Grzimek's SALR - Mammals

grzimek’s
Student Animal Life Resource

••••
grzimek’s
••••
Mammals
volume 1
Echidnas to Armadillos
grzimek’s
••••
Mammals
volume 2
Hedgehogs to Bats
grzimek’s
••••
Mammals
volume 3
Primates to True Seals
grzimek’s
••••
Mammals
volume 4
Dolphins to Antelopes
grzimek’s
••••
Mammals
volume 5
Pangolins to Sengis
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource
Mammals
Project Editor Rights and Acquisitions Composition

Melissa C. McDade Sheila Spencer, Mari Masalin-Cooper Evi Seoud, Mary Beth Trimper
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Elizabeth Manar, Heather Price Newell, Chris O’Bryan, Robyn Young
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Grzimek’s student animal life resource. Mammals / Melissa C. McDade, project

editor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7876-9183-6 (set hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-9184-4
(volume 1) — ISBN 0-7876-9185-2 (volume 2) — ISBN 0-7876-9187-9 (volume 3)
— ISBN 0-7876-9188-7 (volume 4) — ISBN 0-7876-9234-4 (volume 5)
1. Mammals—Juvenile literature. I. Grzimek, Bernhard. II. McDade, Melissa C.
QL703.G79 2005
599—dc22 2004015604
ISBN 0-7876-9402-9 (21-vol set), ISBN 0-7876-9183-6 (Mammals set),

ISBN 0-7876-9184-4 (v.1), ISBN 0-7876-9185-2 (v.2), ISBN 0-7876-9187-9 (v.3),
ISBN 0-7876-9188-7 (v.4), ISBN 0-7876-9234-4 (v.5)
This title is also available as an e-book

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Contents
MAMMALS: VOLUME 1
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Getting to Know Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxix
Monotremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Echidnas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Duck-billed platypus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
New World opossums

New World opossums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Shrew opossums
Shrew opossums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Monito del monte

Monito del monte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Australasian carnivorous marsupials . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Marsupial mice and cats, Tasmanian devil . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Numbat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Tasmanian wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Bandicoots and bilbies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Bandicoots and bilbies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Spiny bandicoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Marsupial moles
Marsupial moles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Contents v
Koala, wombats, possums, wallabies,
and kangaroos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .99
Koala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .105
Wombats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .111
Possums and cuscuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .116
Musky rat-kangaroo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .124
Rat-kangaroos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .129
Wallabies and kangaroos . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .135
Pygmy possums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .149
Ringtail and greater gliding possums . . . . ....... . . . .154
Gliding and striped possums . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .161
Honey possum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .167
Feather-tailed possums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . .172
Sloths, anteaters, and armadillos . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

West Indian sloths and two-toed tree sloths . . . . . . . . . .183
Three-toed tree sloths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Anteaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Armadillos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Species List by Biome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lvii
Species List by Geographic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxiii
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
MAMMALS: VOLUME 2
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Insectivores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .213

Gymnures and hedgehogs . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .218
Golden moles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .226
Tenrecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .232
Solenodons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .240
Shrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .246
Moles, shrew moles, and desmans . . . . . ....... . . . . .255
Tree shrews
Tree shrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
Colugos
Colugos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
Old World fruit bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
vi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Mouse-tailed bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Sac-winged bats, sheath-tailed bats,
and ghost bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Kitti’s hog-nosed bat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
Slit-faced bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
False vampire bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
Horseshoe bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
Old World leaf-nosed bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
American leaf-nosed bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
Moustached bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Bulldog bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
New Zealand short-tailed bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Funnel-eared bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
Smoky bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Disk-winged bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
Old World sucker-footed bat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
Free-tailed bats and mastiff bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
Vespertilionid bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
MAMMALS: VOLUME 3
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Primates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
Lorises and pottos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
Bushbabies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
Dwarf lemurs and mouse lemurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444
Lemurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
Avahis, sifakas, and indris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
Sportive lemurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
Aye-aye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .475
Tarsiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .480
Squirrel monkeys and capuchins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
Marmosets, tamarins, and Goeldi’s monkey . . . . . . . . . . .496
Night monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
Sakis, titis, and uakaris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
Howler monkeys and spider monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
Old World monkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
Gibbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
Great apes and humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
Contents vii
Land and marine carnivores . . . . . . . ...... . . . .578
Dogs, wolves, coyotes, jackals, and foxes ....... . . . . .583
Bears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .593
Raccoons and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .605
Weasels, badgers, skunks, and otters . . . ....... . . . . .614
Civets, genets, and linsangs . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .628
Mongooses and fossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .637
Aardwolf and hyenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .649
Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .657
Eared seals, fur seals, and sea lions . . . . ....... . . . . .673
Walrus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .684
True seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . .690
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
MAMMALS: VOLUME 4
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Whales, dolphins, and porpoises .... ...... . . . .703

Ganges and Indus dolphin . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .709
Baiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .714
Franciscana dolphin . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .719
Boto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .724
Porpoises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .729
Dolphins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .737
Beaked whales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .749
Sperm whales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .758
Beluga and narwhal . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .767
Gray whale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .777
Pygmy right whale . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .783
Right whales and bowhead whales . .... ....... . . . . .787
Rorquals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ....... . . . . .795
Aardvark
Aardvark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804
Elephants
Elephants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .808
Hyraxes
Hyraxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .820
viii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Dugong, sea cow, and manatees . . . . . . . . . . . . . .828
Dugong and sea cow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .833
Manatees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .841
Odd-toed ungulates . . . . . . ....... ...... . . . .848

Horses, zebras, and asses . . . . ........ ....... . . . . .854
Tapirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ....... . . . . .865
Rhinoceroses . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ....... . . . . .874
Even-toed ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887

Pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .892
Peccaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .902
Hippopotamuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .907
Camels, guanacos, llamas, alpacas, and vicuñas . . . . . . . .916
Chevrotains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .933
Okapis and giraffes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .954
Pronghorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .963
Antelopes, cattle, bison, buffaloes, goats, and sheep . . . . .969
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
MAMMALS: VOLUME 5
Readers Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi
Words to Know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Pangolins
Pangolins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .989
Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .996
Mountain beaver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003
Squirrels and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1008
Beavers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1022
Pocket gophers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029
Pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo mice . . . . . . .1036
Birch mice, jumping mice, and jerboas . . . . . . . . . . . . .1044
Rats, mice, and relatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1051
Scaly-tailed squirrels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1069
Springhare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1076
Gundis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1081
Dormice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1087
Dassie rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1093
Contents ix
Cane rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1097
African mole-rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1103
Old World porcupines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1111
New World porcupines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1121
Viscachas and chinchillas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1129
Pacarana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1135
Cavies and maras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1139
Capybara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1147
Agoutis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1153
Pacas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1160
Tuco-tucos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1166
Octodonts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1172
Chinchilla rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1177
Spiny rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1182
Hutias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1188
Coypu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1194
Pikas, rabbits, and hares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1200

Pikas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1205
Hares and rabbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1213
Sengis
Sengis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1223
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lxxxix
x Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Reader’s Guide
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Mammals offers read-
ers comprehensive and easy-to-use information on Earth’s mam-
mals. Entries are arranged by taxonomy, the science through
which living things are classified into related groups. Order en-
tries provide an overview of a group of families, and family en-
tries provide an overview of a particular family. Each entry
includes sections on physical characteristics; geographic range;
habitat; diet; behavior and reproduction; animals and people; and
conservation status. Family entries are followed by one or more
species accounts with the same information as well as a range
map and photo or illustration for each species. Entries conclude
with a list of books, periodicals, and Web sites that may be used
for further research.
ADDITIONAL FEATURES
Each volume of Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Mam-
mals includes a pronunciation guide for scientific names, a glos-
sary, an overview of Mammals, a list of species in the set by biome,
a list of species by geographic location, and an index. The set has
540 full-color maps, photos, and illustrations to enliven the text,
and sidebars provide additional facts and related information.
NOTES
The classification of animals into orders, families, and even
species is not a completed exercise. As researchers learn more
about animals and their relationships, classifications may change.
In some cases, researchers do not agree on how or whether to
Reader’s Guide xi
make a change. For this reason, the heading “Number of species”
in the introduction of an entry may read “About 36 species” or
“34 to 37 species.” It is not a question of whether some animals
exist or not, but a question of how they are classified. Some re-
searchers are more likely to “lump” animals into the same species
classification, while others may “split” animals into separate
species.
Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource: Mammals has stan-
dardized information in the Conservation Status section. The
IUCN Red List provides the world’s most comprehensive inven-
tory of the global conservation status of plants and animals. Us-
ing a set of criteria to evaluate extinction risk, the IUCN recognizes
the following categories: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Conservation Dependent,
Near Threatened, Least Concern, and Data Deficient. These terms
are defined where they are used in the text, but for a complete
explanation of each category, visit the IUCN web page at http://
www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/redlists/RLcats2001booklet.html.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are due for the invaluable comments and sug-
gestions provided by the Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource:
Mammals advisors:
• Mary Alice Anderson, Media Specialist, Winona Middle
School, Winona, Minnesota
• Thane Johnson, Librarian, Oklahoma City Zoo, Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma
• Debra Kachel, Media Specialist, Ephrata Senior High School,
Ephrata, Pennsylvania
• Nina Levine, Media Specialist, Blue Mountain Middle
School, Courtlandt Manor, New York
• Ruth Mormon, Media Specialist, The Meadows School, Las
Vegas, Nevada
COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS

We welcome your comments on Grzimek’s Student Animal
Life Resource: Mammals and suggestions for future editions of
this work. Please write: Editors, Grzimek’s Student Animal Life
Resource: Mammals, U•X•L, 27500 Drake Rd., Farmington Hills,
Michigan 48331-3535; call toll free: 1-800-877-4253; fax: 248-
699-8097; or send e-mail via www.gale.com.
xii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for
Scientific Names
Abrocoma cinerea AB-ruh-KOH-muh sin-EAR-ee-uh
Abrocomidae ab-ruh-KOH-muh-dee
Acomys cahirinus ak-OH-meez kay-hih-RYE-nuhs
Acrobates pygmaeus ak-CROW-bah-teez pig-MEE-uhs
Acrobatidae ak-crow-BAH-tuh-dee
Agouti paca ah-GOO-tee PAY-cuh
Agoutidae ah-GOO-tuh-dee
Ailuropoda melanoleuca AYE-lur-uh-POD-uh MEL-uh-noh-
LYOO-kuh
Ailurus fulgens AYE-lur-uhs FULL-jens
Alces alces AL-ceez AL-ceez
Alouatta seniculus ah-loo-AH-tuh se-NIH-kul-uhs
Anomaluridae ah-nuh-mah-LOOR-uh-dee
Anomalurus derbianus ah-nuh-MAH-loor-uhs der-BEE-an-uhs
Antilocapra americana AN-til-uh-KAP-ruh uh-mer-uh-KAN-uh
Antilocapridae an-til-uh-KAP-ruh-dee
Antrozous pallidus an-tro-ZOH-uhs PAL-uh-duhs
Aotidae ay-OH-tuh-dee
Aotus trivirgatus ay-OH-tuhs try-VER-gah-tuhs
Aplodontia rufa ap-loh-DON-shuh ROO-fah
Aplodontidae ap-loh-DON-tuh-dee
Arctocephalus gazella ARK-tuh-SEFF-uh-luhs guh-ZELL-uh
Artiodactyla AR-tee-uh-DAK-til-uh
Asellia tridens ah-SELL-ee-uh TRY-denz
Ateles geoffroyi ah-TELL-eez JEFF-roy-eye
Atelidae ah-TELL-uh-dee
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xiii

Babyrousa babyrussa bah-bee-ROO-suh bah-bee-ROO-suh
Balaena mysticetus bah-LEE-nuh mis-tuh-SEE-tuhs
Balaenidae bah-LEE-nuh-dee
Balaenoptera acutorostrata bah-lee-NOP-teh-ruh uh-KYOOT-
uh-ROS-trah-tuh
Balaenoptera musculus bah-lee-NOP-teh-ruh muhs-KU-luhs
Balaenopteridae bah-lee-nop-TEH-ruh-dee
Barbastella barbastellus bar-buh-STELL-uh bar-buh-STELL-uhs
Bathyergidae bath-ih-ER-juh-dee
Bettongia tropica bee-ton-JEE-uh TROP-ik-uh
Bison bison BI-sun BI-sun
Bovidae BOH-vuh-dee
Bradypodidae brad-ih-POD-uh-dee
Bradypus variegatus BRAD-ih-puhs vair-ee-uh-GAH-tuhs
Bubalus bubalis BYOO-bal-uhs BYOO-bal-is
Burramyidae bur-ruh-MY-uh-dee
Cacajao calvus KA-ka-jah-oh KAL-vuhs
Caenolestes fuliginosus kee-NOH-less-teez fyoo-li-JEH-noh-suhs
Caenolestidae kee-noh-LESS-tuh-dee
Callicebus personatus kal-luh-SEE-buhs per-SON-ah-tuhs
Callimico goeldii kal-luh-MEE-koh geel-DEE-eye
Callitrichidae kal-luh-TRIK-uh-dee
Camelidae kam-EL-uh-dee
Camelus dromedarius KAM-el-uhs drom-uh-DARE-ee-uhs
Canidae KAN-uh-dee
Canis lupus KAN-is LYOO-puhs
Caperea marginata kay-per-EE-uh mar-JIN-ah-tuh
Capricornis sumatraensis kap-rih-KOR-nis soo-mah-TREN-sis
Capromyidae kap-roh-MY-uh-dee
Capromys pilorides KAP-roh-meez pi-LOH-ruh-deez
Carnivora kar-NIH-voh-ruh
Castor canadensis KAS-tor kan-uh-DEN-sis
Castoridae kas-TOR-uh-dee
Caviidae kave-EYE-uh-dee
Cebidae SEE-buh-dee
Cebuella pygmaea see-boo-ELL-uh pig-MEE-uh
Cebus capucinus SEE-buhs kap-oo-CHIN-uhs
Cebus olivaceus SEE-buhs ah-luh-VAY-see-uhs
Ceratotherium simum suh-rah-tuh-THER-ee-um SIM-um
Cercartetus nanus ser-kar-TEE-tuhs NAN-uhs
xiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Cercopithecidae ser-koh-pith-EEK-uh-dee
Cervidae SER-vuh-dee
Cervus elaphus SER-vuhs EL-laff-uhs
Cetacea sih-TAY-she-uh
Cheirogaleidae KY-roh-GAL-uh-dee
Cheiromeles torquatus ky-ROH-mel-eez TOR-kwah-tuhs
Chinchilla lanigera chin-CHILL-uh la-NIJ-er-uh
Chinchillidae chin-CHILL-uh-dee
Chironectes minimus ky-roh-NECK-teez MIN-ih-muhs
Chiroptera ky-ROP-ter-uh
Chlamyphorus truncatus klam-EE-for-uhs TRUN-kah-tuhs
Choloepus hoffmanni koh-LEE-puhs HOFF-man-eye
Chrysochloridae krih-soh-KLOR-uh-dee
Chrysocyon brachyurus krih-SOH-sigh-on bra-kee-YOOR-uhs
Civettictis civetta sih-VET-tick-tis SIH-vet-uh
Coendou prehensilis SEEN-doo prih-HEN-sil-is
Condylura cristata KON-dih-LUR-uh KRIS-tah-tuh
Connochaetes gnou koh-nuh-KEE-teez NEW
Craseonycteridae kras-ee-oh-nick-TER-uh-dee
Craseonycteris thonglongyai kras-ee-oh-NICK-ter-is thong-
LONG-ee-aye
Cricetomys gambianus kry-see-TOH-meez GAM-bee-an-uhs
Cricetus cricetus kry-SEE-tuhs kry-SEE-tuhs
Crocuta crocuta kroh-CUE-tuh kroh-CUE-tuh
Cryptomys damarensis krip-TOH-meez DAM-are-en-sis
Cryptoprocta ferox krip-TOH-prok-tuh FAIR-oks
Cryptotis parva krip-TOH-tis PAR-vuh
Ctenodactylidae ten-oh-dak-TIL-uh-dee
Ctenomyidae ten-oh-MY-uh-dee
Ctenomys pearsoni TEN-oh-meez PEAR-son-eye
Cyclopes didactylus SIGH-kluh-peez die-DAK-til-uhs
Cynocephalidae sigh-nuh-seff-UH-luh-dee
Cynocephalus variegatus sigh-nuh-SEFF-uh-luhs VAIR-ee-
uh-GAH-tus
Cynomys ludovicianus SIGH-no-mees LOO-doh-vih-SHE-an-
uhs
Dasypodidae das-ih-POD-uh-dee
Dasyprocta punctata das-IH-prok-tuh PUNK-tah-tuh
Dasyproctidae das-ih-PROK-tuh-dee
Dasypus novemcinctus DAS-ih-puhs noh-VEM-sink-tuhs
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xv

Dasyuridae das-ih-YOOR-uh-dee
Dasyuromorphia das-ih-yoor-oh-MOR-fee-uh
Daubentoniidae daw-ben-tone-EYE-uh-dee
Daubentonia madagascariensis daw-ben-TONE-ee-uh mad-
uh-GAS-kar-EE-en-sis
Delphinapterus leucas del-fin-AP-ter-uhs LYOO-kuhs
Delphinidae del-FIN-uh-dee
Dendrohyrax arboreus den-droh-HI-raks are-BOHR-ee-uhs
Dendrolagus bennettianus den-droh-LAG-uhs BEN-net-EE-an-
uhs
Dermoptera der-MOP-ter-uh
Desmodus rotundus dez-MOH-duhs ROH-tun-duhs
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis die-ser-uh-RHY-nuhs soo-mah-
TREN-sis
Didelphidae die-DELF-uh-dee
Didelphimorphia die-delf-uh-MOR-fee-uh
Didelphis virginiana DIE-delf-is ver-JIN-ee-an-uh
Dinomyidae die-noh-MY-uh-dee
Dinomys branickii DIE-noh-meez BRAN-ick-ee-eye
Dipodidae dih-POD-uh-dee
Dipodomys ingens dih-puh-DOH-meez IN-jenz
Diprotodontia dih-pro-toh-DON-she-uh
Dipus sagitta DIH-puhs SAJ-it-tuh
Dolichotis patagonum doll-ih-KOH-tis pat-uh-GOH-num
Dromiciops gliroides droh-MISS-ee-ops gli-ROY-deez
Dugong dugon DOO-gong DOO-gon
Dugongidae doo-GONG-uh-dee
Echimyidae ek-ih-MY-uh-dee
Echinosorex gymnura EH-ky-noh-SORE-eks JIM-nyoor-uh
Echymipera rufescens ek-ee-MIH-per-uh ROO-fehs-sens
Ectophylla alba ek-toh-FILE-luh AHL-buh
Elephantidae el-uh-FAN-tuh-dee
Elephas maximus EL-uh-fuhs MAX-im-uhs
Emballonuridae em-bal-lun-YOOR-uh-dee
Equidae EK-wuh-dee
Equus caballus przewalskii EK-wuhs CAB-uh-luhs prez-VAL-
skee-eye
Equus grevyi EK-wuhs GREH-vee-eye
Equus kiang EK-wuhs KY-an
Eremitalpa granti er-uh-MIT-ahl-puh GRAN-tie
xvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Erethizon dorsatum er-uh-THY-zun DOR-sah-tum
Erethizontidae er-uh-thy-ZUN-tuh-dee
Erinaceidae er-ih-nay-SIGH-dee
Erinaceus europaeus er-ih-NAY-shuhs yoor-uh-PEE-uhs
Eschrichtiidae ess-rick-TIE-uh-dee
Eschrichtius robustus ess-RICK-shuhs roh-BUHS-tuhs
Eubalaena glacialis yoo-bah-LEE-nuh glay-SHE-al-is
Felidae FEE-luh-dee
Furipteridae fur-ip-TER-uh-dee
Galagidae gal-AG-uh-dee
Galago senegalensis GAL-ag-oh sen-ih-GAHL-en-sis
Galidia elegans ga-LID-ee-uh EL-uh-ganz
Gazella thomsonii guh-ZELL-uh TOM-son-ee-eye
Genetta genetta JIN-eh-tuh JIN-eh-tuh
Geomyidae gee-oh-MY-uh-dee
Giraffa camelopardalis JIH-raf-uh KAM-el-uh-PAR-dal-is
Giraffidae jih-RAF-uh-dee
Glaucomys volans glo-KOH-meez VOH-lans
Glossophaga soricina glos-SUH-fag-uh sore-ih-SEE-nuh
Gorilla gorilla guh-RILL-uh guh-RILL-uh
Hemicentetes semispinosus hemi-sen-TEE-teez semi-PINE-oh-
suhs
Herpestidae her-PES-tuh-dee
Heterocephalus glaber HEH-tuh-roh-SEFF-uh-luhs GLAH-ber
Heteromyidae HEH-tuh-roh-MY-uh-dee
Hexaprotodon liberiensis hek-suh-PRO-tuh-don lye-BEER-ee-
en-sis
Hippopotamidae HIP-poh-pot-UH-muh-dee
Hippopotamus amphibius HIP-poh-POT-uh-muhs am-FIB-ee-
uhs
Hipposideridae HIP-poh-si-DER-uh-dee
Hominidae hom-IN-uh-dee
Homo sapiens HOH-moh SAY-pee-enz
Hyaenidae hi-EE-nuh-dee
Hydrochaeridae hi-droh-KEE-ruh-dee
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris hi-droh-KEE-ris hi-droh-KEE-ris
Hydrodamalis gigas hi-droh-DAM-uhl-is JEE-guhs
Hylobates lar hi-loh-BAY-teez lahr
Hylobates pileatus hi-loh-BAY-teez pie-LEE-ah-tuhs
Hylobatidae hi-loh-BAY-tuh-dee
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xvii

Hylochoerus meinertzhageni hi-loh-KEE-ruhs MINE-ertz-
hah-gen-eye
Hyperoodon ampullatus hi-per-OH-uh-don am-PUH-lah-tuhs
Hypsiprymnodontidae HIP-see-PRIM-nuh-DON-shuh-dee
Hypsiprymnodon moschatus hip-see-PRIM-nuh-don MOS-
kah-tuhs
Hyracoidea HI-rah-koy-DEE-uh
Hystricidae hiss-TRIK-uh-dee
Hystrix africaeaustralis HISS-triks AF-rik-ee-au-STRA-lis
Hystrix indica HISS-triks IN-dik-uh
Indri indri IN-dri IN-dri
Indriidae in-DRY-uh-dee
Inia geoffrensis in-EE-uh JEFF-ren-sis
Iniidae in-EYE-uh-dee
Insectivora IN-sek-TIV-uh-ruh
Kerodon rupestris KER-uh-don ROO-pes-tris
Kogia breviceps koh-JEE-uh BREV-ih-seps
Lagomorpha LAG-uh-MOR-fuh
Lagothrix lugens LAG-uh-thriks LU-jens
Lama glama LAH-muh GLAH-muh
Lama pacos LAH-muh PAY-kuhs
Lemmus lemmus LEM-muhs LEM-muhs
Lemur catta LEE-mer KAT-tuh
Lemur coronatus LEE-mer KOR-roh-nah-tuhs
Lemuridae lee-MYOOR-uh-dee
Lepilemur leucopus lep-uh-LEE-mer LYOO-koh-puhs
Lepilemur ruficaudatus lep-uh-LEE-mer ROO-fee-KAW-dah-
tuhs
Lepilemuridae LEP-uh-lee-MOOR-uh-dee
Leporidae lep-OR-uh-dee
Lepus americanus LEP-uhs uh-mer-uh-KAN-uhs
Lepus timidus LEP-uhs TIM-id-uhs
Lipotes vexillifer lip-OH-teez veks-ILL-uh-fer
Lipotidae lip-OH-tuh-dee
Lorisidae lor-IS-uh-dee
Loxodonta africana LOK-suh-DON-tuh AF-rih-kan-uh
Loxodonta cyclotis LOK-suh-DON-tuh SIGH-klo-tis
Lutra lutra LOO-truh LOO-truh
Lynx rufus LINKS ROO-fuhs
Macaca mulatta muh-KAY-kuh MYOO-lah-tuh
xviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Macroderma gigas ma-CROW-der-muh JEE-guhs
Macropodidae ma-crow-POD-uh-dee
Macropus giganteus ma-CROW-puhs jy-GAN-tee-uhs
Macropus rufus ma-CROW-puhs ROO-fuhs
Macroscelidea MA-crow-sel-uh-DEE-uh
Macroscelididae MA-crow-sel-UH-duh-dee
Macrotis lagotis ma-CROW-tis la-GO-tis
Macrotus californicus ma-CROW-tuhs kal-uh-FORN-uh-kuhs
Madoqua kirkii ma-DOH-kwah KIRK-ee-eye
Mandrillus sphinx man-DRILL-uhs SFINKS
Manidae MAN-uh-dee
Manis temminckii MAN-is TEM-ink-ee-eye
Marmota marmota MAR-mah-tuh MAR-mah-tuh
Massoutiera mzabi mas-soo-TEE-er-uh ZA-bye
Megadermatidae meg-uh-der-MUH-tuh-dee
Megalonychidae meg-uh-loh-NICK-uh-dee
Megaptera novaeangliae meg-uh-TER-uh NOH-vee-ANG-lee-
dee
Meles meles MEL-eez MEL-eez
Mephitis mephitis MEF-it-is MEF-it-is
Microbiotheria my-crow-bio-THER-ee-uh
Microbiotheriidae my-crow-bio-ther-EYE-uh-dee
Microcebus rufus my-crow-SEE-buhs ROO-fuhs
Micropteropus pusillus my-crop-TER-oh-puhs pyoo-SILL-uhs
Miniopterus schreibersi min-ee-OP-ter-uhs shry-BER-seye
Mirounga angustirostris MIR-oon-guh an-GUHS-tih-ROS-tris
Molossidae mol-OS-suh-dee
Monachus schauinslandi MON-ak-uhs SHOU-inz-land-eye
Monodon monoceros MON-uh-don mon-UH-ser-uhs
Monodontidae mon-uh-DON-shuh-dee
Monotremata mon-uh-TREEM-ah-tuh
Mormoopidae mor-moh-UP-uh-dee
Moschus moschiferus MOS-kuhs mos-KIF-er-uhs
Muntiacus muntjak mun-SHE-uh-kuhs MUNT-jak
Muridae MUR-uh-dee
Mustela erminea MUS-tuh-luh er-MIN-ee-uh
Mustelidae mus-TUH-luh-dee
Myocastor coypus MY-oh-KAS-tor COI-puhs
Myocastoridae MY-oh-kas-TOR-uh-dee
Myotis lucifugus my-OH-tis loo-SIFF-ah-guhs
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xix

Myoxidae my-OKS-uh-dee
Myoxus glis MY-oks-uhs GLIS
Myrmecobiidae mur-mih-koh-BYE-uh-dee
Myrmecobius fasciatus mur-mih-KOH-bee-uhs fah-SHE-ah-tuhs
Myrmecophaga tridactyla mur-mih-KOH-fag-uh try-DAK-til-uh
Myrmecophagidae mur-mih-koh-FAJ-uh-dee
Mystacina tuberculata miss-tih-SEE-nuh too-ber-KYOO-lah-tuh
Mystacinidae miss-tih-SEE-nuh-dee
Myzopoda aurita my-zoh-POD-uh OR-it-uh
Myzopodidae my-zoh-POD-uh-dee
Nasalis larvatus NAY-zal-is LAR-vah-tuhs
Natalidae nay-TAL-uh-dee
Natalus stramineus NAY-tal-uhs struh-MIN-ee-uhs
Neobalaenidae nee-oh-bah-LEE-nuh-dee
Noctilio leporinus nok-TIHL-ee-oh leh-por-RYE-nuhs
Noctilionidae nok-tihl-ee-ON-uh-dee
Notomys alexis noh-TOH-meez ah-LEK-sis
Notoryctemorphia noh-toh-rik-teh-MOR-fee-uh
Notoryctes typhlops noh-TOH-rik-teez TIE-flopz
Notoryctidae noh-toh-RIK-tuh-dee
Nycteridae nik-TER-uh-dee
Nycteris thebaica NIK-ter-is the-BAH-ik-uh
Nycticebus pygmaeus nik-tih-SEE-buhs pig-MEE-uhs
Nyctimene robinsoni nik-TIM-en-ee ROB-in-son-eye
Ochotona hyperborea oh-koh-TOH-nuh hi-per-BOHR-ee-uh
Ochotona princeps oh-koh-TOH-nuh PRIN-seps
Ochotonidae oh-koh-TOH-nuh-dee
Octodon degus OK-tuh-don DAY-gooz
Octodontidae ok-tuh-DON-tuh-dee
Odobenidae oh-duh-BEN-uh-dee
Odobenus rosmarus oh-DUH-ben-uhs ROS-mahr-uhs
Odocoileus virginianus oh-duh-KOI-lee-uhs ver-JIN-ee-an-nuhs
Okapia johnstoni oh-KAH-pee-uh JOHNS-ton-eye
Ondatra zibethicus ON-dat-ruh ZIB-eth-ih-kuhs
Onychogalea fraenata oh-nik-uh-GAL-ee-uh FREE-nah-tuh
Orcinus orca OR-sigh-nuhs OR-kuh
Ornithorhynchidae OR-nith-oh-RIN-kuh-dee
Ornithorynchus anatinus OR-nith-oh-RIN-kuhs an-AH-tin-uhs
Orycteropodidae or-ik-ter-uh-POD-uh-dee
Orycteropus afer or-ik-TER-uh-puhs AF-er
xx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Otariidae oh-tar-EYE-uh-dee
Otolemur garnettii oh-tuh-LEE-mer GAR-net-ee-eye
Ovis canadensis OH-vis kan-uh-DEN-sis
Pagophilus groenlandicus pa-GO-fil-luhs GREEN-land-ih-cuhs
Pan troglodytes PAN trog-luh-DIE-teez
Panthera leo PAN-ther-uh LEE-oh
Panthera tigris PAN-ther-uh TIE-gris
Paucituberculata paw-see-too-ber-KYOO-lah-tuh
Pedetidae ped-ET-uh-dee
Peramelemorphia per-uh-mel-eh-MOR-fee-uh
Peramelidae per-uh-MEL-uh-dee
Perameles gunnii PER-uh-MEL-eez GUN-ee-eye
Perissodactyla peh-RISS-uh-DAK-til-uh
Perodicticus potto per-uh-DIK-tuh-kuhs POT-toh
Perognathus inornatus PER-ug-NAH-thuhs in-AWR-nah-tuhs
Peropteryx kappleri per-OP-ter-iks KAP-ler-eye
Peroryctidae per-uh-RIK-tuh-dee
Petauridae pet-OR-uh-dee
Petauroides volans pet-or-OY-deez VOH-lanz
Petaurus breviceps PET-or-uhs BREV-ih-seps
Petrogale penicillata pet-ROH-gah-lee pen-ih-SIL-lah-tuh
Petromuridae pet-roh-MUR-uh-dee
Petromus typicus PET-roh-muhs TIP-ih-kuhs
Phalanger gymnotis FAH-lan-jer jim-NOH-tis
Phalangeridae fah-lan-JER-uh-dee
Phascogale tapoatafa fas-KOH-gah-lee TAP-oh-uh-TAH-fuh
Phascolarctidae fas-koh-LARK-tuh-dee
Phascolarctos cinereus fas-KOH-lark-tuhs sin-EAR-ee-uhs
Phocidae FOE-suh-dee
Phocoena phocoena FOE-see-nuh FOE-see-nuh
Phocoena spinipinnis FOE-see-nuh SPY-nih-PIN-is
Phocoenidae foe-SEE-nuh-dee
Pholidota foe-lih-DOH-tuh
Phyllostomidae fill-uh-STOH-muh-dee
Physeter macrocephalus FY-se-ter ma-crow-SEFF-uh-luhs
Physeteridae fy-se-TER-uh-dee
Piliocolobus badius fill-ee-oh-KOH-loh-buhs BAD-ee-uhs
Pithecia pithecia pith-EEK-ee-uh pith-EEK-ee-uh
Pitheciidae pith-eek-EYE-uh-dee
Plantanista gangetica plan-TAN-is-tuh gan-JET-ik-uh
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xxi

Platanistidae plan-tan-IS-tuh-dee
Pongo pygmaeus PON-goh pig-MEE-uhs
Pontoporia blainvillei pon-toh-POR-ee-uh BLAIN-vill-ee-eye
Pontoporiidae PON-toh-por-EYE-uh-dee
Potoroidae pot-uh-ROY-dee
Primates PRY-maytes
Proboscidea proh-BOS-see-uh
Procavia capensis proh-CAVE-ee-uh KAP-en-sis
Procaviidae proh-kave-EYE-uh-dee
Procyon lotor proh-SIGH-on LOH-tor
Procyonidae proh-sigh-ON-uh-dee
Proechimys semispinosus proh-EK-ih-meez sem-ih-SPY-noh-suhs
Propithecus edwardsi proh-PITH-eek-uhs ED-werds-eye
Proteles cristatus PROH-tell-eez KRIS-tah-tuhs
Pseudocheiridae soo-doh-KY-ruh-dee
Pseudocheirus peregrinus soo-doh-KY-ruhs PEHR-eh-GRIN-uhs
Pteronotus parnellii ter-uh-NOH-tuhs PAR-nell-ee-eye
Pteropodidae ter-uh-POD-uh-dee
Pteropus giganteus ter-OH-puhs jy-GAN-tee-uhs
Pteropus mariannus ter-OH-puhs MARE-ih-an-uhs
Pudu pudu POO-doo POO-doo
Puma concolor PYOO-muh CON-kuh-luhr
Puripterus horrens PYOOR-ip-TER-uhs HOR-renz
Pygathrix nemaeus PIG-uh-thriks neh-MEE-uhs
Rangifer tarandus RAN-jih-fer TAR-an-duhs
Rhinoceros unicornis rye-NOS-er-uhs YOO-nih-KORN-is
Rhinocerotidae rye-NOS-er-UH-tuh-dee
Rhinolophidae rye-noh-LOH-fuh-dee
Rhinolophus capensis rye-noh-LOH-fuhs KAP-en-sis
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum rye-noh-LOH-fuhs FEHR-rum-
EK-wy-num
Rhinopoma hardwickei rye-noh-POH-muh HARD-wik-eye
Rhinopomatidae rye-noh-poh-MAT-uh-dee
Rhynchocyon cirnei rin-koh-SIGH-on SIR-neye
Rodentia roh-DEN-she-uh
Rousettus aegyptiacus ROO-set-tuhs ee-JIP-tih-kuhs
Saccopteryx bilineata sak-OP -ter-iks BY-lin-EE-ah-tuh
Saguinus oedipus SAG-win-uhs ED-uh-puhs
Saimiri sciureus SAY-meer-eye sigh-OOR-ee-uhs
Sarcophilus laniarius SAR-kuh-FIL-uhs lan-ee-AIR-ee-uhs
xxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Scalopus aquaticus SKA-loh-puhs uh-KWAT-ik-uhs
Scandentia skan-DEN-she-uh
Sciuridae sigh-OOR-uh-dee
Sciurus carolinensis SIGH-oor-uhs kar-uh-LINE-en-sis
Sigmodon hispidus SIG-muh-don HISS-pid-uhs
Sirenia sy-REEN-ee-uh
Solenodon paradoxus so-LEN-uh-don PAR-uh-DOCKS-uhs
Solenodontidae so-len-uh-DON-shuh-dee
Sorex palustris SOR-eks PAL-us-tris
Soricidae sor-IS-uh-dee
Stenella longirostris steh-NELL-uh LAWN-juh-ROS-tris
Suidae SOO-uh-dee
Sus scrofa SOOS SKRO-fuh
Sylvilagus audubonii SILL-vih-LAG-uhs AW-duh-BON-ee-eye
Symphalangus syndactylus SIM-fuh-LAN-guhs sin-DAK-til-uhs
Tachyglossidae TAK-ih-GLOS-suh-dee
Tachyglossus aculeatus TAK-ih-GLOS-suhs ak-YOOL-ee-ah-tuhs
Tadarida brasiliensis ta-DARE-ih-dah bra-ZILL-ee-en-sis
Talpidae TAL-puh-dee
Tamias striatus TAM-ee-uhs stry-AH-tuhs
Tapiridae tay-PUR-uh-dee
Tapirus indicus TAY-pur-uhs IN-dih-kuhs
Tapirus terrestris TAY-pur-uhs TER-rehs-tris
Tarsiidae tar-SIGH-uh-dee
Tarsipedidae tar-sih-PED-uh-dee
Tarsipes rostratus TAR-si-peez ROS-trah-tuhs
Tarsius bancanus TAR-see-uhs BAN-kan-uhs
Tarsius syrichta TAR-see-uhs STRIK-tuh
Tasmacetus shepherdi taz-muh-SEE-tuhs SHEP-erd-eye
Tayassu tajacu TAY-yuh-soo TAY-jah-soo
Tayassuidae tay-yuh-SOO-uh-dee
Tenrec ecaudatus TEN-rek ee-KAW-dah-tuhs
Tenrecidae ten-REK-uh-dee
Thomomys bottae TOM-oh-meez BOTT-ee
Thryonomyidae thry-oh-noh-MY-uh-dee
Thryonomys swinderianus THRY-oh-NOH-meez SWIN-der-
EE-an-uhs
Thylacinidae thy-luh-SEEN-uh-dee
Thylacinus cynocephalus THY-luh-SEEN-uhs sigh-nuh-SEFF-
uh-luhs
Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xxiii

Thyroptera tricolor thy-ROP-ter-uh TRY-kuh-luhr
Thyropteridae thy-rop-TER-uh-dee
Tragulidae tray-GOO-luh-dee
Tragulus javanicus TRAY-goo-luhs jah-VAHN-ih-kuhs
Trichechidae trik-EK-uh-dee
Trichechus manatus TRIK-ek-uhs MAN-uh-tuhs
Trichosurus vulpecula TRIK-uh-SOOR-uhs vul-PEK-yoo-luh
Tubulidentata toob-yool-ih-DEN-tah-tuh
Tupaia glis too-PUH-ee-uh GLIS
Tupaiidae too-puh-EYE-uh-dee
Tursiops truncatus tur-SEE-ops TRUN-kah-tuhs
Uncia uncia UN-see-uh UN-see-uh
Ursidae UR-suh-dee
Ursus americanus UR-suhs uh-mer-uh-KAN-uhs
Ursus maritimus UR-suhs mar-ih-TIME-uhs
Vespertilionidae ves-puhr-TEEL-ee-UHN-uh-dee
Viverridae vy-VER-ruh-dee
Vombatidae vom-BAT-uh-dee
Vombatus ursinus VOM-bat-uhs ur-SIGH-nuhs
Vulpes vulpes VUHL-peez VUHL-peez
Xenarthra ZEN-areth-ruh
Yerbua capensis YER-byoo-uh KAP-en-sis
Zalophus californianus ZA-loh-fuhs kal-uh-FORN-uh-kuhs
Zalophus wollebaeki ZA-loh-fuhs VOLL-back-eye
Ziphiidae ziff-EYE-uh-dee
xxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know
A
Aborigine: Earliest-known inhabitant of an area; often refer-
ring to a native person of Australia.
Adaptation: Any structural, physiological, or behavioral trait
that aids an organism’s survival and ability to reproduce in
its existing environment.
Algae: Tiny plants or plantlike organisms that grow in water
and in damp places.
Anaconda: A large snake of South America; one of the largest
snakes in the world.
Aphrodisiac: Anything that intensifies or arouses sexual desires.
Aquatic: Living in the water.
Arboreal: Living primarily or entirely in trees and bushes.
Arid: Extremely dry climate, with less than 10 inches (25 cen-
timeters) of rain each year.
Arthropod: A member of the largest single animal phylum,
consisting of organisms with segmented bodies, jointed legs
or wings, and exoskeletons.
B
Baleen: A flexible, horny substance making up two rows of
plates that hang from the upper jaws of baleen whales.
Biogeography: The study of the distribution and dispersal of
plants and animals throughout the world.
Bipedal: Walking on two feet.
Words to Know xxv

Blowhole: The nostril on a whale, dolphin, or porpoise.
Blubber: A layer of fat under the skin of sea mammals that pro-
tects them from heat loss and stores energy.
Brachiation: A type of locomotion in which an animal travels
through the forest by swinging below branches using its arms.
Brackish water: Water that is a mix of freshwater and saltwater.
Burrow: Tunnel or hole that an animal digs in the ground to
use as a home.
C
Cache: A hidden supply area.
Camouflage: Device used by an animal, such as coloration, al-
lowing it to blend in with the surroundings to avoid being
seen by prey and predators.
Canine teeth: The four pointed teeth (two in each jaw) be-
tween the incisors and bicuspids in mammals; designed for
stabbing and holding prey.
Canopy: The uppermost layer of a forest formed naturally by
the leaves and branches of trees and plants.
Carnivore: Meat-eating organism.
Carrion: Dead and decaying animal flesh.
Cecum: A specialized part of the large intestine that acts as a
fermentation chamber to aid in digestion of grasses.
Cervical vertebrae: The seven neck bones that make up the
top of the spinal column.
Clan: A group of animals of the same species that live together,
such as badgers or hyenas.
Cloud forest: A tropical forest where clouds are overhead most
of the year.
Colony: A group of animals of the same type living together.
Coniferous: Refers to evergreen trees, such as pines and firs,
that bear cones and have needle-like leaves that are not shed
all at once.
Coniferous forest: An evergreen forest where plants stay green
all year.
Continental shelf: A gently sloping ledge of a continent that
is submerged in the ocean.
xxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Convergence: In adaptive evolution, a process by which unre-
lated or only distantly related living things come to resem-
ble one another in adapting to similar environments.
Coprophagous: Eating dung. Some animals do this to extract
nutrients that have passed through their system.
Crepuscular: Most active at dawn and dusk.
Critically Endangered: A term used by the IUCN in reference
to a species that is at an extremely high risk of extinction in
the wild.
D
Data Deficient: An IUCN category referring to a species that
is not assigned another category because there is not enough
information about the species’ population.
Deciduous: Shedding leaves at the end of the growing season.
Deciduous forest: A forest with four seasons in which trees
drop their leaves in the fall.
Deforestation: Those practices or processes that result in the
change of forested lands to non-forest uses, such as human
settlement or farming. This is often cited as one of the ma-
jor causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Delayed implantation: A process by which the fertilized egg
formed after mating develops for a short time, then remains
inactive until later when it attaches to the uterus for further
development, so that birth coincides with a better food sup-
ply or environmental conditions.
Den: The shelter of an animal, such as an underground hole
or a hollow log.
Dentin: A calcareous material harder than bone found in teeth.
Desert: A land area so dry that little or no plant or animal life
can survive.
Digit: Division where limbs terminate; in humans this refers
to a finger or toe.
Digitigrade: A manner of walking on the toes, as cats and dogs
do, as opposed to walking on the ball of the feet, as humans do.
Dingo: A wild Australian dog.
Diurnal: Refers to animals that are active during the day.
Domesticated: Tamed.
Dominant: The top male or female of a social group, some-
times called the alpha male or alpha female.
Words to Know xxvii

Dorsal: Located in the back.
Dung: Feces, or solid waste from an animal.
E
Echolocation: A method of detecting objects by using sound
waves.
Ecotourist: A person who visits a place in order to observe the
plants and animals in the area while making minimal human
impact on the natural environment.
Electroreception: The sensory detection of small amounts of
natural electricity by an animal (usually underwater), by
means of specialized nerve endings.
Elevation: The height of land when measured from sea level.
Endangered: A term used by the U. S. Endangered Species Act
of 1973 and by the IUCN in reference to a species that is
facing a very high risk of extinction from all or a significant
portion of its natural home.
Endangered Species Act: A U. S. law that grants legal protec-
tion to listed endangered and threatened species.
Endemic: Native to or occurring only in a particular place.
Erupt: In teeth, to break through the skin and become visible.
Estivation: State of inactivity during the hot, dry months of
summer.
Estuary: Lower end of a river where ocean tides meet the river’s
current.
Eutherian mammal: Mammals that have a well-developed pla-
centa and give birth to fully formed live young.
Evergreen: In botany, bearing green leaves through the winter
and/or a plant having foliage that persists throughout the
year.
Evolve: To change slowly over time.
Extinct: A species without living members.
Extinction: The total disappearance of a species or the disap-
pearance of a species from a given area.
F
Family: A grouping of genera that share certain characteristics
and appear to have evolved from the same ancestors.
xxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Feces: Solid body waste.
Fermentation: Chemical reaction in which enzymes break
down complex organic compounds into simpler ones. This
can make digestion easier.
Forage: To search for food.
Forb: Any broad-leaved herbaceous plant that is not a grass;
one that grows in a prairie or meadow, such as sunflower,
goldenrod, or clover.
Fragment: To divide or separate individuals of the same species
into small groups that are unable to mingle with each other.
Frugivore: Animal that primarily eats fruit. Many bats and
birds are frugivores.
Fuse: To become joined together as one unit.
G
Genera: Plural of genus.
Genus (pl. genera): A category of classification made up of
species sharing similar characteristics.
Gestation: The period of carrying young in the uterus before
birth.
Gland: A specialized body part that produces, holds, and re-
leases one or more substances (such as scent or sweat) for
use by the body.
Gleaning: Gathering food from surfaces.
Grassland: Region in which the climate is dry for long peri-
ods of the summer, and freezes in the winter. Grasslands are
characterized by grasses and other erect herbs, usually with-
out trees or shrubs, and occur in the dry temperate interiors
of continents.
Grooming: An activity during which primates look through
each other’s fur to remove parasites and dirt.
Guano: The droppings of birds or bats, sometimes used as fer-
tilizer.
Guard hairs: Long, stiff, waterproof hairs that form the outer
fur and protect the underfur of certain mammals.
Gum: A substance found in some plants that oozes out in re-
sponse to a puncture, as plant sap, and generally hardens af-
ter exposure to air.
Words to Know xxix

H
Habitat: The area or region where a particular type of plant or
animal lives and grows.
Habitat degradation: The diminishment of the quality of a habi-
tat and its ability to support animal and plant communities.
Hallux: The big toe, or first digit, on the part of the foot fac-
ing inwards.
Harem: A group of two or more adult females, plus their young,
with only one adult male present.
Haul out: To pull one’s body out of the water onto land, as
when seals come out of the water to go ashore.
Herbivore: Plant-eating organism.
Hibernation: State of rest or inactivity during the cold winter
months.
Hierarchy: A structured order of rank or social superiority.
Home range: A specific area that an animal roams while per-
forming its activities.
I
Ice floe: A large sheet of floating ice.
Incisor: One of the chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth
(between the canines), used for cutting and tearing food.
Indigenous: Originating in a region or country.
Insectivore: An animal that eats primarily insects.
Insulate: To prevent the escape of heat by surrounding with
something; in an animal, a substance such as fur or body fat
serves to retain heat in its body.
Invertebrate: Animal lacking a spinal column (backbone).
IUCN: Abbreviation for the International Union for Conser-
vation of Nature and Natural Resources, now the World Con-
servation Union. A conservation organization of government
agencies and nongovernmental organizations best known for
its Red Lists of threatened and endangered species.
K
Keratin: Protein found in hair, nails, and skin.
Krill: Tiny shrimp-like animals that are the main food of baleen
whales and are also eaten by seals and other marine mammals.
xxx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

L
Lactate: To produce milk in the female body, an activity asso-
ciated with mammals.
Larva (pl. larvae): Immature form (wormlike in insects; fish-
like in amphibians) of an organism capable of surviving on
its own. A larva does not resemble the parent and must go
through metamorphosis, or change, to reach its adult stage.
Leprosy: A disease of the skin and flesh characterized by scaly
scabs and open sores.
Lichen: A complex of algae and fungi found growing on trees,
rocks, or other solid surfaces.
Litter: A group of young animals, such as pigs or kittens, born
at the same time from the same mother. Or, a layer of dead
vegetation and other material covering the ground.
M
Malaria: A serious disease common in tropical countries,
spread by the bites of female mosquitoes, that causes com-
plications affecting the brain, blood, liver, and kidneys and
can cause death.
Mammae: Milk-secreting organs of female mammals used to
nurse young.
Mammals: Animals that feed their young on breast milk, are
warm-blooded, and breathe air through their lungs.
Mangrove: Tropical coastal trees or shrubs that produce many
supporting roots and that provide dense vegetation.
Marsupial: A type of mammal that does not have a well-
developed placenta and gives birth to immature and under-
developed young after a short gestation period. It continues
to nurture the young, often in a pouch, until they are able
to fend for themselves.
Matriarchal: Headed by a dominant female or females; said of
animal societies.
Mechanoreceptor: Sensory nerve receptor modified to detect
physical changes in the immediate environment, often hav-
ing to do with touch and change of pressure or turbulence
in water or air. In the platypus, mechanoreceptors in its bill
may detect prey and obstacles.
Megachiroptera: One of the two groups of bats; these bats are
usually larger than the microchiroptera.
Words to Know xxxi

Melon: The fatty forehead of a whale or dolphin.
Membrane: A thin, flexible layer of plant or animal tissue that
covers, lines, separates or holds together, or connects parts
of an organism.
Microchiroptera: One of two categories of bats; these make up
most of the bats in the world and are generally smaller than
the megachiroptera.
Migrate: To move from one area or climate to another as the
seasons change, usually to find food or to mate.
Migratory pattern: The direction or path taken while moving
seasonally from one region to another.
Molar: A broad tooth located near the back of the jaw with a
flat, rough surface for grinding.
Mollusk: A group of animals without backbones that includes
snails, clams, oysters, and similar hard-shelled animals.
Molt: The process by which an organism sheds its outermost
layer of feathers, fur, skin, or exoskeleton.
Monogamous: Refers to a breeding system in which a male and
a female mate only with each other during a breeding sea-
son or lifetime.
Muzzle: The projecting part of the head that includes jaws,
chin, mouth, and nose.
Myxomatosis: A highly infectious disease of rabbits caused by
a pox virus.
N
Near Threatened: A category defined by the IUCN suggesting
that a species could become threatened with extinction in
the future.
Nectar: Sweet liquid secreted by the flowers of various plants
to attract pollinators (animals that pollinate, or fertilize, the
flowers).
Neotropical: Relating to a geographic area of plant and animal
life east, south, and west of Mexico’s central plateau that in-
cludes Central and South America and the West Indies.
New World: Made up of North America, Central America, and
South America; the western half of the world.
Nocturnal: Occurring or active at night.
Non-prehensile: Incapable of grasping; used to describe an an-
imal’s tail that cannot wrap around tree branches.
xxxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Noseleaf: Horseshoe-shaped flap of skin around the nose.
Nurse: To feed on mother’s milk.
O
Old World: Australia, Africa, Asia, and Europe; in the eastern
half of the world.
Omnivore: Plant- and meat-eating animal.
Opportunistic feeder: An animal that eats whatever food is
available, either prey they have killed, other animals’ kills,
plants, or human food and garbage.
P
Pack ice: Large pieces of ice frozen together.
Patagium: The flap of skin that extends between the front and
hind limbs. In bats, it stretches between the hind legs and
helps the animal in flight; in colugos this stretches from the
side of the neck to the tips of its fingers, toes, and tail.
Phylogenetics: Field of biology that deals with the relationships
between organisms. It includes the discovery of these rela-
tionships, and the study of the causes behind this pattern.
Pinnipeds: Marine mammals, including three families of the
order Carnivora, namely Otariidae (sea lions and fur seals),
Phocidae (true seals), and Odobenidae (walrus).
Placenta: An organ that grows in the mother’s uterus and lets
the mother and developing offspring share food and oxygen
through the blood.
Placental mammal: Any species of mammal that carries embry-
onic and fetal young in the womb through a long gestation
period, made possible via the placenta, a filtering organ pass-
ing nutrients, wastes, and gases between mother and young.
Plantigrade: Walking on the heel and sole of the foot, instead of
on the toes. Plantigrade species include bears and humans.
Plate tectonics: Geological theory holding that Earth’s surface
is composed of rigid plates or sections that move about the
surface in response to internal pressure, creating the major
geographical features such as mountains.
Poach: To hunt animals illegally.
Pod: In animal behavioral science (and in some zoology uses)
the term pod is used to represent a group of whales, seals,
or dolphins.
Words to Know xxxiii

Pollen: Dust-like grains or particles produced by a plant that
contain male sex cells.
Pollination: Transfer of pollen from the male reproductive or-
gans to the female reproductive organs of plants.
Pollinator: Animal which carries pollen from one seed plant to
another, unwittingly aiding the plant in its reproduction.
Common pollinators include insects, especially bees, butter-
flies, and moths; birds; and bats.
Polyandry: A mating system in which a single female mates
with multiple males.
Polyestrous: A female animal having more than one estrous
cycle (mating period) within a year.
Polygamy: A mating system in which males and females mate
with multiple partners.
Polygyny: A mating system in which a single male mates with
multiple females.
Predator: An animal that eats other animals.
Prehensile: Able to control and use to grasp objects, charac-
teristically associated with tails. Prehensile tails have evolved
independently many times, for instance, in marsupials, ro-
dents, primates, porcupines, and chameleons.
Prey: Organism hunted and eaten by a predator.
Primary forest: A forest characterized by a full-ceiling canopy
formed by the branches of tall trees and several layers of
smaller trees. This type of forest lacks ground vegetation be-
cause sunlight cannot penetrate through the canopy.
Promiscuity: Mating in which individuals mate with as many
other individuals as they can or want to.
Puberty: The age of sexual maturity.
Q
Quadruped: Walking or running on four limbs.
R
Rabies: A viral infection spread through the bite of certain
warm-blooded animals; it attacks the nervous system and can
be fatal if untreated.
Rainforest: An evergreen woodland of the tropics distin-
guished by a continuous leaf canopy and an average rainfall
of about 100 inches (250 centimeters) per year.
xxxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Regurgitate: Eject the contents of the stomach through the
mouth; to vomit.
Rookery: A site on land where seals congregate to mate and
raise the young.
Roost: A place where animals, such as bats, sit or rest on a
perch, branch, etc.
S
Savanna: A biome characterized by an extensive cover of
grasses with scattered trees, usually transitioning between ar-
eas dominated by forests and those dominated by grasses and
having alternating seasonal climates of precipitation and
drought.
Scavenger: An animal that eats carrion, dead animals.
Scent gland: Formed from modified, or changed, sweat glands,
these glands produce and/or give off strong-smelling chem-
icals that give information, such as marking territory, to
other animals.
Scent mark: To leave an odor, such as of urine or scent gland
secretions, to mark a territory or as a means of communica-
tion.
Scrotum: The external pouch containing the testicles.
Scrub forest: A forest with short trees and shrubs.
Scrubland: An area similar to grassland but which includes
scrub (low-growing plants and trees) vegetation.
Seamount: An underwater mountain that does not rise above
the surface of the ocean.
Seashore: When referring to a biome, formed where the land
meets the ocean.
Secondary forest: A forest characterized by a less-developed
canopy, smaller trees, and a dense ground vegetation found
on the edges of forests and along rivers and streams. The im-
mature vegetation may also result from the removal of trees
by logging and/or fires.
Semiaquatic: Partially aquatic; living or growing partly on land
and partly in water.
Semiarid: Very little rainfall each year, between 10 and 20
inches (25 to 51 centimeters).
Sexually mature: Capable of reproducing.
Words to Know xxxv

