrated with MasteringGeography.
14

Chapter 2: Physical Geography and the Environment
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe those aspects of tectonic plate theory responsible for shaping Earth’s surface
• Identify those parts of the world where earthquakes and volcanoes are hazardous to human
settlement and explain why casualty rates from those hazards differ from place to place
• List the factors that control the world’s weather and climate
• Describe the major characteristics and locations of the world’s major climate regions
• Explain the greenhouse effect and how it relates to anthropogenic global warming
• Summarize the major issues underlying the international controversy over reducing emissions of
greenhouse gases
• Define the concept of fossil fuel proven reserves and explain the socioeconomic factors that
influence the amount of fossil fuel reserves
• Describe the world geography of fossil fuel production and consumption
• List the advantages and disadvantages of different kinds of renewable energy
• Identify the causes of global water stress
• Describe the characteristics and distribution of the world’s major bioregions
• Explain the reasons behind deforestation in both tropical and higher-latitude forests
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Geology: A Restless Earth: Geologic processes shape Earth’s surface and provide character to its
diverse landscapes; this geologic foundation is also central to a wide array of human activities
A. Plate Tectonics: a geophysical theory that Earth’s outer layer consists of large geologic plates
that move slowly across its surface; convection cells causes plate movement; continents and
ocean basins sit atop plates
1. Colliding plate boundary: where two or more plates converge
2. Transform fault: where one plate moves past another
3. Subduction zone: where one plate sinks below another
4. Divergent plate boundary: where two or more plates move away from each other
B. Geologic Hazards: earthquakes and volcanoes can have major effects on human settlement and
activities; earthquakes and volcanoes occur primarily along plate boundaries
II. Global Climates: Adapting to Change: Most human activities are closely linked to weather and
climate; much of world’s landscape diversity results from ways in which people adapt to weather and
climate; the world’s climates are presently changing—all forms of life, including humans—will have
to adjust to vastly different climatic conditions
A. Climate Controls: set of physical processes that influence weather and climate
1. Solar Energy: Energy emitted from the Sun; accounts in part for differences in temperature
patterns across Earth’s surface; drives other important processes, including global pressure
systems, winds, and ocean currents; incoming short-wave solar energy is called insolation;
natural process of atmospheric heating is called greenhouse effect
2. Latitude: because of curvature of globe, insolate strikes Earth at different angles; this results
in differential heating of Earth’s surface; solar intensity is highest along the equator and
weakest at the poles
3. Interactions Between Land and Water: because land and water differ in ability to absorb
and reradiate insolation, global arrangements of oceans and land areas is major influence on
climates; continentality describes inland climates; maritime climates are those close to oceans
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4. Global Pressure Systems: uneven heating of Earth’s surface combined with arrangement of
continents and oceans produces regular pattern of high- and low-pressure cells; interaction of
cells produces storms
5. Global Wind Patterns: high- and low-pressure systems also produce global wind patterns at
local, regional, and global scales; winds in general flow away from high-pressure cells and
toward low-pressure cells
6. Topography: refers to the relief of the Earth’s surface; affects weather and climate in two
ways—cooler temperatures associated with higher elevations and topography influences
precipitation patterns; adiabatic lapse rate is rate of cooling with increasing altitude;
orographic effect refers to precipitation caused by moisture-laden air passing over mountains;
dry areas on leeward side of mountain is known as rain shadow
B. World Climate Regions
1. Weather: short-term, day-to-day expression of atmospheric processes
2. Climate: long-term average from daily weather measurements
3. Climographs: graphic representations of monthly average high and low temperatures and
monthly precipitation amounts for a specific location
C. Global Climate Change: human activities, primarily those connected with economic
development and industrialization, are changing the world’s climate
1. Anthropogenic Pollution: human-caused pollution of lower atmosphere; increasing the
natural greenhouse effect so that global warming is taking place; consequences included
changes in rainfall patterns, sea level rise, and natural hazards
2. Causes of Global Warming and Climate Change: global warming refers not just to
increase of Earth’s average temperature but also to implications of that warming; climate
change is simply documented or predicted change in temperature, winds, and precipitation
pattern
a. Over last 20,000 years Earth’s climate has naturally warmed; but human activities have
accelerated that warming; especially significant has been widespread consumption of coal
and petroleum
3. The International Debate on Limiting Emissions: Different phases over last 30 years; first
phase began in 1992 with voluntary agreement among 167 countries to limit greenhouse gas
emissions; second phase began in 1997 as 30 Western countries agreed to reduce emissions;
entering third phrase in attempt to reduce emissions; carbon inequity refers to position taken
by some countries that those industrialized countries that caused most of problem should
shoulder most of cost; in 2011 a meeting of 194 countries agreed to establish new goals and
procedures to reduce emissions
III. Global Energy: The Essential Resource: energy is capacity to do work; power is rate at which
energy is used
A. Non-Renewable and Renewable Energy: non-renewable energy is consumed at a higher rate
than it is replenished—examples include oil, coal, uranium, and natural gas; renewable energy
depends on natural processes that are being constantly renewed—examples include water, wind,
and solar energy; fossil fuels provide most of world’s power; distinction between ‘dirty’ and
‘clean’ energy—based on amount of atmospheric emissions that are produced when consumed;
global distribution of fossil fuels is highly differentiated from place to place
B. Fossil Fuel Reserves, Production, and Consumption
1. Proven reserves—refer to deposits of oil, coal, and gas that are possible to mine and
distribute under current economic and technological conditions; hydraulic fracturing, or
fracking, refers to oil and gas mining technique that forces oil and gas out of shale rock
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C. Renewable Energy: despite widespread availability, provides only fraction of world’s power;
wide variation among states with respect to usage
1. Issues with Renewable Energy: both wind and sun are intermittent sources of power; usage
requires balance between supply and demand; may be more costly
D. Energy Futures: global energy demand is forecast to increase; different regions will increase at
different rates; fossil fuel reserves may be adequate to meet future demands; expansion of
renewable technologies may decrease demand for fossil fuels
IV. Water: A Scare Resource: water is central to human life and supporting activites—agriculture,
industry, transportation; but is unevenly distributed around the world; water is plentiful but much is
inaccessible; water stress—concept used to indicate where water problems exist—calculated by
amount of fresh water available in relation to current and future population
A. Water Scarcity: about half of world’s population lives in areas where water shortages are
common; food production may decline as water becomes increasingly scarce
B. Water Sanitation: many people do not have access to clean, unpolluted water
C. Water Access: access to water is uneven; gendered component as men and women, boys and
girls may have different roles related to providing water for family use; some attempts to increase
access to water have aggravated problems—privatization of water for example has restricted
some poor people’s access to water
V. Bioregions and Biodiversity: The Globalization of Nature: biodiversity—term used to describe
species richness; bioregion—local or regional assemblage of plants and animals
A. Tropical Rainforests: bioregion found along equator with high average annual temperatures,
abundant sunlight, copious rainfall; covers approximately 7 percent of world’s land area; dense
tropical vegetation usually arrayed in three distinct levels
B. Tropical Seasonal Forests: north and south of tropical rainforests; have a distinct dry season;
forest trees are often deciduous
C. Tropical Savannas: have dry seasons lasting half year or longer; located in equatorial areas;
widely used for grazing and farming
D. Deforestation of Tropical Forests: forests being cut at alarming rate; differs from region to
region, but appears to be occurring fastest in Southeast Asia; globalization of commerce in
international wood products is major cause of deforestation; also important is clearing of land for
plantations and other settlements
E. Deserts and Grasslands: areas of arid and semiarid climates; grassy plants appear in semiarid
regions; prairies—areas of thick, long grasses; steppes—areas of shorter, less dense grasslands;
boundary between desert and grassland varies naturally; human activities have increased desert
areas; desertification—the creation of arid deserts in hwat were formerly grasslands
F. Mediterranean Shrubs and Woodlands: areas where annual precipitation exceeds 10 inches,
have prolonged summer-season drought; produces unique array of grasses, shrubs, and trees
G. Temperate Deciduous Forests: associated with regions where precipitation falls year-round in
amounts of 30-60 inches, summers are warm, winters are cold, yet no month averages below
freezing; dominated by deciduous trees, including maple, oak, elm, ash, and beech; areas have
rich soils conductive to agriculture
H. Evergreen Forests: temperatures in these regions average below freezing for at least one month;
evergreen forests dominant; in Canada and Alaska known as boreal forests; known as taiga in
Russia; many regions exhibit on-going tension between timber harvesting and environmental
conservation
I. Tundra: appears in two versions: the expansive arctic tundra of far northern hemisphere, and the
alpine tundra found at high elevations in mountainous regions worldwide; both are characterized
by primarily treeless landscapes; limited moisture; low shrubs, reindeer moss, sedge, and grasses;
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tundra stores vast amounts of methane—this is being released because of global warming and is
contributing to climate change
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KEY TERMS
Adiabatic lapse rate (p. 60)

Anthropogenic (p. 61)
Biodiversity (p. 72)
Bioregion (p. 72)
Boreal forest (p. 79)
Carbon inequity (p. 64)
Climate (p. 61)
Climate change (p. 61)
Climograph (p. 61)
Colliding plate boundary (p. 54)
Continentality (p. 58)
Deciduous forest (p. 74)
Desertification (p. 75)
Divergent plate boundary (p. 54)
Global warming (p. 61)
Greenhouse effect (p. 58)
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) (p. 68)
Insolation (p. 58)
Maritime climate (p. 58)
Non-renewable energy (p. 66)
Orographic effect (p. 60)
Plate tectonics (p. 52)
Prairie (p. 75)
Proven reserves (p. 67)
Rain shadow (p. 60)
Renewable energy (p. 66)
Steppe (p. 75)
Subduction zone (p. 54)
Taiga (p. 79)
Transform fault (p. 540
Tropical savanna (p. 74)
Tundra (p. 79)
Water stress (p. 71)
Weather (p. 60)

1. What’s the highest elevation in Antarctica? Is it part of an ice sheet? The highest point is Mt. Vinson
(16,144 feet) and is part of the Sentinel Range.
2. How do scientists measure melting of the Antarctic ice sheets? Scientists use ice cores and other
technologies, such as remote sensing and GIS, to document the loss of ice.

1. List some of the social costs borne by people without (or with very limited) power? Education may
suffer; community health may be compromised; and agricultural practices may be diminished.
2. What other alternatives than solar power do rural Africans have for lighting their villages? Previously,
most energy for lighting came from kerosene, candles, and batteries.
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1. What are the causes behind deforestation in Brazil? There are many causes, including increased
urbanization and logging to satisfy the world’s timber demand. A major cause however is the clearing of
forests for cattle ranches; these have been established to satisfy the increased demand for beef in many
countries, including the United States.
2. Compare the rainforest cutting patterns between Novo Progresso and Itaituba, Brazil. Is there a difference
between cutting for cattle pasture contrasted to logging for timber? Where is the most cattle pasture? A
principle difference is that in the former, forests are clear-cut whereas in the latter, more selective cutting
is practiced. The most cattle pasture is located in Brazil.

2.1 What are three kinds of tectonic plate boundaries? There are three types of boundaries. Convergent plate
boundaries exist where two or more plates come together—there are also known as subduction zones.
Divergent plate boundaries exist where two or more plates are moving apart. Transform plate boundaries
exist where two plates are ‘sliding’ past one-another.
2.2 What drives tectonic plate movement? According to plate tectonics theory, large convection cells in the
Earth’s mantle circulate molten rock in different directions; near the crust, the slow movement of the
molten material drags tectonic plates away from mid-oceanic ridges, resulting in the collision of plates
along convergent plate boundaries.
2.3 Where are most of the world’s earthquakes and volcanoes? Why are they located where they are? Most
earthquakes are located along all three types of plate boundaries; this seismic activity results from the
moving away, coming together, or moving past of two or more plates. Most volcanoes are located along
either subduction zones or divergent plate boundaries.
2.4 What is the difference between insolation and reradiation? Insolation refers to incoming solar radiation
whereas reradiation refers to out-going radiation after it has entered into the Earth’s atmosphere.
2.5 How and why has the natural greenhouse effect been changed by human activities? The natural effect has
been affected because human activities have added additional amounts of greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, ozone, and methane, to the Earth’s atmosphere. These additional GHGs have, in part,
come from increased consumption of petroleum products, the clearing and burning of forests, and the
growth of cattle and sheep ranching.
2.6 What are the differences between continental and maritime climates? What causes these differences? In
general, continental climates have hot summers and cold winters; they exhibit stark temperature extremes;
and there is often a distinct seasonality to precipitation patterns. Maritime climates are generally milder,
with less temperature extremes. The cause is primarily due to the continentality of the former—these
areas are located far beyond the moderating influences of the ocean.
2.7 What issues are hindering international efforts to reduce carbon emissions? The major issue hindering
efforts to reduce carbon emissions is the argument that any reduction or restrictions on industries—a
primary contributor of carbon emissions—would result in barriers to economic growth. Another issue is
the whether all governments should take an equitable approach to reducing emissions—or only those
most responsible, i.e. the more developed industrialized countries.
2.8 What are fossil fuel proven reserves? These are deposits that are possible to mine and distribute under
current economic and technological conditions.
2.9 List the top three countries using the most oil, coal, and natural gas. The top three consumers of oil are the
United States, China, and Japan; the top three consumers of coal are China, the United States, and India;
the top three consumers of natural gas are the United States, Russia, and Iran.
2.10 What are some of the problems with renewable energy? A major problem is that renewable energy
sources provide only a fraction of the world’s power; another problem is that many are intermittent (i.e.
the sun doesn’t always shine and the wind doesn’t always blow). Also, it is very expensive to develop and
implement renewable power.
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2.11 How might fracking change the world? It might dramatically alter world energy supplies, trade, and
politics. The United States, for example, might be able to satisfy most of its energy needs domestically,
thereby reducing its dependence on oil and natural gas obtained from other countries.
2.12 How much water is there on Earth, and how available is it for human usage? Use in your answer the
concept that Earth’s water budget is just 100 liters. If we assume that the total amount of water on the
Earth is 100 liters, only about 3 liters would be freshwater and thus readily usable; of that, only a mere
0.003 liters is available for human use.
2.13 What are the three major issues that cause water stress? The three major issues are scarcity, sanitation,
and access. The uneven distribution of water across the Earth’s surface imparts a scarcity for many areas;
pollution contributes to the unsanitary conditions associated with some water supplies; and many people,
because of economic impoverishment or conflict, have little to no access to regular, dependable water
supplies.
2.14 Where in the world are the most severe areas of water stress? The areas with the most severe areas of
water stress are the western United States, parts of the southern cone of South America, parts of North
Africa and the Middle East; much of South Asia, northeastern China, southern Africa, and much of
Australia.
2.15 How and why do the tree tropical bioregions differ? The difference between tropical rainforests, tropical
seasonal forests, and tropical savanna is largely a matter of precipitation. Although all three regions are
located within the tropics, and all have fairly high and constant temperatures, they differ in the seasonality
and amount of precipitation. Tropical rainforests receive abundant rainfall year-round; tropical seasonal
bioregions have a distinct dry season; and tropical savannas receive considerably less precipitation.
2.16 What are the causes of tropical forest deforestation? There are many causes, including the clearing of
forests for agricultural use; the clearing of forests for a global commercial timber industry; the clearing of
forests for human settlement; and the clearing of forests for transportation.
2.17 What is desertification? Desertification refers to the expansion of desert areas into former grasslands. It is
caused both by climate change and by human mis-use. This latter cause includes both improper irrigation
techniques and over-grazing of live-stock.
In Review Questions
2.1 Make a list of cities with populations larger than half a million that are located near tectonic plate
boundaries, thus are vulnerable to damage from a major earthquake. Also note those cities where a nearby
volcanic explosion could be a hazard. Answers will vary. Students should focus on cities along plate
boundaries, especially the ‘Ring of Fire’, including Los Angeles, Tokyo, Manila, and Jakarta. Cities that
are also susceptible to volcanic hazards are those proximate to subduction zones, such as Jakarta.
2.2 Choose one of those cities then go on the Internet to gather information about how that city is reducing its
earthquake or volcanic hazard vulnerability in terms of planning and disaster preparation. Answers will
vary. In Los Angeles, for example, the city has implemented a variety of building codes and structural
improvements to make buildings safer. Specific evacuation plans have also been developed.
2.3 What causes tornadoes and where in North America are they most common? How do people and
communities prepare for the tornado event? Tornadoes often form from within larger storms called
supercells; the precise cause is related to pressure differences and the convergence and divergence of air
within the storm. Most tornadoes in North America occur in ‘Tornado Alley’, which refers to the states
and provinces of the mid-west, from Texas northward through to the Canadian prairies.
2.4 Make a list of other climate hazards in other parts of the world and then investigate how people in those
areas adapt to those threats. Answers will vary. Hurricanes (also known as cyclones or typhoons),
droughts, and flooding are other climate hazards. In some countries, mitigation strategies, such as storm
shelters, are used to minimize loss of life; in some areas, structures have been redesigned to withstand the
force of these hazards.
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2.5 What are the possible environmental effects from fracking in this area? Compare those to the possible
benefits for landowners and municipalities. Which is greater? Possible effects include the pollution of
water supplies, land subsidence, and possible earthquakes. Benefits include a source of energy and, for
landowners, revenue from the energy corporations to pay for the use of their land. The problem of this
cost-benefit analysis is that those who potentially engender the greater environmental risks do not
necessarily receive the monetary benefits.
2.6 Currently the United States relies on vast amounts of imported oil to meet its energy needs. While some
say that fracking could end dependence of foreign oil, others say not. Acquaint yourself with this debate,
and then make a case for one side or the other. Answers will vary, but students should focus on the
distribution of costs and benefits when making their argument.
2.7 In what climate region is this dam and reservoir? Given that climate, why are there water problems in this
area? This dam and reservoir are located in a continental climate; precipitation is seasonal. Accordingly,
periodic flooding of the river is a source of concern; the dam and reservoir provides both necessary
energy supplies and is used to control potential flooding.
2.8 Consult the Internet to become acquainted with the controversy over large dams in South Asia by listing
their benefits and liabilities for different groups of people (city dwellers, large farmers, subsistence
farmers, etc). Answers will vary. Possible benefits include flood mitigation, provision of energy, and
possible sources of income from tourism associated with reservoirs. Liabilities, or other negative costs,
include displacement and forced relocation and diversion of water from traditional agricultural areas.
Groups will benefit or be harmed in different ways; large farmers for example may benefit more greatly
from diverted water supplies; city dwellers likewise may benefit from a reduction in floods and the
provision of a more reliable water supply. Subsistence farmers may benefit the least if they are denied
access to traditional sources of water.
2.9 Describe the different bioregions shown on this aerial photo of the northeastern Amazon in Brazil. The
different bioregions include tropical rainforests and tropical seasonal.
2.10 Discuss the specific human activities that might be changing these bioregions and what effects these
might have on specific plants and animals. The various human activities may include subsistence farming,
cattle pasturing, and logging. The effects might include a loss of a traditional way of human agricultural
practice, rapid deforestation and habitat loss, and by extension loss of biological diversity.
1. Look at the map of world climate regions. In which climate region do you live? In which bioregion do
you live? Can you explain how the climate of your region influences the type of vegetation found?
2. Study the distribution of tectonic plates, earthquakes, and volcanoes. What areas are not prone to these
geologic hazards? What reasons can you provide to explain this pattern?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Do some outside readings on global warming. What evidence is used to support the argument that
anthropogenic effects are contributing to global warming? What evidence is used to refute this argument?
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23

Chapter 3: North America
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe North America’s major landforms and climate regions
• Identify key environmental issues facing North Americans in the 21st century and describe how
these relate to the region’s resource base and economic development
• Explain the major ways in which people have modified the North American environment
• Summarize the three most important periods of European settlement in North America
• Identify major migration flows in North American history
• Explain the processes that shape contemporary urban and rural settlement patterns
• List the five phases of immigration shaping North America and describe the recent importance of
Hispanic and Asian immigration
• Provide examples of how cultural globalization has shaped the region
• Describe how the United States and Canada developed distinctive federal political systems and
identify each nation’s current political challenges
• Describe the role of key factors in explaining why economic activities are located where they are
in North America
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: North America includes the United States and Canada; region is culturally-diverse,
resource-rich, and has seen unparalleled human modification and economic development over past
two centuries; exemplifies post-industrial economy that is shaped by modern technology; term ‘North
America’ may be problematic
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: A Vulnerable Land of Plenty: North America’s
physical and human geographies are very diverse; many recent natural disasters and environmental
hazards indicate close connections between physical setting and human settlement
A. A Diverse Physical Setting: North America’s complex landscape is dominated by interior
lowlands bordered by mountainous topography in western portion of region; extensive coastal
plains strength in much of the eastern region; key mountain ranges include the Rocky Mountains,
the Appalachia Mountains; the Coast Ranges; and the Sierra Nevada
B. Patterns of Climate and Vegetation: highly diverse because of size and physical geography;
northward are boreal forests giving way to tundra; drier continental climates found in the interior;
marine west coast climates dominate northwestern regions; Mediterranean climate occurs toward
southwest; tropical climates dominate southeast
C. Costs of Human Modification: processes of globalization and accelerated urban and economic
growth have transformed region’s landforms, soils, vegetation, and climate
1. Transforming Soils and Vegetation: arrival of Europeans introduced new species of flora
and fauna; forest cover was removed for agriculture; soil erosion was increased by
unsustainable farming and ranching practices
2. Managing Water: water consumption is huge in the region; many areas are experience
scarcity of water; water quality is becoming a major issue; fisheries illustrate complexities of
water-resource management
3. Altering the Atmosphere: chemical composition of atmosphere has been affected; urban
heat islands—development associated with cities produce local climate conditions of elevated
temperatures; much of region is plagued by acid rain caused by industrially produced
pollutants
D. Growing Environmental Awareness: many environmental initiatives have addressed local and
regional problems, including wildlife habitats, conservation practices, and air-quality standards;
24

especially important is rise of sustainable agriculture—agriculture based on limited use of
chemicals, organic farming techniques, and integrated plan of crop and livestock management;
selective removal of dams also illustrative of trend toward more environmentally friendly policies
and practices
E. The Shifting Energy Equation: energy consumption is very high; there is a growing appeal of
renewable energy resources; several supplies of non-renewable energy sources; energy use and
production remains complicated and political; hydraulic fracturing is illustrative of complexities
of environmental problems and energy demand
F. Climate Change in North America: climate change has already reshaped North America; high-
latitude and alpine environments especially vulnerable; cumulative long-term consequences are
enormous, including more droughts, wildfires, coastal flooding, altered wildlife habitats, changes
in agriculture, and storms
III. Population and Settlement: Reshaping a Continental Landscape: landscape is product of human
settlement that extends back for at least 12,000 to 25,000 years; pace of change has increased
A. Modern Spatial and Demographic Patterns: metropolitan clusters dominate region’s
population geography; in Canada, about 90 percent of population is found within 100 miles of the
US border; megalopolis—term to indicate largest settlement agglomeration in the US, including
Washington DC, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston; census counts are used to
gather basic information on populations
B. Population Change over Time: region’s population has increased greatly since beginning of
European colonization; currently, rates of natural increase are declining; immigration remains
high
C. Occupying the Land: prior to the arrival of Europeans, peoples had settled the region at least
12,000 to 25,000 years ago; Native American populations were very diverse; population of
Native Americans decimated by disease and war following arrival of Europeans; introduction of
Europeans led to three stages of new settlement geography: series of European colonies;
settlement of eastern half of continent for agriculture; and western expansion; overall, constitutes
one of largest and most rapid transformation of landscape in human history
D. North Americans on the Move
1. Westward-Moving Populations: most persistent regional migration trend in North America
is tendency for people to move west; this has impacted resource use (water) and has affected
political and economic processes; overall economic trends impact migration patterns
2. Black Exodus from the South: African Americans have generated distinctive patterns of
interregional migration; in early 20th century many African Americans moved from the South
and toward urban areas in the North and West
3. Rural-to-Urban Migration: dominant trend has been for people to move from rural areas to
urban areas
4. Growth of the Sun Belt South: since the 20th century, many people have moved to southern
states, including Florida, Texas, Georgia, North Carolina
5. Nonmetropolitan Growth: Since the 1970s many urban areas have periodically seen people
move to nearby, non-metropolitan locations
E. Settlement Geographies: The Decentralized Metropolis: North America’s settlement
landscape reflects population movements, shifting regional economic fortunes, and technological
innovations; some landscapes display consequences of urban decentralization—in which
metropolitan areas sprawl in all directions and suburbs take on many characteristics of traditional
downtowns
1. Historical Evolution of the City in the United States: changing transportation technologies
shaped the evolution of the city in the United States; a series of changes have been identified:
pedestrian/horsecar city; electric trolley city; and automobile city; these contributed to
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changing urban patterns and land-uses; urban decentralization has also reconfigured land-use
patterns; modern patterns continue to shift; edge city—larger, peripheral node of activity with
fewer functional connections with central city than it was with other suburban centers
2. Consequences of Sprawl: rapid evolution of city continues to transform landscape; many
inner cities suffered losses in population, increased levels of crime, social disruption, and
shrinking tax base; inner city poverty is continuing problem; some inner cities experiencing
gentrification—the displacement of lower-income residents of central-city neighborhoods by
higher-income residents; some advocate new urbanism—urban design movement stressing
higher-density, mixed-used, pedestrian-scaled neighborhoods; suburbs also changing,
exemplified by edge cities
F. Settlement Geographies: Rural North America: rural North American landscapes trace origins
to early European settlement; commercial farming and technological changes, such as railroad,
changed settlement patterns; many rural areas today face population declines
IV. Culture Coherence and Diversity: Shifting Patterns of Pluralism: North America’s cultural
geography is both globally dominant and internally pluralistic
A. Roots of a Cultural Identity: Key Anglo legal and social institutions form foundation of North
American cultural identity; cultural unity coexists with pluralism—the persistence and assertion
of distinctive cultural identities; ethnicity refers to shared cultural identity held by a group of
people with common background and history; both Canada and the United States face their own
distinctive cultural problems
B. Peopling North America: North America is region of immigrants; over time, varied immigrant
groups have produced a culturally diverse landscape
1. Migration to the United States: In phase 1, English influences dominated; in phase 2
Northwest Europe served as main source region of immigrants; in phase 3 immigrants largely
originated from southern and eastern Europe; in phase 4 more immigrants came from Canada
and Latin America—but totals fell because of restrictions; in phase 5 large migration from
Asia and Latin America; Hispanic population is one of most rapidly increasing in the United
States; both Hispanics and Asian immigrants reveal distinctive settlement patterns
2. The Canadian Pattern: peopling of Canada included early French arrivals; followed by
similar surge and orientation of migration flows as United States
C. Culture and Place in North America: North America’s cultural diversity expressed
geographically in two ways: similar people congregate near one another; and culture marks the
visible scene, as everyday landscape is filled with artifacts, habits, language, and values of
different groups
1. Persistent Cultural Homelands: culturally distinctive nucleus of settlements in well-defined
geographical areas: examples include French-Canadian Quebec, Hispanic Borderlands,
African-American homelands, and Acadiana
2. Native American Signatures: many Native American peoples maintain intimate
relationships with surroundings; many live on reservations; many Native American
communities are settings for pervasive poverty, health problems, and cultural tensions
3. A Mosaic of Ethnic Neighborhoods: North America’s cultural mosaic is enlivened by
smaller-scale ethnic signatures that shape both rural and urban landscapes; exemplified by
ethnic neighborhoods
D. Patterns of North American Religion: Protestantism is dominant within the United States; other
regional concentrations of Mormons and other religions; Canada reveals similar patterns;
continued immigration has contributed to many other religions in North America
E. The Globalization of American Culture: North America’s culture is becoming more global
while global cultures are becoming more North American
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1. North Americans: Living Globally: North Americans are significantly exposed to people
from beyond the region; this is because of immigration and global media; globalization has
contributed to cultural tensions, including the dominance of English language; North
America’s globalization is evidenced also in cyber-communities, ethnic restaurants, and
musical styles
2. The Global Diffusion of U.S. Culture: the popular culture of the United States is
transforming many regions around the world; improvements in global transportation and
information technologies are contributed to this; the result in some places has been a
synthesis of American and local cultures; the diffusion of American culture has not gone
unchallenged; active resistance is also notable
3. The Globalization of North American Sports: major North American sports (hockey,
baseball, basketball, football) are transcending national boundaries; concurrently, sports
popular in other regions (notably soccer) are becoming incorporated in North America; North
American sports also affected landscapes in other ways, such as diffusion of American-style
golf courses
V. Geopolitical Framework: Patterns of Dominance and Division
A. Creating Political Space: the United States and Canada emerged from different political roots—
the United States broke cleanly and violently from England whereas Canada exhibits a peaceful,
incremental separation from Britain and then assembled as a collection of distinctive societies
1. Uniting the States: the early 18th century revealed a political geography in the making;
quickly however European settlers imposed their own political boundaries across the region;
throughout the 19th century the spaces of the United States were consolidated with new
territories acquired
2. Assembling the Provinces: the modern pattern of provinces in Canada was assembled in a
slow and uncertain fashion; much of Canada grew, politically, jout of geographical
convenience rather than compelling nationalism
B. Continental Neighbors: Geopolitical relations between Canada and the United States have
always been close
1. Sharing the Great Lakes: the Great Lakes illustrate a remarkable continental cooperation
2. Close Trading Connections: historically the two countries have been key trading partners
3. Continuing Conflicts: political conflicts occasionally divide the two countries; examples
include regional water issues; security concerns and border regulation; and
agricultural/natural resource competition
C. The Legacy of Federalism: Both the United States and Canada are federal states—they allocate
considerable political power to units of government beneath the national level; conversely,
unitary states, such as France, are those in which power is centralized at the national level; both
the United States and Canada have federal constitutions—although their origins and evolution
differ
1. Quebec’s Challenge: the political status of Quebec, in Canada, remains major issue;
economic disparities have reinforced cultural differences; support for separation of Quebec
has ebbed and flowed since the 1960s
D. Native Peoples and National Politics: North American Indian and Inuit populations in both
countries have challenged federal political power; there are on-going demands for greater
political autonomy and economic independence
E. The Politics of U.S. Immigration: Immigration policies have long been contested; four key
issues include disagreements concerning overall numbers of legal immigrants; how to reduce
daily flow of undocumented immigrants; linkage of drug-related violence along U.S.-Mexico
border; and how to address existing undocumented immigrants currently in the country
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F. A Global Reach: historically the United States has extended its influence beyond its borders; the
United States actively intervened in the politics and economics of other countries; shaped
multinational political and military agreements; and has secured access to military bases around
the world
VI. Economic and Social Development: Patterns of Abundance and Affluence: North America
possesses the world’s most powerful economy and its most affluent population
A. An Abundant Resource Base: the region is home to many natural resources and reveals a
climatic and biological diversity
1. Opportunities for Agriculture: North Americans have created one of the most efficient
food-producing systems in the world; agriculture is a dominant land-use across much of
region; agriculture is commercialized, mechanized, and specialized; geography of North
American farming represents impacts of diverse environments, varied continental and global
markets for food, historical patterns of settlement and agricultural evolution, and growing
role of agribusiness—corporate farming that involves large-scale business enterprises that
control closely integrated segments of food production
2. Energy and Industrial Raw Materials: North American produce and consume huge
quantities of natural resources; the region is endowed with variety of resources; but scale and
diversity of economy requires sizeable imports of additional raw materials; most abundant
fossil fuel in the United States is coal
B. Creating a Continental Economy: new technologies reshaped the landscape and reorganized its
economy
1. Connectivity and Economic Growth: improvements in transportation and communication
systems laid foundation for urbanization, industrialization, and commercialization of
agriculture; especially important was advent of railroads; later, advent of automobile was
significant; most recently, computers, satellites, telecommunications, and Internet
technologies have contributed to connectivity and economic growth
2. The Sectoral Transformation: changes in employment structure; undergone transformation
from primary sector, to secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
3. Regional Economic Patterns: location factors—varied influences that explain why an
economic activity is located where it is; historical manufacturing core includes Megalopolis
and industrial Midwest; varied West Coast industrial region stretches along Pacific Coast—
region is key for aerospace operations and high-tech industries
C. Enduring Social Issues: profound economic and social problems shape the human geography of
North America; great differences in wealth persist; disparities in health care and education are
visible; race continues to be a problem; there are regional variations to these issues
1. Wealth and Poverty: distribution of wealth and poverty varies widely across the United
States and Canada; poor populations remains clustered in variety of geographical settings,
especially in inner-cities, the Canadian Maritimes, Appalachia, the Deep South, the
Southwest, and other rural areas; disparities in wealth are linked to ethnicity
2. Access to Education: most public officials agree that investment in education is important;
access to education differs by race; promotion of national education policy in face of strong
tradition of local control of education remains contentious
3. Gender Equity: both the United States and Canada have seen improvements in role that
women play in society since World War Two; gender gap remains significant though;
political power and economic power often remain in hands of men
4. Aging and Health-Care Issues: these are key concerns as population of region ages; health
care in both countries is very costly and not accessible to all; rising incidence of chronic
diseases associated with aging contribute to problems of health-care; chronic alcoholism is
widespread; HIV/AIDs remains key health-care issue
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D. North America and the Global Economy: North America plays a pivotal role in the global
economy; region is home to many ‘global cities’; United States in particular played formative role
in creating new global economy
1. Patterns of Trade: Both countries import diverse products from many global sources,
especially Asia; exports of Canada include raw materials, manufactured goods, while the
United States exports automobiles, aircraft, computer and telecommunication equipment,
entertainment, financial and tourism services, and food products
2. Patterns of Global Investment: North America is at center of global money flows and
economic influence; region attracts huge inflows of foreign capital; region also invests
overseas; changing geography of 21st-century multinational corporations has impacted North
American-based corporations; many North American companies also are being bought up and
controlled by foreign corporations; and increasingly multinational corporations are bypassing
entirely North America in their investment strategies; North Americans also responding to
long practice of outsourcing—business practice that transfers portion of company’s
production and service activites overseas
KEY TERMS
Acid rain (p. 91)

Agribusiness (p. 124)
Boreal forest (p. 88)
Connectivity (p. 125)
Cultural assimilation (p. 104)
Cultural homeland (p. 106)
Edge city (p. 101)
Ethnicity (p. 104)
Federal state (p. 120)
Fracking (p. 94)
Gender gap (p. 129)
Gentrification (p. 102)
Group of Eight (G8) (p. 131)
Location factors (p. 126)
Megalopolis (p. 96)
New urbanism (p. 101)
Nonmetropolitan growth (p. 100)
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA (p. 118)
Outsourcing (p. 133)
Postindustrial economy (p. 84)
Prairie (p. 88)
Renewable energy sources (p. 93)
Sectoral transformation (p. 125)
Spanglish (p. 114)
Sustainable agriculture (p. 93)
Tundra (p. 88)
Unitary state (p. 120)
Urban decentralization (p. 101)
Urban heat island (p. 91)
World Trade Organization (WTO) (p. 131)
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1. Why are bison seen as powerful symbols of ‘wild lands’ in this part of North America? Bison are larger,
powerful animals that symbolize the ‘west’ and with it, conjures images of western settlement,
civilization, and America’s manifest destiny. They are also symbolic of the history and culture of Native
Americans who lived throughout the Great Plains.
2. As a cattle rancher in this area of Montana, write a letter to the local newspaper explaining why it is a bad
idea to return bison to nearby prairies. Answers will vary. Students should include reference to the
economic potential of cattle ranches, the cost of foodstuffs (i.e. beef) for consumers; mention could also
be made to the argument that bison may spread diseases that would harm cattle population, thereby
causing economic hardships that would be passed along to the consumer.
CityScapes
1. Vancouver’s Chinatown and suburban Richmond are both home to large numbers of Chinese residents.
How might the cultural landscapes of these two settings reflect this ethnic signature, and how might they
differ? Chinatown is located in downtown Vancouver; Richmond is located in the suburbs. Chinatown is
an older, more established ethnic community and would reflect higher population densities. Richmond is
newer, and is composed mostly of recent immigrants primarily from Hong Kong. As a suburban location
Richmond would reflect lower densities in terms of concentration of establishments. It may also, because
of recent global connections, illustrate more so a cosmopolitan feel, given the presence of other
immigrants.
2. Explore the streets of Vancouver’s Gastown neighborhood. Identify examples of specific landscape
features that likely reflect efforts to create a distinctive sense of place and time in this historic
neighborhood. There are many distinctive features, including faux gas lights illuminating the streets; a
more pedestrian-friendly spatial layout; and signage that evokes a feel of the 19th century.

1. Given your cultural background and locality, what crops might you grow in your own backyard garden.
Answers will vary. Students should address both climatic and weather-related conditions; students should
also identify cultural practices (e.g. traditional food types). Students may also introduce the concept of
cultural hybridization, to show the influence of other immigrant groups on garden practices.
2. In your home community (or near your local college/university), cite examples of community garden and
farmers market initiatives that encourage the local production and consumption of food. What specialty
crops are featured? Answers will vary. Students should address efforts to produce organically; the
importance of backyard farms; and community co-operative farming activities. Students may also
highlight the relationship between promoters of farmers markets and local governmental regulations.
Specialty crops will differ but may include a variety of fruits, vegetables, and herbs; some markets might
also provide dairy products (e.g. local cheeses) or baked goods.

3.1 Describe North America’s major landform regions and climates, and suggest ways in which the region’s
physical setting has shaped patterns of human settlement. The interior of North America is dominated by
vast plains and prairies; the eastern seaboard consists of low-lying estuarine environments, bordered by
the Appalachian Mountains to the west. The western portion of North America consists of high mountain
ranges, plateaus, and coastal plains. The climate of the Great Plains is continental, with extreme
temperature ranges between the seasons; the northeastern coast is dominated by continental mid-latitude
climates while the southeast is dominated by humid subtropical climates. The northwest is dominated by
maritime west-coast climates while the southwest is dominated by Mediterranean and desert climates.
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Early settlement concentrated in the eastern coastal regions; subsequent settlement moved westward,
taking advantage of vast grasslands for agriculture.
3.2 Identify the key ways in which humans have transformed the North American environment since 1600.
Humans have transformed North America in many ways, including the removal of forests and the clearing
of grasslands to make way for agriculture; mining and other extractive industries have also impacted the
environment. Rivers have been modified and connected via canals and other modes of conveyance. The
weather has also been impacted in some areas, through the effect of urban heat islands.
3.3 Identify four key environmental problems that North Americans face in the early 21st century. Four key
environmental problems include access to clean water; acid rain and other atmospheric issues; access to
energy sources and the attendant pollution problems; and the possibility of flooding and/or drought
related to climate change.
3.4 Describe the dominant North American migration flows during the 20th century. In terms of international
migration to North America, flows have been dominated by migrants originating from Asia and Latin
America; for domestic flows, there have been a number of flows: a continued movement westward, as a
whole, of America’s population; a continued rural-to-urban migration; and smaller, but notable
movements from urban to rural regions; and a movement toward the Sun Belt.
3.5 Describe the principal patterns of land use within the modern US metropolis. Include a discussion of (a)
the central city and (b) the suburbs/edge city. How have forces of globalization shaped North American
cities? Many North American cities are characterized by decentralization; the central city is increasingly
characterized by poor public transportation and poverty. Some selected central cities have experienced
gentrification. Suburban locations, or edge cities, are increasingly becoming disconnected from the
central cities. These locations are complete with low density residential areas, retail establishments, and
even some manufacturing land use.
3.6 What are the distinctive eras of immigration in U.S. history, and how do they compare with those of
Canada? Immigration to the U.S. was originally dominated by migrants from England; subsequent
immigration during the 1800s originated from northwestern Europe (Ireland and Germany), followed
between 1880-1910 by migrants from southern and eastern Europe, and migrants from Latin America and
Asia (especially since the 1970s). Immigration to Canada mostly originated, initially, from France; in the
1900s considerable immigration originated from southern and eastern Europe. Most recently, there have
been large numbers of immigrants from Asia.
3.7 Identify four enduring North American cultural regions, and describe their key characteristics. There are
many cultural regions in North America. One is French-Canadian Quebec, a region defined by French-
language speakers, as opposed to Canada’s largely English-speaking population. Another well-defined
area is the Hispanic Borderlands—a more diffused geographic region that exhibits a rich legacy of
Spanish place-names, Catholic churches, and traditional Hispanic settlements. A third cultural region is
that of African-American settlements in the American South; this is a region that remains home to many
Black folk traditions, including music and food. A fourth region is Acadiana, a zone of Cajun culture in
southwestern Louisiana. This homeland is considerably more compact in size, and is distinctive for its
music and food.
3.8 How do the political origins of the United States and Canada differ, and what issues divide these nations
today? The 13 colonies that formed the core of the United States broke free from England following a
violent revolution; Canada’s separation from England was largely peaceful and the territories now
comprising Canada were gradually assembled into a unitary state. A key issue that confronts both nations
today is the legacy of unfair and brutal treatment of Native Americans/indigenous peoples. Both nations
also are confronted with differences in political philosophies; in the United States an on-going tension is
between ‘federal’ and ‘state’ power; in Canada the possible separation of Quebec remains a political
issue.
3.9 What are the four key elements surrounding U.S. immigration policy? U.S. immigration policy is
complex, with four issues particularly notable: disagreements over how many legal immigrants should be
allowed; disagreements surrounding the continued in-migration of undocumented workers; drug-related
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violence that occurs along the U.S.-Mexico border; and disagreements over the presence of existing
undocumented workers.
3.10 What is the sectoral transformation, and how does it help explain economic change in North America?
Sectoral transformation refers to the evolution of a nation’s labor force from one dependent on the
primary sector, to one with more employment in the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors. North
America has exhibited significant changes in employment. Initially most workers were in the primary
sector; from the late 1800s onwards many more workers were engaged in the secondary sector.
Throughout the 20th century there has been a further transformation, as work in the secondary sector has
declined, while employment in the tertiary and quaternary sectors has increased.
3.11 Cite five types of location factors, and illustrate each with examples from your local economy. There are
five basic location factors: natural resources, connectivity, productive labor, market demand, and capital
investment. Answers will vary for local economies; a city such as Los Angeles, for example, has minimal
natural resources, but high levels of connectivity, large supplies of productive labor, high levels of market
demand, and high levels of capital investment.
In Review Questions
3.1 The yellow squares on the map indicate major hazardous waste sites. Why are so many sites concentrated
along major rivers and near the Great Lakes? In part the distribution is related to the importance of water-
borne trade and water-power associated with industrial productivity. Consequently, industrial pollutants
are expected to be concentrated in these areas. Also, however, it is relatively easy to (illegally) dispose of
hazardous wastes in lakes and rivers—often on the presumption that the origin of the waste cannot be
traced back to the polluter.
3.2 Can you identify key hazardous waste sites in your area? What are the sources of the waste? Have these
sites been cleaned up? Answers will vary. Students can obtain information from local and county level
government agencies as well as various environmental agencies. Sources of waste will vary, but students
should consider industrial and agricultural sources, as well as the effects of military bases, residential
areas, and other concentrations of economic activities.
3.3 What are some of the reasons for the rapid growth of Las Vegas since 1980? Las Vegas has grown
primarily because there have been many economic activities that have proven to be profitable. These
include gambling, entertainment, and associated businesses (e.g. hotels, restaurants, and other forms of
leisure).
3.4 In this harsh desert (especially vulnerable to future drought), describe a path to sustainability for
maintaining southern Nevada’s population in the next 50-100 years. Answers will vary. Students should
consider however the imposition of slow-growth or no-growth urban policies; the continued accessibility
to water and energy supplies; and how these latter constraints are funded (i.e. taxes).
3.5 Why does one still find large numbers of French speakers in the Canadian province of Quebec? The
explanation in part is derived from cultural traditions and the salience and strength of ethnic/national
identity. The French language is part of the cultural legacy and identity of those individuals living in
Quebec.
3.6 Is the French language likely to retain its cultural vitality in Quebec over the next century? What key
challenges does it face? This is a complex question and answers will vary. Students should consider the
impact of demographic change, brought about in part by patterns of in- and out-migration (both
domestically and internationally). Also important to consider is the continued impacts of globalization,
and the extent to which the English language dominates globalization.
3.7 What are the key characteristics of a political ‘borderlands’ zone such as this one along the
Mexico/California border? Among the most distinctive characteristics are different levels of urbanization
and the attendant impact on the environment.
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3.8 Immigration remains a key issue for North America. Organize a class debate on the pros and cons of
sharply curtailing immigration in the future. What about opening up the region to even larger flows of
immigrants? Answers will vary. Students should focus on the economic context of immigration, including
the impact on employment levels and wage-levels; the impact on taxes and social services; questions of
education and language acquisition; and even international relations between countries of origin and
destination. It is worthwhile to consider how immigration policy falls within the broader ‘War on Terror’.
To answer the possibility of increased flows of immigrants, students should focus on the above concerns,
but also consider how increased migration would be managed, i.e. is this a temporary worker program or
settlement migration?
3.9 What national and global economic trends are illustrated by edge-city settings such as Tysons Corner,
Virginia? Answers will vary but students should focus on economic transformations (i.e. sectoral
distribution of employment); levels of foreign investment; changing tax-bases; and more broadly how
Tyson’s Corner is connected to the global economy.
3.10 Identify an edge city or peripheral suburban shopping area near you. What economic activities are
emphasized in these settings? Answers will vary. Students should focus on the origin of commodities,
thereby tying into the particularities of the global production and distribution of goods and services; the
impact of global investments in real estate and retail establishments on local ‘Mom & Pop’ stores; and the
degree that immigration has accompanied these changes.
1. What water issues are important in your area (city or region)? Who are the actors involved? What actions
are being taken to resolve them?
2. How has recent patterns of immigration impacted your city or state? What are the major issues involved?
What specific policies are being debated to address the regulation of immigration? How do you think
immigration should be regulated in the United States?
3. Examine the clothes you are wearing or the products in your back-pack. From where did they originate?
What types of products are made in various countries? How does the manufacturing of items in one place
affect the people there? What might be the effects of relocating manufacturing to a new country?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Engage in research at the library and use the Internet to learn more about your city. How has your city
been impacted by historical changes in transportation and communication systems? Contrast how your
life would have been like living in your city in 1812, 1912, and 2012.
2. Learn more about the displacement of Native Americans and the creation of reservations. How has the
legacy of discrimination toward Native Americans contributed to the persistence of poverty on
reservations? What is being done to address social inequalities present on reservations?
3. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for North
America. Activate the poverty rate layer under the economic theme. Next, and separately, activate the
distribution of African Americans, distribution of American Indians, distribution of Asian American, and
distribution of Hispanic American layers. Describe the various patterns, both individually of the layers,
and collectively. What patterns are particularly notable? How have these patterns been shaped by North
American migration flows and the effects of the economic downturn? Note: You might want to explore
other map layers to help in your answer.
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34

Chapter 4: Latin America
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain the relationships among elevation, climate, and agricultural production in Latin America,
especially in tropical highland areas
• Identify the major environmental issues of Latin America and how countries are addressing them
• Summarize the demographic issues impacting this region, such as rural-to-urban migration,
urbanization, smaller families, and emigration
• Describe the cultural mixing of European and Amerindian groups in this region and indicate
where Amerindian cultures thrive today
• Explain the global reach of Latino culture through immigration, sport, music, and television
• Describe the Iberian colonization of the region and how it affected the formation of today’s
modern states
• Identify major Amerindian groups today and their efforts toward territorial and political
recognition
• Identify the major trade blocs in Latin America and how they are influencing development
• Summarize the significance of primary exports from Latin America, especially agricultural
commodities, minerals, wood products, and fossil fuels
• Identify the important energy sources for Latin America and how they have shifted since 1970
• Describe the neoliberal economic reforms that have been applied to Latin America and how they
have influenced the region’s development
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: the modern states of Latin America are multiethnic, with distinct indigenous and
immigrant profiles and very different rates of social and economic development; the concept of Latin
America as a distinct region has been popularly accepted for nearly a century; through colonialism,
immigration, and trade, the forces of globalization have been embedded in the Latin American
landscape; Latin America is home to Earth’s largest rainforest, the greatest river by volume, and
massive reserves of natural gas, oil, gold, and copper; unlike most areas of the developing world,
Latin America is decidedly urban; there are many megacities in the region
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Neotropical Diversity and Urban Degradation:
much of the region is characterized by its tropicality; neotropics—tropical ecosystems in the Western
Hemisphere; given the region’s large size and relatively low population density, it has not
experienced the same levels of environmental degradation witnessed in Europe and East Asia; large
areas of Latin America remain relatively untouched; region’s biggest natural resource challenge is to
balance economic benefits of extraction with ecological soundness of conservation
A. Western Mountains and Eastern Shields: Latin America is region of diverse landforms,
including high mountains and extensive upland plateaus (called shields); historically, most
important areas of settlement were not along rivers but across its shields, plateaus, and fertile
intermontane basins; these areas characterized by arable land, mild climate, and sufficient
rainfall; key site is Mexican Plateau, a massive upland area ringed by Sierra Madre Mountains—
Valley of Mexico is located at southern end of plateau
1. The Andes: relatively young mountain range stretching from northwestern Venezuela and
ending at Tierra del Fuego
a. Created by collision of oceanic and continental plates; chain of approximately 30 peaks
higher than 20,000 feet; many rich veins of precious metals and minerals
b. Andes are still forming; active volcanism and earthquakes
35

c. Mountain chain typically divided into northern, central, and southern components; in
Colombia, northern Andes further split into three distinct mountain ranges; high-altitude
plateaus and snow-covered peaks distinguish central Andes of Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia—especially important is the Altiplano, a treeless high plain located in Peru and
Bolivia that is home to Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo; Southern Andes shared by Chile
and Argentina
2. Uplands of Mexico and Central America: most important uplands in terms of long-term
settlement; most major cities of Mexico and Central America located here
a. Mexican Plateau is large, tilted block that reaches about 8000 feet; southern end, the
Mesa Central, consists of many basins interspersed with volcanic peaks; Mexico’s
megalopolis is located in southern valley
b. Volcanic Axis of Central America—chain of volcanoes that stretch from Guatemala to
Costa Rica; rich volcanic soils yield variety of domestic and export crops; most of
Central America’s population concentrated in this zone; in low-lying valley are Lakes
Managua and Nicaragua
c. The Shields: three major shields in South America—large upland areas: Brazilian Shield
is largest and most important in terms of natural resources and settlement, covers much of
Brazil from Amazon Basin to Plata Basin; the Patagonian shield is located in southern tip
of South America, is sparsely settled
B. River Basins and Lowlands: three great river basins: the Amazon, Plata, and Orinoco; within
these basins are vast interior lowlands—the Llanos, the Amazon lowlands, the Pantanal, the
Chaco, and the Pampas; most lowlands are sparsely settled and offer limited agricultural
potential—expect for livestock grazing; many have witnessed marked increases in resource
extraction, soy cultivation, and dam construction
1. Amazon Basin: drains area of roughly 2.4 million square miles—largest river system in
world by volume and area; second longest in length; heavy precipitation throughout the year;
watershed serves to integrate northern half of South America; best soils are found in
floodplains; increased development of region over last century
2. Plata Basis: region’s second largest watershed; three major rivers include Parana, the
Paraguay, and the Uruguay; much of Plata Basin is economically productive through large-
scale mechanized agriculture; arid regions, such as the Chaco, support livestock; Plata Basin
also contains several dams and hydroelectric plants
3. Orinoco Basin: third largest river basin in region by area; sparsely populated; the Llanos, a
tropical grassland, has become dynamic area of petroleum production
C. Climate and Climate Change in Latin America: region dominated by tropical and mid-latitude
climates
1. Altitudinal Zonation: the relationship between cooler temperatures at higher elevations and
changes in vegetation; related to environmental lapse rate—temperature decrease with
increased elevation; different altitudinal zones include tierra caliente, tierra templada, tierra
fria, and tierra helada; zones reflect different agricultural practices
2. El Niño: weather phenomena occurring when warm Pacific current arrives along normally
cold coastal waters of Ecuador and Peru in December; change in ocean temperature produces
torrential rains, causing widespread flooding; other impacts include changes in weather
patterns, leading to droughts in other locations
D. Impacts of Climate Change for Latin America: global warming has immediate and long-term
implications for region: immediate concern is impact on agricultural productivity, water
availability, changes in ecosystems, and incidence of vector-born diseases; long-term effects are
less clear but include sea level rise; highland areas are also particularly vulnerable; it is unclear
how global warming will impact El Niño
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E. Environmental Issues: the Destruction of Forests: Many areas within region have suffered
intense deforestation; loss of tropical rainforests is most critical in terms of biological diversity;
Brazil has incurred considerable criticism for its forest policies
1. Grassification—conversion of tropical forest into pasture; widespread practice that has
contributed to deforestation; resultant from increased demand for land for ranching
2. Protecting Lands for Future Generations: Latin America has more nationally protected
lands than any other developing region; conservation practices have been used also to
increase tourism; Costa Rica has been exceptionally active in developing ecotourism
3. Problems on Agricultural Lands: environmental problems include water pollution, soil
erosion, and soil fertility decline
F. Urban Environmental Challenges: air pollution, water availability and quality, and garbage
removal are pressing problems
1. Air Pollution: major problem for larger cities, such as Santiago and Mexico City;
combination of geographical factors and meteorological factors, coupled with dense
settlement patterns, contribute to air pollution in these cities
2. Water: many large cities, including Mexico City, Bogota, Quito, and La Paz are experiencing
water scarcity and rationing
III. Population and Settlement: The Dominance of Cities: Latin America did not have great river-basin
civilizations like those in Asia; major population clusters are in interior plateaus and valleys; region
experienced dramatic population growth in 1960s and 1970s—although rates have decreased since
the 1980s
A. The Latin American City: Latin America is highly urbanized; historical patterns of rural-to-
urban migration; cities noted for urban primacy—condition in which a country has a primate city
three to four times larger than any other city in country; examples include Lima, Caracas,
Guatemala City, Santiago, Buenos Aires, and Mexico City
1. Urban Form: distinct urban morphology that reflects colonial origin and contemporary
growth; normally clear central business district; commercial sector; zones of differential
residential areas; and zone of peripheral squatter settlements; informal sector is key for
economic activities among poorer zones
2. Rural-to-Urban Migration: driven in part by deterioration of economic conditions in rural
areas resultant from consolidation of lands, mechanization of agriculture, and population
pressures; not simply poverty, however, as cities proved attractive for other opportunities,
including education
B. Patterns of Rural Settlement: in many areas, distinct rural lifestyle exists; links between rural
and urban areas are improving; rural landscape is divided by extremes of poverty and wealth
1. Rural Landholdings: historically, control of land was basis for political and economic
power; encomienda system—large estates of farming lands; latifundia—entrenched practice
of maintaining large estates; minifundia—practice of small farming plots held by peasants;
agrarian reform—policies of land redistribution
2. Agricultural Frontiers: expansion of agricultural frontiers serves several purposes—
providing peasants with land, tapping unused resources, shoring up political boundaries;
many frontier colonization schemes have been developed; conflicts have often results from
agricultural expansion
C. Population Growth and Mobility: high rates of population growth resultant from natural
increase and immigration; many countries exhibit declining growth rates, but population
momentum ensures continued growth; immigration continues
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1. European Migration: after 19th century, many governments encouraged immigration from
Europe to settle lands; resulted in emergence of mestizo population (people of mixed
European and Amerindian ancestry)
2. Asian Migration: peoples from Asia arrived during late 19th and early 20th century; mostly
from China and Japan, and settled in Brazil, Peru, Argentina, and Paraguay; remain important
in agriculture, especially in Brazil where descendants of Japanese immigrants associated with
expansion of soybean and orange production
3. Latino Migration and Hemispheric Change: Considerable migration within Latin America
and between Latin America and North America; driving factors include economic disparities,
political turmoil, and armed conflict; Mexico is largest country of origin of legal immigrants
to the United States; overall, Latin America is region of emigration—remittances are very
important for many communities throughout Latin America
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Repopulating a Continent: Importance of Iberian colonial
experience and demographic collapse of native populations
A. Decline of Native Populations: prior to European arrival there were many large, flourishing
settlements, including the Aztecs and Incas; prior to the arrival of Europeans, the region had a
population of approximately 54 million inhabitants—about 90 percent of this population died
through introduced diseases and war; reduction of human pressure on environment however
contributed to recovery of forests, wildlife and soils
1. The Columbian Exchange: refers to the exchange of flora and fauna between Latin America
and Europe following colonization; the Spanish introduced wheat, olives, grapes, coffee and
horses, for example, into Latin America; corn, potatoes, hot peppers, tomatoes, pineapple,
and avocados were introduced to Europe; exchanges also took place between Africa, Latin
America, and Europe as a result
2. Amerindian Survival and Political Recognition: the largest indigenous populations are
found in Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; indigenous survival occurs in
isolated settings; key is land; many groups are demanding formal political and territorial
recognition
B. Patterns of Ethnicity and Culture: resultant from Indian demographic collapse, Spain and
Portugal refashioned Latin America into a European likeness; consequence was complex ethnic
blend; some countries, including Brazil, developed complex racial classification systems—
although this collapsed as a result on generations of intermarriage
1. Languages: approximately two-thirds of Latin Americans speak Spanish; approximately one-
third speak Portuguese; various indigenous languages are scattered throughout the region;
some are relatively large—at least 6-8 million people speak some variant of a Mayan
language
2. Blended Religions: Roman Catholicism is dominant throughout the region; some countries
exhibit sizeable numbers of Protestants; many areas exhibit the practice of syncretic
religions—blends of different belief systems; many syncretic religions evolved and endured
among African slaves—this is seen for example in the celebration of carnival
C. The Global Reach of Latino Culture: Latin American culture is very diverse and widely
recognized throughout the world; this is seen for example in music, dance, and other arts
1. Telenovelas: these are popular nightly soap operates; outside of Latin America, where these
are hugely popular, they have diffused to places in Europe, North America, and Asia
2. Soccer: soccer is widely popular in Latin America
3. National Identities: the region displays considerable homogeneity but also distinct national
identities; racism does persist in some areas; music and dance are emblematic of many
identities; important also are national identifications with literature
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V. Geopolitical Framework: From Two Iberian Colonies to Many Nations: since the 15th century
many European nations fought over the region, although Spain and Portugal effectively settled the
region; by the 19th century most former colonies achieved independence; regional associations, such
as the Organization of American States, have since emerged to facilitate connectivity; the geopolitical
influence of the United States is declining in the region, replaced in part by China, Japan, and Europe;
intraregional cooperation remains important, as seen by the attempt to create associations such as the
Union of South American Nations
A. Iberian Conquest and Territorial Division: the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1493-1494 effectively
divided Latin America into two parts, one controlled by Spain and the other by Portugal; Spain
was more aggressive in its conquest and settlement
1. Revolution and Independence: a series of revolutionary movements between 1810 and 1826
facilitated the independence and creation of states throughout Latin America; a series of
administrative changes led to the creation of the modern states of the region; currently, the
former Spanish mainland colonies include 16 states plus 3 Caribbean ones
2. Persistent Border Conflicts: numerous border wars erupted in the 19th and 20th centuries;
outright war in the region is less common now, but unresolved disputes remain; the U.S.-
Mexico border ist he most fortified border of the Americas
3. The Trend Toward Democracy: Most of the 17 countries of Latin America have existed for
approximately 200 years; democracy has spread throughout the region, but conflicts and
political instability remain; protests continue over the control and direction of national
economies
B. Regional Organizations: political developments at supranational and subnational levels pose
challenges to states throughout the region
1. Trade blocs have been established since the 1960s to foster internal markets and reduce trade
barriers; key blocs include the Latin American Free Trade Association, the Central American
Common Market, and the Andean Community; more recently the North American Free Trade
Agreement took affect; others include the Central American Free Trade Agreement and
Mercosur—dominated by Brazil and Argentina
2. Insurgencies and Drug Cartels: guerilla groups, such as FARC and the ELN have
controlled large territories; more recently, drug cartels have dominated the region, in an
attempt to control the drug trade; considerable violence has accompanied these developments
VI. Economic and Social Development: From Dependency to Neoliberalsim: most states in Latin
America are classified as middle-income; however, wide variation exists; economic engines of the
region are Brazil and Mexico
A. Development Strategies: during 1960s economic development seemed promising—agricultural
production increased, international loans spurred infrastructure development; during 1980s debt,
currency devaluation, hyperinflation, and falling commodity prices undermined the economy;
neoliberal policies—dominated by direct foreign investment, privatization, and free trade—were
introduced in the 1980s, bringing mixed results
1. Maquiladoras and Foreign Investment: growth in foreign investment and presence of
foreign-owned factories (called maquiladoras in Mexico) are examples of neoliberalism;
controversy surrounds foreign investment and development of foreign-owned factories
2. The Entrenched Informal sector: in many areas of the region, people rely on the informal
economy; no one knows how large this sector is—although it is substantial
B. Primary Export Dependency: historically, regions abundant natural resources were its wealth;
since 19th and 20th century, region’s economy centered on export of primary products such as
bananas, coffee, cacao, grains, rubber, wool, and petroleum; many economies of region have
diversified somewhat, but demand from Asia for primary crops has resulted in another boom in
primary export commodities
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1. Agricultural Production: since 1960s trend in region has been mechanization of agriculture;
in many areas the agricultural sector is capital-intensive; this has harmed many subsistence
agriculturalists and small-scale farmers
2. Mining and Forestry: silver, zinc, copper, iron, bauxite, and gold are economic mainstays
for many countries; lithium metal is gaining widespread interest—this is a metal used for
making lightweight batteries, such as those used in cell phones and laptop computers; Chile is
the largest producer of lithium, but world’s largest reserves are in Bolivia; mining as a whole
is becoming more mechanized and less labor-intensive; logging is important but controversial
practice; plantation forests are very important in the region
3. The Energy Sector: Venezuela, Mexico and Brazil are oil-important countries; natural gas is
on rise in region, especially Venezuela and Bolivia;; Brazil is important for biofuels
C. Latin America in the Global Economy: previously, dependency theory was used to explain
Latin America’s place in the global economy—premise is that peripheral and hence dependent
economies were export-oriented and vulnerable to fluctuations in global market and remained
subordinate to ‘core’ countries; dependency theory suggested economic development required
self-sufficiency and growth of internal markets; this influenced policies such as import-
substitution-industrialization; Latin America also exhibits long-standing dependence on North
America, especially the United States; recent developments have led to greater trade with Asia
and Europe; physical geography remains important, as seen in expansion of Panama Canal to
retain Latin America’s role in the global economy
1. Remittances: remittances of money from migrant workers is key factor for many
communities throughout Latin America; economic impact is especially pronounced in
Mexico
2. Dollarization: this is a process by which a country adopts, in whole or in part, the US dollar
as its official currency; Ecuador is one example; dollarization has both advantages and
disadvantages
D. Social Development: Over the last three decades, Latin America has experienced marked
improvements in life expectancy, child survival, and educational opportunity; a combination of
government policies and grassroots organizations plays a fundamental role to social well-being;
within countries, significant differences are seen
1. Race and Inequality: race relations overall are positive in the region, although in some
areas, discrimination continues—this is seen especially in Brazil; in areas of Latin America
where Indian cultures are strong, indicators of low socioeconomic position are present; a
growing middle class is present in many countries
2. The Status of Women: the status of women in the region is contradictory; many women
work outside the home, divorce is legal, and family planning is promoted; access to education
is generally good; women are playing active roles in politics; but serious inequalities exist in
rural areas
KEY TERMS
Agrarian reform (p. 160)
Altiplano (p. 141)
Altitudinal zonation (p. 146)
Bolsa Familia (p. 187)
Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) (p. 140)
Columbian Exchange (p. 165)
Dependency theory (p. 185)
Dollarization (p. 186)
El Niño (p. 146)
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Environmental Lapse Rate (p. 146)
Fair trade (p. 183)
Grassification (p. 148)
Informal sector (p. 157)
Latifundia (p. 160)
Liberation theology (p. 169)
Maquiladora (p. 179)
Megacity (p. 140)
Mercosur (p. 140)
Mestizo (p. 163)
Minifundia (p. 160)
Neoliberalism (p. 179)
Neotropics (p. 141)
Organization of American States (OAS) (p. 171)
Pristine myth (p. 165)
Remittance (p. 164)
Rural-to-urban migration (p. 158)
Shield (p. 141)
Subnational organization (p. 176)
Supranational organization (p. 176)
Syncretic religion (p. 168)
Treaty of Tordesillas (p.172)
Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) (p. 172)
Urban primary (p. 155).

1. Consider the density of Bogota. Why would a bus system work well here? A bus system would work well
because the population is highly concentrated, thus making a bus system efficient. Also, given the urban
morphology of the city, an efficient mass transit system focused on pollutant-reducing buses would help
ameliorate both pollution and congestion.
2. What are the advantages of designated bus lanes? The immediate advantages are to reduce congestion,
increase the efficiency of traffic flow, and potentially reduce injuries resultant from vehicular accidents.
Cityscapes
1. How does the landscape of El Alto contrast with that of the southern zone of La Paz? These two cities are
a study in contrasts; La Paz was settled in the 16th century; El Alto in the 20th century. La Paz reflects its
own contrasts, with upscale residential areas and businesses, surrounded by shanty towns; El Alto is
remarkably homogenous and reflects modern construction and planning. El Alto is also more garishly
painted, reflecting the influence of the Aymara.
2. What environmental, cultural, or economic factors might explain the way that metropolitan La Paz grew?
First, La Paz is located at an elevation of 13,500 feet above sea level; it rests in a steep-sided bowl below
the rim; and was founded in the 16th century. The topography and micro-climates resultant from its
geographic position have each influenced the location of residential areas (segregated by income).
41

1. After exploring images of coffee producing areas, what are the differences between the large coffee
estates in Brazil with the smaller ones in Honduras? Small coffee estates are often family farms; they are
able to utilize organic methods of production; this imparts a higher quality to the coffee and may even
lower the cost of production. Large coffee estates produce coffee in bulk for mass production.
2. What are the environmental and economic advantages of growing organic coffee? Organic production
may lower the cost of production; it also helps to maintain biologically diverse habitats.

4.1 Describe the major ecosystems in Latin America and how humans have adapted to and modified these
different ecosystems. Latin America is composed of a diversity of environmental regions, including
mountainous highlights, vast upland plateaus, low coastal areas, and river valleys. Historically, settlement
has been concentrated in the interior uplands and coastal regions; recently, settlement has taken place in
riverine environments. Human adaptation and modification are especially notable in the highland areas, as
agricultural practices have been adapted to altitudinal zonation.
4.2 Summarize some of the major environmental issues impacting this region and how different countries
have tried to address them. Some of the major issues include water pollution, air pollution, and
deforestation. Some countries, such as Mexico, have introduced various programs to reduce vehicular
emissions, thereby reducing air pollution. Countries such as Brazil have introduced policies in an attempt
to limit deforestation.
4.3 What are the historical and economic explanations for urban dominance and urban primacy in Latin
America? In large part Latin America exhibits urban dominance and primacy because a few key cities,
during the colonial period, were the principal locations for investment. Following independence, these
select cities continued to receive the lion’s share of investment; rural-to-urban migration intensified the
concentration of population in these cities.
4.4 How have policies such as agrarian reform and frontier colonization impacted the patterns of settlement
and primary resource extraction in the region? Together, these practices have resulted in the uneven
development of the region; the promotion of agricultural frontiers have directed investment and resource
extraction in some areas but not others; likewise, agrarian reform efforts have altered the ownership of
land; this, in turn, has impacted internal patterns of movement.
4.5 Demographically, Latin America has grown much faster than North America. What factors contribute to
faster growth, and is this growth likely to continue? During the middle part of the twentieth-century Latin
America exhibited higher rates of natural increase, thereby leading to a more rapid growth in population.
These rates, however, are declining; coupled with significant emigration, Latin America’s population
growth is likely to slow.
4.6 What factors contributed to racial mixing in Latin America, and where are the areas of strongest
Amerindian survival? The main factor contributing to racial mixing was the increased presence of many
diverse peoples resultant from immigration; another important factor was a relatively low level of
discrimination and prejudice that would have hindered cultural mixing. The areas with the most
Amerindians are in Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; indigenous survival is also marked in
more isolated areas, such as eastern Panama, the Miskito Coast of Honduras, and the roadless sections of
western Amazonia.
4.7 What are the cultural legacies of Iberia in Latin America, and how are they expressed? The two dominant
cultural legacies are language and religion. Most inhabitants of the former Spanish colonial realm speak
Spanish and practice Roman Catholicism. Most inhabitants of the Portuguese realm speak Portuguese and
also follow Catholicism.
4.8 How did the colonization of Latin America by Iberia lead to the formation of the modern states of Latin
America? Following the Treaty of Tordesilla in 1494, Latin America was divided between Spain and
Portugal. Between 1810 and 1826 many Spanish colonies achieved their independence; initially, these
42

were organized into two viceroyalties. Gradually these two political divisions disintegrated, to be replaced
by 16 independent modern states. Brazil gradually emerged as a modern state during the 19th century.
4.9 How are trade blocs reshaping the region’s geopolitics and development? Throughout the latter 20th
century numerous regional trading blocs have been established, largely in an effort to promote regional
economic integration and growth. These supranational organizations have added another layer of political
complexity, as governments must respond simultaneously to foreign issues and their impacts locally.
These policies have been very effective in promotion growth throughout Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and
Paraguay.
4.10 How has the export of primary products (food, fiber, and energy) shaped the economies of Latin
America? Historically, dating to the colonial period, Latin American economies have been dominated by
the export of primary products. Following independence, neocolonial relations between Latin American
governments and both the United States and European states have continued this pattern. More recently,
through the establishment of trade blocs, the importance of export-led industries in the primary sector
continues to be emphasized. Such a dependency on the export of primary products maintains Latin
America in a particularly vulnerable position vis-à-vis the fluctuations of the global economy.
4.11 What explains some of the positive indicators of social development in Latin America? As indicated by
life expectancies, child mortality rates, and educational equity, much of Latin America exhibits positive
levels of social development. This has resulted from a combination of factors, including governmental
support of social policies, and the efforts of grass-root organizations and non-governmental organizations.
In Review Questions
4.1 How have changes in urban transportation planning made Latin American cities greener? Many changes
are responsible, including the use of well-developed public transportation and the promotion of emission-
reducing vehicles.
4.2 Provide some examples of resource conservation in Latin America. Are these practices working? There
have been many examples of resource conservation, including policies that promote more sustainable
forms of agriculture. Brazil has also recently enacted policies designed to halt the rapid spread of
deforestation. However, some critiques are concerned that these policies may in fact lead to more forest
clearing and fragmentation, thereby exacerbating habitat loss and a corresponding loss in biodiversity.
4.3 Explain where this area might be with regard to the Latin American urban model. This image depicts Rio
de Janeiro. Clearly visible is a spine of commercial buildings, surrounded by middle-class and elite
residential areas. Throughout the periphery are shanty towns.
4.4 Why has Latin America become a region of emigration? Is this pattern likely to continue? Many factors
account for Latin America becoming a region of emigration. First is the continued levels of uneven
development between Latin America and North America; higher wages in the north continue to attract
immigrants. Second, many countries in Latin America have been beset by conflict, thereby causing
refugee flows. Third, increased communications because of globalization have made information about
the north more readily available. Persistent economic inequalities will continue to facilitate emigration;
political stability may dampen some flows.
4.5 What factors explain the language patterns in this area of Latin America? Languages patterns reflect the
migratory history of the region; there are indigenous peoples with their own native languages; a period of
Spanish colonialism introduced Spanish into the region.
4.6 How do religious practices in this region reflect both globalization and diversity? Although the dominant
religion is Catholicism, introduced by Spanish colonialists, there remains considerable diversity of
religion as practiced by indigenous peoples.
4.7 What international agreements have shaped land-use patterns in this area? Located along the U.S.-Mexico
border, this image depicts the impact of the North American Free Trade Agreement. This trade agreement
facilitated the growth of export-processing zones along the border, and resulted in considerable and rapid
43

in-migration to the border towns on the Mexican side. Environmental conditions are also apparent, in that
industrial regulations are generally not as stringently enforced on the Mexican side, because of particular
trade arrangements established by multinational corporations.
4.8 How might the evolution of UNASUR impact development within South America? UNASUR is a 12
member trade bloc led by Brazil. On the positive side it might facilitate economic growth and
development among its members; a more critical view might benefit Brazil to the detriment of other
member-states.
4.9 What commodity is this, and how is its rise in production changing agricultural practices and patterns of
trade? The image depicts large-scale soy production in Brazil. Soybeans are used for oil and animal feed.
Unfortunately, increased soy production has led to rapid deforestation and the elimination of savanna
lands; these practices have in turn contributed to a loss of biodiversity and an increased output of
greenhouse gases. Agricultural practices are capital-intensive; chemical fertilizers and pesticides are
heavily used. Also, large-scale modern farming methods are dependent upon machinery; little local
employment opportunities are generated by these methods. Lastly, many subsistence farmers have lost
their lands in the process.
4.10 Do you think neoliberal policies are increasing or decreasing income inequality in the region? Answers
will vary. Students should focus on the difference between economic ‘growth’ and ‘development’. Some
statistics for example might indicate the overall economic growth is occurring; and yet income inequality
is increasing. This suggests that a small segment of the population is benefiting whereas the majority of
inhabitants are not. Proponents of neoliberalism argue that benefits will ‘trickle’ down; students should
attempt to find evidence of this if they conclude that neoliberalism is positive.

1. The Amazon rainforest is an important global resource that is being exploited primarily for local benefit.
Given the common interest in preserving this valuable resource, what can we do (as individuals and
through our governments) to relieve some of the pressue on this rain forest? How can we balance the
desire of Brazil, for example, to develop, against the value to the world of the Amazonian rain forest?
2. How do squatter settlements differ from the types of housing available to the very poor in the United
States? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach to housing the very poor?
3. How might Latin America be different if the arrival of Europeans had not brought about a demographic
collapse? How might North America be different? Think about political, economic, and environmental
issues.
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Review the population map of Latin America and that of North America. How do the population
concentrations differ? What accounts for the different patterns? How has the historically settlement of the
two regions been similar? Different?
2. Refer to the figure of the Latin American City model. How does this model differ from the city in which
you live? What are the similarities and differences?
3. Do library and Internet research to learn about a specific supranational organization (e.g., Mercosur,
CAFTA) in Latin America. What are the objectives of the association? Who has benefitted from the
organization? Who has not?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for Latin
America, and activate the major migration flow layer under the population theme. Describe these patterns.
What countries are sending the most migrants? What countries are not? Next, activate the mapping
poverty and prosperity layer under the economic theme. What areas exhibit high levels of poverty? High
levels of prosperity? How do these regions of poverty and prosperity correlate with the patterns of
emigration? How might the flow of remittances impact these patterns?
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45

Chapter 5: The Caribbean
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Differentiate between island and rimland environments and the environmental issues that affect
these areas
• Summarize the demographic shifts in the Caribbean as population growth slows, settlement in
cities intensifies, emigration abroad continues, and a return migration begins
• Explain why European colonists so aggressively sought control of the Caribbean and why
independence in the region came about more gradually than in neighboring Latin America
• Identify the demographic and cultural implications of the massive transfer of African peoples to
the Caribbean and the creation of a neo-African society in the Americans
• Describe how the Caribbean is linked to the global economy through offshore banking,
emigration, and tourism
• Understand the limited energy resources of the region and why renewable energy and exploration
of offshore sites are important for Caribbean economic development
• Explain the difference between social and economic development and suggest reasons why the
Caribbean does better in social indicators of development, compared to economic indicators
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: Caribbean was the first region of the Americas to be extensively explored and
colonized by Europeans; modern regional identity is unclear; the basis for treating the Caribbean as
distinct area lies within its cultural and economic history; concept of isolated proximity has been used
to explain region’s unusual and contradictory global position
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Paradise Undone: located between Tropic of
Cancer and Equator; complex ecology; susceptible to natural hazards
A. Island and Rimland Landscapes: Caribbean Sea links the states of the region; arc of islands that
stretches across sea is most distinguishing feature; Antillean islands divided into two group:
Greater and Lesser Antilles; rimland includes Belize, the Guianas, as well as coastal regions of
Central and South America; most of region is on Caribbean tectonic plate
1. Greater Antilles: consists of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (shared by Haiti and Dominican
Republic), and Puerto Rico; these islands have most of region’s population, arable lands, and
large mountain ranges; best farmlands are found in central and western valleys of Cuba
2. Lesser Antilles: form a double arc of small islands stretching from Virgin Islands to
Trinidad; many were important footholds for rival European colonial powers; islands from St.
Kitts to Grenada form inner arc—these are mountainous of volcanic origin; the outer arc
consists of the low-lying islands of Barbados, Antigua, Barbuda, and the eastern half of
Guadeloupe
3. The Rimland: unlike much of Caribbean, the rimland states contain significant amounts of
forest cover; agriculture is closely tied to geology; mining is significant is some locations,
including Guyana and Suriname
B. Caribbean Climate and Climate Change: tropical climates distinguish the region, with year-
round high temperatures and abundant precipitation; seasonality is defined by changes in rainfall
more than temperature; rainy season is from July to October throughout much of region;
hurricanes are common in the region—with the exception of the Guianas
1. Hurricanes: numerous hurricanes affect the region each year; related to the existence of low-
pressure disturbances that form off the coast of West Africa; destruction is from wind, rain,
and flooding; hurricanes are tracked by the National Hurricane Center, located in Miami,
Florida; some scientists believe that we have entered a more active hurricane period
46

2. Climate Change: this is a difficult issue to address for the region; the Caribbean is not a
major contributor of greenhouse gases; negative impacts of climate change will include sea-
level rise, increased intensity of storms, variable rainfall leading to both floods and droughts,
and loss of biodiversity; in terms of land loss due to inundation, some islands will be hard-
hit—the Bahamas may lose nearly 30 percent of its land with a 10-foot sea-level rise; the
Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) monitors the threat of climate
change
C. Environmental Issues: whereas climate change is a medium- and long-term concern, other
environmental issues are more immediately pressing: soil erosion and deforestation are especially
important
1. Legacy of Deforestation: prior to European colonization, much of region was forested;
forests were cleared for plantation agriculture; exposed soils were subsequently eroded and
ceased to be productive; there is strong connection between deforestation and poverty in the
region—as exemplified by Haiti; deforestation continues to be aggravated by dependence of
population on wood for fuel
2. Conservation Efforts: biological diversity and stability less threatened in rimland than in
other areas; many conservation sites—especially in Belize—have been established; these
areas are under attack, however, as foreign developers seek to gain access to the timber;
efforts are also underway to protect marine reserves, barrier reefs and out atolls
3. Urban Environmental Issues: cities are confronted with water quality issues and proper
waste disposal problems; access to improved sanitation facilities is uneven
III. Population and Settlement: Densely Settled Islands and Rimland Frontiers: population density is
quite high throughout region; eighty-five percent of population is located in the Greater Antilles; in
terms of absolute numbers, few people inhabit the Lesser Antilles—although some islands are
densely settled; mainland territories of Belize and the Guianas are lightly populated
A. Demographic Trends: epidemics spread quickly following arrival of Europeans, leading to
demographic collapse; Europeans soon imported enslaved Africans to work plantations; in late
19th century mortality rates decreased with improvement in health and sanitary conditions—
populations began to increase; in past 30 years growth rates have declined
1. Fertility Decline and Longer Lives: most significant demographic trend of past decades has
been reduction in fertility rates and lengthening of life expectancy; educational
improvements, urbanization, and preference for smaller family size has contributed to
reduction in fertility rates; life expectancy changes are related to better health care
2. The Rise of HIV/AIDS: HIV/AIDS remains significant health issue in the region; main
transmission route is through heterosexual sex; many Caribbean countries have used
educational efforts to slow the spread of HIV/AIDS; condoms and testing are both widely
available
3. Emigration: large-scale emigration begin in the 1950s because of limited economic
opportunities—known as the Caribbean diaspora; contributed to cultural identity;
intraregional movements are also important; most migrants in region are part of circular
migration flows; often times chain migration systems are established; Caribbean immigrants
have increasingly practiced transnational migration—the straddling of livelihoods and
households between two countries
B. The Rural-Urban Continuum: initially plantation agriculture and subsistence farming shaped
Caribbean settlement patterns; cities were initially formed to serve administrative and social
needs of colonizers
1. Plantation America: this is term coined by an anthropologist to designate a cultural region
that extends from Brazil through the Guianas and into the southeastern United States;
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plantations rely on monocrop production; plantation systems created rigid class lines;
contemporary communities in Caribbean reflect plantation legacy
2. Caribbean Cities: mechanization of agriculture, offshore industrialization, and rapid
population growth caused surge of rural-to-urban migration in the 1960s; cities grew rapidly;
currently about two-thirds of region is urban; most Caribbean cities were initially laid out in
grid pattern; key cities include Santo Domingo, San Juan, Havana; Caribbean cities reflect
variety of cultural influences
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Neo-Africa in the Americas: linguistic, religious, and ethnic
differences abound in the Caribbean; common historical and social processes hold the region
together; the imprint of more than 7 million African slaves created a neo-Africa in the region; a
process of creolization has blended cultures in the region
A. The Cultural Imprint of Colonialism: European colonization destroyed indigenous societies
and imposed different social systems and cultures; rival European powers introduced their own
cultural practices
1. Creating a Neo-Africa: slaves from Africa first introduced in 16th century; forced migration
was part of larger, more complex African diaspora; influx of slaves combined with
elimination of indigenous peoples reconfigured demography of the region; intact transfer of
African religions and languages did not occur—instead, languages, customs, and beliefs were
blended
2. Maroon Societies: these are communities of runaway slaves; many of these settlements were
short-lived, while others have endured; these reveal survival of African traditions, including
farming practices, house designs, community organization, and language; especially notable
are maroon communities in Suriname and French Guiana; recently, pressures to modernize
and extract resources have placed maroons in conflict with the state and private investors
3. African Religions: many African religions diffused to the Caribbean; many Afro-religious
traditions have evolved into unique forms that have clear ties to West Africa; most widely
practiced religions are Voodoo, Santeria, and Obeah
4. Indentured Labor from Asia: fearful of labor shortages following abolition of slavery,
plantation owners imported indentured labor from South, Southeast, and East Asia; legacy is
clearest in Suriname, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago; in Suriname, for example, more than
one-third of population is of South Asian decent and nearly one-fifth is Javanese; many
former English colonies have smaller populations of Chinese ancestry
B. Creolization and Caribbean Identity: creolization refers to the blending of African, European,
and some Amerindian cultural elements; Creole identities are complex and exhibited in music,
literature, and art
1. Language: dominant languages in region are European (Spanish, French, English, and
Dutch); many creole languages have developed
2. Music: region is birthplace of reggae, calypso, merengue, rumba, zouk, and other musical
forms; roots of modern Caribbean music reflects combination of African rhythms and
European forms of melody and verse; notable is development of steel pan drums; Caribbean
music is popular the world over
3. Sports: From Baseball to Béisbol: soccer is popular, but baseball is the dominant sport for
much of the Caribbean
V. Geopolitical Framework: Colonialism, Neocolonialism, and Independence: Caribbean colonial
history is patchwork of rival powers; Spain, England, the Netherlands, and France were especially
active in the region; by mid-19th century European dominance waned—the United States became
more influential, especially following the Monroe Doctrine; the United States also ushered in period
of neocolonialism—the indirect control of one country or region by another through economic and
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cultural domination, rather than by direct military or political control; contemporary geopolitics are
shifting, as region’s strategic importance has faded in post-Cold War era
A. Life in the ‘American Backyard’: the United States continues to exert considerable influence in
region; U.S. influence began in early 20th century, as seen in construction of Panama Canal and
various development packages and military interventions; U.S. businesses continue to influence
region
1. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico: as commonwealth of the US, Puerto Rico is both part
of the Caribbean and apart from it; various independence movements throughout 20th century
have attempted to separate Puerto Rico from the United States; the island depends on US
investment and welfare programs; since the 1950s Puerto Rico shifted from an agrarian
economy to an industrial one; it remains one of most industrialized regions in Caribbean—
although it shows many signs of underdevelopment and poverty
2. Cuba and Geopolitics: since the 1950s Cuba has embarked on a socialist program—at odds
with the United States; the island-state was at the center of Cold War geopolitics, as the
Soviet Union supported Cuba; a new era for Cuba may be forthcoming and former leaders are
aging; Cuban government is also exploring for oil in territorial waters—a possible economic
opportunity
B. Independence and Integration: struggle for independence began in 1804 in Haiti and continued
for 200 years throughout region; political independence has not translated into economic
independence
1. Independence Movements: region exhibited many revolutionary periods since the 19th
century; most colonies gained independence by mid- to late- 20th century
2. Present-Day Colonies: Britain retains several crown colonies in region; France retains
various departments; most Dutch islands are considered autonomous but remain part of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands
3. Limited Regional Integration: economic integration remains difficult throughout the region;
scattered islands, linguistic diversity, and limited economic resources hinder formation of
meaningful regional trade bloc; more common to see economic cooperation between groups
of islands with shared colonial background; one notable regional association is the Caribbean
Community and Common Market (CARICOM), formed in 1972—it currently has 13 full-
member states with numerous associate members
VI. Economic and Social Development: From Cane Fields to Cruise Ships: population of region is
economically better off than most of Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and China; social gains in
education, health, and life expectancy have been significant; historically, Caribbean’s links to global
economy were based on agricultural exports—now, tourism, offshore financial services, and
assembly plants are important
A. From Fields to Factories and Resorts: agriculture has declined in importance because of
commodity prices, decline in preferential trade agreements, and loss of soil productivity
1. Sugar and Coffee: both crops were economic mainstays of region; sugar cane remains
important—but has declined; coffee is important in many local areas; other commodities
include bananas, flowers, and spices
2. Energy Needs and Innovations: Caribbean depends largely on imported oil for energy
needs—with exception of Trinidad and Tobago, which exports oil and liquefied natural gas;
Venezuela is major provider of crude oil; many Caribbean nations have growing interest in
renewable energy
3. Assembly-Plant Industrialization: many islands have invited foreign investors to establish
assembly plants; first developed in Puerto Rico in the 1950s (Operation Bootstrap); through
creation of free trade zones—duty-free and tax-exempt industrial parks for foreign
corporations—the Caribbean is an increasingly attraction location for businesses
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4. Offshore Banking and Online Gambling: offshore banking most closely associated with
the Bahamas; offshore banking centers offer specialized services that are confidential and
tax-exempt; online gambling is newest industry
5. Tourism: environmental, locational, and economic factors contribute to importance of
tourism; key economic activity for both large and small islands; there are both positive and
negative components to the development of tourism as economic strategy
B. Social Development: record of economic growth is inconsistent, but measures of social
development are generally strong; most Caribbean nations fare well in Human Development
Index; remittances are important source of income which contributes to social and economic
development; many inhabitants though are chronically underemployed, poorly housed, and overly
dependent on foreign remittances
1. Status of Women: matriarchal basis of Caribbean households often singled out as
distinguishing characteristic; female local power does not necessarily equate with status;
women are often principal earners of cash and more likely to complete secondary education;
signs of greater political involvement
2. Education: many Caribbean states have excelled in educating their citizens; literacy is the
norm; education is expensive but considered essential for development; many states express
frustration over brain drain
3. The Brain Gain: despite outflow of professional, there is a corresponding brain gain as
return migrants contribute to local economies
4. Labor-Related Migration: employment-related migration has been feature of region
throughout 20th century; crucial is counterflow of remittances
KEY TERMS
African Diaspora (p. 214)
Brain drain (p. 234)
Brain gain (p. 234)
Capital leakage (p. 232)
Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) (p. 227)
Caribbean Diaspora (p. 209)
Chain migration (p. 210)
Circular migration (p. 210)
Creolization (p. 214)
Crisis mapping (p. 198)
Cuentapropista (p. 194)
Free trade zone (FTZ) (p. 229)
Greater Antilles (p. 197)
Hurricane (p. 19)
Indentured labor (p. 216)
Isolated proximity (p. 196)
Lesser Antilles (p. 198)
Maroon (p. 215)
Monocrop production (p. 210)
Monroe Doctrine (p. 222)
Neo-Africa (p. 213)
Neocolonialism (p. 222)
Offshore banking (p. 230)
Plantation America (p. 210)
Remittance (p. 233)
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Rimland (p. 197)
Transnational migration (p. 210)

1. What is crisis mapping? It refers to the leveraging of mobile devices, Web-based applications,
participatory maps, satellite images, and crowd-sourced event data for rapid responses to humanitarian
crises.
2. Why was crisis mapping used in the aftermath of the 2010 Haitian earthquake? Humanitarian workers
needed precise, real-time information, such as tweets and text messages from Haitians. As a result, crisis
mappers, along with social media and humanitarian organizations, joined forces and changed how
governments and civil societies respond to complex humanitarian crises.