Solitary: Living alone or avoiding the company of others.
Species: A group of living things that share certain distinctive
characteristics and can breed together in the wild.
Spermaceti: A waxy substance found in the head cavity of some
whales.
Steppe: Wide expanse of semiarid relatively level plains, found
in cool climates and characterized by shrubs, grasses, and
few trees.
Streamline: To smooth out.
Succulent: A plant that has fleshy leaves to conserve moisture.
Suckle: To nurse or suck on a mother’s nipple to get milk.
Syndactyly: A condition in which two bones (or digits) fuse
together to become a single bone.
T
Tactile: Having to do with the sense of touch.
Talon: A sharp hooked claw.
Taxonomy: The science dealing with the identification, nam-
ing, and classification of plants and animals.
Teat: A projection through which milk passes from the mother
to the nursing young; a nipple.
Temperate: Areas with moderate temperatures in which the
climate undergoes seasonal change in temperature and mois-
ture. Temperate regions of the earth lie primarily between
30 and 60° latitude in both hemispheres.
Terrestrial: Relating to the land or living primarily on land.
Territorial: A pattern of behavior that causes an animal to stay
in a limited area and/or to keep certain other animals of the
same species (other than its mate, herd, or family group) out
of the area.
Thicket: An area represented by a thick, or dense, growth of
shrubs, underbrush, or small trees.
Threatened: Describes a species that is threatened with ex-
tinction.
Torpor: A short period of inactivity characterized by an en-
ergy-saving, deep sleep-like state in which heart rate, respi-
ratory rate and body temperature drop.
Traction: Resistance to a surface to keep from slipping.
xxxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Tragus: A flap of skin near the base of the external ear.
Tributary: A small stream that feeds into a larger one.
Tropical: The area between 23.5° north and south of the equator.
This region has small daily and seasonal changes in tempera-
ture, but great seasonal changes in precipitation. Generally, a
hot and humid climate that is completely or almost free of frost.
Tundra: A type of ecosystem dominated by lichens, mosses,
grasses, and woody plants. It is found at high latitudes (arc-
tic tundra) and high altitudes (alpine tundra). Arctic tundra
is underlain by permafrost and usually very wet.
Turbulent: An irregular, disorderly mode of flow.
U
Underfur: Thick soft fur lying beneath the longer and coarser
guard hair.
Understory: The trees and shrubs between the forest canopy
and the ground cover.
Ungulates: Hoofed animals, such as deer and elk.
Urine washing: A monkey behavior in which it soaks its hands
with urine, then rubs the liquid on its fur and feet so as to
leave the scent throughout its forest routes.
Uterus: A pear-shaped, hollow muscular organ in which a fe-
tus develops during pregnancy.
V
Vertebra (pl. vertebrae): A component of the vertebral column,
or backbone, found in vertebrates.
Vertebrate: An animal having a spinal column (backbone).
Vertical: Being at a right angle to the horizon. Up and down
movements or supports.
Vestigial: A degenerate or imperfectly developed biological
structure that once performed a useful function at an earlier
stage of the evolution of the species.
Vibrissae: Stiff sensory hairs that can be found near the nos-
trils or other parts of the face in many mammals and the
snouts, tails, ears, and sometimes feet of many insectivores.
Vocalization: Sound made by vibration of the vocal tract.
Vulnerable: An IUCN category referring to a species that faces
a high risk of extinction.
Words to Know xxxvii

W
Wallaby: An Australian marsupial similar to a kangaroo but
smaller.
Wean: When a young animal no longer feeds on its mother’s
milk and instead begins to eat adult food.
Wetlands: Areas that are wet or covered with water for at least
part of the year and support aquatic plants, such as marshes,
swamps, and bogs.
Woodlands: An area with a lot of trees and shrubs.
Y
Yolk-sac placenta: A thin membrane that develops in the
uterus of marsupials that does not fuse with the mother’s
uterus and results in short pregnancies with the young be-
ing born with poorly developed organs.
xxxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Mammals
MAMMALS
Mammals are found on all continents and in all seas. It isn’t
easy to tell that an animal is a mammal. A combination of spe-
cial features separates mammals from other animals.
Mammal milk
Only mammals can feed their young with milk produced by
their body. This milk comes from special glands called mam-
mae. A female may have two mammary glands or as many as
a dozen or more. Mammal milk is very healthy for infants and
immediately available.
Body temperature
Mammals are warm-blooded, meaning they keep a constant
body temperature. To keep their temperature fairly constant, a
mammal needs some protective covering. Hair, made of a pro-
tein called keratin, serves several functions. One function is in-
sulation, controlling the amount of body heat that escapes into
the mammal’s environment through the skin.
Mammal hair
All mammals have hair at some time of their life. Some have
a lot, such as gorillas, and some have very little, such as the
naked mole rats. There are three types of hair: a coarse long
topcoat, a fine undercoat, and special sensory hairs, or whiskers.
In some mammals, hair has unusual forms. Porcupines have
stiff, sharp, and thickened hairs called quills. Anteaters have
Getting to Know Mammals xxxix

B
medulla
secondary hairs
cortex
sebaceous glands
cuticle
C quills
whiskers
A
A. Cross section of a hair. sharp-edged scales made of modified hairs. These modified, or
B. Hairs may provide insulation
and waterproofing. Specialized
changed, hairs are protective against predators.
hair includes quills, whiskers Mammals that live all or most of their lives in water, such
(C), and horns (D). (Illustration
by Patricia Ferrer. Reproduced as sea otters, may have a lot of dense, long hair, or fur. Oth-
by permission.) ers have much less hair, but a very thick hide, or skin, plus a
thick layer of fat or blubber underneath the hide.
Hair color and pattern may vary. Males and females may have
different fur colors. Special color patterns, such as a skunk’s
black and white fur, act as warnings. Hair color can also serve
as camouflage, enabling the mammal to blend into its back-
ground.
Some mammals have fur color changes in summer and win-
ter. Colors can be entirely different. Snowshoe rabbits and
weasels can be brownish in summer, and almost pure white
in winter. But this only happens if there is snow where they
live. If it seldom snows, weasels and snowshoe rabbits stay
brown.
xl Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

placenta
amniotic
cavity allantoic
cavity
2 months 4 months 8 months 11 months

allantois yolk sac
amniotic chorion
cavity
21 days 26 days 4 weeks after birth 12 weeks after birth
fallopian tube
uterus
ovary uterine
uterus lateral
horn vagina
cervix birth
vagina canal
A B C D E
Reproduction Top: Placental mammal

development. Middle row:
Mammals have two genetic sexes, male and female. Ninety Marsupial mammal
percent of mammals are placental (pluh-SENT-ul). In placen- development. Types of uterus:
tal mammals, the baby develops, or grows, within the mother’s A. Simplex; B. Bipartite; C.
Bicornuate; D. Duplex; E.
body before it enters the world. What about the other 10 per- Marsupial. (Illustration by
cent? These mammals lay eggs. There are only three egg-laying Patricia Ferrer. Reproduced by
mammals alive today.: permission.)
Other mammal features

Other bodily mammal features include their ability to breathe
air through their lungs. Water-dwelling mammals, such as the
whale and porpoise, do this too. Mammals have jaws, usually
with teeth. Mammals usually have four limbs. Mammals have
a four-chambered heart. Mammals have vertebrae, or back
bones, unlike invertebrates such as insects, in which there is
an outside shell or structure called an exoskeleton.
Getting to Know Mammals xli

This life-sized woolly mammoth FOSSIL MAMMALS
model is kept in the Royal
British Columbia Museum. Fossils are body parts of animals that lived very long ago.
Woolly mammoths were as tall Not many long-ago mammals are preserved as fossils. But some
as 10 feet (3 meters).
(© Jonathan Blair/Corbis.
entire mammal fossils have been discovered, such as a 10-foot
Reproduced by permission.) (3-meter) woolly mammoth preserved in Siberian frozen
ground, and an Ice Age woolly rhinoceros discovered in Poland,
preserved in asphalt.
Many long-ago mammals lived in a warm, wet world. They
ate soft, leafy plants. The earliest known mammals were possi-
bly shrew-like creatures living about 190 million years ago.
Later larger mammals occurred, then disappeared, or became
extinct. These include the mesohippus, a three-toed horse only
24 inches (60 centimeters) high; a giant pig with a head that
was 4 feet (1.22 meters) in length; and the smilodon, a huge
saber-toothed cat with canine teeth that were 8 inches (20.3
xlii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

1
centimeters) in length. By about 15,000 years ago, long-ago The Grant’s desert mole uses
its powerful forelimbs to burrow
people were hunting mammals with stone-pointed spears. Most through the sands of the
of the animals they hunted are extinct for various reasons, some Namib Desert in southern
known, and some unknown. Africa. The golden mole moves
forward (1), and enlarges the
tunnel by pushing dirt up with
WHERE MAMMALS LIVE its head and back with its
claws (2). (Illustration by
Underground mammals Jacqueline Mahannah.
Reproduced by permission.)
Some small mammals spend all or most of their lives living
underground. These include many species of prairie dogs, chip-
munks, moles, groundhogs, Greenland collared lemmings, and
Peruvian tuco-tucos. Each of these mammals has a special body
design enabling it to survive underground.
Moles have large, powerful shoulders and short, very pow-
erful forelimbs. Spade-like feet have claws, enabling quick
digging. Hind feet have webbed toes, enabling the mole to
kick soil backwards effectively. Velvety-type fur enables a
mole to slip easily through its tunnels. And, although moles
Getting to Know Mammals xliii

have almost no eyes, they can rely on touch,
smell, and sensitivity to vibration to find un-
derground insects and earthworms.
Sea mammals
Some mammals live in the sea, including
A RECENT DISCOVERY manatees, whales, seals, and dolphins. While
A bright orange, mouse-like mammal, some need air every few minutes, a sperm
weighing 0.5 ounces (15 grams) and whale can remain underwater for an hour
measuring 3.12 inches (8 centimeters) and a half. How is this possible? Some sea
plus a long tail, has recently been mammals have a very low metabolism. They
discovered in the Philippines. It has don’t use up the their oxygen quickly and
whiskers five times longer than its head. can store large amounts of oxygen in their
It can open and eat very hard tree nuts bodies.
that no other mammal in the area can eat.
Tree mammals
Some mammals spend all or most of their
lives in trees. Tree-dwelling mammals are of-
ten hidden from sight by leaves, vines, and branches. Tree-
dwelling mammals include the Eastern pygmy possum, which
nests in small tree hollows; the koala; Lumholtz’s tree kanga-
roo, which leaps from branch to branch; the three-toed sloth;
and the clouded leopard.
Flying mammals
The only truly flying mammals are bats. The sound of bat
wings was first heard about 50 million years ago. Some bats are
large, with a wingspan almost 7 feet (21.3 meters) wide. Some
are small, as the Philippine bamboo bat, whose body is just 2
inches (5.08 centimeters) long.
Other mammals only appear to fly, such as the southern fly-
ing squirrel and the colugo, or Malayan flying lemur. These
mammals have gliding membranes, skin folds from body front
to legs, that, when spread out, act almost like a parachute. For
example, the feathertail glider, a tiny possum, crawls along nar-
row branches. At branch end, it leaps out and slightly down-
ward. Spreading its gliding membranes, it speeds through the
air, landing on a nearby tree.
Mountain mammals
Some mammals spend most of their lives on mountain peaks.
These include Asian corkscrew-horned markhor goats, North
xliv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

arm (leg) bones
carpals (tarsals) B hoof
metapodials
phalanges
A C D E F G H
fat pad
American Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, and Siberian ibex. Mammals’ hands and feet
differ depending on where the
Siberian ibex can stand anyplace on any pinnacle with just animal lives and how it gets
enough room for its four feet. North American mountain goats around. A. A hominid hand is
can climb up a mountain peak, almost going straight up. Spe- used for grasping objects; B. A
bat’s wing is used for flight; C.
cially shaped hooves help.
A pinniped’s flipper helps move
Other high mountain dwelling mammals include snow leop- it through the water. Hoofed
ards and Asian pikas that can survive at 19,685 feet (6,000 me- animals move around on all
fours: D. Elephant foot; E.
ters). Gunnison’s prairie dogs do well up to 11,500 feet (3,505 Equid (horse family) foot; F.
meters). Odd-toed hoofed foot; G. Two-
toed hoofed foot; H. Four-toed
Desert mammals hoofed foot. (Illustration by
Patricia Ferrer. Reproduced by
Some mammals spend most of their lives in arid, or very dry permission.)
areas. Not all deserts are sandy like Death Valley or the Sahara.
Some are rocky. Other arid areas are mountainous. Desert
dwelling mammals include the North African elephant shrew,
white-tailed antelope squirrel, and the desert kangaroo rat. No
mammal can live without water. Desert rodents have a way to
extract, or get, water from their own body functions. Rodents
may also get water by eating plants, seeds, roots, and insects
that contain water.
Larger mammals live in arid regions too. The striped hyena
can survive in stony desert as long as it is within 6 miles (9.7
kilometers) of water. Fennecs, a very small fox living near sand
dunes, can go a long time without drinking. Camels can use
body fluids when no water is available.
WHAT DO MAMMALS EAT?

Insect-eaters
Some mammals have mostly insect meals. Insect-eating mam-
mals include the moles, aye-ayes and aardvarks. The aardvark
Getting to Know Mammals xlv

Animals, such as these Rocky
Mountain goats, may visit a
salt lick to get some of the
nutrients they need.
(© Raymond Gehman/Corbis.
has a sticky tongue that can reach out as long as 1 foot (0.3
meters) to capture its ant and termite meals.
Plant eaters
Some mammals eat nothing but plants. Plant eaters include
pandas, the West Indian manatee, and the red-bellied wallaby.
Some mammals have a single stomach that breaks the plant
food down into small pieces. Other mammals, such as cows
and camels, have a large stomach made of several parts. Each
part does a separate job of breaking down difficult-to-digest
plants.
Some mammals eat both plants and fruit. These include the
14-ounce (400-gram) Eurasian harvest mouse, the 100-pound
(45-kilogram) South American capybara, and the African ele-
phant. An elephant can eat up to 500 pounds (227 kilograms)
of grass, plants, and fruit per day.
Meat eaters
Mammals eating mostly meat or fish are carnivorous. Car-
nivorous mammals have long, pointed, and very strong incisor
teeth. Carnivores include polar bears, hyenas, walruses, and Eu-
xlvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Gnawing (rodents)
Unspecialized
incisors
(omnivore)
canine
premolars
molars
Continuously
growing incisors
Tearing (carnivores)
molars and
premolars with
large
Grinding (herbivores) sharp cusps
canines
broad, ridged
molars
ropean wild cats. The European wild cat may be an ancestor of Mammals have different tooth
shapes for different functions.
our house cats. Herbivores typically have large,
flattened teeth for chewing
Omnivores plants. Rodents’ ever-growing
Some mammals eat just about anything. They are omnivo- incisors are used for gnawing.
Carnivores have teeth for
rous. Omnivorous mammals include wolverines, raccoons, and holding and efficiently
wild pigs. Wild pigs are the ancestors of our domestic pigs. dismembering their prey.
(Illustration by Jacqueline
Mahannah. Reproduced by
MAMMAL SLEEPING HABITS permission.)
Day or night
Some mammals sleep during the night, others sleep during
the day. The night sleepers are diurnal, active during the day.
Getting to Know Mammals xlvii

THE BIGGEST, THE TALLEST, AND THE SMALLEST
The largest and heaviest mammal alive How small is this? This pygmy shrew can
today is the blue whale. One adult female travel through tunnels left by large earth-
measured 110.2 feet (33.6 meters). Blue worms!
whale weight can reach 268,400 pounds
The smallest flying mammal is the rare
(121,853 kilograms).
Kitti’s hog-nosed bat, or “bumblebee bat,”
The largest living land animal is the from Thailand. Head and body length is just
African bush elephant. From trunk tip to tail 1.14 to 1.29 inches (29 to 33 millimeters).
tip, a male has measured 33 feet (10 Weight is just 0.06 to 0.07 ounces (1.75
meters). Body weight was 24,000 pounds to 2 grams). This tiny bat was only
(10,886 kilograms). discovered in 1973.
The smallest non-flying mammal is the The tallest living animal is the giraffe.
Savi’s white-toothed pygmy shrew. An The average adult male, or bull, is 16 feet
adult’s head and body together measure (4.9 meters) high, from front hoof to head
only 2 inches (5.1 centimeters) long. Max- horn tip. This size male weighs 2,376 to
imum weight is 0.09 ounces (2.5 grams). 2,800 pounds (1,078 to 1,270 kilograms).
The day sleepers are nocturnal, active at night. They may have
special night vision. Many desert animals are nocturnal, mov-
ing about when it is cooler.
Hibernation
Some bat species hibernate through an entire winter. Hiber-
nation is like a very long deep sleep. When a mammal hiber-
nates, it uses up body fat that has accumulated from food eaten
in good weather. Hibernators include the North African jird,
groundhogs or woodchucks, and several dormice species.
Dormice enter a tree hollow or ground burrow in autumn, and
don’t come out until springtime.
Bears don’t truly hibernate. Their sleep isn’t deep. They slow
down quite a bit, and nap a lot, but do not sleep through an
entire winter.
A new hibernating pattern has just been discovered. Mada-
gascar fat-tailed lemurs hibernate in tree holes when winter day-
xlviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

time temperatures rise above 86° Fahrenheit (30° Celsius).
They sleep for seven months. Scientists belief these dwarf
lemurs find less food in what is the dry season in Madagascar,
so they go to into deep sleep to preserve energy until a better
food supply appears.
REPRODUCTION
Mating
Some mammals mate for life, such as wolves and some-
times coyotes. More commonly, a male may mate with several
females each breeding period. Or a female may mate with sev-
eral males.
Some mammals have one litter each year. Others have a lit-
ter only every two or three years. But the North American
Opossums are marsupial
meadow mouse can have seventeen litters per year. That’s a animals. The mother has a
group of babies about every three weeks! pouch in which the young
There may be one or more infants in a litter. Bats, giraffes, and continue to develop after
they’re born. (© Mary Ann
two-toed sloths have just one baby per year. However, the Mada- McDonald/Corbis. Reproduced
gascar tenrec can produce thirty-two babies in just one litter. by permission.)
Getting to Know Mammals xlix

Child care
All mammal infants need protection. They are very small com-
pared to their parents. They may be blind and hairless. Usually
females provide care. However, in a few mammal species, such
as the golden lion marmoset, the male does most of the care.
Female marsupial mammals, such as opossums, koalas, and
kangaroos, have a pouch, like a pocket, on the front or under
the body. Their tiny babies are incompletely developed when
they are born. At birth, an opossum baby is about the size of a
dime. It crawls immediately into its mother’s pouch and stays
there until ready to survive outside. The pouch contains mam-
mary glands so babies can feed.
SOCIAL LIFE
Japanese macaques are social
Solitary mammals
animals, and groom each other Some mammals are solitary. They keep company with an-
regularly. (© Herbert other of the same kind only when mating or when raising
Kehrer/OKAPIA/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced young. Solitary mammals include the giant anteaters, European
by permission.) bison, and right whales.
l Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Group living
Many mammals live in groups. In large groups, some eat, some
rest, and some keep guard. Baboons, for example, may have from
twenty to 300 animals in a group. One or more adult males lead
each group. If a predator, such as a leopard, approaches, the
males take action against it, while the females and young escape.
Some mammals travel in herds. Musk oxen travel in closely
packed herds of fifteen to 100 individuals. These herds include
males and females. Bighorn sheep females travel in herds of five
to fifteen, with a dominant ewe, or female, as the leader.
Pack mammals get their food by cooperation. They work to-
gether to bring down much larger prey. Dingoes, killer whales,
and lions hunt in packs.
MAMMALS AND PEOPLE

Domesticated mammals
About 14,000 years ago, humans began controlling, or do-
mesticating, certain animals. This made humans’ lives easier.
Horses have been

domesticated for practical
uses, such as transportation,
and for entertainment, such as
horse riding and racing.
(© Kevin R. Morris/Corbis.
Getting to Know Mammals li

Rats can spread diseases that
affect livestock and people. In
addition, they eat and
contaminate feed and their
gnawing destroys buildings.
(Jane Burton/Bruce Coleman,
Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
The earliest domesticated mammal was probably the dog. Some

scientists think hunters adopted wolf cubs and trained them to
smell out game, animals they hunted for food.
People use mammals for many purposes. Cows provide meat,
milk, cheese, butter, and hide. Camels, yaks, and Indian ele-
phants carry or pull heavy items. Water buffaloes do hauling
and can provide milk. Horses provide transportation and rac-
ing activities. Other domesticated animals include rabbits, pigs,
goats, sheep, cavies, and capybaras.
People keep animals as pets. Common mammal pets are
dogs, cats, guinea pigs, and hamsters.
Pest mammals
Some mammals are considered pests. These include rats,
mice, and, depending where they live, gophers, rabbits, and
ground squirrels. Rats can transmit disease-carrying fleas. Rab-
bits and gophers eat garden and food plants.
ENDANGERED MAMMALS
Mammals in danger
Of about 5,000 mammal species currently existing, over
1,000 are seriously endangered. Few wild mammals can live
lii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

outside their natural habitat. When land is cleared for farming
or housing, animals making homes there must leave, if there is
any place for them to go. If not, they die from starvation or
(because they are easily seen) from predators. Slowly, or
quickly, the mammal species disappears.
Many human habits lead to endangerment. Hunting for
amusement, killing for fur or body parts, native and commercial
killing for food, fishing gear entrapment, land-destructive wars,
and the illegal pet trade all take their toll. So do chemicals.
Some mammals are probably on the way to extinction, or to-
tal elimination. There are only about sixty Java rhinoceros left
in the world. The Seychelles sheath-tailed bat has only about fifty
individuals remaining. Yellow-tailed woolly monkeys number no
more than 250 individuals. Mediterranean monk seals may be
killed by scuba divers, and number only 600 individuals.
Saving endangered animals

Today many people are trying to save endangered animals.
Methods include zoo breeding, establishing forest reserves, and
training native populations that animals can be an economic
benefit. Ecotourism, people visiting a country to see its animals
in their natural habitat, is increasing. There are laws against
importing and exporting endangered species. And, in some
parts of the world, there are laws against land destruction.
Some mammals have possibly been rescued from immediate
extinction. The American bison once roamed the North Amer-
ican prairies, numbering about 50 million. After slaughter by
soldiers and settlers for food and sport, by 1889 only 541 re-
mained alive. Now, in the United States, there are about 35,000
in protected areas. California northern elephant seals were once
reduced to fewer than 100 members due to hunting. Today,
protected, there are about 50,000. The ibex was once hunted
for supposedly curative body parts and few were left. But in
1922, a National Park was established in the Italian Alps, where
several thousand now live. The Mongolian wild horse, once
thought to be extinct, now has a special reserve in Mongolia.
Too late to save

Some mammals became extinct only recently. Recently ex-
tinct animals include Steller’s sea cows, which became extinct
in about 1768. The Tasmanian wolf was last seen in 1933, elim-
inated by bounty hunters. The African bluebuck disappeared
Getting to Know Mammals liii

from Earth in 1880. The quagga, from southern Asia, was
hunted for hides and meat. The last known quagga, a relative
of the zebra, died in a Dutch zoo in 1883.
FOR MORE INFORMATION

Books
Boitani, Luigi, and Stefania Bartoli. Guide to Mammals. New
York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.
Booth, Ernest S. How to Know the Mammals. Dubuque, IA: Wm.
C. Brown Company Publishers, 1982.
Embery, Joan, and Edward Lucaire. Joan Embery’s Collection of
Amazing Animal Facts. New York: Dell Publishing, 1983.
Jones, J. Knox Jr., and David M. Armstrong. Guide to Mammals
of the Plains States. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska
Press, 1985.
Kite, L. Patricia. Raccoons. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications
Company, 2004.
Kite, L. Patricia. Blood-Feeding Bugs and Beasts. Brookfield, CT:
Millbrook Press, 1996.
Line, Les, and Edward Ricciuti. National Audubon Society Book
of Wild Animals. New York: H. L. Abrams, 1996.
Nowak, Ronald M., and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of
the World. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity Press, 1983.
Vogel, Julia, and John F. McGee. Dolphins (Our Wild World.
Minnetonka, MN: Northword Press, 2001.
Walters, Martin. Young Readers Book of Animals. New York,
London, Toronto, Sydney, and Tokyo: Simon & Schuster
Books for Young Readers, 1990.
Whitaker, John O. Jr. National Audubon Society Field Guide
to North American Mammals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
2000.
Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reeder. Mammal Species of the World.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.
Wood, Gerald L. Animal Facts and Feats. New York: Sterling
Publishing, 1977.
Woods, Samuel G., and Jeff Cline. Amazing Book of Mammal
Records: The Largest, the Smallest, the Fastest, and Many More!
Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch Press, 2000.
liv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Periodicals
Allen, Leslie. “Return of the Pandas.” Smithsonian Magazine
(April 2001): 44–55.
Chadwick, Douglas H. “A Mine of Its Own.” Smithsonian Mag-
azine (May 2004): 26–27.
Cheater, Mark. “Three Decades of the Endangered Species Act.”
Defenders (Fall 2003): 8–13.
Conover, Adele. “The Object at Hand.” Smithsonian Magazine
(October 1996).
Gore, Rick. “The Rise of Mammals.” National Geographic (April
2003): 2–37.
Mitchell, Meghan. “Securing Madagascar’s Rare Wildlife.” Sci-
ence News (November 1, 1997): 287.
Pittman, Craig. “Fury Over a Gentle Giant.” Smithsonian Mag-
azine (February 2004): 54–59.
“Prehistoric Mammals.” Ranger Rick (October 2000): 16.
Sherwonit, Bill. “Protecting the Wolves of Denali.” National
Parks Magazine (September/October 2003): 21–25.
Sunquist, Fiona. “Discover Rare Mystery Mammals.” National
Geographic (January 1999): 22–29.
Weidensaul, Scott. “The Rarest of the Rare.” Smithsonian Mag-
azine (November 2000): 118–128.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World
(January 2000): 22–25.
Web sites
Animal Info. http://www.animalinfo.org/ (accessed on June 6,
2004).
“Class Mammalia.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Mammalia004
(accessed on June 5, 2004).
“Hibernating Primate Found in Tropics.” CNN Science &
Space. http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/06/24/science
.hibernation.reuit/inex.html (accessed on June 24, 2004).
“Ice Age Mammals.” National Museum of Natural History.
http://www.mnh.si.edu/museum/VirtualTour/Tour/First/
IceAge/index.html (accessed on June 6, 2004).
“Mammary Glands.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity
.ummz.umich.edu/site/topics/mammal_anatomy/mammary_
glands.html (accessed on June 6, 2004).
Getting to Know Mammals lv

MONOTREMES
Monotremata
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Number of families: 2 families
order C H A P T E R
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS phylum
“Monotreme” means “one opening” and refers to the single class
rear orifice, or opening, that these animals have for getting rid
subclass
of wastes, laying eggs, and mating. The lower intestine, excre-
tory system (system that gets rid of wastes), and reproductive ● order
system all end at this opening, called the cloaca (kloh-AY-kah). monotypic order
This feature is common in reptiles and birds but extremely rare
among mammals. suborder
Trying to describe a “typical” monotreme (MAHN-ah-treem) family

is difficult, since the only two living types, the platypus and the
echidna (ih-KID-nah), do not look much alike at first glance.
The platypus is built in a streamlined manner, like an otter, has
soft fur, and its snout resembles a duck’s bill, while the echidna
looks like a pudgy, waddling watermelon covered with fur and
sharp spines, with a narrow, hornlike snout. Although echidnas
may look overweight, most of the soft tissue mass that might be
mistaken for blubber is muscle, lots of it. The platypus is semi-
aquatic, hunting animal food underwater but sheltering in a dry
burrow, but the echidnas are land animals that forage, or search,
in the soil for insects and worms.
Adult platypus are about the size of house cats, while echid-
nas range from twice to three times as large as a house cat. An
adult platypus weighs from 3 to 5 pounds (1.4 to 2.3 kilograms),
and its adult head and body length runs 12 to 18 inches (30 to
46 centimeters), the tail adding another 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15
centimeters). The short-beaked, or short-nosed, echidna can
grow up to 14 pounds (6.4 kilograms), with a head and body
Monotremes 1
length of up to 21 inches (53 centimeters), the stubby tail adding
another 3 or 4 inches (7.6 to 10 centimeters). The long-beaked,
or long-nosed, echidna weighs up to twenty pounds, with a head
and body length ranging from 18 to 31 inches (45 to 77.5 cen-
timeters), while the tail, like that of the short-nosed echidna, is
a mere stubby shoot. Male platypus and male echidnas are larger
than females.
Platypus and echidnas are often called “primitive” because
they carry a number of reptilian, or reptile-like, characteristics
along with typically mammalian features. Ever since the first
discovery of monotremes by Europeans in the late 1700s, zool-
ogists, scientists who study animals, have been busy studying
this mix of details in order to place the monotremes properly
in the framework of mammalian evolution. Even more confus-
ing is that the living monotremes have a number of modified,
or changed, features all their own, examples being the snouts
of platypus and echidnas.
The most well-known and special feature of the monotremes,
and the one that seems most reptilian, is that the females lay
eggs rather than giving live birth. Monotremes are the only liv-
ing, egg-laying mammals. Other characteristics that platypus and
echidnas have in common are similar skeletons and highly mod-
ified snouts equipped with nerves whose endings are sensitive
to pressure and to natural electricity. Monotremes have fur, but
not whiskers, while the echidnas, in addition to fur, have sharp,
defensive spines, which are modified hairs, scattered over their
backs and sides.
Monotremes walk in a reptilian manner, like alligators and
crocodiles. Like the arms of someone in the middle of doing a
pushup, the upper bones of monotreme forelimbs and hindlimbs
go straight out from the body, horizontal to the ground, and the
lower limb bones go straight down. Other lines of mammal evo-
lution have abandoned this clumsy sort of movement and now
carry their entire legs vertically beneath their bodies. Zoologists
are not yet sure if the push-up style of legs and walking in
monotremes is something left over from their reptilian ancestors
or if they are more recent changes to fit their lifestyles.
Another odd monotreme characteristic is that male and fe-
male platypus, and male echidnas, have short, sharp, hollow,
defensive spurs on the inner sides of the ankles of their rear
limbs. The spurs of the male platypus connect with poison
glands and are fully functional as stingers.
2 Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Monotremes are found in Australia and New Guinea. Platy-
pus are found in Australia, including the southern island of
Tasmania. Echidnas are found in Australia, Tasmania, and New
Guinea. Fossil evidence from sixty-three million years ago con-
firms that monotremes once lived in South America, dating
back to a remote time when the continents of Australia, Antarc-
tica, and South America were closer to one another and
connected by dry land.
HABITAT
Platypus live alongside bodies of fresh water, in tropical and
temperate (mild) regions of eastern Australia. Echidnas live in
most of the wet and dry biomes of Australia, and in the low-
land and highland tropical forests of New Guinea.
DIET
Platypus hunt underwater, snagging and eating various small
water creatures. The short-beaked echidna shovels soil and tears
up logs for ants and termites, while the long-beaked echidna
digs up and eats mainly earthworms.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
The most well-known feature of monotremes is their method
of reproduction. They are the only living mammals in which
females lay eggs instead of giving live birth. The length of time
the egg remains within the mother is short, only twelve to
twenty days. While the egg is still within the mother’s oviduct
(the tube leading from the ovaries to the cloaca), the tissues of
the oviduct secrete a shell onto the egg, as happens in birds
and egg-laying reptiles. The monotreme eggshell is soft and
leathery, and porous enough to soak up nutrients secreted into
the oviduct from the mother’s circulatory system.
The embryo begins its development before the egg is laid.
When the mother lays her egg, the embryo has already devel-
oped to about the same degree as a newborn marsupial. The
eggshell is leathery, like a reptile’s, spherical, and small, 0.5 to
0.6 inches (13 to 15 millimeters) in diameter, or the size of a
grape. After about ten days of the egg’s incubation, the young
hatches by tearing at the shell by means of a temporary egg tooth
on its snout. When the youngster is fully hatched, it nestles close
to the mother and feeds on her milk. The young are weaned at
four to six months of age.
Monotremes 3
Female echidnas and platypus may lay up to three eggs at a
time, but one is normal, and monotreme females usually bear
and raise only one young per year. Females do all the raising
of the young. Except during the mating season, individual platy-
pus and echidnas of both sexes lead solitary lives.
A platypus mother incubates her eggs by curling her tail and
holding the eggs between the tail and her warm underbelly. She
incubates and nurses her young in a “birth chamber” burrow,
which she digs and lines with moist leaves and water plants to
maintain humidity. Echidna mothers form simple, temporary
pouches by constricting special long muscles of their under-
bellies, and in which they incubate the eggs and later carry the
developing young.
The monotremes are unique in yet another way. They are
the only mammals to carry a sensory system that detects elec-
tricity, along with their usual senses of sight, hearing, etc. The
platypus bill contains tiny electroreceptors, specialized sensory
nerve endings arranged in rows along the length of the bill, on
the upper and lower surfaces. These detect electricity from the
muscular systems of underwater animals that the platypus
hunts, and even from the electricity created by water as it flows
over rocks on the bottom of the lake or river. The electrore-
ceptors are located together with mechanoreceptors that detect
underwater turbulence. Together, the two senses allow the
platypus to put together a three-dimensional “picture” of its
underwater hunting territory.
The bills of echidnas also have electroreceptors, though
much fewer than in platypus. Biologists have confirmed the
platypus’s use of the electrosense, while this has not been found
working in echidnas. Most likely the echidnas are gradually los-
ing the electrosense while platypus have developed it into one
of nature’s most complex sensory systems.
MONOTREMES AND PEOPLE
The special features of monotremes that set them apart from
other mammals make them subjects of fascination and curios-
ity. Nearly everyone has heard about the platypus and knows
that it is an egg-laying mammal. The reptilian features of the
living monotremes provide a valuable window back in time to
when reptiles were evolving into mammals.
Platypus fur was once a valued commodity because of its
softness and fine texture. Hunting of the platypus in the late

1800s and early 1900s nearly drove the ani-
mals to extinction. Strict laws within Aus-
tralia now protect platypus and echidnas,
and the animals are fairly abundant today.
Echidnas in New Guinea are sometimes
considered pests because they dig up gardens
and farmland in their unending search for FOUR WORDS
ants, termites, and earthworms. Habitat loss One of the shortest telegrams ever
threatens the long-nosed echidna because it sent was the one that confirmed the fact
is confined to upland New Guinean forest, a that platypus and echidnas lay eggs instead
limited habitat. The New Guinean echidnas of giving live birth. Aboriginals and white
are also hunted for food. settlers had been asserting this for
decades, but it seemed so improbable that
CONSERVATION STATUS zoologists insisted on proof. The Scottish
Platypus and short-nosed echidnas are pro- zoologist William Hay Caldwell traveled
tected by law in Australia. Platypus are fairly to Australia in 1884 to study platypus and
plentiful in their somewhat limited area. echidnas in the wild. Aboriginals, with
Short-nosed echidnas are plentiful and wide- their excellent tracking skills, helped by
spread, because they can live in many differ- catching the animals in the wilderness
ent types of biome. Long-nosed echidnas are and bringing them to Caldwell. When
Endangered, and under serious threat in New he finally did confirm that echidnas
Guinea from loss of habitat and being hunted and platypus are egg-layers, he sent
the following telegram, on September 2,
for food with the help of trained dogs.
1884 to the British Association for the
Probably the most serious problem facing Advancement of Science, which was
these animals is being hunted, killed, and holding its annual meeting in Montreal:
eaten by carnivorous mammals introduced to “Monotremes oviparous, ovum meroblastic.”
Australia and New Guinea by Europeans, The words meant that monotremes lay
such as dogs, cats, rats, and foxes. Native eggs, and the eggs have large yolks, like
animals prey on the monotremes as well, in- birds’ eggs.
cluding some of the larger lizards and the
dingo, a breed of dog that the ancestors of
the Aborigines brought with them when they
colonized Australia thousands of years ago.
Books:
Augee, M. L., ed. Platypus and Echidnas. Australia: Royal Zoological So-
ciety of New South Wales, 1992.
Moyal, Ann. Platypus: the Extraordinary Story of How a Curious Creature
Baffled the World. Australia: Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd, 2002.
Monotremes 5
Periodicals:
Pascual, Rosendo, et al. “First Discovery of Monotremes in South Amer-
ica.” Nature 356, no. 6371 (April 1992): 704–706.
Krubitzer, L. “What Can Monotremes Tell Us About Brain Evolution?”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Biological
Sciences 353, no. 1372 (July 1998): 1127–1146.
Pettigrew, J. D., P. R. Manger, and S. L. B. Fine. “The Sensory World of
the Platypus.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, Biological Sciences 353, no. 1372 (July 1998): 1199–1210.
Pettigrew, J. D. “Electroreception in Monotremes.” Journal of Experi-
mental Biology 202, no. 10 (1999): 1447–1454.
Vergnani, Linda. “On the Trail of Scientific Oddballs (Peggy Rismiller
Studies Echidnas).” The Chronicle of Higher Education 48, no. 11
(2001): A72.
Web sites:
Australian Platypus Conservancy. http://www.totalretail.com/platypus
“Links for Platypus and Echidnas.” Department of Anatomy & Physiology,
University of Tasmania, Hobart. http://www.healthsci.utas.edu.au/
medicine/research/mono/References.html (accessed on June 29, 2004).
Pelican Lagoon Research Centre (for echidnas and other animals).
http://www.echidna.edu.au/index.html (accessed on June 29, 2004).

ECHIDNAS
Tachyglossidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Family: Tachyglossidae
Number of species: 2 species
family C H A P T E R
Echidnas (ih-KID-nahz), also called spiny anteaters, are solidly class
built, short-legged, shuffling mammals that can grow fairly large,
subclass
up to 14 pounds (6.5 kilograms) for the short-beaked (or short-
nosed) echidna and up to 20 pounds (9 kilograms) for the long- order
beaked (or long-nosed). Head and body length in an adult monotypic order
short-beaked echidna can reach 21 inches (53 centimeters), the
stubby tail adding another 3.5 inches (9 centimeters). Head and suborder
body length in adult long-beaked echidnas gets as long as 30.5 ▲ family
inches (77.5 centimeters), and the tail, like that of the short-
beaked echidna, is a mere stubby shoot. Male echidnas are larger
than females. Although echidnas may look overweight, most of
the soft tissue mass that might be mistaken for blubber is mus-
cle, lots of it.
The two species look similar but some differences are obvi-
ous, especially the snout, which is made of bone, cartilage, and
keratin (what claws and fingernails are made of). The snout is
shorter and straight or slightly upturned in the short-beaked
echidna, but longer, thinner, and downcurving, like the bill of
a nectar-sipping bird, in the long-beaked echidna. An echidna’s
head is small and the neck is not obvious, so that the head
seems to flow directly into the body.
Echidnas have full coats of brown or black hair, with scat-
tered, hollow spines, which are really modified hairs, studding
the body on the back and sides. The spines are yellow with
black tips in some animals, and up to 2.4 inches (6 centime-
ters) long. In short-beaked echidnas, the spines are longer than
Echidnas 7
the fur, so that the spines are noticeable, but the coat of the
long-beaked echidna is just the opposite: the fur is long enough
to cover most of the spines.
The four legs are short, with powerful muscles and claws,
proper for an animal that frequently digs in the soil and tears
open logs and termite mounds. The hind feet point backwards,
and are used to push soil away and out when the animal is
burrowing.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The short-beaked echidna lives throughout Australia,
Tasmania, and the lowlands of New Guinea. The long-beaked
echidna lives only in the New Guinea highlands.
HABITAT
The short-beaked echidna lives wherever its main food
sources, ants and termites, are abundant enough to keep it fed,
allowing the species to occupy nearly all habitat types in Aus-
tralia and New Guinea, from tropical rainforest and grassland
to desert. The long-beaked echidna is confined to alpine mead-
ows up to 12,000 feet (3,660 meters) above sea level, and to
humid mountain forests in the New Guinea highlands.
DIET
The short-beaked echidna feeds mainly on ants and termites,
but varies its menu with beetles, and grubs, and the like. The
animal forages (searches for food) usually by day, or in early
morning and evening during very hot weather. It digs up soil,
and tears open rotten logs and termite mounds to get at its food.
The diet of a long-beaked echidna is almost entirely earth-
worms, but it varies its diet with insects. The long-beaked
echidna feeds at night, poking around in the soil and the blan-
ket of fallen leaves and other litter on the forest floor, sniffing
for worms and insects.

Echidnas are monotremes, their only living relative being the
platypus, and the three species together are the only living, egg-
laying mammals. The mother echidna bears a single, small egg
with a leathery shell that she tucks into a temporary pouch,
where the offspring will hatch and nurse itself on milk excreted
through pores (but no nipples) in the mother’s skin within the
pouch.

THE ANTEATER SYNDROME
Besides echidnas, several kinds of either have no teeth at all or lose them before
unrelated mammals that eat mostly ants and they mature (echidnas, New World anteaters,
termites have evolved in several parts of the pangolins), lose most of their teeth but keep
world. The others are the anteaters of Central a few (aardvarks), or seem to be slowly losing
and South America, the aardvark of Africa, their teeth over evolutionary time (numbats).
the pangolins of Africa and Asia, and the These ant-eating animals have keen
numbat of Australia. Mammals that feast senses of scent and hearing, poor eyesight,
mainly on ants and termites need to be born and walk clumsily because their long, curved
with certain natural, built-in tools for the job, claws slow their gait. They are not diverse.
and all these creatures have them: long, There is only one species of numbat and one
sticky, whiplike tongues that can shoot out of of aardvark, two of echidnas, four of New
narrow, elongated, tube-shaped snouts; World anteaters, and seven of pangolins.
powerful, curved, hooklike claws and heavily Individual animals of these species lead
muscled limbs for tearing apart termite solitary lives, socialize only to mate, and
castles or digging up ant colonies; and females nearly always bear and raise one
powerfully muscled bodies. These animals young at a time.
If threatened, an echidna has several options for defense. It

can run, climb a tree, or swim. Echidnas do these things quite
well. It can wedge itself into a small cranny between rocks, an-
choring itself with its paws and spines. If in the open, the
echidna can dig itself a hole well within a minute, burying it-
self, leaving some of the spines on its back poking above the
soil as a final barrier.
ECHIDNAS AND PEOPLE
Echidnas are not as well known as the platypus, but they
fascinate naturalists and zoologists for the same reasons: they
lay eggs, have a combination of reptilian and mammalian char-
acteristics, and remind us of a time when reptiles were evolv-
ing into mammals.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The short-beaked echidna is still plentiful in Australia,
and has no special conservation status listing at present. The
Echidnas 9
long-beaked echidna of New Guinea, on the other hand, is far-
ing poorly. Its forest habitat is being cleared for logging, min-
ing, and agriculture, and people hunt the echidna for food with
packs of trained dogs. Because of these threats, the long-beaked
echidna is listed as Endangered.

Short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus)
SPECIES
SHORT-BEAKED ECHIDNA ACCOUNT
Tachyglossus aculeatus
Physical characteristics: The short-beaked echidna is a compact,

heavily muscled, short-legged creature covered with fur and an array
of sharp spines. From a distance, it looks and moves something like
a porcupine. Up close, it looks less like a porcupine and more like a
waddling shrub of grass-like leaves and sharp thorns with a long,
probing twig (the snout) at the forward end.
Adult short-beaked echidnas range in head and body length

from 14 to 21 inches (35 to 53 centimeters), the stubby tail adding
another 3.5 inches (8.9 centimeters). Males weigh about 14 pounds
(6 kilograms), while females weigh about 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms).
Echidnas 11
The short-beaked echidna can
use its spines and claws to stay
wedged in a small space for
protection. If it cannot hide, the
echidna can roll into a ball,
leaving its spines exposed.
(Illustration by Barbara
Duperron. Reproduced by
permission.)
The pelt (fur) varies in color and thickness throughout the species’
range, being darker and thicker as one moves south. In northern Aus-
tralia, echidna pelts are light brown, while in Tasmania they are black.
Geographic range: Australia, Tasmania, and the lowlands of New

Guinea.
Habitat: The short-beaked echidna can live in nearly any habitat where
it can count on a steady food supply of ants and termites. This adapt-
ability has allowed the species to occupy nearly all habitat types in Aus-
tralia and New Guinea, from tropical rainforest and grassland to desert.
Diet: Short-beaked echidnas are ground foragers that feed by wan-

dering across fields and forest floors, sniffing and lightly poking at
the soil with their hard snouts, then gouging out dirt with their pow-
erful legs and claws from an area where the animal has detected ants,
termites, worms, or other soil-living creatures. Or, an echidna may
tear open a rotten log to get at ants, or a termite mound for termites.
Once an echidna has exposed the insects or worms, it shoots out its
long, ropy, sticky tongue, laps up the insects, then reels in the tongue,
loaded along its length with up to twenty insects at a time.
Behavior and reproduction: Short-beaked echidnas have one annual

breeding season, July through August. Courtship behavior in echidnas
is a sight not soon forgotten, since several males will follow single
file in an “echidna train” behind a female for one to six weeks. Sooner
or later, the female halts and the males encircle her continuously,

gouging out a circle of dirt around her. The female at last selects one
male from the gang and mates with him, after which the two part and
go separate ways. Fathers do not help with raising the young.
About twenty-four days after mating, the female lays her egg. When
the mother senses that the egg is ready to emerge, she lays on her
back and guides it as it slowly rolls down and over her underbelly
and into the pouch, which closes to hold and shelter the egg.
A newly hatched echidna is the size of a jellybean. The mother car-
ries the hatchling in her pouch for fifty to fifty-five days. She then re-
moves the youngster and hides it in a burrow or cave, returning every
five days to nurse the infant. The youngster is able to move about and
forage but continues to nurse until it is six months old, and becomes
independent at one year of age.
To protect itself, a short-beaked echidna may wedge itself into
small spaces in burrows, rocks, or tree roots, where it can secure it-
self by using its claws and spines to wedge its body within the space.
If caught in the open, the echidna can roll itself into a ball, head and
legs tucked underneath and the protective spines pointing outward.
It can also burrow and bury itself in the soil within a minute, leav-
ing only its topmost spines visible as a final defense.
Short-beaked echidnas and people: Most people in Australia are

either fond of echidnas or indifferent toward them. They are not con-
sidered pest animals.
Conservation status: Short-beaked echidnas are protected by law

in Australia, and are plentiful there, since they can adapt to a wide
range of habitats. Despite their high population, their numbers are
declining. Research on short-beaked echidnas is ongoing at Pelican
Lagoon Research Center on Kangaroo Island, Australia. ■
Books:
Kennedy, Michael, compiler. Australasian Marsupials and Monotremes:
An Action Plan for Their Conservation. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, Species
Survival Commission, Australasian Marsupial and Monotreme Specialist
Group, 1992.
Rismiller, Peggy. The Echidna: Australia’s Enigma. Westport, CT: Hugh
Lauter Levin Associates, 1999.
Stodart, Eleanor. The Australian Echidna. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1991.
Echidnas 13
Periodicals:
Griffiths, M., B. Green, R. M. C. Leckie, M. Messer, and K.W. Newgrain.
“Constituents of Platypus and Echidna Milk.” Australian Journal of Bio-
logical Science no. 37 (1984): 323–329.
Vergnani, Linda. “On the Trail of Scientific Oddballs. (Peggy Rismiller stud-
ies echidnas).” The Chronicle of Higher Education 48, no. 11 (Nov 9,
2001): A72(1).
Web sites:
Echidna Central. http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/echidnas (accessed
on June 29, 2004)
Pelican Lagoon Research Centre, Australia. http://www.echidna.edu.au/

DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS
Ornithorhynchidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Monotremata
Family: Ornithorhynchidae
One species: Duck-billed platypus
(Ornithorynchus
anatinus)
A platypus, at first glance, resembles an otter with a duck’s bill class
on its face and a beaver’s tail in back. An adult platypus, about
the size of a house cat, weighs from 3 to 5 pounds (1.5 to 2.5 subclass
kilograms), its adult head and body length runs 12 to 18 inches order
(30 to 45 centimeters), and the tail adds another 4 to 6 inches
monotypic order
(10 to 15 centimeters). Males are larger than females.
The snout, despite its duckbill shape, is soft, moist, and rub- suborder
bery in texture, not hard like a bird’s beak. The bill has an ▲ family
upper and lower section, like that of a mammal or bird, and
the jaw hinging and motions are like those of mammals. The
nostrils are set close together on the top of the upper bill.
The word “platypus” means “flat feet,” referring to the
animal’s webbed, somewhat ducklike feet. The scientific name,
Ornithorhynchus anatinus, means, in Latin, “bird-snout, resem-
bling a duck.” The plural is “platypuses” or just “platypus.”
Most of the body is covered with fine, soft fur. The pelt color
varies from dark amber to very dark brown on the platypus’s
back and sides, and from grayish white to yellowish brown on
the underbelly. Platypus fur is fine, soft, and dense, with up to
900 hairs per square inch of skin. The fur has two layers, an
undercoat with a woolly texture and an overcoat of coarser hair.
As the platypus dives, the two fur layers trap a layer of air next
to the skin, thus keeping the body dry and helping to insulate
it against cold while the platypus swims, often throughout the
night, and sometimes in temperatures close to freezing.
The body is somewhat flattened and streamlined. The limbs
are short and muscular. As in other monotremes, the limbs of
Duck-Billed Platypus 15
the platypus are set in a permanent push-up position, the up-
per limb bones extending out from the sides of the body, hori-
zontal to the ground, the lower limb bones going straight down.
Although an excellent swimmer, the platypus is clumsy when
trying to walk on land, and seldom does so anyway, except
within its tunnels, since it burns up twice as much body energy
moving about on land as it does swimming underwater.
All four feet have five claws apiece and are webbed, but the
webbing of the front feet extends in a flat flange beyond the
toes when the platypus swims. Back on land or in its burrow,
the animal folds the extra webbing under its forefeet and walks
on its knuckles. The platypus uses the forelimbs and forefeet
for swimming and digging, while using the hind feet and claws
as combs to keep the fur clean and waterproof.
The eyes are small and the external ears are mere holes in
the skull, although the internal structure of the ears is like that
of other mammals. There are two long grooves for protecting
the eyes and ears, a single groove surrounding both the eye
and ear on each side. These grooves are closed underwater,
shutting both eyes and ears, when the platypus dives to hunt
for food. Out of water, the senses of sight and hearing
are sharp.
Both hind limbs of the male bear hollow, pointed, poison spurs
mounted on the insides of the ankles, just above the heels. There
are venom glands, one in each thigh, called the “crural glands”
because they are controlled by the crural nerves, which are ma-
jor motor nerves of the hindlimbs. The glands secrete venom that
is passed through ducts to the sharp spurs, which the platypus
can erect like jacknife blades and stab into other animals.
Both sexes have the spurs when they are young. At four
months of age, male spurs are protected by a covering of
whitish, chalky material that sloughs off completely by the end
of the first year of age. Females bear smaller, useless spurs,
without venom, that they shed by ten months of age.
The platypus’s flat, beaverlike tail is used as a swimming rud-
der, a shovel, for fat storage, and by the mother for keeping
eggs and young warm. The tail can store up to fifty percent of
a platypus’s total load of body fat. Female platypus use the tail
to carry leaves to the nesting chamber, and both sexes use it to
sweep loosened soil out of the way when digging. The tail has
no fine fur, only coarse, bristly hair on its upper surface to aid
in carrying or sweeping.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Platypus are found only in mainland Australia and the south-
ern island of Tasmania. Platypus are distributed along Australia’s
east coast, to about 500 miles (800 kilometers) inland, from Cook-
town, Queensland to Melbourne, Victoria, and into Tasmania.
HABITAT
All platypus live on the edges of freshwater bodies like lakes,
ponds, rivers, and streams, in tropical and temperate regions.
DIET
The platypus eats small freshwater animals, which it hunts
at night, underwater, with its eyes and ears closed. It finds and
catches underwater creatures that are swimming or sunken in
the bottom mud by tracking them down with its sensitive bill,
which can detect electricity and motion.
Diet is varied, including adult and larval water insects, cray-
fish (called “yabbies” in Australia), fish, frogs, tadpoles, snails,
spiders, freshwater mussels, worms, fish eggs, and unlucky in-
sects that fall into the water from overhanging trees. Occasion-
ally, platypus probe for food at the edge of the water, grubbing
under rocks or among roots of plants. A platypus must eat one
third to one half of its body weight in food every day.