1. What factors led the residents of Havana to become leaders in urban agriculture? In 1989 cuts in food and
energy support from the former Soviet Union forced the Cuban government to initiate several changes to
confront a growing food shortage. Urban gardens were promoted, combined with innovative organic
farming techniques.
2. Beyond increasing the food supply, what are the other advantages of growing food in cities? Havana’s
urban gardens have stimulated economic growth and small-scale entrepreneurship; they have also
increased tourism.
Cityscapes
1. What aspects of San Juan’s relative location and physical setting made it an important city for Spanish
colonists? The city was located in an ideal location to take advantage of Trans-Atlantic trade; it was also
exhibited a good defensive location.
2. How is San Juan a cultural blend of Caribbean, Latin American, and U.S. cultures? The city reflects its
history, with architectural styles reflective of Spanish and American influences; the cultural scene also
reflect San Juan’s history; this is seen in its food, music, and languages.

5.1 What environmental issues currently impact the Caribbean? Describe the risks and possible solutions. The
Caribbean is confronted with a range of environmental issues, including deforestation, soil erosion, and
the threat of sea-level rise. The first two issues are resultant largely from a legacy of agricultural
exploitation, while the second issue is related to the impact of global climate change. Climate change may
also lead to drought and floods, as well as an increase in the intensity of hurricanes. Solutions are varied,
including public awareness campaigns, the establishment of protected zones, and regulations on forest
clearing practices.
5.2 Describe the locational, environmental, and climatic factors that together help make the Caribbean a
major international tourist destination. The warm temperatures and overall pleasant climate, combined
with the prevalence of beaches, warm tropical waters, and biodiversity are all major attractors for
international tourists. The region, also, is relatively close both to North America and Europe, making
travel very accessible.
5.3 What are the major demographic trends for this region, and what factors explain these patterns? The two
dominant demographic trends are decreased fertility and increased life expectancy. The factors
accounting for the first include increased education, urbanization, and a desire for smaller families; the
factors accounting for the second include increased health care and education.
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5.4 How did the long-term reliance on a plantation economy influence patterns of settlement in the
Caribbean? There are many ways in which the plantation economy influenced settlement patterns. The
social organization of the plantations, combined with systems of trade, concentrated European residents
into urban areas; the spatial extent of plantations influenced the distribution of villages; and the legacy of
slavery contributed to the formation of maroon societies.
5.5 What kinds of neo-African influences exist in the Caribbean, and how do they express themselves? A
legacy of African influence is widespread; this is exhibited in farming practices, languages, religion,
music and other cultural expressions.
5.6 What is meant by creolization, and how does it explain different cultural patterns found in the Caribbean?
The term ‘creolization’ refers to the blending of African, European, and Amerindian influences; it helps
explain different cultural influences because of the syncretic qualities of Caribbean languages, musical
styles, and even architecture. The different legacies of colonialism, indentured labor, and African
traditions impart distinct local qualities of creolization from island to island.
5.7 Which countries have had colonial or neocolonial influences in the Caribbean, and why have they
engaged with the region? The major colonial powers in the region included Spain, Britain, France, the
Netherlands, and the United States. Most were attracted to the region because of its strategic location and
economic profitability. These countries continue to engage with the region primarily because of
specialized economic opportunities; the geopolitical salience of the region—as a strategic location—has
lessened somewhat with the end of the Cold War.
5.8 What are the obstacles to Caribbean political or economic integration? The major obstacles include the
existence of numerous, scattered islands, a divided rimland, different languages, and limited economic
resources. More generally, prior to European colonialism, there had never been a regional identity to the
Caribbean; likewise, the fragmented nature of European colonialism did not facilitate or promote a
regional unity.
5.9 As the Caribbean has shifted out of agricultural dependence, what other economic sectors have emerged
in the region? Although agriculture remains significant for some countries and territories in the region,
others have turned to an assortment of specialized economic activities. Some islands, such as Puerto Rico,
have promoted industry through the establishment of free-trade zones and assembly plants; others, such as
the Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, have focused on off-shore banking; and still others, such as St.
Kitts and Antigua, have promoted on-line gambling. Tourism remains a significant industry for many
countries—notably Cuba, Jamaica, the Bahamas, and the Dominican Republic.
5.10 What explains the relatively high levels of social development in the Caribbean given the region’s relative
poverty? The major reason is that most countries and territories in the region recognize that education—
and especially literacy—is essential for development. Consequently, what limited resources these
governments have, they often invest greatly in all levels of education. Also important is the ‘brain gain’
that resulted from emigrants returning from abroad; these return migrants bring with them increased
levels of ‘human capital’ that benefits the region.
In Review Questions
5.1 What factors contributed to the maintenance for forest in this Caribbean state? In Suriname a number of
factors have contributed, including an alliance of conservationists and indigenous peoples who have
joined together to limit the widespread clearing of forests for wood-processing industries. Legal battles
over land-ownership have also contributed to the slowing of deforestation.
5.2 How will global warming impact the Caribbean over the next century? Two main negative aspects are
forecast: an increase in sea-level rise will contribute to flooding and loss of coastal land; and the
possibility that hurricanes will increase in intensity.
5.3 What factors might explain the slow population growth in the Caribbean country of Barbados? A number
of interrelated factors have contributed, including increased education and literacy, a desire for smaller
families, and overall urbanization.
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5.4 Figure 5.15 shows migration flows within and beyond the Caribbean. What are the reasons behind
particular destination preferences? One overall factor accounts for observed patterns, namely the legacy
of colonial and neocolonial connections; this is readily seen for example in the movement of peoples from
Suriname to the Netherlands.
5.5 What religious practices transferred from Africa to the Caribbean, and how did they diffuse? Various
religions and religious practices transferred from Africa, including rituals associated with worship, music
and art; these diffused throughout the region as persons of African ancestry moved throughout the
islands—particular through the establishment of maroon societies.
5.6 What explains the language diversity in the Caribbean? A host of factors are responsible: a legacy of
colonialism, with settlers from Spain, England, the Netherlands, and France; a legacy of imported
workers, either as indentured servants from India or as slaves from Africa; and the continuance of
languages spoken by indigenous peoples.
5.7 This protected harbor was vital for Spain’s control of the Caribbean. Where is this location and why was
this port city important for Spain? The port-city revealed in the image is Havana; it was an important
trading port city for Spain’s empire; it was also an ideal location both for maritime shipping and defensive
considerations.
5.8 Why have U.S. actions in the region been considered neocolonial? What other countries are influencing
the region today? The United States has long maintained an economic and strategic influence over the
region; various trade agreements and treaties have been established; these usually benefit the United
States more so than individual countries and territories in the region. Currently England, France, and the
Netherlands retain ‘colonies,’ ‘territories,’ or ‘departments’ in the region.
5.9 What environmental, economic, and locational factors contribute to the strength of the tourism economy
in the Caribbean? Environmentally, the Caribbean has a warm climate, numerous beaches, and a diversity
of ecoregions; all of these are attractive for international tourists. Economically, considerable foreign
investment has been injected into the region, resulting in the construction of ports for cruise ships, high-
class resorts and other attractions. Location factors include the relative proximity to North America and
Europe (e.g. relatively cheap airfares) and easy access for cruise ships.
5.10 Is reliance upon remittances a sign of the Caribbean’s isolation from or integration into the global
economy? Remittances indicate more so the integration of the region to the global economy, as migrants
seek economic opportunities throughout North America and Europe.
1. Historically, people around the world have damaged their environments as they have pursued economic
development. In the Caribbean, there has been an increased awareness that a healthy, un-degraded
environment has economic benefits. Has your local government likewise adopted economic policies and
programs that are predicated upon a clean, healthy environment?
2. Should the United States normalize its relations with Cuba? Why or why not? What factors should be
considered when making this decision?
3. Some authors have referred to tourism as an ‘irritant industry’. What are some of the reasons that tourism
has acquired this reputation? Is it a valid accusation?
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EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Engage in library and Internet research to learn more about hurricanes. What types of warning systems
are in place in the Caribbean? What other mitigation strategies have been developed to lessen the
potential devastation wrought by hurricanes?
2. Listen to the music of Bob Marley. Conduct library and Internet research to learn more about his life—
but especially his political thought. How does his music reflect his political concerns? What makes his
music ‘revolutionary’?
3. The citizens of Puerto Rico are divided as to whether their island should become an independent state or
remain a commonwealth of the United States. Conduct library and Internet research to learn more about
the different political attitudes. What are the pros and cons of independence? Of remaining a
commonwealth? Is there a third option?
4. Engage in library and Internet research to learn more about maroon societies. How were, and are, these
societies organized? Are there similar societies in the United States? If so, where are these located, and
how do they differ from those in the Caribbean?
5. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for the
Caribbean. Activate the (1) migration to the United States; (2) migration to Canada; (3) migration to
Great Britain; (4) migration to France; and (5) migration to the Netherlands layers under the population
theme. Describe these patterns. Use the countries layer under the political theme to help in your answer.
How do these patterns reflect the region’s colonial history and legacy?
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Chapter 6: Sub-Saharan Africa
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• List the characteristics that make Sub-Saharan Africa a distinct world region
• Summarize the major ecosystems in the region and how humans have adapted to living in them
• Describe the factors that have made wildlife conservation and tourism important aspects of the
region’s economy
• Explain the region’s rapid demographic growth and describe the differential impact of HIV/AIDS
upon the region
• Describe the relationship between ethnicity and conflict in this region and the strategies for
maintaining peace
• Assess the roots of African poverty and explain why many of the fastest-growing economies in
the world today are in Sub-Saharan Africa
• List the major resources of the region, especially metals and fossil fuels, and describe how they
are impacting the region’s development
• Summarize various cultural influences of African peoples within the region and globally
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: in general, Africa south of the Sahara is poorer, more rural, and its population much
younger when compared to Latin America and the Caribbean; the region includes over 900 million
people living in 48 states and one territory; demographically, this is world’s fastest growing region;
Sub-Saharan Africa is commonly accepted world region; unity of region is based on similar
livelihood systems and shared colonial history; region is culturally complex; economics are growing
but poorly integrated
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issue: The Plateau Continent: interior of Africa is
dominated by extensive uplifted areas resultant from breakup of Gondwana—an ancient mega-
continent that included Africa, South America, Antarctica, Australia, Madagascar, and the Arabian
Peninsula; large areas of continent hold potential for agricultural development, but many areas also
have relatively poor soils
A. Plateaus and Basins: a series of plateaus and elevated basins dominates the interior; elevations
generally increase toward the south and east (High Africa); Low Africa includes West Africa and
much of Central Africa; high plateaus are noted for cooler climates and relatively abundant
moisture; steep escarpments form where plateaus abruptly end; much of southern Africa is
rimmed by the Great Escarpment; there are few significant mountain ranges in Africa—the one
exception being parts of Ethiopia to the north of the Rift Valley; a discontinuous series of
volcanic mountains is associated with southern half of the Rift Valley
1. Watersheds: region lacks broad, alluvial lowlands found throughout other regions; four
major river systems include the Congo, Nile, Niger, and Zambezi
a. Congo: largest watershed in region in terms of drainage and volume; flows across
relatively flat basin; entry from Atlantic is prevented by series of rapids and falls—river
is only partially navigable; has been major corridor for travel; capitals of Republic of the
Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo rest on opposite sides of the river
b. Nile: world’s longest river; lifeblood of Egypt and Sudan but originates in highlands of
Rift Valley zone; important link between North and Sub-Saharan Africa; tributaries,
including the Blue Nile, being developed for hydroelectric power
c. Niger: critical source of water for arid countries of Mali and Niger; originates in humid
Guinea highlands; capitals of Mali and Niger located along river
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d. Zambezi: originates in Angola; includes the Victoria Falls (along an escarpment); more
than other rivers, Zambezi is major supplier of commercial energy
2. Soils: with few exceptions, soils of region are relatively infertile; some areas are noted for
natural soil fertility, especially around Rift Valley; Lake Victoria lowlands and central
highlands of Kenya also noted for productive agricultural bases; some regions, including
Zambia and Zimbabwe, could benefit from irrigation
B. Climate and Vegetation: Sub-Saharan Africa lies in tropical latitudes; series of bioregions from
tropical rainy, tropical wet and dry (savanna), subtropical steppe, subtropical desert; parts of
southern Africa have Mediterranean climate
1. Tropical forests: core of Sub-Saharan Africa is remarkable moist; world’s second largest
expanse of equatorial rainforest located in Congo Basin; commercial logging and agricultural
clearing have degraded western and southern fringes of forest
2. Savannas: surrounding Central African rainforest belt is great arc of savannas; seasonality to
precipitation north and south; savannas are critical habitat for region’s large fauna
3. Deserts: vast extent of tropical Africa is bracketed by several deserts
a. Sahara: world’s largest desert
b. Namib Desert: temperatures are usually mild; exceptionally dry region
c. Kalahari Desert: not dry enough to be classified as true desert; very brief rainy season;
surface water is scarce
C. Africa’s Environmental Issues: prevailing image of region is environmental scarcity and
degradation; single explanations, such as population growth or colonial legacy, cannot adequately
account for environmental problems
1. The Sahel and Desertification: The Sahel is zone of ecological transition between Sahara to
the north and savannas and forest of the south; has experienced numerous droughts; region
vulnerable to increased desertification; transhumance (movement of animals between wet-
season and dry-season pasture) is practiced in region
a. Desertification: disagreement over causes; some explanations include expansion of
agriculture, overgrazing; some areas are experiencing vegetative recovery
2. Deforestation: environmental problem in tropical rainforests and also savanna woodlands; in
some countries, village women have organized to create green belts to conserve woodlands;
destruction of tropical rainforests for logging is pronounced in fringes of Central Africa’s
Ituri; rainforests along Atlantic coast and on Madagascar have nearly disappeared
3. Energy Issues: people in region suffer from serious energy shortages; foreign investors are
actively developing region’s supplies of oil and natural gas—mostly for export; biofuels also
being developed
4. Wildlife Conservation: region is famous for wildlife; wildlife is declining; numerous
reserves have been established to protect wildlife from poaching; worldwide bans on wildlife
trade also important
D. Climate Change and Vulnerability in Sub-Saharan Africa: global climate change poses
extreme risks for region—especially because of poverty, recurrent droughts, and overdependence
on rain-fed agriculture; region is world’s lowest emitter of greenhouse gases but likely to
experience greater-than-average human vulnerability; parts of highland East Africa and equatorial
Central Africa may receive more rainfall—could increase agricultural productivity; but other
regions, including Sahal, may decline in productivity; higher temperatures may result in
expansion of vector-borne diseases; famine, even without climate change, remains ever-present
threat; food insecurity is prevalent in many locations
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III. Population and Settlement: Young and Restless: region’s population is growing rapidly; region
exhibits were young age structure; families tend to be large, relatively high fertility rates; high child
and material mortality rates remain high but are declining ; complex settlement patterns throughout
region; physiological density and agricultural density provide insight into relationship between
population size and environment
A. Population Trends and Demographic Debates: debate as to whether Sub-Saharan Africa is
over-populated; demographic profile is changing—including decline in child mortality; life
expectancies declined in part because of impact of HIV/AIDS, although now on rise
1. Family Size: region exhibits preference for large family; these guarantee family’s lineage
and status; everyday realities of rural life make large families an asset; government policies
toward family size have shifted—attempt to promote smaller family sizes; population growth
rates have declined somewhat
2. The Impact of AIDS and Malaria on Africa: two-thirds of people living with HIV/AIDS
are in Africa; disease has had devastating impact on region; social and economic implications
have been profound; there are hopeful signs, including education, testing, and medicines;
changes in sexual practices, and use of condoms, have also helped
a. Malaria: historically a key problem for region; most effective tool to reduce infection
has been distribution of insecticide-treated mosquito nets; infections and deaths have
been declining
B. Patterns of Settlement and Land Use: people are widely scattered throughout region;
concentrations are highest in West Africa, highland East Africa, and eastern half of South Africa;
as region becomes more urbanized, patterns of settlement are evolving into clusters of higher
concentrations; Lagos is region’s only megacity; African cities are now growing faster than rural
areas
1. Agricultural Subsistence: staple crops over most of region are millet, sorghum, rice, and
corn, plus other tubers and root crops; areas that support annual crop yields, population
densities are greater; over much of continent, agriculture remains relatively unproductive;
shifting cultivation—swidden—is practiced in areas of poorer tropical soils
2. Export Agriculture: critical to many economies in the region; key export crops include
coffee, peanuts, cacao, rubber, palm oil; agricultural exports are vulnerable to fluctuations of
global prices
3. Pastoralism: animal husbandry is important throughout region, particularly in semi-arid
zones; camels and goats principal animals in Sahel and Horn of Africa; cattle predominates
further south; large expanses of Sub-Saharan Africa have been off-limits to cattle raising
because of tsetse flies—these spread sleeping sickness; region presents difficult environment
for raising livestock
C. Urban Life: Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia are least urbanized regions in the world; recent
decades have witnessed surge in urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa; tendency is toward urban
primacy; European colonialism influenced urban form and development in region
1. West African Urban Traditions: most West African cities are hybrids, combining Islamic,
European, and national elements; many West African cities date to the 12th century
2. Urban Industrial South Africa: major cities of southern Africa are colonial in origin;
foundation of South Africa’s urban economy is based on mineral resources; form of South
African cities exhibit legacy of apartheid—official policy of racial segregation; under
apartheid Black Africans were forced to live in settlements called townships; contemporary
urban processes continue to reflect racial problems
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IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Unity Through Adversity: traditional African religions were
largely limited to local areas; a handful of African trade languages (e.g. Swahili, Mandingo, Hausa)
have been understood over vast territories—but none spans entire region; region also lacks history of
widespread political union; powerful African kingdoms and empires were limited to distinct sub-
regions; African identity has been shaped by common history of slavery and colonialism, as well as
struggles for independence and development
A. Language Patterns: indigenous languages are often localized; more widely spoken African trade
languages serve as lingua franca; most African states are multilingual
1. African Language Groups: three of six language groups are unique to the region (Niger-
Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan); the other three (Afro-Asiatic, Austronesia, and Indo-
European) are more closely associated with other regions
a. Afro-Asiatic: these, especially Arabic, dominate North Africa and in Islamic areas of
Sub-Saharan Africa
b. Malayo-Polynesia: limited to island of Madagascar
c. Indo-European: especially English, French, Portuguese, and Afrikaans; legacy of
colonialism and are widely used
d. Niger-Congo: most influential and widespread; originated in West Africa and includes
Mandingo, Yoruba, and Igbo; diffused with the Bantu
2. Language and Identity: ethnic identity and linguistic affiliation in region has historically
been unstable; distinct tribes initially consisted of groups of families or clans with common
kinship—impetus to formalize tribal boundaries came from European colonizers; social
boundaries between ethnic and linguistic groups have become more stable in recent years
3. European Languages: in colonial period European countries used own languages for
administrative purposes; in post-independence, most Sub-Saharan African countries continue
to use languages of former colonizers; two vast blocks of European languages exist:
Francophone Africa and Anglophone Africa; other smaller pockets remain
B. Religion: indigenous African religions are generally, and misleadingly, called animist; most
center on worship of nature and ancestral spirits; diversity is great; Christianity and Islam early
entered but diffused gradually until the 20th century
1. Introduction and Spread of Christianity: first arrived in northeast Africa around 300 CE;
European settlers and missionaries spread religion to other parts beginning in 1600s; various
branches have been established
2. Introduction and Spread of Islam: began to diffuse into region around 1000 years ago;
Berber traders from North Africa and the Sahara introduced religion to the Sahel; other
mercantile empires converted
3. Interaction between Religious Traditions: southward spread of Islam and northward spread
of Christianity generated complex religious frontier across much of West Africa; religious
conflict remains pronounced in some areas
C. Globalization and African Culture: following the African slave trade, a blending of African
cultures with Amerindian and European cultures is evidenced throughout the Caribbean and Latin
America; foreign languages, religions and dress also diffused into Africa; contemporary
movements of Africans continue to influence the cultures of other regions
1. Music in West Africa: Nigeria is musical center of West Africa; important also is Mali;
contemporary African music is both commercially and politically important
2. Pride in East African Runners: Ethiopia and Kenya have produced many of the world’s
greatest distance runners; running is a national pastime in these countries
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V. Geopolitical Framework: Legacies of Colonialism and Conflict: duration of human settlement in
Sub-Saharan Africa is unmatched by any other region; humankind originated in the region; numerous
indigenous kingdoms and empires rose and fall over the centuries; many important African states
were located toward the interior and throughout the Sahel; European colonialism reoriented seats of
power toward the coastal areas
A. European Colonization: process occurred over number of centuries; Europeans initially
established trading posts along coastal areas
1. The Disease Factor: European colonialism was slowed by the prevalence of many diseases,
including malaria and sleeping sickness; possibility of huge profits kept European interest
strong—export of slaves, gold, ivory were attractive
a. Medicines: discovery of vaccines help minimize problems of diseases and facilitated
colonialism
2. The Scramble for Africa: European colonialism accelerated in 1880s; at Berlin Conference
(1884) major European powers established framework to colonize Africa for financial gain;
numerous armed conflicts resulted; South Africa—one of the oldest colonies—achieved
independence in 1910 but remained dominated by white population
B. Decolonization and Independence: for many colonies, decolonization happened quickly and
peacefully, beginning in the 1950s; by mid-1960s most of the region had achieved independence;
the Organization of African Unity (renamed the African Union) was early regional association to
promote political unity
1. Southern Africa’s Independence Battles: independence did not come easily to southern
Africa, especially Southern Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe) and in former Portuguese
colonies (i.e. Angola and Mozambique)
2. Apartheid’s Demise in South Africa: between 1948 and the 1980s the ruling Afrikaners’
National Party was committed to apartheid; opposition began in 1960s and intensified in the
1980s; international pressure also was important; major change came in 1990s; free elections
held and Nelson Mandela emerged as new president; legacy of apartheid remains
3. Regional Blocks: two most active regional organization are the Southern African
Development Community (SADC) and the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS); others have formed; effectiveness has been mixed
C. Enduring Political Conflict: most newly independent countries faced difficult institutional and
political problems; administrative oversight has been difficult
1. Tyranny of the Map: throughout region, different ethnic groups were forced into same
states; considerable linguistic and religious backgrounds; given imposed political
boundaries—difficult to generate common sense of national identity; Africa’s leaders sought
to build new nations within existing boundaries—but challenges emerged and continued;
human cost of innumerable conflicts has been several million refugees and internally
displaced persons
2. Ethnic Conflicts: in 1990s nearly two-thirds of states in region were experiencing ethnic
conflict; peace has returned to some of these countries; violence is related—in complicated
ways—to resources, such as diamonds; deadliest conflict has been in Democratic Republic of
the Congo—an estimated 5.4 million people died between 1998 and 2010; other on-going
conflicts are in Mali, South Sudan, and Somalia; ecological pressures exacerbate these
conflict
3. Secessionist Movements: problematic African political boundaries have led to attempts to
secede and form new states; examples include movements in Zaire (now Democratic
Republic of the Congo); Nigeria, and Somalia; only two territories have been successful:
Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia and South Sudan gained its independence from
Sudan
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VI. Economic and Social Development: The Struggle to Develop: by most measures, Sub-Saharan
Africa is poorest region in world; two-thirds of population lives on less than $2 per day; nearly all
states are ranked at bottom of Human Development Index; some resource-rich states have higher per
capita gross national income; decade of 1990s was especially difficult; structural adjustment
programs caused many hardships; on positive side, since 2000 there are signs of economic growth—
though some figures are misleading
A. Roots of African Poverty: common explanations include colonialism, poorly conceived
development policies, corrupt governance, and environmental factors; the legacy of slavery is
also considered a factor; contemporary scholars tend to discourse environmental circumstances
and emphasize historical and institutional factors
1. Failed Development Policies: following independence, many states relied on export of
mineral and agricultural products; some foreign capital was attracted to region; foreign debt
increased as commodity prices declined; numerous counter-productive policies were enacted,
especially those related to agriculture and food; recently many states have experienced land
grabs which have increased food insecurity
2. Corruption: corruption is particularly prevalent throughout region; many states have been
defined as kleptocracies—states in which corruption is institutionalized
3. Decade of Growth: since 2000 strong commodity prices, new infrastructure, and improved
technology have led to economic improvements; domestic and international aid has
contributed
B. Links to the World Economy: region’s trade connection is limited—accounting for only 2
percent of global trade; level of overall trade also low within region; Sub-Saharan continued to
lag behind other regions in terms of connectivity—but there are signs of improvement
1. Aid Versus Investment: to certain degree, region is linked to global economy more through
financial aid and loans than investment and trade; however foreign direct investment is
increasing; China is emerging as leading investor in region
2. Debt Relief: many states in region are heavily indebted; various strategies have emerged to
reduce debt burden, thereby affording means to build necessary infrastructure and to improve
basic health and education
C. Economic Differentiation Within Africa: considerable variation exists in levels of economic
and social development throughout region; small island nations of Mauritius and the Seychelles
are more akin, in terms of economic and social development, to the Caribbean; millions of
Africans live in extreme power; in rural areas, poverty is very pronounced
1. South Africa: this state remains the economic powerhouse of the region; however it is also
best by widespread poverty—especially among Black Africans
2. Oil and Mineral Producers: some states are relatively prosperous because of oil and mineral
reserves—Gabon, Republic of the Congo, and Equatorial Guinea; also significant are
Namibia and Botswana; Angola and Nigeria are major oil exporters
3. The Leaders of the ECOWAS: Nigeria is most populous country, core member of the
ECOWAS, and has largest oil reserves in region; it is also notoriously inefficient and corrupt;
Ivory Coast and Ghana are also important West African commercial centers
4. East Africa: long the commercial and communicative centers of East Africa, Kenya has
experienced economic decline and political tension throughout the 1990s; since 2000 signs of
improvement; infrastructure is relatively good; tourism is important; fortunes of Uganda and
Tanzania also improving
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D. Measuring Social Development: by global standards, measures of social development are
extremely low—but some positive trends, including child survival and literacy; many
governments have reached out to African diaspora
1. Child Mortality and Life Expectancy: most to significant improvements have been
recorded in many states; life expectancy overall remains low—as states attempt to recover
from HIV/AIDS crisis; causes of short life expectancy also related to poverty, environmental
hazards, and diseases; various national and international health agencies working to improve
access to health care
2. Meeting Educational Needs: basic education remains problematic; goal is daunting,
especially given youthfulness of population; many states exhibit renewed effort to provide
basic education
E. Women and Development: many of the labors of women are not accounted for in statistics;
women account for 75 percent of labor in agriculture—but activities considered informal and thus
not counted
1. Status of Women: social position difficult to measure and varies widely; in some areas,
female traders have considerable political and economic power; other measures indicate
relative gender equality; but there is also prevalence of polygamy, practice of ‘bride price’,
and tendency for males to inherit property; female circumcision remains prevalent in some
areas; educational and wage-earning opportunities are limited in many areas
F. Building from Within: many people in region are optimistic; various internal and international
organizations working to meet basic needs
KEY TERMS
African Union (p. 277)
Agricultural density (p. 256)
Apartheid (p. 264)
Berlin Conference (p. 276)
Biofuels (p. 250)
Clan (p. 283)
Coloured (p. 264)
Conflict diamonds (p. 281)
Food insecurity (p. 254)
Gondwana (p. 243)
Great Escarpment (p. 244)
Homelands (p. 278)
Horn of Africa (p. 248)
Internally displaced person (p.280)
Kleptocracy (p. 287)
Millennium Development Goals (p. 287)
Pan-African Movement (p. 277)
Pastoralist (p. 262)
Physiological density (p. 256)
Refugee (p. 280)
Sahel (p. 248)
Structural adjustment program (p. 285)
Swidden (p. 260)
Township (p. 264)
Transhumance (p. 249)
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Tribalism (p. 279)
Tribe (p. 268)
Tsetse fly (p. 262)

1. Which countries in the region would benefit from increased bamboo production? Both Ethiopia and
Mozambique could benefit immensely from increased bamboo production; drought-prone Ethiopia, in
particular would benefit from the production of bamboo as a fuel-source, given that bamboo does not
consume significant amounts of water.
2. Besides fuel, what are the other uses of bamboo? Bamboo may be used as a building material for houses,
floors, and furniture.
Cityscapes
1. Where does the population density appear to be greatest in the city? Density appears highest in Nairobi’s
‘slum’ districts.
2. How is Kenyan national identity expressed in the Nairobi landscape? Kenyan national identity is reflected
in the names of streets and avenues in the city—such as the renaming of the main boulevard Kenyatta
Avenue, for the country’s first president. National identity is also reflected in the location of the Nairobi
National Park, the only game reserve in the world to border a major city.
1. What are the apparent environmental differences between industrial and artisan diamond mining?
Industrial mining is both labor- and capital-intensive; is it large scale and is especially damaging to the
environment. Artisan diamond mining is smaller scale in its operation and relatively more benign toward
the environment.
2. Why might diamonds be an ideal resource to support armed conflict? Diamonds are easily transportable
and there is always a ready-market for the purchase of diamonds. These contribute to the use of diamonds
as a means of earning revenues to purchase weapons.

6.1 What environmental factors help explain the patterns of human settlement in the region? Unlike other
world regions, Sub-Saharan Africa does not have broad alluvial lowlands that influence patterns of
settlement. Rather, most human settlements are widely scattered. Population densities are related to the
fertility of soils; countries with relatively more fertile soils, such as those surrounding the Great Rift
Valley (e.g. Rwanda and Burundi) exhibit considerable higher population densities. Other major areas of
human settlement are located along coastal areas and major rivers.
6.2 Summarize the factors that make Sub-Saharan Africans especially vulnerable to climate change. A major
factor lies in the fact that many ecosystems are susceptible to drought; climate change will intensify these
risks. Likewise, given the tropical climate throughout much of central Africa it is believed that tropical
diseases may increase as a result of changed climatic patterns. Problems stemming from rising sea levels
will especially affect those locations along the West African coast.
6.3 Explain the factors that contribute to high population growth rates in this region. A combination of factors
account for high population growth rates, including a continued desire for large family size, elevated rates
of child mortality, a youthful age structure, and relatively low levels of literacy and urbanization.
6.4 Where has the impact of HIV/AIDs and malaria been most pronounced, and what are governments and
aid organizations doing to fight these diseases? The area most impacted by HIV/AIDs is southern
Africa—in particular, Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland. Both governmental and international aid
organizations have been fighting this disease through educational efforts and facilitating the accessibility
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of treatments and condoms. There have been greater services available for HIV testing, counseling, and
prenatal screening. West and Central Africa have been hardest hit by Malaria—notably the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and Nigeria. Medications have been distribution to prevent infection; there is no
malaria vaccine. The most effective preventive strategy has been the distribution of insecticide-treated
mosquito nets.
6.5 What are the major rural livelihoods in this region? There are various rural livelihood practices, including
pastoralism, swidden agriculture, and other forms of subsistence agriculture. Many farmers also
participate in the production of export agricultural crops.
6.6 What are the dominant religions of Sub-Saharan Africa, and how have they diffused throughout the
region? Throughout much of the region various animist religions are practiced. Beginning around 700 CE
Coptic Christianity was introduced in parts of the Sahel; as a whole, however, Christianity (mainly
Catholicism and Protestantism) diffused northward throughout the continent as a result of European
colonialists and missionaries. Beginning around 1000 years ago Islam steadily diffused, largely
southward, across the continent.
6.7 What are the ways in which African peoples have influenced world regions beyond Africa? The slave
trade resulted in the forced movement of millions of Africans; in the process, various cultural elements
have diffused wherever African slavery was practiced—notably in the Americas but also Europe. African
culture is present in agricultural practices in the Americas; it is also evident in music, dance, language,
and religion. More recently, African cultural traditions continue to influence other world regions—again,
especially in music and dance styles as well as cuisine.
6.8 What are the processes behind Sub-Saharan Africa’s political map, and why have there been relatively
few boundary changes since the 1960s? Prior to European colonialism, Africa’s political map exhibited a
complex mosaic of kingdoms, states, and other political entities. During the apex of European
colonization however indigenous African cultural and political boundaries were largely ignored; the
modern political map of Africa is thus a legacy of European territorial divisions and administration.
Following independence in the 1950s and 1960s most African states—at the urging of the Organization of
African Unity—agreed to retain Europe’s imposed political divisions as a means of reducing territorial
conflict. With few exceptions, such as the secession of Eritrea and South Sudan, these political divisions
have remained relatively constant.
6.9 What are the present major conflicts in this region, and where are they occurring? The most deadly
conflict present in the region is in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; the causes of this conflict are
complex but are related to ethnic disputes over territorial divisions. Another low-intensity ethnic conflict
currently exists in Mali. Somalia’s government disintegrated in 1991 and the state is currently controlled
by various class-based warlords and their own private militias.
6.10 What are the environmental, historical, structural, and institutional reasons offered to explain poverty in
the region? Environmental reasons used to explain Africa’s poverty are related to the relative infertility of
much of the region’s soils. Likewise many of the major rivers are only partially navigable, thus hindering
to a certain extent patterns of trade. Other environmental factors include the prevalence of tropical
diseases. Historical factors include the legacy of slavery and colonialism. Colonialism itself contributed to
structural and institutional factors, such as the limited infrastructure development, inefficient
governments, and minimal connectivity to the global economy. Another institutional factor is corruption.
6.11 What technological and investment changes are impacting the region’s social development? The major
technological change is that of cellular and digital technology which, combined, are promoting greater
integration within the region and incorporation into the global economy. China is the major investor in the
region; in exchange for access to oil and ore, China has been investing in various infrastructure projects,
including roads and schools. Both of these have led to improvements in social development.
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In Review Questions
6.1 This area was heavily forested in the 1950s. Looking at this image, what activities are contributing to
deforestation in this area of Madagascar? Madagascar’s forests have been cleared because of commercial
logging and agricultural practices.
6.2 Sub-Saharan Africa is noted for its wildlife, especially large mammals. What environmental and historical
processes explain the existence of so much fauna? In part this bio-diversity is related to the historically
and relatively low population densities of humans; likewise, the presence of tropical diseases has kept
human expansion relatively limited.
6.3 What factors might explain the density of settlement in this region of Africa? The high population density
of this region is mostly explained by the presence of fertile soils suitable for agriculture.
6.4 Consider how increasing urbanization may impact the overall structure of the population in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Answers will vary. Students should consider the relationship between fertility rates and
urbanization; urbanized areas tend to have lower fertility rates. Likewise, increased urbanization is
associated with rural-to-urban migration. This will also impact subsequent fertility levels. As fertility
levels decrease, the overall structure of the population will gradually ‘age’. Students should also consider
the effect of urbanization –and potentially greater access to health care—on mortality levels.
6.5 Nigeria is linguistically diverse. What do the distinct language families in this state tell us about the area’s
settlement? Language patterns in Nigeria indicate on the one hand the indigenous distribution of ethnic
groups; on the other hand, patterns reveal more recent patterns of migration and settlement.
6.6 Compare and contrast the role of tribalism in Sub-Saharan Africa with that of nationalism in Europe.
There are many similarities. In both cases, members of the same group identified with others because of
shared language, culture, history, and so on. Likewise in both cases groups fought with some neighboring
groups and formed alliances with others. There are major differences however. In the case of African
tribes, many faced enslavement and forced removal from their territories, while others endured
colonialism. Nations in Europe, by and large, did not experience this; indeed, they were the ones who
colonized and enslaved much of Africa.
6.7 Consider South Sudan. Which regional trade bloc do you think this new nation is likely to join? Answers
will vary. Students should consider both the historical connections between South Sudan and others
regions (i.e. North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa). Students should also consider the influence of shared
cultures, languages, and religion.
6.8 Historically, how was Sub-Saharan Africa integrated into the global economy? Was its role similar to that
of other developing regions? Throughout the period of European colonialism Sub-Saharan Africa was
connected to the global economy in a very limited, dependent, and subservient position. Since
independence, much of the region remains minimally connected; many states continue to function in
neocolonial relationships with former colonizing states. Some states, however, notably South Africa, have
refashioned their economies more to their favor and through various communication and transportation
and financial linkages are highly integrated into the global economy.
6.9 What economic activity is happening in this area of Sierra Leone, and what are its economic and
environmental consequences? This image depicts small-scale artisanal gold mining. This is a relatively
benign economic activity vis-à-vis the environment; it may help improve the lives of those practitioners at
a local level.
6.10 Compare and contrast the development model put forward by the United States and Europe with that of
China. Will Chinese influence in the region alter the course of development for Sub-Saharan Africa? Aid
to Africa from Europe and the U.S. is often funneled through the World Bank or other international
organizations; this aid often comes with strings attached, especially the requirement that countries adopt
neoliberal policies. China’s aid to Africa however often comes with no strings. Both approaches have
limitations. For example, the strategies employed by Europe and the U.S. have resulted in widespread and
deepening levels of poverty; China’s approach conversely has been criticized because it supposedly
contributes to corruption and human rights abuses. Chinese influence will tremendously influence the
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region, most notably in the level of infrastructure development that is being encouraged. China’s
economic presence will elevate the political salience of Sub-Saharan Africa for the coming decades.

1. United Nations forecasts describing the possible effects of global warming indicate that Sub-Saharan
Africa is likely to suffer more damage and hardship than previously predicted. What is the nature of these
new predictions? Why might this region be disproportionately, negatively, affected?
2. One of the major problems associated with the treatment of HIV/AIDs in Africa is the high cost of
medications. Many doctors and political leaders are asking pharmaceutical companies to provide
medicines as low-cost or possible even no-cost for those who are too impoverished to afford them. What
do you recommend? Why or why not?
3. Kenya is becoming a key location for ‘call centers’ for U.S. corporations. What are the characteristics that
make Kenya an attractive location for this type of business? How does this relate to colonialism in Sub-
Saharan Africa?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the ‘ivory trade.’ Why are these items desirable?
What countries are most active in the trade? What laws are in place to protect elephants and rhinos? How
effective have these laws been?
2. Do library and Internet research to learn more about African leaders—such as Jomo Kenyatta and Kwame
Nkrumah. What were their backgrounds? What strategies did they use for political independence? What
have been their lasting contributions to politics—both in Africa and beyond?
3. Conduct library and Internet research to learn more about one of Africa’s early indigenous kingdoms.
What were the accomplishments of the empire you researched? How long did the kingdom exist? Why
did it collapse?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for Europe
and activate the geopolitical issues features layer under the geopolitical theme; next activate both the
geological & hydrological resources and the mining and mineral resources layers under the economic
theme. Compare and contrast the patterns for all three layers. How might conflicts resulting from the
uneven distribution of natural resources account for the distribution of internally displaced persons and
refugees?
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Chapter 7: Southwest Asia and North Africa
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe how the region’s fragile, often arid setting shapes the region’s contemporary
environmental challenges
• Explain how latitude and topography produce the region’s distinctive patterns of climate
• Describe four distinctive ways in which people have learned to adapt their agricultural practices
to the region’s arid environment
• Summarize the major forces shaping recent migration patterns within the region
• List the major characteristics of Islam and its key patterns of diffusion
• Identify the region’s dominant religions and language families
• Describe the local impacts of the Arab Spring rebellions in different regional settings
• Identity the role of cultural variables and sectarian differences in understanding key regional
conflicts in Israel, Syria, and Iraq
• Summarize the geography of oil and gas reserves in the region
• Describe traditional roles for Islamic women and provide examples of recent changes
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: regional boundaries and terminology defy east definition; often the region is identified
as the Middle East; there is not also agreement as to which states should be included; division
between “North Africa” and “Sub-Saharan Africa” is problematic; culturally, the region exhibits
considerable linguistic, religious, and ethnic diversity; tremendous conflict and unrest—the so-called
Arab Spring—has defined the region in recent years; much violence has been sectarian—conflicts
that divide people along religious or ethnic lines; the region is a key global culture hearth;
globalization is particularly notable; Islamic fundamentalism has challenged many aspects of
globalization
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Life in a Fragile World: the physical geography
of the region is complex with considerable diversity; a legacy of human settlement has left its mark
on a fragile environment
A. Regional Landforms: in North Africa, the Maghreb region (‘western island) extends across the
northern parts of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia; dominated near the Mediterranean coastline by
the Atlas Mountains; south and east of the Atlas Mountains, the interior region varies between
rocky plateaus and extensive lowlands; Southwest Asia is more mountainous; in the Levant
(eastern Mediterranean), mountains rise close to the sea; farther south, the Arabian Peninsula
forms a massive tilted plateau, with western highlands sloping eastward to lowlands in the
Persian Gulf area; north and east of Arabian Peninsula lie two great upland areas: the Iranian and
Anatolian plateaus; smaller lowlands are found throughout region
B. Patterns of Climate: although characterized as arid, climate reveals more diversity; latitude and
altitude are important factors; aridity dominates much of region—near continuous desert eastward
from Atlantic coast across through to Arabian Peninsula and into Iran; Sahara Desert dominates
to the south; most of Arabian Desert is not as dry as Sahara; areas around Atlas Mountains and
lowlands of Morocco experience Mediterranean climate
C. Legacies of a Vulnerable Landscape: lengthy settlement in marginal lands has resulted in
deforestation, soil salinaization and erosion, and depleted water resources
1. Deforestation and Overgrazing: deforestation is ancient problem in region; more humid and
elevated lands that ring the Mediterranean once support heavy forests—these over the
centuries have been reduced to grass and scrub; scattered forests remain, especially in
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mountainous regions of northern and southern Turkey, eastern Mediterranean, and Atlas
Mountains; some states have launched reforestation projects
2. Salinization: refers to the buildup of toxic salts in the soil; also an ancient environmental
issue where irrigation has been practiced for centuries; considerable acreage has been
destroyed or degraded by process; problem particularly acute in Iraq—along the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers
3. Managing Water: numerous water management strategies have been introduced; regional
populations have long modified drainage systems and water flows—key example is the
Iranian qanat system; in recent decades, water management schmes have become huge
engineering projects—example is Israel’s ‘Peace Corridor’ project; fossil water has also been
utilized in region; hydropolitics—interplay of water resource issues and politics—has raised
tensions in recent years—examples include Turkey, Israel, and Syria; water is also key as
transportation—region exhibits many key choke points—the Strait of Gibraltar, the Bosporus
and Dardanelles straits, and the Suez Canal; also the Straits of Hormuz
D. Climate Change in Southwest Asia and North Africa: projected climate changes in region will
aggravate existing environmental issues; higher overall evaporation rates and lower overall soil
moisture will stress crops, grasslands, and other vegetation; warmer temperatures will likely
reduce net runoff into streams and rivers—potentially reducing hydroelectric potential and water;
higher likelihood of extreme weather events, including temperatures; sea-level changes pose
threats to the Nile Delta and farming
III. Population and Settlement: Changing Rural and Urban Worlds: complex settlement history;
large areas remain sparsely settled while other moisture-favored lands are densely populated
A. The Geography of Population: distribution of population is very uneven; some regions are
sparsely populated—other areas have some of highest physiological densities in world; patterns
of urban geography also uneven—less than two-thirds of overall population is urban, but some
states are overwhelmingly dominated by large cities; across North Africa, two dominant clusters
of settlement, both shaped by availability of water, are found: one is the Maghreb, the other is
Egypt’s Nile Valley; most of Southwest Asia’s population is clustered in coastal zones, moister
highland settings and desert localities around rivers or subsurface aquifers; some higher
population clusters are found in the eastern Mediterranean
B. Water and Life: Rural Settlement Patterns: water and life are closely linked; region is one of
world’s earliest hearth’s of domestication; much of early agricultural activity focused on Fertile
Crescent
1. Pastoral Nomadism: this is traditional form of subsistence agriculture based on seasonal
movement of livestock; practices throughout much of region, although on the decline; in
mountainous areas, transhumance also practiced
2. Oasis Settlements: these dot the landscape wherever high groundwater levels or deep-water
wells are found; traditional oasis settlements tend to be small and composed of close-knit
families; these settlements face major challenges, including population growth and
groundwater depletion
3. Settlement Along Exotic Rivers: many of the region’s densest rural settlements have been
located to exotic rivers; rivers provide water for irrigation; farming supports higher
population densities; some of the most efficient farms are associated with Israeli kibbutzim—
collectively worked settlements
4. The Challenge of Dryland Agriculture: Mediterranean climates permit varied forms of
dryland agriculture that depend on seasonal moisture; these include drought-resistant tree
crops, including olives, almonds, and citrus; some locations support grape vineyards
67

C. Many-Layered Landscapes: The Urban Imprint: cities have played pivotal role in region’s
human geography; enduring political, religious, and economic ties link the city and countryside
1. A Long Urban Legacy: cities have traditionally played important functional roles as centers
of political and religious authority; urbanization in region began by 3500 BCE in places such
as Eridu and Ur, also Memphis and Thebes; Islam has left a lasting mark because cities
traditionally served as centers of religious power and education—these cities have acquired a
distinctive form; recently, European colonialism left its imprint on urban form
2. Signatures of Globalization: since 1950 new forces have transformed the urban landscape—
cities have become gateways to the global economy; many cities have increased in size
because of rural-to-urban migration; oil-rich states of the Persian Gulf have dramatically
remade their urban landscapes—key examples include Dubai, Doha, Kuwait City, and
Manama
D. A Region on the Move: nomads have historically crisscrossed the region; new patterns of
migration reflect the global economy and recent political events; the region has witnessed in
influx of foreign migrant workers—especially throughout the Arabian Peninsula; thousands of
people have fled in face of political unrest; growing refugee populations have also appeared
E. Shifting Demographic Patterns: high population growth remains critical issue—also there is
now considerable regional variation; birth rates in Tunisia and Turkey have declined, while
fertility remains high elsewhere, such as Yemen; family-planning initiatives have expanded in
many countries
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Complex Cultural Mosaic: Southwest Asia and North
Africa define the heart of the ‘Islamic’ and ‘Arab’ worlds; but there is considerable diversity; Islam
itself is not homogenous or monolithic; many non-Arab peoples live in the region
A. Patterns of Religion: religion is central to most people in the region—as opposed to the
increased secularism of many other parts of the world
1. Hearth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition: both Jews and Christians trade their religious
roots to the eastern Mediterranean; both continue to play key cultural roles although neither
group is numerically dominant
2. The Emergence of Islam: Islam originated in Southwest Asia, forming another cultural
hearth of global significance; basic teachings offer an elaborate blue-print for leading an
ethical and religious life; many Islamic fundamentalists argue for a theocratic state; a major
schism divided Islam into two main branches: Shiites and Sunnis; over the centuries, Islam
diffused from its cultural hearth throughout much of the world; it was influential in the
development of the Ottoman Empire
3. Modern Religious Diversity: Aside from the two dominant branches of Islam, as well as
Christianity and Judaism, there are other smaller religious groups: Sufism, Salafists,
Wahhabis
B. Geographies of Language: linguistic complexity creates many important cultural divisions
1. Semites and Berbers: Afro-Asiatic languages dominate much of the region; within that
family, Arabic is dominant Semitic language; also important is Hebrew; older Afro-Asiatic
languages endure—these are collectively known as Berber
2. Persians and Kurds: much of the Iranian Plateau and nearby mountainous areas are
dominated by Indo-European languages, notably Persian; Kurdish is another Indo-European
language
3. The Turkish Imprint: Turkish languages provide more variety; these are part of larger Altai
language family that originated in Central Asia
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C. Regional Cultures in Global Context: the region has been connected with other regions through
religion, colonialism, and trade; connections are seen in popular culture as well
1. Islamic Internationalism: Islam is geographically and theologically divided, but all Muslims
recognize the fundamental unity of their religion; this identification is global in scope; the
religion’s tradition of pilgrimage ensures continued unity and internationalism
2. Globalization, Technology, and Popular Culture: the region is struggling with how its
growing role in the global economy is changing traditional cultural values; many regions
have witnessed influx of Western-style music, literature, clothing; the expansion of Islamic
fundamentalism and Islamism is in part reaction to perceived threat posed by external cultural
influences; technology is also shaping cultural and political change; hybrid forms of popular
culture reflect globalization—such as Arab hip-hop music; widespread television viewing
continues to transform the region; many cultural changes are not going unchallenged—
conservative cultural influences are gaining strength and visibility in many areas—such as
Tunisia and Turkey
3. The Role of Sports: sports have assumed an important cultural role within the region; soccer
is most prevalent
V. Geopolitical Framework: Never-Ending Tensions: geopolitical tensions remain high in the region;
in the Arab Spring rebellions, governments fell in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen; widespread
protests took place in Bahrain; and protracted civil war exists in Syria; broadly speaking, these
protests focused on charges of governmental corruption, limited opportunities for democracy, rising
food prices, and enduring poverty and high unemployment; on-going issues include Israeli-
Palestinian relations, Iran’s potential threat, and Iraq’s post-war future
A. The Colonial Legacy: European colonialism arrived late on the scene—in part because of
dominance of the Turkish Ottoman Empire; a European presence grew in early 19th century;
much of direct European control ended by the 1950s
1. Imposing European Power: French colonial ties have long been part of region’s history; a
French colonial presence began around 1800, especially throughout North Africa; Great
Britain’s colonial presence began around 1900, primarily around the Persian Gulf; crucial
was the establishment of the Suez Canal; further British colonial gains occurred after the First
World war; other areas were only marginal affected by European colonialism—Libya for
example
2. Decolonization and Independence: decolonization and European withdrawal took place in
North Africa largely in the 1950s; some were relatively peaceful although others endured
bloody conflicts—Algeria is notable; Southwest Asian states achieved independence largely
between the 1930s and 1971
B. Modern Geopolitical Issues: geopolitical instability remains in the 21st century
1. Across North Africa: many states have witnessed recent political changes related to the Arab
Spring rebellions; in Tunisia a moderate Islamist government replaced a deposed dictator; in
Libya a dictator was removed; in Egypt Hosni Mubarak was overthrown—the country
remains politically unstable; elsewhere Islamist political movements continue to reshape the
geopolitical landscape
2. The Arab-Israeli Conflict: the Jewish state of Israel was created in 1948; since then,
political tensions have continued; territorial has been gained and lost through a series of wars
and negotiations; relations with neighboring countries remains poor; crucial has been
demands to create a Palestinian state
3. Instability in Syria and Iraq: political instability in Syria transformed into civil war—rebel
protests (mostly by Sunni Muslims) against autocratic regime of current president continue;
the rebels themselves are fragmented and divided, each reflected different demands and
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objectives; Iraq continues to experience political instability and conflict following the US-led
Iraq war in 2003
4. Politics in the Arabian Peninsula: protests have occurred throughout the Arabian Peninsula,
including in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen
5. Iran Ascendant? Iran continues to receive international attention; Islamic fundamentalism
remains strong; and the country continues to pursue a nuclear weapons program
6. Tensions in Turkey: Turkey is strategically positioned between often contradictory
geopolitical forces, including pro-Western sentiments and anti-Western Islamist political
elements
C. An Uncertain Political Future: few areas of the world pose more geopolitical questions than
Southwest Asia and North Africa; a key question is: what geopolitical role should the United
Staes play in the region?
VI. Economic and Social Development: A Region of Stark Contrasts: the region exhibits areas of
remarkable wealth and extreme poverty; some countries enjoy economic prosperity while others are
among the world’s least developed
A. Measuring Development: since the 1970s and 1980s, investments in education, health care, and
employment opportunities have slowed considerably; overall social and economic conditions
have improved—striking regional variability continues; conditions are largely positive in the
United Arab Emirates but dismal in Sudan, Iraq, and Morocco; development in part may be
assessed by access to information and overall connectivity
B. The Geography of Fossil Fuels: these resources are extremely uneven within the region; Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Libya and Algeria have sizeable deposits; others, such as Yemen, do not; the
world’s largest concentration of petroleum lies within the Arabian-Iranian sedimentary basin; in
North Africa, Morocco possesses few developed petroleum reserves, especially compared to
Algeria and Egypt
C. Regional Economic Patterns: remarkable economic differences characterize the region; some
oil-rich countries have proposed; other states, poor in oil and gas, have benefitted from economic
diversification; other states are subject to persistent poverty
1. Higher-Income Oil Exporters: richest countries of the region owe wealth to massive oil
reserves—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and the UAE; large investments have
reshaped the cultural landscape and improved their infrastructure; problems remain, related in
part to fluctuations in oil markets and problem of depleting their reserves
2. Lower-Income Oil Exporters: some states are secondary players in oil trade, but political
and economic factors have hampered sustained economic growth—Algeria, Iraq, and Iran are
notable in this respect
3. Prospering Without Oil: Israel and Turkey have experienced economic growth through a
diversification of their economies
4. Regional Patterns of Poverty: Sudan, Egypt, and Yemen face unique challenges, including
political instability, poor infrastructure; and environmental constraints
D. A Woman’s Changing World: role of women in the largely Islamic Southwest Asia and North
Africa remains major social issue; female participation rates are among lowest in the world; large
gaps typically exist between levels of education for men and women; more orthodox Islamic
states have imposed legal restrictions on activities of women; in some areas, however, women’s
participation is increasing; whether positive or negative, women’s roles are shifting throughout
the region
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E. Global Economic Relationships: the region shares close economic ties with the rest of the
world—largely through oil and gas but also through manufacturing and tourism
1. OPEC’s Changing Fortunes: OPEC continues to influence global oil and gas prices; the
region’s major energy producers however remain vulnerable to global-scale recessions and
fluctuations; other trade f lows are important—such as manufactured goods from Turkey and
exports from Israel
2. Regional and International Linkages: relations with the EU are critical; various agreements
have been signed; most Arab countries however are wary of European dominance; Saudi
Arabia assumes pivotal role in regional economic development
3. Geography of Tourism: tourism is key link to global economy; political instability however
dampens demand to the region
KEY TERMS
Arab League (p. 334)
Arab Spring (p. 300)
Brain drain (p. 345)
Choke point (p. 308)
Culture hearth (p. 300)
Domestication (p. 311)
Exotic river (p. 313)
Fertile Crescent (p. 311)
Fossil water (p. 307)
Hajj (p. 322)
Hydropolitics (p. 307)
Islamic fundamentalism (p. 300)
Islamism (p. 300)
Libbutzim (p. 313)
Levant (p. 301)
Maghreb (p. 301)
Medina (p. 316)
Monotheism (p. 321)
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (p. 300)
Ottoman Empire (p. 323)
Palestinian Authority (PA) (p. 332)
Pastoral nomadism (p. 312)
Physiological density (p. 310)
Protectorate (p. 329)
Qanat system (p. 306)
Quran (p. 322)
Sectarian violence (p. 300)
Shiites (p. 322)
Suez Canal (p. 329)
Sunnis (p. 322)
Theocratic state (p. 322)
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Cityscapes
1. Find Cairo on Google Earth, and examine parts of the old city as well as new suburban developments to
the east. Describe three visual differences you can detect between these old and new settlement patterns.
Answers will vary. Students could address a myriad of differences related to architectural styles, urban
morphology and transportation networks; the type and distribution of retail businesses; population
density; and income differentials.
2. Find a work of literature (novel, short story, poem) focused on an urban setting in your region, and
identify a passage (such as the one by Mahfouz) that captures a local sense of place. Answers will vary,
but students should focus on how the literature uses reference to cultural practices and physical senses to
convey something about the place.

1. In considering the overall urban layout of Masdar City, what elements of traditional urban design parallel
the historical regional pattern of the Islamic city? What traditional features are given less emphasis? The
most obvious element is the fact that the city is a walled city—reminiscent of traditional regional urban
forms. However, the planners have designed the city to be completely sustainable, making use of modern
forms of energy conservation practices as well as minimal waste generating practices. Unlike traditional
cities, special attention was directed toward the planning of efficiency and organization.
2. Cite local examples of sustainable green building technologies on your own campus or within your
community. Answers will vary. Students may focus on specific conservation efforts, such as water-
reduction or waste-reduction strategies; students may also focus on the establishment of urban gardens or
reuse/recycle/reduce programs.

1. What are three characteristics that help define a global city? (1) Growth that is globally financed and
engineered; (2) workforce drawn from diverse immigrant population; (3) products are distributed
globally.
2. Examine the corporate website of one of the world’s largest oil companies. Can you find examples of
global investments and joint ventures that link it with key oil-producing areas in the Arabian Peninsula?
Answers will vary. Students should focus on those dominant oil-producing countries and how major oil
companies collaborate with these countries in an attempt to diversify products and/or expand their global
reach of products. Students may also focus on how collaborative efforts are established to provide the
necessary (and mobile) work-forces required.

7.1 Describe the climatic changes you might experience as you travel from the eastern Mediterranean coast to
the highlands of Yemen. What are some of the key climatic variables that explain these variations? As
you travel from the eastern Mediterranean to the highlands of Yemen you will pass through a
Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and cooler winters, through a tropical/sub-tropical desert
environment, and then a tropical and sub-tropical steppe environment. In the more highland regions,
temperatures will be noticeably cooler. The two most significant climate variables are latitude and
altitude. Also significant is the influence of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.
7.2 Discuss five important human modifications of the Southwest Asian and North African environment, and
assess whether these changes have benefitted the region. Five key modifications include irrigation,
deforestation, the construction of dams, desalination projects, and urbanization. Some of these include
both positive and negative aspects. Irrigation, for example, helps expand agriculture into more arid
locations, but contributes to the increased salinity of soils. The construction of dams provides
hydroelectricity but has also contributed to the increased siltation of reservoirs and rivers.
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7.3 Discuss how pastoral nomadism, oasis agriculture, and dryland wheat farming represent distinctive
adaptations to the regional environments of Southwest Asia and North Africa. How do these rural
lifestyles creative distinctive patterns of settlement? Pastoral nomadism is a practice of subsistence
agriculture predicated on the seasonal movement of livestock. Oasis agriculture exists when intensive
agricultural practices are established in places where high groundwater levels or modern deep-water wells
provide reliable water. Dryland agriculture depends on seasonal moisture to support farming and is
located in better-watered valleys of coastal lowlands of the region. For the latter two practices, dense
(though not numerically-high) population settlements may be found; for the former, nomadism is the
characteristic way of life.
7.4 Describe the distinctive contribution of (a) Islam, (b) European colonialism, and (c) recent globalization
to the region’s urban landscape. Many of the region’s urban centers are historically Muslim cities; these
have a distinctive walled core, or medina, that is surrounded by administrative, religious and other
educational buildings. Nearby is the suq, or bazaar—an often cosmopolitan marketplace. Housing
districts were, and are, typified by narrow winding streets affording both shade and privacy. European
colonialism transformed some architectural elements and selectively altered existing infrastructure.
Recent processes of globalization have expanded infrastructure (e.g. airports, industrial parks, luxury
tourist resorts) and have modified existing building styles.
7.5 Summarize the key patterns and drivers of migration in and out of the region. Two basic elements have
affected migration in the region. Economic growth associated with the oil industry—as well as relative
labor shortages—have resulted in widespread in-migration of foreign workers into places such as Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. Some countries, such as Egypt, are also
experiencing brain drains, as the more education leave for both better economic opportunities and to
move away from political instability. Political stability has also generated substantial refugee flows, such
as the movement of people out of the conflict-prone Sudan.
7.6 Describe the key characteristics of Islam, and explain why distinctive Sunni and Shiite branches exist
today. Islam originated in Southwest Asia in 622 CE. It is based on the teachings of the prophet
Muhammad, who received these from Allah (God); they are contained in the Quran. All Muslims are
expected to follow five essential activities: repeating the basic creed; praying five times daily while facing
Mecca; giving charitable contributions; fasting during the month of Ramadan; and making at least one
pilgrimage (Hajj) to Muhammad’s birthplace at Mecca. The two main divisions originated and followed
the death of Muhammad; at issue was the question of who would inherit his religious power. The Shiites
favored passing power within Muhammad’s family while a second branch, the Sunnis, believed that
power should be passed down through the established clergy.
7.7 Identify three examples that illustrate how modern communication and transportation technologies have
promoted cultural change and globalization within the region. Answers will vary, but students may
discuss the widespread use of cell-phones, the Internet, television, film, and airline travel as examples.
These have brought the world ‘closer’ to the region and have generated considerable debate as to how to
preserve traditional cultural practices within a globalizing society.
7.8 Describe the role played by the French and British in shaping the modern political map of Southwest Asia
and North Africa. Provide specific examples of their lasting legacy. Both France and Britain influenced
the region through colonial occupation. Britain for example incorporated regions such as Kuwait and
Bahrain into their empire to control vital sea routes; France developed much of North Africa to exploit
natural resources. Most political borders today are the result of European colonialism and the subsequent
conflicts and negotiations following de-colonization. The contributions of the British to the split between
Israel and Palestine—dating to decisions made in the early 20th century—is most notable.
7.9 Discuss the root causes behind the Arab Spring rebellions, and offer three examples of how the movement
has played out politically in different ways within the region. The major causes include governmental
corruption; a legacy of dictatorships; pervasive poverty and high unemployment; rising food costs; and
limited opportunities for democracy and free elections. In Tunisia the former dictator was deposed,
replaced by a moderate Islamist government; in Egypt the former president was overthrown—national
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elections were held but the country remains unstable; and in Libya, the long-standing dictator was
overthrown—transitional government leadership and political parties have been slow to form.
7.10 Explain how ethnic and political differences have shaped recent political conflicts in Syria and Iraq. Iraq
has historically been dominated by Sunni Muslims; smaller minorities of Shiites were always present, as
well as a sizeable minority of Kurds located in the northern part of the country. Following the recent war
and overthrow of the former dictator, Shiite Muslims have gained political power in the south (and the
capital of Baghdad) while Sunni Muslims remain politically dominant in the central and western
provinces. The Kurds remain dominant in the north. In Syria civil war exists between rebel protestors
(mostly Sunni Muslims) against the autocratic regime of President Bashar Hafez al-Assad (a member of
the minority Alawite sect). Assad has also gained support from the Shiite Muslims from Iran and
Lebanon.
7.11 Describe the basic geography of oil reserves across the region, and compare the pattern with the
geography of natural gas reserves. Within the region the most extensive reserves of oil are concentrated in
Saudi Arabia, followed by Iran, Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. The most extensive reserves
of natural gas are located in Iran and Qatar, with much smaller reserves found in Saudi Arabia, the United
Arab Emirates, and Algeria.
7.12 What different strategies for economic development have recently been employed by nations such as
Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Israel, and Egypt? How successful have they been, and how do they relate to the
theme of globalization? Throughout the 20th century Saudi Arabia has relied heavily on its extensive
deposits of oil as an economic strategy. Both Turkey and Israel have developed diversified economies,
with both agricultural and industrial products developed for global consumption. Egypt has a relatively
mixed economy, although tourism is very important. The success of any of these is related to the
fluctuations in the price of commodities globally as well as existent political instabilities. Egypt for
example has suffered economically given that on-going political instabilities have drastically reduced
international tourism to the country.
In Review Questions
7.1 If populations outstrip water supplies in North Africa’s oasis settlements, how might residents adjust?
Answers will vary. Depending on local conditions, residents might attempt to alter their economic way-
of-life. Conservation efforts may be established in an attempt to maintain water supplies; policies might
also be forwarded to limit population growth. However, many residents may be forced to move to other
urban areas.
7.2 What are ways in which modern technology might address water shortages across the region? Are there
limits or challenges to this approach? There are various potential strategies, including irrigation,
desalinization plants, and conservation efforts. The limits include potential side-effects, such as increased
salinity following irrigation; and costs associated with desalinization. In some cases, water will become a
major political issue and possibly the source of armed conflict.
7.3 Briefly describe the likely population density and land-use patterns you might see out the plane window
on a flight between Riyadh (Saudi Arabia) and San’a (Yemen). Most likely you will see relatively low
population densities—with exceptions around oasis settlements and larger urban areas such as San’a.
Land-use patterns will reflect mostly dry-farming with some irrigation.
7.4 How might very low population densities impose special problems for maintaining effective political
control across all portions of nations such as Saudi Arabia, Libya, or Algeria? Answers will vary but
students should focus on the role of governmental surveillance, the use (and attempted control) over
forms of social media, and the presence of distinct local identities that may challenge governmental
policies.
7.5 Why might it be said that Islam is a powerful unifying and divisive cultural force within the region? Islam
is a powerful unifying force in that it may be presented as a unified alternative or opposition to the
‘West’. However, it is also divisive given the legacy of bitterly contested divisions within Islam itself.
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7.6 Why does Saudi Arabia remain such a pivotal part of the Islamic world? There are two main reasons;
first, because of the religious significance of locations within Saudi Arabia (i.e. Mecca and Medina) and,
second, because of its political-economic power derived from oil revenue.
7.7 How likely is it that the cultural and religious divisions that run through Iraq, including Baghdad’s varied
neighborhoods, will be healed in the next 5-10 years? Why or why not? Answers will vary. Students
should focus on the immediacy of infrastructural development needs; on-going political tensions; and the
influence of both neighboring and other international forces. Also, many post-conflict societies retain
tensions for many generations.
7.8 Work with other students in the class to organize a debate on whether a renewed oil boom in the Iraqi
economy might spur greater or reduced levels of sectarian violence within the country. Answers will vary.
For those groups debating greater levels of violence, attention should focus on the control of the
resource—but especially where in the country this oil is located. For those groups debating reduced
levels, attention should focus on collaborative actions that attempt to distribute the wealth more equitably.
7.9 What are likely to be the chief drivers of economic growth in settings such as Istanbul, Turkey, in the next
10-20 years? Answers will vary. Attention should focus on existing and potential economic exports, and
the possibility of diversifying the economy. Potential trade relations with other countries will also be
important. Political stability will also factor into the possibility of economic growth.
7.10 Write an essay comparing and contrasting the challenges of producing sustained economic growth in
Turkey and Saudi Arabia between 2015 and 2030. Answers will vary. Students should focus on existing
energy reserves; current and potential trade relations and membership in international organizations;
potential obstacles resultant from climate change; and demographic shifts within the respective countries.
The possibility of revolutionary political change should also be factored into essays.

1. The allocation of water resources is a problem around the world. The Nile River flows through many
countries. How can the Nile be shared by these different countries? What agreements exist to regulate the
river?
2. Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe in the same God. In what other ways are these religions similar?
How are they different? What could be some possible courses of conflict?
3. In some ways, the Arab Spring greatly altered the political landscape of Southwest Asia and North Africa.
However, in other respects, the ‘more things change, the more they stay the same’. Think about both the
continuities and discontinuities of the Arab Spring. Who has benefitted from these changes? Who have
not?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Undertake library and Internet research to learn more about the Kurds. What are their cultural
characteristics? What are their concerns? How are they treated in the countries where they live? What
strategies are they using to achieve greater political autonomy?
2. Conduct research to learn more about OPEC. Discuss how the organization contributed to the oil embargo
of 1973. How important is OPEC for the functioning of the global economy today?
3. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for Southwest
Asia and North Africa, activate the generalized tectonics layer under the physical environment theme.
What areas are most seismically active? How might the physical geography of the region be different in
the distant future?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for Southwest
Asia and North Africa, activate the women’s mobility layer under the cultural theme. In what areas are
women most vulnerable to violence? Conduct library research to learn more about the condition of
women in these countries. What strategies have been used to improve the condition of women’s lives in
these places?
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Chapter 8: Europe
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe, in general terms, the topography, climate, and hydrology of Europe
• Identify the major environmental issues in Europe, as well as the pathways taken to resolve those
problems
• Provide examples of countries with different rates of natural growth
• Describe the patterns of internal migration within Europe, as well as the geography of foreign
migration to the region
• Describe the major languages and religions of Europe
• Summarize how the map of European states has changed in the last 100 years
• Explain how Europe was divided during the Cold War and how it has changed since the Cold
War’s end in 1990
• Describe Europe’s economic and political integration as driven by the EU
• Identify the major characteristics of Europe’s current economic and social crisis
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: Europe is very diverse region; seen in landforms, religion, language; key is influence
of European Union and relationship to national identities
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Human Transformation of a Diverse
Landscape: despite region’s small size, there is remarkable environmental diversity; four factors
explain diversity: complex geology; latitudinal extent; moderating influences of bodies of water; long
history of human settlement
A. Landform regions: region may be divided into four general topographic and landform regions
1. The European Lowland: forms arc from southern France to northeast plains of Poland;
includes southeastern England; known as North European Plain; economic core of region;
high population density, large cities, and industrial regions; major rivers include Rhine, Loire,
Thames, and Elbe
2. The Alpine System: extends from Pyrenees in west to Balkan Mountains of southeastern
Europe; mountain ranges have distinct names—Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians,
Dinaric Alps, Balkan Mountains; centerpiece is the Alps—historically have formed cultural
divide between Mediterranean to south and central/western Europe in the north; Apennines
are volcanic active
3. The Central Uplands: positioned between the Alps and the European Lowland; older,
highland region; contain many raw materials, including iron and coal
4. The Western Highlands: includes mountains in Spain, portions of the British Isles, and
highlands of Scandinavia; define western edge of European subcontinent; many
local/regional names; Iceland is divided by Eurasian and North American tectonic plates
B. Europe’s Climate: three principal climates: maritime along the Atlantic coast; continental
climates toward interior; Mediterranean in southern Europe; key climate control is the Atlantic
Ocean; mountains influence climate by limiting maritime influence; Mediterranean experiences
seasonal droughts
C. Seas, Rivers, and Ports: Europe is maritime region—even landlocked states have access to
oceans through extensive network of rivers and canals
1. Europe’s Ring of Seas: four major seas, and Atlantic Ocean, encircle Europe: Baltic, North
Sea, Black Sea, and Mediterranean Sea; also are Adriatic and Aegean Seas; key passages
include Strait of Gibraltar, English Channel, and Bosporus Strait
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2. Rivers and Ports: Loire, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, and Vistula flow into Atlantic and Baltic;
Danube—largest river—empties into Black Sea; major ports located at mouths of most
western European rivers: Bordeaux, Le Havre, London, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Szczecin, and
Gdansk
D. Environmental Issues: Local and Global: many environmental issues because of long history
of agriculture, resource extraction, industrial manufacturing, and urbanization; air pollution and
acid rain are serious problems; the EU has taken lead in addressing problems—Europe is perhaps
the ‘greenest’ of major world regions
E. Climate Change in Europe: evidence of global warming is widespread—dwindling sea ice,
melting glaciers, sparse snow cover, more frequent droughts; because of threats, Europe has taken
strong stand in addressing climate change; EU attempting to promote growth and industrial
development in Europe’s poorer regions, while reducing emissions in traditional industrial cores
1. Energy and Emissions: greenhouse gas emissions linked to country’s energy mix and
population; key energy sources are coal, gas, oil—policies in place to increase use of
renewable energy resources, especially hydropower, wind, solar, and biofuels
2. The EU’s Emission Trading Scheme: EU inaugurated in 2005 world’s largest carbon
trading scheme; goal to make polluting companies more expensive and reward those under
carbon quota; by 2013 indications that scheme was not working—market prices encouraged
polluters to ignore carbon market
III. Population and Settlement: Slow Growth, Rapid Migration, and Widespread Urbanism: major
themes of region: low rates of natural growth; complication and problematic patterns of internal and
international migration; and high level of urbanization
A. Low (or No) Natural Growth: in most European countries, death rate exceeds birth rate; many
countries, notably Germany and Italy, experiencing negative natural growth; much of region
characterized by fifth stage of demographic transition
1. Pro-Growth Policies: concern that slow or no growth may entail problems; various policies
and programs introduced to promote population growth; despite efforts, no European country
has TFR above replacement level
B. Migration to and Within Europe: since 1957 the EU has worked to permit freer movement
within region; subsequent migrations have affected national population growth and loss
1. The Schengen Agreement: agreement signed in 1985 allows greater ease at moving beyond
signatory countries; has become increasingly controversial because of increase in legal and
illegal international migration
2. International Migration to Europe: during postwar period, many guest workers arrived;
other countries allowed easy movement of residents from former colonies; still following
collapse of Communist Bloc, many emigrants from these regions; foreigners account for
approximately 10 percent of population in Germany, France, and England
3. Leaky Borders and ‘Fortress Europe’: with high unemployment and economic stress,
migrant workers no longer needed; European countries working to halt flow of illegal
migrants; some countries described as having ‘leaky’ borders; EU has helped strengthen
borders—creating a ‘Fortress Europe’
C. Landscapes of Urban Europe: all European countries with exception of several small Balkan
countries have more than half their populations in cities; some exceed 90 percent urbanization
1. The Past in the Present: mosaic of historical and modern landscapes; three historical periods
dominate most European cityscapes
a. Medieval Landscape: narrow, winding streets, high density buildings; unique problems
of congestion and plumbing; historical preservation efforts to save
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b. Renaissance-Baroque: more open, spacious; expansive ceremonial buildings, squares;
artistic sense of urban planning; city fortifications limited expansion
c. Industrial: factories predominant—often clustered; tenements and industrial districts
along barge and railroad lines
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Mosaic of Differences: highly varied mosaic of languages,
customs, religions; European cultures have long played leading role in globalization; new waves of
global culture spreading into Europe
A. Geographies of Language: more than 20 official languages recognized; 90 percent of population
speak Germanic, Romance, or Slavic languages—all within the Indo-European family
1. Germanic Languages: dominate Europe north of the Alps; English is second largest
Germanic language behind German; Icelandic is more distinctive because of isolation
2. Romance Languages: includes French, Spanish, and Italian—derived from Latin; many
have strong regional variations
3. Slavic Languages: includes polish, Czech, Slovak; two distinct alphabets are used—those
with Roman Catholic heritage (in Poland and Czech Republic) the Latin alphabet is used;
those with close ties to Orthodox Church (Bulgaria, Macedonia) use the Greek-derived
Cyrillic alphabet
B. Geographies of Religion, Past and Present: important component of geography of cultural
coherence and diversity; many of current ethnic tensions result from historical religious events
1. Schism Between Western and Eastern Christianity: official split in 1054 CE; western and
eastern Christianity—with eastern church subsequently splintering into Orthodox sects (e.g.
Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox); eastern Christianity use of Cyrillic alphabet because of
influence of Greek missionaries
2. Protestant Revolt: division arose in Europe in 19th century between Catholicism and
Protestantism; tensions between these two are less problematic
3. Conflicts with Islam: long struggles, challenges with Islamic Empires to south and east;
numerous crusades from 11the century onward
4. A Geography of Judaism: historically difficult home for Jews—long history of persecution;
the Holocaust resulted in death of approximately 6 million Jews
5. Patterns of Contemporary Religion: Europe as whole dominated by Roman Catholics—
mostly in southern half of region; Protestantism widespread in northern Germany,
Scandinavia, and England; many Muslims throughout region
C. European Culture in a Global Context: region experiencing profound cultural change; some
refer to ‘New Europe’ of integration and unification; others refer to ethnic discrimination and
racism
1. Migrants and Culture: migration is influencing cultural mix of region; immigrant clustering
is common throughout region; in response—emergence of far-right, nationalistic parties
2. Sports in Europe: Soccer (football) is Europe’s national sport—and linked to globalized
culture; some interest in basketball and baseball
3. Gender Issues in Europe: gender equity issues persist in government, business, and
domestic life; but issues differ widely within and between states and regions
V. Geopolitical Framework: A Dynamic Map: dense fabric of 42 independent states within relatively
small area; historically, idea of democratic nation-state emerged in Europe; Europe’s geopolitical
landscape is both problem and promise
A. Redrawing the Map of Europe Through War: two world wars reshaped geopolitical map of
20th century Europe; many new states created; other states and empires disappeared after First
World War; widespread irredentism in inter-war period; redivision after Second World War
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B. A Divided Europe, East and West: between 1945 and 1990 Europe divided into two
geopolitical and economic blocs; in the East, Soviet-dominated communist states; in the West,
democratic, capitalist influences
1. Cold War Geography: Soviet desire to create buffer zone between its territory and western
Europe—extensive bloc of satellite countries, dominated politically and economically by
Soviet Union; Berlin was in many respects flashpoint of division between North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) members and those of the Warsaw Pact
2. The Cold War Thaw: symbolic end of Cold War with collapse of Berlin Wall in 1989;
contributing factors include problems within Soviet Union and rebellion in eastern Europe;
map of Europe redrawn through reunification (e.g. Germany) and separatism (e.g.
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia)
C. The Balkans: Waking from a Geopolitical Nightmare: long troubled region; term
balkanization—used to describe geopolitical process of independence movements based on ethnic
lines—originated from these conflicts; currently, signs of peace and stability
1. Balkan Wars of Independence: after Second World War, relative piece until 1990s; rapid
violent breakup of Yugoslavia
2. Moving Toward Stability: despite some lingering problem spots, moderate and less
nationalistic governments in place; moving toward membership into EU
D. A Europe of Small Regions? Geopolitical devolution—decentralization of power; in Europe,
many forms of this process; but geopolitical devolution and separatism are contrary to Europe’s
agenda of supranationalism as promoted by EU
VI. Economic and Social Development: Integration and Transition: birthplace of modern economic
system of industrial capitalism; no longer world’s industrial leader; following wars, economic
recovery and integration has been largely successful; unprecedented level of social development
A. Europe’s Industrial Revolution: two fundamental innovations: machines replace human labor;
and use of inanimate energy sources—water, steam electricity, petroleum
1. Centers of Change: England’s textile industry was center of earliest industrial innovation
2. Industrial Regions of Continental Europe: first appeared close to coalfields, such as
Sambre-Meuse region along French-Belgian border, and Ruhr district in Germany
B. Rebuilding Postwar Europe: after 1945, new pathway for postwar Europe
1. Evolution of the EU: beginning in 1950, creation of economic integration; the formation of
European Coal and Steel Community in 1952; the creation of the European Economic
Community in 1957; the European Community in 1965; and the European Union in 1991
C. Economic Disintegration and Transition in Eastern Europe: Eastern Europe historically less
developed economically; region long exploited by outside powers; difficult recovery and
redevelopment following collapse of Soviet Union in 1991
1. Change Since 1991: difficulties to obtain fossil fuels; reorientation toward western Europe;
completely new economic systems required to be built
D. Promise and Problems of the Eurozone: in 1999 11 of then 15 EU member staets formed the
European Monetary Union—to use common currency; regional called the Eurozone; sought to
increase efficiency and competitiveness of domestic and international business
1. Europe’s Current Economic Crisis: current crisis caused by two problems: weak
economies that received cheap credit, leading to debt; and inability of governments because
of the EMU to adjust currency by inflation or deflation—hence, necessity of bailouts; unclear
how to move forward
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KEY TERMS
Balkanization (p. 384)
Buffer zone (p. 383)
Cold War (p. 352)
Cyrillic alphabet (p. 374)
Devolution (p. 386)
European Union (EU) (p. 352)
Eurozone (p. 393)
Fjord (p. 355)
Industrial Revolution (p. 386)
Iron Curtain (p. 383)
Irredentism (p. 380)
Medieval landscape (p. 369)
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (p. 383)
Renaissance-Baroque Period (p. 370)
Schengen Agreement (p. 366)

1. What other European countries draw heavily upon renewable energy? Many European countries draw
heavily upon renewable energy, including France, Italy, Span, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Bulgaria,
Serbia, and the United Kingdom.
2. Which European countries have the least amount of renewable energy? Why is that? Answers will vary.
Some countries rely on non-renewable sources because they have large fossil fuel reserves (e.g. Russia).
Other countries because of their size and location and other physical factors have minimal capacity for the
production of renewable energy (e.g. Cyprus and Malta).
Cityscapes
1. London was also heavily damaged during the World War II. How was its cityscape rebuilt? London was
rebuilt following the designs developed by urban planners; efforts were made to make sections of the city
more conducive to automobiles and others more pedestrian-friendly. Urban planning components also
emphasized historical preservation.
2. List several other symbolic landscapes in European cities. There are many symbolic landscapes, many
associated with historical events (wars) and people. Evidence is found in signage, churches (and other
architectures), monuments and memorials.
1. If you were to study in Europe, where would you go? Why? Answers will vary. Students might consider
language abilities; they may also choose destinations based on family ancestry. Others might select
destinations based on particular environmental or historical considerations.
2. Are there Europeans studying at your college? Interview them to find out about their experiences.
Answers will vary.