Platypus are either solitary, or a male and female may live to-
gether, sharing a burrow. Platypus build two types of burrows
along the banks of creeks and ponds. One is a “camping bur-
rows,” an all-purpose shelter for male and female; the other is the
“nesting burrow,” built only by the female, and containing a
breeding chamber, or room, for birthing and raising the young.
Both sorts of burrows keep their entrances at, slightly above, or
below water level, the entrance tunnel climbing at an angle a few
feet above water level to prevent flooding of the burrow. The
openings can be difficult to spot, since platypus prefer to build
them as hidden as possible in sturdy, concave banks with reeds
and other aquatic plants at the water’s edge, and overhanging sod
and tree roots.
A burrow’s entrance tunnel is barely wide enough to allow
the platypus to pass, so that when the animal emerges from wa-
ter and forces itself through the entrance tunnel, water on the
pelt is squeezed and sponged off, and the platypus’s fur is dry
when it enters the main tunnel. A platypus may have up to a
dozen camping burrows strung along the banks of its territory,
providing numerous nearby, safe havens. The animal rotates
the burrows for shelter, staying at each a few days, probably to
keep down its population of parasites.
A nesting burrow can be as long as 90 feet (30 meters), with
two or more branching tunnels that circle about and eventu-
ally lead to the central nesting chamber.
Platypus normally hunt and feed at night, but have been seen
doing so in the daytime. In the water, a platypus propels itself
with powerful strokes of its forelimbs, the extended webbing
adding extra push to the motions. It uses the hindlimbs and
tail only for steering. As it swims, the platypus swings its head
from side to side, allowing a full scan of its surroundings with
its sensitive bill. The platypus feeds by snagging swimming
creatures with its bill and by rousting them out of stream bot-
tom mud and gravel, shoveling it up with its bill to put buried
creatures to flight, then catching them as they try to escape.
Since the platypus must breathe air, it combines underwater
hunting with trips to the surface to exhale and inhale. It will
usually stay submerged for about a minute at a time, although
it can stay submerged for up to five minutes. Platypus blood is
especially rich in red cells and hemoglobin, the substance in
blood that carries oxygen. The platypus can also ration its blood
oxygen supply by reducing its heartbeat from two hundred
beats per minute to ten beats per minute.
When not out hunting, a platypus rests in its burrow for up
to seventeen hours a day. Platypus are active throughout the
year, even in cooler southern Australia and Tasmania, where
water temperature drops nearly to the freezing point. Individ-
uals have been known to go into periods of torpor, or slug-
gishness and reduced activity with a lowering of body
temperature, during the coldest months. Such a period, which
can last up to six days, is not true hibernation but allows the
animal to conserve energy in cold times.
Platypus are for the most part silent. Some naturalists have
heard threatened platypus make soft, growling sounds that are
only audible at close range. Lifespans for platypus in captivity
and in the wild can reach sixteen years.
Platypus mate from August to October. Following an elabo-
rate courtship ritual that includes the male holding on to the
female’s tail, and the pair swimming in slow circles, the two cop-
ulate in the water. Then the female tends to the nesting burrow

SEEING ELECTRICITY AND PRESSURE?
The monotremes, the echidnas and two senses allow the platypus to home in
platypus, are the only living mammals that are on prey.
known to have an ability to sense electricity.
In addition to detecting bursts of electricity
The platypus bill is something unique in
from prey animals, the electroreceptors in a
nature, so sophisticated and advanced that
platypus’s bill can probably detect the tiny
no one can call the platypus “primitive.” The
electric currents made by water flowing over
skin surface of the bill contains 40,000 tiny
and around rocks and sunken logs, thus
electroreceptors, or specialized sensory nerve
endings, arranged in rows along the length of producing a three-dimensional map of a river
the bill. These detect tiny, underwater bursts or lake bottom within the platypus brain. In
of electricity from the muscles of swimming the platypus, the combined abilities of
creatures that the platypus hunts. The electroreception and mechanoreception are
electroreceptors are intermingled with 60,000 so sensitive and detailed that they have
mechanoreceptors, nerves ending at the skin become something like vision, providing a
in tiny “push rods” that respond to small three-dimensional “view” of the platypus’s
pressure changes and detect the movements underwater world, and enabling the platypus
of prey animals underwater and on the to pinpoint, in all three dimensions, the exact
bottoms of streams and ponds. Together, the locations of its prey.
and chamber, carrying wet leaves and moss with her folded tail
for lining the chamber, to prevent the eggs from drying out. The
female lays one to three eggs in the chamber two to four weeks
after mating. A typical egg is slightly oval, about half an inch
in diameter (13 millimeters), with a soft, leathery shell like a
reptile’s.
The mother incubates the eggs by holding them against her
belly fur with her tail, maintaining a constant temperature of
90°F (31.5°C). The young hatch in about ten days, each tear-
ing through the eggshell with a temporary egg tooth. The newly
hatched, inch-long young are fragile and translucent, blind and
furless, and at about the same stage of development as a newly
born marsupial young.
The mother, having no nipples, nurses the young with milk
that comes directly from her belly skin. In about four months,
Duck-billed platypus (Ornithorynchus anatinus)
the young emerge for the first time from the burrow, each about
a foot long and with a full coat of fur.
Predators of platypus, other than humans, include birds of
prey such as hawks, eagles, and owls; Murray cod, a freshwa-
ter fish; and crocodiles. Carpet pythons, goanna lizards and
rakali, or Australian water-rats, prey on young platypus in bur-
rows. Carnivorous mammal species introduced by European
settlers, including foxes, dogs, and cats, prey on platypus, al-
though some of these predators are dealt painful ends by the
poison spurs of male platypus.
PLATYPUS AND PEOPLE

The platypus, almost as much as the kangaroo, has become
a national symbol of Australia and of the odd, weird, and
outright bizarre creatures native to that continent and country.
The platypus is a symbol, as well, for the unique, the quirky,

and the unexpected in nature, which makes the animal and its The world’s first platypus twin
puggles (baby platypus) born in
behavior a subject of curiosity and science education. captivity are shown together for
Platypus were nearly wiped out by hunting, into the early the first time in 2003. (AFP
PHOTO/Torsten BLACKWOOD.
twentieth century, for their fine, soft, waterproof fur. Never-
theless, humans, out of carelessness and ignorance, continue
to make life miserable for the platypus. The animals become
entangled in fishing hooks and lines, and in fishing nets; such
encounters end in drowning or in the scarring of the bill. Tas-
mania’s platypuses are being impacted by infection from an in-
troduced fungus and by chemical pollutants.
Well-meaning people may try to rescue a platypus that is
wandering and seems to be lost, a move that often proves harm-
ful to people and platypus. A wild platypus captured by hu-
mans will probably die of shock. The rescuers may end up with
days of pain and misery from a platypus sting. Wildlife educa-
tion in Australia stresses leaving lost animals alone and calling
a local office of the Australian Government Department of the
Environment and Heritage so that someone can professionally
capture and care for a lost platypus.
Recently, platypus have started invading human-made urban
waterways in Melbourne, Victoria, while disappearing from
some wild areas, for reasons still not understood. The urban
platypus most likely have been forced into artificial waterways
due to destruction of their habitat by development, and there
is enough live platypus food in the waterways to feed a platy-
pus population. The Australian Platypus Conservancy and the
Melbourne Water Department together have surveyed and
taken counts of the urban platypus populations. They found
that platypus in the waterways were as healthy and well-fed as
those in the wild, while some individual platypus from the wa-
terways have migrated and re-colonized river banks with im-
proved habitat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Platypus are considered “common but vulnerable” by the
government of Australia. It is plentiful in some areas, but is
considered vulnerable due to habitat destruction from dams, ir-
rigation projects, being caught in fish nets and lines, and wa-
ter pollution.
Platypus are strictly protected by law and harsh penalties in
Australia, which is agreeable with most, if not all, Australians,
since the animals are not pests and are now national emblems.
The Australian government and private groups like the Aus-
tralian Platypus Conservancy keep close eyes on platypus pop-
ulations and have proposed relocating some of the urban
platypus to suitable natural areas where they have been driven
from by development in the past.
Books:
Augie, M. L. Platypus and Echidnas. Mosman, Australia: The Royal
Zoological Society of New South Wales, 1992.
Moyal, Ann Mozley. Platypus: The Extraordinary Story of How a Curious
Creature Baffled the World. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2001.
Short, Joan. Platypus. New York: Mondo Publishing, 1997.
Periodicals:
Hughes, R.L. and L. S. Hall. “Early Development and Embryology of the
Platypus.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
347 (1998): 1101–1114.

Musser, A. M. “Evolution, Biogeography and Paleontology of the
Ornithorhynchidae.” Australian Mammalogy 20 (1998): 147–162.
Pettigrew, J.D., P. R. Manger, and S. L. B. Fine. “The Sensory World
of the Platypus.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 347 (1998): 1199–1210.
Siegel, J. M., P. R. Manger, R. Nienhuis, H. M. Fahringer, and
J. D. Pettigrew. “Monotremes and the Evolution of Rapid Eye Movement
Sleep.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 347
(1998): 1147–1157.
Strahan, R. and D. E. Thomas. “Courtship of the Platypus,
Ornithorhynchus anatinus.” Australian Zoologist 18, 165–178. 1975.
Web sites:
What is A Platypus? and Other Quandries: Platypus Online Resource
Guide. http://www.platypuscomputing.com/rglinks.html (accessed on
June 29, 2004).
Australian Platypus Conservancy. http://www.totalretail.com/platypus
NEW WORLD OPOSSUMS
Didelphimorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Didelphimorphia
One family: Didelphidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R
phylum PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

class The word “opossum,” commonly used to refer to all species
subclass within the family Didelphidae, is derived from an Algonquian
Indian word for the Virginia opossum, the only living marsu-
order pial species north of the U.S.-Mexico border. “Possum,” with-
●
▲ monotypic order out the first “O,” refers to certain Old World marsupials in
Australia and New Guinea.
suborder
Didelphidae are tiny to medium-sized animals, most tending
family
toward the smaller end of the size spectrum. Males are larger
than females. In most species, the tail is about the same length
as the combined head-and-body length, or longer, scaly and
only lightly furred, and is prehensile (able to grasp) to varying
degrees among species. In the smallest species, adult head and
body length runs 3.3 to 7.2 inches (8.5 to 18.5 centimeters)
and tail length is 3.5 to 10 inches (9 to 25 centimeters). In the
largest species, adult head and body length runs 13 to 19.5
inches (32.5 to 50 centimeters) and tail length is 10 to 21 inches
(25.5 to 53.5 centimeters). Adult weight in the larger
species is usually between 4.5 and 12 pounds (2 and 5.5
kilograms).
The limbs of Didelphidae are short, except for the yapok (or
water opossum), whose hind legs are a little longer than the
forelegs. All four feet bear five digits and the hallux (HAL-lux;
big toe) is opposable. All digits are clawed, except for some
species in which the hallux lacks a claw. The muzzle (mouth
area) is long and pointed, and the ears are prominent. The ca-
nine teeth are long and large.

The fur may be fine and velvety, thick and woolly, or some-
what coarse and stiff. Pelt colors, combinations, and patterns
vary widely among genera (JEN-uh-rah) and species. The brown
four-eyed opossum and the gray four-eyed opossum owe their
common names to a colored spot of fur above each eye. In some
species, there are dark brown or black patches around the eyes.
In most Didelphidae species, the back and sides of the body
are dark, the underparts lighter. Upperparts may be gray, dark
brown or reddish brown, the underparts white or yellowish. The
thick-tailed opossum has an elaborate coloration that varies
among individuals. The upper body fur may be yellow, yellow-
brown, or dark brown, while the underparts are reddish-brown,
light brown, or dark brown. The fur may have an unusual pur-
ple tinge. The face may show vague markings. The body shape
of this species is also unusual, tending toward a long, low-slung,
weasel-like form, with short but strong legs.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
In a very general sense, the Didelphidae can be said to in-
habit both New World continents, from southeastern Canada
to southern South America, but the common or Virginia opos-
sum is the only marsupial making its home in the continental
U.S. and Canada. All other species of Didelphidae range across
Mexico, Central, and South America, from northern Mexico to
southern Patagonia in South America, and on some of the Lesser
Antilles Islands.
HABITAT
The Virginia opossum inhabits the widest range of habitats of
any New World opossum, being found over most of the conti-
nental United States and southeastern Canada, in forest, grass-
land, and desert. The other species variously inhabit tropical and
subtropical forests, and a few, like the Patagonian opossum, in-
habit temperate grasslands in South America. The dryland mouse
opossum prefers desert-like conditions in Central America.
DIET
Diet among Didelphidae is omnivorous, with some variation
among species. Food sources include insects, small reptiles,
small mammals, especially rodents, birds’ eggs, fruits, seeds,
snails, freshwater crustaceans, earthworms, and carrion. One
species is skilled at subduing scorpions. The yapok, or water
New World Opossums 25

“NEW WORLD” MARSUPIALS?
When you hear or read the word years ago. The two giant continents
“marsupial,” you probably think of kangaroos, continued to split apart into the continents of
koalas, and Australia. Maybe you think of New the present day. The southern continents of
Guinea, the big tropical island just north of Australia, Antarctica, and South America
Australia, and its hordes of tree kangaroos remained joined into a great landmass that
and other marsupial types, or the Virginia allowed early animals to wander freely back
opossum, the only wild marsupial in North and forth across the landmass. Ninety million
America north of Mexico. South and Central years ago, Antarctica separated from South
America might not even come to mind, but America, isolating South America (which had
an extraordinary seventy-five species of lost its connection with Laurasia 160 million
marsupial mammals live today on those years ago), and isolating the ancestors of the
Australian marsupials and monotremes in
landmasses, from the deserts of northern
what would become the present-day island
Mexico through the forests of Central and
continent of Australia and its large satellite
South America, and across the grasslands of
island, New Guinea. South America, like
Patagonia, almost to the southern tip of South
Australasia (Australia and nearby islands),
America. How did they get there, on the other
became a continent-sized refuge for early
side of the Pacific Ocean from Australia?
marsupial types, although these would be
Eighty million years ago, small, early sharing the continent with placental
mammals, including marsupials, were mammals. By forty million years ago,
flourishing. Today’s southern continents were marsupials had become extinct in North
united in a supercontinent called Gondwana, America, Africa, Asia, and Antarctica but
which split from the northern supercontinent, flourished in Australasia and South America,
Laurasia, made up of the present-day where they continued to evolve and diversify.
northern continents, around 160 million
opossum, hunts and eats freshwater fish. Some species store fat
in the bases of their tails to carry them through the lean months.

New World opossums are marsupials, mammals that give birth
to tiny, only partly developed young that crawl into the mother’s
pouch, latch their jaws tightly onto a milk nipple, and finish their
development. Most mammals are placental, meaning that they

carry their young in the womb for longer periods before birthing
them, and these are born in a more completely developed state.
“Marsupial” comes from “marsupium,” the Latin word for pouch
or bag, and names that special feature of marsupials.
Not all species have females with complete, functional
pouches. In species without pouches, newborn young just cling
with their jaws onto the mother’s nipples and grasp her fur, re-
maining so until weaning, or stopping breastfeeding, and cling-
ing to the mother wherever she goes. Some of the non-pouched
opossums have partial pouches that cover only the rows of nip-
ples on either side, and run the length of the underbelly. Fe-
males may have from five to as many as twenty-five nipples. In
the common large opossum species, a typical female has a func-
tional, snug, fur-lined pouch and thirteen nipples inside,
arranged in a circle, with one nipple in the center, although the
number of nipples may vary among species and even among
individual females within a species.
American opossums may have definite mating seasons in
more temperate regions, or may breed anytime of the year in
the tropics. Litter sizes generally run between four and nine
young. As many as sixteen young, or a record fifty-two for the
Virginia opossum, may be born in a single litter. In such large
litters, some of the young are likely to die before weaning, de-
pending on the number of nipples the mother has. The gesta-
tion period is short, about two weeks, followed by up to ten
weeks of pouch life. When leaving the pouch, the young may
still nurse and ride on their mother’s back for another month
before striking off on their own. Individuals reach reproduc-
tive age at four months to one year. Lifespans among Didel-
phidae species are short, only one to five years.
For shelter, some American opossum species build nests of
twigs and leaves, or of grasses; others dig their own burrows
or use burrows abandoned by other animals, abandoned birds’
nests, or shelter in hollow logs and among rocks.
All but a few species are nocturnal (nighttime) foragers, and
as far as anyone knows, all are solitary, breaking that rule only
during mating times. Outside of the mating season, same-sex
individuals of a species, upon meeting, ignore or threaten each
other. During the breeding season, a male and female may stay
together for several days. Some species are mainly arboreal
(spending most of their time in trees), others forage on the
ground, and some do both. The Patagonian opossum is an ex-

cellent swimmer in freshwater, where it hunts for fish, even
though it is not as specialized as the water opossum.
NEW WORLD OPOSSUMS AND PEOPLE

As a whole, the Didelphidae are no threat or bother to hu-
mans. People hunt and eat some species and use their fur for
clothing and parts of clothing. The gray short-tailed opossum
frequents houses in South America, where it is welcome be-
cause it hunts and eats rodents and insects infesting the houses.
Brown four-eyed opossums, gray four-eyed opossums,
woolly opossums, and common mouse opossums occasionally
raid fruit and corn crops. The southern opossum, and the white-
eared opossum sometimes kill poultry.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Out of all the Didelphidae species, the IUCN lists three as
Critically Endangered (facing an extremely high risk of ex-
tinction), three as Endangered (facing a very high risk of ex-
tinction), fifteen as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction),
and eighteen as Near Threatened (close to becoming threatened
with extinction).

Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
SPECIES
VIRGINIA OPOSSUM ACCOUNTS
Didelphis virginiana
Physical characteristics: The Virginia opossum is one marsupial

that a majority of Americans have surely seen, if only as roadkill.
These opossums have low-slung, vaguely rat-shaped bodies that in
adults can weigh up to 14 pounds (6.4 kilograms). Males are larger
than females. Adult head and body length can reach 20 inches (50
centimeters), and the tail length can reach 18 inches (47 centime-
ters). The body fur is light to dark grayish, due to a coat of white fur
with black tips under a longer coat of pale guard hairs. The head is
white and elongated, and studded with long whiskers. In some indi-
viduals, the gray coat may extend in a stripe across the crown, ta-
pering to an end between the eyes. The eyes are black and shiny. The
long, strong tail is scaly, colored whitish or pinkish, and nearly hair-
less, much like a rat’s, and is prehensile, able to grasp tree branches

Virginia opossums can eat
poisonous snakes. They are
immune to the venom of these
snakes, including copperheads,
water moccasins, and
rattlesnakes. (Illustration by
Jonathan Higgins. Reproduced by
permission.)
and carry nesting materials. The ears, nostrils, forepaws, and hind-
paws are pinkish and only sparsely furred. Each paw has five digits,
and the hallux (HAL-lux; big toe) is opposable, allowing the opos-
sum to grasp branches.
Geographic range: The Virginia opossum is one of the few marsu-

pials, in Australasia or the Americas, that is at home in temperate re-
gions with cold winters. Its range extends as far north as Ontario,
Canada, and as far south as Costa Rica in Central America. Virginia
opossums are found in North America, from Central America and
Mexico in the south, through the United States east of the Rocky
Mountains and north into southwestern Ontario. Opossums are also
found along the west coast of the United States.
Habitat: Virginia opossums prefer living in forest, farmland, and

suburbia with possible denning sites and a water source close at hand,
but this adaptable species can survive and thrive almost anywhere, in-
cluding grassland and near-desert conditions. These opossums are no-
madic, seldom staying in one foraging area for more than a year.
Individuals may sleep during the day in whatever temporary shelters
they find, or build nests, lined with leaves. Refuges include woodpiles,
thickets, rock crevices, and in various human-made structures such as
under porches and raised houses, and in barns, drainpipes, and sheds.
Diet: The Virginia opossum is truly omnivorous, eating almost any-

thing that can be considered food. A partial list of dietary preferences
includes rats, mice, moles, slugs, snails, shrews, worms, beetles, ants,
grasshoppers, crickets, frogs, garbage, fruit, corn, berries, and carrion.

An even more unusual source of food is poisonous snakes, to whose
venoms the opossums are immune. This includes copperheads, wa-
ter moccasins, and rattlesnakes.
Behavior and reproduction: Like most opossums, Virginia opos-

sums live and forage, search for food, solitarily. They forage mostly
at night, but sometimes during the day. If male individuals meet, they
avoid each other or sound off with threat displays, with hissings,
growlings, and screechings, often going on to one-on-one combat.
Males fight one another ferociously during mating seasons. On the
other hand, if a male and female meet during the breeding season,
they will mate and then stay together for several days.
Mating seasons vary according to how far north individual opossums
live. Virginia opossums begin mating in December in the southern states,
in March in the northernmost states and Canada, and in January and
February for areas between. In Canada and in the north and central
states, females usually bear only one litter per year. Two or even three
litters are common in the southern states and further south.
Young are born thirteen days after mating. Litters can range in num-
bers of up to twenty, with a record of fifty-two, but since the mother
has only thirteen nipples, only a maximum of thirteen in a litter can
survive. Newborns are scarcely bigger than rice grains. The young
spend up to 100 days, or slightly over three months, in the pouch. By
seventy-five to eighty-five days, the young are weaned and leave the
pouch, but remain with the mother for another two or three months
before leaving to live on their own. Until they leave, the mother car-
ries the young on her back. Young males reach sexual maturity at eight
months, females at six. The longest recorded lifespan in the wild for
the Virginia opossum is three years, although captive individuals have
lived as long as ten years.
When threatened by a predator, a Virginia opossum may react in
any of several ways. Escape is always the optimal choice, and includes
climbing trees and swimming. If escape proves impossible, the opos-
sum may use its variation of the basic mammalian threat response,
opening its jaws wide, baring its fifty-five teeth, and hissing at its foe.
It may also discharge a foul-smelling, greenish fluid from anal glands.
Or, the opossum may use its “drooling” display, building up its saliva
content, drooling from its mouth and blowing froth and bubbles from
its nostrils, in hopes of convincing a predator that the opossum is se-
riously diseased and therefore dangerous to eat.
The opossum’s final defensive recourse is either fighting back or
performing its most famous behavior, “playing possum.” The animal

collapses, the eyes glaze, the jaws open, the tongue lolls, the teeth are
partly bared, and the stinky anal fluid release adds the final carrion
touch. The deathlike state is a form of catatonia, in which the animal
lies limp, does not react to touch or prodding, and cannot be roused
by any method. The muscles become limp, basic functions slow.
Predators of opossums, among them coyotes, dogs, bobcats, and birds
of prey, will reject the seemingly dead opossum and leave it un-
touched. From one minute to six hours after the predator has left the
scene, the opossum rouses itself and moves off.
Throughout its range in Canada and in parts of the United States
that have long, cold winters, Virginia opossums feed to build up ex-
tra body fat in the fall in preparation for the lean winter months. The
species doesn’t hibernate, but in especially cold weather, individuals
may stay quietly in their shelters for a few days. Otherwise, they’re
outside and hiking across the snow to forage.
Virginia opossums and people: Virginia opossums sometimes help

themselves to human garbage, but cause far less mess and destruc-
tion than do raccoons. Virginia opossums, like most mammals, can
carry and transmit rabies. Virginia opossums have been, and still are,
hunted for food and for their pelts.
Their ability to eat almost anything organic puts Virginia opos-
sums in the front ranks of living nature’s cleaning crews. They eat
pest insects like cockroaches, garden pests like snails and slugs, pest
mammals like roof rats and mice, and they eat all varieties of carrion.
Conservation status: Virginia opossums have adapted to humans

successfully, are in no danger of extinction, and have even extended
their ranges in some areas. ■

Water opossum (Chironectes minimus)
WATER OPOSSUM
Chironectes minimus
Physical characteristics: Unlike most of the New World opossums,

the yapok, or water opossum, is specialized for an aquatic lifestyle. It is
the only living aquatic marsupial species. In general terms, the yapok can
be thought of as a sort of marsupial otter. The name “yapok” is derived
from the Oyapock River in northern South America.
Adult head and body length runs 10.5 to 16 inches (27 to 40
centimeters); tail length, 12 to 17 inches (31 to 43 centimeters); and
adult body weight, 1.3 to 1.7 pounds (0.6 to 0.8 kilograms). The ani-
mal is covered with short, dense, water-repellent fur, unique among the
Didelphidae. The sides and upper body are black, with three pairs of

prominent, grayish bands that run vertically from the
light gray underbelly almost to the spine. The head
is blunter and wider than is common among Didel-
phidae species. The upper part of the head, includ-
ing the eye area, is black. A dark gay bar runs the
length of the snout from the nostrils to the crown.
The lower part of the head is grayish. A prominent
white stripe runs from above each eye to the ear. The
eyes are large and black. The prominent, nearly fur-
less ears are oval in shape. Conspicuous tufts of long,
white or gray whiskers are mounted on each side of
the head near the nostrils and over the eyes.
The water opossum is the only The hindfeet are webbed and the yapok uses them as its main propul-
marsupial that lives in the water.
sion organs when swimming. The hallux (first toe), usually shorter than
It has water-repellent fur and
webbed hind feet. (Illustration by the other toes in mammals, is elongated in the yapok, making the foot
Jonathan Higgins. Reproduced shape symmetrical and thus able to push more efficiently against the
by permission.) water. The forefeet are not webbed, and have elongated, furless fingers
with reduced claws, which are furnished with a well-developed tactile
sense.
Among the yapok’s many peculiarities is that both females and
males carry well-developed pouches that open toward the rear. The
female uses a muscle to close her pouch when carrying young, which
can survive without oxygen for several-minute intervals. The male uses
his pouch to hold and protect the scrotum, drawing it up and into the
pouch when he swims.
Geographic range: Yapoks are found in Central and South America,

from southern Mexico and Belize through all of Central America, and
into Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay,
Brazil, and northern Argentina.
Habitat: Yapoks live along streams, rivers, and lakes in tropical and
subtropical rainforests of Central and South America, from sea level
to 6,000 feet (1,830 meters) or more above sea level.
Diet: The yapok eats crayfish, shrimp, fish, and some water plants.
Behavior and reproduction: Females are polyestrous, meaning that

they come into heat and become receptive to mating more than once
a year. A breeding pair stays together for several days, the male fol-
lowing and circling the female until actual mating. A typical litter
contains one to five young.
Yapok young have the fastest rate of development among all the
Didelphidae species. After about forty days in the pouch, the young

have grown body fur, pigmentation and the various markings, and
opened their eyes. At about fifty days, the young begin to let go of
the nipples and leave the pouch, but continue to suckle and stay with
the mother, sometimes riding on her back.
Individual water opossums are solitary and hostile toward others
of their species, except during mating times. An individual hunts and
forages in freshwater streams, between rest periods, throughout the
night. During the day, the animal rests in a temporary ground nest
that it constructs from leaves and grass in a shady area. Close by is
a more permanent underground burrow, which the yapok excavates
in the stream bank, with its entrance a few inches above the water
line. The entrance tunnel is about 2 feet (0.6 meters) long, and leads
to a den lined with leaves or grasses. Individuals use their prehensile
tails to carry nesting materials.
A yapok fishes and forages underwater, propelling itself with alter-
nate strokes of its powerful hind legs and webbed feet. The animal shuts
its eyes and ears and depends partly on its whiskers to detect motion,
while its fingers, acutely sensitive to touch, are used to contact, check
the texture of, and grasp prey.
The longest known lifespan for a captive yapok is three years.
Water opossums and people: Water opossums, confined to forests

and riversides by their specialized lifestyles, are no threat or bother
to humanity. Humans hunt them for their waterproof pelts, to be
made into garments and accessories.
Conservation status: The yapok is listed as Near Threatened, not

currently threatened, by the IUCN. ■

Books:
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1995.
Szalay, Frederick. Evolutionary History of the Marsupials and an Analysis
of Osteological Characters. Oxford, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
1994.
Periodicals:
Cifelli, R. L., and Brian M. Davis. “Marsupial Origins (Paleontology).”
Science 302, no. 5652 (December 12, 2003): 1934.
de Muizon, C., and R. L. Cifelli. “A New Basal Didelphoid (Marsupialia,
Mammalia) from the Early Paleocene of Tiupampa (Bolivia).” Journal of
Vertebrate Paleontology 21, no. 1 (2001): 8–97.

de Muizon, C., R. L. Cifelli, and R. C. Paz. “The Origin of the Dog-like
Borhyaenoid Marsupials of South America.” Nature 389, no. 6650
(Oct 2, 1997): 486–489.
Goin, F. J., et al. “New Discoveries of ‘Opossum-like’ Marsupials from
Antarctica (Seymour Island, Medial Eocene).” Journal of Mammalian
Evolution 6, no. 4 (1999): 335–365.
Hamrick, M. W. “Morphological Diversity in Digital Skin Microstructure of
Didelphid Marsupials.” Journal of Anatomy 198 (2001): 683–688.

SHREW OPOSSUMS
Paucituberculata
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Paucituberculata
One family: Caenolestidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

The New World marsupial order Paucituberculata contains class
only one surviving family, the Caenolestidae, or shrew opossums
(the true shrews, family Soricidae, are not marsupial but pla- subclass
cental mammals). Shrew opossums are mouse-sized marsupial order
mammals with dense, dark gray or brown fur. Also called mouse
●
▲ monotypic order
opossums and rat opossums, their appearance is more sugges-
tive of shrews. Shrew opossums have long, conical, pointed suborder
snouts and tiny, beady eyes. There are three genera (JEN-uh- family
rah; plural of genus, JEE-nus) and five species: the living mem-
bers of order Paucituberculata and family Caenolestidae are
relicts, little-changed survivors of a once far more diverse as-
semblage of genera and species. Information about them is spotty,
since the animals are nocturnal and secretive, and live for the
most part in remote, difficult terrain.
Head and body length across species runs from 3.5 to 5.5
inches (9 to 14 centimeters), and tail length is 3.5 to 5.5 inches
(9 to 14 centimeters), the tail length being about the same as
the head and body. Males are larger than females, males weigh-
ing from 1 to 1.5 ounces (25 to 41 grams), females from 0.5 to
1 ounce (16.5 to 25.5 grams). A shrew opossum has five dig-
its on each foot, the two small outer toes of the forefeet with
blunt nails, the remaining three equipped with curved, sharp,
strong claws. The hind feet have strong, curved claws on all
toes except the so-called great toe, which is small and carries
a small nail.
The fur of shrew opossums is thick and soft, covering the en-
tire body and less dense on the tail. The coat has a disorderly
Shrew Opossums 37
look because different areas of the coat have different textures.
The fur may be dark on the dorsal (upper) parts of the body,
with lighter-colored under parts, or dark all over the body. Dark
colors vary from gray-brown, black-brown, to near-black. The
ears are shaped much like those of typical mice, and large
enough to protrude well above the thick fur. Hearing is acute,
as is the tactile (touch) sense of the long whiskers.
The upper lips bear small flaps of skin on both sides, a fea-
ture found only in the Caenolestidae. The Chilean opossum has
these and similar flaps on its lower lips. Their function is, so
far, unknown. They may be barriers to prevent blood, pieces
of flesh, and dirt from collecting on the sides of the jaws. The
tail is about as long as the combined head and body. The tail
fur, sparser than on the body, is the same color as the upper
pelt, but may include a white tip in some individuals. The tail
is not prehensile, meaning it is not able to curl around and
grasp objects. The tail of the Chilean shrew opossum swells up
with stored fat for the southern winter months. Females do not
have pouches and have four nipples, except for females of the
Chilean shrew opossum, which have seven nipples, the seventh
located on the midline of the underbelly.
The rostrum, or the front part of the skull including the jaws,
is long and tapering. Each of the lower incisors has only one
cusp, or protruding bump on its crown, unlike most mammal
teeth, hence the order name, Paucituberculata, meaning, in
Latin, “few bumps,” since this feature is found in all species,
living and extinct, in the order.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The gray-bellied shrew opossum, the blackish shrew opos-
sum, and the silky shrew opossum are found in isolated, sepa-
rated populations in the mountains of the Western Andes, from
Colombia and Venezuela in the north and southwards through
Ecuador, Peru, and Argentina. The Incan shrew opossum in-
habits southern Peru, while the Chilean shrew opossum lives
along the south-central coast of Chile and on the close offshore
Chilean island of Chiloé, plus another population in Argentina.
HABITAT
The gray-bellied shrew opossum, the blackish shrew opos-
sum, the silky shrew opossum, and the Incan shrew opossum
live in dense vegetation in cool, rainy mountain forests and

DYNASTY IN EXILE
Like the few poor refugees of a downfallen, had developed an enlarged forward lower
once mighty civilization, the five living shrew molar with a shearing crest. Abderitinae
opossum species, lurking in the undergrowth species took that molar further and equipped
of temperate forests in South America, are it with a forward-facing, sharp, high, serrated
but a pale afterglow of their former splendor. blade. The species of Polydolopidae carried a
From seventeen to twenty-four million years number of enlarged, forward-directed lower
ago, the order Paucituberculata included four incisors and a pair of large shearing teeth of
other families besides Caenolestidae, while uncertain origin. The Polydolopidae were small
the caenolestids were the most abundant marsupials, the largest no bigger than a rabbit,
marsupials in terms of species during that era. that behaved and were equipped much
The extinct Paucituberculata species had teeth like rodents. The rodent-like Argyrolagidae
specialized in unique ways, and lived in both resembled small kangaroos, with strong,
temperate and tropical biomes throughout two-toed hind feet and a long, well-muscled tail.
most of the South American continent. They moved about by hopping and leaping,
The extinct families of Paucituberculata are much like kangaroos. Family Paleothentidae
Paleothentidae, Abderitidae, Polydolopidae, evolved an impressive nine genera and
and Argyrolagidae. Species of Paleothentinae nineteen species.
meadows, from 4,500 to 12,000 feet (1,500 to 4,000 meters)

above sea level. The Chilean shrew opossum inhabits rainy low-
land temperate rainforest along the Chilean coast from sea level
to 2,270 feet (1,135 meters), preferring dense forest with mossy
trees and logs, and soaking wet forest floors.
DIET
Shrew opossums forage nocturnally, at night, on the ground,
and are carnivorous (meat-eaters) with some herbivory (plant-
eating). They eat insects, earthworms, small vertebrates, fruits,
other plant food, and fungi, in forest floor growth and in alpine
meadows, traveling among feeding areas by means of trails
through ground vegetation that they maintain by constant
use. A shrew opossum uses its lower canines to stab and skewer
prey, then uses its sharp premolars to slice the prey into
pieces.
Shrew Opossums 39
Little is known about the particulars of breeding among shrew
opossum species. Field researchers have found lactating (produc-
ing milk for young) females of the Chilean shrew opossum in Feb-
ruary, March, May, October, November, and December, suggesting
a breeding season from December through May, and no breeding
from June through September, the coldest months in the South-
ern Hemisphere. Breeding season for the silky shrew opossum,
which lives in a less stressful climate, is thought to begin in July.
Since shrew opossums are marsupials, the unborn young re-
main in the females’ uterus (YOO-ter-us; womb) only a few days,
then are born in an incomplete state, to be suckled by the mother
until they complete development. Suckling shrew opossums
cling to their mother as she moves about. Litters probably num-
ber up to four individuals.
If alarmed, a shrew opossum will hop forward repeatedly on
all fours, a mode of locomotion unique to the Caenolestidae.
Shrew opossums have also been observed climbing trees,
though not foraging in trees. The animals rest during the day
in hollow logs and burrows. Despite their fattened tails, Chilean
shrew opossums have been observed running across packed
snow in midwinter.
SHREW OPOSSUMS AND PEOPLE

Tiny, secretive, and living in remote regions, shrew opossums
have very little interaction with humanity and pose no threats.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the Chilean
shrew opossum as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction),
due to deforestation (removing trees) from logging.

Silky shrew opossum (Caenolestes fuliginosus)
SPECIES
SILKY SHREW OPOSSUM ACCOUNT
Caenolestes fuliginosus
Physical characteristics: The silky shrew opossum is probably the

best known of the shrew opossum species. Its head and body length
ranges from 3.7 to 5.3 inches (9.3 to 13.5 centimeters), the tail 3.7
to 5 inches (9.3 to 12.7 centimeters). The fur on the dorsal (back)
body is soft and thick, and colored a dark brown gradually giving way
to lighter brown on the lower body and underbelly.
Geographic range: The silky shrew opossum inhabits the western

Andes of northern and western Colombia, extreme western Venezuela,
and Ecuador.
Shrew Opossums 41
Habitat: This shrew opossum is nocturnal and
terrestrial, preferring cool, wet areas with heavy
vegetation. The species is found in alpine scrub
forests and meadow zones of the Andes, at altitudes
from 4,500 to 12,000 feet (1,500 to 4,000 meters).
Diet: Silky shrew opossums eat mostly caterpil-

lars, centipedes, and spiders, varied with fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: The breeding sea-

son is believed to be July, because animals caught
in August were suckling (nursing, or feeding breast
Silky shrew opossums look for milk) their young.
food on the ground at night. Silky shrew opossums run by bounding, front feet and rear feet
During the day, the animals stay
in hollow logs and burrows.
working as units and alternating. If threatened, an individual will open
(Illustration by Brian Cressman. its jaws wide and hiss. The tail is not prehensile (able to grab or
Reproduced by permission.) hold things), but the animal will use it as a sort of third leg when
sitting upright.
Silky shrew opossums and people: There is little to no interaction

between silky shrew opossums and humans.
Conservation status: The silky shrew opossum has no special

conservation status. ■
Books:
Lee, Anthony K., and Andrew Cockburn. Evolutionary Ecology of Marsu-
pials. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Simpson, George Gaylord. Splendid Isolation: The Curious History of
South American Mammals. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980.
Szalay, Frederick S. Evolutionary History of the Marsupials and an
Analysis of Osteological Characters. New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
Periodicals:
Bown, T. M., and J. G. Fleagle. “New Colhuehuapian and Santacrucian
Microbiotheriidae and Caenolestidae From Patagonian Argentina.” Jour-
nal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14, no. 3 (1994): 18.
Cifelli, Richard L., and Brian M. Davis. “Marsupial Origins.” (Paleontology).
Science 302, no. 5652 (2003): 1899–1900.

Flynn, J. J., and A. R. Wyss. “New Marsupials From the Eocene-Oligocene
Transition of the Andean Main Range, Chile.” Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology 19, no. 3 (1999): 533–549.
Marshall, L. G. “Systematics of the South American Marsupial Family
Caenolestidae.” Fieldiana Geology (1980): 145.
Meserve, P. L., , B. K. Lang, and B. D. Patterson. “Trophic Relations of
Small Mammals in a Chilean Temperate Rainforest.” Journal of Mam-
malogy 69 (1988): 721–730.
Patterson, B. D. “Dominance of South American Marsupials (Scientific
Correspondence).” Nature 337, no. 6204 (1989): 215.
Patterson, B. D., and M. H. Gallardo. “Rhyncholestes raphanurus.” Mam-
malian Species 286 (1987): 1–5.
Sanchez-Villagra, M. R. “The Phylogenetic Relationships of Argyrolagid
Marsupials.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 131, no. 4 (2001):
48–496.
Shrew Opossums 43
MONITO DEL MONTE
Microbiotheria
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Microbiotheria
One family: Microbiotheriidae
One species: Monito del monte
(Dromiciops gliroides)
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

class The common name monito del monte is Spanish for “little
monkey of the mountain.” The “monkey” aspect of the common
subclass
name derives from the animal’s nearly furless, somewhat mon-
order key-like hands and feet. Another local common name for the
●
▲ monotypic order species is colocolo. The scientific name of this species has re-
cently been changed to Dromiciops gliroides, and the species may
suborder be referred to as Dromiciops australis even in recent writing.
family As with the other living New World marsupial orders, the
single living species of Microbiotheria is a remnant with a more
diverse past. The fossil record has revealed an extinct genus,
Microbiotherium, with six known species, that thrived during
the Oligocene and Miocene Epochs (thirty-four million years
ago to five million years ago, for a period of thirty-nine million
years). Today, D. gliroides represents an order with only a sin-
gle living species.
An adult monito del monte’s size is between a rat’s and a
squirrel’s. The head-and-body length runs 3.3 to 5 inches (8.3
to 13 centimeters). The tail length is about the same, running
3.5 to 5 inches (9 to 13.2 centimeters), The adult body weight
runs about a half ounce to just over one ounce (16.7 to 31.4
grams). The animal’s coat of fur is fine, short and thick. The up-
per body pelt is brown, with several light gray patches or spots
on the shoulders and rump. The face fur is gray, the large eyes
encircled with prominent black rings. The belly fur is pale tan.
The tail is completely furred, except for a furless area, about
an inch long (2.5 to 3 centimeters), on the underside, at the

MONITOS AND MISTLETOES
The thousand-or-so species of mistletoe strings of mistletoe seeds sticking to the
are distributed over most of the world, trunks of host trees. They were seeds of T.
including the moist temperate forests of corymbosus, the fruits of which are green
southern South America. Mistletoes are when ripe. Normally, green color in fruits
hemiparasites, meaning partly parasitic. indicates that they are not yet edible, so that
Although they have green leaves for fruit-eating birds will pass them up. The large
photosynthesis, they live on tree branches and number of T. corymbosus strings glued to tree
trunks, anchoring themselves and tapping into trunks was also unusual, since birds defecate
the wood to steal nutrients and water from the mistletoe species’ seeds while roosting on
host tree. In most species of mistletoe, the tree branches. Only some of the seeds end
seeds are spread by birds, which eat the seeds up on branches and grow, and birds have no
and defecate (DEF-uh-kate) them later while special ability to aim for tree trunks.
roosting. If they void the seeds while roosting On the other hand, some mammal species
on a tree branch, the seeds, covered with a consume ripe green fruit. That known fact
gluey substance called viscin (VIS-in), are likely and the sight of lots of mistletoe seeds
to stick to the branch and grow up to be on tree trunks indicated an arboreal, or
mistletoes. tree-living, mammal as the seed-eater and
In an exception to the habit of birds being disperser. Further searching and observing
the main vectors, or transporters, for revealed that mammal to be the monito del
mistletoe species, the monito del monte monte. The species gorges on the mistletoe
feeds and disperses seeds of the mistletoe fruit. The animals peel the rinds off the fruit
species Tristerix corymbosus. In fact, the little with their front paws, swallow the innards
marsupial, as far as anyone knows, is the only whole, seeds and all. Soon after a meal of
disperser of the seeds of this mistletoe mistletoefruits, the marsupial defecates
species. This was discovered by Guillermo almost all the seeds, undamaged by the
Amico and Marcelo Aizen of the National animal’s digestive system, in and on its
University of Comahue, Argentina. During foraging territory, which includes tree trunks
field studies, they came across numerous and branches.
tip. The one-third of the tail closest to the body has the same
sort of dense, woolly fur as the body, while the rest of the tail
has straight, dark brown fur. The female’s well-developed
pouch is comfortably lined with light brown fur and has four
nipples. The ears are moderately furred.
Monito del Monte 45

As in many small marsupials, the snout is
conical, cone-shaped, and tapering, but shorter
than is usual among marsupials.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The monito del monte has a limited
range in South America, in southern Chile,
overlapping into Argentina, from Concep-
ción, Chile, southward to and including
the Chilean island of Chiloé, and inland to
the Andes and just over the border into
Argentina.
HABITAT
Monitos del monte live in dense, cool, tem-
perate rainforests, in the lowlands and the An-
des mountains, from sea level to 6,000 feet
(1,850 meters) above sea level. They most of-
ten live in thickets of Chilean bamboo
Young monitos del monte first (Chusquea species), especially Chusquea valdiviensis, the most
live in their mother’s pouch, then common ground plant in these forests.
in the nest, and finally ride on
her back while she looks for food. The forest type where the monito del monte makes its home
(Illustration by Michelle is as unique as the animal itself. Called Valdivian temperate for-
Meneghini. Reproduced by
permission.)
est, it is located in a limited range in southern South America
between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, most of it in Chile
with some extending into Argentina. The Valdivian forest
biome is isolated from the rest of the world by deserts, moun-
tains, and oceans. The forest is a treasure house of ancient
plants and animals, some of which date back, little changed,
from the time when the southern continents were all attached
together, forming the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana.
The Valdivian forests have been in their present isolated con-
dition for thirty million years. A full 90 percent of the seven
hundred flowering plant species there are endemic, meaning
they are found no where else in the world. One third of the
woody plants (trees, shrubs, woody vines) have living relatives
in Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia (an island northeast
of Australia), and Tasmania, all linking to an ancient common
landmass. The monito del monte is a living fossil whose rela-
tionship with other marsupials shows the same sort of geo-
graphic split as do the Valdivian plants.

Monito del monte (Dromiciops gliroides)
DIET
The monito del monte is mostly insectivorous, meaning that
it forages for and eats insect larvae (LAR-vee) and pupae
(PYOO-pee). They also eat some plant material. They do most
of their foraging at night, in the trees and on the ground. In
the Southern Hemisphere in autumn, the animals gorge, dou-
bling their body weights in a week, most of the extra weight
being fat packed into the base of the tail.

Colocolos are solitary, nocturnal foragers, both in trees and
on the ground. They build and shelter in globe-shaped nests of
sticks and water-repelling Chusquea bamboo leaves, lined with
moss and grass, in protected areas, and often concealed by a
final overlay of gray moss. The nests are about 8 inches
(20 centimeters) in diameter. Nest locations may be rock clefts,
hollows of trees, or in dense ground shrubbery. The nests are
Monito del Monte 47

snug and comfortable, but in the coldest months, monitos del
monte hibernate, living off fat reserves in the base and first third
of the tail.
Since monitos del monte are marsupials, birth and nurtur-
ing of the young follow the standard marsupial model: the
young are born at an incomplete stage of embryonic develop-
ment, crawl from the birth canal over the mother’s belly fur to
the pouch, and there latch onto nipples and remain so, nour-
ished by milk, until they complete their development.
Colocolos mate in the Southern Hemisphere spring and early
summer—October through December. A female has a single lit-
ter of one to four young annually. Litters of five young have been
seen, but since the mother has only four nipples, the fifth cannot
survive. On leaving the pouch, the young first reside in the nest,
then ride on the mother’s back, clinging to her fur as she forages,
before beginning to forage on their own. The offspring live soli-
tary lives but continue to associate, off and on, with the mother.
The young of both sexes reach sexual maturity in two years. Males
remain with females only during the breeding season. The max-
imum lifespan of this species is probably three to four years.
Colocolos hibernate, intermittently, in their nests, during the
cool and cold months, depending on temperature and food
availability. Torpor, the low state of body activity in hiberna-
tion, is triggered by absence of food over time or by outside
temperature. A torpor bout, or period of lowered body func-
tions, may last a few hours to several days (five days is the
longest known bout period). Hibernating colocolos rouse them-
selves spontaneously, probably cued by a temperature increase
in their surroundings or a signal from some internal clock.
These periods of hibernation, along with the stored tail fat, en-
able the colocolo to conserve body energy while waiting out
periods of low food availability and cold.
MONITOS DEL MONTE AND PEOPLE

There is little interaction between these small, secretive ani-
mals and humans. In the Lake Region of Chile, a superstition
holds that seeing a monito del monte in the home brings bad
luck, and that the only cure is burning down the house. One
the other hand, the animal’s consumption of insects serves as a
local control on insect populations.
Scientific value of the monito del monte is immense, because
of its ancient origins and relationships.

CONSERVATION STATUS
Monitos del monte are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction in the wild, on the Red List of the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN). The main problem facing the species
is ongoing deforestation.
Books:
Aplin, K. P., and M. Archer. “Recent Advances in Marsupial Systematics
With a New Syncretic Classification.” In Possums and Opossums: Stud-
ies in Evolution. Vol. I. Chipping Norton, U.K.: Surrey Beatty and Sons
PTY Limited, 1987.
Feldhamer, G. A., L. C. Drickamer, S. H. Vessey, and J. F. Merritt. Mam-
malogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB McGraw-
Hill, 1999.
Szalay, F. “A New Appraisal of Marsupial Phylogeny and Classification.”
In Carnivorous Marsupials. Sydney, Australia: Royal Zoological Society of
New South Wales, 1982.
Vaughan, T. A., J. M. Ryan, and N. J. Czaplewski. Mammalogy, 4th ed.
Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.
Periodicals:
Amico, G., and M. A. Aizen. “Mistletoe Seed Dispersal by a Marsupial.”
Nature no. 408 (2000): 929–930.
Bozinovic, Francisco, G. Ruiz, and M. Rosenmann. “Energetics and
Torpor of a South American “Living Fossil,” the Microbiotheriid
Dromiciops gliroides.” Journal of Comparative Physiology B 174 (2004):
93–297.
Hershkovitz, P. “Ankle Bones: The Chilean Opossum Dromiciops gliroides
Thomas, and Marsupial Phylogeny.” Bonner Zoologische Beiträge no. 43
(1992): 181–213.
Hershkovitz, P. “Dromiciops gliroides Thomas, 1894, Last of the Micro-
biotheria (Marsupialia), With a Review of the Family Microbiotheriidae.”
Fieldiana Zoology (New Series) 93, no. 1502 (2004).
Kirsch, J. A. W., A. W. Dickerman, O. A. Reig, and M. S. Springer. “DNA
Hybridisation Evidence for the Australian Affinity of the American Mar-
supial Dromiciops australis.” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Science, USA no. 88 (1991): 10465–10469.
Marshall, L. G. “Dromiciops australis.” Mammalian Species 99
(1978): 1–5.
Pridmore, P. A. “Locomotion in Dromiciops australis (Microbiotheriidae).”
Australian Journal of Zoology no. 42 (1994): 679–699.
Monito del Monte 49

Westerman, M., and D. Edwards. “The Relationship of Dromiciops aus-
tralis to Other Marsupials: Data From DNA-DNA Hybridisation Studies.”
Australian Journal of Zoology no. 39 (1991): 123–130.
Horovitz, Inez, and M. R. Sánchez-Villagra. “A Morphological Analysis of
Marsupial Mammal Higher-Level Phylogenetic Relationships.” Cladis-
tics19, no. 3 (June 2003): 181–212.
Web sites:
Terrestrial Ecoregions—Valdivian temperate forests (NT0404). http://
www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0404_full.html
Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html (accessed June 29, 2004).

AUSTRALASIAN CARNIVOROUS
MARSUPIALS
Dasyuromorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
order C H A P T E R
Most familiar mammals such as cats, dogs, and horses are class
called eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals. These mam-
subclass
mals have a placenta, an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus
(womb) and lets the mother and developing offspring share ● order
food and oxygen. Marsupials do not have a developed placenta. monotypic order
Because of this, they give birth to young that are physically im-
mature and undeveloped. The young are not able to survive on suborder
their own. Instead, they are carried around for several months family
in their mother’s pouch, or they are attached to the mother’s
teats, or nipples, outside the pouch, and carried until they have
grown and matured enough to fend for themselves. The
Australasian (living in Australia and nearby islands) carnivo-
rous marsupials are made up of three families of marsupial
mammals with a total of about seventy-one species.
Australasian carnivorous marsupials vary widely in weight,
from less than one ounce (28 grams) to more that 65 pounds
(30 kilograms). The combined length of their head and body
ranges from less than 2 inches (5 centimeters) to 51 inches
(130 centimeters). The largest Australasian carnivorous mar-
supial, the Tasmanian wolf, became extinct in the early 1900s.
The largest living member of the Dasyuromorphia order is the
Tasmanian devil.
Australasian carnivorous marsupials are all four-footed, with
four toes on each of the two front feet and either four or five
toes on each of the two back feet. On each back foot is a toe
called a hallux (HAL-lux) that does not have a claw. Species that
Australasian Carnivorous Marsupials 51

live mainly in trees tend to have wider feet than ground-dwelling
species and use their hallux to help them grip branches. The
tails of Australasian carnivorous marsupials vary in length. Some
species have tails nearly as long as their bodies. All of these an-
imals have pointed snouts and a combination of sharp pointed
teeth and grinding teeth to help them eat meat.
The fur of carnivorous marsupials ranges from grayish or
reddish brown to sand colored, depending on the habitat in
which they live. A few have black fur, and some species have
underbellies that differ slightly in color from the rest of their
fur. The fur on the bodies and heads is usually short, but the
fur on the tail can be either very short or very bushy. Some of
the animals in this order have distinct markings, such as the
numbat’s stripes, but most do not.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Animals in this order live in Australia, Tasmania, and New
Guinea, and also inhabit some of the nearby Pacific islands.
HABITAT
Australasian carnivorous marsupials live in many different
habitats, from the tropical rainforest to the desert. Each species
has adaptations that allow it to live in its own particular envi-
ronment. For example, the numbat has claws that are good for
scratching at the dirt and digging out termites in the forest where
it lives. The spotted-tail quoll has special ridges on the bottoms
of its paws and sharp claws that help it climb large trees.
Many of the Australasian carnivorous marsupials live in habi-
tats where it can become very hot or very cold. Different species
have different ways of protecting themselves from these extreme
temperatures. Some species such as the numbat dig burrows
underground that they line with dead leaves and other plant
parts for insulation. Other species are able to reduce their body
temperatures on purpose. This is called torpor, and it reduces
the amount of energy an animal needs to live when it gets too
cold or is exposed to other environmental stresses, such as too
little food.
DIET
Australasian carnivorous marsupials eat meat and insects.
What each species eats depends on its size, habitat, and what
kind of adaptations it has for hunting. Smaller species usually

eat insects, and larger species eat other animals, although they
sometimes eat insects as well. Many of the larger Australasian
carnivorous marsupials can chew and eat whole animals, in-
cluding the bones and the skin. The numbat lives in the forest
and eats termites that it digs out from underground with its
sharp claws or finds under the dead branches it pushes away
with its pointed snout. The Tasmanian devil eats many differ-
ent kinds of meat, and has been reported to eat animals as large
as wallabies.