8.1 Name and locate the major lowland and mountainous areas of Europe. There are three mountainous
regions: the Alpine Mountain system, which consists of a series of mountains running east-west from the
Atlantic to the Black Sea and southeastern Mediterranean; the Central Uplands, which occupies an arc
between the Alps and the European Lowland; and the Western Highlands, which define the western edge
of the European continent. The main lowlands include the European Lowland, also known as the North
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European Plain; this forms an arc from southern France to the northeast plains of Poland and including
southern England.
8.2 What are the three major climate regions of Europe? The three major climate regions include maritime
climates (found throughout the western coastal regions); continental climates (found in the interior of
Europe); and Mediterranean climates (found in southern Europe, from Spain to Greece).
8.3 How would inland barge traffic get from the mouth of the Rhine to the delta of the Danube? Inland part
traffic is possible because of the existence of an intricate system of locks and canals which link the major
rivers of the European lowland with coastal ports.
8.4 Describe the major patterns of Europe’s energy geography and how it is linked to the EU’s agenda of
global-warming emission reductions. As a whole the region runs on fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil);
however, many countries, including Germany and England, have begun to replace coal with other
renewable sources. Many countries, particularly those in northern Europe, are switching to wind power.
Indeed, many countries are switching to renewable sources as part of the EU’s agenda to reduce global-
warming emissions. Also, members of the EU are participating in a carbon trading scheme in an attempt
to reduce emissions.
8.5 Which European countries have the highest and lowest rates of natural population increase? The highest
rates are found in Ireland and Iceland; the lowest are found in Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia,
Serbia, Portugal, Latvia, and Lithuania.
8.6 Which European countries have the highest rates of out-migration? Of in-migration? In general the
highest rates of out-migration are found in eastern European countries; Lithuania and Albania are
especially notable. The highest rates of in-migration include Luxembourg, Cyprus, and Monaco.
8.7 What is the Schengen Agreement? This is an agreement that was established in 1985 to permit the free
movement of people and goods within Europe. Members to the agreement do not have to be members of
the European Union; nor do members of the EU have to be members of the Schengen Agreement.
8.8 Name three stages of historical urban development still commonly found in European urban landscapes.
Three historical periods are evident: remnants of a medieval landscape (with structures originating
between 900 – 1500 AD); a Renaissance-Baroque landscape (1500 – 1800); and an industrial landscape
(1800 – present).
8.9 Describe the general location within Europe of the three major language groups: Germanic, Romance, and
Slavic. Germanic languages are distributed throughout north-central Europe (e.g. Germany, Luxembourg,
and the Netherlands) and northern Europe (e.g. United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland).
Romance languages are distributed primarily in southwestern Europe (e.g. France, Spain, Portugal),
southern Europe (e.g. Italy and Greece), and Romania; Slavic languages are found mostly in eastern
Europe (e.g. Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the Balkan states).
8.10 In general terms, describe the historic distribution within Europe of Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism,
and Islam. Historically, Roman Catholics are distributed throughout western and central Europe;
Protestants are found throughout the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian
countries; Judaism is distributed in small pockets throughout the region; Islam is most dominant in parts
of eastern Europe—notably the Balkan region.
8.11 Which countries have the highest numbers of Muslims? Why? France and Germany have the highest
number of Muslims in Europe; most are migrants from Africa and southwestern Asia.
8.12 Describe briefly how the map of Europe changed with the Treaty of Versailles in 1918. Most importantly,
both the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires were dismantled; more specifically, the new states of
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were formed; also, Poland was reestablished, as were the Baltic states of
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
8.13 What European countries were considered Soviet satellites during the Cold War? Soviet satellite states
included the Baltic states, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania.
8.14 What countries made up the former Yugoslavia? The former Yugoslavia was composed of Slovenia,
Croatia, Serbia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, and Montenegro.
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8.15 What geographic factors are important in explaining the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution? One
important factor is the establishment of inanimate energy sources (e.g. water and steam power); other
factors include the establishment of locks and canals linking the region, and the availability of abundant
raw materials and resources.
8.16 Describe the evolution of the European Union (EU). The EU is the result of five decades of attempts to
promote economic growth through political integration; the origins are traced to the establishment of the
European Economic Coal and Steel Community in 1952, followed by the formation of the European
Economic Community (ECC) in 1957, the European Community (EC) in 1965, and the EU in 1991.
8.17 What factors must be considered in describing Eastern Europe’s postwar economic geography? A key
factor to be considered is that eastern European states had to undergo a transition from a socialist-based
economy to a capitalist-based economy. Other factors include the possible membership into the EU
and/or the European Monetary Union.
8.18 Briefly describe the current pattern of regional differences in the economic geography of Europe. There
are remarkable regional differences in social and economic levels of European countries. Historically,
western countries have exhibited higher levels of economic growth and development, and more equitable
levels of social indicators as compared to eastern European countries; southern European countries,
likewise, have generally fared poorer than western European countries. In recent years, however, some
western countries have endured economic hardships.
In-Review Questions
8.1 What are the dominant landforms along the coast of Norway, and what geologic process created them?
The dominant landforms along the coast of Norway are fjords. These are partially submerged glacial
valleys.
8.2 Investigate whether fracking for natural gas will likely become common in Europe. Then link your
findings to Europe’s current dependence on imported fossil fuels. Might those imports increase or
decrease? How might Russia’s successful fracking change Europe’s energy and emission picture?
Answers will vary. Whether fracking becomes common will be related to the expected cost of both
fracking and alternative energy sources, coupled with international treaties and agreements. Widespread
fracking might significantly alter Europe’s current dependence on imported fossil fuels; Russia’s program
would alter the trading and use-patterns of energy throughout the region. Because of the processes
involved, increased fracking might augment carbon emissions however.
8.3 Explain the reasons behind the differing population densities in Spain. The most obvious pattern is that
urban areas (i.e. Madrid and Valencia) have higher population densities; there is a tendency also for
higher population densities to be found along the coastal regions. The interior of Spain is more rural and
agrarian.
8.4 Create several plausible scenarios for Europe’s economic vitality (or lack of it) in the year 2020. Then
discuss how those scenarios might affect migration within as well as migration to Europe. Answers will
vary; students should consider the possibility of international agreements and memberships in the EU;
political stability or instability are also very important. One would suspect that, barring restrictions on
movement, that economic prosperous regions will attract migrants from economically poor regions.
Students could also consider demographic change and the necessity to import migrant workers in the face
of labor shortages.
8.5 What does the cultural landscape of Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina tell you about that country? Its
landscape reflects a rich cultural history, with both Christianity and Islam visible. This is seen in
churches, mosques, and signage. Also, the historic age of the country is reflected.
8.6 Find information on birth and death rates for a specific ethnic or migrant group within Europe. Compare
these to the national birth and death rates so that you can project how that specific group will grow (or
not) compared to the larger national society. Answers will vary. Students should consider how these rates
will impact the age-sex ratio of the group compared to the country as a whole.
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8.7 This sign is an icon of Berlin. Why? The sign is a remnant of the Cold War, when Berlin was divided
between East and West Germany.
8.8 If Scotland becomes independent, what are the implications in terms of its economic vitality, self-defense,
monetary system, and all the other national housekeeping matters? Answers will vary. Attention should
focus on existing industries; availability of natural resources; interconnections with other countries;
funding available for defense (if so chosen); and whether Scotland would decide to retain its own
currency or convert to the Euro.
8.9 After reviewing the data on Poland’s economic condition, write a short description of how the activities
along this street in Warsaw have changed since 1990. Answers will vary. Students may address
economically-induced urban changes, the influx of western investment, and the increased middle-class
and leisure activities. One might also speculate as to the openness of the country.
8.10 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Greece, Spain, or Cyprus leaving the Eurozone as a way of
resolving its fiscal crisis. Answers will vary. Advantages include the possibility of developing trade
relations with other countries, including the US or Russia; disadvantages include the inability to turn to
European members for assistance.

1. In what ways are the guest workers of Europe similar to the immigrants to came to the United States
during its period of industrialization? How are they different? What are the advantages and disadvantages
of a migrant work-force?
2. European countries place tighter controls on urban and regional development than is the practice in the
United States. What are the advantages of such controls? What are the disadvantages? Should the United
States try to emulate Europe? Why or why not?
3. Recently, France banned the wearing of headscarves in 2004, while a referendum at the end of 2009
resulted in a ban on minarets in Switzerland. Learn more about these developments and discuss them in
the context of freedom of religion.
4. The French Culture Ministry announced that the word ‘e-mail’ will be substituted in all government
ministries, documents, publications, and web-sites with the term ‘courriel’. What does this substitution
say about cultural nationalism and the globalization of languages? Should the United States also try to
keep foreign words out of its language?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Have students conduct library and Internet research on Europe’s Green parties. What role do they play in
the politics of Europe? What are their strategies? Are there any organizations in the United States that are
similar to these groups?
2. If your parents are ‘Baby Boomers’, they grew up during the Cold War era. Take some time to talk to
them about their recollections of life during that era, when phrases like ‘civil defense’ and ‘duck and
cover’ were part of popular culture. Talk about the differences between the possibility of nuclear war, and
the current era of the ‘War on Terror’.
3. What are the centrifugal and centripetal forces in operation in Europe today? How do these contribute
both to the fragmentation of some states, and the integration of others?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive maps in MasteringGeography select the map sets for Europe, and
activate the environmental issues layer under the physical environment theme; next, activate the
agricultural layer under the economic theme. What patterns do you notice? Which agricultural activities
are most susceptible to pollution?
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85

Chapter 9: The Russian Domain
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain the close connection among latitude, regional climates, and agricultural production in
Russia
• Describe the major environmental issues affecting residents of the region
• Identify the potential benefits and hazards of global warming within the region
• Summarize major migration patterns, both in Soviet and post-Soviet eras
• Explain major land-use patterns in a large city such as Moscow
• Describe the major phases of Russian expansion across Eurasia
• Identify the key regional patterns of linguistic and religious diversity
• Summarize the historical roots of the region’s modern geopolitical system
• Provide examples of how persistent cultural differences shape contemporary geopolitical tensions
• Identify key ways in which natural resources, including energy, have shaped economic
development in the region
• Describe the key sectors of the Soviet-era economy and list major changes that have shaped the
region’s economy since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: region undergoing significant change; globalization shaping region in complex ways;
Slavic Russia dominates region; collapse of communism and move toward free-market; considerable
economic variation in region; emerging influence of oligarchs in Russia—small groups of wealthy,
private businessmen to control parts of economy; continued influence of Russia on neighboring states
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: A Vast and Challenging Land: vast expanses of
natural resources; but unstrained economic development has damaged environment in enduring ways
A. A Diverse Physical Setting: northern latitudinal position critical to understanding basic
geographies of climate, vegetation, and agriculture; Russian domain provides world’s largest
example of high-latitude continental climate
1. The European West: European Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine form eastern portion of North
European Lowland; different river systems, linked by canals, flow into four drainage areas;
three distinctive environments shape agricultural potential based on climate and soils: taiga,
diversified agriculture, and grain production
2. The Ural Mountains and Siberia: Ural Mountains mark European Russia’s eastern edge;
mountains contain valuable mineral resources; east of Urals dominated by Siberia (West
Siberian Plain, Central Siberian Uplands, Northeast Highlands); Kamchatka Peninsula to the
far-east along the Pacific
3. The Russian Far East: distinctive sub-region characterized by proximity to the Pacific; zone
of ecological mixing
4. The Caucasus and Transcaucasia: extreme south; flat terrain to hills to mountains;
Caucasus Mountains stretch between Black and Caspian Seas; farther south is Transcaucasia;
complex climate and terrain; parts exhibit productive agriculture
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B. A Devastated Environment: severe environmental degradation following reign of Soviet Union;
significant environmental challenges
1. Air and Water Pollution: air problems for many cities throughout region; degraded water
widespread hazard for rural and urban regions
2. The Nuclear Threat: issues of safety were often ignored; widespread use of nuclear
explosions for seismic experiments, oil exploration, and dam-building—many areas exhibit
nuclear contamination; plans underway though to increase nuclear energy
3. Post-Soviet Challenges: demise of Soviet Union brought some environmental
improvements; new environmental problems from extraction of natural resources; rapid
deforestation and loss of wildlife
C. Climate Change and the Russian Domain: some suggest Russian domain would benefit from
climate change—such interpretation is too simplistic
1. Potential Benefits: possibly increase areas for cultivation; might facilitate energy and
mineral development; potential for increased commercial fishing and maritime navigation
2. Potential Hazards: possible increase in wildfires; changes in ecologically sensitive arctic
and subarctic ecosystems disrupt wildlife and indigenous populations; rising sea-level will
affect low-lying areas of Black and Baltic seas; thawing of Siberian permafrost may increase
rate of global climate change
III. Population and Settlement: An Urban Domain: six states comprise Russian domain; population
predominantly urban; distinctive distribution of natural resources, migrant patterns shape population
geography; government policies have helped shape some distributions
A. Population Distribution: favorable agricultural setting of European West is home to vast
majority of population
1. The European Core: largest cities, biggest industrial complexes, most productive farms
located in European Core; many locations have strong connections with western Europe; key
urban clusters located along rivers, including the Volga and Dnieper
2. Siberian Hinterland: sparsely settled region; key urban centers along Trans-Siberian
Railroad and the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) Railroad
B. Regional Migration Patterns: considerable movement over past 150 years
1. Eastward Movement: ongoing eastward movement from Russian core across Siberia;
accelerated with completion of Trans-Siberian Railroad; during Soviet era, resettlement
schemes for economic reasons
2. Political Motives: leaders historically have relocated populations for political reasons—
expansion of political power; force migrations also associated with prison system—the Gulag
Archipelago; Russification—Soviet policy of resettling Russians into non-Russian portions of
Soviet Union
3. New International Movements: in post-Soviet era, many migrations have reversed; ethnic
Russians returning to Russia; newer immigrants also into Russia; complex flows of
undocumented immigrants; Chinese immigrants into Russia’s Far East
4. The Urban Attraction: considerable urbanization during Soviet era; cities grew according to
governmental plans; considerable clustering of economic and government activities based on
plans; collapse of Soviet Union has allowed more basic freedom of movement
C. Inside the Russian City: large Russian cities contain core with superior transportation; some
exhibit pre-Soviet landscapes; farther from city centers are mikrorayons—large, Soviet-era
housing projects; considerable urban growth occurring on metropolitan peripheries; elite dacha
(cottage communities) located on Moscow’s urban fringe
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D. The Demographic Crisis: Russian government views population loss as crisis; attempts to raise
birth rates—but economic uncertainty depress birth rates; also, relatively high death rates and
health-care remain problems
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: The Legacy of Slavic Dominance: Russian domain remains
heart of Slavic world; Russian cultural patterns and social institutions long influential in region
A. The Heritage of the Russian Empire
1. Origins of the Russian State: area around Moscow settled by 200 CE; Slavic political power
grew by 900 with establishment of the state of Rus; continued expansion; later conversion to
Eastern Orthodox Christianity
2. Growth of the Russian Empire: core of Russian Empire established by 14th century; areas
expanded into distinctive groups, e.g. Ukrainians and Belorussians; remarkable expansion in
16th and 17th centuries; final expansion in 19th century
3. The Legacy of the Empire: establishment of tightly integrated cultural region over vast
territory; Russia shares historical legacy with Western institutions—but retains historical
suspicion of European culture and social institutions
B. Geographies of Language: Slavic languages dominate region; complicated distribution
1. Patterns in Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova: vast majority of Belorussians live in Belarus;
complex situation in Ukraine—only about two-thirds is Ukrainian: Russian speakers strong in
eastern region of country; on-going tensions; in Moldova, Romanian speakers are dominant
2. Patterns Within Russia: about 80% of Russia’s population claim Russian linguistic identity;
Finno-Ugric peoples dominate in some northern areas; Altaic speakers (Volga, Tatars) cluster
in middle Volga Valley; indigenous groups throughout Siberia
3. Transcaucasian Languages: many different languages in this region; complex topography
contributed to diversity
C. Geographies of Religion: Most Russians, Belorussians, and Ukrainians share Eastern Orthodox
Christianity
1. Contemporary Christianity: religious revival underway following collapse of Soviet Union;
other forms of Western Christianity are present
2. Non-Christian Traditions: Islam is largest non-Christian religion—most are Sunni Muslims
and found in North Caucasus and Volga Valley; Islamic fundamentalism is on the rise—
particularly in the Caucasus; Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine have sizeable Jewish populations;
Buddhism found throughout the interior
D. Russian Culture in Global Context: Russian culture both inward orientation and outward
orientation; Russia literature, music, dance
1. Soviet Days: Soviet leaders turned against modernism—centered on socialist realism;
traditional high arts continued to receive state support
2. Turn to the West: younger generation from 1980s turned to West for inspiration; collapse of
Soviet Union brought inrush of global cultural influences—dress, film, dance, literature
3. The Music Scene: American and Western European music styles vastly popular
4. A Revival of Russian Nationalims: countertrend underway of Russian nationalism; renewed
sense of Russian identity; even Stalin receiving ‘make-over’
5. Sports and National Identity: during Soviet era, close connection between sports and
nationalism; on-going connection
V. Geopolitical Framework: Resurgent Global Superpower: geopolitical legacy of former Soviet
Union remains strong; former Soviet republics continue to struggle to find identity; Russia’s renewed
global visibility and desire to recentralize authority raises concerns in region and beyond
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A. Geopolitical Structure of the Former Soviet Union: Soviet Union emerged from collapse of
Russian Empire; characterized by communism; within socialist state, key economic sectors
controlled by government
1. The Soviet Republics and Autonomous Areas: territorial boundaries maintained—each
major nationality to receive ‘union republic’, provided it was situated on nation’s external
borders; 15 republics were created; small groups were based on autonomous areas—
recognition of special ethnic homelands within structure of existing republics; autonomy was
more charade than reality
2. Centralization and Expansion of the Soviet State: Soviet Union based on centralization;
continued expansion and influence over satellite states; influence in other communist states
3. End of the Soviet System: Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev initiated policy of
glasnost—greater openness; led to demands among republics for independence; also policy of
perestroika—planned economic restructuring—led to political decentralization and economic
reforms; by 1991 all 15 constituent republics had become independent states
B. Current Geopolitical Setting: radical rearrangement of Russia and newly independent republics;
temporary formation of Commonwealth of Independent States—but failed to fully materialize;
Russian maintains presence throughout region
C. Geopolitics in the South and West: Russia maintains strong ties with Belarus and Ukraine—
those latter are less predictable; Moldova continues to exhibit political tensions; Transcaucasia
remains unstable
1. Geopolitics Within Russia: since 2000 Russian leaders—especially Vladimir Putin—have
pushed for greater centralization of control; some cracks appears, especially in Caucasus
region; ongoing conflicts
2. Russian Challenges to Civil Liberties: on-going protests in Russia tied in part to
government crackdown on civil liberties and democratic freedoms: these include freedom of
press and ability to criticize or disagree with government
D. The Shifting Global Setting: regional political tensions continue; Russia worries about
expansion of NATO; Russian leaders are reasserting nation’s global political status
VI. Economic and Social Development: The Key Role of Energy: since collapse of Soviet Union,
economy has fluctuated greatly; economic potential of Russian domain difficult to gauge
A. The Legacy of the Soviet Economy: Soviet leaders introduced centralized economic planning;
much of domain’s basic infrastructure originated during Soviet era; disparities between regions
developed
B. The Post-Soviet Economy: fundamental changes—mixed economy of state-run operations and
private enterprises; higher oil and natural gas prices helped Russia’s economy
1. Redefining Regional Economic Ties: close economic ties with Belarus and Ukraine;
agreements also with Moldova, Armenia; others, such as Georgia, looking west and not to
Russia
2. Privatization and State Control: economic uncertainty since 1991; rapid privatization of
agriculture and service sectors; natural resources and heavy industry initially privatized—but
state-run enterprises reasserting; success of new economy visible on landscape with luxury
malls, office buildings; establishment of International Business Center and Skolkovo
village—Russia’s answer to Silocon Valley
3. The Challenge of Corruption: corruption remains widespread; Russian mafia also has gone
global
4. Problems of Health Care and Alcoholism: both remain major social problems
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5. Challenges for Women: women usually better educated but receive less wages; violence
against women is widespread; human trafficking is major problem; sex tourism also
increasing
C. Growing Economic Globalization: recently Russia has established greater connections with rest
of the world; global trade possibilities are increasing
1. A More Globalized Consumer: symbols of global capitalism prevalent throughout Russia
2. Attracting Foreign Investment: continued strong foreign investment, despite political
uncertainties, from the United States, Japan, and western Europe; elsewhere, connections
vary
3. Globalization and Russia’s Petroleum Economy: Russia’s oil and gas industry remains one
of strongest economic links between region and global economy; expansion are refashioning
geographies of oil exports; state-controlled Russian companies playing increased role
4. Local Impacts of Globalization: local impacts are highly selective; those areas close to oil
and gas industry doing well; capitalism has brought selective benefits; many areas in less
competitive, productive regions are not benefitting
KEY TERMS
Autonomous area (p. 434)
Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) Railroad (p. 417)
Bolsheviks (p. 433)
Centralized economic planning (p. 440)
Chernozem soils (p. 407)
Cold War (p. 435)
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (p. 435)
Communism (p. 433)
Cossacks (p. 426)
Dacha (p. 424)
Denuclearization (p. 436)
Eastern Orthodox Christianity (p. 425)
Exclave (p. 439)
Glasnost (p. 435)
Gulag Archipelago (p. 420)
Human trafficking (p. 444)
Iron Curtain (p. 444)
Mikrorayon (p. 423)
Northern sea route (p. 413)
Oligarch (p. 402)
Perestroika (p. 435)
Permafrost (p. 407)
Podzol soils (p. 404)
Russification (p. 420)
Siloviki (p. 438)
Slavic peoples (p. 425)
Socialist realism (p. 431)
Socialist state (p. 434)
Taiga (p. 407)
Trans-Siberian Railroad (p. 417)
Tsar (p. 418)
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1. What other examples of collectible artifacts and materials would have their own patterns of global
movement and redistribution? Other artifacts and materials would include skeletal remains (which would
be related to historical migratory movements) as well as various gems, stones, shells and other objects
that might have been traded between different societies.
2. Given its relatively small population and isolated character, why is the interior of Russia so well known
for its periodic encounters with Earth-Bound meteors? One possible explanation is the clear sky;
unencumbered by bright city lights, the sky is exceptionally clear at night, therefore affording better
views from which to spot falling objects.

1. Examine the maps of agricultural production, population, and industrial zones in relation to Lake Baikal.
How do these patterns help explain the relatively pristine character of the lake today? The lake is largely
isolated from major industrial regions; major population regions; and major agricultural regions.
2. Follow the Trans-Siberian Railroad in Google Earth along Lake Baikal’s southern shoreline. What are the
dominant features on your trip? The landscape is dominated by forests and other natural features; there
are small, fishing villages and small settlements.
Cityscapes
1. Examine a map of the Ukraine, and explain why Kiev residents are still thankful that a south wind was
blowing across the city on April 26, 1986. On that date the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl suffered a
catastrophic melt-down. Kiev is south of Chernobyl. A south wind consequently helped to deflect
radioactive materials away from the city. If a north wind was blowing, Kiev would have been directly
affected.
2. Follow the Dnieper River north and south of downtown Kiev. In broad terms, describe the changing land
uses that are visible as you pass from the center of the city to its periphery. Broadly, one views
administrative buildings, some industry, mix-zones, some residential districts, considerable green space.
Density decreases in use as one moves to the periphery.

9.1 Compare the climate, vegetation, and agricultural conditions of Russia’s European West with those of
Siberia and the Russian Far East. In the European West there are three sub-zones. In the northern portion,
agriculture is limited and the vegetation is dominated by forests. Throughout Belarus central portions of
European Russia, there are longer growing seasons, but soils are more acidic. To the south, the best
agricultural regions are found; here, also, the natural landscape is dominated by grasslands and forests.
Siberia’s climate is very severe; consequently, vegetation and agriculture reflect these conditions.
Northern Siberia is too cold for tree growth and is thus dominated by tundra and permafrost conditions.
South of the tundra Siberia is dominated by taiga, or coniferous forests. The Russian Far East has a more
southerly location and is proximate to the Pacific Ocean; consequently, it has a relatively milder climate
and longer growing seasons. Its vegetation pattern is a mix of conifers and hardwoods.
9.2 Describe the high environmental costs of industrialization within the Russian domain. Decades of
unregulated industrialization has led to extensive deforestation (especially in the Boreal forests of
European Russia), considerable pollution of the region’s waterways and lakes; and substantial air
pollution in many locations.
9.3 Discuss how major river and rail corridors have shaped the geography of population and economic
development in the region. Provide specific examples. Population settlement and economic development
have largely followed the development of river and rail corridors. Many of the more heavily settled
regions are found in river valleys, such as those of the Volga. In the Siberian hinterlands, small isolated
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towns are dotted along the two main rail lines: the Trans-Siberian Railroad and the Baikal-Amur Mainline
Railroad.
9.4 Contrast Soviet and post-Soviet migration patterns within the Russian domain, and discuss the changing
forces at work. Throughout the Soviet era Russian leaders relocated people to new locations, both in an
attempt to extend Russian political and economic power and as a means of punishment—as prisoners
were dispatched to a series of security sites: the Gulag Archipelago. Russian leaders viewed many of
these relocations as part of a broader ‘Russification’ policy. In the post-Soviet era there has been a
reversal of migration, and ethnic Russians are leaving the newly-independent states (former republics) to
return to Russia.
9.5 Describe some of the major land-use zones in the modern Russian city, and suggest why it is important to
understand the impact of Soviet-era planning within such settings. Most large modern Russian cities
retain an integrated central core, surrounded by relatively newer expanding circular land-use zones. This
is partly a result of deliberate Soviet planning. Older architecture, especially in the central core remains—
although many of these structures have been demolished in an attempt to make room for more modern
buildings.
9.6 What were the key phases of colonial expansion during the rise of the Russian Empire, and how did each
enlarge the reach of the Russian state? From the 15th century onwards, the Russian Empire steadily
expanded in geographic size. Initially, expansion occurred in the hinterland of the core region of Russia,
and then expanded toward the northeast. Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, Russia expanded
eastward through Siberia. During the 18th and 19th centuries Russia expanded to include the Far East and
the Transcaucases. This latter expansion reflected Russia’s attempt to gain access to warm water ports.
9.7 What are some of the key ethnic minority groups (as defined by language and religion) within Russia and
neighboring states? There are many ethnic minority groups, including Ukrainians, Belarusians,
Armenians, and Ugric peoples. To the extreme northeast are found many Aleut peoples. Much of the
region is dominated by Eastern Orthodox Christians, but sizeable minorities of Catholics and Protestants
are found. Also increasing are Muslims. Both the Kalmyk and Buryat peoples are Buddhists; these are
found mostly in the Russian interior.
9.8 How do current geopolitical conflicts reflect long-standing cultural differences within the region? The
former Soviet Union was composed of 15 autonomous republics, each formed in part on particular
cultural/ethnic groups. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union these republics achieved independence.
Geopolitical trends over the past two decades have been influenced by the ability (or inability) of these
former republics to reestablish relations with Russia. Those cultural areas that have not yet achieved
independence continue to post problems for Russia.
9.9 Describe how Vladimir Putin has played a key role in consolidating Russia’s power since 2000, both
within the country and beyond. Putin has increasingly sought to centralize control in Russia and to expand
Russia’s power. He has readily used repressive forces to bring dissidents in line. He has also used Russia
as a stage for global events, thereby attempting to case a positive international light on his country.
9.10 Describe how centralized planning created a new economic geography across the former Soviet Union.
What is its lasting impact? During the soviet era all industry and agriculture was dominated by centralized
economic planning. The state favored heavy industries rather than consumer goods; agriculture was based
on large collectives and state-controlled farms. Much infrastructure was developed during this period. In
the post-Soviet era the legacy of these planning decisions remains tied to the locations established by
Soviet planners. Agriculture has become privatized; but the basic distribution of food-stuffs remains little
changed from the Soviet era.
9.11 Briefly summarize the key strengths and weaknesses of the post-Soviet Russian economy, and suggest
how globalization has shaped its evolution. The major strength of the Russian economy lay in its
petroleum industry; it is the world’s largest exporter of gas and the world’s second largest exporter of oil.
However, the country’s economy remains plagued by corruption and schizophrenic government policies.
The Russian economy is also weakened by unstable and often changing regional relations with its former
republics.
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In Review Questions
9.1 Why is the Volga River often referred to as Russia’s version of the Mississippi? The Volga has this
designation because of the immense economic importance of the river; it is a major source of
interconnectivity between parts of Russia.
9.2 Join with a group of students to debate another student group on the question of whether Russia’s natural
environment is one of its greatest assets or one of its greatest liabilities. Answers will vary; students
arguing in favor should identify the various natural resources present in the region—including both non-
renewable and the potential for renewable. Students arguing against can identify the extreme climatic
conditions that might prohibit exploitation.
9.3 Traditionally, why is the large area of Russia located south of Volgograd so sparsely populated? Two
main factors stand out: the first is the climatic conditions, as this is an arid region; the second is that much
of Russian economic development took place further west.
9.4 Given recent economic developments near the Caspian Sea, why might population in this area increase in
the future? Given economic growth, population might increase through job-seeking migrants. The area
may be further developed for tourism, thereby increasing the necessity for workers.
9.5 Where in the Russian domain would you most likely to encounter Yakut-speaking peoples? Yakut
speaking peoples would be most likely found in Siberia.
9.6 Cite some key similarities and differences you might observe in comparing the lifestyles of the Yakut
with those of Native American populations. Similarities would include a semi-nomadic lifestyle; familial
relations and kinship structures; and adaptations to climatic conditions. Differences would be related to
differences in environmental conditions; types of food-stuffs gathered or hunted; and building materials
for shelter.
9.7 Why is this area of South Ossetia troublesome for Georgia’s government? This is a potential flash-point
given that both Georgia and Russia claiming direct or indirect control over the region. Georgia maintains
that South Ossetia is part of Georgia; Russia claims that the region is independent. Russia hopes that an
‘independent’ South Ossetia would align with Russia.
9.8 Why is Russia one of the few nations in the world to recognize South Ossetia as an independent nation?
Russia does so because it hopes to better manipulate the South Ossetian government if it were an
independent state. The region is an important strategic location for Russia, including military access and
for the oil industry.
9.9 What global energy markets are most likely to be served by oil and natural gas produced on Russia’s
Sakhalin Island? Russia would be able to contribute more to the markets of South Korea, China, and
Japan.
9.10 What are some of the key environmental and cultural challenges that face zones of rapid energy
development such as Sakhalin? There are numerous challenges; too rapid growth may lead to
environmental pollution as well as accidents. Traditional cultural ways of life may also be impacted
through practices of land displacement and possible pollution.
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1. Freedom of movement in a hallmark of the United States. How would the U.S. be different if our leaders
limited our freedom of movement, as was done in the U.S.S.R.? How might the U.S.S.R. have been
different if it had permitted greater freedom of movement? How might your life be different if the federal
government told you where you must live and work?
2. In the United States, we enjoy relatively little cultural censorship. How is this different from the situation
during the Soviet-era? What are some reasons a government would give to justify censorship of political
and cultural expression? From what you have learned so far, is censorship a good strategy? Is censorship
ever appropriate? If so, when and under what circumstances?
3. What is the difference between a union republic, an autonomous republic, and an autonomous region?
Are there any similar areas in the United States? In what ways are these areas similar to the states of the
U.S.? In what ways are they different?
4. Consider the concepts of centrifugal and centripetal forces. What are some of the centrifugal and
centripetal forces that contributed to emergence and dissolution of the former Soviet Union. Using this
same framework, what forces are in operation today throughout the Russian domain?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Engage in research at the library and use the Internet to learn more about the 1986 meltdown at the
nuclear power plant in Chernobyl. What caused the meltdown? Consider both equipment and human
failures. What was the nature of the damage that occurred, and how extensive was it? Learn about what
happened to flora, fauna, people, and the land itself. How long lasting is the radioactivity? What is the
status of Chernobyl today?
2. Do library research on the life of Russian author Alexander Solzhenitsyn, author of Gulag Archipelago
and Cancer Ward. Read some of his work. How did the oppression of cultural and political thought affect
this author and his writing? How has it affected Russian society?
3. Consider the ethnic and cultural diversity of the United States and the former U.S.S.R. What are some of
the different groups in each country? Since both countries are culturally diverse, should the U.S. be
concerned about a breakup such as the one the Soviet Union experienced in 1991? Why or why not?
Provide solid logic and evidence to support your position.
4. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the independence movements in Chechnya and
Dagestan. What grievances have been expressed by leaders of these movements? What strategies have
they used to achieve independence? What is the status of their independence movements?
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Chapter 10: Central Asia
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain how the key environmental differences among Central Asia’s desert areas, its mountain
and plateau zone, and its steppe (grassland) belt influence human settlement and economic
development
• Identify the main reasons for the disappearance of the Aral Sea and outline the economic and
environmental consequences of the loss of this once-massive lake
• Summarize the reasons why water resources are of such great importance in Central Asia and
describe the ways in which people are responding to water shortages
• Explain why Central Asia’s population is so unevenly distributed, with some areas densely settled
and others essentially uninhabited
• Describe the differences between Central Asia’s historical cities and those that have been
established within the past 100 years
• Outline the ways in which religion divides Central Asia and describe how religious diversity has
influenced the history of the region
• Identify the distinct ways in which cultural globalization has impacted different parts of Central
Asia and explain why cultural globalization is controversial in much of the region
• Describe the geopolitical roles played in Central Asia by Russia, China, and the United States and
explain why the region has been the site of pronounced geopolitical tension over the past several
decades
• Describe the ways in which ethnic conflict has contributed to instability in Afghanistan and assess
the potential of ethnic tension to destabilize the rest of the region
• Explain the role of oil and natural gas production in generating extremely uneven levels of
economic and social development across Central Asia
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: not always a well-defined region; exhibits though historical unit and common
environmental circumstances; Central Asia is an extensive region in the center of the Eurasian
continent; it is composed of eight countries: Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, and Mongolia; the region also includes China’s far west; the
region is dominated by arid plans and basins, along with high mountain ranges and plateaus
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Steppes, Deserts, and Threatened Lakes: region
lacks access to the ocean; has a harsh, continental climate; high mountains, extensive plateaus; aridity
also a characteristic
A. Central Asia’s Physical Regions and Climate: dominated by grassland plains (steppes) in the
north, desert basins in southwest and center; high plateaus in south-central and southeast; several
mountain ranges extend into heart of region, dividing desert zone into series of separate basins
1. The Central Asian Highlands: dominated by the Himalayas—but part of larger network of
high mountains and plateaus; Himalayans merge with Karakoram Range and Pamir
Mountains—convergence at Pamir Knot; other ranges, such as Hindu Kush, radiate outwards;
Kunlun Shan to the east and Tien Shan to the northeast; Tibetan Plateau is massive upland—
most is lightly populated by nomadic herders; plateau is punctuated by basin and ranges
2. The Plains and Basins: most of region dominated by plains and basins; desert belt divided
into two segments: west are arid plains of Caspian and Aral sea basins; eastern is divided into
two deserts—the Taklamakan, found in Tarim Basin, and the Gobi, lying in rain shadow of
Tibetan Plateau; environment of western Central Asia differs from eastern in having larger
rivers
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B. Central Asia’s Environmental Challenges: because of low population density, many areas are
relatively unpolluted; other industrialized areas, such as Tashkent, Baku, and Ulaanbaatar have
significant problems; elsewhere, problems of desertification, salinization, and desiccation abound
1. The Shrinking Aral Sea: prior to 20th century, was world’s fourth largest lake—now it is
one of world’s worse environmental catastrophes; only significant sources of water are Amu
Darya and Syr Darya rivers; these had been diverted for irrigation; Aral began to recede—
split into two separate lakes; destruction of sea resulted in cultural and economic damage;
Kazakhstan in 2001 attempted to save its northern portion of Aral Sea—was increasing;
southern Aral Sea continues to shrink and water quality deteriorates—it has also divided into
two bodies and eastern basin now dries completely during summer
2. Fluctuating Lakes: other lakes at risk; increased salinity problem in Caspian Sea (actually, a
lake); Balkhash also shrinking; Caspian also exhibits serious pollution from oil and natural
gas industry; water development projects beginning to impact Tibetan Plateau
3. Desertification and Deforestation: both major problems; in eastern region, Gobi and
Taklamakan deserts are spreading southwart; deforestation problem in mountainous, forested
areas
4. Energy Issues in Central Asia: region is home to many vast oil and natural gas fields;
several countries however lack significant reserves; some countries focuses on
hydroelectricity
C. Climate Change in Central Asia: predictions suggest region will be hard hit because of
dependency on snow-fed rivers; loss of glaciers in mountains result in less water; short-term
flooding because of melting—long-term reduction in freshwater resources; some areas might see
increase in precipitation
III. Population and Settlement: Densely Settled Oases Amid Vacant Lands: much of region is
sparsely populated; large areas uninhabitable because of lack of water or high elevations; vast
expanses populated by nomadic pastoralists
A. Highland Population and Subsistence Patterns: environment of Tibetan Plateau is harsh;
nomadic pastoralism dominates; farming possible only in limited areas; population densities low
in other highland areas; mountains important for summer pasture; transhumance is found in
region
B. Pastoralism and Farming in the Lowlands: most inhabitants of deserts live in narrow belt
where mountains meet basins and plains; water supplies are adequate; soils generally better;
noted for Tarim Basin, deserts west of Pamir Rnage, Kura River Basin, and Gobi; steppes of
northern Central Asia dominated by nomadic pastoralism
C. Population Issues: some areas experiencing rapid population growth; migration complication the
region; considerable outmigration toward Russia
D. Urbanization in Central Asia: river valleys and oases have been partially urbanized for
thousands of years; region as whole less urbanized; conquest by Russian and Chinese empires
contributed to urban formation; urbanization is gradually but unevenly spreading across region
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Meeting Ground of Different Traditions: questionable
cultural coherence; western half is largely Muslim while Mongolia and Tibet characterized by Tibetan
Buddhism
A. Historical Overview: Steppe Nomads and Silk Road Traders: river valleys and oases were
early sites of agricultural communities; region was crucial location for long-distance trade; Silk
Road traversed region; linguistic geography has undergone changes; initial inhabitants spoke
Indo-European languages—Turkic speaking peoples then arrived, following by other Altaic
family speakers (e.g. Mongols); Tibet’s development differed because of isolation
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B. Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography: most of region inhabited by Altaic
languages; but complex patterns; Mandarin increasingly important in east; Russia in west
1. Tibetan: several distinct dialects spoken across plateau
2. Mongolian: standard Mongolian spoken in Mongolia and China’s Inner Mongolia; dialects
found elsewhere
3. Turkic Languages: numerically more dominant; six main languages including Uyghur,
Uzbek, Kazakh, Turkmen, Kyrgyz, and Azeri
4. Linguistic Complexity in Tajikistan: predominately Indo-European language to Tajik; but
many other languages spoken
5. Language and Ethnicity in Afghanistan: complex linguistic geography; Pashto and Dari
are official languages—but many others spoken
C. Geography of Religion: major overland trading routes brought many religions, including
Buddhism, Islam, Christianity and Judaism; eventually region solidified around two main areas:
Islam in west and Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet and Mongolia
1. Islam in Central Asia: diversity of Islam in region; religious freedom tempered by Soviet
and Chinese officials—but revival now; signs of Islamic political fundamentalism few in
most areas; in China, state continues to monitor religious expression; in Afghanistan,
Islamism emerged as powerful political movement, as country dominated by the Taliban
2. Tibetan Buddhism: predominates throughout Mongolia and Tibet; until Chinese conquest,
Tibet was a theocracy, led by the Dalai Lama; after 1959 China persecuted Tibetan Buddhists
but more recently, has allowed monasteries to reopen and religion to be practiced—but
closely watched
D. Central Asian Culture in International Context: although region is remote and poorly
connected, it is not isolated; strong global influences seen in cities; incrased used of English and
Russian
1. The Russian Language Issue: during Soviet period, Russian language spread throughout
region; Cyrillic script replaced Arabic script; after 1991 Russian decline; but remains
common in many parts; source of political protest in some countries
2. Globalization and Sports in Central Asia: region has been slower to embrace globalization
of sports; local and distinctive sporting cultures found, such as Mongolian horse racing;
cricket important in former British territories, such as Afghanistan
V. Geopolitical Framework: Political Reawakening in a Power Void: region has played minor role in
global political affairs for past 300 years; breakup of Soviet Union helped to reestablished Central
Asia as world region
A. Partitioning of the Steppes: prior to 1700s Central Asia was power center; later region was
dominated by both Russia and China
B. Central Asia Under Communist Rule: Western Central Asia dominated by Soviets after 1917;
and eastern region by Chinese after 1949 as communist system imposed on Xinjiang, Tiber, and
Inner Mongolia
1. Soviet Central Asia: Soviets sought to create socialist economy and integrate region;
boundaries shifted as new ‘republics’ appeared on map; many areas continue to exhibit
political tensions over boundaries, especially with exclaves—where territory of one nation
surrounds territory of another
2. Chinese Geopolitical Order: also promised political self-determination and cultural
autonomy—but did not materialize; China continues to influence region
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C. Current Geopolitical Tensions: region suffers from several ethnic conflicts and religious
tension; brutal warfare continues in Afghanistan
1. Independence in Former Soviet Lands: six newly independent states after 1991; difficult
political process; democracy not forthcoming; war and armed conflict in some states (e.g.
Tajikistan and Azerbaijan)
2. Strife in Western China: local opposition to Chinese rule pronounced in many areas;
ongoing protests in Tibet and Xinjiang; China maintains all lands are integral to its national
territory
3. War in Afghanistan: Soviet invasion in 1978—withdrawal in 1989; arrival of Taliban in
1995-1996; United States invasion in 2001 as part of War on Terror; on-going conflict,
instability; United States attempted to develop exit strategy
D. Global Dimensions of Central Asian Geopolitics: key arena of geopolitical tension—China,
Russia, Pakistan, India, Iran, Turkey, and the United States all vying for power
1. A Continuing U.S. Role: since 2001 US established selective military presence in region;
influence declining in some places
2. Relations with China and Russia: on-going disputes over borders; Russia continues to
promote its own influence and interests; many leaders look to cooperate with both China and
Russia—formation of Shanghai Cooperation Organization, composed of China, Russia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan—to seek cooperation on security issues,
enhance trade, and counter-balance United States
3. The Roles of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey: Iran interested—major trading partner and offers
potential route to ocean; Pakistan attempting to gain influence, especially for oil and gas
pipelines; Turkey’s connection are cultural
VI. Economic and Social Development: Abundant Resources, Struggling Economies: one of poorest
regions of world; some states do enjoy relatively high levels of health and education; but widespread
inefficient economies; landlocked position augments problems
A. Economic Development in Central Asia: Soviet economic planners sought to spread benefits—
many areas relied on Soviet subsidies; collapse of Soviet Union led to economic uncertainty;
currently growing gap between rich and poor
1. Post-Communist Economies: by global standards, no country in region is prosperous;
Kazakhstan is most developed and has best prospects—tied to oil and natural gas; Uzbekistan
also relatively well off; many states encountered problems during transition from communism
to free-market; Tajikistan is most economically troubled of former Soviet republics
2. The Economy of Western China: Some areas experience growth if connected to China’s
economy; Tibet remains burdened by povertyXinjiang has economic potential—and is
dominated by China
3. Economic Misery in Afghanistan: poorest country in region; even before war, had little
industrial or commercial development; some mineral deposits could be developed if security
arrives
4. Central Asian Economies in Global Context: despite poverty and relative isolation, region
is thoroughly embedded in global economy—largely because of oil and natural gas, mining
ventures, and drug trade; in former Soviet areas, connections with Russia remain; ties to
China are expanding; the United States and other western countries, and India, attracted by
fossil fuels; opportunities exist for ecotourism
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B. Social Development in Central Asia: social conditions vary dramatically; in former Soviet
territories, health and education relatively high—but declining
1. Social Conditions and the Status of Women in Afghanistan: poor conditions overall; some
progress noted in places; women in most areas lead highly constrained lives; Taliban
especially stringent in attitudes toward women
2. Social Conditions Elsewhere in Central Asia: relatively better (but declining) conditions in
former Soviet territories; situation less clear in portions dominated by China
3. Central Asian Gender Issues: status of women, with exception of Afghanistan, compare
favorably to other economically comparable regions; female economic participation relatively
good in some places; success in education and economic spheres not translated into political
sphere; ongoing problems include ‘bride kidnapping’
KEY TERMS
Alluvial fan (p. 464)
Bodhisattva (p. 474)
Dalai Lama (p. 474)
Deforestation (p. 459)
Desiccation (p. 455)
Exclave (p. 478)
Exotic river (p. 465)
Loess (p. 464)
Pastoralist (p. 463)
Salinization (p. 455)
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO; ‘Shanghai Six’) (p. 482)
Silk Road (p. 468)
Steppe (p. 453)
Taliban (p 474)
Theocracy (p. 474)
1. Why do plant breeders care so deeply about the area in which a particular species was first domesticated?
Plant breeders care about where the species was first domesticated because it provides insight into the
origins and diffusion of the species; furthermore, the information is important in understanding broader
questions about biodiversity.
2. Where are the main apple-growing areas of the world located? Apples are grown throughout much of the
world; leading producers include China, the United States, India, Turkey and Poland.

1. Why is the condition of pastureland such an important issue in Mongolia? The condition of pastureland is
important because approximately 40 percent of Mongolia’s workers are engaged in livestock herding;
furthermore, this activity accounts for 20 percent of the country’s economic output. Eighty-two percent of
Mongolia’s land-area is pastureland.
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2. How have political and economic changes in Mongolia since 1991 affected the country’s pastoral
economy? It is believed that a de facto open-access system of pasture management that has prevailed
since the end of the communist government has led to land degradation. There is little incentive (or
ability) to conserve pastureland.
Cityscapes
1. Why has Kabul grown so much more rapidly than any other city in Afghanistan? The rapid growth of
Kabul is related in part to the ongoing conflict throughout the country. Many people have come to the
city seeking better economic opportunities and safety. There has also been an influence of money in the
city as a result of the US military presence.
2. How does the climate of Kabul contribute to the city’s environmental problems? Kabul’s climate, coupled
with its terrain, contributes to air pollution. Kabul’s arid climate contributes to the problem.
Section Review Sections

10.1 Why does Central Asia have such large lakes, and why are many of these lakes so deeply threatened? The
region has numerous large lakes because of the geomorphology of the region: much of the region is
composed of basins surrounded by mountainous areas. The lakes are threatened because of uneven
precipitation and increased irrigation, leading to a shallowing of the lakes and a corresponding increased
salinization.
10.2 How does the location of Central Asia, near the center of the world’s largest landmass and at the junction
of several large tectonic plates, influence the region’s climate and landforms? First, the seismic activity
following the collision of the Indian sub-continent with the Asian mainland has resulted in numerous
mountain ranges and plateaus. This affects both circulation patterns and patterns of precipitation. Second,
the interior location results in a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters.
10.3 Why does Central Asia figure so prominently in many discussions of climate change? There is concern
that much of Central Asia will be especially hard-hit by climate change. In part this stems from the fact
that the region depends heavily on snow-fed rivers. Many of the glaciers in the Tibetan Plateau have been
receding. Concern also exists that in Mongolia desertification will increase at the loss of much-valued
pasturelands.
10.4 Why are large parts of Central Asia so sparsely settled, yet others have dense populations? The
unevenness of settlement throughout Central Asia is the result of different climatic zones and the
availability of water. Locations with milder climates, or climates more conducive to agriculture, as well as
river valleys, are more densely settled. More harsh environments, such as the mountainous regions or
steppes, are able to support nomadic pastoralists and other less dense settlements.
10.5 Why is the urban environment of Central Asia changing so rapidly? In part the urban environment is
changing because of population changes; changing migration patterns; and changes in governments. Also
selected urban areas have experienced rapid growth due to foreign investment associated with the oil and
natural gas industries.
10.6 Why is nomadic pastoralism so historically important in Central Asia, and how is this adaptation
currently changing? Nomadic pastoralism has been an important economic activity, in part because of the
physical geographic conditions (i.e. topography and climate). This adaptation is changing because of
broader environment change and because of the decisions made by some governments to convert
pasturelands into settled farmlands.
10.7 How do patterns of religious affiliation divide Central Asia into distinct regions, and why is religion in
the region the source of increasing tensions? In general, the western portion of the region is dominated by
Islam, whereas the eastern regions, as well as the Tibetan Plateau, are dominated by Buddhism. Religion
remains a potentially divisive feature because some groups have favored a particularly radical
interpretation (e.g. the Taliban in Afghanistan) while some governments, including China, have attempted
to suppress some religious freedoms.
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10.8 How have the patterns of linguistic geography in Central Asia been transformed over the past two
decades? Two trends are evident. First has been the returning of Russian-speaking inhabitants from the
newly independent countries back to Russia. Second has been the resettlement of Han Chinese into both
Tibet and Xinjiang.
10.9 What was the historical significance of the Silk Road for Central Asia? The Silk Road was very important
because it facilitated economic exchange; it also helped spread religious practices and other cultural
forms.
10.10 How did the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 change the geopolitical structure of Central Asia, and
how has Russia attempted to maintain influence in the region? The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted
in the establishment of six new independent countries. Through economic ties and investment, Russia has
attempted to retain its influence in the region.
10.11 How does the geopolitical situation of Afghanistan differ from those of the other countries of the region,
and why is Afghanistan’s political history so different from those of its neighbors? In part the geopolitical
situation is different because it was the site of a proxy war between the Soviet Union and the United
States and because historically different foreign powers have sought control of the region for strategic
reasons. Also, it was never completely under the control of any superpower, thus making it different from
other countries that were, or remain, under the Russian or Chinese political orbit.
10.12 What role do international treaty organizations play in the geopolitical situation of Central Asia? Two
main organizations, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the Collective Security Treaty
Organization, have been developed to address economic and security issues. Both Russia and China play
dominant roles.
10.13 How does the distribution of fossil fuel deposits influence economic and social development in Central
Asia? Both oil and natural gas deposits, as well as the corresponding infrastructure (e.g. pipelines) have
attracted considerable foreign investment. This has led to the substantial growth of (selected) urban areas
with corresponding gains in some other forms of infrastructure. In turn, these monies have been used, to a
certain degree, to improve health and education practices.
10.14 Why does the social position of women vary so much across Central Asia, and why is Afghanistan
particularly problematic in this regard? The social position of women varies considerably because, on the
one hand, there is an historical legacy of differential treatment of women. In some areas, such as
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Mongolia women fare very well. In some areas, women’s social position is
considerably worse. This holds especially true for Afghanistan, where the Taliban have suppressed and
restricted women’s freedoms.
10.15 How is the Soviet legacy reflected in the social and economic development of western Central Asia? To
an extent, some countries have relatively high levels of health and education, a legacy of the social
programs enacted by the Soviet Union.
In Review Questions
10.1 Lop Nur in China’s Xinjiang autonomous region was once a lake, but now it is a dried-out salt flat that
has been used for nuclear tests and that contains the world’s largest potash fertilizer plant. Why did the
lake disappear, and why has Chinese used the dissected lakebed for nuclear tests and potash processing?
The lake disappeared because of human interference (mostly irrigation projects). Chinese has used the site
for nuclear testing because of its isolated location and sparse population density. During tests Chinese
scientists discovered potash and the Chinese began mining in the region in the 1980s.
10.2 What strategies might be used to prevent the desiccation of other lakes in Central Asia? A key strategy
will be to better manage the use of irrigation projects. Another strategy is to increase the regulation of
Central Asia’s rivers and lakes that cross international boundaries. Regardless of the strategy, foreign
investment will be a necessary ingredient.
10.3 An area of very high population density is found near the center of this map. Why is the particular region
so crowded, and why is it surrounded by areas of much lower population density? The area in question is
the Fergana Valley. Population concentrations are found in the river valleys and alluvial fans; these parts
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are more conducive to agriculture and settlement. The highlands surrounding the valley are not conducive
to supporting high population densities.
10.4 How might such steep population gradients influence political tension and economic development in the
region? Answers will vary to this question. Students should consider the ethnic, linguistic, and religious
diversity as expressed in the populations in question; students could also consider the plans of
governments to attempt to develop the sparsely populated areas.
10.5 The giant statues of the Buddha in what is now central Afghanistan were constructed in the early 6th
century and dynamited in 2001 by the Taliban. Why would the Taliban government of Afghanistan have
decided to destroy these world-famous statues? In part the statues were targeted because they represent a
religion different from their own. Also, the destruction was largely symbolic, sending a message that the
Taliban are in control and are set to remake the country in its own image.
10.6 Controversial efforts are now under way to restore the statues. Is such a project worthwhile, and why has
it proved to be so controversial? Answers will vary. For symbolic reasons, and for historical reasons, it is
worthwhile. However, as long as the Taliban is in charge, the likelihood exists that any rebuilding effort
will be thwarted by the Taliban.
10.7 The Soviet invasion and subsequent occupation of Afghanistan (1979-1989) proved very costly to the
Soviet Union. Why did Soviet leaders feel compelled to invade Afghanistan, and why did their
occupation of the country ultimately prove unsuccessful? Answers will vary. These questions are
complex; at a very basic level, however, the Soviets were attempting to prop up a supportive government.
This was necessary, from the Soviet point of view, for strategic reasons. The occupation by the Soviets
was unsuccessful in large part because of an American-funded insurgency that the Soviets could never
defeat.
10.8 Is it reasonable to draw connections between the Soviet and the U.S. experience in Afghanistan? In what
ways have they been similar and different? Answers will vary. It is reasonable to draw comparisons; in
both situations you have a superpower attempting to occupy and reshape Afghanistan to their political
orientation. This is a key similarity. Another similarity is that neither the Soviets nor the Americans were
able to exert their will; both will have pulled out after a decade of failure. They are different from the
standpoint that the U.S. supported the insurgency during the Soviet occupation; the war from 1979-1989
was a proxy war. During the American occupation, however, Russia was not supporting the Taliban
against the United States.
10.9 The Canadian-owned Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan has been very important for the country’s
economy, yet it is increasingly controversial. Why do so many people in Kyrgyzstan oppose this
particular kind of economic development? Opposition centers on the facts that (1) mining contributes to
environmental pollution and (2) the revenues generated by the mine do not benefit the people of
Kyrgyzstan.
10.10 What are some of the potential disadvantages faced by a country that focuses much of its economic
development plans on the exploitation of a particular natural resource such as gold? One potential
problem is that the natural resource is a finite resource; it will at some point run out. A second problem is
that prices for the resource may fluctuate greatly on the global market; when prices are low, the economy
suffers.

1. The Turkish language provides a possible basis for unification of this region, and is therefore a centripetal
force. Consider this and other centripetal forces, as well as centrifugal forces. What are the prospects for
the establishment of a regional identity based on the Turkish language?
2. Consider the plight of women in Afghanistan. Do you think that the United States took the right action
with respect to women in that country? Why or why not? Will it be necessary for the U.S. to remain in
Afghanistan in order to maintain the improvemetns in the status of women and in the political
environment in Afghanistan?
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EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Do library research and review online videos to learn more about the Aral Sea. How has the shrinking of
the Aral Sea affected the people in the region?
2. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the historical empires of Central Asia. What
characteristics enabled these empires to grow? What led to their demise? What cultural legacies remain of
these empires?
3. Learn more about the struggles for independence in both Tibet and Xinjiang. How are these movements
the same? How are they different?
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Chapter 11: East Asia
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Identify the key environmental differences between the island portions of East Asia (Japan and
Taiwan) and the mainland
• Describe the main environmental problems China faces today and compare them with the
environmental challenges faced by Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan
• Summarize the relationships among topography, climate, rice cultivation, and population density
across East Asia
• Explain why China’s population is so unevenly distributed, with some areas densely settled and
other almost uninhabited
• Outline the distribution of major urban areas across East Asia and explain why the continued
expansion of the region’s largest cities is often viewed as a problem
• Describe the ways in which religion and other systems of belief both unify and divide East Asia
• Explain the distinction between the Han Chinese and other ethnic groups of China, paying
particular attention to language
• Describe the geopolitical division of East Asia during the Cold War period and explain how the
division of that period still influences East Asian geopolitical relations
• Identify the main reasons behind East Asia’s rapid economic growth in recent decades and
discuss any possible limitations to continued expansion at such a rate
• Describe the differences in economic and social development found across China and, more
generally, across East Asia as a whole
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: most populous region of the world; historically unified by cultural features—but in 20th
century divided ideologically and politically; economic development and technological progress has
resulted in close business linkages within region—but ongoing geopolitical tensions
A. East Asia as a World Region: clear territorial basis for region; cultural diversity throughout
region
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Resource Pressures in a Crowded Land:
because of large population, massive industrial development, and physical geography, environmental
problems are severe; region is seismically active and coastal zones prone to tsunamis
A. East Asia’s Physical Geography: region is situated in same general latitudinal range as the
United States—hence parallels in climate distribution; island belt of East Asia situated at
intersection of three tectonic plates
1. Japan’s Physical Environment: climate ranges north-south from subarctic to subtropical;
also southeast-northwest differences; Japan is exceptionally mountainous; also heavily
forested; limited areas of alluvial plains—once covered by forests and wetlands but long
since cleared and drained for agriculture; largely lowland is Kanto Plain; others include
Kansai and Nobi
2. The Tsunami Threat: Japan is vulnerable to earthquakes and tsunamis
3. Taiwan’s Environment: located between Taiwan Strait and Pacific Ocean; formed of large
tilted block; central and eastern regions are mountainous; west dominated by alluvial plain;
generally mild winter climate but prone to typhoons; eastern upland areas still have extensive
forests
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4. Chinese Environments: diverse environmental geography; southern China land of rugged
mountains, hills, lowland basins; tropical climate in far southeast; northern China is colder,
drier; desertification a threat in locations; west of North China Plain is Loess Plateau; far
north (Manchuria) composed of broad, fertile lowland basin in between mountainous region
5. Korean Landscapes: peninsula; pronounced latitudinal range; far north has more continental
climate; south is subtropical; mountainous country with more lowlands to the south
B. East Asia’s Environmental Challenges: deforestation is major problem; also pollution,
reduction of biological diversity; shortage of energy resources
1. Deforestation and Desertification: pronounced in upland regions of China and North Korea;
China attempting reforestation efforts; desertification problem in many areas—efforts to
develop ‘great green wall’ to halt southward expansion of desert
2. Mounting Pollution: increased industrialization has led to air and water pollution problems;
toxic-waste dumping also problem; Japan’s environment is relatively clean—but partially
because of pollution export, where Japanese companies have moved factories elsewhere
because of environmental laws
3. Endangered Species: tied to economic development; but also because of traditional
medicines; China has moved to protect some remaining areas of habitat; wildlife scarce in
Korea—but some protected because of demilitarized zone
4. Energy in East Asia: rapid industrialization required rapid expansion in energy generation;
heavy coal consumption in China; hydropower significant source of energy in China; also
developing other forms of renewable energy; Japan historically limited by natural energy
resources—nuclear energy is controversial
C. Dams, Flooding, and Soil Erosion in China: many problems revolve around these issues
1. Three Gorges Dam Controversy: major dam constructed on the Yangtze River (Chang
Jiang); completed in 2006, dam is largest hydroelectric dam in world; provides energy and
flood protection; but displaced million people and destroyed many local areas; also disrupts
habitat for endangered species
2. Flooding in Northern China: area is plagued by drought and floods; floods on Huang He
(Yellow River) caused by heavy sediment load
3. Erosion on the Loess Plateau: Huang He’s sediment burden results from erosion of Loess
Plateau; fertile soil but easily eroded; Loess Plateau one of poorest regions in China
D. Climate Change in East Asia: region occupies central position in debate; major producer of
greenhouse gas emissions; potential effects have serious implications for region and beyond—
increased water shortages, localized flooding; possibility of intensified storms; Chinese
government reluctant to pursue measures; Japan, South Korea and Taiwan are major emitters, but
also have more energy-efficient economies
III. Population and Settlement: A Realm of Crowded Lowland Basins: East Asia most densely
populated region; lowlands of Japan, Korea, and China among most intensely used portions of Earth;
demographic growth rates declining; Japan experiencing population loss
A. Agriculture and Settlement in Japan: Japan is highly urbanized; exceptionally mountainous;
agriculture must share limited lowlands with cities
1. Japan’s Agricultural Lands: largely limited to coastal plains and interior basins; rice
farming very productive; valleys of central and northern Honshu excel in temperate-climate
fruit; citrus farmed in the south
2. Settlement Patterns: cities located in same lowlands as agriculture; exceptionally high
population density
3. Japan’s Urban-Agricultural Dilemma: cities exhibit dense settlement patterns; farms are
usually small; Japan relies on imports for food; high costs related to urban life and food stuffs
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B. Agriculture and Settlement in China, Korea, and Taiwan: all are urban societies
1. China’s Agricultural Regions: southern China dominated by rice; northern China by wheat,
millet, and sorghum; population concentrated in lowlands in southern, central China; North
China Plain is anthropogenic landscape—heavily transformed by human activities;
Manchuria historically lightly populated—but increasing; Loess Plateau is thinly settled—
unique to area is subterranean housing
2. Patterns in Korea and Taiwan: Korea is densely settled; most of South Koreans live in
alluvial plains and basins in west and south; South Korea’s agriculture dominated by rice;
North Korea relies on corn and other crops; Taiwan is most densely populate area; most
population concentrated in lowland belt in north and west; although highly productive,
Taiwan must import much of its food
C. Agriculture and Resources in Global Context: Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are major food
importers; China moving in same direction
1. Global Dimensions of Japanese Agriculture and Forestry: Japan imports food from many
sources, such as meat and feed from US, Canada, and Australia; soybeans from Brazil; also
imports forest resources—especially from Southeast Asia; most oil, coal, and other minerals
are imported
2. Global Dimensions of Chinese Agriculture: until 1990s China was self-sufficient in food;
rapid economic growth requires now massive imports; China exports high-value specialty
groups and processed foods
3. Korean Agriculture in a Global Context: South Korea is major importer of selected
foodstuffs; North Korea has pursued policy of self-sufficiency—but has experienced
widespread famine
D. Urbanization in East Asia: China has one of world’s oldest urban foundations; as recently as
1945 most of East Asia was rural—now, region is heavily urbanized
1. Chinese Cities: traditional cities were separated by defensive walls; urban fabric changed
with influence of European colonial powers; some cities, such as Shanghai, oriented to global
trade; some cities, such as Beijing, significantly transformed under communist rule
2. The Chinese Urban System: system as a whole fairly well balanced; resultant from heritage
of urbanism, size, physical geography, and socialist planning; central place theory explains
well the Chinese urban system; many cities in China are megacities
3. Urban Patterns in South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan: South Korea and Taiwan noted for
urban primacy; Japan characterized by urban bipolarity with Tokyo and Kyoto; urban growth
continues; a superconurbation between Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya has emerged; little
historical architecture remains in Japanese cities—Kyoto being an exception
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: The Historical Influence of Confucianism and Buddhism: in
some respects, East Asia is one of most unified cultural regions; commonalities traced to ancient
Chinese civilization
A. Unifying Cultural Characteristics: most important characteristics are related to religious and
philosophical beliefs—Buddhism and Confucianism
1. Writing Systems: region evolved a different writing system, known as ideographic writing—
each symbol (or character) represents idea rather than sound
a. Chinese Ideographic System: major disadvantage—difficult to learn; advantage—two
literate people do not have to speak same language to be able to communicate
b. Korea: Chinese characters initially adopted, but in 1400s own alphabet created
c. Japan: complex writing system; initially borrowed Chinese characters (kanji) but then
own quasi-alphabet (hiragana) developed; these eventually merged
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2. The Confucian Legacy: philosophy developed in China by Confucius during 6th century
BCE; based on meritocracy; less important in Japan but still significant
3. The Modern Role of Confucian Ideology: significance remains debated; some argued is
stagnated development; others argue it facilitates; currently undergoing a revival among
Chinese officials
B. Religious Unity and Diversity: Mahayana Buddhism is most important culturally unifying belief
1. Mahayana Buddhism: Buddhism originated in India in 6th century BCE; diffused to China
by 2nd century CD; variety in East Asia is Mahayana (Greater Vehicle); different sects
emerged, including Zen
2. Shinto: closely bound with idea of Japanese nationality; began as animistic worship of nature
spirits—but gradually refined and expanded; very much a place- and nature-centered religion
3. Taoism and Other Chinese Belief Systems: Taoism also rooted in nature; indirectly
associated with feng shui, or geomancy; many localized beliefs are found inregion
4. Minority Religions: most major world religions found in region; Christianity prevalent in
Japan, South Korea—and growing in China; large Muslim population in China
5. Secularism in East Asia: region also has large secularist population; with easing of
communist orthodoxy, areas experiencing revival; North Korea has developed official
ideology known as juche (self-reliance)
C. Linguistic and Ethnic Diversity: Japanese and Mandarin Chinese partially share writing
system—but languages are not related
1. Language and National Identity in Japan: Japan is not directly related to other languages
in region; in some regards, the Japanese form one of world’s most homogenous peoples;
only in Ryukyu Islands are linguistic and ethnic differences pronounced
2. Minority Groups in Japan: earlier, Japan was occupied by Japanese and the Ainu (in the
north); Ainu was distinct, with own language; relatively few remain; sizeable Korean
population living in Japan—many experience discrimination; most victimized group in Japan
are the Burakumin, or Eta, and outcast group who working in ‘polluting’ industries
3. Language and Identity in Korea: Koreans are relatively homogenous; South Korea exhibits
strong regional identity related to historical divisions; also important is role of Korean
diaspora
4. Language and Ethnicity Among the Han Chinese: geography of language and ethnicity in
China very complex; most important distinction is between Han and non-Han populations;
even here, not all Han speak same language; Mandarin dominates in north, other languages,
including Wu, Yue, and Gan in the southeast;
5. The Non-Han Peoples: more remote upland districts inhabited by non-Han; languages are
non-Sinitic; Manchus predominate in Manchuria; many non-Han rise in autonomous region
of Guangxi; other aresa include Yunnan and Guizhou in southwestern China
6. Language and Ethnicity in Taiwan: several ‘tribal’ peoples inhabit mountainous eastern
region; after 1949 many Han peoples arrived; most people speak both Taiwanese and
Mandarin
D. East Asian Cultures in Global Context: long exhibited tensions between internal orientation
and cosmopolitanism
1. The Cosmopolitan Fringe: Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong characterized by
vibrant internationalism; exchanges are reciprocal, with for example Hong Kong’s action
films and South Korean popular culture; cultural globalization is controversial in Japan
2. The Chinese Heartland: regional variations; historically, coastal regions have been more
open and connected; in different periods, orientation of country was towards interior or
exterior; currently country is relatively open to outside cultural influences
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3. Globalization and Sports in East Asia: sporting culture is historical and varied; dominance
of sumo in Japan; popularity of baseball in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan; China’s embrace
of basketball
V. Geopolitical Framework: Struggles for Regional Dominance: much of political history of region
revolves around China and Japan; between 1800 and 1900s, importance of European powers; both
China and Japan tussle for regional leadership
A. The Evolution of China: original core was North China Plain and Loess Plateau; expansion and
contradiction over centuries with several dynasties rising and falling
1. The Manchu Qing Dynasty: final and most significant conquest; extension of territory into
much of Central Asia
2. The Modern Era: gradual decline, culminate with opium wars and division into spheres of
influence by European powers; Imperial China ceased to exist in 1911; tumultuous period
followed until 1949
3. The Rise of Japan: unified state emerged in 7th century; looked to China and Korea for
models; prior to 1600s competing feudal realms—unification following during Tokugawa
Shogunate; relatively isolated until arrival of US gunboats in 1850s; resulted in Meiji
Restoration
4. The Japanese Empire: Japan embarked on industrialization program; highly militarized;
attempt to create a ‘Greater East Asia co-Prosperity Sphere’
B. Postwar Geopolitics: after Second World War, region was arena of rivalry between United
States and Soviet Union; US predominated in maritime fringe, Soviets on the mainland
1. Japan’s Revival: colonial empire lost with World War II; but economic rebound with
American assistance; military reemerging as regional force—a cause for concern among
neighboring states
2. Division of Korea: peninsula divided into two during Cold War; South Korea allied with
United States and communist North Korea; attempts in 1990s to pursue better relations
between two countries—although mix results and tensions have escalated
3. The Division of China: China unified under communist rule in 1949; nationalists fled to
Taiwan—result has been ‘two Chinas’; idea of intrinsic unity continues to be influential
4. Chinese Territorial Issues: Chinese claims on many territories continues to pose problems;
tensions between Indian and China have eased—but disagreement remains; others have been
resolved, including Hong Kong and Macao
5. The Senkakuk/Diaoyu Crisis: most serious territorial dispute concerns islands northeast of
Taiwan—the Senkaku Islands (in Japanese)/the Diaoyu Islands (in Chinese); islands do not
matter as much as suspected oil and natural gas reserves in region
C. Global Dimensions of East Asian Geopolitics: throughout Cold War, two main camps: China
and North Korea allied with Soviet Union; Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea linked to the United
States; Chinese-Soviet split in 1970s led to greater interaction between China and the United
States; tension remains between North Korea and the US; international geopolitical tensions have
intensified in region
1. The Ongoing North Korean Crisis: tension remains—driven in part by North Korea’s
nuclear program; complex international negotiations to address North Korea—but remains
political hotspot
2. China on the Global Stage: China fast becoming major force in global politics; China
claims no expansionist designs—but others are not so sure
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VI. Economic and Social Development: A Core Region of the Global Economy: considerable
variation; Japanese is one of world’s wealthiest states; North Korea one of poorest; China has
experienced most rapid economic expansion
A. Japan’s Economy and Society: Japan was pacesetter of global economy between 1960s and
1980s; slow growth since 1990s—but remains economic powerhouse
1. Japan’s Boom and Bust: economic miracle beginning in 1950s—from inexpensive
consumer goods to heavy industry and electronics; inflated real estate market collapse in
1990s leading to banking crisis; series of economic problems since—but remains a core
economic country
2. Living Standards in Japan: despite affluence, living standards somewhat below United
States; housing, food, transportation, services are expensive; social problems include
discrimination, stress levels; but high rankings in literacy, life expectancy; also lacks extreme
poverty found in US
B. The Newly Industrialized Countries: South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong emerged as newly
industrialized economies from 1960s onward
1. The Rise of South Korea: remarkable economic transformation since 1950s; dominated by
industrial conglomerates known as chaebol; currently main proudcer of semiconductros
2. Contemporary Korea: political and social development not as smooth as economy; political
tensions remain; attempts to integrate more with North Korea proven problematic; North
Korean remains impoverished
3. Geographical Tools: Earth and North Korea: accurate information about North Korea is
difficu8lt—but Google Earth has become prime source of data; satellite images provide
information on economic development, political repression, and armaments industry
4. Taiwan and Hong Kong: both have experienced rapid economic growth since 1960s;
Taiwan guided economic development with laissez-faire economc system; Hong Kong
specialized in services activities; both have close overseas economic connections, especially
with Southeast Asia
C. Chinese Development: economy is reconfiguring the region and, to some extent, the world; vast
middle class has developed; future is big uncertainty for East Asia and global economy
1. China Under Communism: economic disaster in 1950s; more pragmatic policies in 160s;
opening up of economy in 1970s
2. Toward a Post-communist Economy: China moved toward capitalism in 1970s, although
politics remain dominated by communist party; initial capitalist development in agriculture,
followed by industry; many rural areas experiencing economic distress
3. Era of Rapid Growth: early reform policy was creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs);
other market-oriented reforms followed; China’s economic growth has increased tensions
with the United States; unclear if China can maintain current economic growth rates
4. Social and Regional Differentiation: considerable variation in quality of life; rapid growth
of elite population but also impoverished; economic disparities are geographically
structured—urban areas better off; coastal cities also better
5. The Booming Coastal Region: most benefits of economic transformation concentrated in
coastal regions; Yangtze Delta is most dynamic region
6. Interior and Northern China: less economic expansion; many state-owned heavy industrial
in Manchuria are not efficient—growth of rust belt; interior provinces also less developed
7. Rising Tensions: uneven economic growth has generated problems, including political;
ongoing problems related to free expression and political openness; Chinese government
maintains heavy hand on protests; internet censorship is controversial; China’s political and
human rights policies have complicated international relations
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D. Social Development in East Asia: levels of social development vary significantly; health and
education high in economically prosperous areas; despite poverty in North Korea, life expectancy
relatively good; greatest advances in social development have occurred in China
1. Social Conditions in China: government since 1949 invested heavily in medical care and
education; some of these suffered with transition to market-based economy; human well-
being is geographically structured—literacy low in poorer areas; population policy remains
unsettling issue—and decline in Chinese fertility has caused its own problems—fear of labor
shortages and worry over aging population
2. Gender Issues in East Asia: gender roles undergone significant changes over last century;
gender equality generally less favorable than in other economically advanced regions; women
in Japan enjoy more political and legal rights—but career advancement remain marginal;
patriarchy strong in China—but economic growth has benefited
KEY TERMS
Anthropogenic landscape (p. 513)
Autonomous region (p. 526)
Burakumin (p. 523)
Capitalism (p. 498)
Central place theory (p. 516)
China proper (p. 498)
Cold War (p. 527)
Communism (p. 497)
Confucianim (p. 520)
Diaspora (p. 524)
Dynastic succession (p. 522)
Geomancy (p. 521)
Ideographic writing (p. 519)
Laissez-faire (p. 540)
Loess (p. 509)
Mandarin (p. 520)
Marxism (p. 522)
Pollution exporting (p. 504)
Regulatory lake (p. 508)
Rust belt (p. 544)
Samurai (p. 528)
Sediment load (p. 508)
Shogunate (p. 532)
Social and regional differentiation (p. 542)
Special Economic Zone (SEX) (p. 542)
Sphere of influence (p. 530)
Superconurbation (p. 517)
Tonal language (p. 526)
Tsunami (p. 499)
Urban primacy (p. 516)
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Cityscapes
1. How have geopolitical, economic, and physical geographical features together created such as ‘vertical
city’ as Hong Kong? The first factor is that Hong Kong is composed of a series of islands and a peninsula
jutting out from the Chinese mainland. Territory is at a premium. The compact size has also contributed
to the high cost of land, making it more affordable (and practical) to build up instead of out. The
geopolitical component relates to the century of British colonial rule and the establishment of Hong Kong
as a key entrepot for shipping. This has concentrated financial and business activities in a few key select
locations.
2. As Hong Kong is part of the People’s Republic of China, why is it so different from other Chinese cities?
One reason is because of Hong Kong’s coastal location; it was developed as a key entrepot to facilitate
international shipping. A primary reason however is its British colonial legacy.

1. To what extent does Macau’s historical relationship with Portugal create connections between China and
the Portuguese-speaking world? This connection has helped China make economic investments in other
Portuguese-speaking countries (i.e. Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal,
and East Timor).
2. Why are Chinese investors particularly interested in business opportunities in Angola? The main reason
is because Angola is oil-rich. Consequently, China is investing in numerous infrastructure projects,
including the $1.5 billion Benguela Railway.
1. What in particular about smartphones makes them such a highly globalized product? At a most basic
level, the production of smartphones requires various metals that are mined in locations all over the
world.
2. Why are many countries, and companies, concerned about China’s control over most of the world’s rare
earth elements? A main concern is that China might develop a monopoly on the production of
smartphones if it controls most of the world’s rare earth elements that are essential to the production of
smartphones.