Most Australasian carnivorous marsupials are nocturnal, mean-
ing that they are only active at night. Some species, however, have
shown occasional periods of daytime activity, and a few species
such as the numbat are usually active only during the day.
Australasian carnivorous marsupials spend most of their time
in the search for food. Each species has different ways of find-
ing prey, from digging for termites, to climbing trees and raid-
ing the nests of possums during the night, to feeding on the
bodies of animals that are already dead.
Most Australasian carnivorous marsupials have relatively short
life spans. Females usually mate with more than one male, and
in many species, offspring born in the same litter have different
fathers. Some species in this order only mate once during their
lifetime. They usually die soon after reproducing, having used
all their energy in a sudden burst of activity required to mate
successfully. Antechinus (ant-uh-KINE-us), which are broad-
footed marsupial mice, mate in this way. The female lives long
enough to raise her young until they can live on their own, but
the male often dies before his offspring are mature.
Australasian carnivorous marsupials, like all marsupials, have
very short pregnancies, some lasting only days. They give birth
to immature young that are usually blind and hairless, and al-
ways are unable to survive on their own. In most cases, the
young make their way into the mother’s pouch, which contains
milk teats, and are carried with her wherever she goes. Some
species have young that crawl to external teats, or nipples, of
the mother. They cling there and are carried wherever the
mother goes, protected only by the hairs on her underbelly.
Many do not survive to maturity.
The amount of time the young spend growing outside of the
mother’s womb, or uterus, depends on the species. It can be as

short as a few weeks or as long as many
months. In most species, once the young
have grown enough to fend for themselves,
they spend a short amount of time in the
mother’s nest or den, wandering further each
day to find food, until at last they leave the
WHAT’S IN A NAME? nest for good.
When European settlers first came to AUSTRALASIAN CARNIVOROUS
Australia, they discovered many animals MARSUPIALS AND PEOPLE
that they did not have back home. When
Farmers consider many Australasian car-
naming the new animals, they chose names
nivorous marsupials pests because they prey
based on their experiences with how these
on livestock such as sheep and chickens.
new animals looked and sounded. One new
Some animals have been collected for zoos,
animal had large, sharp, white teeth, and
but none of the animals in this order have
ears that turned red when it got angry. It
been significantly hunted for their fur. In
also made horrible screeching noises in the
times past, some may have been hunted for
night. The new settlers named this animal
food by aboriginal peoples.
the Tasmanian devil.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Many Australasian carnivorous marsupials
have not been studied by scientists. There are no good estimates
of how many are left in the wild and how things such as de-
forestation (clearing the land of trees) are affecting them. One
family in this order, Tasmanian wolves, has already gone ex-
tinct. The last time a Tasmanian wolf was confirmed to exist in
the wild was in 1930. The last remaining animal was in captiv-
ity in a zoo and died shortly thereafter in 1936.
Many Australasian carnivorous marsupials such as the
southern dibbler and the sandhill dunnart are considered to
be Endangered, or facing a very high risk of becoming extinct
in the wild. Many others are considered Vulnerable, which
means they face a high risk of extinction in the wild.
There are many reasons that Australasian carnivorous mar-
supials are facing the threat of extinction. The cutting down of
forest areas to clear land for agriculture affects many species, as
does the changing pattern of fires set to clear grassland areas.
Many species are Vulnerable or Endangered in Australia and
surrounding areas because of the introduction of the red fox,
which is not native to the region. In areas where the red fox is
found, populations of Australasian carnivorous mammals have
substantially decreased.

Books:
Fenton, Julie A. Kangaroos and Other Marsupials. Chicago: World Book,
2000.
Hoare, Ben, ed. International Wildlife Encyclopedia, 3rd ed. Tarrytown,
NY: Marshall Cavendish, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Balti-
more and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Woods, Samuel G. Sorting Out Mammals: Everything You Want to Know
About Marsupials, Carnivores, Herbivores, and More! Woodbridge, CT:
Blackbirch Marketing, 1999.
Periodicals:
Hecht, Jeff. “The Sun Warmed Up Evolution For Us All.” New Scientist
(August 31, 2002): 17.
Other sources:
“The Amazing Marsupials.” Australian Ark Documentary Series.
Columbia Tristar, 1994.

MARSUPIAL MICE AND CATS,
TASMANIAN DEVIL
Dasyuridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Dasyuormorphia
Family: Dasyuridae
class Members of the family Dasyuridae include marsupial mice and
cats and the Tasmanian devil. Marsupials are animals that do not
subclass
have a very well developed placenta. A placenta is an organ that
order grows in the mother’s uterus (womb) that allows the developing
monotypic order offspring to share the mother’s food and oxygen. Because of this,
pregnancy in marsupials is short and the young are born unde-
suborder veloped and unable to fend for themselves. After birth, the young
▲ family move to the mother’s pouch and attach to her milk teats (nipples)
until they have finished developing enough to live on their own.
None of the members of the family Dasyuridae are very large.
This order includes some of the world’s smallest marsupials,
members of the genus (JEE-nus) Planigale, some of which are
less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) long and weigh less than
0.2 ounces (5 grams). Other members of this family vary in size
up to the Tasmanian devil, which is the largest species. The
Tasmanian devil can be up to 25 inches (62 centimeters) long
and weigh up to 29 pounds (13 kilograms).
Marsupial mice and cats, as well as the Tasmanian devil, have
four legs. They have four toes on each of their two front feet
and either four or five toes on their two back feet. When they
have five toes on their back feet, the fifth toe is a hallux (HAL-
lux). A hallux is a toe that does not have a claw. The species
in this family usually have pointed snouts and long tails.
The fur of animals in this family is mostly gray or brownish,
and sometimes is black. Fur color often depends on the habitat in
which the species lives, and the kind of fur that best camouflages

them helps them avoid predators, animals that
hunt them for food. Some of the species have
other markings. The northern quoll has white
spots on its otherwise brown body. The teeth
of members of this family vary depending on
the preferred diet, but most have some sharp
teeth for slicing and biting and other wider, flat- TAZ
ter teeth for grinding. This combination of teeth
Tasmanian devils have a reputation
is helpful for catching and eating other animals
around the world for being vicious destroyers
and insects.
of property thanks to a Warner Brothers
cartoon character named Taz. Taz, a
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tasmanian devil, spins like a tornado
Members of Dasyuridae live in Australia, destroying everything in his path. He stands
New Guinea, and Tasmania, and can also be on his hind legs and has teeth that can crush
found on some small islands in that area of through anything. Although Tasmanian
the Pacific. devils do have sharp teeth and very strong
jaw muscles, they do not stand on their back
HABITAT legs alone. Tasmanian devils can be vicious
Members of the family Dasyuridae live all when they feel threatened, but do not spin
over Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, and certainly cannot destroy entire forests!
and occupy all types of habitats. Some
species live in trees, but most species are
ground dwelling; some species prefer open grassland, and oth-
ers prefer forests. Animals that have different habitats have dif-
ferent ways of finding or making dens and different ways of
finding food.
DIET
What the members of this family eat depends on their size. The
species that have smaller bodies, such as the marsupial mice, usu-
ally eat insects and sometimes catch and eat small animals such
as lizards. These smaller animals will eat large animals only if they
are already dead, in which case they will feed from the carcass.
Larger species in this family eat mainly other vertebrates, or ani-
mals that have backbones, such as wallabies and birds. Species that
eat mainly vertebrates will occasionally eat some insects and other
invertebrates, animals without backbones, as well. Some species
will even supplement their diet with food that does not come from
other animals, such as flowers and fruit. All species in this family
are scavengers when they get the chance. They will eat animals
that are already dead, if they are available. Members of this fam-
ily are usually nocturnal and hunt and are active mainly at night.
Marsupial Mice and Cats, Tasmanian Devil 57

Like all marsupials, species in this family give birth to young
that are often blind and hairless, and are not able to survive on
their own. This means that pregnancy for these species is usu-
ally very short. When the young are born, they either move
into the mother’s pouch or to her underbelly where they attach
themselves to her teats. When attached in this way, the devel-
oping young travel with their mother for weeks or months as
they continue to grow and develop. Once the young are able
to survive on their own, they are weaned from their mother
and detach from her nipples. After this, there is usually a pe-
riod during which the young stay close to home and hunt away
from their mother for increasingly long periods before going
off on their own. The males of these species usually travel far-
ther from the mother’s nest to find territories of their own than
the females do.
Some species in this family mate only one time before they
die. The males of these species often die soon after mating, al-
though the females live long enough to raise their young and
sometimes to have a second litter. Scientists think that the rea-
son that males of some species only mate once and then die is
because it takes so much energy for the males to mate, espe-
cially in years when there is not much food available. Scientists
think that these animals use up so much energy mating that
they no longer have enough energy to stay healthy.
MARSUPIAL MICE, CATS, TASMANIAN DEVIL, AND PEOPLE

Members of this family usually do not have much direct in-
teraction with people. Some species, however, have been
thought to kill livestock and because of this have been hunted
by farmers.
CONSERVATION STATUS
No species in this family are known to be extinct, but many,
such as the Kangaroo Island dunnart, are Endangered. Animals
that are considered Endangered face a very high risk of be-
coming extinct in the wild. Many other members of this fam-
ily are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
There are some species in this family that scientists do not yet
have enough information about to know if they are endangered
or not.

Brush-tailed phascogale (Phascogale tapoatafa)
SPECIES
BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE ACCOUNTS
Phascogale tapoatafa
Physical characteristics: The brush-tailed phascogale has gray col-

ored fur on its back and white or creamy fur on the underside of its
body. Its brush tail is black with long, 2-inch (5.5-centimeter) hairs.
Its body is 5.8 to 10.3 inches (14.8 to 26.1 centimeters).
Geographic range: Brush-tailed phascogales live in coastal areas of

Australia.
Habitat: These animals live in dry eucalyptus forests and

woodlands with an open understory—not a lot of smaller plants
growing under the tallest trees—in temperate and tropical areas of
Australia.

Brush-tailed phascogales prefer
Australia’s eucalyptus forests for
foraging and nesting sites.
(Michael Morcombe/Bruce
Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: Brush-tailed phascogales feed on nectar (sweet liquid produced

by plant flowers), large insects, spiders, and small vertebrates, animals
with a backbone. They tear the bark off of trees to look for food.
Behavior and reproduction: This animal spends much of its time up
in trees, and is nocturnal, or active at night. Brush-tailed phascogales
make their nests in tree holes or forks, and also mate there. Females
give birth to about eight young, who are attached to her nipples, feed-
ing, for about forty days. After that, they stay in the nest until they’re
five months old.
Brush-tailed phascogales and people: These animals occasionally
eat poultry raised by humans, but they also eat mice and insects,
which humans may appreciate.
Conservation status: The brush-tailed phascogale is not currently
threatened. ■

Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus laniarius)
TASMANIAN DEVIL
Sarcophilus laniarius
Physical characteristics: The Tasmanian devil is a four-footed mar-

supial with four toes on its two front feet as well as four on its back
feet. It does not have a hallux. It has black fur with some white mark-
ings, usually on the chest, shoulder, and rump. The Tasmanian devil
has a pointed snout that is pinkish at the tip. Its sharp, pointed teeth
are good for cutting and tearing meat. It also has flat grinding teeth
for crushing the bones of the animals it eats. The ears of the Tas-
manian devil are short and pointed and turn red when the animal is
angry. Males of this species usually have a head and body length be-
tween 20 and 25 inches (50 to 62 centimeters) and weigh between
17 and 29 pounds (8 to 13 kilograms). Females usually have a head

and body length between 21 and 22.5 inches (53
to 57 centimeters) and weigh between 10 and 20
pounds (4.5 to 9 kilograms).
Geographic range: Tasmanian devils live on

Tasmania, a large island off the southeastern Aus-
tralian coast.
Habitat: The Tasmanian devil lives in the forest.

It makes dens using leaves and plant material, al-
though it sometimes sleeps in hollow logs or in the
dens of other animals.
Diet: The Tasmanian devil mainly eats the meat

of vertebrate animals. It will even eat poisonous
snakes, and also occasionally invertebrates or
plants. It is mainly a scavenger, and likes to eat an-
imals that have already been killed by other causes.
A scientist who studied the Tasmanian devil found
that its favorite foods were wallabies, wombats,
sheep, and rabbits. Most of these animals were not
hunted by the Tasmanian devil itself, but eaten af-
ter other animals, cars, or natural causes killed
them. The Tasmanian devil makes use of all the
parts of animals that it kills or finds, eating even
The Tasmanian devil’s sharp,
the bones and fur.
pointed teeth are good for cutting
and tearing meat. Its flat grinding Behavior and reproduction: The Tasmanian devil is nocturnal,
teeth can crush the bones of the meaning that it hunts and is active mainly at night. When Tasman-
animals it eats. (Erwin and Peggy ian devils feel threatened or are fighting, they can be very loud. They
Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permission.) begin by growling softly, but become increasingly louder and can even
make horrible screeching noises. Most mating occurs in February or
March. Females are pregnant for about one month and then give birth
to young that move into the mother’s pouch and attach to her nip-
ples. Female Tasmanian devils have four nipples, which means that
four is the most young that can be supported while they develop. Tas-
manian devils normally have two or four babies at a time.
Tasmanian devils and people: Most contact between humans and

the Tasmanian devil has occurred because the Tasmanian devil may
eat animals that farmers keep as livestock. The Tasmanian devil will
eat chickens if the coops are not well protected, and also sheep and
lambs. Farmers sometimes kill Tasmanian devils to keep them away
from their livestock.

Conservation status: The Tasmanian devil used to live all over
Australia, but now lives only in Tasmania. Scientists believe that this
species disappeared from the Australian mainland because it had to
compete with the dingo, a wild dog that is introduced, not a native
species. There is no information on how many Tasmanian devils are
left in the wild in Tasmania, but it is likely that they are being af-
fected by the clearing of land for agriculture. ■
Books:
2000.
Web sites:
Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment. Tas-
manian Devil. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN
-5358KH?open (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Other sources:
“The Amazing Marsupials.” Australian Ark Documentary Series. Colum-
bia Tristar, 1994.

NUMBAT
Myrmecobiidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Myrmecobiidae
One species: Numbat
(Myrmecobius
fasciatus)
class Numbats, sometimes called banded anteaters, are small mar-
supial mammals that live in the southwestern region of West-
subclass
ern Australia. Considered to be one of the most beautiful and
order distinctively marked marsupials, numbats are the only species
monotypic order of the Myrmecobiidae family.
suborder Numbats are small, four-legged animals that are a little
▲ family larger than rats. Weighing about 1 pound (0.45 kilograms),
they range in total length from 12 to 19 inches (30 to 47 cen-
timeters). Their tails can be 5 to 8 inches (13 to 20 centime-
ters) long. Their front feet have five toes and their back feet
have four toes. All of the toes have strong claws to help them
dig quickly for termites, their preferred food. They also have
an extraordinarily long tongue that they use to gather the
termites from underground and from holes in rotting trees.
Unlike other marsupials, the female numbat does not have a
pouch to carry her young, but she does have four nipples on
her underside. The young cling to the nipples on her belly
while they develop.
The numbat has coarse, short fur that varies in color from
grayish brown to reddish brown. The numbat is distinctively
marked with a series of five to seven white stripes that run
across its rump and lower back. A black band bordered by two
white bands runs on each side of the head from the snout
through the eye and to the base of the ear. Their underside has
paler fur and the fur on their tail is long.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
century, when Europeans began to settle in
Australia, numbats occupied a much larger
area than they do today. At that time, num-
bats lived in the southern half of central and
western Australia. They lived as far east as THE DANGER OF INTRODUCING
New South Wales and as far north as the A FOREIGN SPECIES
Northern Territory. Today, numbats inhabit Whenever an new animal is introduced
nine wild and two free-range areas across the into an environment, there can be
southern region of Western Australia.
unexpected consequences. The red fox
HABITAT was introduced when Europeans arrived in
Australia. For numbats and several other
Numbats once lived in a variety of habi-
Australian species, the introduction of this
tats from open forests to grasslands. Today
they prefer areas with plenty of ground-level animal was disastrous. Numbats had not
cover in order to protect them from the evolved ways to protect themselves against
weather and predators such as hawks and red this new, non-native predator. As a result,
foxes. Numbats also use hollow logs and foxes killed thousands of numbats and
thickets to protect themselves from preda- numbat populations substantially
tors, animals that hunt them for food. decreased. Only by starting programs to
lessen the number of red foxes could the
DIET numbats be saved.
Numbats mainly eat termites—their
pointed snouts allow them to sniff out the
insects underground. They then use their sharp claws to dig small
holes and retrieve the termites from underground tunnels using
their long, slender tongues. The numbat’s tongue can extend as
much as 4 inches (10 centimeters) from its mouth. Saliva on the
tongue makes the termites stick to it, so that the numbat can
quickly pull its tongue back into its mouth with the termites at-
tached. The numbat’s salivary glands are large to provide enough
saliva for this kind of eating. Another way that numbats find ter-
mites is by turning over fallen branches and sticks using their
snout and front paws. A numbat that was studied in captivity ate
between 10,000 and 20,000 termites per day. In the course of
eating termites, ants and other insects sometimes also are con-
sumed. Numbats do not chew their food, even though they have
more teeth (between forty-eight and fifty-two of them) than any
other marsupial.
The numbat is a solitary animal and is the only Australian
mammal that is active only during the day (diurnal). During
Numbat 65
most of the year, numbats are active from mid-morning until
late afternoon, when the temperatures are warmest. However,
during the hottest part of the year they avoid activity around
noon and prefer to forage in the early morning and late
afternoon.
When numbats reproduce, they do not form pairs, so the fe-
male is left to raise her young alone. After only a fourteen-day
pregnancy, the female gives birth to an average of four young,
which she continues to carry without a pouch. Marsupial mam-
mals like the numbat do not form a placenta when their young
are in their mother’s womb. Instead, they are born under-
developed and spend time developing outside attached to their
mother’s milk teats. Unlike other marsupials, the numbat does
not have a pouch. When the young are born, they are hairless
and their eyes are still sealed shut. They crawl toward their
mother’s nipples, which are on her belly, and attach themselves
there. They remain on the mother’s belly and are carried with
her for six to seven months while they grow hair and continue
to develop. The young then spend several more months in the

Numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus)
mother’s nest. While in the nest, their eyes open and they be-
gin to explore. By early the following year, numbat young ven-
ture out on their own.
NUMBATS AND PEOPLE

The numbat was known to central Australian aboriginal
(native) people as “walpurti.” At one time they were hunted
for food. Aboriginal people would track individual numbats to
their burrows and then dig them up. Today they have no known
economic value, although scientists and ecotourists are inter-
ested in observing them. As many as two hundred numbats
have been collected as museum specimens.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Numbats are a conservation success story. By 1985, so many
numbats had disappeared that only two numbat populations
remained. At that time they were considered Endangered and
Numbat 67
likely to become extinct. An effort to increase numbat popula-
tions was undertaken that involved the poison baiting of red
foxes, a major predator of the numbat. Numbat populations
were also moved into other habitats, and numbats that had been
raised in captivity were introduced into the wild. These pro-
grams have been successful, because there are now nine wild
numbat populations and two that live on fenced reserves. In
1994, numbats were upgraded from Endangered to a conser-
vation status of Vulnerable. Although they are still at risk, they
are unlikely to become extinct in the immediate future.
Books:
Swan, Erin Pembrey, and Jose Gonzales. Meat-Eating Marsupials
(Animals in Order). New York: Franklin Watts, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M., ed. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed.
Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Periodicals:
McCreery, Susan. “Fenced in and Free.” Australian Geographic
(January–March 2003): 31.
Web sites:
Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment.
Numbats. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au (accessed on June 30, 2004).

TASMANIAN WOLF
Thylacinidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Thylacinidae
One species: Tasmanian wolf
(Thylacinidae
cynocephalus)
Although Tasmanian wolves, sometimes called Tasmanian class
tigers, are extinct, or no longer living today, scientists have
subclass
learned much about them from fossils and earlier written
records. These wolves looked like dogs, and they walked on all order
four legs, although their legs were shorter than most dogs. They monotypic order
had a long narrow snout, ears that stood up, and a straight tail.
Tasmanian wolves had short sandy-brown hair with a distinc- suborder
tive set of stripes that ran across their back. The stripes were ▲ family
dark brown and ran from the shoulders to the base of the tail.
Female Tasmanian wolves were smaller than males, with
some males growing to twice the weight of females. While fe-
males may have averaged 33 pounds (15 kilograms), males
could grow to be more than 60 pounds (27 kilograms). Tas-
manian wolves had sharp teeth with four incisors in the top of
their mouth and three in the bottom. This allowed them to tear
their preferred food, meat.
Like all native Australian and Tasmanian mammals, Tas-
manian wolves were marsupials. They lacked a placenta, an
organ that grows in the mother’s uterus and lets the mother
and developing baby share food and oxygen. Because of this,
they gave birth to young that were physically immature and
unable to survive on their own. After a short pregnancy, the
young were carried for several months in a pouch that opened
under the mother’s tail and faced backward. The young attached
to milk teats, or nipples, in the pouch and fed until they grew
large enough to survive on their own.
Tasmanian Wolf 69
Tasmanian wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus)
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
When Tasmanian wolves were still alive, they were thought
to have lived on the entire island of Tasmania. By the 1800s,
Tasmanian wolves were rare in the southwest and western re-
gions of the island, except in coastal areas. Scientists have
learned this by reading the diaries of early settlers and exam-
ining the bounty payment records of people who lived during
that time. Early settlers in Tasmania thought of Tasmanian
wolves as pests to be eliminated, and bounty money was paid
to hunters who killed them.
HABITAT
Tasmanian wolves lived in a great variety of habitats, al-
though most often they were found in open areas. These in-
cluded grassy woodlands, open forests, and coastal regions.
They avoided dense forests and wetlands and liked to live in
areas that Tasmanian devils, another animal in this order, live
in today. The Tasmanian wolves hid in rock outcroppings and
dense vegetation during the day and probably built dens there,
but they would hunt at night in open grasslands.

DIET
Since Tasmanian wolves are no longer liv-
ing today, no one knows for sure what they
ate. When they were alive, people were more
interested in classifying them and studying
how they were related to other animals than
in learning about how they lived or what they
ate. Scientists can make some guesses about
their diet, however, by comparing Tasmanian
wolves to animals that live today.
Tasmanian wolves were carnivores, or meat
eaters. It is believed that they ate many differ-
ent kinds of animals including birds, small
mammals, and even some larger mammals such
Most of what is known about
as wombats, bandicoots, possums, and kangaroos, although it is Tasmanian wolves comes from
likely that these larger animals were eaten less often. By looking what people wrote about them
at the size of their leg bones, scientists believe that Tasmanian before they became extinct in
the 1930s. Scientists can study
wolves did not run very fast, and captured their prey by sneak- related animals to try to figure
ing up on it or ambushing it rather than running it down. out what they might have eaten
and how they lived. (Illustration
by Wendy Baker. Reproduced by
permission.)
Not much is known about the behavior and reproduction of
Tasmanian wolves. These animals were bred in captivity only
once, although females with live young in their pouches were
caught and kept in zoos. Scientists think that reproduction was
timed so that young Tasmanian wolves left their mothers dur-
ing the warmer months, as this was when food was more avail-
able, giving the young a better chance of survival. They believe
that pregnancy lasted only one month. The poorly developed
young then moved into the mother’s pouch where they nursed
until they were developed enough to survive on their own and
eat solid food. Beyond this, little is known about their repro-
ductive systems, how long the young would stay in their mother’s
pouch, or even how many young were in an average litter.
TASMANIAN WOLVES AND PEOPLE

People have had unfriendly relationships with Tasmanian
wolves. Native peoples on the island of Tasmania and in Aus-
tralia killed and ate Tasmanian wolves for food. It is thought
that although many groups did use the Tasmanian wolves for
food, some would build special shelters to worship the head
and skin of the animal afterwards.
Tasmanian Wolf 71
Once European settlers and farmers came
to the region, hunting of the wolves in-
creased dramatically. Sheep farmers were los-
ing sheep and assumed that the Tasmanian
wolves were responsible. It is likely that
the wolves did kill some sheep, but wild
FARMING AND WILD ANIMALS dogs probably killed more sheep that the
When people begin to farm in areas that wolves. Even so, farmers and bounty hunters
were once wild, they often interact with new continued to hunt the Tasmanian wolves.
animals. Farmers who raise sheep, cattle, or By the early 1900s, most were gone, and by
other livestock find that wild animals will 1912 bounty hunting of Tasmanian
feed on their flocks. This was probably true wolves was halted. This was not early enough
of the Tasmanian wolves, although most to save them from extinction. The last time
scientists believe that wild dogs were a Tasmanian wolf was confirmed to exist in
responsible for killing more sheep and cattle the wild was in 1930. Despite the official pro-
than Tasmanian wolves. Even so, farmers tection that began on July 14, 1936, the last
hunted Tasmanian wolves and hired bounty Tasmanian wolf died that September.
hunters to help them. This drove the
Tasmanian wolves to extinction, despite CONSERVATION STATUS
the fact that they may not have been
Tasmanian wolves are extinct. They were
responsible for all the farmers’ losses.
killed off mostly by farmers and bounty
hunters during the 1800s. Tasmanian wolves
were thought of as pests and killers of live-
stock, much the way the coyote was thought of during the set-
tlement of the American West.
Books:
2000.

Swan, Erin Pembrey, and Jose Gonzales. Meat-Eating Marsupials

(Animals in Order). New York: Franklin Watts, 2002.


Web sites:
Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water Environment. “Tas-
manian Tiger.” http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/
BHAN-53777B?open (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Other sources:
“The Amazing Marsupials.” Australian Ark Documentary Series.
Columbia Tristar, 1994.
Tasmanian Wolf 73
BANDICOOTS AND BILBIES
Peramelemorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Peramelemorphia
order C H A P T E R
class Peramelemorphia is an order of small ground-dwelling mar-
supials known as bandicoots and bilbies. All species in this or-
subclass
der live either in Australia, New Guinea, or a few nearby
● order Indonesian islands. Although some of the species in this order
monotypic order have been classified differently in the past, current genetic evi-
dence has led scientists to divide this order into two families, the
suborder Peramelidae and the Peroryctidae. The Peramelidae include the
family true bandicoots of Australia and the bilbies. The Peroryctidae are
made up of the spiny bandicoots of the New Guinea rainforest.
Bandicoots and bilbies look like a cross between a rabbit
and a rat. They range in size from 6.5 to 23 inches (17 to
60 centimeters), excluding tail length, and weigh from 0.3 to
10.5 pounds (0.1 to 4.8 kilograms). Their tails are usually short
in proportion to their bodies.
Bandicoots and bilbies have small pointed snouts and ears
that are usually short and rounded. One exception is the greater
bilby which has long rabbit-like ears. Most species have thin,
rat-like tails, and their fur is usually solid earth tone colors.
The fur of the rainforest bandicoots is harsh and spiny.
The front legs of most species in this order are adapted for
digging. The front feet have strong claws on toes two, three,
and four. Toes one and five are either absent or very small and
clawless. The hind limbs are strong and muscular, allowing
these animals to leap and hop like a rabbit. However, they are
also able to run at a fast gallop. On the hind legs, the bones of
the second and third toe are fused, joined into one, but still

have separate claws. This pattern of fused toes suggests that
these animals may have evolved from the Diprotodonta family.
Bandicoots and bilbies are omnivores, meaning they eat both
plants and animals. Members of this order have teeth that are
adapted to this diet. Their tooth pattern suggests that they may
have evolved from the Dasyuromorphia order (Australasian car-
nivorous marsupials). Because of the conflicting physical evi-
dence, scientists remain unsure exactly which other marsupial
families are their closest relatives.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Species in this order are found only in limited parts of Aus-
tralia, New Guinea, and the Indonesian island of Seram. In the
past, these animals were abundant. They were found in about
70 percent of Australia, throughout New Guinea, and on sev-
eral other Indonesian islands. Since the beginning of the twen-
tieth century, their range has been drastically reduced by
human activities.
HABITAT
The two families in this order live in different habitats. Per-
amelidae, or true bandicoots and bilbies, live in dry, desert ar-
eas, dry grassland, shrubby grassland, open forest, and
suburban gardens. Peroryctidae, or spiny bandicoots, live in the
tropical rainforests of New Guinea. Several species live in iso-
lated areas at elevations up to 13,000 feet (4,000 meters).
DIET
Bandicoots and bilbies are omnivores, eating both plants and
animals, and insects such as ants and termites usually make up
most of their diet. They also eat earthworms, insect larvae, in-
sects such as centipedes, and plant parts, such as seeds, bulbs,
and fallen fruit. Occasionally larger species eat lizards and mice.
They are opportunistic feeders, tending to eat whatever food
is available.
Bandicoots and bilbies find food by smell and hearing. Their
eyesight is poor. When they locate food underground, they dig
cone-shaped holes up to 5 inches (13 centimeters) deep and
remove the food with their long tongues. Because so much of
their food is dug out of the ground, they also accidentally eat
a lot of dirt. Studies have found that between 20 and 90 per-
cent of their waste is earth that was swallowed with the food,
Bandicoots and Bilbies 75

then passed through their digestive system. Some species that
live in desert areas do not need to drink water. They can get
all the moisture they need from their food.

Most species in this order are nocturnal, active only at night.
The exception is the southern brown bandicoot, which is active
mainly during the day. All members of this order live alone,
coming together only for a short time to mate. Females will mate
with more than one male. Many species mate year round. Both
males and females are territorial. Males have larger territories
than females. Some species mark their territory with scent from
a special gland. Males become aggressive when another male en-
ters their territory. Males kept together in captivity will fight.
Most familiar mammals such as dogs, rabbits, and horses, are
called eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals. These mammals
have a placenta, an organ that grows into the mother’s uterus
(womb) and lets the mother and developing offspring share food
and oxygen until the organs of the developing young mature.
Marsupial mammals do not have this type of developed placenta.
Most marsupials have what is called a yolk-sac placenta, where
there is no sharing of the mother’s food and oxygen.
Bandicoots and bilbies are different from other marsupials,
because they have a second placenta in addition to the yolk-sac
placenta. This placenta resembles the placenta in eutherian
mammals, but does not function as well, because it does not at-
tach as closely to the wall of the mother’s uterus. As a result,
members of the order Peramelemorphia have very short preg-
nancies, and, like other marsupials, the young are physically im-
mature and undeveloped when they are born. At birth they crawl
to their mother’s backward-opening pouch where they attach to
the mother’s teats, or nipples. They are carried inside the pouch
until they are mature enough to survive independently.
BANDICOOTS, BILBIES, AND PEOPLE

Aboriginal (native) people hunted bandicoots and bilbies for
meat and fur, however these animals were abundant, and hunt-
ing did not cause a major decrease in their populations. The
coming of European colonists to Australia and New Guinea
began the decline of many species of bandicoots and bilbies.
Europeans changed the ecology of Australia. They introduced
non-native species such as the red fox and the domestic cat,

both of which prey on bandicoots and bilbies.
They also introduced rabbits that compete
with them for food. In addition, Europeans
introduced cattle and sheep ranching to
Australia. This reduced the habitat suitable
for many species of bandicoots and bilbies.
Finally, native people regularly burned the YOU DIRTY BANDICOOT
grassland, and the plants that grew after the Bandicoots reminded European settlers
burn provide a good habitat for bandicoots in Australia of rats. They had a very low
and bilbies. This practice changed after large opinion of the animal. Today in Australia
scale livestock ranching began, creating less the word “bandicoot” when applied to a
diverse habitats that did not support these na- person is considered a mild term of abuse
tive species well. and disrespect.
The number of bandicoots and bilbies has
decreased dramatically since the beginning
of the twentieth century. Three species have gone extinct. Con-
servation organizations are tying to provide safe habitat for
these animals by fencing preserves and controlling predators,
animals that hunt them for food. However, people living in sub-
urban areas still tend to think of bandicoots and bilbies as
pests, because they dig up lawns and gardens when hunting
for food.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Since the coming of European colonists in 1770, three
species have gone extinct: the pig-footed bandicoot, the desert
bandicoot, and the lesser bilby. The number of animals in four
other species has dropped to dangerously low levels and they
are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild, or Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction
in the wild. So little is known about most of the species in the
Peroryctidae family that their conservation status cannot be
accurately evaluated.
Since the 1980s captive breeding and conservation programs
have succeeded in increasing the number of bilbies. The Aus-
tralian Bilby Appreciation Society has developed public rela-
tions programs to increase awareness of the need to protect
these animals. They have also raised money for a fenced pre-
serve, because bilbies cannot thrive in the wild without preda-
tor control. Other species have been the focus of less
conservation awareness and continue to decline.

Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1995.
Menkhorst, Frank. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia, 2nd ed.
Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Periodicals:
Smyth, Chris. “Bilbies’ Call of the Wild.” Habitat Australia (October
1998): 13.
Web sites:
“Nature Conservation” Queensland Government Environmental Protec-
tion Agency/Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. http://www.epa.
qld.gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on May 14, 2004).
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Order Peramelemorphia.”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Peramelemorphia.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).
Other sources:
Australian Bilby Appreciation Society. P. O. Box 2002, Rangview, Victo-
ria 3132 Australia. E-mail: [email protected] Web site:
http://members.oze-mail.com.au/bilbies.

BANDICOOTS AND BILBIES
Peramelidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Peramelidae
Peramelidae are Australian bandicoots and bilbies. This fam- class
ily is sometimes referred to as the true bandicoots to distinguish
subclass
it from the Peroryctidae, or rainforest bandicoots of New Guinea.
True bandicoots are small marsupials with long, pointed snouts. order
They range in size from 6.5 inches (17 centimeters) and 5 ounces monotypic order
(140 grams), or about the size of a mouse, to 23 inches
(60 centimeters) and 10.5 pounds (4.8 kilograms), or about the suborder
size of a cat. ▲ family
Bandicoots live and feed on the ground. They have claws to
dig for food, and in the case of bilbies, digging burrows. Their
front feet have five toes. The middle three toes have strong
claws. Toes one and five are either small or absent. On the hind
feet, the bones of the second and third toes are joined, but each
toe has a separate claw. Bandicoots look something like a cross
between a rat and a rabbit. Their hind legs are longer than their
front legs and are strong and well developed for hopping and
leaping. They are also able to gallop.
Most bandicoots have short rounded ears and a thin, short
tail. However, the extinct pig-footed bandicoot had both long
ears and a long tail, and the bilby’s ears are very large. All bandi-
coots have good hearing and a good sense of smell, but poor
eyesight. They are nocturnal, or active at night, when their sense
of smell and hearing are important in helping them locate food.
True bandicoots live mainly in dry areas. Their fur ranges
from dark brown to gray and they are normally darker on their
back than on their belly, allowing them to blend into the deserts

and dry grasslands where they live. Most bandicoots are solid
colored, although a few, such as the eastern barred bandicoot,
are striped. The fur of true bandicoots is soft when compared
to the harsh, spiky fur of the rainforest bandicoots.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Before the arrival of European colonists in 1770, bandicoots
and bilbies were found in about 70 percent of Australia and on
several nearby islands. Today they are found in many fewer
places in Australia and the island of Tasmania. The bilby, es-
pecially, can be found only in isolated pockets mainly on pro-
tected park land or in captive breeding areas.
HABITAT
Bandicoots and bilbies prefer dry areas. Before European col-
onization, up to five species could be found in the Australian in-
land deserts. Today only one species lives there. Other species
live in dry grasslands and open forests. Three species have adapted
to human activity and live in suburban neighborhoods and parks.
DIET
True bandicoots are omnivores. They eat both plants and an-
imals. Included in their diet are ants, termites, insect larvae
(LAR-vee), earthworms, spiders, centipedes, bulbs, seeds, and
bird eggs. Larger species will occasionally eat lizards and mice.
Although bandicoots eat a variety of food, each colony seems
to prefer one or two particular foods, probably because these
are more easily available. Bandicoots dig for food with their
strong claws. They make holes up to 5 inches (13 centimeters)
deep and scoop out the food with their long tongues. Some
species that live in desert areas do not need to drink water.
They can get all the moisture they need from their food.

True bandicoots are nocturnal. The exception is the south-
ern brown bandicoot, which is active mainly during the day.
Bandicoots are solitary animals, living alone and coming
together only to mate.
Bandicoots are territorial animals. The males defend larger
territories than the females. They challenge any other male that
comes into this area, and will fight if the intruder does not
leave. Although females spend all night feeding, males spend

part of the night patrolling their territories and marking them
with scent to scare off other males.
Female bandicoots can reproduce at about four months of age.
A female may mate with several different males. Pregnancy is one
of the shortest of all animals—from twelve days to a few weeks.
Like all marsupials, bandicoots do not have a well-developed
placenta. A placenta is an organ that grows in the mother’s
uterus (YOO-ter-us; womb) that allows the developing off-
spring share the mother’s food and oxygen. Most marsupials
have what is called a yolk-sac placenta, where there is no shar-
ing of the mother’s food and oxygen. Bandicoots and bilbies are
different from other marsupials, because they have a second
placenta in addition to the yolk-sac placenta. This placenta re-
sembles the placenta in eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mam-
mals, such as dogs, rabbits, and humans, but does not function
as well, because it does not attach as closely to the wall of the
mother’s uterus.
Young bandicoots, called joeys, are born hairless, blind, and
poorly developed. They are about 0.4 inches (1 centimeter) long.
They use their front legs to pull themselves into their mother’s
pouch. There they attach to her teats, or nipples, where they re-
main for at least several weeks until they are able to survive on
their own. After that they may remain in the nest and be fed by
the mother for another week or two before becoming completely
independent. Rarely do bandicoots have more than four young
in a litter, and one or two offspring are more common. The
death rate of newborn bandicoots is high. Those that live to
adulthood have a lifespan of two to three years. Predators of the
bandicoot include red foxes, dingoes (wild dogs), and feral cats
(domestic cats that have been turned loose and become wild).
Rabbits are their main competitors for food.
BANDICOOTS, BILBIES, AND PEOPLE

Australian aboriginal (native) people considered the bandi-
coot one of the creators of life. According to their legends,
Karora, a giant bandicoot, awoke from under the earth and gave
birth to humans out of his armpit. Aborginal people also hunted
bandicoots for food.
European colonists thought bandicoots looked like rats and
tended to treat them as pests. Many were killed when colonists
tried to rid Australia of rabbits that were introduced and soon
overran the country, because they had no natural predators.

Legal protection of bandicoots did not occur
until the middle of the twentieth century,
after several species were already extinct. To-
day conservation groups are trying to save
bandicoots and bilbies, but many suburban
residents still consider them pests, because
THE EASTER BILBY they dig up gardens when hunting for food.
They also carry ticks, lice, and fleas.
Starting in the 1990s, the Foundation
for Rabbit-Free Australia and the Save CONSERVATION STATUS
the Bilby Fund began a public relations
Three species of bandicoot are extinct: the
campaign to replace the Easter rabbit with
pig-footed bandicoot, the desert bandicoot,
the Easter bilby. The fund teamed up with
and the lesser bilby. All the extinct species
candy makers to make chocolate bilbies for
lived in the dry inland area of Australia. The
children’s Easter baskets. Part of the sales
western barred bandicoot is considered En-
price of each candy bilby went to bilby
dangered, facing a very high risk of extinc-
conservation and restoration programs. By
tion. Four other species are considered
2004, several hundred thousand dollars
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction.
had been raised through candy bilby sales.
Captive breeding projects have been started
to save the greater bilby and the western
barred bandicoot. These projects have had
some success, but it is unlikely that populations of bandicoots
in the wild will increase without control of their predators
(animals that hunt them for food).

Eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii)
SPECIES
EASTERN BARRED BANDICOOT ACCOUNTS
Perameles gunnii
Physical characteristics: The eastern barred bandicoot, also called

the barred bandicoot, the Tasmanian barred bandicoot, the striped
bandicoot, or Gunn’s bandicoot, measures 10.5 to 14 inches (27 to
35 centimeters) not including the tail and weighs 26.5 to 35 ounces
(0.75 to 1 kilogram). It has grayish brown fur with pale bars on its
hindquarters. It has large ears, a thin, pointed snout, and its tail is
relatively short.
Geographic range: Eastern barred bandicoots are found in the Aus-

tralian state of Victoria and on the island of Tasmania. At one time it
was also found in the state of South Australia, but it is now extinct there.

Eastern barred bandicoots have
the shortest pregnancy of any
mammal—just twelve days.
(Illustration by Gillian Harris.
Habitat: This species lives in grasslands, open grassy woodlands,

and suburban yards and parks.
Diet: Eastern barred bandicoots eat mainly insects, insect larvae,

earthworms, bulbs, seeds, and fallen fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: Eastern barred bandicoots have the

shortest pregnancy of any mammal—around twelve days. The young,
usually only two or three, are carried in the mother’s pouch another
fifty-five days and become completely independent about three weeks
later. This species becomes fully mature and capable of reproducing
at about four months of age and has a lifespan of two to three years.
Eastern barred bandicoots and people: Aboriginal peoples hunted

the eastern barred bandicoot for food. Suburban residents find it a
pest because it digs up lawns when hunting for food.
Conservation status: As of 2003, the eastern barred bandicoot was

considered Vulnerable to extinction. At one point it was considered
Critically Endangered. In 1991, only 109 animals were known to ex-
ist on mainland Australia.
Serious conservation efforts are underway in Victoria. These include
habitat protection, predator control, community education, captive
breeding, and reintroduction of captive-bred bandicoots to the wild.
By 1993, the population had grown to over seven hundred animals.
The main threats to this species are predators such as the red fox and
cats, and being hit and killed by automobiles.

Greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis)
GREATER BILBY
Macrotis lagotis
Physical characteristics: The greater bilby, also called the rabbit-

eared bandicoot, is a small bilby about the size of a rabbit. It mea-
sures 9 to 10 inches (23 to 26 centimeters). Males weigh from 2 to
5.5 pounds (1 to 2.5 kilograms). Females are smaller, weighing from
1.8 to 2.5 pounds (0.8 to 1.1 kilograms). Bilbies have soft, silky blue-
gray fur on their back and white bellies. They have a long, thin snout
and a long black tail with a white tip. The lesser bilby, a relative of
the greater bilby, became extinct in 1931, so the greater bilby is usu-
ally referred to simply as the bilby.

Geographic range: Bilbies are found in the
Northern Territory, Western Australia, and
Queensland, but their populations are isolated
from each other.
Habitat: Bilbies prefer hot, dry grassland, and will

occasionally live in dry, shrubby, open woodlands.
Diet: Bilbies feed at night. They are omnivores,

and like other bandicoots eat insects, insect lar-
vae, earthworms, bulbs, and seeds.
Behavior and reproduction: Bilbies are the

only bandicoots that dig burrows. They are ex-
cellent diggers, and these burrows can be up to
6 feet (2 meters) deep. They stay in the burrows during the day for
protection against the heat.
Like all bandicoots, bilbies live alone, coming together only to
mate. They mate throughout the year and give birth only fourteen
days after mating. The young are then carried in the mother’s pouch
for eighty days. After they leave the pouch, they live in the burrow
with their mother who feeds them for another two weeks.
Greater bilbies and people: Bilbies were very common until the
beginning of the twentieth century and were an important source of
food for native peoples. However, their numbers rapidly decreased
with the introduction of non-native predators such as the red fox and
the cat. Today, the bilby has become a symbol of Australia’s efforts
to save its native species.
Conservation status: As of 2003, the bilby was considered Vul-

nerable to extinction. Their numbers decreased because of non-na-
tive predators, competition for food by rabbits, and changes in habitat
brought about by livestock ranching and farming. The bilby has been
the focus of an intensive public awareness and recovery program. The
Save the Bilby Appeal was begun in 1999 and has been quite suc-
cessful. Sales of chocolate Easter bilbies have helped to finance cap-
tive breeding programs and reintroduction of bilbies to the wild. Most
recently, the Save the Bilby Appeal has started a campaign to fence a
large area where bilbies released into the wild will be protected from
predators. ■

Books:
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns
Periodicals:
Clark, Tim W., Richard P. Reading, and Gary Backhouse. “Prototyping
for Successful Conservation: The Eastern Barred Bandicoot Program.”
Endangered Species Update (July–August 2002): 125.
Smyth, Chris. “Bilbies’ Call of the Wild.” Habitat Australia (October
1998): 13.
Web sites:
Queensland Government Environmental Protection Agency/Queensland
Parks and Wildlife Service. Nature Conservation. http://www.epa.
qld.gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on June 22, 2004).
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Family Peramelidae.”
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu
Other sources:
Australian Bilby Appreciation Society. P.O. Box 2002, Rangview, Victoria
3132 Australia. E-mail: [email protected] Web site:
http://members.oze-mail.com.au/bilbies

SPINY BANDICOOTS
Peroryctidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Peroryctidae
class Peroryctidae are spiny bandicoots. They look like a cross be-
tween a rabbit and a rat. In many ways they are similar to the
subclass bandicoots in the Peramelidae family. Spiny bandicoots range in
order size from about 6.5 to 22 inches (17.5 to 56 centimeters), not
monotypic order including the tail. They vary in weight from 14 ounces
to 10 pounds (0.4 to 4.7 kilograms). The giant bandicoot of
suborder southeastern New Guinea is the largest species. The mouse
▲ family bandicoot is the smallest.
Spiny bandicoots have rough, spiky fur that is usually black-
ish or brown on the back and white or tan on the belly. Most
species are a solid color, but the striped bandicoot has darker
stripes on its rump and around its eyes. Like the true bandicoots,
spiny bandicoots have claws that are adapted to digging for food.
Their front feet have five toes. The middle three toes have strong
claws. Toes one and five are either small or absent. On the hind
feet, the bones of the second and third toes are joined, but each
toe has a separate claw. The hind legs are longer than the front
legs and are strong and well developed for hopping and leaping.
They are also able to move with a running gait.
Spiny bandicoots differ from true bandicoots mainly in the
shape of their skulls, the habitats they prefer, and the roughness
of their fur. Recent studies show that they also are genetically
different from true bandicoots.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Spiny bandicoots live mainly on the island of New Guinea
and a few small neighboring islands. One species is found in

Australia only on the northernmost tip of
Queensland, the part of Australia closest to
New Guinea.
HABITAT
Spiny bandicoots prefer damp, humid
habitats. They live in tropical rainforests and THE TINIEST BANDICOOT
mountain rainforests at elevations from zero The mouse bandicoot measures only 6
to 14,800 feet (zero to 4,500 meters). Species inches (15 centimeters) long. It is extremely
living in the same area tend to live at differ- difficult to observe, and was not discovered
ent elevations. until 1932. It lives in moss forests at
altitudes of 6,300 to 8,200 feet (1,900 to
DIET 2,500 meters), and is active only at night.
Like all bandicoots, spiny bandicoots are By 1977 only four specimens of this
omnivores, meaning they eat both animals species had been collected for study.
and plants. Most of their diet consists of in-
sects, insect larvae, earthworms, spiders, cen-
tipedes, bulbs, seeds, and fallen fruit. Spiny
bandicoots appear to eat more vegetable material, especially
fruit, than true bandicoots. This may be because fruit is more
available in the damp habitats they prefer than in the dry habi-
tats preferred by true bandicoots. They either lick their food off
the ground or dig for it with their strong claws. They can dig
holes up to 5 inches (13 centimeters) deep and scoop out the
food with their long tongues.

Spiny bandicoots are nocturnal, feeding during the night and
resting during the day in nests of leaves, hollow logs, or shal-
low burrows. They live alone, coming together only briefly to
mate. They are territorial animals, protecting an area against
other members of their species and becoming aggressive if their
area is invaded.
Little is known about spiny bandicoots. They are difficult to
observe, because they live in remote or mountainous areas and
are active only at night. Bandicoots are marsupial mammals.
Most marsupials have what is called a yolk-sac placenta. A pla-
centa is an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus (womb). In
eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals, such as dogs, cows,
and humans, the placenta allows the developing offspring share
the mother’s food and oxygen. In animals with a yolk-sac pla-
centa, there is no sharing of the mother’s food and oxygen.
Spiny Bandicoots 89
Bandicoots differ from other marsupials, because they have
a second placenta in addition to the yolk-sac placenta. This pla-
centa resembles the placenta of eutherian mammals, but does
not function as well, because it does not attach as closely to
the wall of the mother’s uterus. As a result, spiny bandicoots
have short pregnancies, and the young are born nearly help-
less. They drag themselves into their mother’s pouch where
they attach to her teats, or nipples and are carried until they
have matured. Spiny bandicoots normally have only one or two
young at a time, but little is known about how long they are
carried in their mother’s pouch, when they become old enough
to reproduce, or how long they live in the wild.
SPINY BANDICOOTS AND PEOPLE

In New Guinea, spiny bandicoots are hunted and are an im-
portant food source for native peoples. Otherwise, these ani-
mals are of interest mainly to scientists and conservationists.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Very little is known about the size of spiny bandicoot
populations in the wild. In fact, so little is know about them
that they are not given a conservation rating, although they
probably are under pressure from human activities such as
logging.

Rufous spiny bandicoot (Echymipera rufescens)
SPECIES
RUFOUS SPINY BANDICOOT ACCOUNT
Echymipera rufescens
Physical characteristics: Rufous spiny bandicoots have a total head

and body length of about 12 to 16 inches (30 to 41 centimeters) and
weigh between 1.1 and 4.4 pounds (0.5 to 2.0 kilograms). The short
black tail is almost hairless. The fur on their back is coarse, spiky,
and reddish brown. The fur on their belly is white. The rufous spiny
bandicoot sometimes is called the long-nosed echymipera, the spiny
bandicoot, or the rufescent bandicoot.
Geographic range: The rufous spiny bandicoot is the only member

of the Peroryctidae family that lives in Australia. There it lives only
Spiny Bandicoots 91
Rufous spiny bandicoots’ favorite
food is insects. They dig insects
out of the ground with their
claws and lap them up with long,
thin tongues. (Illustration by
Gillian Harris. Reproduced by
permission.)
on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland. This animal also lives in

western and southeastern New Guinea and the neighboring islands
of Kei and Aru.
Habitat: Rufous spiny bandicoots prefer lowland tropical rain-

forests below an elevation of 3,900 feet (1,200 meters). They occa-
sionally are can be found in open costal woodlands or disturbed
grasslands.
Diet: Rufous spiny bandicoots are omnivores, meaning they can eat
both plants and animals, but their preferred food is insects. They feed
on the ground, digging out insects with their claws and lapping them
up with long, thin tongues.
Behavior and reproduction: This bandicoot lives and feeds on the

ground and is strictly nocturnal. It digs shallow burrows to rest in
during the day. Rufous spiny bandicoots live alone and appear to be
territorial.
Very little is known about this animal’s reproductive cycle. Some
scientists believe that this species breeds year round in New Guinea
and seasonally in Australia, but not enough animals have been
studied to form firm conclusions. Litters usually consist of from one
to three young that are carried in the mother’s pouch until they
mature.

Rufous spiny bandicoots and people: Native peoples of New
Guinea hunt these bandicoots for food.
Conservation status: The rufous spiny bandicoot appears to be

common to abundant within its very limited range, especially in Aus-
tralia. However, the small number of places in which this species is
found has become cause for concern among conservationists. ■
Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni-
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/marsupialia/marsupialia.
peramelidae.echymipera.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Web sites:
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Family Peroryctidae.”Animal
Diversity Web http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu (accessed on
June 30, 2004).
Spiny Bandicoots 93
MARSUPIAL MOLES
Notoryctemorphia
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Notoryctemorphia
One family: Notoryctidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

class Marsupial moles, also called blind sand burrowers, are un-
usual and rarely seen animals found in Australia. Marsupial
subclass
moles are about 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long and
order weigh only 1 to 2.5 ounces (40 to 70 grams). They have fine
●
▲ monotypic order golden fur, and are shaped like flattened cylinders.
The body of the marsupial mole shows many adaptations
suborder
that allow it to live almost its entire life underground. These
family moles have five toes on each foot. On the front feet, toes three
and four are enlarged and have triangular, spade-like claws that
are used for digging. The animals have no functional eyes. Only
a dark spot marks where the remains of an eye can be found
under the skin. In addition, marsupial moles have no external
ears, although they do have ear openings under the fur, and it
is believed that they can hear. Five of the animal’s seven neck
vertebrae, neck bones, are fused, or joined together, probably
to strengthen the head so that it can push through sand.
A horny shield somewhat like a thick fingernail protects the
nose. The nose openings or nostrils are small slits, probably to
prevent them from filling with sand as the animal digs. Female
marsupial moles also have a backward-opening pouch in which
they carry their young. Again, this is probably an adaptation so
that the pouch does not fill with sand as they move forward.
The tail is short, less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters), hairless, and
covered with a leathery skin and ends in a hard, horny knob.
Genetic studies show that marsupial moles are not closely
related to any other Australian marsupial. In 1987 a fossil

marsupial mole was found at Riversleigh, an area that was known
to be a rainforest habitat millions of years ago. Scientists think
that this fossil mole used its broad claws to burrow through leaves
and moss on the forest floor. When the climate changed and Aus-
tralia became drier, these claws allow it to adapt to living in sand.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Marsupial moles live in the deserts of Western Australia, South
Australia, the Northern Territory and southwestern corner of
Queensland.
HABITAT
These moles live in sandy desert regions and seem to prefer
sand plains near seasonal rivers or sand ridges where spinifex
grass grows.
DIET
Marsupial moles hunt and feed underground, digging their
food out of the sand. They are insectivores, eating mainly ants,
termites, and insect larvae (LAR-vee). They have also been known
to eat seeds and small lizards. Marsupial moles kept in captivity
and fed on the surface take their food underground to eat it.