11.1 Why has China become the world’s largest emitter of GHGs, and what is its government doing about this
problem? The rapid increase in China’s emission of GHG is related to its spectacular industrialization
over the past decades. In 2007 China released its first natural plan on climate change, which calls for
major gains in energy efficiency as well as a partial transition to renewable resources of energy. The
government has also been subsidizing the manufacturing of solar panels for generating electricity. Lastly,
China has moved to expand its nuclear power generation.
11.2 Why is Japan so much more heavily forested than China? In part, Japan is so heavily forested because it
has enacted numerous restrictions on deforestation. It has been able to do so through the importing of its
lumber products from other regions, notably Southeast Asia. China is also more heavily deforested
because of its long history of settlement and clearing of lands, and its increased consumption of forest
products accompanying its industrial growth.
11.3 How are the basic patterns of physical geography in China linked to the country’s historical problems
with floods and droughts? There is a complex interplay of factors involved, including the type of
sediments through which China’s rivers flow; and the climatic conditions, which influence the timing and
intensity of precipitation. Human interference, especially centuries of deforestation, have compounded
problems.
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11.4 Why does East Asia get so much of its food and so many of its natural resources from other parts of the
world? Owing to its large population, the region is unable to be self-sufficient in food production. For
some countries, such as South Korea and Japan, there is also a dearth of natural resources, necessitating
the importing of these materials.
11.5 How is the urban landscape of East Asia, and particularly that of China, currently changing? Because of
continued population growth—notably in China—and internal migration, cities are expanding at a rapid
rate. This is leading to both urban sprawl and higher levels of urban-based pollutions. Likewise, rapid
industrialization has led to sizeable portions of cities to be razed for modern development. Only belatedly
has China began to incorporate greater efforts toward historical preservation in its urban development.
11.6 How have East Asia’s patterns of population density influenced the region’s agricultural and settlement
systems? Throughout East Asia population densities are highest in river valleys and along the coastal
plains; these areas are most conductive to agriculture and large-scale settlement. Also, in Japan in
particular, there are very few large flat areas conducive to large-scale settlement, thereby concentrating
populations in these locations.
11.7 What features mark the Han Chinese as an ethnic group? The main distinguishing feature is commonality
of writing, though not necessarily language. Also, the Han have continued to promote themselves as the
dominant ethnic group in the country.
11.8 How has the geography of religion changed in East Asia since the end of World War II? Mahayana
Buddhism remains the main religion of the region, although it is not always practiced—there are signs of
an increased secularism throughout much of the region. Important concentrations of Christians and
Muslims exist in the region. Between 1949 and, roughly, 1976 religion was discouraged in China; since
the gradual incorporation of capitalism within the country, religions have likewise begun to flourish.
11.9 What have been the main historical factors in the creation of an East Asian world region? The entire
region shares certain historically rooted ways of life and systems of ideas. These include religious and
philosophical beliefs and attendant social and political structures.
11.10 How have geopolitical issues in East Asia changed since the end of the Cold War? The basic division
between a ‘capitalist’ West and a ‘communist’ East has been replaced by a greater complexity. There is a
latent level of mistrust between China, Japan, and South Korea; China and the rest of the world remains
divided over the Taiwan issue; and tensions remain high between North and South Korea.
11.11 How did the decline of China during the 1800s affect the geopolitical structure of East Asia? The decline
of China was both a cause and effect of increased European influence in the region; likewise, a weakened
China provided an opportunity for greater Japanese expansion leading up to and through the Second
World War.
11.12 To what extent do conflicts over natural resources influence geopolitical tensions across East Asia? As
these countries continue to develop economically, natural resources will remain important; however,
countries such as South Korea and Japan (notably) are relatively resource-poor. China likewise requires a
diversity of resources to satisfy its industry. Consequently, conflicts over resource-rich territories will
remain significant.
11.13 How has the economic development of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and China been similar since the end
of World War II, and how has it differed between these countries? In all four countries that state has
assumed a major role in guiding their respective economies. Likewise, these countries have all undergone
similar transitions, from the export of inexpensive consumer goods, through the development of heavy
industry, to the export of high-tech products. A major difference is that whereas all are capitalist-oriented,
China retains a communist-inspired political system. Economic growth has been more unevenly
distributed within China than it has been in the other countries.
11.14 Why do levels of social and economic development vary so extensively from the coastal region of China
to the interior portions of the country? The major explanation is that China, since the mid-1970s, has
extensively and explicitly promoted development in the coastal regions. This is seen, for example, in the
establishment of special autonomous regions which are characterized by minimal government
interference and high levels of foreign direct investment.
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11.15 Do levels of social development in East Asia differ from those of economic development? If so, how?
Overall, levels of social development align with levels of economic development. However, there are
some variations at more local levels; not all people benefit equally with economic development. North
Korea likewise indicates that levels of social development—measured by life expectancy—might be
better than one would expect, given its poor economic development.
In Review Questions
11.1 This map detail shows an area characterized by severe soil erosion, a strong risk of flooding, and a new
water transfer project. How are these phenomena related? First, soil erosion leads to increased
sedimentation in the Chang Jiang (Yellow River). This increased sediment load contributes to flooding.
Water transfer projects are designed to redirect flood waters to minimize the damage associated with
flooding.
11.2 What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of diverting water flows from one river basin to
another? The main advantage is the possibility of minimizing flooding on the first river. A prime
disadvantage is that if done poorly, the risk of flooding is transferred to the second river. Also, there may
be other unintended consequences, such as the introduction of invasive species.
11.3 Why is animal power used too often in North Korean agriculture, and what implications does this have for
the North Korean population? The main reason is because the North Korean people do not have the
monies necessary (or the opportunity) to use more capital-intensive sources of power, such as tractors. A
key implication is that agricultural productivity will remain relatively poor, thereby contributing to the
food-shortage problems in the country.
11.4 What kind of consequences would a country be likely facing in pursuing a policy of food self-sufficiency?
A main consequence might include famine. Other potential consequences might be related to limited
economic opportunities (e.g. it would be difficult to participate in the global economy—if the country so
chooses to participate).
11.5 Mt. Fuji is often viewed as a national symbol of Japan. How does the Japanese religion of Shinto
contribute to the cultural significance of this mountain? Mt. Fuji is considered a sacred site.
11.6 How does the natural world figure into beliefs and practices found among other religions around the
world? The natural world figures into beliefs and practices related, for example, to prohibitions against
the eating of certain animals; the worshipping at (or to) particular natural features (e.g. mountains); and
the spatial arrangement of settlements (e.g. where and how houses are arranged).
11.7 If Taiwan is already an independent country, why are the Taiwanese protestors in this photo demanding
Taiwanese independence? Although in many respects Taiwan is a sovereign state, in practice it is only
recognized by 22 other UN member-states. In short, Taiwan is not internationally recognized as a
sovereign state.
11.8 Should the international communist consider acknowledging the independent existence of Taiwan, or is
the ‘one China policy’ necessary for regional and global stability? Answers will vary. For those who
argue that the ‘one China policy’ is necessary, attention focuses on the economic (and military) power of
China; for those who argue for recognition of Taiwan, attention may focus on more abstract principles
such as self-determination.
11.9 China has recently been rapidly expanding its urban system, yet in some areas huge new apartment blocks
have gone unoccupied. Why have such projects been built, and what consequences might they have for
China’s economy? China has over-built in some areas as part of massive development projects indicative
of a modernizing society. There is the possibility that these may negatively impact China’s economy; the
negative effects however would probably be felt only locally.
11.10 What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of massively planned residential developments? One
advantage is the construction of needed residential apartments for China’s growing population; the
disadvantages occur if these are built in areas that are not experiencing growth. Consequently, they may
remain vacant for some time. Another disadvantage has been the removal of many historically important
areas that are being cleared to make room for the new developments.
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1. Rust belts are evident both in the United States and China. Where, in their respective countries, are these
located? How has the formation of these rust belts been similar? Dissimilar? How are they changing?
2. Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea—but also the United States and many European countries—engage in
pollution exporting. Who do countries allow the siting of polluting industries within their borders? Is
pollution exporting ethical? Why or why not?
3. There are two opposing views regarding the importance of Confucianism in the economic development of
East Asia. Do you believe that Confucianism promotes or hinders growth and development? How does
this differ from, say, the importance of the Protestant work-ethic in the United States?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Engage in research at the library and use the Internet to learn more about North Korea’s juche philosophy.
What are the main influences to this philosophy? How does it help us understand particular state policies
and practices in the country?
2. China recently joined the World Trade Organization (WTO). Learn more about the WTO and China’s
membership. What are the benefits to China for joining? What are the implications of China’s
membership on the global economy?
3. Engage in library and Internet research to learn more about one or more of the political movements in
China. What are the goals of these movements? What strategies have they pursued? How successful have
these movements been in the pursuit of their objectives?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography select the map sets for East Asia,
and activate (1) the major mineral resources layer under the economic theme; (2) the geopolitical issues
layer under the geopolitical theme; and (3) the languages layer under the cultural theme. Describe the
patterns of these three layers; discuss the correlation between these patterns. How do these three maps
help explain the ongoing tension between separatist and autonomous movements, and the policy decisions
of the Chinese government?
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Chapter 12: South Asia
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Explain how the monsoon is generated and describe its importance for South Asia
• Describe the geological relationship between the Himalayas and other high mountains of northern
South Asia and the flat, fertile plains of the Indus and Ganges river valleys
• Outline the ways in which the patterns of human population growth in South Asia have changed
over the past several decades and explain why they vary so strikingly from one part of the region
to another
• Identify the causes of the explosive growth of South Asia’s major cities and describe both the
benefits and the problems that result from the emergence of such large cities
• Compare and contrast the ways in which India and Pakistan have dealt with the problems of
building national cohesion, consider the fact that both countries contain numerous distinctive
language groups
• Summarize the historical relationship between Hinduism and Islam in South Asia and explain
why so much tension exists between the two religious communities today
• Explain why South Asia was politically partitioned at the end of the period of British rule and
show how the legacies of partition have continued to generate political and economic difficulties
in the region
• Describe the various challenges that India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka have faced from insurgency
movements that seek to carve out new independent states from their territories
• Explain why European merchants were so eager to trade in South Asia in the 16th, 17th, and 18th
centuries and describe how their activities influenced the region’s later economic development
• Summarize the ways in which economic and social development varies across the different
regions of South Asia and explain why such variability is so pronounced
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: region easily defined by physical geography—Indian subcontinent separated from rest
of Asia by major mountain ranges; includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka,
and Maldives; region historically united by cultural commonalities—especially Hinduism and
Buddhism; Islam has recently played major role
A. South Asia’s Geopolitical Challenges: region has experienced intense political conflict in recent
decades; parallel to geopolitical tensions are demographic and economic concerns—population is
large and poverty is widespread
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: From Tropical Islands to Mountain Rim:
environmental geography covers wide range of forms; all ecological zones have own distinct and
complex environmental problems
A. The Four Physical Subregions of South Asia
1. Mountains of the North: region’s northern rim dominated by Himalayan Range forming
borders of India, Nepal, and Bhutan; linked to Karakoram Range to the west and the Arakan
Yoma Mountains to the east; mountain ranges formed by tectonic activity; entire region is
seismically active
2. Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra Lowlands: south of mountains are lowlands created by three
major rivers systems; Indus River is longest—provides irrigated waters to Pakistan;
Ganges—densely settled, provides fertile soil for northern India; Brahmaputra—very densely
settled lowland
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3. Peninsular India: consists primarily of the Deccan Plateau; bordered on each coast by
narrow coastal plains backed by north-south mountain ranges—the Western and Eastern
Ghats; coastal plains provide fertile soils and adequate water; soils poor or average on
Deccan Plateau; much of western plateau in rain shadow of Western Ghats; large dams being
constructed to provide irrigation
4. The Southern Islands: Sri Lanka—ringed by coastal plains, mountains cover southern
interior; Maldives—chain of 1200 islands, most uninhabited, very low and flat
B. Environmental Issues in South Asia: includes water and air pollution
1. The Precarious Situation of Bangladesh: population pressure and environment; at risk to
cyclones; flooding is serious problem; deforestation has magnified problem of flooding;
many aquifers are contaminated with arsenic
2. Forests and Deforestation: forests and woodlands once covered most of region—human
activities over the centuries has reduced their extent; beginning in 1970s India embarked on
reforestation programs; because of deforestation, many villages suffer from shortage of fuel
wood—rely on cattle dung, which could be used as fertilizer instead
3. Wildlife: Extinction and Protection: region has managed to retain diverse assemblage of
wildlife despite population pressure and poverty; projects such as Project Tiger illustrate that
wildlife conservation is not easy, but possible
C. South Asia’s Monsoon Climates: monsoon—distinct seasonal change of wind direction that
corresponds to wet and dry periods; most of region has three distinct seasons; monsoon caused by
large-scale meteorological processes; orographic rainfall—precipitation resultant from uplift of
moist air over mountains—pronounced along the Western Ghats; much of Pakistan and parts of
India have very little precipitation; monsoon affects many aspects of daily life
D. Climate Change in South Asia: many areas particularly vulnerable; minor rise in sea-level will
contribute to massive flooding and inundate coastal areas; agriculture is likely to suffer because
of lack of water or too much water
1. Responses to the Climate Challenge: India signed Kyoto Protocol—but is exempt because
it is a developing country; but its economic is rapidly growing and is now world’s sixth
largest emitter of GHGs; various efforts underway throughout region to respond to possible
changes
2. Energy in South Asia: responses to climate change will necessitate changes to energy
systems; critical is availability of electricity; international cooperation is required; region
lacks adequate supplies of domestic energy resources
III. Population and Settlement: The Demographic Dilemma: soon will become most populous world
region; fertility levels have dropped—but momentum keeps population growing; threat of crop failure
remains in part because of unpredictability of monsoon rains
A. The Geography of Population Expansion: region’s recent decline in human fertility dhows
geographical variation; southern and western India, Sri Lanka have TFR at or below replacement
level; north-central India and Pakistan, birth rate remains high
1. India: concern over population began in 1960s; family planning measures implemented;
cultural preference for sons remains—contributes to sex-selective abortion
2. Pakistan and Bangladesh: Pakistan more ambivalent toward family planning; Bangladesh
strongly supports family planning
B. Migration and the Settlement Landscape: most densely settled areas are those with best soils;
long history of movement from poor and densely populated areas to less densely or wealthier
areas; several key migration flows observable; region is one of least urbanized regions—most
South Asians live in compact rural villages; but urbanization is increasing
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C. Agricultural Regions and Activities: historically region has been less productive than East Asia;
various explanations forwarded; low agricultural yields—coupled with population—has led to
problems; agricultural production improved since 1970s with Green Revolution
1. Crop Zones: several distinct agricultural zones throughout South Asia; fundamental
divisions based on rice, wheat, and millet; rice predominates in lower Ganges Valley; wheat
is primary in northern Indus Vally and western half of India’s Ganges Valley, and
‘breadbasket’ in northwest India and Pakistan—especially the Punjab; in less fertile central
India, millet and sorghum are main crops; many other crops elsewhere in region; meat
consumption overall is low; milk is main source of protein
2. The Green Revolution: originated during 1960s; efforts to promote higher-yielding seeds;
by 1970s many goals being met; agricultural success—but also ecological and social disaster;
based on heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides/insecticides; also only some farmers
benefitted—many others went into debt and forced off land
3. Future Food Supply: some fear ability to improve yields has peaked; some areas might
experience higher yields from introduction of new techniques; expanded water delivery
necessary for some areas; irrigation however contributes to problems of salinization
D. Urban South Asia: one of least urbanized regions—but has some large urban agglomerations;
approximately 46 cities with populations greater than one million—Mumbai has 14 million; most
cities have problems because of rapid growth—homelessness, poverty, water shortages, air
pollution, sewage disposal
1. Mumbai: largest city in region; financial, industrial, and commercial center
2. Delhi: capital of India; consists of two contrasting landscapes—Delhi and New Dehli
3. Kolkata: large city with many serious environmental and social problems
4. Dhaka: capital of Bangladesh; experienced rapid growth; primary administrative and
industrial city
5. Islamabad: planned city and capital of Pakistan; located close to geopolitical flashpoint and
thus serves as a ‘forward capital’
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious Rivalries:
since mid-20th century religious and political strife has intensified; India is secular country but
increasingly Hindu nationalists have promoted Hinduism as essential fabric of Indian society; in
predominantly Muslim Pakistan, rising Islamic fundamentalism is occurring
A. Origins of South Asian Civilizations: roots of South Asian culture generally traced to Indus
Valley civilization (3300 to 1300 BCE); new urban focus in Ganges Valley around 800 BCE—
social, religious, and intellectual customs from here spread throughout lowlands of South Asia
1. Hindu Civilization: Hinduism—faith without single system of belief; certain deities (which
all constitute expressions of a single divine entity) recognized by all believers; Hindus share
common set of epic stories, usually written in Sanskrit—the sacred language of their religion;
hallmark of Hinduism is belief in transmigration of soul through reincarnation; Hinduism also
associated with caste system; different interpretations for emergence of Hinduism, along with
associated elements, such as caste system
2. Buddhism: developed from Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, as challenge to and critique of
Hinduism; Buddhism spread throughout South Asia—never fully replaced Hinduism in India;
by 500 CE disappeared from most of South Asia
3. Arrival of Islam: introduced via Turkic-speaking Muslims from Central Asia around 1000;
by 1300 most of South Asia under Muslim power; in 16th and 17th centuries, Mughal (or
Mogul) Empire dominated much of region; Hindu conversion most pronounced in northwest
and northeast (present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh); until 20th century, Hindus and Muslims
coexisted on friendly terms
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B. The Caste System: historically unifying feature; currently being deemphasized—but remains
important; refers to complex social order of Hindu world; combines two local concepts—varna
and jati; varna refers to fourfold social hierarchy; jati refers to hundreds of local endogamous
groups that exist at each varna level; different jati groups are called subcastes
1. The Main Caste Groups: three varna constitute traditional elite: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and
Vaishyas; majority of India’s population in fourth varna category—the Sudras; large group
outside the varna system, the untouchables (dalits)—these are low-status positions and suffer
discrimination
2. The Changing Caste System: in state of flux; original occupational structure undermined by
necessities of modern economy; social reforms have mollified some discrimination; some
quotas introduced to benefit lower caste members
C. Contemporary Geographies of Religion: South Asia has a Hindu heritage overlain by
significant Muslim presence
1. Hinduism: majority faith in India and Nepal; less than one percent of populations of Pakistan
are Hindu; minority religion also in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka; Hinduism practiced
differently across different parts of India
2. Islam: minority religion for South Asia as whole; but clear majority in Bangladesh and
Pakistan; widespread though minority in India; Kerala has a notable concentration of
Muslims in India, as does the central Ganges Plain
3. Sikhism: emerged from tension between Hinduism and Islam in northern South Asia;
originated in 140ss in the Punjab; periodic persecution led Sikhs to adopt militantly defensive
stance; Sikh men do not cut hair or beards—wear hair wrapped in turban
4. Buddhism and Jainism: Buddhism persists in Sri Lanka, among the Sinhalese, who practice
Theravada Buddhism; in Tibet, a form of Tibetan Buddhism is practiced; Jainism stresses
nonviolence—members are concentrated in northwestern India
5. Other Religious Groups: Parsis are concentrated in Mumbai—they follow Zoroastrianism;
Indian Christians form a large minority in region, with different sects represented; British
missionaries worked to convert South Asians—with little success
D. Geographies of Language: linguistic diversity rivals religious diversity; in northern South Asia,
most languages belong to Indo-European family; most languages of southern India belong to
Dravidian language family; along mountainous northern rim, Tibeto-Burman language family is
dominant; each of major languages of India is associated with Indian state
1. The Indo-European North: Hindi is most widely spoken language of South Asia; plays
prominent role in present-day India; Bengali is second most widely spoken language; Urdu
spoken throughout northern India and Pakistan
2. Languages of the South: four main Dravidian languages confined to southern India and
northern Sri Lanka, each closely associated with particular state: Kannada, Malayalam,
Telugu, and Tamil; Tamil is spoken in northern Sri Lanka while the Sinhalese, in the south,
speak an Indo-European language; Dhivehi, a Sinhalese dialect, is spoken in the Maldives
3. Linguistic Dilemmas: multilingual countries of Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and India troubled by
linguistic conflicts; linguistic nationalism—linking of specific language with political goals,
often faces resistance
4. The Role of English: Hindi is spreading; but English is main integrating language in India
and remains widely used elsewhere in South Asia
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E. South Asians in a Global Cultural Context: widespread use of English facilitates cultural
diffusion both into and out of region; diffusion of South Asian culture includes literature, films
(‘Bollywood’ films); diffusion spread also by migration
1. Globalization and Cultural Tensions: globalization of culture has brought tensions,
especially as traditional Hindu and Muslim religions view Western influences as threatening;
tension pronounced in film and tourism—especially overt displays of sexuality
2. Globalization and Sports: popular regional sports and locally significant styles of martial
arts; cricket remains popular, as are field hockey and badminton—all introduced via British
colonialism; soccer and basketball slow to gain popularity
V. Geopolitical Framework: A Deeply Divided Region: prior to British imperialism, South Asia was
never politically united; British brought region under their power by middle of 19th century;
independence in 1947 lead to separation of Pakistan from India; in 1971 Pakistan was divided with
independence of Bangladesh; geopolitical issues continue to threaten the region
A. South Asia Before and After Independence in 1947: prior to arrival of Europeans, most of
northern South Asia ruled by Muslim Mughal Empire, and southern region dominated by Hindu
kingdom of Vijayanagara; European merchants, seeking spices, textiles, and other products,
established coastal trading posts; Portuguese established enclave in Goa, Dutch over Sri Lanka;
by early 1700s Mughal Empire weakened
1. The British Conquest: British and French displaced the Dutch and Portuguese; merchants
establish trade networks; Britain defeated France in Seven Years’ War and emerged dominant
in South Asia; British East India Company—private firm that monopolized overseas trade in
region; company made strategic alliances with Indian states
2. From Company Control to British Colony: reduction in size of Indian states, and British
policy, led to rebellion in 1857—the Sepoy Mutiny; South Asia then ruled by British
government; maintained direct control until 1947; also ruled Sri Lanka; political geography
of region stabilized, but frontiers remained unsettled
3. Independence and Partition: political protests and independence movements in early 20th
century; some South Asians favored unified states, others sought different autonomous
countries; with the withdrawal of the British in 1947, South Asia divided into India and
Pakistan; the partition sparked massive violence, with 14 million people displaced and one
million killed; Hindus and Sikhs fled Pakistan, with Muslims fleeing India; Pakistan initially
composed two separate territories—East and West Pakistan; the Bengalis, in East Pakistan,
launched rebellion, leading to establishment of Bangladesh as independent state in 1971;
Pakistan remains politically unstable
4. Geopolitical Structure of India: organized as federal state; national government regains
control over foreign affairs and much of economy; but individual states have significant
autonomy; states organized to match linguistic geography; several new states have been
added and others proposed
B. Ethnic Conflicts and Tensions in South Asia: ethnic conflict persists in many parts of region
1. Kashmir: area between Pakistan and India; during partition India retained core area;
boundary remains fixed but struggle has intensified; both states oppose independence of
Kashmir; signs of improvement in 2004
2. India’s Northeastern Fringe: complicated ethnic conflict—partially because of
demographic change and cultural collision; various insurgent groups seek autonomy or
statehood
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3. Sri Lanka: until recently, severe interethnic violence—both religious and linguistic; northern
and eastern Sri Lanka dominated by Hindu Tamils; majority group on island are Sinhalese
Buddhists; Sinhalese favor unitary government and possible a Buddhist state; Tamils support
political and cultural autonomy; civil war from 1983 with emergence of Tamil Tigers—the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam; conflict intensified in 2007; but defeat of Tamil Tigers in
2009
C. The Maoist Challenge: poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation in east-central India
have generated revolutionary movements, influenced by ideas expounded by former Chinese
leader Mao Zedong; Maoist insurgencies also exist in Nepal
D. International Geopolitics: major struggle remains between Pakistan and India; both are nuclear
powers; terrorist acts have compounded problems
1. Relations with China and the United States: during Cold War, Pakistan allied with United
States and India remained neutral, but leaned toward Soviet Union; Pakistan has since allied
more with China and India with the United States; China’s relation with Pakistan stems from
long-standing border tensions with India
2. Pakistan’s Complex Geopolitics: increased in complexity following September 11, 2001;
Pakistan had allied with the Taliban—but decided to help the United States; unstable security
situation because of spread of fighting from Afghanistan; animosity exists between different
political parties, ethnic groups, and religious communities
VI. Economic and Social Development: Rapid Growth and Rampant Poverty: developmental
paradoxes—one of the poorest regions but immense wealth; high-tech businesses but widespread
illiteracy; large and growing middle class
A. Geographies of Economic Development: following independence, attempts to create new
economic systems; stressed heavy industry and economic autonomy; some initially success; since
1990s governments, especially India, opened to global economy
1. The Himalayan Countries: Nepal and Bhutan disadvantaged by terrain and location;
relatively isolated from modern technology and infrastructure; Bhutan purposely remains
disconnected from world economy—but does export hydroelectric power to India; Nepal
more heavily populated, suffers from environmental degradation, closely integrated with
India and world economy—international tourism is economic mainstay—but with ecological
costs
2. Bangladesh: poverty is extreme and widespread; environmental degradation contributes to
poverty as did partition; low-interest credit (micro-credit operations) have helped in some
parts; internationally competitive in textile and clothing manufacture—but negative
components are low wages and unsafe working conditions
3. Pakistan: relatively well-developed urban infrastructure; productive agricultural sector; but
recently economy has faltered—burdened by high levels of military spending, internal strife;
has inadequate energy supplies—looking to Central Asia and Southwest Asia
4. Sri Lanka and the Maldives: Sri Lanka’s economy second most highly developed; exports
concentrated into textiles and agriculture—attempting to develop port facilities, tourism;
relies heavily on remittances; Maldives is most prosperous—revenues from fishing and
tourism; but vulnerable to fluctuations in international recessions
5. India’s Less-Developed Areas: poorer districts in north and east; extreme deprivation in
lower and middle Ganges Valley; Bihar is poorest state; much of north-central India
experienced little economic development—but resurgence since 2008; states in eastern India
quite poor
6. India’s Centers of Economic Growth: Punjab and Haryana because of agriculture; Gujarat
and Maharashtra for industry and finance; Gujarat also because of remittances from Indian
diaspora; Maharashtra is economic pacesetter—dominated by Mumbai; fast-growing, high-
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tech sector around Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore)—the ‘Silicon Plateau’; other key areas
include Hyderabad, Chennai
B. Globalization and South Asia’s Economic Future: volume of foreign trade relatively small,
foreign direct investment modest, tourism small—but globalization is advancing rapidly; Indian
government liberalized economy in 1991 to be more open to global economy; firms turned to
outsourcing; internationalization led to some opposition; opposition also from international
competitors such as United States; India also develops small amount to infrastructure
development
C. Social Development: relatively low levels of health and education; but conditions vary widely;
several key measures are higher in Indian than Pakistan; discrepancies apparent when compare
economic development with social well-being; India has introduced various programs to reduce
poverty
1. The Educated South: social welfare considerably higher; Sri Lanka also considered
successful—achieved significant health and educational gains; Kerala, in India, has achieved
success, in part because of state policies
2. Gender Relations in South Asia: often argued that South Asian women have low social
position in both Hindu and Muslim traditions; female literacy often lags behind that of men;
gender ratios unbalanced, resultant in part from sex-selective abortion—which is illegal but
widely practiced; social position of women is improving in many parts—but dowry demands
and dowry murders remain issues
KEY TERMS
British East India Company (p. 581)
Caste system (p. 569)
Cyclone (p. 554)
Dalit (p. 572)
Dravidian (p. 574)
Federal state (p. 582)
Forward capital (p. 568)
Green Revolution (p. 568)
Hindu nationalism (p. 569)
Indian diaspora (p. 591)
Indian subcontinent (p. 550)
Jainism (p. 572)
Linguistic nationalism (p. 577)
Maharaja (p. 583)
Micro-credit (p. 590)
Monsoon (p. 557)
Mughal Empire (also spelled Mogul) (p. 570)
Orographic rainfall (p. 557)
Salinization (p. 566)
Sikhism (p. 573)
Tamil Tigers (p. 585)
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1. Why do you think that Bhutan in particular has focused so much attention on sustainable development?
Two of Bhutan’s economic main-stays are based immediately on the environment: farming/forestry and
high-end (eco) tourism. A decimated environment for either activity would prove detrimental to the
country.
2. Do you think that ‘Gross National Happiness’ is an appropriate way to conceptualize national
development? If so, how might this concept be adequately measured? Answers will vary. It may be very
appropriate to consider the GNH because it directs attention away from standard economic indices that
may gloss over non-material based ways of life. For example, simply not having a television is not an
indicator of poverty; the wealthiest of families may be extremely unhappy. As to the ‘measurement’ of
such an index? Answers will also vary; students may consider however that ‘measurement’ as a
calculation is anathema to the idea of happiness.
Cityscapes
1. In what ways can you see the legacy of British colonialism in Karachi? Although rapidly changing, there
is still a legacy of British colonialism on the landscape. This is seen for example in the Empress Market,
named after Queen Victoria. This area in particular is noted for its Victorian-era architecture. More
broadly, the locations of some business districts are sited where they are because of decisions made by
British officials over a century ago.
2. Why has Karachi seen so much more ethnic tension than Pakistan’s other major cities? In large part
tension has resulted from conflict between the Sindhis, the region’s indigenous inhabitants, and the
Muhajirs, Muslim refugees from India. More recently the migration of Pashtuns from northwest Pakistan
has further destabilized the situation. There are reports also that several radical Islamist groups, including
the Taliban and Al Qaeda, have based in the city.

1. What are some of the reasons why most tourism in the Maldives takes place on tiny islands, such as the
one shown in this photography? Eighty percent of the Maldives is composed of islands which site less
than one meter above sea-level. It is necessary to construct elaborate systems of bridges and off-shore
housing to satisfy the demands of the approximately one million tourists who visit annually.
2. Why do you think the government of the Maldives focuses so much on tourism as a source of foreign
revenue? The main reason is because tourism is profitable for the country; 30 percent of the country’s
GDP is derived from tourism.

12.1 Why is the monsoon so crucial to life in South Asia? The monsoon rains are important for agriculture in
South Asia; if the rains are later or abnormally weak, crop failure may result. Also, while necessary for
agriculture, the rains may cause floods, power outages, and daily inconvenience.
12.2 Why is flooding such an important environmental issue in Bangladesh and adjacent areas of northeastern
India? Flooding is a significant problem because, first, much of the region in question is at or below sea-
level and, second, because the density of population is so high. These low-lying delta areas exhibit good
soils for agriculture, and thus have attracted large numbers of settlers; however, the areas are subject to
flooding because of their topography, the heavy monsoonal rains, and periodic cyclones.
12.3 What particular features of South Asia make the region especially vulnerable to climate change? In the
north, the Himalayas are subject to climate change from the standpoint that glaciers may melt
precipitously; this may cause substantial flooding downstream. Also, many coastal locations—and inland
also—are at or below sea-level, thus susceptible to sea-level rise.
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12.4 Why has the Green Revolution been so controversial, considering the fact that it has greatly increased
South Asia’s food supply? There are two main reasons. First, the benefits have not been experienced
evenly. Many farmers are unable to afford the new seed varieties and have thus been unable to compete in
the market-place; this has led to many farmers losing their lands. Second, the new seed types require vast
applications of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. Beyond the financial cost of these
additives, there is the problem of environmental pollution.
12.5 Why is the Punjab region usually viewed as South Asia’s ‘bread basket’? This region, dominated by the
Indus Valley, has both a climate and topography that is conducive to wheat-farming. Also, the Green
Revolution here has been remarkably successful.
12.6 What are the major advantages and disadvantages of the growth of South Asia’s megacities? The cities
offer hope of economic and social betterment; these are areas of massive investment. However, unplanned
and uncontrolled growth has led to severe strains of infrastructure. Widespread homelessness, congestion,
inadequate housing, power, sewage, and other problems have been the result.
12.7 Why has religion become such a contentious issue in South Asia over the past several decades? There are
several reasons, among these being the tremendous religious diversity that characterizes the region. With
economic inequalities or political instability, religion may serve as a focal point. Likewise, following
independence, many regions were divided by religion (and language); subsequent disputes over borders
are thus cast in religious terms.
12.8 How have India and Pakistan, the two largest countries of South Asia, tried to foster national unity in the
face of ethnic and linguistic fragmentation? In India, upon independence, states were defined largely by
ethnic and linguistic identity. The government has continued to take seriously the importance of these two
dimensions in the promotion of ‘national’ languages and other policies. Pakistan likewise attempts to take
these into consideration.
12.9 What cultural features were spread by British imperialism in South Asia? Aside from English as a
language, the British also introduced cricket, field hockey, and badminton.
12.10 How have relations between India and Pakistan influenced South Asian geopolitical developments over
the past several decades? As the two largest military powers—each with nuclear capabilities—the
relationship between India and Pakistan have influenced developments with other states in the region—
and beyond. India and Pakistan have had a troubling relationship, in part because of disputes over
Kashmir. These conflicts have required other states to, in effect, choose between one or the other, or to
attempt to maintain a more balanced approach.
12.11 Why has South Asia experienced numerous insurgencies and other political conflicts since the end of
British rule in 1947? A major reason lies in the tremendous ethnic, religious, and linguistic diversity of
the region; different groups may often aspire to establish their own autonomous region—if not
independent state. Also, rampant poverty has fueled ongoing Maoist insurgencies.
12.12 How has the rise of China influenced geopolitical developments in South Asia over the past several
decades? A major issue is that China has historically sided with Pakistan—stemming mostly from
China’s conflict with India over disputed territory—Aksai China—in northern Kashmir. China also
claims the entire Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh as its own.
12.13 How has the economy of India been transformed since the reforms of 1991? Prior to this date, India
exhibited numerous protectionist regulations, including high tariffs and other trade barriers. Since 1991
however India has attempted to globalize its economy; many regulations were eliminated, tariffs were
reduced, and partial foreign ownership of local businesses was allowed.
12.14 Why do levels of social and economic development vary so much across South Asia? This variability
results, in part, from the uneven distribution of natural resources; local conditions that benefit or hinder
agricultural production; different levels and investments in infrastructure; and ongoing political
instability.
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12.15 How does the social position of women vary in different regions of South Asia? As a whole, historically,
women are accorded low social positions in both the Hindu and the Muslim traditions. In some areas, as
measured by literacy for example, women suffer pronounced discrimination: Pakistan, Bangladesh, and
the Indian states of Rajasthan, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. Evidence suggests that the social position of
women is improving, especially in the more prosperous parts of western India.
In Review Questions
12.1 Why is India so eager to build massive dams, such as the one visible here? There are many reasons. First,
dams may provide hydroelectric power. Second, dams may control flooding. Third, dams may provide
irrigated water to more arid farming regions. Fourth, there is a symbolic value to building massive
infrastructure projects.
12.2 Why are some Indians deeply opposed to such dam- and canal-building projects, and what potential
problems are encountered when irrigation water is brought into desert areas? Many Indians are opposed
because of the attendant land-displacement that accompanies these projects. Also, not everyone will
benefit from any potential economic profits. A main concern of diverting irrigated water into desert areas
is the threat of soil salinization.
12.3 Why have shantytowns such as the one visible in this photograph grown so rapidly in and around the
large cities of India in recent years? Shantytowns have grown rapidly because (1) of the sizeable in-
migration of people from rural areas into the city and (2) a lack of urban planning to cope with such rapid
population increases.
12.4 How might the government of India reduce the problem of shantytown growth and create better living
conditions for people residing in such slums? Answers will vary. One potential solution is to promote
development in the hinterlands, thus reducing in-migration to the cities. For those shantytowns in
existence, investments must be made to improve the housing and to provide adequate power sources,
water supplies, and sewage systems.
12.5 What historical and geographical features account for the fact that the northeastern part of India, visible in
this map detail, has such linguistic and cultural diversity? This region sits at the confluence of many
different cultural regions, including those in South Asia, East Asia (China) and Southeast Asia. This area
is also astride many historical trade routes.
12.6 What kinds of problems are associated with the cultural diversity found in this part of India? Problems
include religious tension between Hindus and Muslims; also there may be conflicts between Buddhists
and others.
12.7 What particular features of Karachi, Pakistan’s largest city, have led to such intensive ethnic and religious
tensions in recent years. Tensions have increased in part because of the in-migration of different ethnic
groups. Also, there has been a spill-over effect from the on-going War on Terror, especially as Al Qaeda
reportedly operates bases in the city.
12.8 What policies might the city government of Karachi, or the national government of Pakistan, enact in
order to reduce such tensions? Answers will vary. Students may consider how government officials at all
levels may introduce policies promoting religious tolerance; also, policies might address equality among
language and access to education.
12.9 Why is India investing such large amounts of money into a system that will provide unique identification
numbers for all of its citizens, linked with such biological information as photographs, fingerprints, and
iris scans? The plan has been developed since 2009 as a means of providing security for the country; it is
supposedly easier for example to track and monitor suspects terrorists. It is controversial because there is
considerable concern as to how the data collected may ultimately be used.
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1. Although Pakistan and Bangladesh are both Islamic countries, their total fertility rates are very different.
Bangladesh’s TRF, as a case in point, is considerably lower than that of Pakistan. Are there any
differences in governmental policies that might explain the difference? Might these family planning
strategies be transferable to other countries? Why or why not?
2. Compare and contrast the caste system in traditional Hindu societies with a meritocracy system (such as
that in the United States). What are the differences? How would your life be different under a caste
system?
3. Following independence, India has established a federal state system, whereby different linguistic groups
were allocated their own states; in turn, the states of India all comprise dominant ethnic groups. How does
this strategy compare to the United States’ state structure? Is the strategy developed by India good or bad?
Why or why not?
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Engage in library and Internet research to learn more about the different Maoist insurgent groups in South
Asia. What strategies have these used to promote their objectives? How does these insurgent groups
compare with other political movements in Southeast Asia (e.g. in Burma/Myanmar?)
2. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the position of women in South Asian society and,
specifically, that of dowry. What is the origin of the dowry system? How does this operate? What are the
various governments doing to curb the violence associated with dowry?
3. Learn more about the nuclear rivalry between India and Pakistan. What is the basis of the conflict? How
did each country come to acquire nuclear weapons?
4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets for South Asia,
and activate the environmental issues layer under the physical environment theme. Next, activate the
agricultural regions layer under the economic theme. What patterns do you identify? What agricultural
practices are subject to particular environmental problems? What possible solutions exist to mediate the
potential environmental damages to agricultural systems?
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Chapter 13: Southeast Asia
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Identify the key environmental differences between the equatorial belt of insular Southeast Asia
and the higher-latitude zone of mainland Southeast Asia
• Explain how environmental differences influenced human settlement and economic development
• Describe the driving forces behind deforestation and habitat loss in the different regions of
Southeast Asia
• Explain how the interaction of tectonic plates and the resulting volcanism and seismic activity
have influenced Southeast Asian history and development
• Show how the differences among plantation agriculture, rice growing, and swidden cultivation in
Southeast Asia have molded settled patterns
• Describe the role of primate cities and other massive urban centers in the development of
Southeast Asia
• Outline the ways in which religions from other parts of the world have spread through Southeast
Asia, including how religious diversity has influenced the history of the region
• Identify the controversies surrounding cultural globalization in Southeast Asia, explaining why
some people in the region welcome the process, whereas others resist it
• Trace the origin and spread of ASEAN and explain how this organization has influenced
geopolitical relations in the region
• Describe the major ethnic conflicts in Southeast Asia, showing why certain countries in the
region have such deep problems in this regard
• Explain why levels of economic and social development vary su widely across the Southeast
Asian region
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: commonly divided into two sub-regions: mainland Southeast Asia, which includes
Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam; and insular (or island) Southeast Asia, which
includes Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, and East Timor; controversies over
names of Burma/Myanmar and East Timor/Timor-Leste; region significant for globalization—
includes highly interconnected countries and some highly resistant to globalization; long history with
involvement in global trade
A. Southeast Asian Geopolitics: resources and strategic location contribute to importance of region;
was major zone of contention between communism and capitalism; regional cooperation
facilitated by Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: A Once Forested Region: prior to 20th century,
region was probably most heavily forested region; many areas since been cleared for agriculture,
human settlement, commercial logging
A. Patterns of Physical Geography: difference between insular and mainland Southeast Asia;
island belt is mostly in equatorial zone; mainland in tropical wet-and-dry zone
1. Mainland Environments: rugged uplands with broad lowlands; deltas and large rivers:
Mekong, Irrawaddy, Red, Chao Phraya; centermost area is Khorat Plateau in Thailand—
noted for thin soils, water shortages and drought
2. Monsoon Climates: mainland Southeast Asia affected by monsoons; two tropical climate
regions in mainland
3. Insular Environments: Indonesia dominated by four main islands—Sumatra, Borneo, Java,
and Sulawesi; large expanse of shallow seas—covering Sunda Shelf; insular Southeast Asia
is geologically unstable—volcanoes, earthquakes; related tsunamis
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4. Island Climates: more varied than on mainland; rains associated with changing monsoons;
climates heavily influenced by equatorial location; Philippines especially prone to typhoons
B. The Deforestation of Southeast Asia: long been major issue throughout region; especially
pronounced with international commercial logging in second half of 20th century; China is
playing major role; forest have also been cleared for farming; some rainforests replaced with oil
palms
1. Local Patterns of Deforestation: Malaysia—long exporter of tropical hardwoods;
Indonesia—rapid deforestation; considerable loss in the Philippines; extensive deforestation
also on mainland—Thailand, then Burma, Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia; some areas are
returning—Vietnam’s forest area might have increased; destruction of mangrove forests in
coastal areas
2. Protected Areas: Indonesia has created protected areas—conservation helps protect wildlife
as well; region is key center in trade in endangered species and animal products—many
destined to China
C. Fires, Smoke, and Air Pollution: considerable burning associated with land clearance and
deforestation; wildfires contribute to air pollution; efforts to protect air quality hampered by
industrial development and increased vehicular use
D. Climate Change in Southeast Asia: most people live in coastal and delta environments—hence
region is particularly vulnerable; farmland could suffer dramatically; changes in precipitation
patterns remain uncertain
1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: all are signatories of Kyoto Accord—but are exempt;
Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam plan to increased coal-fired electricity generation; many
countries are large emitters because of deforestation
2. Energy in Southeast Asia: one of world’s first major oil-exporting regions—but all except
Brunei are importers; most renewable energy derived from hydropower and geothermal
plants; region does not produce nuclear power—although Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and
Thailand in planning stages
III. Population and Settlement: Subsistence, Migration, and Cities: not heavily populated region—
overall low density, except in deltas, coastal areas, and zones of fertile soil; low birth rates in
Singapore and Thailand, large families common in Cambodia, Laos, and East Timor
A. Settlement and Agriculture: much of insular Southeast Asia has relatively infertile soil which
cannot support intensive agriculture or high population densities; agriculture relies on constant
field rotations or applications of large amounts of fertilizers; some exceptions to pattern are
found, such as fertile islands of Java and central lowlands of Luzon; in mainland Southeast Asia,
population is concentrated in agriculturally intensive river valleys and delta; upland areas remain
sparsely settled; three types of agricultural system predominate: swidden in the uplands, and both
plantation agriculture and rice cultivation in lowlands
1. Swidden in the Uplands: also known as shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn agriculture;
widespread in upland areas of Southeast Asia; consists of clearing, farming small plots of
land and then moving to new plot (leaving the old field fallow) when soil is exhausted;
swidden is appropriate farming practice when population densities remain low; today system
is threatened because of higher population densities and commercial logging; some farmers
have switched from subsistence farming to growing cash crops or illegal crops such as
opium; Golden Triangle is key location in northern Southeast Asia for opium production
2. Plantation Agriculture: With European colonization, plantation agriculture was introduced;
high-value specialty groups were, and are, grown, including rubber, coffee, and tea; palm oil
plantations have also been spreading; Vietnam is world’s second largest coffee producer
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3. Rice in the Lowlands: lowland basins and deltas of mainland Southeast Asia largely devoted
to intensive rice cultivation; until 2013 Thailand was world’s largest rice exporter—replaced
now by India and Vietnam; use of agricultural chemicals and high-yield crop varieties, along
with improved water control, allowed rice production to keep pace with population growth;
yields remain low in areas without irrigation
B. Recent Demographic Change: most countries have seen decrease in birth rates; in some areas
with uneven population distribution, relocation is common policy
1. Population Contrasts: Philippines relatively high fertility rate, but declining and limited
government support; East Timor has high fertility rate; Laos and Cambodia—high but
declining fertility; Thailand has long promoted family planning but now concerned about
future labor shortages; Singapore has extremely low fertility; Indonesia witnessed substantial
decline in fertility because of government programs
2. Growth and Migration: until recently, Indonesia had policy of transmigration; government
of Philippines also uses internal migration to reduce population pressure—emphasis is on
international migration
C. Urban Settlement: not heavily urbanized region, but urban population is growth; several
countries have primate cities: Bangkok, Manila—and these suffer problems associated with
overconcentration; Thailand, Philippines, and Indonesia attempting to decentralize economic
growth and develop secondary cities; urban primacy less pronounced in Vietnam, Burma, and
Indonesia; Kuala Lumpur is modern city relatively free of most infrastructure problems;
Singapore is a city-state
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Meeting Ground of World Cultures: lacks historical
dominance of single civilization; historically a meeting ground for cultural traditions from elsewhere
A. The Introduction and Spread of Major Cultural Traditions: contemporary cultural diversity
connected with Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity
1. South Asian Influences: approximately 2,000 years ago Hinduism diffused throughout
present-day Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, and western Indonesia; Hinduism
influenced the development of many early kingdoms but is largely absent in most locations
today; from the 13th century onwards, Theravada Buddhism diffused from South Asia into the
region; Buddhism remains dominant throughout much of mainland Southeast Asia
2. Chinese Influences: Vietnam was never greatly influenced by practices diffused from South
Asia, rather it has been most heavily influenced by China; Chinese influences are also found
throughout other parts of Southeast Asia, associated primarily with historical and
contemporary patterns of trade and immigration; considerable intermarriage between Chinese
and indigenous populations; throughout region, relations between Chinese minority and
indigenous majority are strained
3. The Arrival of Islam: Muslim merchants from India and Southwest Asia arrived more than
1000 years ago—by 13th century religion spread throughout insular Southeast Asia; largely
replaced Hinduism—with exception of island of Bali; Indonesia is world’s most populous
Muslim country; in Malaysia and parts of Indonesia, Islamic fundamentalism is gaining
ground; Philippines is predominantly Catholic, except southern islands which is Islamic
4. Christianity and Indigenous Cultures: Christian missions spread throughout region in late
19th and early 20th centuries; more successful in highland regions; animism is still widespread
in parts of region; Indonesia has experienced religious strife, especially between Muslim
majority and Christian minority
5. Religion and Communism: in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, religious practices were
officially discouraged; Vietnam continues to struggle against revival of Buddhist majority
and Christians; also expanding are indigenous religions in Vietnam
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B. Geography of Language and Ethnicity: the linguistic geography is very complex, as it is
composed of several hundred distinct languages classified into five major linguistic families;
importantly, in mainland Southeast Asia the national language is spoken mainly in the core
lowlands, with separate languages spoken in the peripheral uplands
1. The Austronesian Languages: one of world’s most widespread language family; extends
from Madagascar to Easter Island; most insular Southeast Asian languages belong to this
family; very complex, with 50 languages spoken in Indonesia alone; Malay is indigenous to
Malay Peninsula and surrounding areas—become a common trade language (lingua franca);
some governments, e.g. Indonesia, the Philippines, have institute common trade languages;
English is common in the Philippines but Tagalog (Filipino) was selected by government to
serve as unifying national language
2. Tibeto-Burman Languages: Each country of mainland Southeast Asia is closely identified
with national language spoken in its core areas; however, many other languages and dialects
are also spoken; Burma poses a particular linguistic challenge
3. Tai-Kadai Languages: this linguistic family most likely originated in southern China and
spread into Southeast Asia around 1100; closely-related languages are found throughout
Thailand and Laos, uplands of northern Vietnam, and Burma’s Shan Plateau
4. Mon-Khmer Languages: this language family probably once covered all of mainland
Southeast Asia; it remains dominant in Vietnam and Cambodia (Khmer); because of
historical Chinese influences, the Vietnamese language was written with Chinese characters
until the French colonial government imposed the Roman alphabet; Khmer is written in its
own Indian-derived script
C. Southeast Asian Culture in Global Context: imposition of European rule ushered in new era of
globalization; more recently, several Southeast Asian countries (especially the Philippines) have
been receptive to global cultural influences; others have been more resistant, including Malaysia
and Indonesia, where Islamic revivalism has presented challenges
1. Language and Globalization: English causes ambivalence in much of region; it is language
of questionable popular culture—but necessary to participate in global economy; in Malaysia,
English was challenged by nationalists; in Singapore tere are four official languages—
including English; in the Philippines, English is widely spoken but is challenged by Filipino
nationalists
2. Sports and Globalization: region not particular known for athletic culture—but interest and
participation growing, in part because of Southeast Asian Games; soccer is popular
throughout region; basketball also popular—especially in the Philippines; indigenous game
gaining in popularity is sepak takraw—cross between volley ball and soccer; martial arts also
have widespread appeal
V. Geopolitical Framework: War, Ethnic Strife, and Regional Cooperation: in part because of
ASEAN, the region has developed a semblance of regional coherence; however, there are still many
internal ethnic conflicts as well as tensions between neighbors
A. Before European Colonialism: the modern countries of mainland Southeast Asia all existed as
kingdoms prior to European colonialism; in insular Southeast Asia, there were many different
kingdoms, straddling different islands during different periods; Indonesia, the Philippines and
Malaysia owe their political boundaries to European colonialism
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B. The Colonial Era: Portuguese were first to arrive—part of spice trade; Spanish arrived later,
securing base in Philippines for silver and silk trade; Dutch and British followed
1. Dutch Power: by 1700s, Netherlands was most powerful force in region; gradual expansion
throughout present-day Indonesia
2. British, French, and U.S. Expansion: British concentrated on sea-lanes linking South Asia
and China; established fortified trading outposts along Strait of Malacca—notably Singapore;
British and Dutch agreed to separate spheres; British expanded into Burma in 1800s; French
moved into Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos; Thailand maintained independence; from 1898
the United States colonized the Philippines
3. Growing Nationalism: organized resistance to European colonizers began in 1920s;
independence followed Second World War for most countries—although some powers, such
as United States, maintain economic influence
C. The Vietnam War and Its Aftermath: France was determined to maintain empire in Southeast
Asia; war erupted in 1946; Geneva peace accord in 1954 did not end war—established
communist North Vietnam
1. U.S. Intervention: U.S. policy-makers feared domino theory; military involvement in
Vietnam to stop spread of communism; gradual escalation of war until early 1970s
2. Communist Victory: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos became communist states after 1975; in
Cambodia, genocide followed the ascension of Khmer Rouge to power; currently Cambodia
is constitutional monarchy with elected government—but widespread corruption; tribunal
established to try surviving Khmer Rouge officials for genocide; communist party remains in
control in Laos but economy has been opened to private firms
D. Geopolitical Tensions in Contemporary Southeast Asia: most serious geopolitical problems
occur within rather than between states in region; tensions in many areas between locally-based
ethnic groups and centralized governments; also between tribal groups and logging, mining,
migration practices
1. Conflicts in Indonesia: since independence in 1949 Indonesia attempted to maintain control
of its territory; intensive war in 1975 as eastern half of Timor sought independence—which
arrived in 1999; other ethnic conflicts throughout archipelago; secessions struggles from
1950s onwards; most serious was Aceh in northern Sumatra—but 2004 tsunami contributed
to peace settlement; Indonesia has had difficulties in creating unified nation
2. Regional Tensions in the Philippines: long struggled with regional secession in Islamic
southwest; attempted to create autonomous region—but more extreme Islamist factions
continued to fight; political problems elsewhere in c ountry—long-simmering communist
rebellion throughout much of country; Philippine government itself not particularly stable
3. The Opening of Burma? Long a war-ravaged and relatively isolated country; fighting
between central government dominated by Burmans against various non-Burman societies;
from 1988 to 2011, ruled by repressive military regime; more recently, significant changes
and moving toward democratization; ethnic groups continue to maintain authority and to seek
autonomy; Muslims in country especially have faced discrimination; many ethnic
insurgencies financed by opium and heroin manufacture; ethnic conflicts persist throughout,
especially with Karen in the east and Kachin in north
4. Trouble in Thailand: country enjoys basic human freedoms, thriving free press—but legacy
of military takeovers; mass protests and unrest from 2006 onwards; conflict especially in far
south between Muslims and Buddhists
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E. International Dimensions of Southeast Asian Geopolitics: geopolitical conflicts in region are
complex, involving multiple countries; historically, most serious tensions emerge when two
countries claim same territory; more recently, Islamist groups have posed major challenges
1. Territorial Conflicts: countries long quarreled over boundaries, e.g. Philippines and
Malaysia; especially problematic is dispute over Spratly Islands in South China Sea—claimed
in part or whole by Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, Brunei, China, and Taiwan; relations
between ASEAN and China have become strained—although China remains close to
Cambodia and Laos; relations between China and Burma—once strong—have since become
strained; long-standing tension between China and Vietnam
2. ASEAN and Global Geopolitics: ASEAN reduced geopolitical tensions—formed initially as
alliance of nonsocialist countries; on friendly terms with the United States—but one function
is to prevent US from undue influence; ASEAN attempting to promote conversation and
negotiation in region; also to promote economic cooperation and development
3. Global Terrorism and International Relations: most worrisome is rise of radical Islamic
fundamentalism; prominent is Jemaah Islamiya—which seeks creation of single Islamic state
over much of region; by 2006 however influence and power of JI has decreased; considerable
wariness against the United States remains, as US actions viewed as anti-Islam
VI. Economic and Social Development: The Roller-Coaster Ride of Developing Economies: in 1980s
and early 1990s, much of region viewed as model for globalized capitalism; economic hardships since
1997; but expansion between 2002 and 2007, following by recession, followed by recovery
A. Uneven Economic Development: uneven economic and social development; some (Indonesia)
experience booms and busts; others (Burma, Laos, East Timor) remain impoverished; Singapore
and Brunei remain prosperous; complicated situation in Philippines
1. The Philippine Decline: sixty-years ago country was most highly developed in region; but
declined in part because of corruption and crony capitalism under dictator Ferdinand Marcos;
in 21st century, some signs of improvement—investments in infrastructure; some areas (e.g.
Cebu City) doing better; but economy still undermined by political and social problems;
overseas employment is economic mainstay
2. The Regional Hub: Singapore: transformed from entrepot port city to prosperous modern
state; thriving high-tech manufacturing center; Singapore government has played active role;
political system has nurtured economic development—but is somewhat repressive and not
democratic; new concerns over Internet and threat of individualism
3. Malaysia’s Solid Economy: experienced rapid economic growth in recent deacdes;
development initially agricultural and resource extraction—move to manufacturing and high-
tech; economic geography shows large regional variation—industrial development on
western side of peninsula, agriculture dominates elsewhere; ongoing problem between local
Chinese community and numerically dominant Malay (Bumiputra) community; government
policies of ‘affirmative action’ somewhat helpful—but remains political issue
4. Thailand’s Ups and Downs: economy experience cycles of booms and busts; initially
substantial Japanese investment; economic growth uneven—most industrial development
around Bangkok; Chao Phraya lowland generally well-off, as is Chiang Mai area; Khorat
Plateau is poorest region
5. Indonesia Economic Development: at independence, was one of poorest states; economy
improved with oil exports in 1970s—rapid growth into 1980s and 1990s; but continued ups
and downs; development is geographically uneven—northwest Java is booming, as is
Sumatra; far eastern islands experienced little economic or social development
6. Vietnam’s Uneven Progress: Vietnam’s economic relatively strong—but low by global
standards; conditions declined after collapse of Soviet Union—which was country’s main
supporter; in 1990s leaders began to embrace market economics—some areas have
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benefitted, but also resulted in social tension and lowland peasants and upland tribal groups
have been excluded
7. Rapid Growth in Impoverished Laos and Cambodia: both face serious economic
problems; in Cambodia, attempt to recover after decades of war and political instability; Laos
hindered by rugged terrain and isolation; both lack necessary infrastructure; both are largely
agrarian; Laos investing in dam- and road-building projects for trade; Cambodia has
experienced economic boom through foreign investment (textile sector) and tourism; both
have relatively low population densities and abundant resources
8. Burma’s Troubled Economy: near bottom of economic development—but tremendous
potential; economic woes tied to continual warfare and authoritarian government; in early
1990s country began to open up to foreign trade and market forces; mix results but continual
reforms
9. Hope for East Timor: poor and least developed country; ethnic unrest undermines economy;
offshore oil and natural gas deposits provide hope
B. Globalization and the Southeast Asian Economy: rapid but uneven integration into global
economy; debate as to roots of economic gains—whether cultural or applications of labor and
capital; globalized industrial production remains controversial—especially exploitative conditions
of multinational corporations
C. Issues of Social Development: several key indicators of social development correlate with
economic development; but some variation (e.g. Vietnam and Burma)
1. Education and Health: relatively high levels of social welfare except in Laos, Cambodia,
Burma, and East Timor; most governments in region place high priority on education; there is
an educational gap though
2. Gender Relations: historically, relatively high levels of gender equity; position of women
perhaps beginning to decline however as religious and philosophical beliefs diffuse into
region; region also site of some of world’s most intensive sexual exploitation
KEY TERMS
Animism (p. 621)
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (p. 602)
Bumiputra (p. 638)
Copra (p. 612)
Crony capitalism (p. 636)
Domino theory (p. 629)
Entrepot (p. 637)
Golden Triangle (p. 611)
Khmer Rouge (p. 629)
Lingua franca (p. 622)
Primate city (p. 615)
Ramayana (p. 618)
Shifted cultivators (p. 615)
Sunda Shelf (p. 604)
Swidden (p. 610
Transmigration (p. 614)
Tsunami (p. 604)
Typhoon (p. 604)
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Cityscapes
1. Why are most of the former colonial hill stations located in South and Southeast Asia? Hill stations were
developed by the former western colonial powers; these were small towns or cities where the colonial
officials could escape the heat and humidity of the lowlands.
2. What features of the Baguio region would have made it attractive to American colonial agents in the early
1900s? The location was high in elevation, thereby affording a milder, more pleasant climate; the location
also was a pine-clad mountainous area with scenic views.
People on the Move

1. How are the different levels of economic development in Thailand and Burma evident in the Mae
Sot/Myawaddy region? In Thailand there is considerably more economic growth and, hence, employment
opportunities. This has contributed to substantial migration—often of a temporary form—from Burma
into Thailand.
2. Why does the boundary between the two countries deviate from the course of the Moei River in several
places? A simple explanation is that the river itself has changed course of the decades; likewise, there was
not a one-to-one correspondence with the river when the boundary was established.
1. Why are the geometrical patterns so regular in the oil palm plantation areas? The patterns are regular to
facilitate the efficiency of the tapping of oil palms.
2. Why are there so few houses in the plantation areas? There are few houses because the plantation workers
are forced to live further away from the plantations. For the plantation owners, land is too valuable to be
set aside for residential purposes.

13.1 Why do the mainland and insular regions of Southeast Asia have such distinctive climates and landforms,
and how have these differences impacted the human communities of these two regions? The differences
in latitude partially accounts for climatic differences between the two sub-regions, as well as the general
topography of the two areas. Mainland Southeast Asia forms part of the much larger continent of Eurasia,
whereas insular Southeast Asia is composed of thousands of islands. Both are impacted by the monsoon,
and yet the landforms of insular Southeast Asia impart more localized climatic variations. The landforms
of insular Southeast Asia, likewise, have been formed largely through volcanic activity. The fluvial
systems are very different also, with mainland Southeast Asia characterized by longer rivers and often
wide river plains, whereas the rivers of insular Southeast Asia are considerably shorter and narrower.
Combined, the distinctive physical geography of the two regions has imparted different settlement
patterns and agricultural practices.
13.2 How have people changed the physical landscape of Southeast Asia over the past 50 years? The most
substantive change has been the widespread deforestation of tropical rainforests and hardwood forests.
Also important has been the damming of many of mainland Southeast Asia’s major rivers.
13.3 What factors make climate change a particularly worrying matter in Southeast Asia? Climate change is
particularly worrying because it might contribute to increased flooding; inundation of coastal settlements
because of sea-level rise; and changes in the monsoon, which may adversely affect agricultural practices.
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13.4 Why do different parts of Southeast Asia vary so much in regard to both population density and
population growth? The differences in population density are a reflection of settlement patterns and
physical geography. Population densities are highest in those fertile river valleys that are dominated by
rice cultivation. The rugged, mountainous terrains are characterized by lower-densities of population;
these areas are characterized by swidden agriculture—although recent population encroachments and
deforestation have significantly altered this practice. Population growth is in part affected by the age-
structure of the country and also by governmental policies that have either encouraged or discouraged
population growth.
13.5 Why is export-oriented plantation agriculture so widespread in Southeast Asia, and what are some of the
problems associated with its use? Historically, plantation agriculture is widespread following its
introduction by European colonial powers. Plantations—dominated by multinational corporations—
remain important because of the vast profits possible. Some of the problems include deforestation, land-
displacement, the decline of production for food-stuffs, and the instability of national economies
dominated by the export of these products.
13.6 Why are some economists and planners concerned about the phenomenon of urban primacy in Southeast
Asian countries such as Thailand and the Philippines? There are many negative consequences of urban
primacy, including the hyper-congestion of these cities—which may detract from foreign investment;
increased levels of air and water pollution; and the presence of numerous squatter settlements and
homeless populations. Many residents do not have adequate access to housing, water, or electricity.
13.7 What major world religions have spread into Southeast Asia over the past 2000 years, and in what parts of
the region did they become established? Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity all diffused into the
region. Hinduism was first, and initially influenced the establishment of several kingdoms throughout the
region (e.g. present-day Cambodia and Thailand). However, with the arrival of Buddhism, Hinduism was
largely displaced and remains only in small isolated pockets, such as on the island of Bali. Buddhism
remains dominant throughout much of mainland Southeast Asia. Beginning in the 1200s Islam began to
diffuse throughout, especially, insular Southeast Asia. It remains dominant in Indonesia, Malaysia,
Brunei, southern Thailand, and the southern Philippines. Christianity was introduced through the
activities of European colonialists and missionaries. The Philippines is the only predominantly Christian
(Catholic) nation in the region, along with East Timor (Protestant). Important clusters of Christianity are
found in Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.
13.8 How have different Southeast Asian countries reacted to the challenges of cultural globalization? Some
countries, such as the Philippines, have been very receptive to cultural globalization—especially to films,
fashion, and so forth from the United States. Other countries, particularly those experiencing an Islamic
revivalism (e.g. Malaysia and Indonesia) have been more resistant. Most countries, however, recognize
that an English-speaking ability is crucial to success within the global market.
13.9 How have such strongly multilingual countries as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Singapore dealt with the
challenges posed by the lack of a dominant language? Whereas these countries continue to promote
linguistic tolerance—allowing and indeed encouraging more local languages to be learned and widely
used—these countries have also supported the learning of English as a lingua franca.
13.10 How did European colonization influence the development of the modern countries of Southeast Asia,
and how did that process differ in the insular and mainland regions? The arrival of European colonialism
significantly altered the development of Southeast Asia. The modern political boundaries of most
Southeast Asian countries are a reflection of colonial processes; likewise, the economic structures were
introduced through both colonial and anti-colonial developments. A major distinction between mainland
and insular Southeast Asia is that neither Indonesia nor the Philippines were completely controlled by
western powers, thus leading to widespread ethnic tensions that are augmented by the fragmented nature
of these countries. Indeed, neither of these two countries were ‘united’ as a singular political entity prior
to colonialism.
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13.11 How did the emergence and spread of ASEAN reduce geopolitical tensions in Southeast Asia, and why
was the ASEAN process unable to resolve some conflicts in the region? ASEAN has provided a
stabilizing effect in the region, and serves as a forum for regional dialogue. It has been limited in its
effectiveness, however, when addressing key international conflicts, such as China’s encroachment in the
region and the establishment of radical Islamic networks.
13.12 Why has Burma suffered from so many ethnic conflicts over the past 50 years? To begin, there is
considerable ethnic diversity within Burma; many of these groups have long been oppressed by the ruling
Burmese (military) government. Some ethnic groups demand reforms and greater participation; others
demand complete autonomy from the ruling government.
13.13 Why have some Southeast Asian countries experienced sustained economic growth and social
development, whereas others have more generally experienced stagnation in the same period? Some
governments, including those of Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand, have been particularly forward
looking in their management of their economies; strategic investments have been made and support
provided. Other governments, especially the Philippines, Burma, and Cambodia, have been plagued by a
combination of dictators, military juntas, and corruption. Some, notably Burma, East Timor, Laos, and
Cambodia also have been adversely affected by decades of brutal armed conflict.
13.14 Why have the major Southeast Asian economic experienced such shared booms and busts over the past
several decades? The economic fluctuations experienced by the major Southeast Asian economies have
resulted from the specific ways in which their economies have been integrated into the global economy.
Those countries that rely heavily on the export of one or two primary goods (e.g. coffee, rubber) are very
much reliant on the rising or falling of prices of these commodities have fared relatively poorly; those
countries with more diversified economies have fared better.
13.15 Why does the position of women in Southeast Asia look favorable from some angles, but not from
others? On the one hand, women in Southeast Asia have had high participation in business and politics;
many women have assumed top political positions (e.g. president) over the years. Female literacy is also
relatively very high and is comparable to male literacy. On the other hand, sexual exploitation is
particularly rampant in the region; there is also an indication that religious extremism in some locations is
reducing women’s social position.
In Review Questions
13.1 Why is the Mekong River in Laos such a promising site for the generation of hydroelectricity? In
southern Laos especially the Mekong River is interrupted by a series of dramatic water falls; this area is
ideal for the generation of hydroelectricity.
13.2 Why is the burning and oxidation of peatlands a more serious problem in Southeast Asia than in any other
region of the world? The draining of swamplands has led to massive forest and peat fires, creating severe
air pollution. The scope of the problem is augmented by the sizeable population of the region.
13.3 What do the patterns in this image tell us about the development of the Jakarta metropolitan area? The
patterns indicate a massive urban area that is encroaching on its hinterlands.
13.4 Why has Jakarta grown so much more rapidly over the past several decades than other Indonesian cities?
Jakarta is a primate city; it receives considerable investment and acts as a magnate for rural-to-urban
migrants.
13.5 As Singapore is considered to be an English-speaking country, why is its government working hard to
teach its citizens proper spoken English. A prime consideration is that ‘proper spoken’ English is
considered an advantage to compete in the global market.
13.6 What geographical and historical factors have led Singapore to develop such a particular, and highly
valued, local form of the English language? Singapore was founded as an entrepot by British colonialists;
throughout the decades of British occupation and dominance, many different ethnic groups moved to the
city. English has long been taught as a lingua franca and it has incorporated many different words from
other languages (especially Chinese).
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13.7 Some of the signs carried by protestors in this rally demand that China stop ‘poaching’ in Philippine
waters. Why is concern about illegal fishing by other countries so pronounced in the Philippines? One
concern is that illegal fishing harms the Philippines’ economy. The other concern is that fishing activities
by China may be a pretext to lay claim to disputed islands in the South China Sea.
13.8 Why are the tiny Spratly Islands such a controversial issue in Southeast Asia? The main issue is that
whichever country possesses the Spratly Islands will lay claim to the territorial waters surrounding these
islands; such possession gives the relevant country access to potential natural resources and an
opportunity to control strategic sea-lanes.
13.9 What are some of the challenges involved in building natural gas and oil pipelines across Burma and into
China? There are physical challenges, including the topography of the region. Another major human
concern is the on-going ethnic tensions in Burma.
13.10 Why is China so keen to build natural gas and oil pipelines in Burma? On the one hand, Burma reportedly
has sizeable reserves of oil and natural gas; on the other hand, China is continuously searching for access
to oil and natural gas to satisfy its industrialization.

1. Compare and contrast the climates of mainland Southeast Asia and insular Southeast Asia. How are the
climates similar? How are they different? How has this affected the cultural practices of the two sub-
regions?
2. Consider the trade-off between deforestation and economic development. Discuss the economic value of
forestry products to the countries of Southeast Asia, and the strategies that these countries have
implemented to minimize forest destruction. Which policies have been successful? Which have not
worked? Who benefits from the policies?
3. Language can both be a centripetal and centrifugal force. Discuss how languages have both contributed to
the development of a sense of national unity as well as a source of tension.
EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the Cambodian genocide and events that have taken
place since the collapse of the Khmer Rouge. How has the country developed? What obstacles did the
country face in the immediate aftermath of the genocide? How did broader geopolitical forces influence
the post-genocide reconstruction of Cambodia?
2. Many people have raised concerns about the low wages, poor working conditions, and existence of child
labor that are often found in the factories of Southeast Asia—Nike’s experiences in Vietnam have been
well-documented. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the issues. What are some of the
more serious abuses? How prevalent do these seem to be? Which companies seem to be implicated in
these practices more frequently? Discuss how your understanding of the situation might affect what you
purchase in the future.
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Chapter 14: Australia and Oceania
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the geographic characteristics of the region known as Oceania
• Identify the major environmental issues problematic to Australia and Oceania, as well as the
pathways toward solving those problems
• Explain how the Pacific Rim of Fire is linked to the landforms of Oceania
• Describe the different sources of energy used in Australia and New Zealand and how this
influences the amount and kind of greenhouse gas emissions produced in each country
• Summarize the prehistoric peopling of the Pacific, as well as the colonial exploration and
settlement of Australia and Oceania
• Explain the changing migration patterns to and within postwar Australia and Oceania
• Describe the historical and modern interactions between native peoples and Anglo-European
migrants in Australia and Oceania
• Describe the different pathways to independence taken by countries in Oceania
• Summarize why and how Oceania has become a contested region between global superpowers
• Describe the diverse economic geographies of Oceania
• Explain the positive and negative interactions of Australia and Oceania with the global economy
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction: this region includes Australia and New Zealand, as well as Oceania—a collection of
islands that are divided into three sub-regions: Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia; Australia
dominates the region, both in size and political/economic position
II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Varied Landscapes and Habitats: Australia
made up of semiarid interior (the Outback), fringed by tropical environments in north, and
Mediterranean climates in east, west, and south; New Zealand composed of two islands; Oceania is
island realm consisting of high, volcanic-created islands and low-lying coral atolls
A. Topography of Australia and New Zealand: three major regions dominate Australia’s physical
geography: Western Plateau occupies more than half of continent; Interior Lowland Basins to the
east, including the Murray and Darling rivers—Australia’s largest river system; and off eastern
coast of Queensland is Great Barrier Reef; New Zealand owes geologic origin to volcanic
mountain building: North Island and even higer and more rugged South Island
B. Australia and New Zealand’s Climate: zones of higher precipitation encircle Australia’s arid
center; precipitation dimensions from east to west; Mediterranean climate in west and
southwest—dominated by mallee vegetation; climates in New Zealand influenced by latitude,
moderating effects of Pacific Ocean, and proximity to mountain ranges; much of North Island is
sub-tropical; southern edge of South Island borders considerably colder—bordering on Antarctic
C. Oceania’s Diverse Environments: tremendous variation in landforms and climate
1. Island Landforms: much of Melanesia and Polynesia part of seismically active Pacific Rim
of Fire—volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis are common
2. High and Low Islands: much of Oceania’s islands created by two distinct processes: either
volcanic eruptions or coral reef-building; those of volcanic origin are known as high
islands—may have substantial elevation; low islands are formed from coral reefs, hence
lower and flatter; often begin as barrier reefs around or over sunken volcanic islands; low
islands are most vulnerable to rising sea levels associated with climate change
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3. Island Climates: high islands usually receive abundant precipitation because of orographic
effect; these have dense tropical forests and vegetation; low islands receive less precipitation
and water shortages are common
D. Australia’s Unique Plants and Animals: because of long geologic history of separation and
isolation, bioregion contains unique array of flora and fauna; best known are marsupials—
mammals that raise young in a pouch—70 percent of world’s known marsupials are found here;
also known for venomous animals
1. Exotic Species: introduction of non-native (exotic) plants and animals has caused problems
for endemic (native) species; widespread problem in Australia and Oceania; in many parts,
non-native species are rapidly expanding with devastating results
E. Complex Environmental Issues: globalization has taken environmental toll on region; natural
resources have been opened to development, causing environmental degradation; major mining
operations especially destructive; deforestation another environmental threat both in Australia and
high islands of Oceania
F. Climate Change in Oceania: problems are widespread; New Zealand mountain glaciers are
melting; Australia suffers from frequent droughts and wildfires; warmer ocean waters damaging
Great Barrier Reef; rising sea levels threaten low-lying island nations
1. Power Generation and Emissions in Australia and New Zealand: Australia generates
most GHG emissions in region—mostly because 80 percent of electricity generated from
fossil fuels (coal); most of New Zealand’s energy derived from hydroelectric power;
emissions are produced from livestock (methane)
2. Power and Emissions in Oceania: difference between low and high islands—high islands
generate hydroelectric power; low islands used imported oil and coal
3. Emission Reduction Plans and Action: until 2007 Australia had not ratified Kyoto
Protocol; has made attempts to reduce emissions; New Zealand in support—but booming
economy resulted in increased emissions; many Pacific nations already experiencing
problems—have banded together to lobby for global solutions
III. Population and Settlement: Migration, Cities, and Empty Spaces: present-day patterns reflect
indigenous and European settlement; currently, migration is chaing human geography of region
A. Contemporary Population Patterns: modern Australia has one of most urbanized populations
in world—most are concentrated along the eastern and southern coasts; population densities
decline as one moves toward the interior of Australia; Aboriginal populations are widely but
thinly scattered inland across Western Australia, South Australia, and in the Northern Territory;
in New Zealand, more than 70 percent of people live on the North Island; settlement on the South
Island is concentrated in the drier lowlands and the coastal districts east of the mountains; in
Papua New Guinea, most people live in the isolated interior highlands
B. Historical Geography: region’s remoteness meant much of Oceania was beyond dominant
migratory paths; settlement increased after European exploration
1. Peopling the Pacific: the islands of New Guinea and Australia were settled prior to the more
distant lands of the Pacific; approximately 60,000 years ago peoples from Southeast Asia—
descendants of today’s Aborigines—began to arrive; gradually eastern Melanesia,
Micronesia, and Polynesia were settled
2. European Colonization: Europeans arrived in the 17th century; settlement began in earnest
in the 18th century; Australia was established as ‘penal colony’ for Britain, with settlements
established along eastern coast; later, other English settlers came to Australia; the Europeans
often brutally displaced the Aborigines; New Zealand attracted British settlers, especially
European whalers and sealers; in New Zealand, the British arrivals came in contact with the
indigenous Maori, who were eventually displaced of their lands; the native Hawaiians also
lost control of their territory to European settlers, and was later claimed by the United States
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C. Settlement Landscapes: mixture of local and global influences; contemporary landscape still
reflects imprint of indigenous where native populations remain numerically dominant; elsewhere,
shaped mostly by Europeans
1. The Urban Transformation: both Australia and New Zealand highly urbanized; influenced
by European models and later North America; urban landscapes in less developed cities, such
as port Moresby, very different; rapid growth common in smaller cities of Oceania—many
experiencing classic problems of urban underdevelopment
2. Rural Australia and New Zealand: complex mosaic of cultural and economic influences;
some areas still reflect indigenous practices; other areas dominated by sheep and cattle
ranching; viticulture dominates in some areas (e.g. Australia’s Barossa Valley); New Zealand
reflects also diversity of agricultural activities—commercial livestock very important
3. Rural Oceania: high islands exhibit diverse agriculture; low islands dominated by fishing;
shifting cultivation in New Guinea; plantations in Fiji, Hawaii, the Solomon Islands and
Vanuatu
D. Diverse Demographic Paths: low birth rates in Australia and New Zealand; high population
growth rates in much of Oceania; some island nations experiencing high out-migration (e.g.
Tonga and Samoa); Australia and New Zealand remain attractive to migants
1. Too Many People or Not Enough? Debate exists as to whether Australia has too many
people, or too few; some groups and politicians demand restrictions on immigration; others
are concerned that birthrates are too low and enlarged population growth is needed for the
national economy—larger market, larger labor force, and broader base of taxpayers
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Global Crossroads: region offers excellent examples of how
culture is transformed through migration and interaction; recently, processes of globalization have
redefined the region’s cultural geography
A. Multicultural Australia: although dominated by colonial European roots, multicultural character
is increasingly visible
1. Aboriginal Imprints: for thousands of years, Aborigines dominated cultural geography of
continent; typified by hunting-and-gathering society; changes came with arrival of
Europeans—decimated population numbers, land displacement and relocation; today
Aboriginal culture perseveres, with native people’s movement growing; several languages
remain strong and cultural leaders are preserving some religious and spiritual practices; future
remains unclear with pressure for cultural assimilation
2. A Land of Immigrants: historically dominated by European migration; also Pacific Island
laborers, known as kanakas were imported; throughout 20th century a ‘White Australia
Policy’ was in place; more recently, numerous immigrants from Asia—especially China,
India, Malaysia, the Philippines; new ethnic mix causing political and economic tensions
B. Cultural Patterns in New Zealand: broadly reflects patterns seen in Australia; native Maori
people more numerically important and culturally visible in New Zealand; cultural identity
among Anglo-Europeans increasingly separated from British roots; popular culture ties more
closely connected to Australia, the United States, and continental Europe
C. The Mosaic of Pacific Cultures: native and colonial influences produce complex cultural
geography; in more isolated places, indigenous cultures remain strongest
1. Language Geography: most native languages belong to Austronesian language family;
Melanesia’s language geography very complex and incompletely understood by experts; in
Papua New Guinea, more than 1,000 languages identified; many island communities exhibit
forms of Pidgin English, where a largely English vocabulary is reworked and blended with
indigenous grammar
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2. Village Life: traditional patterns of social life are complex; life often revolves around
village—many of which are quite small; communal gathering and growing of food, annual
rituals and festivals are highly important; violent warfare was common in the past—despite
stereotypes of communities as idyllic and peaceful
D. Gender Geographies
1. Gender in Australia and New Zealand: both countries early supporters of female suffrage;
but both countries, despite having women as nation’s political leaders, exhibit considerable
gender gaps
2. Colonial Influences on Maori Gender Roles: prior to European colonization, Maori men
and women were equal in social status and power; English colonists enacted legislation to
deprive Maori women of their status; contemporary gender roles now reflect colonial notions
of male dominance
3. Gender in Aboriginal Society: traditional societies had clear gender roles; societies and
geographies are highly gendered
E. Sports in Oceania: colonial influences left mark on sports—cricket, soccer, and rugby; both
Australia and New Zealand world powers in water sports (e.g. sailing, surfing, wind surfing)
1. Pacific Islanders and American Football: in recent years, men from Pacific Islands have
looked to American football for better economic future; a US-Pacific Island pipeline has
emerged for college football
F. Interactions with the Larger World: traditional culture persists in islands—but tremendous
cultural transformations have occurred; Pidgin English is replaced native languages; new
religions, including Hinduism, are diffusing; cultural make-up is transforming—especially
notable in Hawaii, Guam, and Fiji
V. Geopolitical Framework: A Region of Dynamic Polities: geopolitics reflects complex interplay of
local, colonial-era, and global-scale forces; the Marshall Islands, for example, were occupied by the
Japanese during the Second World War, formed into a UN trust, experienced demands for local self-
government, and benefits from continued United States aid
A. Roads to Independence: region’s political boundaries are recent and fluid; oldest independent
states are Australia and New Zealand, both created in the 20th century; elsewhere, political ties
between former colony and ‘mother’ country are closer and somewhat enduring; many newly
independent Pacific microstates retain special political and economic ties to former colonial
power; both Australia and New Zealand continue to struggle for forge own political identities;
from 1940s onwards, many colonized islands began to receive independence or greater
autonomy; some colonial powers are less inclined to give up oceanic possessions—France retains
its possession of French Polynesia and New Caledonia in Melanesia
B. Land and Native Rights Issues: past colonial practices set scene for legal, social, and ethnic
struggles that continue today
1. Aboriginal and Maori Rights in Australia and New Zealand: indigenous peoples in both
Australia and New Zealand have used political process to gain more control over land and
resources; strategies parallel those adopted by Native Americans in the United States; in
recent years, Australia has established several Aboriginal reserves and mare further
concessions with the Native Title Bill—this compensated Aborigines for lands already given
up and gave them the right to gain title to unclaimed lands they still occupied; efforts to
expand Aboriginal land rights have been contested, though; similar processes and conflicts
exist in New Zealand
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2. Native Rights in Hawaii: native Hawaiians have issues with their government concerning
human rights, access to ancestral land, and the political standing of native peoples; native
Hawaiians refer to themselves as Kanaka maoli; they lived in an independent and sovereign
state that was recognized by major foreign powers until the islands were annexed by the
United States in 1898; legality of that annexation is still contested today and underlies native
Hawaiian demands for return of their historical sovereignty; many Hawaiian nationalists
today support a return to Polynesian sovereignty; this is resisted by private and corporate
landowners in Hawaii; US Congress is contemplating Native Hawaiian Government
Reorganization Act—this would give native Hawaiians legal standing similar to that of
Native Americans
C. The Strategic Pacific: Oceania viewed as strategic global region; numerous countries expanding
their influence—as reflected in dollar diplomacy, the establishment of military bases, to
exploiting mineral and timber resources; key players include Japan, South Korea, Taiwan,
Indonesia, China, Russia, and the United States
1. Tensions Between Taiwan and China: both countries vie for influence in region; some
island countries receive aid from China for support at United Nations; Taiwan likewise
attempts to gain political alliances through aid; both have enetered into trade agreements
2. America’s Asia Pivot: in part because of China, the United States is increasing diplomatic
and military presence in the South Pacific; Asia Pivot refers to shift in American foreign
policy away from Iraq and Afghanistan and toward the Asia-Pacific; entails establishment of
numerous small military bases (lily-pad outposts); this has been controversial throughout the
region
3. Continuing Influence of New Zealand and Australia: these countries continue to influence
Pacific Islands; Australia maintains close ties to former colony of Papua New Guinea, New
Zealand over various islands in Polynesia; Australia’s main trading partner is China—but
continues close political ties with the United States; this perhaps offers a middle path so that
Pacific Islands don’t have to choose between China or the US
VI. Economic and Social Development: Increasing Ties to Asia: region exhibits economic situations of
wealth and poverty; economic future of Pacific realm is uncertain because of peripheral position in
global economy and diminishing resource base
A. The Australian and New Zealand Economies: much of Australia’s wealth was built on cheap
extraction and export of raw materials; export-oriented agriculture historically important; mining
is increasing because of trade with China; expanding tourism is helping to diversify economy;
New Zealand relatively wealthy—relies heavily on export of agricultural products (wool and
butter); problems developed with Great Britain and recession ensued; drastic reforms
implemented and country transformed into strongly market-oriented country
B. Oceania’s Economic Diversity: varied economic activities; in many places, oriented around
subsistence-based economics (shifting cultivation or fishing); commercial extractive economies
elsewhere; global tourism also for many island nations; Melanesia is least developed and poorest
region
1. The Economic Impact of Mining: mining economies dominate New Caldedonia and
Nauru—both blessing and curse; provides revenues into islands, but price fluctuations
hamper economic planning
2. The South Pacific Tuna Fishery: world’s largest tuna fishery; resource contributes
significantly to local island economies; the political regulation of industry is complicated by
international law, especially with regards to sovereignty issues associated with the Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ), where within this zone, a country has economic control over all
resources—including fisheries; the South Pacific tuna fishery is composed of a complicated
patchwork of intersecting EEZs with different fishing regulations and fees
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3. Micronesian and Polynesian Economies: economic conditions depend on both local
subsistence economies and economic linkages to the wider world beyond; many archipelagos
export a few food products; some enjoy large subsidies from previous or present colonial
power; some have been completed transformed by tourism, including Hawaii, French
Polynesia, and Guam
C. Oceania in Global Context: many international trade flows link the area; Australia and New
Zealand dominate global trade patterns in region; to promote economic integration, Australia and
New Zealand signed Closer Economic Relations (CER) Agreement in 1982; smaller nations of
Oceania also benefit from proximity to Australia and New Zealand
D. Continuing Social Challenges: Australians and New Zealanders enjoy high levels of social
welfare, but face challenges; life expectancies have increased—but cancer and heart disease
increase; skin cancer especially problematic in Australia; social conditions of Aborigines and
Maoris less favorable—education levels are lower; discrimination continues; homeownership is
low; in Hawaii, social welfare of native people is problematic—poverty is more pronounced,
exhibit lower life expectancy and higher infant mortality; throughout Oceania, levels of social
welfare higher than economic levels would suggest—many islands have invested heavily in
health and education
KEY TERMS
Aborigine (p. 665)
Atoll (p. 655)
Austronesian (p. 673)
Closer Economic Relations (CER) Agreement (p. 690)
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (p. 689)
Haole (p. 678)
High island (p. 655)
Kanaka (p. 672)
Low island (p. 655)
Mallee (p. 653)
Maori (p. 673)
Marsupial (p. 656)
Melanesia (p. 652)
Micronesia (p. 652)
Microstate (p. 679)
Native Title Bill (p. 682)
Oceania (p. 650)
Outback (p. 652)
Pidgin English (p. 674)
Polynesia (p. 651)
Uncontacted people (p. 673)
Viticulture (p. 668)
White Australia Policy (p. 672)
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1. Which island (or parts of an island) do you think are most vulnerable to flooding from rising sea levels?
Why? Low islands with very little topographic relief are most vulnerable; also susceptible are those in
locations vulnerable to high fluctuations in tidal ranges.
2. What areas of the United States face similar problems from sea-level rise as Oceania? Low-lying coastal
areas, including those along the Gulf of Mexico and Florida are especially vulnerable.
Cityscapes
1. What are some of Perth’s boomtown characteristics manifested in the landscape seen during your Google
Earth tour? Suburbs are sprawling north and south of down town, along a narrow coastal strip.
2. Are there FIFO workers in any part of North America? Where, and why? FIFO refers to ‘fly in, fly out’
workers; these are workers who work in one location but live often very far away and thus need to fly to
and from work. FIFO workers exist in North America, often associated with mining and other extractive
industries.
People on the Move

1. Because a key element in Australia’s amnesty policy is whether or not refugees were ‘persecuted’ in their
homeland, make a list of the reasons Australian refugees might have been persecuted in these different
countries—Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Iran. For all four of these countries the two main
reasons include political and religious persecution.
2. What other countries and regions of the world that you’ve read about in this book are magnets for
refugees and what sort of amnesty policies do they have? There are various locations, including for
example the United States, Germany, and France. Resettlement is possible although political winds often
dictate the amount and level of support. Also, Syrian refugees have fled to neighboring states; here,
however, reception countries are less receptive to permit incorporation.

14.1 Why does Australia have such unusual fauna? Give examples. Australia has unusual fauna because of its
long geologic history of separation and isolation from other landmasses. Best known examples include
marsupials—mammals that raise their young in a pouch (e.g., kangaroo, koala, and wombat).
14.2 What is the major source of GHG emissions in New Zealand, and what steps are being taken to reduce
these emissions? A major component is methane emission from the country’s large livestock population.
Accordingly, the country is discussing a ‘flatulence tax’ which would be levied on livestock operations;
farmers are also experimenting with grass and grain fodder mixtures for sheep that might reduce their
emissions.
14.3 Describe the different climate regions round in Australia and New Zealand. What factors produce those
regions? Australia’s interior is hot and dry; precipitation is heaviest and temperatures more mild along the
eastern and southern coasts; precipitation decreases and temperatures rise from east to west. These
patterns are the result of Australia’s size and latitudinal extent. New Zealand’s climate is influenced by its
latitude, the moderating effects of the Pacific Ocean, and proximity to local mountains or mountain
ranges. Most of the North Island is sub-tropical; the South Island is generally colder.
14.4 How are high and low islands formed? High islands are formed from volcanic activity; low islands are
formed from coral reefs; these begin as barrier reefs around or over sunken volcanic high islands,
resulting in an atoll.
14.5 Compare the populations of Australia and New Zealand as to size, density, and level of urbanization.
Both are relatively sparsely settled; in Australia the majority of inhabitants are concentrated—thus
exhibiting higher densities—along the eastern and southern coasts. In New Zealand the majority of
inhabitants are located on the North Island. Both countries are highly urbanized.
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14.6 Describe the prehistoric peopling of the Pacific. Approximately 60,000 years ago Austronesia-speaking
peoples from Southeast Asia traveled by long-boat to the islands of the Pacific. Initially those islands
forming Melanesia were settled, followed by Micronesia, and lastly, Polynesia.
14.7 Is Australia over- or under-populated? What are the arguments for each point of view? There is no simple
answer. Those who argue that it is over-populated point to the country’s ecosystem and concentration of
peoples in the urban areas; those who argue that it is under-populated point to the need for expanding
markets, labor force, and tax-base.
14.8 Compare the situations of the Australian Aborigines and the New Zealand Maori. Both groups were
adversely affected by European colonization; both saw their populations decline through brutal and
murderous policies; both were displaced and relocated from traditional homelands and ways of life; and
both continue to exhibit relatively poor standards of living compared to their European counterparts. Both
groups, however, have also attempted to reclaim their civil and political rights, including access to and
control over traditional lands.
14.9 Summarize the language geography of Oceania in terms of both native and colonial languages. Most of
the languages of Oceania belong to the Austronesian language family; within this broad language family,
the Malayo-Polynesian subfamily includes most of the related languages of Micronesia and Polynesia;
Melanesia’s language geography is more complex; some experts have forwarded the argument that a
distinctive ‘Papuan family’ exists in the region. The colonial imprint is based on the specific European
colonial power that occupied any given island or grouping of islands; throughout much of Polynesia for
example French is spoken, whereas in the Solomon Islands English is found.
14.10 How and why have Maori gender roles changed since European colonization? Prior to European
colonization, Maori women and men were equal in social status and power; however English colonial
society was troubled by this gender-neutral native society and enacted legislation to deprive Maori
women of their status. As a result, gender roles in contemporary Maori society now reflect earlier colonial
notions of male dominance. Likewise, European missionaries contributed to the patriarchal remaking of
Maori culture.
14.11 Describe Hawaiian cultural changes over the last century. Hawaii went from a sovereign territory to a
possession (and later state) of the United States. American immigration and labor policies contributed to
the in-migration of many different ethnic groups, including people from China, Japan, Korea, and the
Philippines. The cultural geography of Hawaii reflects this ethnic diversity, as seen in music, food, and
dance.
14.12 Describe the colonial history of the Pacific islands and contrast it to that of Australia and New Zealand. In
both Australia and New Zealand the European settlers displaced the indigenous peoples and become
politically and economically dominant. Throughout the Pacific islands the indigenous peoples remained
numerically dominant, but their ways of life—politics, economics, culture—were heavily influenced by
the European colonialists.
14.13 What are the arguments for and against sovereignty for native Hawaiians? The argument for sovereignty
rests on the fact that the United States illegally annexed the archipelago. The argument against
sovereignty rests on the observation that many private individuals and corporations would lose their lands
if these were to return to native control.
14.14 Describe why and how China and Taiwan are causing geopolitical tensions in Oceania. Taiwan has long
invested in Oceania, in part to receive support for its own geopolitical standing in the international
community. Recently China has extended its influence into the region, in part to capitalize on the
presence of natural resources and to counter-balance the influence of Taiwan. Both Australia and New
Zealand have acted as dominant outside political parties in the region and it is unclear as to how these
countries will respond to China’s recent influence.
14.15 Explain the Asia Pivot. The term ‘Asia Pivot’ is commonly used to describe the shift in America’s foreign
and military policy away from Iraq and Afghanistan and toward the Asia-Pacific World; it includes the
establishment of numerous small military bases scattered around the Pacific (commonly called ‘lily-pad’
145

outposts); examples include the US bases in Australia’s Cocos Islands, American Samoa, Tinian Island,
the Marshall Islands, and the Marianas.
14.16 Explain what an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is and why it is important to Pacific island economies.
An EEZ is a maritime area that is to be exclusively regulated and managed by a single sovereign state; the
zone has a geographic reach extended from the country’s coastline. Owing to the fragmented nature of
much of the Pacific region, it is commonplace for these zones to overlap, thereby causing problems of
oversight. This political geography is important for the management of natural resources, especially of
tuna.
14.17 What is the Closer Economic Relations (CER) Agreement? Why is it important to understand the
economics of Oceania? The CER was signed by Australia and New Zealand in 1982 in an attempt to
promote more economic integration within the region. It is important because it opened new markets and
facilitated corporate and financial interests to expand their scope of operations.
14.18 What are the major social development challenges in Oceania? The most pressing social challenges are
found among the indigenous peoples of Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. These peoples are generally
less healthy, less educated, and often have little in the way of political and civil rights.
14.19 How has Australia’s foreign trade changed over the last 20 years in terms of its trading partners and the
goods being exported and imported? In recent years Australia’s pattern of foreign trade has shifted from
the United Kingdom and other European states to China, Japan, and the United States. Australia now
imports many manufactured goods from these partners; it continues to export agricultural products and,
increasingly, has been exporting iron and coal to China.
In Review Questions
14.1 Imagine a line from Darwin in the north through Alice Springs to Sydney in the southeast; then, drawing
upon the climographs for these three places, describe in a narrative essay the different climates found
along this transect in terms of rainfall, temperatures, and seasonality. In general, climates transition from
Tropical wet/dry, through subtropical desert, to Marine west coast. In Darwin temperatures are
consistently high, averaging around 90 degrees Fahrenheit; precipitation is seasonal, with relatively high
amounts between November and April; very little precipitation is recorded between May and September.
At Alice Springs there is seasonality to temperatures, with very high temperatures recorded between
November and February; temperatures are decidedly cooler during June through August. There is
virtually no rain throughout the year. In Sydney, temperatures are cooler than the other two locations;
temperatures are coolest between June and August. Precipitation is relatively constant (about four inches
per month) throughout the year although there is a slightly higher amount falling between March and
July.
14.2 Given the different climates you’ve discussed, describe the different agricultural activities you might
expect to find along this north-south transect. Tropical wet-dry cultivation would be expected in the north;
rain-fed and irrigation-fed rice for example should do well. Little to no agriculture would be found around
Alice Springs; and the area surrounding Sydney is dominated by viticulture and ranching.
14.3 Make a list of what Polynesian sailors would have to take along their voyage to set up new settlements on
distant lands. Answers will vary; students should consider tools used for cutting and chopping (e.g. some
type of sharp tool); weapons; baskets and jars to collect and store food and water; food and water; and
perhaps even spiritual talismans.
14.4 Today, because of sea-level rise from global warming, many low island people see an unsustainable
future and are discussing migrating to Australia. But some Australian groups maintain their land is
already overpopulated. Is it? Evaluate and discuss the arguments put forth that Australia is either over- or
underpopulated. Answers will vary. Those who argue that it is over-populated point to the country’s
ecosystem and concentration of peoples in the urban areas; those who argue that it is under-populated
point to the need for expanding markets, labor force, and tax-base. More specific policies to be addressed
include employment, housing, and education.
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14.5 These tourists are watching Native Hawaiians roast a pig in the traditional manner. What other aspects of
Polynesian culture have become tourist attractions in Hawaii? What about in New Zealand? In both
locations, traditional cultural forms of dance and music are especially popular tourist attractions. So too
are other traditional crafts and related activities, such as boat racing and indigenous practices of fishing.
14.6 In a group of three, have one person each represent the issues facing Australian Aborigines, New Zealand
Maoris, and native Hawaiians in their different countries. Then, as a group, compare the similarities and
differences. Predict where each native group might be in 10 years. Answers will vary. However, students
should focus on legacies of extermination, land displacement, racism and discrimination, and on-going
prejudices. Differences may be apparent in on-going legal issues related to land-rights as well as
economic and social conditions. Predictions for 10 years later will be related to demographic changes and
the potential outcome of legal battles.
14.7 This is a Google Earth image of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which includes the huge U.S. naval base that is the
headquarters for the Pacific fleet. Drawing upon what you’ve learned about tropical island environments
in this chapter, make a list of how this coastal environment has been changed since 1900. Answers will
vary but students should focus on physical changes brought about by the construction of port facilities;
land reclamation projects; alterations to local drainage systems; and the damaging effects of pollution.
14.8 Working with several other students, each of whom will represent a specific country in Oceania
(including Australia), discuss the geopolitical and economic ties between that country and China. How
might these change in the next five years? Answers will vary. Students should consider the amount of
money invested by China; the type of and reason for investment; and how this investment counter-
balances the investment decisions of other competing countries.
14.9 Make a list of the economic and social advantages and liabilities for an island community of a large
tourist resort such as the one pictured in Fiji (or Samoa). Answers will vary. Advantages include the
possibility of increased revenues from tourism itself, as well as infrastructure development, including the
possible creation of employment opportunities. Liabilities include the observation that employment
opportunities may not materialize; increased revenues may not filter down to the local community; land
displacement may occur; and increased water pollution may result.
14.10 You are part of a team responsible for creating a comprehensive economic and social development plan
for a small South Pacific island. Choose a specific island, learn its needs and resources, define your goals,
and describe a plan for achieving them within five years. Answers will vary. Students should, however,
make use of official websites for their respective land, along with websites from other international
organizations (e.g. the United Nations). Students should focus especially on issues of agricultural change;
health and education; global tourism; and quality-of-life indicators.

1. People have changed the flora and fauna of Australia and Oceania dramatically. How would these
environments be different if these changes had not occurred? Compare and contrast these changes to
those that occurred as a result of ‘The Columbian Exposition’ in the Americans after the arrival of the
Europeans.
2. Compare and contrast the position of Aborigines and Maoris in Australia and New Zealand with the
position of Native Americans in the United States. How are their positions similar? How are they
different?
147

EXERCISE/ACTIVITY
1. In the middle of the 1900s, Australia had a policy of taking ‘biracial’ children (children of Aboriginal and
European parents) from their mothers and placing them with white European families. The objective of
this activity was to encourage these children to grow up fully integrated into white society, and eventually
to marry a white person, thus ‘whitening’ Australian society. This policy is no longer in place. Do library
research to learn more about this practice and its consequences.
2. Many Pacific islands—notably Guam—have been threatened by invasive species, such as the Brown
Snake. Do library and Internet research to learn more about the particular problems posed to island
ecosystems through species invasion. How have these invasive flora and fauna entered the local
ecosystems? What are the consequences?
148

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What are the main components of globalization discussed in the text?

What are the main components of globalization discussed in the text?

What are some of the impacts of globalization mentioned in the text?

What are some of the impacts of globalization mentioned in the text?

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCE MANUAL

Diversity Amid Globalization

Rowntree • Lewis • Price • Wyckoff

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ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 1’S QUESTIONS

Exploring Global Connections

Working Toward Sustainability

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The Human Habitat

Section Review Questions

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End of Chapter Questions

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Adiabatic lapse rate (p. 60)

ANSWERS TO CHAPTER 2’S QUESTIONS

Exploring Global Connections

Working Toward Sustainability

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Section Review Questions

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FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION

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Acid rain (p. 91)

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Working Toward Sustainability

Exploring Global Connections

Section Review Questions

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FOR THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION

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