Marsupial moles are active under the ground both day and
night. They “swim” or burrow through sand rapidly. They nor-
mally tunnel about 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters) under
the surface. However, they occasionally dig down to depths of
more than 8 feet (2.5 meters). When moving through sand, the
mole uses its wide front claws to shovel soil backward under
its belly. Then the hind feet push together to propel the body
forward. These moles do not leave the burrows. The sand fills
in the area behind them as they move.
Marsupial moles seem to appear on the surface more often
after a heavy rain, although some scientists question if they ac-
tually appear more often or if their tracks are simply more no-
ticeable in damp sand. On the surface, they move slowly with
a shuffling side-to-side gait and drag their tail, leaving a dis-
tinctive pattern of parallel lines. They move only short distances
before re-entering the sand. The speed with which they dig
allows them to avoid most predators, animals that hunt them
for food.
Marsupial Moles 95
Almost nothing is known about marsupial
mole reproduction. Females have two teats,
nipples, in a backward-opening pouch.
MARSUPIAL MOLES AND PEOPLE

Aboriginal (native) people call the south-
BRRR—IT’S COLD ern species of marsupial mole Arra-jarra-ja
or Kakarratul and the northern species Itjari-
Marsupial moles are used to living where
itjari. These people probably ate moles when
it is hot. They begin to shiver when the
they could catch them, but because of the
temperature drops to 59°F (15°C) and die
difficulty in hunting them, they were not a
of hypothermia, a condition where core body
major food source. Today marsupial moles
temperature decreases, soon afterwards.
are of interest to scientists and the public
Most marsupial moles kept in captivity have
mainly because of their rarity and interesting
died because people did not understand
adaptations to life underground.
that they need to be kept at temperatures
of 73 to 81°F (23 to 27°C) to survive.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although the distribution and population
size of marsupial moles is not known, both
species, the northern marsupial mole and the southern marsu-
pial mole, are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk
of extinction in the wild in the near future. Marsupial moles
receive legal protection from the Australian government. In
an effort to learn more about the marsupial mole population,
the University of Western Australia supports a program for the
public to report sightings of these animals.

Marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops)
SPECIES
SOUTHERN MARSUPIAL MOLE ACCOUNT
Notoryctes typhlops
Physical characteristics: The southern marsupial mole, sometimes

called the greater marsupial mole or just the marsupial mole, has a
total head and body length of 3.5 to 7 inches (9 to 18 centimeters)
and a 1-inch (2-centimeter) tail. It weighs about 1.2 to 2.5 ounces
(35 to 70 grams).
Southern marsupial moles have short legs, spade-like claws on the
front feet, and flat nose shields. They also lack eyes and external ears.
Geographic range: Southern marsupial moles are found in West-

ern Australia, the southern Northern Territory, and northwestern
South Australia. The northern part of its range may overlap with the
range of the northern marsupial mole.
Marsupial Moles 97
Habitat: Southern marsupial moles live under-
ground in sandy plains and sand ridges.
Diet: This species eats mostly insects and insect

larvae.
Behavior and reproduction: Marsupial moles

“swim” rapidly through sand, living most of their
lives underground. They appear to live alone. Al-
most nothing is known about their reproductive
pattern.
Southern marsupial moles and people: South-

ern marsupial moles have little practical value to
humans, but they are a symbol of the rare and un-
usual animals of Australia. Their bodies are an ex-
cellent example of adaptation to their environment.
Conservation status: These moles have been

listed as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, even though
little is known about their abundance. It appears, however, as if their
numbers are declining. One reason may be compacting of the soil
they live in by vehicles or livestock. ■
Books:
Web sites:
Withers, Philip, and Graham Thompson. “Marsupial Moles (Notoryctes).”
University of Western Australia Zoology Department. http://www
.zoology.uwa.edu.au/staff/pwithers/marsupialmole/Default.htm
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Order Notoryctemorphia.”
Animal Diversity Web http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Notoryctemorphia.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).

KOALA, WOMBATS, POSSUMS,
WALLABIES, AND KANGAROOS
Diprotodontia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Diprotodontia
order C H A P T E R
Diprotodonts are an order of about 131 species of marsupial class
mammals that live in Australia, New Guinea, and parts of In-
subclass
donesia. The order also contains a family of giant diprotodonts
that are now extinct. Within this order are some of Australia’s ● order
best known marsupials, including the kangaroos, koalas, and monotypic order
wombats, as well as some of the least known species such as
cuscus and potoroos. suborder
Diprotodonts have evolved to fill almost every terrestrial family

(land) ecological niche, and as a result, they have evolved spe-
cial physical features that allow them to live most efficiently in
their chosen environment. For example, some tree-dwelling
(arboreal) gliding possums have evolved a skin membrane that
stretches from wrist to ankle and acts as a parasail, allowing
them to stay away from predators, animals that hunt them for
food, and conserve energy by “flying” from tree to tree.
Wombats have evolved strong claws and short, stocky bodies
well suited for digging. Kangaroos have strong hind limbs that
allow them to race across open grassland at speeds up to
35 miles (55 kilometers) per hour and to leap distances of up
to 30 feet (9 meters). Possums and cuscus have evolved
tails that can curve around and grasp a branch (prehensile
tails).
As a result of this diversification, the species in this order
look very different from one another. However they all share
at least two physical characteristics that include them as
diprotodonts. All members of this order have two large incisor
Koala, Wombats, Possums, Wallabies, and Kangaroos 99

teeth on the lower jaw. Incisors are front teeth that are modi-
fied for cutting. These teeth are also noticeable in more famil-
iar rodents such as beavers and rabbits. Most members of this
order also have three pairs of incisors on the upper jaw, and a
few species have a second small pair on the lower jaw as well.
In addition, members of this order have no canine teeth. Ca-
nine teeth are sharp, pointed teeth used for tearing food, and
are located between the incisors in the front and the molars
(grinding teeth) in the back. Diprotodontia have an empty space
where canine teeth usually are located. This pattern of teeth
has evolved because most members of this order are herbivores,
or plant eaters. They need sharp front teeth to clip off the tough
grasses and other plants that make up most of their diet, and
they need molars to grind the plants, but they do not need ca-
nines to tear their food apart the way carnivores (meat-eaters)
do. A few species in this order now eat insects, invertebrates,
or flower nectar, but their tooth pattern suggests that at one
time during their evolution, they also ate plants.
Besides sharing a common pattern of teeth, all diprotodonts
have a condition in their hind limbs called syndactyly (sin-DACK-
tuh-lee). Syndactyly means “fused toes.” In members of this or-
der, bones of the second and third toe on the hind feet have grown
together into a single bone as far down as the claw. However, this
fused bone has two separate claws—this twin claw is used for
grooming. In many species in this order, the fourth hind toe is
enlarged, and the fifth toe is either very small or absent.
On the front limbs of many species, the first two fingers op-
pose the other three. This means that these fingers, like the
thumb on a human hand, can reach across and touch the tip
of the other three fingers (unlike, for example, a dog paw or
human foot where none of the toes can bend to touch each
other). This adaptation is found mainly in species that live in
trees, as it helps them grasp branches and climb.
Diprotodonts are marsupials, and like all marsupials they
give birth to very poorly developed young after a short preg-
nancy. The young then attach to teats (nipples) in the mother’s
pouch and are carried for weeks or months until they mature
enough to live independently. All diprotodonts have forward-
opening pouches (like the kangaroo) except for wombats and
koalas. Wombats are burrowing animals. A backward opening
pouch is an advantage when digging, because it will not fill up
with dirt. The backward opening pouch of the koala, which

lives in trees, may be left over from a time when its ancestors
lived on the ground and dug like the wombat.
Diprotodonts have soft fur, and many species have been
hunted for their skins. Most species are earth tone colors, grays
and browns, but some have quite eye-catching coloration, such
as the yellow-footed rock wallaby, whose patches of red, yel-
low, and white contrast with its gray fur. Diprotodonts range
in size from the red kangaroo, which weighs up to 187 pounds
(85 kilograms) to the little pygmy possum, which weighs only
about a quarter of an ounce (7 grams). In the past, the fossil
record shows that there were much larger diprotodonts living
in Australia. These animals became extinct about 50,000 years
ago when humans first appeared in Australia.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Diprotodonts are native only in Australia, New Guinea, and
a few islands of Indonesia. The brush-tailed possum was in-
troduced to New Zealand, where it is considered a pest.
HABITAT
Diprotodontia have evolved to take advantage of almost every
terrestrial habitat. This expansion into different habitats is called
radiation. Kangaroos graze on grasslands, cuscus and tree kan-
garoos live in tropical rainforest trees. Some pygmy possums
live in the mountains where it snows six months out of the year.
Despite the variety of habitats where members of this order can
be found, some individual species live in very restricted areas,
because they have evolved to use a very specific set of resources.
DIET
For the most part, diprotodonts are herbivores. Those species
that do not eat leaves, fruits, and roots now, probably had an-
cestors that did. Many species have developed extra large or
extra long digestive tracts that allow them to eat leaves and
grass with low nutritional value. In addition, they have evolved
behaviors that reduce their need for energy. For example, koalas
sleep about twenty hours per day to conserve energy.
Some species, such as the mountain pygmy possum, feed
heavily on insects. Others species eat insects, worms, and even
occasionally a lizard, in addition to a mainly vegetarian diet.
The honey possum has developed a long snout that allows it
to feed exclusively on plant pollen and nectar.

Diprotodonts are mainly active at twilight and night. The
only species that is active exclusively during the day is the
musky rat-kangaroo, although some diprotodonts that live in
the forest tend to be active during both day and night. The
mountain pygmy possum is the only diprotodont, and in fact
the only marsupial, to hibernate or become inactive in cold
months.
Many diprotodonts live alone, coming together only to mate,
but there are exceptions. Kangaroos tend to associate in loose
groups, called mobs, but there is no definite leader and no co-
operation among members as there is in a structured group like
a wolf pack. Common wombats visit each other’s burrows and
are not aggressive toward each other, but they do not live to-
gether in social groups. Likewise, koalas live near each other,
but have their own personal space. On the other hand, hairy-
nosed wombats may live in large groups of up to fifty animals,
sharing a series of interconnected burrows. Small possums,
such as the honey possum and feather-tailed possum, may hud-
dle together for warmth, but larger species of possum live alone.
Diprotodonts can be very noisy. They use barking, sneezing,
hissing, grunting, gurgling, and growling to mark their territo-
ries and communicate their moods to other members of their
own species.
In terms of reproduction, diprotodonts, like all marsupials,
have short (two weeks to one month) pregnancies. At birth,
the newborn is tiny (in some species, as small as a jelly bean).
The young are carried in the mother’s pouch for weeks or
months until they can survive in the outside world. Many
species continue to nurse their young after they leave the pouch.
Wombats and possums carry their young on their back after
they outgrow the pouch. In many species the young may re-
main with the mother outside the pouch for up to several
months before becoming completely independent.
DIPROTODONTS AND PEOPLE

Two members of this order, the kangaroo and the koala, and
are national symbols of Australia, and are used heavily in tourist
promotions. Kangaroos have been hunted since the first hu-
mans arrived in Australia. Today there is a market for kanga-
roo meat, both for use in pet food and for humans, and leather

made of kangaroo skins. The common brush-
tail possum has adapted to suburban envi-
ronments, and is considered a nuisance.
Introduced into New Zealand in 1840, the
brush-tailed possum is an invasive alien (in-
troduced, non-native species) that damages
native plants and animal habitats. Many MODERN DISCOVERIES
farmers also see the wombat as a pest, since
One might think that with our ability to
its burrows allow rabbits (invasive aliens in
go to every corner of the planet, all the
Australia) to cross under fences intended to
marsupials in Australia and New Guinea
keep them out of grasslands. Kangaroos,
would have been discovered. Imagine
however, have benefited from the coloniza-
scientists’ surprise and excitement in
tion of Australia by Europeans. Europeans
the 1980s when two new species of
cleared the land for grazing livestock. This
diprotodonts were discovered in Australia.
increased the amount of grassland habitat
Then, in the 1990s, four new diprotodonts
favorable to kangaroos and allowed their
were found in New Guinea. It is possible
populations to increase.
that in the twenty-first century, other
adventurous scientists will find still more
CONSERVATION STATUS
new species from this order.
The arrival of Europeans and the animals
they introduced (rabbits, red foxes, cats,
sheep, cattle) significantly changed the habi-
tats of some diprotodonts and put others in direct competition
with these introduced animals for food. Hunting, clearing the
land for farming, changing patterns of burning grassland, and
economic development have put pressure on these animals,
often forcing them into marginal habitats, reducing their range
or fragmenting them into isolated populations.
About 25 percent of the species in this order are considered
threatened or potentially in danger of extinction. Six species
have gone extinct in recent years. However, three other species
thought to be extinct have been found to be still alive, although
considered Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction. The northern hairy-nosed wombat is also Criti-
cally Endangered, with possibly fewer than 100 individuals left
in the wild. Its cousin, the southern hairy-nosed wombat, is
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, because of
its limited range. On the other hand, the koala, once threat-
ened with extinction in 1920, has been the target of successful
conservation (though in some areas, koalas are dying or being
relocated because of overcrowding).

Books:
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. http://www
.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/ (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Marsupial Society of Australia. “Fact Sheets.” http://www
.marsupialsociety.org (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. http://www.parks.tas.gov.au
Parks and Wildlife Service. “Nature Conservation.” http://www.epa.qld.
gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on June 30, 2004).

KOALA
Phascolarctidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Phascolarctidae
One species: Koala (Phascolarctos
cinereus)
Koalas are known worldwide as one of the symbols of Aus- class
tralia. Their gray and white fur, broad head, small eyes, large furry
subclass
ears, and round belly make them appear cuddly like a teddy bear.
Koalas range in size from 24 to 33 inches (60 to 85 order
centimeters) and in weight from 8.8 to 33 pounds (4 to 15 kilo- monotypic order
grams). This is an unusually large size range. Koalas living in
suborder
the northern (warmer) part of their range are on average 45
percent smaller than those in the southern (colder) areas. In ▲ family
addition, males can be up to 50 percent larger than females.
Koalas are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. They have strong
arms and legs with five toes that end in sharp curved claws to
help them climb. The first two toes on the front legs are oppos-
able. This means that these toes, like the thumb on a human hand,
can reach across and touch the tip of the other three toes (unlike,
for example, a dog paw or human foot, where none of the toes
can bend to touch each other). This adaptation helps koalas to
grasp branches and climb. The first toe of the hind food is short,
broad, and clawless. It is also helpful in gripping branches. As in
all members of the order Diprotodontia, the bones of the second
and third toes of the hind foot are fused. This condition is called
syndactyly (sin-DACK-tuh-lee). The single fused bone, however,
has two separate claws. This twin claw is used in grooming.
Koalas do not build nests or live in dens. Their fur protects
them from the weather. As a result, the fur of animals living in
the colder regions of the range is thicker than that of animals
living where it is warmer. In the past, many koalas were killed
Koala 105
for their fur. Males have a gland on their
chest that produces scent used for marking
trees to warn off other males and establish
their own individual territory. Females have
a backward-opening pouch in which they
carry their young. Koalas also have a tiny
KOALA BEARS? brain. It is only 0.2 percent of their body
weight.
Because of their teddy bear look, koalas
are sometimes called koala bears. They GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
are not, of course bears. They are not
Koalas are found in isolated patches along
even closely related to bears. In fact, their
the eastern coast of Australia from Queens-
closest living relative is the wombat, a
land to Victoria.
stocky, burrowing marsupial.
HABITAT
Koalas eat only eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-
tus) leaves. Therefore, they are limited to areas where eucalypts
grow. This can range from wet tropical forests to dry open
woodlands.
DIET
Koalas have strong food preferences. They eat the leaves of
about 30 of the 650 species of eucalyptus trees that grow in
Australia. Eucalyptus leaves are not an ideal food. They are low
in nutrients, hard to digest, and contain toxins (poisons).
In order to digest these leaves, koalas have evolved certain
adaptations. They avoid the most poisonous species of euca-
lypts, and their liver is capable of detoxifying, or making harm-
less, some of the harmful chemicals in the leaves. They have
strong grinding teeth (molars and pre-molars) that grind the
tough leaves into a paste. Finally, they have an enormously long
cecum (SEE-kum) in which the leaves are digested. The cecum
is part of the digestive system. It is a type of sac located where
the large and small intestine meet. In the koala, the cecum can
be more than 75 inches (2 meters) long. The cecum contains
bacteria that help break down the eucalyptus leaves. Koalas get
most of the water they need from their diet. However, when
fresh water is available, they will drink.

One reason that koalas can exist on low-nutrient food is that
they have developed a lifestyle that allows them to conserve

Koalas come out of their
mother’s pouch when they’re
about six months old, and cling
to her belly or back until they
are one year old. (© Kenneth
W. Fink/Photo Researchers, Inc.
energy. They sleep for up to twenty hours each day, and also
spend part of the time that they are awake resting. They are
nocturnal animals, feeding mainly at night.
Koalas live alone. Males use the scent gland on their chest to
mark certain trees as their own territory. They will fight with
other male koalas that come into their home trees. The male’s
home territory often overlaps with that of several females.
Koala 107
Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)
The size of the territory depends on how plentiful the food

supply is.
Koalas mate during the cool season in Australia. A dominant
male will mate with as many females as he can find. Once mat-
ing is complete, the animals go their separate ways, and the male
has nothing to do with raising the offspring. Koalas are capable
of mating when they are two years old, but generally do not be-
gin to reproduce until they are four or five. Their lifespan is about
ten years in the wild, and almost double that in captivity.
A single baby is born after a thirty-five–day pregnancy. The
baby is tiny, measuring less than an inch (2 centimeters) and
weighing less than 0.02 ounces (0.5 grams). The newborn
crawls to its mother’s pouch where it stays for five to seven
months. When it is about half a year old, it comes out of the
pouch and clings to its mother’s belly or back. During this time,
it still nurses, but it also eats vegetable material that has passed
through the mother’s digestive system. Scientists believe that

in this way the bacteria in the cecum that is needed to digest
eucalpytus leaves is passed on from mother to child. The young
koala stays with its mother until it is about a year old. By age
two it begins looking for its own territory.
KOALAS AND PEOPLE

Aboriginal peoples of Australia hunted koalas for food, as
did Europeans when they arrived in Australia. Today koalas are
symbols of Australia recognized throughout the world. Their
image attracts many tourists, and their image can be found on
all types of souvenirs. Very few koalas are sent to zoos outside
Australia because of the difficulty in keeping them supplied
with fresh eucalyptus leaves.
CONSERVATION STATUS
By the end of the 1920s millions of kolas had been hunted for
their fur, and these animals had become extinct in parts of their
original range. Intense conservation programs, including pro-
tecting habitat, breeding programs, and relocation of some ani-
mals, has resulted in a substantial increase in the koala
population. There are even some areas where overcrowding is
occurring today, leaving the koalas vulnerable to disease and star-
vation. Today, although there are plenty of koalas, conserva-
tionists are concerned about their loss of habitat. The areas in
which koalas live are some of the most rapidly developing places
in Australia. The Australian Koala Foundation has been a leader
in mapping koala habitat and lobbying for its protection.
Books:
Hopkins University Press, 1995. Online at http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on May 8, 2004).
Wexo, John B. Koalas and other Australian Animals. Poway, CA:
Zoobooks/Wildlife Education, 1997.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. “Koala.” http://www.
nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/The+koala (accessed on
June 30, 2004).
Koala 109
Other sources:
The Australian Koala Foundation. G. P. O. 2659, Brisbane, Queensland
4001 Australia. Phone: 61 (07) 3229 7233. Fax: 61 (07) 3221 0337.
E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.savethekoala.com/.

WOMBATS
Vombatidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Vombatidae
Wombats are stout, stocky burrowing marsupials with pow- class
erful forearms and sharp claws for digging. A marsupial is a
mammal that does not have a well-developed placenta and gives subclass
birth to immature and underdeveloped young, which it then order
continues to nurture, often in a pouch, until the young are able monotypic order
to fend for themselves. Wombats are about 3.3 feet (1 meter)
long and weigh from about 55 to 88 pounds (25 to 40 kilo- suborder
grams). Their fur varies from gray to brown. ▲ family
All three species of wombat look similar. They have large
heads, small ears and eyes, and short, strong necks. They have
front teeth, incisors, that continue to grow throughout their life
and must be worn down by the food they eat. The main phys-
ical difference among the three species is the presence or ab-
sence of hair on their nose. Male and female wombats look
similar. The female has a backward-opening pouch in which
she carries her young. In the past, fossils show that there were
as many as nine species of wombat, including one that weighed
440 pounds (200 kilograms). Today the closest living relative
of the wombat is the koala.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Wombats live in southeastern Australia. The common wom-
bat is fairly widespread and can be found in parts of New South
Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. The northern
hairy-nosed wombat lives only in one place in Queensland, and
the southern hairy-nosed wombat lives in a small area along
the south central coast of Australia.
Wombats 111
HABITAT
Wombats live under the ground in
open grassland, open woodlands, and dry,
shrubby, forested areas. They prefer areas
where the ground is soft enough to dig exten-
sive burrows.
THE WOMBAT BOY
In 1960 Peter “PJ” Nicholson was a DIET
fifteen year old student at Timbertops, a Wombats are herbivores, and eat only
rural Australian boarding school. PJ became plants. They mainly eat native grasses, but
fascinated with wombats. For a year, he will also eat roots, bark, and moss. They
sneaked out at night and crawled down graze above ground at night and may travel
wombat burrows. He was patient, visiting up to 1.8 miles (3 kilometers) each night
often and letting the wombats become looking for food. Because the food they eat
comfortable with him. Eventually he traveled is high in fiber and hard to digest, it is held
70 feet (21 meters) inside the tunnels to the in their digestive system for up to seventy
wombat nests. The measurements and hours in order to break down the fiber and
maps that he made of the tunnels were release the nutrients.
published, and his information is still used
by scientists. PJ Nicholson later earned a BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
degree in economics, although he never lost
his interest in wildlife.
Wombats are nocturnal, active at night.
During the day they rest in their burrows,
which can be 100 feet (30 meters) long and
6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 meters) deep. The bur-
rows usually have several entrances and side branches and are
large enough for a small adult to fit into them. The southern
hairy-nosed wombat builds particularly complex tunnel sys-
tems that it may share with other wombats.
Even when they share tunnels, wombats feed alone and are
territorial about their feeding grounds. They mark their personal
areas with scent and droppings, and act aggressively toward
other wombats that move into their territory. Usually, male an-
imals must leave their birth area to find a new territory, but it
is the female wombats that are driven out of their birth area and
are forced to find new feeding grounds when they mature.
Wombats, like all marsupial mammals, have short pregnan-
cies and give birth to a single tiny, underdeveloped newborn.
Pregnancy lasts only about twenty-two days. After birth, the
young crawl to the mother’s pouch and remain there attached
to a teat, nipple, for six to nine months. After leaving the pouch,
the young wombat stays with the mother for another year,

gradually nursing less and eating more plant material, until it
is finally weaned, not nursing, and independent. Wombats be-
come capable of reproducing when they are two years old. They
live more than five years in the wild and have lived up to sev-
enteen years in captivity.
WOMBATS AND PEOPLE

Although wombats have no commercial value, they are con-
sidered a symbol of Australia. There are active foster care pro-
grams for raising orphaned wombats. However, farmers
sometimes see wombats as pests, because their tunnels allow
rabbits to pass under rabbit fences and destroy crops. For this
reason they are sometimes shot.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Development in Australia has reduced and fragmented wom-
bat habitat. In addition, dogs, dingoes (wild dogs), and auto-
mobiles are the other main threats to wombats. The northern
hairy-nosed wombat is Critically Endangered, facing an ex-
tremely high risk of extinction in the wild. It lives in only one
place, the Epping National Forest in Queensland, where it is
off-limits to visitors. As few as 100 individuals may remain in
the wild. The other two wombat species are not threatened.
Wombats 113
Common wombat (Vombatus ursinus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COMMON WOMBAT
Vombatus ursinus
Physical characteristics: Common wombats have stocky bodies

that ranges from 35 to 45 inches (90 to 115 centimeters) and short,
stumpy tails only about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) long. They can weigh
anywhere from 48.5 to 86 pounds (22 to 39 kilograms). Their short,
coarse fur is black, brown, or gray, and they are distinguished from
the hairy-nosed wombats by their bare muzzles.
Geographic range: Common wombats are found in southeastern

Australia, Tasmania, and Flinders Island.
Habitat: Common wombats prefer open forests and woodlands with

well-drained soil that is easy to dig.
Diet: These animals are herbivores and eat mainly native grasses
and roots.

Behavior and reproduction: Common wombats
live alone and are active at night. They do not of-
ten share their burrows with other wombats. They
have a home range that usually contains several
burrows.
The young can be born at any time of the year.
They remain in their mother’s pouch for about six
months, and continue to stay with the mother out-
side the pouch for about another twelve months.
Males do not help raise their offspring.
Common wombats and people: In some areas,

this wombat is considered a pest by farmers and is
shot or poisoned.
Conservation status: These animals are not

threatened, even though their habitat has been reduced by develop- Common wombats are active at
night and rest in their burrows
ment. In many parts of their range, this animal is common. ■ during the day. Their burrows can
be 100 feet (30 meters) long and
6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 meters)
FOR MORE INFORMATION under the ground. (Norman Owen
Tomalin/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Books: Reproduced by permission.)
Cuppy, Will, and Ed Nofzinger. How to Attract the Wombat. Boston: David
R. Godine, 2002.
Triggs, Barbara. The Wombat: Common Wombats of Australia, 2nd ed.
Sydney: New South Wales University Press, 1996.
Web sites:
Marsupial Society of Australia. http://www.marsupialsociety.org
Marinacci, Peter. Wombania’s Wombat Information Center. http://www.
wombania.com/wombats/index.htm (accessed on June 30, 2004).
“Wombats.” Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. http://
www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Wombats (accessed
on June 30, 2004).
Wombats 115
POSSUMS AND CUSCUSES
Phalangeridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Phalangeridae
class The Phalangeridae family, or phalangers (fah-LAN-jerz), are
made up of five groups of species. Three of these groups are
subclass
cuscuses and two are possums. Phalangers are small- to
order medium-sized marsupial mammals. Like all marsupial mam-
monotypic order mals, the females give birth to tiny, underdeveloped young that
finish their development in their mother’s pouch.
suborder
Possums and cuscuses range in size from 24 to 47 inches (60
▲ family to 120 centimeters) long, including the tail, and weigh from 2
to 22 pounds (1 to 10 kilograms). The smallest member of this
family is the small Sulawesi cuscus, and the largest is the Su-
lawesi bear cuscus. Both live in Indonesia.
Members of this family have soft, dense fur that hides small
ears. Most species are a solid brown or gray, but the Woodlark
cuscus and the black spotted cuscus are spectacularly patterned.
Many other species have a dark stripe that runs down the top
of their back.
All cuscuses and possums are good climbers. Their feet are
adapted to life in the trees. Their hind feet have five toes. The
first toe (called the hallux, HAL-lux) has no claw, and is op-
posed to the other four. This means that this toe, like the thumb
on a human hand, can reach across and touch the tip of the
other toes (unlike, for example, a dog paw or human foot, where
none of the toes can bend to touch each other). The first two
toes on the front feet are also opposable. This adaptation makes
it easier to grip branches when climbing. Possums and cuscuses
also have a prehensile, or flexible grasping, tail that they can

wrap around branches to help steady them-
selves. Usually the tail has no fur on it to im-
prove its grip.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Phalangers are found in New Guinea, Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, the Indonesian island of Su- ENDANGERED STAMPS
lawesi, and a few other small islands. The The common spotted cuscus was
common brush-tailed possum was introduced selected to be one of twelve endangered
in New Zealand over a century ago and has species featured on a 2001 United Nations
become an alien (non-native) pest species. 34 cent stamp. Every year since 1993, the
United Nations has released a new series
HABITAT
of stamps in an effort to bring attention
Possums and cuscuses spend their lives in to endangered species and to CITES
trees. Most live in rainforests. However, the (the Convention on International Trade in
common brush-tailed possum has adapted to Endangered Species), an agreement among
life in developed areas. It is often found in nations to help preserve species by
suburban gardens and city parks. Sometimes controlling their exportation and importation
it becomes a pest when it makes its home in (http://www.cites.org).
buildings by finding openings in the roofline
and nesting between the house ceiling and
the roof.
DIET
Possums and cuscuses are herbivores, eating almost exclu-
sively plants. Some eat mainly leaves, while others eat mainly
fruit. The common brush-tailed possum eats a wider variety of
foods than most members of this family, adapting its diet to
what is abundant in any given area.

Most members of this family are nocturnal, or active at night,
but the black-spotted cuscus and the Sulawesi bear cuscus feed
during the day. All species are arboreal (tree-dwelling) except
for the ground cuscus—but even though this animal lives in
burrows underground, it is a good climber, and climbs trees to
feed on fruit.
Little is known about the social behavior of members of this
family. Most species appear to live alone, although a few may
form pairs. Males are aggressive toward each other when their
home range overlaps. Females usually produce two litters con-
sisting of one offspring each year. Like all marsupials, the young
Possums and Cuscuses 117

are tiny, undeveloped creatures that finish maturing while at-
tached to a teat, or nipple, in the mother’s forward-facing
pouch. After five to eight months, the young leave the pouch
and are carried on their mother’s back for a few more weeks
or months.
POSSUMS, CUSCUSES, AND PEOPLE

Cuscuses are hunted for meat and sometimes fur in New
Guinea. Some species, such as the common spotted cuscus, are
also sold as pets. Cuscuses play a role in religious beliefs in
some parts of Indonesia, and in these areas, they are not eaten.
The common brush-tailed possum is considered a pest in many
areas. The Telefomin cuscus was not discovered until the late
1980s, and so it is of special interest to scientists.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species in this family are considered Endangered and
at risk of going extinct in the wild. These are the black-
spotted cuscus and the Telefomin cuscus. The population of
black-spotted cuscuses is declining because of habitat loss and
continued hunting. Little is known about the Telefomin cus-
cus. Two other species are considered Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction, and half a dozen others are of concern to
conservationists, but too little is known about them to make
an accurate population evaluation.

Ground cuscus (Phalanger gymnotis)
SPECIES
GROUND CUSCUS ACCOUNTS
Phalanger gymnotis
Physical characteristics: The ground cuscus has fur that is light

to dark gray with a stripe down its back.
Geographic range: This cuscus is found in New Guinea and the

Aru Islands.
Habitat: This animal lives in the rainforest from sea level to 8,900
feet (2,700 meters).
Diet: The ground cuscus eats mostly fruit, but will also eat leaves and
sometimes insects and small vertebrates (animals with a backbone).
Behavior and reproduction: This is the only cuscus that sleeps in

underground burrows and moves along the rainforest floor. Its

burrows are usually under trees, along streams, or
in caves. The ground cuscus is active at night and
searches for food on the ground and in trees. The
young leave their mother’s pouch five to seven
months after birth.
Ground cuscuses and people: These cuscuses

are hunted throughout New Guinea, and are im-
portant figures in local folklore in some areas.
Conservation status: The ground cuscus is com-

mon in many parts of New Guinea, and is proba-
bly not threatened. ■
The ground cuscus is the only

cuscus that commonly lives in a
burrow in the ground.
(Illustration by Bruce Worden.

Common brush-tailed possum (Trichosurus vulpecula)
COMMON BRUSH-TAILED POSSUM

Trichosurus vulpecula
Physical characteristics: The common brush-tailed possum varies

widely in size and color. Its fur can be black, gray, reddish, or brown.
In the colder parts of its range, individuals tend to be larger and furrier
than those who live in warmer regions. Unlike some members of this
family, the common brush-tailed has a patch of bushy fur on its tail.
Geographic range: Brush-tailed possums live in eastern and south-

western Australia and in New Zealand.
Habitat: The brush-tailed possum is adaptable, living in cool, damp

forests and dry regions with few trees. It has adjusted successfully to
life in city parks and the suburbs.
Diet: Common brush-tailed possums are herbivores, eating leaves,

buds, flowers, and fruits, garden plants, herbs, and grasses.

Its natural habitat is the forest,
but common brush-tailed
possums have adapted to live in
city parks and suburbs. (Jen and
Des Bartlett/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Behavior and reproduction: Common brush-tailed possums are ac-

tive at night and normally live alone. However, if there are many pos-
sums and few places to shelter, they may share their sleeping space
with another possum. Male common brush-tailed possums try to
avoid conflict with other males, although they can be aggressive in
defending their home range. They are known for their loud grunts,
growls, and screeches that are used to warn away other males during
breeding season. Females usually have one offspring each year, born
after an eighteen-day pregnancy. The young then live in the mother’s
pouch for about seven months.
Common brush-tailed possums and people: This animal probably

has more contact with people than any other Australian marsupial
because it has adapted so well to cities and suburban areas. It is
trapped for its fur and is considered a pest in some farming areas and
in New Zealand, where it was introduced about 150 years ago.

Conservation status: The common brush-tailed possum is common
within its range and is not threatened with extinction. ■
Books:
Finney, Tim F. Mammals of New Guinea, 2nd ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Uni-
Web sites:
Marsupial Society of Australia. http://www.marsupialsociety.org
(accessed May 9, 2004).
Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania. “Brushtail Possum.” http://www.
parks.tas.gov.au/wildlife/mammals/btposs.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).
Parks and Wildlife Service. “Nature Conservation.” http://www.epa.qld.
gov.au/nature_conservation (accessed on June 30, 2004).

MUSKY RAT-KANGAROO
Hypsiprymnodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Hypsiprymnodontidae
One species: Musky rat-kangaroo
(Hypsiprymnodon
moschatus)
class The musky rat-kangaroo is a small, four legged, marsupial
mammal. It is different from most familiar mammals such as cats,
subclass
dogs, and horses, which are known as placental or eutherian
order (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals. Eutherian mammals have a pla-
monotypic order centa, an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus (womb) and
lets the mother and developing offspring share food and oxygen.
suborder Marsupials do not have a well-developed placenta. Consequently,
▲ family they give birth to young that are physically underdeveloped.
These young are hairless, blind, and have immature organ sys-
tems. They are unable to survive on their own. Instead, after birth
they are carried around for several months in their mother’s
pouch, where they are attached to the mothers teats, or nipples.
They are carried and fed this way until they have grown and ma-
tured enough to fend for themselves.
Musky rat-kangaroos are fairly small. Their bodies are gen-
erally between 6 and 11 inches (15 to 30 centimeters), and they
have a total length from nose to tip of the tail of about 11 to
17 inches (30 to 43 centimeters). Musky rat-kangaroos have
short brown or reddish fur that is very soft on their backs, while
fur on the underside of their belly is slightly paler. Some musky
rat-kangaroos have distinctive white markings on their throats
that continue in a white line down to their chest.
Musky rat-kangaroos have small heads that are narrow and
taper into a pointed snout. Their ears are small and rounded,
and their tails are long, thin, and hairless, except for the area
where the tail joins the body. The musky rat-kangaroo has four

paws with five toes on each of its back feet
and four on its front feet. Like other kanga-
roos, the middle toes have a fused (grown to-
gether) bone but separate claws. However, all
other living kangaroos have only four toes on
their back feet. The fifth toe of the musky rat-
kangaroo does not have a claw. It is thought SAVING FOOD FOR LATER
that this extra toe is used to help it climb.
Fruits from the rainforest are one of the
Female musky rat-kangaroos have four most important parts of the musky rat-
nipples inside a forward-opening pouch kangaroo’s diet. However, these fruits are
where the young are carried after birth. not easy to find during some parts of the
Female and male musky rat-kangaroos are year. The musky rat-kangaroo solves this
about the same size, although females usually problem by hiding food when there is an
weigh a little less than males. The average abundance of it, then finding it later when
weight of a musky rat-kangaroo is between food is scarce. This hiding and finding is
11 and 24 ounces (337 to 680 grams). called scatterhoarding. Scatterhoarding
helps ensure that the musky rat-kangaroo
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE will not go hungry, even when food is scarce.
The musky rat-kangaroo lives only in a
small area of Australian rainforest in north-
eastern Queensland.
HABITAT
Musky rat-kangaroos live on the rainforest floor. They usu-
ally prefer places where there are many plants that provide good
cover for them. They often live near water, such as streams and
lakes, because that is where the vegetation is more dense.
DIET
Musky rat-kangaroos are omnivores, meaning they eat both
plants and animals. They eat small invertebrates such as insects
and worms, as well as fruits, nuts, and roots. Musky rat-
kangaroos find food by digging with their front paws in the
ground and in the dead leaves and other plant material that
cover the rainforest floor. When the musky rat-kangaroo eats,
it often uses its front paws to hold the food and sits upright on
its hind legs.

Musky rat-kangaroos are diurnal, which means that they
are active during the day. They are the only species in this or-
der that is completely active during the day. At night musky
Musky Rat-Kangaroo 125

rat-kangaroos sleep in nests. They also may re-
turn to their nests to keep cool during the
hottest part of the day. To build their nests
musky rat-kangaroos use their tails to pick up
leaves and other items. They can curl their tails
around what they want to hold and carry it back
to their nests. This kind of flexible grasping tail
is called a prehensile tail. They take the nest
materials to clumps of vines or where two tree
roots come together and make their nests there.
Instead of hopping on its two hind legs the
way many other rat-kangaroos do, the musky
rat-kangaroo moves by using all four legs.
Consequently, its front and hind legs are
more similar in size than in most other rat-
Musky rat-kangaroos are active kangaroos. Musky rat-kangaroos have been seen climbing trees,
during the day and sleep in their but little is known about why they do this.
nests at night. Most other
marsupials are active at night.
Musky rat-kangaroos are thought to live and hunt for food
(Dave Watts/Naturepl.com. primarily alone, although one scientist reported having seen up
Reproduced by permission.) to three musky rat-kangaroos feeding in the same place. In the
wild, they do not appear to be territorial, meaning that they do
not defend an area that they consider to be theirs. When musky
rat-kangaroos are kept in captivity, male/female relationships
must be taken into consideration. Only one male can be kept
in a cage at a time, but two females can be kept together. It is
also possible for one male to share a space with more than one
female. Little research has been done on how musky rat-
kangaroos interact with each other.
Musky rat-kangaroos usually mate between February and
July. They normally have two offspring at a time, although they
sometimes have three. Like all marsupials, the young are born
tiny, blind, hairless, and very immature. The young are not able
to fend for themselves and must crawl over their mother’s fur
and into her pouch. In her pouch they attach themselves to a
nipple and spend the next twenty-one weeks in the pouch as
they grow and develop. After the young leave the pouch they
usually spend time in the nest for another few weeks before
they begin to leave the nest and follow their mother.
During the period of time in which a young musky rat-
kangaroo follows its mother around the outside of the nest, it
is known as a “young-at-foot” (sometimes also called a “young-
at-heel”). It is not allowed to return to the pouch, although it

Musky rat-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus)
is still allowed to suckle (nurse). The young continue to grow

and mature, eventually leaving their mothers to go off on
their own.
MUSKY RAT-KANGAROOS AND PEOPLE

The musky rat-kangaroo does not have any known particular
significance to humans, except to the scientists who study them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The musky rat-kangaroo not considered threatened in the
wild. However, it is of concern to conservationists, because it
lives only in a very small area of the rainforest in northeastern
Queensland. Its habitat is disappearing because of clear cutting
for agriculture. Because the musky rat-kangaroo lives in only
one location, any severe loss of its habitat could be devastating
to its population.
Musky Rat-Kangaroo 127

Books:
Triggs, Barbara. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: A Field Guide to
Australian Mammals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Web sites:
Chambers Wildlife Rainforest Lodges, Tropical North Queensland,
Australia. “Musky rat kangaroo.” http://rainforest-australia.com/
rkangaroo.htm (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Other sources:
Berry, Ruth and Mark Chapman. ABC TV Documentaries: Hypsi: The For-
est Gardener. Aired: 1/16/2001. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/documen-
taries/stories/s231600.htm (Web site accessed on June 30, 2004).

RAT-KANGAROOS
Potoroidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Potoroidae
Rat-kangaroos are four-legged marsupial mammals that are class
smaller than most cats. Marsupial mammals are different from
subclass
most familiar mammals such as cats, dogs, and horses, which
are eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals, meaning they use order
a placenta in reproduction. A placenta is an organ that grows monotypic order
in the mother’s uterus and lets the mother and developing baby
share food and oxygen. Marsupial mammals do not use a suborder
well-developed placenta. Because of this, they give birth to tiny ▲ family
young that are not physically mature enough to survive on
their own. Instead, the young are carried for several months af-
ter birth in their mother’s pouch, or they are attached to the
mother’s teats, or nipples, on her underbelly. While they are
carried this way, they continue to grow until they have ma-
tured enough to fend for themselves.
Rat-kangaroos usually have a head and body length that
ranges from about 6 to 16 inches (15 to 42 centimeters). The
tails of rat-kangaroos can be nearly as long as their bodies, and
range in length from about 5 to 15 inches (12 to 39 centime-
ters). Rat-kangaroos range in weight from about 0.8 to 8 pounds
(0.4 to 3.5 kilograms). Male and female rat-kangaroos are usu-
ally about the same size.
Rat-kangaroos have heads that are long and are usually ta-
pered, with small ears that are either round or slightly pointed.
Like all kangaroos, their hind legs are longer and stronger than
their front legs. This is because rat-kangaroos use their hind
legs to move by hopping. Rat-kangaroos have four toes on each
Rat-Kangaroos 129
of their back feet, but the second and third
toes actually grow together although the
claws remain separate. Each of the front feet
has five toes, each with a claw. Their second,
third, and fourth toes on their front paws are
longer than their other front toes, and these
HOW DID THEY GET SUCH BIG FEET? longer claws help them dig for food.
Rat-kangaroos have back feet that are The fur of the rat-kangaroo ranges in color
longer and stronger than their front feet. from dark brown to gray or light brown. The
Scientists think that the ancestors of fur is lighter on the underbelly than on the
kangaroos used to jump up quickly and rest of the body. These animals can use their
surprise predators. Animals with bigger tails, which usually have fur on them, to curl
back feet had an advantage at hopping around objects and hold onto them. This
higher and faster, which might have helped type of tail that can be used to grasp is called
them to survive. Animals with bigger back a prehensile tail. Female rat-kangaroos have
feet had a better chance of surviving and a pouch containing four nipples.
having offspring, over many generations
the genes for big feet got passed on, and GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
the back feet got bigger and bigger, until Rat-kangaroos live on the coasts of Aus-
they are the large back feet that kangaroos tralia, especially the southern and eastern
have today. coasts. They also live in Tasmania and on a
few nearby islands.
HABITAT
Rat-kangaroos live mainly in forests where there are many eu-
calyptus trees. Some types of rat kangaroos, like the burrowing
bettong, live in other habitats, such as sandy areas that have dunes.
DIET
Rat kangaroos are primarily herbivores, meaning that they eat
mostly plants rather than animals. They mainly eat the parts of
fungi that grow underground. To find this food underground,
rat-kangaroos use their well-developed sense of smell to help
them know where to dig. They dig using the long, sharp claws
on their front paws. Some rat-kangaroos also eat small inverte-
brates, such as insects. Some also eat grass or fruits.

Rat-kangaroos are nocturnal, which means they are awake
and do most of their foraging (searching) for food at night.
Most of the daylight hours are spent sleeping, most often in a
nest. They build nests out of grass, leaves, and other plant

material. Many species get the plant mater-
ial to their nests by curling their prehensile
tail around it and holding it against their
rump to keep it steady as they carry it to
their nest.
Female rat-kangaroos give birth to one
baby at a time. The baby is born after around RAT-KANGAROOS AND FUNGI:
three weeks of pregnancy. When it is born, it HELPING EACH OTHER
is blind, hairless, and not able to live on its Rat-kangaroos eat the parts of fungi that
own. The newborn crawls into the mother’s grow underground and contain the spores.
pouch and attaches it to one of the mother’s Spores are the reproductive part of the
nipples where it remains until it is mature fungi, similar to a tiny seed. Rat-kangaroos
enough to survive outside the pouch. Once eat the fungi for energy. When the fungi
the young animal leaves the pouch, it becomes are digested, the spores become activated
a “young-at-foot.” During this stage, it follows and ready to grow. The spores leave the
its mother around and still suckles, nurses, rat-kangaroo’s body in its waste and are
but it is not allowed to get back in the mother’s ready to grow into new fungi. In this way,
pouch. After another period of development, the spores are spread to new areas. This
the young rat-kangaroo goes off on its own. type of relationship between two species
Rat-kangaroos do not usually live in groups where both gain something and neither is
after the young mature. harmed is called mutualism.
On the night that the female gives birth,
she mates again. The egg that is fertilized dur-
ing that mating stops developing until just before the young that
is in the mother’s pouch is almost old enough to leave the pouch.
The same night that the young leaves the pouch, the mother
gives birth to a new baby that then crawls into the pouch that
just recently been vacated. After this new baby is born, the
mother will mate again. This cycle continues, which means that
there are often four generations of rat-kangaroos together: a
mother, a young-at-foot, a young in the pouch, and a develop-
ing baby that has not yet been born.
RAT-KANGAROOS AND PEOPLE

Rat-kangaroos are not known to have any particular signif-
icance to people.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Many species of rat-kangaroo have been threatened by the
clearing of land for agriculture, by fires, and by the introduction
of predators that are not native to Australia. Some species of rat-
kangaroo have already gone extinct. The desert rat-kangaroo has
Rat-Kangaroos 131
not been seen since 1935. It is thought that the broad-faced po-
toroo has been extinct since around 1875. Many other species
of rat-kangaroos, such as the long-faced potoroo, are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction. Conservation efforts to pro-
tect rat-kangaroos include controlling the number of introduced
predators, establishing breeding colonies, and creating protected
zones.

Northern bettong (Bettongia tropica)
SPECIES
NORTHERN BETTONG ACCOUNT
Bettongia tropica
Physical characteristics: Northern bettongs are about the size of

a rabbit, except that their tails are nearly as long as its head and body
combined. The length of the head and body is usually about 15 inches
(38 centimeters) and the length of the tail is usually about 14 inches
(36 centimeters). Northern bettongs weigh about 3 pounds (1.4 kilo-
grams). The back legs are much larger and stronger than the front
legs. The head tapers to a pointed snout, and they have small, slightly
pointed ears. The fur on the belly is much lighter in color than
the rest of the fur. Female northern bettongs have four nipples and
a forward-opening pouch.
Geographic range: The northern bettong lives on the northeast

coast of Australia.
Rat-Kangaroos 133
Habitat: Northern bettongs usually live in areas
of forest that are open and have grass on the for-
est floor. These areas are often found along the
edge of tropical rainforests.
Diet: Northern bettongs, like many rat-kangaroos,

eat mainly truffles, a type of fungus that grows un-
derground. It also eats cockatoo grass.
Behavior and reproduction: The young of the

northern bettong are born after twenty-one days and
are immature, like the young of all marsupials. The
young then move into the pouch where they remain
for 106 days (about three and a half months) before
they are mature enough to live outside the pouch.
Northern bettongs and people: Northern bet-

tongs do not have any known significance to hu-
mans, except to the scientists who study them.
Northern bettongs eat mainly
truffles, a type of fungus that Conservation status: Northern bettongs are Endangered, which
grows underground. They use means that they face a high risk of going extinct in the wild. The main
their well-developed sense of
reasons it is endangered are loss of habitat due to clearing of land for
smell to find the fungus, and
then dig for it using their sharp agriculture and the destruction of habitat through fires. The red fox,
claws. (Illustration by Bruce which is not native to Australia, may also prey on the northern bet-
Worden. Reproduced by tong, leading to reduced numbers. Conservation measures are being
permission.)
taken through the maintenance of two captive breeding populations of
northern bettongs. ■
Books:
Triggs, Barbara. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: A Field Guide to Aus-
tralian Mammals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Other sources:
Berry, Ruth, and Mark Chapman. ABC TV Documentaries: Hypsi: The For-
est Gardener Aired: January 16, 2001. http://www.abc.net.au/tv/docu-
mentaries/stories/s231600.htm (Web site accessed on June 30, 2004).

WALLABIES AND KANGAROOS
Macropodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Macropodidae
Kangaroos and wallabies are marsupial mammals, meaning that class
they do not produce a well-developed placenta like many famil-
iar mammals. A placenta is an organ that grows inside the mother’s subclass
uterus (womb) during pregnancy and allows the developing baby order
to share the mother’s food and oxygen. Marsupial mammals are
monotypic order
born underdeveloped and they finish developing inside their
mother’s pouch. suborder
Kangaroos and wallabies are some of the best known ▲ family
Australian marsupials. They have four legs, although their front
legs are much smaller and weaker than their large back legs. They
usually have long tails and large ears that are either pointed or
rounded. They have a head and body length that varies in size
from 11 to 91 inches (28 to 231 centimeters), and a tail that ranges
in length from 6 to 43 inches (15 to 109 centimeters). They weigh
between 3 and 187 pounds (1 to 85 kilograms). In some species
the males are much larger than the females. Kangaroos and wal-
labies have fur that ranges in color from reddish orange to black.
Kangaroos and wallabies have very long, large, strong back feet
that allow them to hop at speeds of up to 35 miles per hour (55
kilometers per hour). They have four toes on each of their front
and back feet, and the second and third toes on their back feet
are fused (attached) together. All of their toes have strong claws.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Kangaroos and wallabies live all over Australia, as well as in
parts of New Guinea and some surrounding islands. They have
been introduced into Hawaii, New Zealand, Great Britain, and
Germany.
Wallabies and Kangaroos 135

HABITAT
Kangaroos and wallabies live in many different habitats.
Some live in the tropical rainforest while others live in the grass-
lands or woodlands. There is almost no area of Australia where
at least one species of kangaroo or wallaby does not live.
DIET
Most kangaroos and wallabies are herbivores, which means
that they eat only plants. They eat mostly leaves and grass,
although some also eat fruit, seeds, and fungi. Some of the smaller
species are omnivores, animals that eat both animals and plants.
These species eat insects and other invertebrates.

Kangaroos and wallabies portray a very diverse set of be-
haviors. Larger species tend to be diurnal, or mostly active dur-
ing the day. Smaller species tend to be nocturnal, or mostly
active at night. Smaller species are often solitary, while larger
species often live or feed in groups of up to fifty animals called
mobs. A few species are thought to be territorial. They live alone
and defend their home area.
When male kangaroos or wallabies fight, they often do so by
supporting themselves on their back legs, or even sometimes
just their tail for short periods, and attack each other with the
strong claws on their front paws. Sometimes they use their
strong hind legs to kick out when they are lying on their sides.
Females sometimes do this if males try to mate with them and
they are not interested.
Like all marsupials, kangaroos and wallabies give birth to
young that are not fully developed. These tiny newborns are
blind, hairless, and cannot survive on their own. When they
are born, they crawl into their mother’s pouch where they at-
tach to one of her nipples. This nipple usually swells, keeping
the young in place while the mother moves. In some species
the mother will let the young out of the pouch for short peri-
ods when it gets older. After the young matures, the mother
will no longer let it return to the pouch. In some species it be-
comes what is called a “young-at-foot.” During the young-at-
foot period, the young kangaroo or wallaby stays with the
mother and often suckles, but no longer re-enters the pouch.
In some species there is no young-at-foot period.
Kangaroos and wallabies usually give birth to one baby at
a time. In some species the female gives birth the same day

MEETING THE CHANGING NEEDS OF BABIES
When kangaroo newborns climb into their sure their young get the nutrients they need,
mother’s pouches, they attach themselves to female kangaroos have milk that changes in
one of her nipples. From this nipple they get content as the young matures. When the
the milk that provides the nourishment they young-at-foot and a young in the pouch are
need to survive and grow. But the nutritional both suckling, the two different nipples
needs of a newborn are not the same as actually produce two different types of milk,
the nutritional needs of a young animal suited to the needs of the two different
almost ready to leave the pouch. To make young.
another young leaves her pouch and becomes a young-at-foot.

These species often mate the same day that they give birth, but
the fertilized egg stops developing until the pouch-young is
nearly old enough to leave the pouch. When the pouch-young
is ready to leave, the next baby moves to the pouch.
WALLABIES, KANGAROOS, AND PEOPLE

Many species of kangaroos and wallabies have been hunted
for their meat and their skins both by aboriginal (native) Aus-
tralians and by European settlers. These animals are also im-
portant in the Aboriginal culture, where they often play
important roles in traditional dreamtime stories. Some sheep
ranchers consider kangaroos and wallabies to be a nuisances,
because they eat the grass and other plants that the farmers
want for livestock grazing.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species in this family have already gone extinct. Many
others are Endangered, which means that they face a very high
risk of extinction in the wild. Others are considered Vulnera-
ble, which means that they face a high risk of extinction in the
wild. Some actions are being taken to help particular species,
including protecting their habitats and breeding them in cap-
tivity, so they may be later reintroduced into the wild.

Eastern gray kangaroo (Macropus giganteus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS EASTERN GRAY KANGAROO
Macropus giganteus
Physical characteristics: Eastern gray kangaroos have a head and

body length that ranges from 38 to 91 inches (97 to 231 centimeters).
Their tails range in length from 18 to 43 inches (46 to 109 centime-
ters). They weigh from 8 to 146 pounds (4 to 66 kilograms). Eastern
gray kangaroos have the characteristic body shape of all kangaroos
with strong hind legs and large back feet. They have grayish brown
fur that is paler on their bellies. Unlike other kangaroos, they have
hairy snouts.
Geographic range: The eastern gray kangaroo lives in eastern

Australia and in eastern Tasmania.

Habitat: The eastern gray kangaroo lives mainly in grassy wood- Eastern gray kangaroos may
gather in large social groups,
lands, open grasslands, and forest.
called “mobs.” (© Bill Bachman/
Photo Researchers, Inc.
Diet: The eastern gray kangaroo eats mainly grasses. Reproduced by permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: The eastern gray kangaroo is diurnal.

It usually grazes during the early morning and late afternoon when
temperatures are lower. Pregnancy usually lasts for thirty-six days,
and the young stay in the pouch for 320 days.
Eastern gray kangaroos and people: It is thought that native

Australians probably hunted the eastern gray kangaroo for food.
Today, it is illegally hunted for skins and meat.
Conservation status: The eastern gray kangaroo is considered Near

Threatened. This classification means that this kangaroo is not cur-
rently threatened, but could become threatened. This kangaroo has
been affected by illegal hunting for its skins and meat, as well as the
destruction of its habitat for agriculture. ■

Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus)
RED KANGAROO
Macropus rufus
Physical characteristics: Red kangaroos have fur that is reddish

brown to blue-gray on most of their body, while their fur is white
underneath. Red kangaroos have a head and body length that varies
from 29 to 55 inches (74 to 140 centimeters). Their tail length is
25 to 39 inches (64 to 100 centimeters). Their weight varies between
37 and 187 pounds (17 to 85 kilograms). These are the largest
kangaroos living today.
Geographic range: Most of Australia, except the coastal

regions.

Habitat: Red kangaroos live in grasslands, open woodlands, and The male red kangaroo (on the
right) has a rich red color, while
open forests.
the female red kangaroo (on the
left) is smaller and less colorful.
Diet: Red kangaroos are herbivores. They eat grass and the leaves The males are called “boomers”
of shrubs and other plants. and the females “blue flyers.”
(© Wayne Lawler/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
Behavior and reproduction: Red kangaroos are pregnant for 33 days permission.)
before giving birth. The young live in the pouch for 235 days.
Red kangaroos and people: Red kangaroos are hunted for their
skins and meat in some places in Australia. The red kangaroo also
has important cultural significance for native Australians, in whose
traditional dreamtime stories they often play large parts.
Conservation status: Red kangaroos are not considered threatened.

They have benefited from clearing of land for livestock grazing and
are one of the few native Australian animals to have increased their
population since the coming of European settlers. ■

Brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale penicillata)
BRUSH-TAILED ROCK WALLABY

Petrogale penicillata
Physical characteristics: Brush-tailed rock wallabies have fur that

is black-brown on their front section and red-brown on their rump.
On their underside the fur is paler. They have a tail that is furry and
dark colored, characteristics that have contributed to their name.
These wallabies have distinctive markings on their heads consisting
of a white stripe on their cheeks and a black stripe on their
heads. Their head and body length ranges from 20 to 23 inches (51
to 58 centimeters). Their tails range in length from 20 to 28 inches
(51 to 71 centimeters). Their weight ranges from 11 to 24 pounds
(5 to 11 kilograms).

Brush-tailed rock-wallabies are
native to Australia, but have been
introduced into Hawaii and New
Zealand, where populations of
the animals now live. (Illustration
by Marguette Dongvillo.
Geographic range: Brush-tailed rock wallabies live in eastern

Australia. They have also been introduced successfully to Hawaii and
New Zealand, where self-sustaining colonies now exist.
Habitat: Brush-tailed rock wallabies live in rocky areas in a variety

of habitats such as rainforest and woodlands.
Diet: Brush-tailed rock wallabies mainly eat grass, but they also
sometimes will eat herbs and fruits.
Behavior and reproduction: Brush-tailed rock wallabies are mostly

nocturnal. They sleep in deep cracks in rocks and caves. Females are
pregnant for thirty-one days before giving birth. Young live in the
pouch for almost seven months before leaving.
Brush-tailed rock wallabies and people: Although brush-tailed

rock wallabies have no current economic significance to humans, they
were hunted in large numbers for their furs in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.
Conservation status: The brush-tailed rock wallaby is considered

Vulnerable, meaning that it faces a high risk of extinction. The main
threats to these wallabies are destruction of their habitat from the graz-
ing of livestock and predation from species of animals that are not
native to Australian such as red foxes and dingoes (wild dogs). ■

Bridled nail-tailed wallaby (Onychogalea fraenata)
BRIDLED NAIL-TAILED WALLABY

Onychogalea fraenata
Physical characteristics: Bridled nail-tailed wallabies have gray fur

with paler gray fur on their bellies. They have a distinctive white stripe
on both sides of their body extending from neck to forearms. On the
end of the tail is a horny spur, probably inspiring their name. Bridled
nail-tailed wallabies range in head and body length from 18 to 28
inches (46 to 71 centimeters), with a tail length that ranges from 15
to 21 inches (38 to 53 centimeters). They have a weight that ranges
from 9 to 18 pounds (4 to 8 kilograms).

Geographic range: Currently bridled nail-
tailed wallabies have significant populations only
in a few places including one location in central
Queensland, two places in eastern Australia
where they have been reintroduced, two sanctu-
aries, and a zoo.
Habitat: Bridled nail-tailed wallabies live in

areas of woodlands dominated by acacia trees and
shrublands.
Diet: Bridled nail-tailed wallabies are herbi-

vores. They eat soft-leaved grasses and other
vegetation.
Behavior and reproduction: Bridled nail-tailed

wallabies are nocturnal. They use dense vegetation as shelter during Bridled nail-tailed wallabies are
the day. Females are pregnant for twenty-three to sixty-two days be- active at night and stay sheltered
fore giving birth. The young live in the pouch for 119 to 126 days. in thick vegetation during the
day. (© Mitch Reardon/Photo
Bridled nail-tailed wallabies and people: There is no known sig- permission.)
nificant relationship between the bridled nail-tailed wallabies and peo-
ple, although scientists think that they have been hunted for their
meat and skins.
Conservation status: Bridled nail-tailed wallabies are considered

Endangered. This means that they are facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild. Scientists think that the main threats to these
wallabies are probably clearing of their habitat for agriculture, and
predation by species that are not native to Australia, such as the
red fox. ■

Bennett’s tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus bennettianus)
BENNETT’S TREE KANGAROO

Dendrolagus bennettianus
Physical characteristics: Bennett’s tree kangaroos have dark brown

fur on most of their bodies although the fur on the top of their head
and shoulders is reddish brown. Their foreheads and snouts are gray.
Bennett’s tree kangaroos have head and body lengths that range from
27 to 30 inches (69 to 76 centimeters). Their tails range in length
from 29 to 33 inches (74 to 84 centimeters). They weigh between 18
and 30 pounds (8 to 14 kilograms).

Geographic range: Bennett’s tree kangaroos live
on the eastern part of Cape York, which is a penin-
sula in the far northeast of Australia.
Habitat: Bennett’s tree kangaroos live in tropical

rainforests.
Diet: Bennett’s tree kangaroos eat mainly leaves,

although they sometimes also eat fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: Male Bennett’s tree

kangaroos live alone. They are territorial, which
means that they defend their living area against
other males of their species, although their home
range may overlap with that of several different
females. The young remain in the pouch for
about 270 days and are young-at-foot for up to two
years.
Bennett’s tree kangaroo and people: Bennett’s

tree kangaroos were hunted by native Australians.
Conservation status: Bennett’s tree kangaroo is

considered Near Threatened. This means that
while these kangaroos are not in serious danger yet, they may soon Young Bennett’s tree kangaroos
become threatened. ■ are in their mother’s pouch for
seven months, and may stay
with their mothers until they’re
two years old. (Illustration by
FOR MORE INFORMATION Marguette Dongvillo.
Books:
Edwards, Bruce. Kangaroos and Wallabies. Hollywood, FL: Ralph Curtis
Books, 1993.

Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. “Kangaroos & Wallabies.”
http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content /Kangaroos+
and+wallabies (accessed on June 30, 2004).

PYGMY POSSUMS
Burramyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Burramyidae
Pygmy possums, like most animals native to Australia and class
New Guinea, are marsupial mammals. This type of mammal,
unlike familiar eutherian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals such subclass
as dogs, cats, or humans, does not have a well-developed pla- order
centa. A placenta is an organ that grows in the mother’s uterus
(womb) during pregnancy in order to share food and oxygen monotypic order
with the developing young. Since marsupial mammals like suborder
pygmy possums do not have a well-developed placenta, their
▲ family
young are born hairless, blind, and underdeveloped and must
complete development inside their mother’s pouch.
Pygmy possums look much like common mice. They are small,
between 2 and 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) long, and they weigh
between 0.2 and 1.4 ounces (7 to 40 grams). They are covered
with soft fur that is brown on their backs and lighter underneath.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pygmy possums live in central New Guinea, Tasmania, and
southeastern and southwestern Australia.
HABITAT
Most pygmy possums live in wet forest areas with evergreen
or eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-tus) trees. One species, the moun-
tain pygmy possum, lives in the tropical mountain rainforest
of New Guinea above 4,900 feet (1,500 meters).
DIET
Different species of pygmy possums have different diets,
ranging from plant pollen and nectar to insects to small lizards.
Pygmy Possums 149

The long-tailed pygmy possum eats mainly
insects, but will also feed on flowers. The
eastern pygmy possum eats mainly pollen
and nectar. The mountain pygmy possum
eats seeds, fruit, insects, and other small an-
imals. All species of pygmy possum are eaten
SEX SEGREGATION by owls, feral (wild) cats, snakes, and car-
nivorous (meat-eating) marsupial mammals.
Mountain pygmy possums have a social
structure unlike any other members of this
family. Groups of up to ten related females BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
(mothers, daughters, grandmothers) share Pygmy possums are nocturnal, which
a home range high on the mountain. means that they sleep during the day and are
The males live together lower down the active at night, although a few species may
mountain and visit the females only to come out on cloudy days. All but one species
breed. Unlike many species, the males are live in trees and are good climbers, using
not aggressive to each other and do not their prehensile (grasping) tail to help them
seem to mind this separation of the sexes. climb. These tree-dwelling pygmy possums
build nests inside tree hollows using leaves
and other plant material. As many as five pos-
sums live in a shared nest.
The female pygmy possum has four teats, or nipples. This is
the maximum number of young that she can raise, although
the usual number is one to three young, once or twice a year.
She raises the young without any help from the male. After
birth, she carries the young in her pouch until they reach an
appropriate size, around 0.2 ounces (7 grams). They then spend
time in the nest until they reach about 0.35 ounces (10 grams),
after which they become independent. Although not much is
known about how long some species live, female mountain
pygmy possums live about eleven years, while males live only
four, an unusually large difference in lifespan.
The mountain pygmy possum lives in mountain meadows
and rock fields. It is very different from other pygmy possums.
It lives at high elevations between 4,265 and 7,300 feet (1,300
and 2,230 meters), where there is snow on the ground at least
three months out of the year. It shares a nest with other pos-
sums of the same sex, and stores up fat to survive the winter.
One individual was found in autumn that weighed almost three
times its normal weight. In the winter, the mountain pygmy
possum can reduce its heart rate, energy use, and body
temperature and remain inactive for up to twenty days at
a time.

PYGMY POSSUMS AND PEOPLE
Pygmy possums are not known to have any significance to
humans except to those interested in scientific study. Species
that feed on plant nectar and pollen may be responsible for
helping to extend the range of these plants.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The mountain pygmy possum is considered Endangered
because of the very limited area (only two places in Victoria,
Australia) in which it lives. Disturbances to its habitat are con-
sidered the most important threat. A natural threat is the annual
change in rainfall. The amount of rain affects the size of the
Bogong moth population—this in turn affects the amount of food
that is available for the mountain pygmy possum, which gorges
on Bogong moths almost exclusively during the summer months.
Pygmy Possums 151

Eastern pygmy possum (Cercartetus nanus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT EASTERN PYGMY POSSUM
Cercartetus nanus
Physical characteristics: Eastern pygmy possums grow to a length

of between 7 and 8 inches (18 to 20 centimeters). They have brown
fur, except on their belly, which has gray fur. The base of their tail
is thick because of stored fat in that area. Eastern pygmy possums
also have long tongues with bristles on the tip like a brush.
Geographic range: This species lives in Tasmania and in eastern

and southeastern regions of Australia.
Habitat: Eastern pygmy possums live in open forests, shrubby

woodlands, and rainforests.

Diet: These possums are omnivorous. They eat
nectar and pollen as well as insects. More insects
are eaten by individuals that live in wet areas where
plants bloom less continuously.
Behavior and reproduction: Eastern pygmy pos-

sums are solitary animals. They build nests out of
leaves and bark inside of tree-hollows. The female
is mature at about five months of age. She gives birth
to one to three young twice each year. The young
are born after a month-long pregnancy. They remain
in the pouch for about forty-two days, and stay in
the nest another three weeks before becoming
independent at the age of about two months.
Eastern pygmy possums and people: Eastern

pygmy possums hold no known significance to
humans beyond scientific interest.
Conservation status: This species is not consid-

ered to be threatened. ■
Books:
Mansergh, I. M., Linda Broome, and Katrina Sandiford. The Mountain-
Pygmy Possum of the Australian Alps (Australian Natural History). Kens-
ington, Australia: New South Wales University Press, 1994.
Steiner, Barbara A. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Australia. Oxford,
U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Web sites:
Lamington National Park. “Eastern Pygmy Possum.” http://lamington.
nrsm.uq.edu.au/Documents/Anim/eastern_pygmy_possum.htm (ac-
cessed on June 30, 2004).
“Royal’s Hidden Population of Pygmy Possums Astounds Research-
ers.” Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. http://www
.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Royals+hidden+popula-
tion+of+pygmy+possums+astounds+researchers (accessed on June 30,
2004).
Pygmy Possums 153

RINGTAIL AND GREATER
GLIDING POSSUMS
Pseudocheiridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Pseudocheiridae
phylum
class
subclass
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
order
Ringtail and greater gliding possums are marsupial mammals.
monotypic order They range in length from 13 to 37 inches (32 to 95 centime-
suborder ters) and weigh between 4 ounces and 79 pounds (115 grams
▲ family to 22.5 kilograms). In this family there are two distinct types of
possums. The greater gliding possums have a membrane, or thin
layer of skin, between their front legs and their back legs. They
spread their arms and legs when they leap from tree to tree and
the membrane acts like a parasail or parachute and allows them
to glide. The other group, known as the ringtail possums, is
much different. They do not have this membrane, and their legs
are short and stocky. The greater gliding possums can be up to
37 inches (95 centimeters) long, including their long tail, and
weigh up to 42 ounces (1,200 grams).
Ringtail possums are furry and can be light gray, cream, or-
ange, or dark brown in color. One species, the green ringtail,
even looks green because of a combination of yellow, black and
white fur. Ringtail possums have short round ears and a tail
that is bare near the end.
Because they are marsupial mammals, ringtail and greater
gliding possums are different from most familiar mammals such
as cats, horses and humans. These familiar mammals are all eu-
therian (yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals, which means they have

a well-developed placenta. A placenta is an organ that grows in
the mother’s uterus, womb, and lets the mother and develop-
ing baby share food and oxygen. Marsupial mammals do not
have this type of placenta. Because of this, they give birth to
young that are not physically developed enough to be able to
survive on their own. Instead, the young are carried around ei-
ther in a pouch or attached to the mother’s teats, or nipples,
on her underbelly until they have completed their development.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Ringtail and greater gliding possums live along the eastern
coast of Australia from its northern-most tip near New Guinea
to its southern-most tip near Tasmania. They can also be found
in the more mountainous areas of New Guinea, as well as Tas-
mania, and the southwestern tip of Australia.
HABITAT
Most of the species that live in New Guinea, live in moun-
tain forests. In Australia there are a number of different species
that occupy a variety of different habitats. One species known
as the rock possum lives on the rocky ground. Most other ring-
tails are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. Some of these tree-
dwelling possums live in Australia’s rainforests while others live
in more dry and less dense forests.
DIET
Ringtail and greater gliding possums are herbivores, which
means that they eat plants. Most of their diet is made up of
leaves, especially eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-tus) leaves. Some
species also eat fruits and flowers. These animals have teeth
that are specially suited to grinding up leaves. They also all
have a large cecum (SEE-kum), which is a pouch in the diges-
tive system. In order to get enough nutritional value from the
leaves they eat—eucalyptus leaves, especially, have low nutri-
tional value—the leaves must be broken down. In the cecum,
these animals have special bacteria that break down the leaves,
so that they can be used by the animal.

Ringtail and greater gliding possums are nocturnal, which
means that they are active at night and sleep during the day. Al-
most all species live in trees. Social organization and interaction
Ringtail and Greater Gliding Possums 155

are important to most species in this family.
Some live in bonded pairs and raise their
young together. Most of the rainforest species
live alone, but some of the other species
spend time in groups and share sleeping
spots. These possums use vocal calls to com-
DIGESTIVE RECYCLING municate with each other and with their
young. None of them are territorial or pro-
Greater gliding and ringtail possums eat
tect a particular area.
plants like eucalyptus leaves that are tough,
difficult to digest, and do not contain a lot Ringtail and greater gliding possums give
of nutrients or calories. To get enough birth to one or two young once a year. The
energy out of these leaves, they pass them young are born underdeveloped and crawl
through their digestive system once. Chunks into their mother’s pouch to continue to
of undigested leaf are eliminated when they grow and mature. After 90 to 120 days in the
defecate, have a bowel movement, then mother’s pouch, they leave and are carried
they eat their waste and digest it again so on her back for another three months. After
that more nutrients can be removed. ten months the young become independent.
RINGTAIL AND GREATER GLIDING

POSSUMS AND PEOPLE
Most ringtail and greater gliding possums do not have a sig-
nificant impact on people, except for the scientists who study
them. In New Guinea, some larger species are hunted for food.
Some species living near people’s homes have been known to
eat flowers from gardens.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Populations of ringtail and greater gliding possums vary in
how threatened they are by extinction. Some species, like the
lemuroid ringtail possum, are widespread and have large pop-
ulations. They are not considered threatened. Other species are
threatened by the shrinking size of their habitat. The d’Alber-
tis’s ringtail possum and the golden ringtail are among this
group. No species in this family is currently considered en-
dangered, and they are not protected under law on the island
of New Guinea.

Greater glider (Petauroides volans)
SPECIES
GREATER GLIDER ACCOUNTS
Petauroides volans
Physical characteristics: The greater glider is one of the largest of

the gliding possums, with lengths that range between 35 and 41 inches
(90 and 105 centimeters). They weigh between 2 and 3.8 pounds (0.9
and 1.7 kilograms). Their fur is dark brown on most of the body ex-
cept the underside, which is white. They have a long bushy tail that
allows them to turn in mid-air and a gliding membrane that runs from
their elbows to their ankles and acts as a parasail.
Geographic range: Greater gliders are found in eastern Australia.
Habitat: Greater gliders live in the both dry and wet forests, but not
rainforests.

The greater glider is one of the Diet: Greater gliders are herbivores. Their primary food is the leaves
largest gliding possums. This
of trees and some parts of other plants.
possum feeds in the trees at
night. (© B. G. Thomson/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by Behavior and reproduction: Greater gliders are able to glide for dis-
permission..) tances up to 330 feet (100 meters) and even make 90 degree turns
while in the air by using their tail like a rudder. The female gives
birth to one young each year between March and June. The young
stay in their mother’s pouch for 120 days, after which they ride on
their mother’s back for three more months.
Greater gliders and people: Greater gliders have no known

importance for people.
Conservation status: Greater gliders are classified as Vulnerable,

facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. ■

Common ringtail (Pseudocheirus peregrinus)
COMMON RINGTAIL
Pseudocheirus peregrinus
Physical characteristics: Common ringtails range in length from 24

to 28 inches (60 to 70 centimeters) and weigh between 1.5 and 2.4
pounds (0.7 and 1.1 kilograms). Ringtails have gray-brown fur with
lighter fur on the belly. Their tail is long, thin, and pale on the end.
Geographic range: Common ringtails can be found along the east-

ern coast of Australia from the northern-most tip, down to the south-
ern tip near Tasmania. They are also found throughout Tasmania and
the Bass Straight islands.
Habitat: Common ringtails live among any type of vegetation with

dense underbrush. This can mean a wide variety of locations, from
rainforests to Australian coastal wasteland.

Diet: Common ringtails are herbivores meaning
that they eat mainly leaves, fruits, and flowers.
Behavior and reproduction: Common ringtails

are nocturnal. Common ringtails build large nests,
often next to each other or in groups. Females give
birth to two young at a time between April and
November. After birth the young live in their
mother’s pouch for three months. Males take part
in the care of the young after they leave the pouch.
Once young are six months old, they leave their
parents.
Common ringtail and people: Common ringtails

in the areas around where people live have been
known to eat flowers and other decorative plants
in gardens.
Common ringtails may build their
large nests next to one or more Conservation status: Common ringtails are not threatened. ■
other common ringtails.
(E. R. Degginger/Bruce Coleman
Inc. Reproduced by permission.) FOR MORE INFORMATION
Books:
Kerle, Anne. Possums: The Brushtails, Ringtails and Greater Gliders.
Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press, 2001.
Russell, Rupert. Spotlight on Possums. St. Lucia, Australia: University of
Queensland Press, 1980.
Web sites:
“Common Ringtail Possum.” Tasmanian Department of Primary Indus-
tries, Water and Environment: Parks & Wildlife. http://www.dpiwe.
tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/WebPages/BHAN-53J3P5?open (accessed on June
30, 2004).
“Sugar Glider.” Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water and
Environment: Parks & Wildlife. http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/
WebPages/BHAN-53J8XS?open (accessed on June 30, 2004).

GLIDING AND STRIPED
POSSUMS
Petauridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Petauridae
Gliding and striped possums are arboreal, which means that class
they live in trees. They are also nocturnal, meaning they are
subclass
active at night and sleep during the day, often in hollow trees.
Members of this family are medium-sized. They measure be- order
tween 12 and 31 inches (32 to 78 centimeters) long and weigh monotypic order
between 3 and 25 ounces (95 to 720 grams).
suborder
As the name of this family suggests, there are two major types
of Petauridae. These two types are organized into groups called ▲ family
subfamilies. One subfamily is called Petaurinae, and the other
is called Dactylopsilinae. The Petaurinae subfamily is the group
known as the gliding possums. The Dactylopsilinae are the
striped possums. Although they are closely related, these two
subfamilies look quite different from each other.
Gliding possums are gray, brown, or cream colored. They
have a membrane (a thin layer of skin) between their front and
rear legs that stretches from their wrist to their ankle. When
they leap from branch to branch, they spread this membrane
out like a bed sheet in order to glide. Gliding possums also
have a bushy tail that is used for steering while in the air. The
end of their tail is prehensile, which means that it can be used
for grasping branches.
Striped possums are black with two white stripes that run along
their back like a skunk. Also like a skunk, these animals have a
strong and unpleasant odor that is produced by several glands or
organs that secrete chemicals from the body. Striped possums
have five toes on their front paws. The fourth toe is much longer
Gliding and Striped Possums 161

than the rest. They use this to tap tree trunks to find hollow spaces
where insects might be hiding. Once they find the insects, they
use this toe to dig them out. They also have very strong front
teeth that help them to puncture the bark of trees.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Striped possums live in New Guinea. One species is also
found in the rainforest on the northern tip of Australia that is
closest to New Guinea. Gliding possums also live in New
Guinea and Australia, but are found in a much wider area. They
live both on the northern and eastern coast of Australia and on
the island of Tasmania.
HABITAT
Gliding and striped possums live in many different types of
forests, from dense rainforests to open forests where trees are
spread far apart.
DIET
Gliding possums are omnivorous meaning they eat both
plants and animals. They feed mostly on sap from trees, as well
as nectar and blossoms. Some species of gliding possums are
able to bite into tree bark in order to get the sap. Others feed
off sap that leaks from wounds in trees made by other species.
Striped possums are insectivorous, meaning that they mainly
eat insects. They use their long fourth finger to tap trees and
rotting logs to find the hollow spots where insect larvae (LAR-
vee; young developing insects) are living. They then use their
strong front teeth to dig into the tree and their fourth finger to
pull out the larvae.

Striped possums live alone and do not form social groups. They
are believed to be territorial. This means that they stay in a par-
ticular area and defend it against other members of their species.
Gliding possums are more social and live in family groups and
share their nests. These groups are made up of variable numbers
of adult males and females. Within these groups, both males and
females develop a system of ranking known as a hierarchy (HI-
uh-raar-key). Females will aggressively bother other females that
are below them in this hierarchy, sometimes causing the death of
their babies. Males that are high in this system tend to care for the
young when the females are away. Gliding possums are also

territorial, because they protect their area from
other gliding possums that are not in their group.
Gliding and striped possums are marsupial
mammals, which means that they do not have
a well-developed placenta. The placenta is an
organ that allows the mother to share food and
oxygen with developing offspring in her uterus ODOR AND TERRITORY
(womb) during pregnancy. As a result, mar- Animals produce odors for many different
supials like these possums are born underde- reasons. In some cases an animal uses odor
veloped and need to continue to grow in their as protection to ward off potential predators.
mother’s pouch for some time after birth be- They also use odor to attract potential
fore they can survive in the outside world. mates. In other situations, animals use
All female members of this family have a odors to let other animals know that a
pouch with two teats (nipples). Two young are particular area is their territory. Gliding and
born at a time. After the young are born, they striped possums use odors to mark territory
crawl to the pouch and attach themselves to one for different reasons. While striped possums
of their mother’s teats. After many days, the are most likely telling other striped possums
young emerge from the pouch and live in a nest. to stay out of their area, gliding possums use
During this time, they may be carried around odor to identify members of their group.
on their mother’s back. Information about re-
production is not known for all species, but it
is known that for the sugar glider, pregnancy
lasts only sixteen days. However, the young remain in the pouch
for another sixty days after birth. The young then live in the nest
until they are about four months old. In this species the males
that live in the group help to care for the young.
GLIDING AND STRIPED POSSUMS AND PEOPLE

The sugar glider is becoming popular as an exotic pet. It is not
clear whether these animals make appropriate pets and some coun-
tries have placed a ban on importing them from New Guinea. Be-
yond this species, there is no significant relationship between
humans and the members of this family other than scientific study.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Three species in this family are Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild: Tate’s triok, the mahogany glider,
and Leadbeater’s possum. Other species, such as the yellow-
bellied glider and the squirrel glider are considered Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Conservation efforts
are underway to identify and protect key habitats of a number
of these animals.

Sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT SUGAR GLIDER
Petaurus breviceps
Physical characteristics: Sugar gliders are part of the gliding group

(Petaurinae) of this family. They have a membrane that extends from
the fifth toe of their back legs to the first finger on their front legs.
They spread their arms and legs to make a sail out of the membrane
when leaping between branches. Sugar gliders are fairly small mea-
suring between 12 and 15 inches (32 to 42 centimeters) long and
weighing between 3.5 to 5.5 ounces (95 to 160 grams). They have
two black stripes along the sides of the face, and one black stripe that
runs along their back. The rest of their fur is blue-gray, except for on
the belly, which has lighter fur.

Geographic range: Sugar gliders live in New Guinea, Tasmania, and Sugar gliders are social, and live
in family groups. (© Alan and
in the northern and eastern parts of Australia. Sandy Carey/Photo Researchers,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Habitat: Sugar gliders are frequently found living in acacia and eu-
calyptus trees.
Diet: The sugar glider is an omnivore. It eats tree sap, pollen, in-
sect larvae, and insect-like animals such as spiders.
Behavior and reproduction: Sugar gliders are nocturnal. Using

strong legs to launch themselves, they are able to glide up to 230 feet
(70 meters). Sugar gliders, like many gliding possums, are social and
they live in family groups that are territorial.
Sugar gliders give birth to one or two offspring twice a year. Their
pregnancy lasts sixteen days. Pouch stay for the young is about two
months, with another two months are spent in the nest. Their life-
span is about fourteen years.
Sugar gliders and people: Despite controversy, sugar gliders are be-
coming popular as household pets, both in Asia and the United States.

Conservation status: This species is not threatened. There is no
serious danger that they will become extinct in the foreseeable
future. ■
Books:
Triggs, Barbara. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: A Field Guide to Aus-
tralian Mammals. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Robinson, Hannah. Australia: An Ecotraveler’s Guide. New York: Inter-
link Books, 2003.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. “Gliding Possums.”
http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Gliding+
possums (accessed on June 30, 2004).

HONEY POSSUM
Tarsipedidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Tarsipedidae
One species: Honey possum
(Tarsipes rostratus)
Honey possums are very small and highly specialized mar- class
supial mammals. Despite their name, honey possums do not
subclass
actually make or eat honey—instead, they have unique physi-
cal features that help them to feed primarily on the pollen and order
nectar from flowers. They are very small and have long tongues monotypic order
to pull the nectar or pollen out from inside a flower. Their heads
are long and tapered, and they are covered in coarse, short hair. suborder
Except for three black stripes down the middle of their back, ▲ family
their coloring is a grayish brown.
Male honey possums weigh only 0.24 to 0.38 ounces (7 to
8 grams). Female possums weigh slightly more, between 0.28
and 0.56 ounces (8 to 16 grams). From the tip of their nose to
the end of their body (excluding the tail) they are only between
2.6 and 3.5 inches (6.5 to 9 centimeters) long.
Honey possums have long tails, as long or longer than their
bodies. They use this tail to help them climb along branches be-
tween flowers. The tip of the tail is prehensile, meaning that the
honey possum can use it to grasp objects. It is almost hairless,
which also helps to improve its grip. Honey possums are often
seen hanging upside down by their tails. They also have very
long tongues, which they can extend beyond their mouth even
further than the length of their head. This helps them to retrieve
their food from flowers. Their paws have four toes. The bones
of the middle two toes on the back paws are fused (attached)
but have separate claws that are used for grooming. Other toes
are clawless.
Honey Possum 167

Honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus)
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Honey possums live in a very small region in the south-
western tip of Australia.
HABITAT
The honey possum lives on uninhabited sandy beaches where
the kinds of flowers that they feed on bloom almost all year round.
DIET
Even though they are called honey possums, these animals
do not eat honey. They feed upon the nectar and pollen from
the flowers of plants such as myrtles (MER-tuhlz), proteas
(PRO-tee-ahz), and banksias (BANK-see-ahz) that grow on the
coast of southwestern Australia. Their teeth, which are stubby
and short, are not used to chew or bite. In order to get the
pollen and nectar, honey possums use their long tongue and
tapered head to poke into the flowers. The end of their tongue

is like a brush, and they use it to pull the food
into their mouth. In order to maintain them-
selves, honey possums must consume large
amounts of their sugary food and spend most
of their time searching for flowers.

Because they require a large amount of en-
ergy to keep warm, honey possums spend
most of their time in search of food. They are
nocturnal, which means they are most active
at night, and sleep during the day. Honey pos-
sums live alone and sleep in holes of trees or
nests that birds have abandoned. While the
flowers from which they eat pollen or nectar
bloom most of the year, sometimes there is a
scarcity of food. During this time, honey pos-
sums often gather in large groups and curl up
together. They become inactive, as if they are
hibernating. Their heart rate slows and their
body temperature drops in order to conserve
energy. When more food is available, the honey possums Honey possums feed on the
nectar from flowers, like this
become active again. Banksia flower. (© Jiri
To get from flower to flower, honey possums run quickly Lochman/Lochman
Transparencies. Reproduced by
along the sandy ground and climb very skillfully up branches permission.)
in order to reach the blossoms. They use their long tails to grasp
branches in case they lose their balance. Often they hang up-
side down in order to reach a flower. Once they have reached
the flower, they use their front toes to pull it apart and then
push their snout inside. Their long tongues can extend far into
the flower and scrape out the pollen inside.
Honey possums are marsupial mammals, which means that
they do not have a well-developed placenta. The placenta is an
organ that allows the mother to share food and oxygen with
developing offspring in her uterus (womb) during pregnancy.
As a result, their young are born underdeveloped and need to
continue to grow in their mother’s pouch for some time after
birth before they can survive in the outside world.
Honey possums live only for a year or two, but they repro-
duce almost continuously. After only six months, both male
and female honey possums are able to produce offspring. After
about a two-month pregnancy, the mother gives birth. The
Honey Possum 169

newborns then spend another two months
inside her pouch attached to one of her four
nipples. At birth, the young weigh only
0.00002 ounces (0.0005 grams), and they are
the smallest of all known mammals. Inside
the pouch they grow to 0.09 ounces (2.5
EVOLVING ALIKE grams). Their eyes open, and they grow hair.
Even though monkeys and honey The mother usually mates shortly after the
possums are not related, and they are litter (a group of young born at the same
so different in size, they share many time) is born and enters her pouch. Because
characteristics. For example, honey of this, she is able to give birth to another
possums have long tails, which they use litter as the first litter is leaving her pouch.
for grabbing and balancing on branches After a litter leaves the pouch, they spend a
like monkeys. Both monkeys and honey week or two following their mother around
possums have toes that are good for and even riding on her back. They are then
grasping and climbing. When two animals ready to leave and begin looking for food on
are not related by evolution but develop their own. A female will usually give birth to
similar characteristics, scientists call this two litters, or eight young, but she will not
“convergent evolution.” Since both often live long enough to give birth to a third
monkeys and honey possums needed to be litter.
able to climb efficiently, they have evolved
similar features to help them. HONEY POSSUMS AND PEOPLE
Honey possums have little direct relation
to humans, although they do help to spread
flowers along the coast because of their pollen
diet. Despite their nocturnal lifestyle, which makes them hard
to find, honey possums are also popular with ecotourists.
Ecotourists are people who want to observe nature without
disturbing it.
CONSERVATION STATUS
In 1992, much of the habitat and food supply of the honey
possum was disappearing because humans were developing
their habitat with little regard to this small animal. Today, with
increased awareness, the number of honey possums has re-
bounded and they are not considered threatened.
Books:
Robinson, Hannah. Australia: An Ecotraveler’s Guide. New York: Inter-
link Books, 2003.

Web sites:
Australian Association for Environmental Education. “Case Study
3—Honey Possums and Wildflowers.” https://olt.qut.edu.au/udf/aaee/
gen/index.cfm?fa=displayPage&rNum=475152 (accessed on June 30,
2004).
The University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Tarsipes rostratus.”
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Tarsipes_rostratus.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Watson, Ian, and Craig Owen. “Honey Possum.” Quantum, ABC
Television. http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/s244451.htm (accessed
on June 30, 2004).
Honey Possum 171

FEATHER-TAILED POSSUMS
Acrobatidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Acrobatidae
class The family Acrobatidae is made up of two species: the pygmy
glider and the feather-tailed possum. Although they are very
subclass
different in many ways, these two species have similarities that
order make them part of the same family.
monotypic order The pygmy glider is the smaller of the two species. Their
heads and bodies are usually between 2.5 and 3 inches (6.5 to
suborder
8 centimeters). They have tails that are also between 2.5 and
▲ family 3 inches (6.5 to 8 centimeters) in length. The pygmy glider
weighs less than 0.5 ounces (14 grams). Feather-tailed possums
are larger, with a head and body length that ranges from 4 to
5 inches (10 to 13 centimeters). Their tail is longer than their
body, with a length of between 5 and 6 inches (12 to 15 cen-
timeters). They weigh between 1 and 2 ounces (30 to 60 grams).
Pygmy gliders and feather-tailed possums both have tails that
are long and have long straight hairs sticking off both sides of
their tail. These hairs make the tail look like a feather, which
is how they got their name. Both species have large eyes and
round ears. They both also have gray fur. The feather-tailed
possum has black and white stripes on its face. The pygmy
glider does not have these stripes and has a white belly.
Both species of this family have sharp claws that help them
grip trees. They also have six pads on their feet to help them
grip. The pygmy glider has a thin membrane, or piece of skin,
that goes from its front legs to its back legs. This membrane
allows it to glide. The feather-tailed possum does not glide and
does not have this membrane.

Both species are marsupial mammals. This
makes them different from most familiar
mammals such as cats, dogs, and horses.
These familiar mammals are all eutherian
(yoo-THEER-ee-an) mammals, which means
they have a well-developed placenta. A pla-
centa is an organ that grows in the mother’s WHAT MAKES A FAMILY?
uterus, womb, and lets the mother and de-
Pygmy gliders and feather-tailed possums
veloping baby share food and oxygen. Mar-
are in the same family, but they are different
supial mammals do not have this type of
in many ways. Pygmy gliders have a special
placenta. Because of this, they give birth to
membrane that allows them to glide, while
young that are not physically developed
feather-tailed possums do not. Scientists
enough to be able to survive on their own.
look at many different clues to decide what
Instead, the young are carried around either
species are similar enough to belong in the
in a pouch or attached to the mother’s teats,
same family. These possums have ears that
or nipples, on her underside until they have
are very complex and unique to these two
developed more fully and can survive on
species. This is the kind of information
their own.
scientists used to decide that these two
species belonged in the same family, even
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
though they may not look very similar.
The pygmy glider lives in eastern
Australia. The feather-tailed possum lives in
New Guinea.
HABITAT
Both species in this family live in trees. Feather-tailed pos-
sums live in tropical rainforests and woodland areas. They are
also sometimes found in suburban gardens. Pygmy gliders pre-
fer forests that contain many eucalyptus (yoo-kah-LIP-tus)
trees. They also live in other woodland areas.
DIET
Pygmy gliders and feather-tailed possums eat insects, fruit,
flowers, and nectar.

Both the pygmy glider and the feather-tailed possum are noc-
turnal, which means they are active mainly at night. They have
flexible prehensile tails that allow them to grab hold of
branches. Feather-tailed possums usually live alone or in pairs,
but pygmy gliders often live in groups and make nests out of
dry leaves in branches or hollows in trees.
Feather-Tailed Possums 173

Feather-tailed possums have one or two offspring at a time,
while pygmy gliders usually have three or four offspring. They
both give birth to young that are underdeveloped and spend
time in the pouch while they grow and mature. After they leave
the pouch, the young spend time in the nest before being
weaned, no longer dependent on their mother’s milk, and are
ready to fend for themselves.
FEATHER-TAILED POSSUMS AND PEOPLE

Feather-tailed possums do not have any known significance
to humans except to the scientists who study them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Neither species of feather-tailed possum is considered threat-
ened. They do not face a high risk of extinction in the wild in
the near future.

Pygmy glider (Acrobates pygmaeus)
SPECIES
PYGMY GLIDER ACCOUNT
Acrobates pygmaeus
Physical characteristics: The pygmy glider is the smallest marsupial

that is able to glide. They weigh less than 0.5 ounces (14 grams). Their
head and body measure between 2.5 and 3 inches (6.5 to 8 centime-
ters) in length. Their tail is also usually about 2.5 to 3 inches (6.5 to
8 centimeters) long. Females have pouches that contain four nipples.
Pygmy gliders have fur that is soft and gray. Around their large
eyes are circles of black fur. Their belly is white. The pygmy glider’s
tail is about as long as its body and has long stiff hairs on each side
of it. A membrane with fur on it is attached to either side of the pygmy
glider’s body from its front feet to its back feet.
Geographic range: Pygmy gliders are found in eastern Australia.

Habitat: Pygmy gliders live in forest areas where there are many
eucalyptus trees. They also live in woodland areas.
Diet: Pygmy gliders eat mainly insects. They also eat nectar
from flowers.
Behavior and reproduction: Pygmy gliders are nocturnal. They live

in trees and rarely spend any time on the forest floor, where they
would be vulnerable to predators. Pygmy gliders are very social ani-
mals. They build nests out of leaves in branches and holes in trees.
Many pygmy gliders live together in one nest. When it gets cold, they
often huddle together to share warmth. When it gets especially cold
or there is not enough food, pygmy gliders can go into torpor.
Torpor is when the animal purposely lowers its body temperature and
heart rate temporarily to conserve energy, similar to hibernation.
Pygmy gliders glide by jumping and then spreading their hands
and feet so that their special membrane becomes stretched out. This
membrane acts like a parachute so that the pygmy glider glides in-
stead of falling. The feather-like tail is used to help control the glide.
This way they are able to glide distances of up to 65 feet (20 meters)
or more at a time. Because they live in trees and almost never go down
to ground level, gliding is an important way for this species to move
from tree to tree.
Pygmy gliders usually have three or four offspring at a time. The
mother gives birth to young that are not able to fend for themselves.

The young crawl into her pouch where they continue to grow. Once
the young have fur and are a little older, they sometimes ride around
on their mother’s back. After about sixty days, they leave the pouch
and stay in the nest alone. They stay in the nest for another thirty-five
or forty days. At this time the young are weaned, although they might
not leave the nest. The day that the babies are born, the mother mates
and gets pregnant again. The new fetuses stop developing until just
before the young have been weaned. This means that the mother gives
birth again just a day or two after the last set of young has stopped
nursing.
Pygmy gliders and people: Pygmy gliders are not known to have
special significance to people except to the scientists who study them.
Conservation status: Pygmy gliders are not considered threatened.

They are not at risk of extinction in the wild in the foreseeable
future. ■
Books:
Smith, Andrew, and John Winter. A Key and Field Guide to the Australian
Possums, Gliders and Koala. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty
and Sons, 1997.
Fenton, Julie A. Kangaroos and Other Marsupials. Chicago: World Book
Inc., 2000.
Web sites:
Australian National Parks and Wildlife. “Gliding possums.”
http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Gliding+
possums (accessed on June 30, 2004).

SLOTHS, ANTEATERS, AND
ARMADILLOS
Xenarthra
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
order C H A P T E R
class The order Xenarthra consists of sloths, anteaters, armadillos,
and the extinct glyptodonts. The glyptodont, which became ex-
subclass
tinct 10,000 years ago, belonged to the armadillo family. It was
● order 10 feet (3 meters) long. Modern-day xenarthrans (ZEN-arth-
monotypic order ranz) range from the pink fairy armadillo, which is 6 inches
(15 centimeters) long, to the giant anteater, which is up to
suborder 7 feet (2.1 meters) long.
family Sloths move slowly and spend most of their lives upside
down in trees. They hold onto branches and trunks with their
long limbs. Sloths have small heads, slim bodies, and tiny tails.
Their hair is long and rough. Fur is mainly gray or brown, with
green coloring in the outer hair. The green color is caused by
algae (AL-jee), which are tiny water plants. Sloths aren’t both-
ered by algae growing in their fur. They lick the algae when
hungry, and the color helps sloths blend in with trees. This
camouflage (KAM-uh-flaj) protects sloths from predators,
animals that hunt them for food.
Two-toed tree sloths are up to 3 feet (0.9 meters) long and
weigh 18 pounds (8 kilograms). There is a claw, approximately
3 inches (7.5 centimeters) long, on each of two digits (toes)
of the sloth’s front feet. Three-toed tree sloths are about 2 feet
(0.6 meters) long and weigh 11 pounds (5 kilograms). They
have three digits with claws on the front feet.
In the anteater family, two species have tiny heads and long
snouts. The giant anteater and tamandua (tuh-MAN-duh-wah)
use their tube-shaped snouts to dig into ant nests, and lick up

ants with their tongues. The giant anteater weighs up to 88
pounds (39 kilograms) and its tongue is 2 feet (0.6 meters)
long. The anteater’s long, coarse fur is black, white, gray, and
brown. Because its claws are long, the anteater walks on the
side of its feet.
Tamandua is the scientific and common name of the lesser
anteater. Length ranges from 3 to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5 meters),
and weight ranges from 8 to 13 pounds (3.5 to 6 kilograms).
The northern tamandua is brown with black fur on its back.
Southern tamandua fur color ranges from blonde to brown.
Tamandua and the silky anteater have prehensile tails that
they use to hold objects or hang onto trees. The silky anteater
is up to 20 inches (50 centimeters) long and weighs 17 ounces
(480 grams) and up. Its fur is soft, and colors range from gray
to yellow. In comparison to its size, the silky anteater’s mouth
is larger than that of other anteaters.
Armadillos’ size ranges from the tiny fairy armadillo to the
giant armadillo, which is 4.9 feet (1.5 meters) long and weighs
66 pounds (30 kilograms). Armadillos have long tails, and their
bodies are covered by shells, “armor” formed out of bony plates.
Hair grows between the plates, and the number of these bands
varies by species. Shell color includes brown, white, and
yellow. Body color is usually gray or brown. However, the pink
fairy armadillo has a pink shell and white body. The armadillo
shell covers most of its body.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Xenarthrans originated in the New World and live primar-
ily in Central and South America. Sloths, anteaters, and ar-
madillos live in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, French
Guiana, Guyana, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and
Venezuela. Sloths are also found in Ecuador and Honduras.
Anteaters range in Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
Suriname, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Sloths and armadillos live
in Mexico, and the nine-banded armadillo is the only xe-
narthran living in the United States.
HABITAT
Sloths live in trees in the rainforest, an area where there is
much rain throughout the year. This rain leads to the growth
of many trees and plants. Anteaters live in rainforests or in the
savanna, an area of grassland with few trees. Giant anteaters
Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos 179

live on the ground, and pygmy anteaters live in trees. Taman-
duas live in trees or on the ground.
Armadillos live in the rainforest, grasslands, desert, and in
deciduous forests where leaves fall off trees during a certain
season. Most armadillos burrow, using their claws to dig holes
or tunnels that serve as their homes.
DIET
Sloths are primarily herbivores, eating mostly leaves and
twigs. Anteaters are insectivores, feeding mainly on insects.
Armadillos are omnivores; their diet includes plants, insects,
and other animals.
Sloths sleep most of the day and spend about seven hours eat-
ing. They develop a taste for the leaves that their mothers eat.
This is because the mother sloth carries the cub with her. The
young sloth feeds itself by reaching for leaves in the trees where
its mother eats. The sloth diet includes leaves, flowers, buds, and
twigs. Two-toed sloths may also eat bird eggs and insects.
The anteater’s name describes its diet. A giant anteater must
consume about 30,000 ants each day. The tamandua eats about
9,000 a day, and the silky anteater can eat 5,000 ants in a day.
Giant anteaters and tamandua also consume termites. If taman-
dua can’t locate ants and termites, they feed on bees, honey,
and small fruit. The pygmy anteater eats beetles and fruit.
Armadillos eat plants and dig into the ground to find insects
and worms to eat. They also eat small animals like snakes and
frogs. Diet is based on habitat.
Xenarthrans are usually solitary. However, armadillos some-
times travel in pairs or small groups. Sloths, anteaters, and ar-
madillos are thought to be polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus),
meaning males mate with more than one female. After mating,
the males leave, and the females raise the young.
A female sloth bears one young that she carries with her for
up to a year. A female anteater usually gives birth to one cub.
Very rarely, twins are born. The cub stays on the mother’s back
for six to nine months. Females of most armadillo species bear
a litter of one to three young. However, some species bear up
to twelve cubs.
When the armadillo is faced by predators, it bends its head
down to protect its flesh from attack. The three-banded armadillo

rolls itself into a hard-shelled ball. Sloths and
anteaters use claws as protection. Predators of
xenarthrans include jaguars, lions, and hu-
mans.
SLOTHS, ANTEATERS, ARMADILLOS,

AND PEOPLE AN UNUSUAL ORDER
Humans have various relationships with Sloths, anteaters, and armadillos were
sloths, anteaters, and armadillos. People once thought to belong to the order
hunt xenarthrans for food, and they make Edentata, a word that means “toothless.”
pets of some species. Sometimes people keep Some xenarthrans have teeth, and they
anteaters at home to help get rid of ants. Peo- all have skeletons that are different
ple kill some sloths for their fur pelts. from other mammals. “Xenarthra” is a
Tamandua is hunted for the tendon, a cord- combination of Greek words meaning
like tissue that attaches muscle to bone, in “strange joints.” In xenarthrans, three
its tail. The tendon is used to make rope. pairs of joints connect some vertebrae
In addition, medical researchers are study- (backbone segments) in the backbone.
ing armadillos. They are the only mammals In addition, xenarthrans don’t have
besides humans that contract leprosy, a skin separate pelvic bones. Pelvic bones are
disease. Research on armadillos helps to de- unconnected in the hips of most mammals.
velop treatment of this condition in people.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The three-toed sloth, giant armadillo, and pink fairy ar-
madillo are considered Endangered, according to the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). These mammals face a very high
risk of extinction. Considered Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction, by the IUCN are the giant anteater and several
species of armadillos in South America. Risk to these xe-
narthrans is caused mainly by loss of habitat as the rainforest
is cleared of trees. Farming and hunting also threaten
these populations.
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Dollar, Sam. Anteaters. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers,
2001.
Squire, Ann O. Anteaters, Sloths, and Armadillos. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1999.
Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos 181

Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. The University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/index.html (accessed on June
30, 2004).
BBC Science & Nature: Animals. “Wildfacts.” http://www.bbc.co.uk/
nature/wildfacts/ (accessed on June 30, 2004).

WEST INDIAN SLOTHS AND
TWO-TOED TREE SLOTHS
Megalonychidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Megalonychidae
The family Megalonychidae consists of one living genus (JEE- class
nus), Choloepus, the two-toed tree sloths. A genus is a group of
subclass
animals within a family that have some similar characteristics.
Megalonychidae also includes eleven or more extinct genera order
( JEN-uh-rah; the plural of genus). Since the last of the West In- monotypic order
dian sloths is dead, scientists have learned about them by study-
ing fossils. From skeletons found in Haiti, researchers determined suborder
that the lesser Haitian ground sloth weighed about 50 pounds ▲ family
(23 kilograms) and was as large as a medium-sized dog. It lived
on the ground, and probably also spent time in trees.
The lesser Haitian sloth, like the living Choloepus species,
had long limbs, long claws, and a broad body. While tree sloths
have tiny tails or none at all, this extinct sloth had a long tail
that touched the ground. The ground sloth could balance with
its tail and then stand on two feet to reach into trees.
Within Choloepus are two living species, Hoffmann’s two-
toed sloth and Linné’s two-toed sloth (also called the southern
two-toed sloth). Both use their limbs to hang upside down in
trees. Front limbs are slightly longer than back limbs.
Two-toed sloths have small heads and shaggy fur ranging in
color from brown to gray. There is a green tint to sloth fur. The
color comes from algae (AL-jee), tiny water plants growing in
the sloth’s hair. The algae, along with the sloth’s natural fur
color, camouflage (KAM-uh-flaj) the tree-dweller and keep it
hidden from predators, animals that hunt it for food. When
hungry, sloths may lick the algae on their fur.
West Indian Sloths and Two-Toed Tree Sloths 183

The head and body length of two-toed tree sloths ranges from
2 to 3 feet (60 to 90 centimeters). They weigh from 9 to 18
pounds (4 to 8 kilograms). Sloths have eighteen teeth and 3-inch
(7.5-centimeter) claws on each digit of their feet. There are two
digits, or toes, on the front feet and three on the back feet. Sloths
use their hook-shaped claws to hang from trees and to move.
Sloths may have as many as eight neck vertebrae, or bone
segments. Other mammals, including humans, have seven. Two-
toed sloths can turn their heads 180 degrees (a half-circle),
which gives the sloths a very broad view of their surroundings.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The extinct West Indian sloths lived in the West Indies, in
island countries including Haiti. Living two-toed sloth species
reside in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suri-
name, and Venezuela.
HABITAT
The earliest West Indian sloths were arboreal, living in trees.
Later species lived both on the ground and in trees. Most two-
toed sloths live in trees in the rainforest, an area where there
is much rain throughout the year. Sloths also range in cloud
forests, forests in high altitude areas that are kept moist by the
clouds at that height.
DIET
West Indian sloths probably ate leaves. Two-toed sloths are
herbivores, eating mostly leaves and twigs. They also eat fruit.
Since sloths move from tree to tree, their diet is as varied as
the trees they live in.

Two-toed sloths are also known as unau. Their English name,
sloth, means laziness. Sloths’ diet of leaves produces little en-
ergy, so the animals move slowly to preserve that energy. The
lack of energy also results in a low body temperature that ranges
from 75° to 95°F (24° to 33°C). This wide range is the most
varied of any mammal.
The two-toed tree sloths are solitary and remain alone un-
less breeding or raising their young. After mating, the male
leaves. The female gives birth to one young after about eleven

months. Gestation, the time a mother carries
the baby inside her, may vary by species. A
female Linné’s two-toed sloth in captivity
gave birth five months after mating. Mothers
of both species keep the offspring with them
for almost a year.
Two-toed sloths spend most of their lives SLOW BUT NOT LAZY
upside down. They eat, mate, and sleep in Sloth is often understood to mean
that position. The low-energy animals may laziness, an undesirable trait. The word
sleep fifteen hours or more a day. These sloths “sloth” is a version of the word “slow,”
are nocturnal, and are most active at night. which better describes sloths. Their limbs
During that time, they eat and move from one can’t support their bodies, so sloths drag
tree to another. Sloths usually change loca- themselves on the ground at the rate of
tions by climbing on tree branches and vines. 45 feet (13.7 meters) per minute. In
If this is not possible, the sloth will climb trees, sloths move no more than 125 feet
down and move to another tree. (38 meters) per day.
TWO-TOED TREE SLOTHS AND PEOPLE

From the earliest times, people probably hunted ground
sloths for food and used their fur pelts to make clothing. Sci-
entists study West Indian sloth fossils to learn how these ani-
mals evolved and changed over thousands of years. Two-toed
sloths were occasionally hunted for their meat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
West Indian sloths became extinct two thousand years ago,
after people came to the area where they lived. Two-toed sloths
lose habitat as forest land is used for lumbering and farms.
There is not sufficient information available to determine
whether sloths are at risk of extinction, according to the World
Conservation Union (IUCN).

Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth (Choloepus hoffmanni)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT HOFFMAN’S TWO-TOED SLOTH
Choloepus hoffmanni
Physical characteristics: Hoffmann’s two-toed sloths are about

2 feet (60 centimeters) long and weigh up to 18 pounds (8 kilograms).
They have coarse fur that is tan colored or grayish brown. Hair color
is lighter on the face. Algae adds a green color to the shaggy fur.
Geographic range: Hoffman’s two-toed sloths live in Bolivia, Brazil,

Columbia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,
and Venezuela.
Habitat: Hoffmann’s sloths live in the tree canopies, near the top
of trees in rainforests and cloud forests. They often stay in liana

(lee-AN-uh) tangles, twisted vines that provide
shelter. The tangle also serves as an alarm. If a
predator is approaching, the leaves move and the
sloth is alerted about a possible attack.
Diet: Hoffmann’s sloths eat leaves, shoots, flow-

ers, and fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: Two-toed sloths

are nocturnal, and do not become active until
about an hour after the sun sets. Like other sloths,
Hoffmann’s sloth is solitary. However, a group of
sloths may live in one tree. These groups are
formed of only female sloths. Males stay on their
own unless they are breeding.
After mating, the female sloth gives birth to
one offspring in about eleven and a half months.
Newborn sloths weigh from 12 to 16 ounces (340
Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth
to 454 grams). The mother carries the young sloth on her stomach.
spends its time in the tree
Since the offspring eats the same leaves as its mother, the young sloth canopy, near the top of the trees
develops a taste for those leaves. At the age of five months, the young in rainforests and cloud forests.
sloth may feed on its own. However, it remains close to its mother (Tom Brakefield/Bruce Coleman
for about a year.
Young and adult sloths use their claws and teeth as defenses against
predators like harpy eagles, jaguars, and ocelots.
Hoffman’s two-toed sloths and people: Sloths are known to heal

quickly, so studying them could help scientists understand how
to help people heal more quickly.
Conservation status: There is not enough information to determine

whether Hoffmann’s sloth faces a threat of extinction, according
to IUCN. ■
Books:
Watts, 1999.

Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/
index.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Giacalone, Jacalyn. “Sloths.” Mammal Directory. http://www.csam
.montclair.edu/ceterms/mammals/sloths.html (accessed on June 30,
2004).
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on June 30, 2004).

THREE-TOED TREE SLOTHS
Bradypodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Bradypodidae
The three-toed tree sloth family consists of four species, class
groups within the family that share similar characteristics. All
subclass
species have eighteen peg-like teeth, slim bodies, long limbs,
and tiny tails. Front limbs are longer than their back limbs. order
Sloths’ fur ranges in color from gray to brown. The brown- monotypic order
throated three-toed sloth has brown fur in its throat area and
suborder
may also have white or red fur. The pale-throated sloth has
dark fur on its back and lighter colored fur on its front. The ▲ family
maned sloth has long, black hair on its back and neck. The
monk sloth has a tan face.
All species of sloths may have green in their fur. This is
caused by algae (AL-jee), tiny water plants growing in sloths’
hair. Algae are a food source, and sloths lick their fur when
hungry. Sloths live in trees, and the green and brown in their
fur helps them blend in with the trees and hide from preda-
tors, animals that hunt them for food.
The head and body length of three-toed tree sloths ranges
from 15.8 to 30.3 inches (40 to 77 centimeters). Tail length
ranges from 1.9 to 3.5 inches (4.7 to 9 centimeters). They weigh
from 5.1 to 12.1 pounds (2.3 to 5.5 kilograms). The monk sloth
is about 20 percent smaller than other sloth species.
Three-toed tree sloths have three long, hooked claws on the
digits (toes) of each foot. Sloths use the claws measuring from
3.2 to 3.9 inches (8 to 10 centimeters) to hang upside down
from tree branches. Sloths can see a great distance because sloths
can turn their heads 270°. They can turn so far because sloths
Three-Toed Tree Sloths 189

have eight or nine neck vertebrae (bone seg-
ments)—most mammals, including humans,
have seven vertebrae.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Three-toed tree sloths live in Central and
FOURTH SLOTH SPECIES FOUND South America. Species are found in Mexico,
ON ISLAND Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa
The identification of a new three-toed tree Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras,
sloth species in 2001 was a living lesson in Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname,
evolution. The monk sloth is also known as Venezuela, French Guiana, and Guyana.
the pygmy sloth because it is 20 percent Monk sloths live only on Escudo de Veraguas
smaller than the three other Bradypus Island off the coast of Panama.
species. The new species lives only on
Escudo de Veraguas Island, part of the Boca HABITAT
del Toro islands located off the east coast of Three-toed sloths live primarily in forests.
Panama. Monk sloths live in red mangrove They are located in rainforests, where heavy
trees and are thought to be polygynous. rain throughout the year produces abundant
growth. Some species also live in dry forests
and coniferous forests where leaves are green
year-round. In addition, sloths have been
found living in trees in parks and pastures.
DIET
Three-toed sloths are herbivores and eat the leaves and
shoots of trees. Sloths move slowly because their diet of leaves
produces little energy. To make up for the lack of energy, sloths
have a low body temperature of 86° to 90°F (30° to 34°C).

Three-toed sloths live upside down. They sleep, mate, and
give birth in that position. Sloths are solitary. They are also
polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus), meaning that males mate with
more than one female. Sloths breed at any time during the year.
The male leaves after mating, and the female bears usually one
young within five to six months. She carries this offspring with
her for up to a year. During this time, the young sloth devel-
ops a taste for the leaves on which its mother feeds.
Three-toed sloths are active during the day and night.
During the day, they position themselves in trees so that
the sun warms them. They sleep as much as eighteen hours
each day.

Sloths use their claws as hooks to move through trees. They
move slowly and travel at most 125 feet (38 meters) in a day.
Their on-ground speed is 15 yards (13.7 meters) per minute.
In the water, three-toed sloths swim well. Sloths also use their
claws as a defense against predators like hawks, harpy eagles,
boa constrictors, and anacondas, a type of snake.
THREE-TOED TREE SLOTHS AND PEOPLE

Three-toed sloths can be important to medical research be-
cause they heal quickly and do not get infections easily. Sci-
entists are interested to know why this is.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The maned sloth is ranked as Endangered by the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN). This species faces threats of becom-
ing extinct in the future because habitat is lost as trees are cut
down in forests. Hunting also reduces the population.

Brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT BROWN-THROATED THREE-TOED SLOTH
Bradypus variegatus
Physical characteristics: The brown-throated three-toed sloth is

named for the brown fur around its throat. Chest fur is also brown,
and adult males have a patch of yellow or orange fur on their backs
between their shoulder blades. On this patch are thin stripes of black
fur. These tree sloths have dark fur “masks” around their eyes and
the area where fur covers their ears.
Other fur color varies, depending on where the sloths live and
mate. Just as human parents pass along traits like eye color to their
children, sloth offspring inherit the coloring of their parents. Brown-
throated sloths may have grayish brown or reddish brown hair. While

some have patches of white hair in their fur, other
sloths are almost completely white.
These sloths range in length from 1.5 to 2 feet
(45 to 60 centimeters) and weigh from 7 to 11
pounds (3 to 5 kilograms). They have tiny tails and
three digits with claws on each of their four feet.
Geographic range: Brown-throated tree sloths

live in Mexico, throughout Central America, and
in parts of South America. They are found in
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica,
Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Panama, and Paraguay.
Habitat: Brown-throated sloths adapt to a vari-

ety of habitats. They live in rainforests, evergreen
forests, parks, and pastures. They may spend up to
three days in a tree before moving to another tree.
Diet: Since people frequently saw brown-

throated sloths in Cecropia (sih-KROPE-ee-uh)
trees, it was thought that sloths only fed on these
trees. However, the tree-toed sloths eat leaves and twigs from up to The algae growing on the brown
thirty different species of trees. Since the sloth learns feeding habits throated three-toed sloth’s fur
from its mother, it prefers to eat from the same type of tree that its helps to keep it hidden in the
trees. (Michael P. L. Fogden/
mother does. Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Three-toed sloths are also known as ai
by the Guarani people of South America. The name comes from the
noise made when sloths are in trouble—they make a whistling sound
and hiss.
Brown-throated sloths are solitary except while they’re breeding.
Once they mate, the male leaves. The female gives birth in five to six
months. The female typically has one young. However, there have
been a few cases of twin births. At birth, a sloth weighs from 0.4 to
0.6 pounds (0.2 to 0.25 kilograms).
The mother sloth carries her baby on her stomach. The offspring
nurses for about six weeks. After that, it feeds itself by reaching up
for food in the trees where its mother lives. The young sloth also
learns its range, the area where it will travel to live and feed. By the
age of six months, the sloth keeps one foot on its mother while reach-
ing for food. After about nine months, the mother leaves her offspring
to live on its own.

Brown-throated three-toed sloths and people: Sloths are of inter-
est to medical researchers because they heal quickly. The brown-
throated sloths have also been hunted as food.
Conservation status: Brown-throated sloths are not threatened. ■
Books:
Attenborough, David. The Life of Mammals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
Watts, 1999.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Zoology Department.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/index.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Giacalone, Jacalyn. “Sloths.” http://www.csam.montclair.edu/ceterms/
mammals/sloths.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on June 30, 2004).

ANTEATERS
Myrmecophagidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Myrmecophagidae
The anteater has a long snout, the part of the face that class
includes the nose, mouth, and jaw. While the anteater is tooth-
subclass
less, it has a long tongue that it uses to catch the ants that make
up the major part of its diet. The anteater uses its snout and order
claws to reach into ant nests. Long hair on the anteater’s body monotypic order
is a protection against bites from the ants that they hunt and eat.
suborder
The anteater family includes three genera (JEN-uh-rah) and
four species. A genus (JEE-nus), the singular of genera, is a ▲ family
group of animals with similar characteristics. Size is the pri-
mary difference in each anteater genus, and that difference is
represented in the animals’ common names.
From head to tail, the giant anteater measures a total of 110
inches (280 centimeters), and weighs from 48 to 88 pounds
Next in size are the tamanduas (tuh-MAN-duh-wahz), which
are also known as the “lesser anteaters.” Tamandua translates
to “ant catcher” in Portuguese. The northern tamandua is
brown with black fur on its back, and the southern tamandua’s
fur color ranges from blond to brown.
The silky anteater is also called the pygmy anteater. The max-
imum head-to-tail length is 21 inches (52 centimeters). Weight
ranges from 6 to 13 ounces (175 to 357 grams).
The silky anteater and tamandua have prehensile tails that
they use to grab and hold onto objects like trees. Both species
have soft, silky hair in contrast to the coarse (rough) fur of the
giant anteater.
Anteaters 195
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Anteaters live in Central and South Amer-
ica, in Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua,
Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.
DECIDING WHERE TO EAT
HABITAT
Giant anteaters use their sense of smell
to find underground ant nests or termite Silky anteaters live in trees in rainforests,
mounds that can be up to 12 feet (4 areas where abundant rainfall produces heavy
meters) above ground. After using their growth. They also inhabit grassland, areas
claws to break into the mounds, anteaters where there are few trees. Giant anteaters live
use their long tongues to scoop up the on the ground and are found mainly on grass-
insects. They can flick their tongues 150 land. They also live in wetlands, where the
times a minute into nests. land is flat and wet. They live in moist forests
and may live near rainforests. Tamandua live
in trees or on the ground. They are found in
rainforests, grassland, and dry forests.
DIET
A giant anteater eats about 30,000 ants each day. The taman-
dua eat about 9,000 in a day, and the silky anteater can eat
5,000 in one day. The giant anteater and tamandua also con-
sume termites.

All anteaters are believed to be solitary, only meeting up to
breed. They are thought to be polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus),
meaning males mate with more than one female. After giant
anteaters mate, the male leaves, but the male silky anteater helps
to feed its young while it’s in the nest. The gestation period,
the amount of time before the female gives birth, is 120 to 150
days for silky anteaters and tamandua. The giant anteater gives
birth after about 190 days.
Female anteaters usually give birth to one young. The
female’s claws are so sharp that she cannot touch her cub. It
climbs onto her back and lives there for six to nine months.
Silky anteaters are nocturnal, meaning that they are active
at night. The other anteaters are active at night and during
the day.
Anteaters use their claws to protect themselves against preda-
tors including hawks, mountain lions, and people.

ANTEATERS AND PEOPLE
People sometimes keep anteaters to eliminate ants and ter-
mites from their homes, as well as keeping them as pets. In ad-
dition, people kill giant anteaters and eat their meat. People kill
tamandua to make rope out of the tendon, a cord-like tissue
that attaches muscle to bone, in the tail.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Giant anteaters are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction
in the wild, according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN).
Threats to giant anteaters’ survival include the loss of habitat, and
lack of food as trees are cut down and insect nests are destroyed.
Habitat loss could threaten other anteaters in the future.
Anteaters 197
Silky anteater (Cyclopes didactylus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS SILKY ANTEATER
Cyclopes didactylus
Physical characteristics: The hair of silky anteaters is soft like silk.

Their fur is gray or gold with a brown stripe on the back. Silky
anteaters are 12 to 21 inches (32 to 52 centimeters) long. They have
pink noses, tube-shaped muzzles, and long tongues.
These animals are also called two-toed anteaters because the anteaters
have two toes on each of their front feet. Each toe has a long, curved
claw. There is a smaller claw on each of the four toes on the back feet.
Tail length ranges from 6 to 12 inches (16 to 30 centimeters).
Anteaters use their prehensile tails to hold on as they move
through trees.

Young silky anteaters stay on
their mother’s back for six to
nine months. (Wolfgang
Bayer/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Geographic range: Silky anteaters live in Mexico, Belize, Costa Rica,

El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia,
Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
Bolivia, and Trinidad and Tobago.
Habitat: Silky anteaters spend most of their lives in trees, in rain-

forests where deciduous trees undergo seasonal changes. The
anteaters live mainly in kapok (KAY-pock) trees, where pods (dry
seed vessels) are fluffy and gold and silver. The anteaters resemble
the pods in appearance, helping the animals to hide from predators.
Diet: Silky anteaters eat ants off of leaves and from the insides of
tree nests.
Behavior and reproduction: Silky anteaters are nocturnal. After

they mate, the female gives birth to one young in 120 to 150 days.
She keeps the cub in a nest made of leaves in a hole in a tree trunk.
Both parents raise the cub, feeding it and carrying it on their backs.
Silky anteaters are hunted by birds like the harpy eagle and hawk
eagle. While anteaters strike out with their claws at predators, their
best defense is their appearance, since they blend in with kapok pods.
Silky anteaters and people: Silky anteaters are sometimes hunted

by people as a source of meat.
Conservation status: The silky anteater is not a threatened
animal. ■
Anteaters 199
Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)
GIANT ANTEATER
Myrmecophaga tridactyla
Physical characteristics: Giant anteaters range in length from

5 feet, 7 inches to 9.1 feet (174 to 280 centimeters). That length in-
cludes tails, which are from 25 to 35 inches (64 to 90 centimeters)
long. Tail fur is about 16 inches (40.6 centimeters) long.
The anteater’s long fur is gray with bands of black and white. The
animals have tiny heads, and small eyes and ears. Although their vi-
sion is poor, their sense of smell is forty times stronger than that of
humans. Giant anteaters have long tube-shaped snouts that they use

to reach into underground ant nests. Their tongues look like worms Giant anteaters’ worm-like
tongues are up to 2 feet (0.6
and can extend 2 feet (0.6 meters) into nests.
meters) long. They use them to
Anteaters’ claws are 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long. reach into underground ant
nests. (Illustration by Joseph
Although useful for digging for food, the claws are so long that E. Trumpey. Reproduced by
anteaters have to walk on the side of their feet. permission.)
Geographic range: Giant anteaters live in Belize, Guatemala, El Sal-

vador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, Paraguay, Uruguay,
Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Argentina,
Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
Habitat: The giant anteater lives on the ground in nearly treeless

grasslands and in forests. They also range in wetland swamps.
Diet: Giant anteaters eat ants and termites. They lick wet plants to
get water.
Behavior and reproduction: Giant anteaters are usually active dur-

ing the day. However, they become nocturnal when people are
around. They do not climb trees, but are talented swimmers.
Anteaters are solitary unless breeding or raising young. After mat-
ing, the male leaves and the female gives birth after 190 days to one
cub. Very rarely, twins are born. The cub rides on the mother’s back
for up to nine months.
Anteaters use their claws to fight predators like jaguars.
Anteaters 201
Giant anteaters and people: People hunt giant anteaters and kill them
for their meat and skin. Giant anteaters may be trapped to keep as pets.
Conservation status: Giant anteaters are Vulnerable, facing a high

risk of extinction in the wild. Threats to their survival include loss
of habitat as land is developed, in addition, to being hunted and killed
by people. ■
Books:
Dollar, Sam. Anteaters. New York: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers,
2001.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/index.html

ARMADILLOS
Dasypodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Xenarthra
Family: Dasypodidae
The smallest armadillo is the pink fairy armadillo, which class
is 5 to 6 inches (12.7 to 15.2 centimeters) long and weighs
subclass
4.2 ounces (120 grams). The largest family member is the
giant armadillo, which is 4.9 feet (1.5 meters) long and weighs order
66 pounds (30 kilograms). monotypic order
“Armadillo” is Spanish for “little armored one.” The ar- suborder
madillo’s protective armor is the turtle-like shell, or carapace,
made up of round, bony plates. Between the hard plates on the ▲ family
armadillo are bands of softer skin. Hair grows between the plates.
Shell colors include brown, gray, and yellow. Body color is usu-
ally gray or brown. Hair is usually white and pale yellow. The
pink fairy armadillo has a pink shell and white hair.
Armadillos have bony plates on their backs. Some have plates
on their heads, and plates cover some armadillos’ tails. The shell
protects the armadillo from predators, animals that hunt and
kill armadillos for food.
The arrangement of plates and bands in the Dasypodidae fam-
ily varies within subgroups called genera (JEN-uh-rah) and
species. The family is divided into eight genera. A genus (JEE-
nus), the singular of genera, is a group that shares similar char-
acteristics. For example, members of the genus Tolypeutes are
three-banded armadillos.
Armadillos have tiny eyes and poor eyesight. Some species
have short snouts, or noses, while others have long, tube-
shaped snouts. Armadillos have long tails and short limbs. They
Armadillos 203
use claws on their limbs to dig for food and
to burrow, digging a hole or tunnel for sleep-
ing or hiding from predators.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The nine-banded armadillo is the only ar-
ARMADILLOS ENJOY WATER madillo living in the United States. Armadil-
People in Texas have seen nine-banded los live in the South American countries of
armadillos playing in shallow water. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
However, armadillos can do more than Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay,
splash and take mud baths. Armadillos Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
can swim across a body of water or walk Some armadillo species range in Mexico and
underneath water. Armadillos swim by the Central American countries of Belize,
taking in air to inflate their stomachs. Then Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hon-
they float while paddling with their paws. duras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
In addition, armadillos can sink and
remain on the ground below water for six HABITAT
to ten minutes. Armadillos live in the desert, grassland ar-
eas with few trees, and various types of
forests, including rainforests, coniferous
forests, and deciduous forests. In all habitats,
armadillos sleep in burrows, holes, or tunnels they make by
burrowing.
DIET
Armadillos eat beetles, ants, termites, and worms. They
sometimes eat snakes, frogs, and plants. Their diet is based on
what is available in their habitat.

Armadillos are usually crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur), ac-
tive at dawn and dusk, and nocturnal, active at night. Some
species are active during the day, and many species look for
food during the day when the weather is colder.
Armadillos are solitary, staying alone until they mate.
Armadillos are thought to be polygamous (puh-LIH-gah-mus),
having more than one mating partner. After mating, the male
leaves, and the female raises the young. Females bear from two
to twelve pups, depending on the species.
Predators that hunt armadillos include jaguars, wolves, wild
dogs, and alligators. As a defense, the armadillo burrows and

curls up so that little of its soft flesh is exposed. The three-banded
armadillo can roll itself into a ball.
ARMADILLOS AND PEOPLE

People have found various uses for armadillos. They have
eaten their meat and made purses and baskets out of their shells.
Some people keep armadillos as pets.
While sometimes resented for the burrows they dig, ar-
madillos eat insects that cause damage. In addition, doctors
study nine-banded armadillos because they are the only
mammals besides humans that contract leprosy (LEH-pruh-
see), a skin disease. Research of armadillos could help treat
people diagnosed with leprosy.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The giant armadillo and pink fairy armadillo are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction, or dying out, according
to the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The main threat is
habitat loss as trees are cut down. The use of land for farming
reduces fairy armadillo habitat and development has cut into
the amount of giant armadillo habitat. Furthermore, domestic
dogs kill small armadillos, and people hunt giant armadillos for
their meat.
Four other armadillo species are Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild.
Armadillos 205
Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO
Dasypus novemcinctus
Physical characteristics: Although named nine-banded armadillos,

these brown and gray mammals have from seven to eleven bands on
their backs. Nine-banded armadillos are about 25.4 inches (64.6 cen-
timeters) long and weigh up to 15 pounds (6.8 kilograms). Tails mea-
sure 9.5 to 14.6 inches (24 to 37 centimeters) in length. They have
protective armor on their tails and heads, and have visible ears and
small eyes. Nine-banded armadillos have strong claws, a powerful
sense of hearing, and poor vision.

Also known as common long-nosed armadillos, nine-banded The nine-banded armadillo is the
only armadillo that lives in the
armadillos use their long noses to smell ants and other prey hunted
United States. (Jeff Foott/Bruce
for food. Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
Geographic range: Nine-banded armadillos live in the United
States, Mexico, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador,
El Salvador, French Guiana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, and Peru.
Habitat: Nine-banded armadillos live in coniferous forests, and also

range in grassland areas like prairies, where there are fewer trees.
Diet: These armadillos eat ants, beetles, other insects, snails, and
worms. They also eat larvae (LAR-vee), the early, often worm-like
forms of insects, such as a caterpillar that later changes into a but-
terfly. They sometimes eat fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: Nine-banded armadillos are crepuscu-

lar and nocturnal, but may also be active in the daytime during the
winter. They are solitary unless breeding.
Armadillos 207
The female can give birth only once a year. She usually mates with
one male, but males may mate with other females. After the male fer-
tilizes the female’s egg, it takes four months or longer before the egg
is implanted (attached) in the uterus. After implantation, the female
gives birth in about two months to four young.
When frightened, armadillos can jump 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 me-
ters) in the air. This action can scare predators like dogs, coyotes,
wildcats, and bears. Cars are a threat to armadillos; a vehicle may pass
over an armadillo without hurting it, but if the motion startles the ar-
madillo, it may jump, hit the underside of the car, and die.
Nine-banded armadillos and people: The nine-banded armadillo

became the Texas state mascot in 1981. In the 1930s, people ate ar-
madillos during the Great Depression, a time of high unemployment.
People called armadillos “Hoover hogs” and “Texas turkeys.” The first
name referred to President Herbert Hoover, who people blamed for
the Depression. Some people still eat armadillo—barbecuing the meat
or cooking armadillo chili. Texans began holding armadillo races
during the 1970s. Researchers also study the armadillo to develop
treatments for leprosy.
Conservation status: Nine-banded armadillos are not threatened. ■

Pink fairy armadillo (Chlamyphorus truncatus)
PINK FAIRY ARMADILLO

Chlamyphorus truncatus
Physical characteristics: Pink fairy armadillos are approximately

5.9 inches (15 centimeters) long and weigh 4.2 ounces (120 grams).
The armadillo has a pink shell and thick, white fur on its sides. The
shell is attached to the backbone and covers the top of the armadillo’s
head. The shell extends on the back but doesn’t cover the armadillo’s
rear.
Pink fairy armadillos have small eyes and ears, and pointed noses.
They cannot move their tail up and down, so the tail drags on the
ground.
Armadillos 209
Geographic range: Pink fairy armadillos are
found in Argentina.
Habitat: Pink fairy armadillos live in central Ar-

gentina in grassland and sandy plains where thorn
bushes and cacti (KACK-tie, or KACK-tee; plural
of cactus) grow. The armadillos often dig burrows
in dry soil near ant nests. When rain wets the
ground where they live, armadillos move to an-
other place.
Diet: Pink fairy armadillos eat ants most of the

time. Their diet also includes snails, worms, roots,
and other plant material. The armadillos some-
times eat carrion, the flesh of dead animals.
Behavior and reproduction: Pink fairy armadil-

Pink fairy armadillos live in the los are nocturnal and are strong diggers. They eat at night and spend
central grasslands of Argentina. the day in their burrows. The armadillos are solitary until they mate.
They dig their burrows near ant
nests. (© N. Smythe/Photo They are thought to be polygamous. The female gives birth to one
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by young. The pup’s shell does not become completely hard until it is
permission.) fully grown.
Pink fairy armadillos and people: There is no known relationship

between pink fairy armadillos and people.
Conservation status: Pink fairy armadillos are Endangered, facing

a very high risk of extinction in the wild, and the major threat to their
survival is agriculture. Habitat is lost as land is plowed for farming.
Another threat comes from domestic dogs that kill the tiny
armadillos. ■
Books:
Watts, 1999.
Periodicals:
Myers, Kathy. “The Armor-Plated Armadillos.” ZooNooz (September
2003): 12–17.
Smith, Dwight G. “The Armored Pig.” World and I (August 1999): 174.

Web sites:
“Armadillo.” The Handbook of Texas Online. http://www.tsha.
utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/AA/tca2.html (accessed on
June 30, 2004).
“Everyday Mysteries.” The Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/rr/
scitech/mysteries/armadillo.html (accessed on June 30, 2004).
Armadillos 211
INSECTIVORES
Insectivora
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Number of families: 7 families;
1 is extinct
order C H A P T E R
Insectivora is the third largest order of mammals after the class
rodents and bats. Most of the insectivores are smaller than a
child’s hand, and shrews are some of the smallest mammals subclass
known. A few, however, reach a foot long (30 centimeters) or ● order
more. The largest insectivore is the moonrat, which stretches monotypic order
24 inches (60 centimeters) long from the tip of its snout to the
end of its tail. suborder
A typical insectivore is covered with smooth fur, although family
some, like the hedgehogs, have spines. They usually have five
clawed fingers or toes at the end of each of its four, short legs,
but the tenrecs and golden moles have only four claws. Their
skulls are small, long, and flat, however the furry coat may
make the head appear larger. They also have tiny, often unno-
ticeable ears and eyes. Insectivores have an excellent sense of
smell that is assisted by their snouts, which may be long and
flexible, or short and stout. Many insectivores have rows of stiff
sensory hairs, called vibrissae (vuh-BRIS-ee), on their snouts,
tails, ears, and sometimes feet. Beyond this general description,
these animals vary widely.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Insectivores occur worldwide except Antarctica, Australia,
and northern South America.
HABITAT
Insectivores live primarily on land, typically at ground level
or beneath it. A few species, like the Asiatic water shrews, are
Insectivores 213
aquatic. Insectivores can survive in a wide range of habitats from
tropical rainforests to temperate marshes, from thick forests to
open fields, and from sea-level deserts to mountainsides up to
14,760 feet (4,500 meters). Some fossorial, underground,
species, like the star-nosed mole, prefer to burrow in the wet
soil around freshwater marshes and occasionally venture into
somewhat salty, brackish, waters, while others, like the eastern
mole, use enlarged, shovel-like forefeet to tunnel through the
drier soils of forests and fields. The gymnures prefer hiding
places among tree roots or fallen branches, sometimes even
inside termite mounds. Shrews, which comprise almost three-
quarters of all species in the order, spend much of their time in
shallow depressions that they dig beneath some form of shelter,
including rocks, logs, and fallen leaves.
DIET
As the name of the order implies, most of these animals
primarily eat insects, although many will also eat other inver-
tebrates, animals without a backbone. In addition to insects,
many will also eat leaves, tender shoots, seeds, fruits, and other
plant materials. Some, like hedgehogs and tenrecs, prefer to dine
on invertebrates other than insects, such as snails, clams, and
worms, or on vertebrate animals, animals with a backbone, like
small snakes or lizards, fish, frogs, and bird eggs.
Many insectivores require a lot of energy, so they must eat
frequently. Some, like the long-tailed shrew, spend almost every
waking moment eating in order to meet their energy needs.

These active little mammals prefer to remain out of sight,
whether that is underground in tunnels, beneath leaf litter or
brush piles, under rocks, or in some species, in the water. Typi-
cally nocturnal, active at night, although a few are active during
the day. Insectivores have poor eyesight and they must rely on
other senses. Sensory hairs, which are located on various parts of
their bodies, heighten their sense of touch and make them ex-
tremely sensitive to their surroundings. Their hearing is also good,
and the animals communicate with others of their own species
and with other animals through a variety of squeaks, hisses, whis-
tles, and buzzes. Insectivores have a keen sense of smell, which
is important in locating and identifying prey, picking up the scent
markings that border the territories of other insectivores, and in

finding mates during the reproductive season. The moles and des-
mans have sensory receptors called Elmer’s organs on their snouts,
to identify and possibly to locate food items.
Insectivores’ best defense against predators, animals that
hunt them for food, is to remain hidden, so that predators are
more likely to overlook them. Some, however, use other
defense tactics. Hedgehogs, for example, can erect their spines
to present an intimidating barrier to attacker. Some shrews and
solenodons actually produce venom that they transfer with their
bites in order to capture prey. Many species, especially shrews,
will also attack members of their own species—not for food,
but to protect territory. When placed in a confined space,
shrews will typically charge one another, sometimes locking
together and inflicting tearing bites until one dies.
Insectivores are typically active all year long, even in climates
where temperatures in the winter drop below freezing. In colder
areas of North America, for example, shrews are sometimes seen
scurrying across the snow. A few, like some hedgehogs and
tenrecs, hibernate, a dormant state where the animal does not
eat or pass wastes, or go into a hibernation-like state when
temperatures dip too low or when food becomes scarce.
For many insectivores, details about their reproductive be-
havior and their early development are unavailable. In general,
however, individual insectivores remain alone all year, except
during the breeding season. Even then, males and females come
together for a very short time, and the male leaves the female
well before she has her offspring. Depending on the species, an
insectivore may mate once a year with many offspring, as the
tenrecs do, or several times a year with fewer offspring per
litter, which is common in many moles. Often the young of
several nearby females will have the same father. The young of
all species are born fully developed, with some becoming inde-
pendent of their mothers within a few weeks, while others rely
on their mother for food and protection for several months. In
an unusual display of mother-and-child interplay, the mother
in a few shrew species will lead the family in a caravan, with
one youngster gripping the tip of her tail with its teeth. A
second youngster does the same to the first youngster and on
down the line, until the entire three to seven member family is
all linked together in a row.
Most insectivores live only about a year, but a few, like the
solenodons, may live several years in the wild.
Insectivores 215
INSECTIVORES AND PEOPLE
For the most part, people rarely see insec-
tivores and are not affected by them. A few,
like the eastern mole, make above-ground
mounds when they tunnel, which are visible
and may present a source of frustration to
ARE THEY ALL INSECTIVORES? people who want to maintain a perfect lawn.
Scientists are beginning to rethink The majority of insectivores are small and
exactly which animals should be placed inactive during the day, which makes them
in the order Insectivora. Many scientists poor pets. Hedgehogs, however, are larger,
believe that two of the families tradition- easy to keep, and have become quite popular
ally placed under the Insectivora should in homes around the world.
fall under a separate order known as
Afrotheria. Under this arrangement, the CONSERVATION STATUS
tenrecs and golden moles would be Dozens of insectivores around the world
classified in Afrotheria with such animals are threatened, according to the World
as elephants and aardvarks. While this Conservation Union (IUCN). Thirty-six are
controversy continues, field biologists are listed as Critically Endangered, facing an
still finding new species, especially in the extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
tropics of Africa where the small, hidden Forty-five are Endangered, facing a very high
shrews are particularly difficult to find. risk of extinction in the wild, and eighty-
eight are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild. In the United States,
only the Buena Vista Lake ornate shrew is listed as Endangered
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Habitat destruction has proven to be the biggest danger to
these species. As humans clear forests, farm more land, and use
toxic chemicals to control plants and animals, populations of
these small animals can be destroyed.

Books:
Nowak, R. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Baltimore: Johns
Wilson, D., and S. Ruff, eds. The Smithsonian Book of North American
Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999.
Web sites:
“2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.” World Conservation Union.
http://www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Haberl, Werner. The Shrew-ists Site. http://members.vienna.at/shrew/
index.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).

“Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS).” U.S. Listed
Vertebrate Animal Species Report. http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/
TESSWebpageVipListed?code=V&listings=0#A (accessed on July 1, 2004).
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. “Order Insectivora.” Animal
Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Insectivora.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Other sources:
Insectivore Specialist Group (ISG). Hamburgerstrasse 11, A-1050 Vienna,
Austria. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://members.
vienna.at/shrew/itses.html.
IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group. Web site: http://www
.calacademy.org/research/bmammals/afrotheria/ASG.html.
European Hedgehog Research Group (EHRG). Phone: +47 370 36 509.
Fax: +47 370 35 050. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://
www.ngo.grida.no/ngo/hedgehog/.
Insectivores 217
GYMNURES AND HEDGEHOGS
Erinaceidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Erinaceidae
class Gymnures and hedgehogs are generally small, pointy-snouted
animals covered with fur, or in the case of hedgehogs, with
subclass
spines. Each of their four, short legs ends in a flat, walking foot
order with five toes. In a few African hedgehogs, the big toe is small
monotypic order or nearly nonexistent (not there).
suborder Overall, this group ranges from 4 to 18 inches (10 to
46 centimeters) in body length plus tails from 0.4 to 12 inches
▲ family (1 to 30 centimeters), and weighs from 0.5 ounces to
4.4 pounds (15 to 2,000 grams). Most members of this group
have bodies about 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long,
and short, sometimes barely noticeable tails. A few, however,
have longer tails and larger bodies. For example, the Madagascar
hedgehog has a grasping tail that can be more than two times
the length of its body. The Malayan moonrat is the largest
member of this family. With a body that can reach 16 to
18 inches (41 to 46 centimeters) long and a tail that stretches
up to 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters) long, this animal
can measure more than 2 feet (0.6 meters) long from snout to
tail tip and weigh up to 4.4 pounds (2 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Gymnures and hedgehogs are found in parts of Africa,
Eurasia, central Asia, and southeast Asia. New Zealand is also
home to a healthy population introduced by humans. Hedge-
hogs tend toward the cooler climates, while gymnures and
moonrats demand tropical and subtropical areas.

HABITAT
Members of this family thrive in a number of varying
habitats on land, usually living and feeding at ground level and,
in some species, in burrows. A few, like the moonrat, may take
an occasional swim in the water. Gymnures prefer humid forests,
while hedgehogs can live in a dry and rocky desert, a busy city
park, or a mountainside meadow. In fact, hedgehogs can
survive almost anywhere they can find food during their night-
time hunts and sheltered hideaways for their daytime slumber.
DIET
The diet of hedgehogs and gymnures can include a variety of
things, but they mostly eat insects, spiders, worms and other
invertebrates, animals without backbones. If they are big enough
to kill a reptile, amphibian, or a small mammal, they will do so
once in a while. Sometimes they will also eat fungi or fruit. In
addition, hedgehogs often prey on birds’ eggs. They spend most
of their active hours either looking for food or eating it.

Most members of this family are nocturnal, active only at
night. Some species, like the lesser gymnure, may venture out in
the daytime if they become hungry enough, but they usually
spend their days resting in a sheltered spot. In the winter, many
cold-climate species have the ability to slow their body processes,
and essentially enter a deep sleep known as hibernation until the
weather warms. The European hedgehog sometimes hibernates
for six or seven months, surviving on body fat it stored when it
was active earlier in the year. Warm-climate species do not have
to contend with bitter winters, but they do sometimes face
extended dry periods, or droughts, when food can become scarce.
During droughts, many will enter a deep sleep, called estivation
(est-ih-VAY-shun), which is similar to hibernation.
Adult gymnures and hedgehogs typically live alone. They pro-
tect a territory by marking its edges with often-powerful scents
and by threatening other adults to stay away with raspy hisses. If
a predator approaches, hedgehogs take on a defensive posture by
rolling into a ball and standing their spines on end—turning
themselves into living pin cushions. Gymnures have no spines
for protection and instead try to stay out of sight of predators as
often as possible, hiding beneath piles of branches or leaves,
among tree roots, or sometimes in burrows dug by other animals.
Gymnures and Hedgehogs 219

Adult gymnures and hedgehogs give up
their solitary existence during mating peri-
ods, and the females welcome males with the
same types of hisses they used earlier in the
year to scare them away from their territo-
ries. Because of their spines, hedgehog
AN ODD HEDGEHOG BEHAVIOR mating can be tricky. To accomplish it, the
female smoothes down her spines, so the
A particularly odd behavior among the
male can approach without being hurt. After
hedgehogs—and one that is still not fully
mating, the male leaves and returns to his
understood—is called “self-anointing.” It
solitary life. Females, on the other hand,
happens when a hedgehog comes across a
must care for the two to five, blind and help-
powerful odor. The animal stops what it is
less babies now living in the nest. The young
doing, and begins licking and sometimes
stay with the mother for five to seven weeks
even chewing the source of the odor until it
until they are ready to survive on their own.
starts to foam at the mouth. Next, it smears
the foam over its body spines with small
GYMNURES, HEDGEHOGS,
backward jerks of its head and flicks of its
AND PEOPLE
tongue. Although many people have seen
hedgehogs perform this ritual, scientists still The most intense relationships between
are not sure exactly why animals do it. people and this family surround the hedge-
hogs. Gardeners often consider a hedgehog in
the yard a helpful addition that will suppress
insect and spider numbers. On the other
hand, poultry farmers dislike hedgehogs, which are quite fond
of eggs and will occasionally eat a chick.
Superstitions in some cultures view a hedgehog as a good
omen, and some folk remedies call for the use of blood or some
other part of a hedgehog. Historically, hedgehogs have also been
killed for their meat, and for their spines to use to comb newly
cut sheep wool.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Seven species of this family are at some risk, according to
the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The dwarf gymnure is
Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild. In addition, three species are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild, and two species
are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. In
addition, one is considered Near Threatened, not currently
threatened, but may become so. Many of these species live in
small areas, and human activities like logging and new farms
are destroying their limited habitats.

Western European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)
SPECIES
WESTERN EUROPEAN HEDGEHOG ACCOUNTS
Erinaceus europaeus
Physical characteristics: Western European hedgehogs are round-

to oval-shaped and mostly brown. Their most recognizable feature is
the layer of light-yellow and brown spines on their backs. They have
small, but noticeable rounded ears, fairly long snouts, and dark, beady
eyes. Their body ranges from 9 to 11 inches (23 to 28 centimeters)
long with short tails of 0.5 to 1.2 inches (1.5 to 3 centimeters) long.
The adult weight can vary from 14 to 42 ounces (400 to 1,200 grams).
Geographic range: Western European hedgehogs are found in

Western and central Europe from Scandinavia, northern European
Russia, Britain and Ireland to Italy and the Mediterranean islands. A
population introduced by humans in New Zealand is also thriving.
Habitat: People most frequently see western European hedgehogs in

farmlands, parks and gardens, but the animals are also quite common
in forests and meadows where they are less likely to encounter humans.
Diet: Active at night, these hedgehogs primarily eat insects, worms,

spiders and other invertebrates, but they will also prey on eggs and

fruit. In captivity or when otherwise fed by hu-
mans, they will eat just about anything from dog
food to bread.
Behavior and reproduction: They do not set up

territories like some other insectivores, but adults
still live alone. Those in cooler climates survive the
winter by hibernating for four to seven months.
Mating occurs from spring to summer, and females
usually have four to six babies, although they
sometimes have as few as two or as many as ten at
a time. The babies are blind, naked, and helpless,
and remain in the mother’s nest for no more than
six weeks, then they are pushed out to face the
world on their own.
Western European hedgehogs and people:

The western European hedgehog
Hedgehogs are becoming increasingly popular as pets. Most human
eats mainly insects, spiders, and contact with the animals, however, comes from positive encounters
worms, which makes it a in the yard. Homeowners generally welcome the hedgehogs, which
welcome visitor in most yards.
have a taste for insects and spiders that homeowners view as pests.
(© Hans Reinhard/OKAPIA/
Reproduced by permission.) Conservation status: Western European hedgehogs are not
threatened. ■

Malayan moonrat (Echinosorex gymnura)
MALAYAN MOONRAT
Echinosorex gymnura
Physical characteristics: Malayan moonrats have long and narrow

bodies, coarse hair, pointy snouts and long, almost naked tails giving
them an appearance that resembles a Virginia opossum. They have
mostly black fur toward the back and white fur toward the head, al-
though they may have quite large, black patches on the head. Some-
times they are completely white. Malayan moonrats range from 10
to 18 inches (26 to 46 centimeters) in body length, plus a 6.5- to
12-inch (16.5- to 30-centimeter) tail. Adult weight varies from about
1 to 3 pounds (0.45 to 1.4 kilograms), but can sometimes reach
4.4 pounds (2 kilograms). Males are generally a bit smaller than females.

Geographic range: Malayan moonrats are found
on the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo.
Habitat: Moist forests, mangrove swamps, and

wet farmlands are the typical habitats of Malayan
moonrats. Scientists believe the animals spend at
least part of their time in the water.
Diet: An animal of the night, Malayan moonrats

eat worms, insects, crabs, and other invertebrates
found in moist areas. They will also eat fruit, and
occasionally frogs or fish.
Behavior and reproduction: When they are not

looking for food at night, Malayan moonrats rest
in hiding places among tree roots, inside hollow
logs, or in other tight spaces. Adults live alone.
They release strong odors to mark the edges of their
territories and warn other moonrats to stay away
Malayan moonrats search at with threatening hisses. They also release odors to ward off preda-
night for worms, insects, crabs, tors. When they are preparing to have young, they will make nests
and other invertebrates found in
moist areas. (© N. Smythe/Photo mostly from leaves. Females usually have two babies at a time, either
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by once or twice a year. Scientists know little more about moonrat adults
permission.) or young.
Malayan moonrats and people: Generally speaking, Malayan

moonrats leave people alone, and people leave them alone.
Conservation status: Malayan moonrats are not threatened. ■
Books:
McDonald, D. Collins Field Guide: Mammals of Britain and Europe.
London: Harper Collins, 1993.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. Baltimore:
John Hopkins University Press, 1995. http://www.press.jhu.
edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/insectivora/insectivora
.erinaceidae.echinosorex.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Reeve, N. Hedgehogs. London: Poyser Natural History, 1994.
Web sites:
“European hedgehog.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/
factfiles/193.shtml (accessed on July 1, 2004).

“European Hedgehog.” Boreal Forests of the World Mammal Species.
http://www.borealforest.org/world/mammals/hedgehog.htm (accessed
on July 1, 2004).
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species—Species Information. http://www.
redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).

GOLDEN MOLES
Chrysochloridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Chrysochloridae
class Generally, a golden mole looks like little more than a round
to oblong lump of fur with a tiny, naked nose poking out at
subclass
one end. Adults range from 2.7 to 9 inches (7 to 23.5 centimeters)
order long, and 0.5 to 17.6 ounces (16 to 500 grams). The fur is gen-
monotypic order erally brown to gray, but it shines golden, bronze, and even
purple and blue when the light hits it just right. Their small
suborder ears and tails are typically buried under their silky, thick fur,
▲ family and their eyes are covered with skin beneath the fur. They have
four short legs, the front two of which often have enlarged claws
they use for digging. Their back legs are more slender than their
powerful forelimbs and their back feet have webbing between
the toes—a big help when kicking away the soil they’ve just
dug. One species, the yellow golden mole, can tunnel through
the soil so quickly and efficiently that it is sometimes called a
“sand swimmer.” Many of the other species, like the Grant’s
desert golden mole, also almost appear to be swimming when
they travel through the loose sand in dunes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The southern half of Africa.
HABITAT
Golden moles typically live much of their lives underground
in shallow burrows they dig themselves. The burrows are
often visible above ground as slight ridges in the soil. Many
golden moles prefer loose soil that is easily moved by their

hollow claws. Some species, such as the
rough-haired golden mole, make tunnels to
connect chambers within mounds of soil.
DIET
Because their eyes are buried beneath the
skin, golden moles are blind and they must NOT ALWAYS LONERS
rely on other senses, like touch and smell, to
get around and to find prey. Food items Although adult golden moles are
include ants, termites, beetles, earthworms, typically described as loners that live a
and other invertebrates (animals without solitary life all year, except for mating
backbones) that they hunt at night. Some- season, the adults of one species are a
times, they will feel above-ground vibrations, little more friendly to one another. Among
then burst out of their shallow tunnels to grab the species known as large golden moles,
an insect on a blade of grass or a lizard mov- several adults may share a single burrow
ing along the ground. De Winton’s golden system in the winter months. This species,
mole is noted for its ability to kill a lizard with which is Endangered, lives in South Africa.
its enlarged front claws. The typical golden
mole will alternate between periods of activ-
ity and rest throughout the night, spending a considerably greater
amount of time resting. Most remain active only at night, but a
few, like Sclater’s golden moles, stay busy digging through the
soil and looking for food both day and night.
When golden moles are confronted with a span of extreme
temperatures, lengthy dry periods, and/or a lack of prey, golden
moles can become inactive for a few days—a state called torpor—
to conserve their energy until conditions become more favorable.
Like most other insectivores, golden moles live alone as
adults. During the spring breeding season, males and females
will come together, but only briefly. Although much of their
behavior is still unknown, some mating rituals have been ob-
served in which the male nods its head, stomps its feet, and
chases the female. The two also communicate through scents
that ooze out of body glands, and by making chirping and
squeaking noises at one another. Females give birth to their
young in a grassy nest built within a tunnel that may be sev-
eral feet (a few meters) below ground. Each brood commonly
has one or two, sometimes three young. The mother recognizes
her offspring by their scent. She raises them only until they are
able to survive on their own, and then she kicks them out and
lives alone again until the next mating season.
Golden Moles 227

GOLDEN MOLES AND PEOPLE
Golden moles are sometimes seen as beneficial, and other
times as pests. Because they eat insects that may be destructive
to vegetation, many people welcome their presence. At the same
time, farmers, gardeners and homeowners may prefer that the
moles and their noticeable burrows stay out of the crops and
the lawn. In some cases, people kill and skin the moles for their
shiny fur.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Eleven species of golden mole are at some risk, according to
the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The Red List describes
four as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, dying out; one as Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction; and six as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction. These golden moles exist in limited areas and those
areas are becoming ever smaller through habitat destruction
due to human activities, like farming, mining, and lumbering.

Grant’s desert golden mole (Eremitalpa granti)
SPECIES
GRANT’S DESERT GOLDEN MOLE ACCOUNT
Eremitalpa granti
Physical characteristics: One of the smallest golden moles, this

species reaches only about 3.0 to 3.3 inches (7.6 to 8.8 centimeters)
in body length and weighs 0.5 to 1.0 ounces (15 to 32 grams). On
its back, it has long, shiny, light-gray fur that is sometimes tinged
with yellow. Its underside fur is lighter and yellowish. Grant’s desert
golden mole has three long claws on each forelimb, although they
aren’t as hefty as the claws in some other golden mole species.
Geographic range: South Africa and the Namib Desert in extreme

southwestern Africa.
Habitat: Coastal sand dunes, typically areas with some dune grass,
are its preferred habitat.
Golden Moles 229

Grant’s desert golden mole
prefers to live in coastal sand
dunes, where it searches for food
at night and spends the days in
shallow burrows. (Illustration by
Jacqueline Mahannah.
Diet: Its diet consists of various invertebrates, such as spiders, ter-

mites, beetles, and ants, that it hunts at night. When the opportunity
presents itself, these moles will also eat kill and eat lizards, some of
which may be as long as the mole.
Behavior and reproduction: Active at night, it will venture above

ground in search of prey, sometimes covering as much as 3.6 miles
(5.8 kilometers) in a single twenty-four-hour period. It spends its
days in shallow burrows. Interestingly, this species doesn’t maintain
a constant body temperature during the day. Instead, its body be-
comes cooler or warmer with the temperature of the sand around it.
In breeding season, the females will crawl into deeper tunnels that
may lie 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more beneath the surface, where it gives
birth to and raises typically one or two offspring. As soon as the
youngsters are old enough to survive alone, the mother forces them
out of her nest. Although details about behavior are lacking, scien-
tists believe that males may mate with more than one female, and
therefore father numerous young with different females. Outside of
breeding season, adult moles live alone and have little contact with
other adults.
Grant’s desert golden moles and people: Since this is a desert

species that lives in sand dunes away from most people, it has little
impact on humans.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the Grant’s golden mole as

Vulnerable. Dune removal and diamond mining are destroying the

habitat within the limited range of this animal, but efforts are under
way to create a national park, which will protect at least part of the
mole’s range. ■
Books:
Apps, P. Smithers’ Mammals of Southern Africa. Cape Town, South
Africa: Struik Publishers, 2000.
Kingdon, J. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 1997.
Nowak, R. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press. jhu.edu/books/walkers
_mammals_of_the_world/insectivora/insectivora.chrysochloridae.
eremitalpa.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Smithers, R. H. N. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion.
Pretoria, South Africa: University of Pretoria, 1983.
Web sites:
“Insectivore Specialist Group 1996, Eremitalpa granti.” 2003 IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.redlist.org (accessed on
July 1, 2004).
“A Mammal that Imitates Reptiles.” Clive Cowley’s Journey into Namibia:
Namibia Guidebook #12. http://www.orusovo.com/guidebook/
content8.htm (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Golden Moles 231

TENRECS
Tenrecidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Tenrecidae
class Rat- or shrew-like in general appearance, tenrecs vary greatly
in body size, tail length, and color. One of the most consistent
subclass
features is the long, pointy snout that is typically adorned with
order long whiskers. The smallest tenrecs have head and body lengths
monotypic order of just 2 inches (5.5 centimeters) and weights of 0.14 ounces
(4 grams), while the largest can reach 14 inches (35.7
suborder centimeters) and weigh up to 44 pounds (2 kilograms). Tails
▲ family vary from tiny, unnoticeable stubs to long and very obvious
structures stretching up to three times the length of the body.
Some species have soft yellow to brown fur, and a few have
vivid black-and-white or yellow-and-black fur patterns. Adults
in several species have sharp spines that are quite effective in
thwarting attacks by would-be predators. Some youngsters, like
the common tenrec, have blunt spines that produce a sound
when rubbed together.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tenrecs live in Madagascar and western central Africa.
Introduced to Comoros, Mascarenes, and Seychelles, which are
islands in the Indian Ocean.
HABITAT
Most species live in humid forests or in grasslands. A few
species can survive well in marshy areas, drier forests, or agri-
cultural fields. Aquatic tenrecs and otter shrews spend much
of their time in or near freshwater streams.

DIET
The tenrec diet varies considerably among
species. For the most part, the land-living
tenrecs eat insects, worms, and other inver-
tebrates (animals without backbones). A few
will also devour baby mice and other small
vertebrates (animals with backbones), and TOGETHERNESS AMONG TENRECS
some will even munch on dead animals they Usually, less than a handful of different
come across. The tenrecs that live in mammals from the same group live
marshes, near streams, or in the water dine together within a small area. With tenrecs,
on other water-loving creatures, like aquatic it is different. In one small, forested area
insects, frogs, fishes, mollusks, and crabs. in Madagascar, sixteen different species of
tenrecs share the same space. This type of
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION high diversity among one type of animal is
Scientists have few details about many extremely rare, and may, in fact, represent
species of tenrecs, partly because the animals the greatest concentration of such similar
are relatively small and are typically only ac- animals found anywhere in the world.
tive at night. They rest during the daytime,
often in tunnels that they construct. Some,
like the Ruwenzori otter shrew, sleep on beds of grass in the
tunnels. During their daily rest, several species are known to
enter a state of deep sleep, called torpor, which allows them to
conserve their energy. One species, known as the large-eared
tenrec, is particularly tuned in to the outdoor temperature, and
its internal body temperature quite closely matches the outdoor
temperature. When weather becomes cool, its body tempera-
ture takes a similar dip, and the animal may enter torpor. In
long, dry periods, some species take an extended deep sleep,
called estivation (est-ih-VAY-shun), during which the heart rate
and body temperature fall and the animal needs to burn far less
energy to stay alive. Estivation may last days or even weeks.
Tenrecs that estivate for longer periods will frequently plug the
openings of their burrows in preparation for the extended sleep.
Adults likely spend most of their lives alone, coming together
only for mating. Sometime, males will remain with the female
while she’s pregnant, a span that typically lasts about two
months. A few reports suggest that some male-female pairs may
remain together during other times of the year, too. Overall,
scientists know little about mating rituals in most species, but
they have observed some behaviors. In the hedgehog tenrec,
for example, the females give off an odor during mating season
that causes a milky substance to flow from glands near the eyes
Tenrecs 233
of males. Each year, females have one litter of one to thirty-two
babies, depending on the species. The young, most of which
are born blind and naked, apparently stay with the mother for
at least four or five weeks, and possibly more.
TENRECS AND PEOPLE

Of all the tenrecs, the most popular is perhaps the greater
hedgehog tenrec, which has become quite a popular pet. In
Madagascar, which has a thriving tenrec community, humans
have traditionally viewed the animals as a source of prime meat,
and enthusiastically hunted them. Humans also hunt the giant
otter shrew for its pelt.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Ten species are at risk, according to the Red List of the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). One, the tree shrew tenrec, is
listed as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction, or dying out; six are Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction; and three are listed as Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction. Many of these species exist in
small areas and are threatened by human activities that are
changing their habitat. For example, the aquatic tenrec is an
Endangered species that is found in only a few spots in Mada-
gascar. It needs clean rivers to survive, but agriculture and de-
forestation are either eliminating the rivers or allowing silt to
muddy up the waters.

Common tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus)
SPECIES
COMMON TENREC ACCOUNTS
Tenrec ecaudatus
Physical characteristics: A grayish brown to reddish brown ani-

mal with long, coarse hairs and a lighter-colored belly. It has small,
beady eyes, small ears, a long and pointed snout with lengthy
whiskers, a short and unnoticeable tail, and front legs that are a bit
longer than the hind legs. Youngsters have streaked fur and two rows
of blunt spines down their backs, but the stripes disappear when they
get older, and the spines are covered with longer fur. Adults weigh
about 42 to 70 ounces (1.2 to 2 kilograms), and are about 10.5 to
15.3 inches (26 to 39 centimeters) from nose to rump.
Geographic range: Common tenrecs live in Madagascar. Intro-
duced populations also live on the islands of Comoros, Mascarenes,
and Seychelles in the Indian Ocean.
Habitat: Common tenrecs usually live in forested areas with a
nearby water source such as a river or paddy field.
Tenrecs 235
Common tenrec adults live alone Diet: Insects, earthworms, and other invertebrates are their primary
for most of the year, but males
food, but they will also eat small vertebrate animals, fruit, and plant
and females come together in
the spring to mate. (Illustration roots on occasion.
by Gillian Harris. Reproduced by
permission.) Behavior and reproduction: Adults live alone for most of the year,
spending days sleeping in the burrows they make, and nights on the
prowl for food. In the dry winter months, food can become quite
scarce, triggering the tenrecs to enter a state of deep sleep, called
estivation, for up to several months. They mate in the spring, and
females give birth to a single litter of twelve to thirty-two babies in
the summer, which falls in December and January for these creatures
of the Southern Hemisphere. The mother nurses her young for almost
a month, then takes them out with her to search for insects and other
food items. By the time they are two to two-and-a-half-months old,
the youngsters leave the mother to live on their own.
Common tenrecs and people: Humans in Madagascar hunt this

species for meat, which is considered a delicacy.
Conservation status: The common tenrec is not considered to be

threatened. ■

Yellow-streaked tenrec (Hemicentetes semispinosus)
YELLOW-STREAKED TENREC
Hemicentetes semispinosus
Physical characteristics: A small, black tenrec with a mane of

longer golden-yellow to whitish hairs as well as yellow to whitish
stripes down the center and on either side of its face. It has a lighter-
colored belly, and its back sports scattered, long, yellowish spines.
This species has small eyes, black ears, and a long, pink snout, but
no noticeable tail. The yellow-streaked tenrec is about 6 to 7.5 inches
(15 to 19 centimeters) long, and weighs 3 to 7 ounces (90 to
220 grams).
Geographic range: Madagascar.
Tenrecs 237
Habitat: This is a burrowing species that lives
in humid forests, as well as shrubby areas, fre-
quently near a water source.
Diet: The yellow-streaked tenrec prefers earth-

worms but will also eat other invertebrates.
Behavior and reproduction: Unlike most other

tenrecs, which are loners much of the year, yel-
low-streaked tenrecs can either live alone or share
their burrows with up to two dozen members of
their families, including parents, grandparents,
cousins, and siblings. Females may have more
than one litter per year, usually with five to eight
babies at a time. The babies quickly mature, be-
coming old enough to mate at just five weeks old.
Yellow-streaked tenrecs may live Yellow-streaked tenrecs survive the dry winter months by estivating
alone (like most other tenrecs), in their burrows.
or they may share their burrows
with up to twenty-four family
This tenrec’s spines come in two types: barbed and stridulating
members. (© H. Uible/Photo (STRIH-juh-late-ing). A barbed spine is sharp with tiny barbs, or hook-
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced like structures, at the end. These spines detach easily from the animal.
by permission.)
When a predator is foolish enough to nip at this tenrec, it gets a mouth-
ful of spines that fall off the tenrec and stick in the predator. Stridu-
lating spines aren’t barbed, and don’t fall off the tenrec’s body so easily,
but they do have their own unusual characteristic: they produce a
sound when rubbed against one another.
Yellow-streaked tenrecs and people: This species has little con-

tact with humans. Humans do not consider them pets, pests, or a
source of meat.
Conservation status: The yellow-streaked tenrec is not considered

to be threatened. ■

Books:
Garbutt, N. Mammals of Madagascar. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 1999.
Goodman, S. M., and J. P. Benstead, eds. The Natural History of Mada-
gascar. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003.
Periodicals:
Eisenberg, J. F., and E. Gould. “The Tenrecs: A Study in Mammalian Be-
havior and Evolution.” Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 27 (1970):
78–89.

Web sites:
Gorog, A. “Tenrec ecaudatus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity
.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Tenrec_ecaudatus.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Hemicentetes semispinosus: Lowland Streaked Tenrec.” http://info.
bio.sunysb.edu/rano.biodiv/Mammals/Hemicentetes-semispinosus/ (ac-
cessed on July 1, 2004).
IUCN 2003. 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.
redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Shefferly, N. “Hemicentetes semispinosus.” Animal Diversity Web.
Hemicentetes_semispinosus.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Tenrec ecaudatus: Common Tenrec.” http://info.bio.sunysb.edu/
rano.biodiv/Mammals/Tenrec-ecaudatus/ (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Tenrecidae—Tenrecs—Borstelegels.” http://www.animalsonline.be/
insectivora/borstelegels/common_tenrec.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Tenrecs 239
SOLENODONS
Solenodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Solenodontidae
class The two living species in this family are the Cuban
solenodon (suh-LEN-uh-dun), which is also known as the
subclass
almiqui (ahl-mee-KEE), and the Hispaniolan solenodon, which
order is sometimes called the Haitian solenodon. Both have extremely
monotypic order long snouts that extend beyond the end of their lower jaw.
Their four relatively tall legs, clawed feet, and long tails
suborder are nearly hairless. Most are brown on the back, or sometimes
▲ family black in the Cuban solenodon, and have lighter-colored fur
on their undersides. Cuban solenodons have longer, coarser,
back hair, giving it a shaggier appearance. They are also slightly
smaller than Hispaniolan solenodons. Overall, adult solen-
odons range from about 10 to 15 inches (25 to 38 centimeters)
in length, and their tail adds another 6 to 10 inches (15
to 25 centimeters). Adults weigh 1.3 to 2.4 pounds (0.6 to
1.1 kilograms).
Both species have glands under their front teeth that produce
poison. When they bite into a prey animal, the poison flows
from the glands down grooves in their teeth and into the prey.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Solenodons live in Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Cuba. In
the past they were also found in Puerto Rico.
HABITAT
Solenodons occupy tropical forests on the sides of mountains,
and also can be found in plantations and other flat, brushy areas.

DIET
Solenodons spend most of their nighttime
hours above ground, poking their long snouts
into the dirt and any other little opening they
can find to search for insects, spiders, earth-
worms, and other invertebrates, animals
without backbones. They will also claw apart A FIGHT FOR MILK
old, rotten logs where many of their prey live. Like other mammals, solenodon
mothers nurse their babies with milk
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION delivered through their nipples. A mother
Like most other insectivores, solenodons may have up to three babies in each litter,
rest during the day and become active at but she has only two nipples. All three
night. They usually spend their days in small of her young cannot feed at once. As a
groups within burrows or shallow hollows in result, one of the three babies typically gets
the ground, but may also rest in small less of the nourishing milk than the other
hiding places. They spread out at night to two, becomes weaker and weaker, and
look for food alone, and will attack fellow eventually dies.
solenodons that get too close, often inflict-
ing nasty bites. If a predator approaches, the
solenodon has the option of charging and biting, or running
off. Unless it is startled or has nowhere to flee, it will usually
choose running over fighting.
Solenodons make a number of noises, including shrieks,
grunts, and clicks. Some scientists believe the clicks may help
them find prey. Just as bats make high-pitched noises and
listen as the noises bounce off objects and back to them, solen-
odons may listen for the bounced clicks to detect objects, like
prey, in their surroundings. This ability to “see” objects with
reflected sound waves is called echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun).
Males and females can breed at any time of year, and females
usually have two litters (young born at the same time) every year.
A mother may have one, two, or three babies at a time. Mothers
nurse their young with two nipples located toward the rear of
the animal, which are farther back than on a typical mammal.
The babies continue nursing for about seventy-five days, but
often stay with their mother until well after the next litter is born.
SOLENODONS AND PEOPLE

Solenodons and people usually do not see one another,
unless the solenodon makes its home in a plantation or
Solenodons 241
garden. Homeowners and farmers sometimes view them as pests
because they occasionally damage crops while rooting around
in the dirt for insects and other prey that live near plants.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) both
species are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in
the wild. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also list these two
species as Endangered. The causes for their decline include
hunting by dogs and cats, and the removal of the forests where
the solenodons live. The IUCN lists a third species, Marcano’s
solenodon, as extinct.

Hispaniolan solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus)
SPECIES
HISPANIOLAN SOLENODON ACCOUNT
Solenodon paradoxus
Physical characteristics: This large insectivore’s long tail, long snout,

and rather lengthy legs are nearly naked. From the tip of the snout
to the end of the tail, an adult can reach 22 inches (56 centimeters)
long. Adults range from 11 to 12 inches (28 to 32.5 centimeters) in body
length with tails of 7 to 10 inches (17.5 to 25.5 centimeters), and weigh
1.3 to 2.4 pounds (0.6 to 1.1 kilograms). Color varies somewhat, but
individuals usually have a brownish coat on the back and a lighter-
colored underside. The forelimbs are stronger and have larger paws than
the hind limbs. All four paws have five toes.
Geographic range: Dominican Republic and Haiti.
Habitat: Hispaniolan solenodons typically live in forests, but some-

times make their homes in plantations or gardens.
Solenodons 243
Diet: The Hispaniolan solenodon’s diet includes
insects and other invertebrates, small reptiles,
some fruit and vegetables, and possibly an occa-
sional young chicken.
Behavior and reproduction: During the day,

Hispaniolan solenodons rest in various hiding
places, including hollow trees or logs, tight places
in caves or slender cracks in rocks, or in the bur-
rows they make. Several solenodons may rest to-
gether in a burrow. When they become active at
night, they scout around on the surface looking for
food. Adults are loners during this period, even
fighting with one another.
Males and females produce an oily, greenish
fluid, which tells members of the opposite sex that
The Hispaniolan solenodon is they are ready to mate. Females can have one or two litters each year,
considered Endangered. Dogs and may have them in any season. Each litter typically has one to
and cats prey on the animal,
and humans have cleared many
three babies, which the mother feeds from two nipples located near
of the forests where it lives. the mother’s rump. The young can latch onto the nipples and remain
(© N. Smythe/photo Researchers, attached even if the mother decides to go for a walk. The young sim-
ply drag along the ground underneath her. The babies stop nursing
after about two-and-a-half months, but may stay with the family for
several months, even after the mother has another litter.
Hispaniolan solenodons and people: Other than an occasional run-

in in a farm field or garden, solenodons and humans rarely see
one another.
Conservation status: Both the IUCN and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service list this species as Endangered. Threats come in the form
of dogs and cats that prey on the animal, and the human destruction of
the forests where it lives. ■
Books:
Eisenberg, John F. “Tenrecs and Solenodons in Captivity.” In Interna-
tional Zoo Yearbook 15. London: Zoological Society of London, 1975.

Periodicals:
Eisenberg, John F., and Edwin Gould. “The Behavior of Solenodon para-
doxus in Captivity with Comments on the Behavior of other Insectivora.”
Zoologica 51 (1966): 49–57.
Wood, Charles A. “The Last Endemic Mammals in Hispaniola.” Oryx 16
(1981): 146–152.
Web sites:
Baillie, J. “Solenodon cubanus.” 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species. http://www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Baillie, J. “Solenodon marcanoi.” 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Baillie, J. “Solenodon paradoxus.” 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened
Eatroff, A. “Solenodon paradoxus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Soleondon
_paradoxus.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“The Haitian Solenodon.” Dominican Fauna. http://www.geocities.com/
cuyaya/solenen.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Massicot, P. “Haitian Solenodon.” Animal Info. http://www.animalinfo.
org/species/solepara.htm (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Solenodons 245
SHREWS
Soricidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Soricidae
class Sometimes confused with mice, the typical shrew has a
long, pointy snout with sensitive whiskers, a long and thin
subclass
tail, tiny eyes that are sometimes hidden under their fur, no-
order ticeable ears, and fairly short legs with five clawed toes on
monotypic order each foot. Most have short, brown or gray fur, and many of
them have red-tinged teeth. The vast majority of shrews are
suborder no bigger than a house mouse, but a few species, like the wa-
▲ family ter shrews, can top 5 inches (12.5 centimeters) in head and
body length. Overall, shrews range from 1.4 to 5.3 inches (3.6
to 13.5 centimeters) in head and body length and 0.06 to 1.5
ounces (2 to 40 grams) in body weight. Tails are typically
from half the length to the same length as the head and body
measurement. The smallest shrew, and indeed one of the tini-
est living mammals, is Savi’s pygmy shrew with a body that
is just 1.4 to 2.1 inches (3.6 to 5.3 centimeters) long. The tail
is about half that size. The tiny shrew weighs 0.4 to 0.1 ounces
(1.2 to 2.7 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Shrews can be found nearly worldwide, including North
America, Central America, northern South America, Africa,
Europe, and Asia.
HABITAT
This is a very wide-ranging family, but most species tend to
prefer areas with at least some moisture. Many scuttle along
the damp earth under leaf litter, but a few will climb trees in

search of food. The aquatic species naturally
seek out water sources that may range from
bogs and swamps to streams and rivers. A
few species survive well in the desert.
DIET
Shrews are not picky eaters. While insects SCARED TO DEATH
and other invertebrates (animals without Shrews are very active little animals,
backbones) make up the bulk of their diet, dashing from place to place with noses
they will also eat fruit and seeds, as well as almost always twitching. A typical heart
small mammals, lizards, frogs, and even rate for a shrew is in the hundreds, five or
other shrews if food is scarce. They burn en- more times higher than a human heart
ergy very quickly, so many shrews spend just rate, and can nearly double if the animal is
about every waking moment either eating or frightened. In fact, a shrew can actually die
looking for their next meal. Many species eat of fright if it is startled by a loud noise, like
at least their body weight, and sometimes up a clap of thunder.
to four times that amount in food every day.

Most shrews are active at night and rest during the day. A
few, however, like the long-tailed shrew, stay awake for much
of the day trying to feed their hefty appetites. When they can’t
find enough food, some species may spend a few hours in an
inactive state called torpor that decreases their energy needs.
Unlike most other mammals, some shrews actually produce
venom to immobilize their prey, and then either kill the prey
immediately or save it for a later meal. European water shrews,
for instance, have a deep groove in the lower front tooth to help
direct the venom from a duct at the base of the tooth into the
prey.
Shrews are well-known for being aggressive toward mem-
bers of their own species and sometimes other species. By mak-
ing and marking small territories with scents, they typically
avoid one another and thus sidestep fights. However, when two
shrews, like the short-tailed shrews of North America, en-
counter one another in a confined space, they will commonly
attack quickly and continuously, often until one dies. Despite
their reputation as fighters, a few species tolerate other shrews
quite well. Adult small-eared shrews will even share a nest.
Most shrews spend their whole lives on land, usually run-
ning from place to place. A few species are good swimmers.
These aquatic shrews typically have stiff, fringed hairs on their
Shrews 247
feet that serve to enlarge the surface area of their feet and help
them paddle through the water. The elegant water shrew has
actual webbing on its feet to aid in swimming.
Shrews generally breed two or more times a year, giving
off specific odors or making characteristic movements, such
as tail-wagging in house musk shrews, to announce that they
are ready to give up fighting long enough to mate. Females
may mate with several males during each breeding period, so
the offspring in one female’s litter may have several different
fathers. Many species build nests. The short-tailed shrew, for
example, makes a small nest of leaves and grass in a hidden
spot, often under a rock or inside a tunnel. Pregnancies last
only three to four weeks for most species, and the babies are
small and quite helpless. The number of offspring varies, but
three to seven is a common litter (young born at the same
time) size for shrews. Babies grow very rapidly and are ready
to face the world on their own at just three to four weeks
old. Before they do so, however, some species of the group,
known as white-toothed shrews because they lack the red-
dish tinge seen in other shrews, take part in an odd behav-
ior. The mother leads them around in a row, with each shrew
using its teeth to grasp the hair on the rump of the one in
front of it. This line-up of shrews is called a caravan, or chain
behavior. Scientists now believe that families of some red-
toothed shrews may use this peculiar but effective method of
travel, as well.
As noted, shrews develop quickly and they begin having
young of their own before they reach their first birthday. Shrews
rarely live much past fourteen to eighteen months of age.
SHREWS AND PEOPLE

Since they are small, usually active only at night, and like
to hide, shrews avoid human attention most of the time. They
do, however, play an important role for farmers and garden-
ers, who have fewer destructive insects in the crops, thanks
to the shrews’ appetites. Shrews have cultural significance, as
well. For example, Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew is
a classic tale, and people in Taiwan consider a shrew to be a
symbol of good luck. On very rare occasions, shrews have
bitten people. If the shrew is venomous, this can be quite
painful.

CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the Red List of the World Conservation Union
(IUCN), twenty-eight species are Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction; twenty-eight are Endan-
gered, facing a very high risk of extinction; fifty-five are
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and four are Near
Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so.
In other words, more than one-third of all shrew species are at
some risk. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service names one
species, the Buena Vista Lake ornate shrew, as Endangered.
Many of the at-risk shrews live in limited areas and have very
small known populations. This combination puts them in dan-
ger, because a single natural disaster, like a flood or one hu-
man disruption of their habitat, such as a mining operation,
could destroy the entire population.
Shrews 249
American least shrew (Cryptotis parva)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS AMERICAN LEAST SHREW
Cryptotis parva
Physical characteristics: Just 2.2 to 3.1 inches (5.5 to 7.8 cm) in head
to body length, this small shrew has a brownish gray back and whitish
belly, a long snout, red-tinged teeth, and a tail that is no more than a
third of the length of its head and body. It weighs from 0.1 to 0.3 ounces
(4 to 8 grams). Its eyes are small and its ears are unnoticeable.
Geographic range: United States, extreme southeastern Canada,
Mexico, and much of Central American to Panama.
Habitat: American least shrews are common in open, grassy fields,
sometimes near a stream, but may also live in damp forests. This
species spends much of its time in shallow tunnels it either makes
itself or borrows from other animals.

Diet: Active day and night, year-round, they
spend most of their time running about in search
of food, which can include caterpillars, worms and
other invertebrates (animals without backbones),
small frogs and lizards, or bits of already-dead
animals they find.
Behavior and reproduction: Least shrews are skit-

tish animals that are mainly active at night, although
they will also warily venture about during the day.
Their brownish gray coloration, small size, and
tendency to hide among grasses or underground
helps them avoid their numerous predators, animals
Most shrews prefer to live alone,
that hunt them for food, which include owls, skunks, snakes, and a
but two dozen or more adult
variety of other animals. They make a variety of sounds, some of which American least shrews may
may be used to help them find their next meal. Just as bats make high- share a burrow, where they click
pitched noises and listen as the noises bounce off objects and back to at one another to communicate.
(Illustration by Emily Damstra.
them, American least shrews may make clicking noises, and then Reproduced by permission.)
listen for the bounced clicks to detect objects, like prey, in their
surroundings. This ability to “see” objects with reflected sound waves
is called echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun).
Unlike most other shrews that like to live alone, several to some-
times even more than two dozen adult American least shrews may
share a burrow, where they click at one another to communicate.
They mate all year long in warmer areas of their range, but limit
mating to spring, summer, and fall in cooler areas. The female has
her young after a pregnancy of about three weeks in grassy and/or
leafy nests built in the burrow. The litter size is usually three to seven,
but may be as small as one or as large as nine. The babies stay with
the mother for almost three weeks.
American least shrews and people: This shrew usually remains

out of sight, but it can assist gardeners and farmers by eating crop-
destroying insects.
Conservation status: Neither the IUCN nor the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service lists them as endangered, but some states consider them
to be threatened. Connecticut, for example, lists American least shrews
as endangered because their habitat is rapidly disappearing. ■
Shrews 251
American water shrew (Sorex palustris)
AMERICAN WATER SHREW

Sorex palustris
Physical characteristics: The American water shrew ranges from

2.5 to 3.2 inches (6.3 to 8.1 centimeters) in head and body length
with a similar-sized tail, and weighs 0.3 to 0.6 ounces (8 to 18 grams).
They have dark brownish gray backs and whitish bellies, a likewise
two-toned tail, red-tinged front teeth, and hind feet that are larger
than the forefeet. Like many other water-loving shrews, they have
stiff, fringed hairs on their feet that aid in swimming.
Geographic range: United States and Canada.
Habitat: Usually found in or near water, these shrews prefer damp,

forested areas with many places on land where they can hide, such as

fallen logs, a thick understory, and/or rock piles.
They readily take to the water, where they can
make good use of their specially designed feet and
swim underwater or run across the water surface
like some water insects do.
Diet: Active mainly at night, they eat caterpil-

lars, grubs, worms, and an occasional fish. Unlike
many shrews that have to eat their body weight
in food every day, this species can survive on just
a tenth of its body weight or less in food per day.
Compared to humans, however, that is still a
considerable amount.
Behavior and reproduction: A variety of land

animals find the American water shrew to be a tasty
treat, but the shrews are quite adept at escaping into the water. Unfor- The American water shrew has
stiff, fringed hairs on its feet that
tunately, they must also be wary of several fish species, including trout, aid in swimming underwater or
which also eat shrews. The shrews float well, so they must paddle with running across the surface of
their hindfeet furiously to stay underwater. This species also makes the water. (Illustration by Emily
Damstra. Reproduced by
chirping noises that may be used to find food through echolocation. permission.)
Adults keep to themselves most of the time and will fight other adults
that come too close. Mating occurs in the spring and summer. Preg-
nancies last about three weeks, and mothers retreat to tunnel nests to
have their young. She may have two or three litters each year with three
to ten babies at a time. Although the babies are helpless when they are
born, they grow quickly and leave their mothers in about a month. The
young can start their own families a few months later. Those that sur-
vive to adulthood usually only live to be about eighteen months old.
American water shrews and people: Other than a fleeting glimpse,

people rarely have any contact with this shrew.
Conservation status: American water shrews are not considered

threatened. ■
Books:
Stone, David, and the IUCN/SSC Insectivore, Tree Shrew and Elephant
Shrew Specialist Group. Eurasian Insectivores and Tree Shrews-Status
Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1995.
Shrews 253
Wilson, D. E., and S. Ruff, eds. The Smithsonian Book of North Ameri-
can Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Matsuzaki O. “The Force Driving Mating Behavior in the House Musk
Shrew (Suncus murinus).” Zoological Sciences 19, no. 8 (2002): 851–69.
Web sites:
“American Water Shrew.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
wildfacts/factfiles/642.shtml (accessed July 1, 2004).
Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http://
endangered.fws.gov/ (accessed on July 1, 2004).
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species—Species Information. http://
www.redlist.org (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Least Shrew.” All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory. http://www.dlia.org/
atbi/species/animals/vertebrates/mammals/soricidae/Cryptotis_parva.
html (accessed July 1, 2004).
“Savi’s pygmy shrew, Etruscan shrew.” America Zoo. http://www
.americazoo.com/goto/index/mammals/48.htm (accessed July 1, 2004).
“Soricidae—Shrews.” All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory. http://www.dlia
.org/atbi/species/animals/vertebrates/mammals/soricidae/ (accessed
July 1, 2004).
“Water Shrew.” All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory. http://www.dlia.org/
atbi/species/animals/vertebrates/mammals/soricidae/Sorex_palustris.

MOLES, SHREW MOLES,
AND DESMANS
Talpidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Insectivora
Family: Talpidae
Moles are small, short-legged, smooth-furred animals with class
tiny, sometimes hidden eyes, and long, nearly naked snouts.
subclass
Many land-living moles have large, wide, shovel-like front feet
adapted for digging through the soil. Some moles, including the order
desmans, are swimmers and have slender, webbed forefeet. monotypic order
Shrew moles, which live on land but dig little, if at all, have feet
that are neither shovel-like nor webbed. Overall, adult moles suborder
range from about 2.4 to 17.0 inches (6 to 43 centimeters) in ▲ family
body length and another 0.6 to 8.3 inches (1.5 to 21.5 cen-
timeters) in tail length. They weigh from 0.4 ounces (12 grams)
in the smallest species to 7.8 ounces (220 grams) in the largest.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Moles, shrew moles, and desmans are found in the United
States, Canada, Mexico, and much of Europe and Asia.
HABITAT
About three-quarters of the species in this family live much
of their lives underground. A few live above ground on land,
and others spend a good deal of their time in or near the water.
Those that prefer the water usually make their homes near fresh
water, but a few will also enter brackish water, water that is
somewhat salty.
DIET
The primary diet among the moles is insects, earthworms,
centipedes, and other invertebrates, animals without backbones,
Moles, Shrew Moles, and Desmans 255

but many will also eat roots and other parts
of plants. Water-living species may also in-
clude frogs and fish in their diet.
Most moles have long and narrow snouts
IS IT A SHREW OR A MOLE? that they are able to wiggle and bend. The
snout tip has tiny Elmer’s organs that the
At first glance, an observer might think mole uses to sense its environment and to
that the smallest mole in North America is find prey. Desmans that spend a good
actually a shrew. Its size of just 3.5 to 5.2 amount of time underwater use their snouts
inches (8.9 to 13.2 centimeters) is similar for several purposes. In one common behav-
to shrews, and it does not have the large ior, a desman will stick just its snout tip out
front feet that are common in many moles. of the water to sniff the air for prey as well
Most of its activity occurs above ground, as predators, animals that hunt them for
where it runs beneath the leaf litter in food. They will also dig through the water
a manner similar to shrews. Land-living bottom with their snouts looking for food.
moles, on the other hand, are mainly
Some moles are active mainly at night, but
tunneling animals. Even its name can be
others move around both day and night. The
confusing. This small animal is called the
land-living, digging species are capable of mak-
American shrew-mole.
ing tunnels quickly for such a small animal.
The eastern mole, which is less than 12 inches
(30 centimeters) long from the tip of its nose
to the end of its tail, can tunnel up to 15 feet (4.6 meters) in a
single hour, and more than 100 feet (30 meters) in a day. Their
tunnels are often visible from above ground, and look like long,
sometimes-branching strings of broken ground. These are called
mole runs. A molehill is a circular mound of dirt that is created
when the mole pops above ground from the tunnel. Both the land-
living and the water-loving species also dig deeper chambers for
breeding and to escape the winter cold. Moles usually spend their
lives alone, although some are more social. Reports suggest that
Russian desmans may share their dens on occasion.
After mating one or two months earlier, most moles have
one set, or litter, of about three to five babies in early to mid-
summer. A few species have one or more additional litters later
in the year. The young are helpless and naked at birth, but after
approximately four to six weeks, they are ready to leave the
mother. The young can have babies of their own within a year.
MOLES, SHREW MOLES, DESMANS, AND PEOPLE
The land-living, tunneling moles have the greatest contact
with humans. Their tunneling activity is beneficial in that it

loosens the soil and actually helps plants to grow, but their
plant-eating habits and the visible mole runs frequently make
them an unwelcome guest in yards, gardens, and farm fields.
At one time, people also hunted moles for their silky fur, which
was used for collars and cuffs on women’s clothing. People even
hunted some species, like the Russian desman, for their scent,
which was used in perfumes.
CONSERVATION STATUS
According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), two
species are Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild. Five species are Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, and three are Vulnera-
ble, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. That means that
nearly one quarter of all mole species are at some risk. The U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service lists no species as endangered. Many
of the at-risk moles have small populations and/or live in habi-
tats that are disappearing due to human activity. In addition,
some species are facing threats from hunting or from introduced
species that are invading their habitat. The Vulnerable Russian
desman, for example, is now competing for food and shelter
with the introduced muskrat and coypu (KOY-poo).

Eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS EASTERN MOLE
Scalopus aquaticus
Physical characteristics: Eastern moles are shiny grayish, occa-

sionally black, moles with very large, clawed, shovel-like front feet
that are well-suited for digging. A typical adult, which has a short
tail, may be 5.9 to 7.9 inches (15 to 20 centimeters) long and weigh
3.2 to 5.0 ounces (90 to 143 grams).
Geographic range: Eastern moles are found in the eastern United

States, far southern Canada, and far northern Mexico.
Habitat: Eastern moles live much of their lives underground in good

soils in forests or grasslands.
Diet: Eastern moles eat mostly grubs and earthworms, but also
centipedes and slugs. If they come across a root or seed during their
tunneling, they will also eat those.

Behavior and reproduction: Eastern moles spend much of their Eastern moles spend much of
their time alone, making shallow
time alone, making shallow tunnels in search of food. They also make
tunnels in search of food.
deeper, living chambers. Their below-ground life protects them from (E. R. Degginger/Bruce Coleman
most predators, although dogs, cats and other large digging mammals Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
will sometimes root out a mole. Rarely, when a mole pops out of its
tunnel, a nearby owl or snake will attack it. Moles mate once a year
in early spring—a bit earlier in warmer areas and later in cooler
climates—and build a nest in an underground chamber. About a
month and a half afterward, the mother gives birth to a litter of three
to five young. They stay with her for four to five weeks, and are ready
to become parents themselves by the following spring.
Eastern moles and people: Most people are familiar with eastern
moles from their mole runs, which are visible above the ground and
often considered unsightly. Moles will also eat some crop roots, so
they are sometimes considered pests. Homeowners, gardeners, and
farmers frequently try various methods to rid their yards and fields
of the moles.
Conservation status: Eastern moles are not threatened. ■

Star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata)
STAR-NOSED MOLE
Condylura cristata
Physical characteristics: This dark-brown mole is best-known for

the collection of twenty-two short and pink, fleshy tentacles on the
tip of its snout. They have wide, clawed hands, and a tail that is al-
most as long as their body. Adults range from 6.1 to 8.1 inches (15.5
to 20.5 centimeters) and weigh 1.1 to 3.0 ounces (30 to 85 grams).
Geographic range: Star-nosed moles are found in the eastern

United States and eastern Canada.
Habitat: Star-nosed moles prefer wet meadows and forests near

water. Occasionally waterside homeowners may find evidence of one
in a moist lawn area.

The star-nosed mole is
best-known for the collection of
twenty-two short and pink, fleshy
tentacles on the tip of its snout.
The tentacles act like feelers and
help the animal to find its food
and to make its way through the
dark tunnels it digs. (© Rod
Plank/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Reproduced by perission.)
Diet: Star-nosed moles like grubs, earthworms, and other inverte-

brates, and will occasionally eat a small fish.
Behavior and reproduction: A star-nosed mole’s always-wiggling

tentacles act like feelers and help the animal to find its food and to
make its way through the dark tunnels it digs. Active all year, and
both day and night, this mole not only hunts for food inside its tun-
nels but above ground and in the water. Predators vary depending on
the mole’s location. When they are in the water, fish pose a threat.
On land, meat-eating birds, snakes, and mammals may attack and kill
moles. Other moles make long and winding mole runs, but the usual
outward sign of the star-nosed mole is its molehills, which are small
mounds of dirt at the entrances and exits for their tunnels. Although
they are usually loners, two or more individuals may spend the win-
ter together in shared, below-ground chambers. They do not hiber-
nate, and even in the cold of winter, may leave their tunnels to dig
through the snow. Females have one litter of two to seven babies each
year. The young leave the nest in about a month, and begin having
their own families by the following year.
Star-nosed moles and people: People rarely see star-nosed moles

or recognize evidence of them, so interactions between these moles
and humans are rare.
Conservation status: Star-nosed moles are not threatened. ■

Books:
Gorman, M. L., and R. D. Stone. The Natural History of Moles. Ithaca,
NY: Comstock Publishing Associates, 1990.
Kurta, A. Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1995.
Nevo, Eviatar, and Osvaldo Reig. Evolution of Subterranean Mammals
at the Organismal and Molecular Levels. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1990.
Wilson, D., and S. Ruff, eds. The Smithsonian Book of North American
Mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Catania, K. C. “A Comparison of the Elmer’s Organs of Three North Amer-
ican Moles: The Hairy-Tailed Mole (Parascalops breweri), the Star-Nosed
Mole (Condylura cristata), and the Eastern Mole (Scalopus aquaticus).”
Journal of Comparative Neurology 354 (1995): 150–160.
Mason, Matthew J., and Peter M. Narins. “Seismic Signal Use by Fossorial
Mammals. “ American Zoologist (November 2001): 1171–1184.
Web sites:
Hebert, P. D. N., ed. “Star-nosed mole, Condylura cristata.” Canada’s
Aquatic Environments. http://www.aquatic.uoguelph.ca/mammals/
freshwater/accounts/mole.htm (accessed on July 1, 2004).
Insectivore, Tree Shrew and Elephant Shrew Specialist Group. http://
members.vienna.at/shrew/itsesAP95-desmana.html (accessed on July 1,
2004).
“Talpidae.” Discover Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/
Mammalia/Talpidae/ (accessed on July 1, 2004).

TREE SHREWS
Scandentia
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Scandentia
One family: Tupaiidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

In physical appearance, tree shrews resemble a squirrel with class
a long snout, nose. The scientific family name is from the Malay
subclass
word tupai, which means squirrel. Animals in this family are
commonly referred to as tree shrews, ever since they were first order
mistaken for shrews when they were first spotted in 1780. ●
▲ monotypic order
Shrews are small, insect eating mammals with pointy snouts.
suborder
Tree shrews are relatively small, with the head and body length
ranging from about 5 to 9.5 inches (13 to 24 centimeters). These family
animals have a long tail, which is covered with long thick hair
in all the species except the pen-tailed tree shrew. The tails of
pen-tailed tree shrews are hairless except for a whitish feather-
shaped arrangement of hairs near the end. In general, tree shrews
have small ears similar to those of a squirrel, and their ears are
covered with fur. An exception is the ears of the pen-tailed tree
shrews, which are bare and larger than all the other species.
Fur colors of tree shrews range from gray to dark brown on
the upper side of their body, and white, yellow-brown, or dark
brown on their belly. Their fur is generally soft and thick. Some
species have light shoulder stripes and others have facial mark-
ings. Their legs are short, with claws on their fingers and toes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tree shrews are found in south and Southeast Asia, ranging
from India and southwest China eastward through Malaysia,
Indonesia, and the Philippines. Out of the nineteen tree shrew
species, ten live on the island of Borneo.
Tree Shrews 263

HABITAT
Tree shrews live in shrub and forested areas, which are of-
ten mountainous. Many of the tree shrews are arboreal, mean-
ing that they live in trees. Some species spend the majority of
their time on the ground.
DIET
Tree shrews primarily eat a combination of insects and fruits.
They also will occasionally feed on plant material, along with
other small animals, including fish and mice. Different tree shrew
species have their own feeding method, one species may collect
black ants at night while another species digs up earthworms.

In general, tree shrews are active during the day. The pen-
tailed tree shrew is nocturnal, meaning that it is active at night.
Researchers do not know a lot about the behavior of tree shrews.
One reason is that they are difficult to observe because they are
highly active animals that move quickly and constantly.
All tree shrews have the ability to climb trees. They use their
sharp claws to dig into the trees and branches as they climb.
Many species are arboreal, while others find their food and
spend a great deal of time on the ground. Tree shrews com-
monly use the same paths along the ground or on branches to
reach their favorite feeding or resting areas.
They have well-developed senses of vision, hearing, and
smell. These animals typically catch food with their snout, and
use their hands only when they cannot reach their food. They
may grab hold of flying insects with their hands. They eat in a
style similar to squirrels, hunching on their hind legs while
holding the food in their arms and eating it.
Most species nest in holes in tree trunks or branches. These
animals make a nest of dried leaves, twigs, and soft wood. Tree
shrews are territorial, meaning they protect their own territory.
They release droplets of urine and scent to mark their territory.
Tree shrews have specialized glands, located on their chest and
belly, which produce the chemical scent. Many of the scents
are distinct to a particular animal. They deposit their scent in
areas where other animals may smell it to let them know that
the area is occupied.
Tree shrews live in monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus)
pairs, meaning they have one mate. Gestation, or pregnancy,

lasts between forty-three and fifty-six days.
Females give birth to small litters (young
born at the same time) of poorly developed,
hairless offspring. The typical litter size
ranges from one to three offspring. Baby tree
shrews are often born in pairs.
A CASE OF MISTAKEN IDENTITY
In many of the species studied, researchers
found an unusual mothering strategy unlike For years, scientists debated about who
other mammals. Mother tree shrews visit was the tree shrews’ closest relative. In the
their babies only once every two days for 1920s, a scientist proposed that tree
about two minutes each visit. When the shrews were related to primates based on
mother visits her young in the nest, she im- studies of primate and shrew skulls. Many
mediately allows the babies to nurse, which accepted these findings and said the tree
they do quickly. Babies take in large amounts shrew belonged in the primate order. Other
of milk and lie back with a bloated stomach. researchers said it was more similar to
With no mother in the nest, the babies snug- animals in the insectivore order, because
gle with each other to keep warm. The babies of its resemblance to animals such as the
also groom each other, a task traditionally shrew. In 1984, researchers decided the
done by the mother. tree shrew was unique enough to have its
own order.
Field studies have found that tree shrews
breed when fruiting peaks occur in the forest.
TREE SHREWS AND PEOPLE

With their close relationship to primates, and a well-
developed sense of vision and hearing, tree shrews are being
used by researchers as animal models for human diseases. An
animal model is an animal studied that mimics human biolog-
ical or psychological disease. Research studies have included
hepatitis (hep-uh-TIE-tuhs), a disease of the liver, vision disor-
ders, and psychosocial stress.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The majority of tree shrew species are common, however
several are Endangered or Threatened. Long-footed tree shrews
and Nicobar tree shrews are Endangered, facing a very high risk
of extinction in the wild. Bornean smooth-tailed tree shrews,
golden-bellied tree shrews, Palawan tree shrews, and Mindanao
tree shrews are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in
the wild. Mindanao tree shrews are listed as Near Threatened,
not currently threatened, but could become so.
Tree Shrews 265

Common tree shrew (Tupaia glis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COMMON TREE SHREW
Tupaia glis
Physical characteristics: Common tree shrews have a head and

body length of about 7.5 inches (19.5 centimeters). They have a long,
pointed snout. Their fur is darker on the upper side of their body than
on their bellies. Upper side fur can be dark brown, pale brown, black-
ish gray or it can appear almost black. Their undersides are whitish,
orange or rusty red, or a light or dark brown. Common tree shrews
that live in northern areas with less rainfall are typically lighter than
those in southern areas with greater rainfall.
They often have a pale stripe along their shoulder. Similar to a
squirrel, common tree shrews have a long, bushy tail. It can be
about as long as the length of the head and body. These animals
have relatively small ears, with their lower lobe smaller than the
upper one.

Common tree shrews typically
live alone or with their mate.
This pair is grooming each other.
(R. Williams/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Geographic range: Common tree shrews are found in Thailand, the

Malayan Peninsula, and in Sumatra, Java, and surrounding islands.
Habitat: Common tree shrews live in evergreen tropical rainforests.
Diet: Common tree shrews eat a varied diet that they collect primar-
ily from the ground. Their food includes insects, particularly ants, as
well as spiders, seeds, buds, leaves, and fruit. They can also eat lizards.
Behavior and reproduction: Active during the day, common tree

shrews are extremely energetic. They spend a great deal of their time
on the ground, yet they can also easily climb trees. They typically live
alone or with a mate. Field studies in Malaysia have shown that breed-
ing may occur at any time of year. Gestation periods last roughly
forty-six to fifty days, and families produce one to three offspring.
The newborn young are hairless, with closed eyes. The young are
Tree Shrews 267

ready to leave the nest about thirty-three days after birth. The young
are reared in a nest separated from that of the mother and are suck-
led every other day.
Common tree shrews and people: There is no known connection

between common tree shrews and people.
Conservation status: Common tree shrews are not considered

threatened. ■

Books:
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/scandentia/scandentia.html
(accessed July 1, 2004).
Stone, David, and the IUCN/SSC Insectivore, Tree Shrew and Elephant
Shrew Specialist Group. Eurasian Insectivores and Tree Shrews-Status
Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1995.
Periodicals:
Bloch, Jonathan I., and Dough M. Boyer. “Grasping Primate Origins.”
Science (June 2001): 1606–1609.
Crosby, Olivia. “Wild Jobs with Wildlife: Jobs in Zoos and Aquariums.”
Occupational Outlook Quarterly (Spring 2001): 2–15.
Eckstrom, Christine. “What is a Tree Shrew?” International Wildlife
(November/December 1996): 22–27.
Gore, Rick “The Rise of Mammals: Adapting, Evolving, Surviving.”
National Geographic (April 2003): 2–37.
“Tree Shrews Could Model a Number of Chronic and Infectious Human
Diseases.” Hepatitis Weekly (July 14, 2003): 8.
Web sites:
“Common Tree Shrew (Tupaia glis).” America Zoo. http://www
.america.zoo.com/goto/index/mammals/83.htm (accessed on July 1,
2004).
Meyers Phil. “Order Scandentia.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Scanden-
tia.html (accessed on July 1, 2004).
“Rainforest Animals: Common Tree Shrew.” Missouri Botanical Garden.
http://mbgnet.mobot.org/sets/rforest/animals/shrew.htm (accessed on
July 1, 2004).

COLUGOS
Dermoptera
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Dermoptera
One family: Cynocephalidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

Colugos are commonly referred to as flying lemurs, even class
though they do not technically fly and they are not lemurs, subclass
primate mammals found in Madagascar. Colugos are about the
size of a cat, approximately 20 inches (75 centimeters) long. order
They weigh about 3 pounds (1.35 kilograms). ●
▲ monotypic order
Their ability to glide—not fly—is due to their most distinc- suborder

tive feature, after which they are named. The order they be- family
long to, Dermoptera, means “skin wings” in Greek, referring
to the flap of skin that extends between the front and hind
limbs. This thin layer of skin or membrane is called a patag-
ium (pah-TAY-jee-um). The patagium stretches from the side
of the neck to the tips of its fingers, toes, and tail. When the
front and hind legs are spread out, the patagium allows
the colugo to glide like a kite. The patagium also acts as a para-
chute, catching air inside of it as it jumps. This parachute
effect prevents colugos from losing too much height as they
move between trees.
Colugos resemble lemurs, with long noses and wide bulging
eyes. The shape of their head and snout is similar to a grey-
hound dog. They have small round ears and sharp claws.
The fur of male colugos is generally brown to red-brown and
in females the fur is grayish brown. Malayan colugos have white
spots on their fur, but Philippine colugos do not. The under-
side of the animal is a lighter orange-yellow, orange, or brown-
ish red color.
Colugos 269
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The Philippine colugo is found only in the
Philippines, and the Malayan colugo is found
in Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand,
Indochina, and some of the Indonesian
islands.
PREY FOR AN EAGLE
HABITAT
The national bird of the Philippines has
a taste for colugos. The Philippine eagle is Colugos live in the rainforest. They are
one of the world’s rarest birds with only often found in coconut, banana, and rubber
about 200 live birds. At one time it was plantations. Their habitat must contain many
thought this bird’s favorite food was a trees with few branches low on the trunk.
monkey. But a report in one area of the
DIET
Philippines found that 90 percent of the
eagle’s diet consists of colugos. The eagle Colugos are herbivores, animals that eat
can swoop down and catch the colugo in plants. They feed on leaves, buds, flowers,
the air while it leaps from tree to tree. and occasionally fruits. They get their water
from food and also by licking wet leaves.

Relatively little is known about colugos. They are arboreal,
meaning they spend most of their time in trees and bushes.
They are solitary animals that move from tree to tree by climb-
ing and gliding. These animals are nocturnal, active at night.
They spend the day resting inside tree holes or on branches or
tree trunks. They rest either with their head up and all four
claws clinging to a branch, or they hang upside down with their
two rear claws holding onto the branch. In coconut trees, they
curl up in a ball among the leaves.
Colugos usually emerge before dusk and climb to the top of
trees. They move awkwardly up trees because of their patag-
ium, bringing both their front limbs together and then both
back limbs.
In the evening they move to a feeding area, gliding distances
up to 230 feet (70 meters) in one leap. Colugos have been
known to glide as far as 450 feet (135 meters) in a single glide.
Colugos may land near the bottom of trees, and then climb
back up trees slowly before they take off on another glide.
Each colugo tends to have a certain feeding area, which the
animal returns to every night. When eating, colugos use their
front feet to pull a bunch of leaves towards them, and then use
their tongues and teeth to pluck off the leaves.

Little is known about the mating of colugos. Females give birth
to one or two young following a gestation, or pregnancy, period
of sixty days. The offspring is born in an undeveloped state,
almost like a marsupial, an animal that carries its young in a
pouch. Young are carried on their mother’s belly until they are
weaned at about six months old. Females can fold the patagium
near the tail to form a pouch for their young. When ready to for-
age, or look for food, females may carry their young with them.
Young colugos cry out with duck-like sounds. Young colugos
reach maturity when they are about two or three years old.
COLUGOS AND PEOPLE

Deforestation, clearing trees, of the rainforest by people has
caused the loss of colugo habitat and thus, a decrease in their
population. Some people also hunt colugos for their fur to make
caps, and for food. Plantation growers, especially banana, co-
conut, and rubber growers, may consider these animals pests
because they eat the reproductive flowers and fruits of the trees.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Philippine colugo is considered Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild.
Colugos 271
Malayan colugo (Cynocephalus variegatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT MALAYAN COLUGO
Cynocephalus variegatus
Physical characteristics: Malayan colugos are also called Malayan

flying lemurs. They resemble lemurs with their dog-like shaped heads.
Malayan colugos have large eyes, long limbs, and sharp claws. Their
fur is gray or brown with white spots along the back. Their head and
body length is about 15 inches (38 centimeters), and they weigh ap-
proximately 3.3 pounds (1.5 kilograms). The fur of male colugos is
generally brown to red-brown with white spots, and in females it is
grayish brown with white spots. The underside of the animal is a
lighter orange-yellow to orange color.
Geographic range: Malayan colugos are found in Southeast

Asia, including Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Borneo, and some
nearby islands.
Habitat: Malayan colugos live in tropical forests and woodlands.

Malayan colugo babies stay on
the female’s belly, enclosed in
the patagium, folded into a
pouch, for about six months.
(Peter Ward/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Diet: Malayan colugos are herbivores, eating leaves, buds, pods,

flowers, and fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: Malayan colugos are independent and

solitary animals. They are nocturnal, resting during the day in tree
hollows, against trees, or while clinging to branches. Individual ani-
mals have their own feeding area, or even tree, and follow a pattern
of returning to the same area every evening.
Malayan colugos generally have one offspring per birthing period.
Gestation period is about sixty days. When the offspring is born it is
poorly developed, like a marsupial. It stays on the female’s belly, en-
closed in the patagium, folded into a pouch, until it is weaned at about
six months.
Malayan colugos and people: Destruction of the rainforest for

timber and agriculture has caused the loss of habitat for Malayan
colugos. They are also hunted for their fur and meat.
Colugos 273
Conservation status: Malayan colugos are not listed as a threatened
species. ■
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson. Smithsonian Handbooks: Mam-
mals. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: Facts
on File Publications, 1984.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 5th ed. Baltimore
and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Periodicals:
Bloch, Jonathan I., and Doug M. Boyer. “Grasping Primate Origins.”
Science (June 2001): 1606–1609.
Gore, Rick. “The Rise of Mammals: Adapting, Evolving, Surviving.”
National Geographic (April 2003): 2–37.
Laman, Tim. “Wild Gliders.” National Geographic (October 2000): 68–85.
Zimmer, Carl. “Into the Night.” Discover (November, 1998): 110–115.
Web sites:
“Dermoptera—Skin Winged Mammals.” America Zoo. http://www.amer
icazoo.com/goto/index/mammals/dermoptera.htm (accessed on June
23, 2004).
Ellis, E. “Cynocephalus variegates.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Cynocephalus_variegatus.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Flying Lemur Called Another Close Relative of Humans.”
http://www.colugos.com/flying-lemur.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Focus on Wildlife. “Colugo (Flying Lemur).” Ecology Asia. http://www
.ecologyasia.com/Vertebrates/colugo.htm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Sarawak National Parks and Wildlife. “Paratroopers Have Landed:
Colugo or Flying Lemur.” The Sarawak Wildlife Weblet. http://www.
mered.org.uk/saraweb/animals/colugo.htm (accessed on June 23,
2004).

BATS
Chiroptera
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
order C H A P T E R
Bats are the second largest group of mammals after rodents. class
Almost one out of every four mammalian species on the planet
is a bat species. Living bats are categorized into two main subclass
groups, each with its own distinct features. The Megachiroptera ● order
(mega-keer-OP-ter-ah), or “large bats” group includes one
monotypic order
family. The Microchiroptera (micro-keer-OP-ter-ah), or “small
bats” group includes all the rest of the bats. suborder
Bats are the only mammals that can fly. Chiroptera comes family
from the Greek roots cheiro (hand) and ptera (wing), named
for the similarity of a bat wing to a hand. Bat wings are long
arms, hands and extra-long finger bones that are covered with
a double layer of thin skin called a membrane. The membrane
is thin enough that light can shine through it. The membrane
contains blood vessels, nerves, and muscles.
In some bats, a membrane extends between the legs and
encloses the tail. Some bats have tails that extend past the mem-
brane and others have no tails. In most bats, the thumbs are free
from the membrane. These thumbs have claws and are often
used for climbing up trees or other structures.
Bat membranes are tough and flexible, allowing bats to move
their wings much like people move their fingers. Changing the
shape of their wings allows bats to turn and maneuver quickly.
Some bats can hover in the air while others glide. When it is
cold, the bats fold their wings around themselves. When it is
warm, bats flap their wings to cool themselves.
Bats range widely in size, yet the majority of bats weigh less
than 1 ounce (25 grams). The largest bat is the Malayan flying
Bats 275
fox, which can have a wingspan of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and weigh
3.3 pounds (1.5 kilograms). The smallest bats are the Kitti’s
hog-nosed bats, also called bumblebee bats, of Thailand, with
a wingspan of 6 inches (15 centimeters) and a weight of about
0.07 ounces (2 grams), less than a penny.
Like other mammals, bats are warm-blooded and fur covers
their body. Megachiroptera are characterized by large eyes,
small ears, and dog-like snouts. Most Microchiroptera species
are characterized by wide, extended ears and odd shaped noses.
Bats have weak legs and do not walk long distances. Their feet
are small with sharp claws on each toe. Bats use their claws to
hold the weight of their body when they hang upside down,
which is their normal resting position.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Bats live on every continent on Earth except Antarctica and
some remote islands. Most bats live in the tropics and species
are most numerous around the equator.
HABITAT
Bats need a roost, a place to settle or rest, and a place to find
food. The type of roost a bat chooses depends upon the type
of bat. Bats can roost in hollow trees, cracks in trees, and
under bridges. Many bats depend on caves in the cool winter
months to survive, and others roost in caves all year long. Some
bat species find their roosting site in abandoned mines. The
dome shaped ceilings can hide and protect the bats from preda-
tors, the animals that hunt them.
A few species of bats make their roost from large leaves, such
as palm and banana leaves. These small bats chew across the
leaves so that the sides droop down in the form of a tent. Other
bats can roost in flowers and animal dens.
Bats often return to the same site at the same time each year.
In warm weather, big brown bats commonly roost in buildings
and then shift to caves and abandoned mines during the colder
months. The Pallas’s mastiff bats are found roosting in build-
ings, hollow trees, rock crevices, caves, and bridges.
DIET
While the most famous bats are the vampire bats, known for
eating blood, the majority of bats eat only insects. Microchi-
roptera are generally carnivores, meat-eaters, that feed on

insects, such as moths, flying beetles, and mosquitoes. Bats can
capture insects while flying by catching them in their mouths
or scooping them into their tails or wing membranes. Some bats
pick the insects off leaves or the ground. One gray bat may eat
up to 3,000 insects in one night.
Some bats feed on larger prey, animals hunted or caught for
food, such as fish, frogs, birds, mice and other bats. A fish-
eating bat will swoop down and grab fish with its claws. A bat
that eats mice will swoop down, wrap the prey in its wings,
bite it and then whisk it away to eat it.
The three species of vampire bats are the only bats that feed
on blood, sucking up the blood of cattle, sheep, or other rela-
tively large animals. The bats use their razor-sharp teeth to pierce
the animal’s skin, often while the animal is sleeping. The bats
then lap up about 2 tablespoons (30 milliliters) for their meal.
Most megachiropteran species are herbivores, plant-eaters,
eating fruit, seeds, leaves, nectar, and pollen. Whatever it eats,
bats eat only the parts of their prey that they want to ingest.
When a bat catches an insect, it will generally bite off and drop
its wings and legs. When eating another bat or bird it will not
ingest its wings. An Old World fruit bat will chew its fruit thor-
oughly, swallow the juices then spit out the remaining pulp.
Bats drink by flying close to the water and taking up the
water while flying. With the exception of three species
of nectar-feeding bats that live along the Mexican border of
Arizona and Texas, bats in the United States and Canada
eat insects.
Bats as a group are crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur), mean-
ing they are active at dawn and dusk, or nocturnal, meaning
they are active at night. When they are roosting, bats generally
hang upside down by their claws. This allows them to simply
let go of whatever they are hanging onto and start flying.
With their large ears and small eyes, microchiropteran bats
depend upon a complex sound technique called echolocation
(eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to help them find prey and move. While
flying, these bats send out high-frequency sounds that bounce
off of other objects. The bat listens for the bounced sound, and
then determines the location, size, distance, and speed of the
object—all within a split second. In most bats, the echolocation
is at such a high pitch that it is beyond the human hearing range,
Bats 277
though humans can hear the sounds of some bats. Researchers
are still working to understand exactly how echolocation works.
Megachiroptera generally depend upon their eyes to navigate,
but some of these bats also use echolocation.
Like all mammals, bats are warm-blooded, meaning they main-
tain their body temperature. Bats roost in warm places during
the cool months to conserve the energy it takes to keep warm.
Unlike other mammals, bats can allow their body temperature
to drop to the ambient temperature, or surrounding temperature,
when they are not active. As their temperature drops, metabo-
lism slows down.
During the winter, some bats will drop their body tempera-
tures for months at a time and go into hibernation, meaning
they go into a resting state in a safe place, typically without eat-
ing or passing wastes. A bat’s body temperature can drop to as
low as 35.6°F (2°C). These bats survive the winter by living off
their storages of fat and making occasional food trips during
warmer weather.
Other bat species follow an annual migration pattern, travel-
ing to warmer climates in the cool months and cooler climates
in the warm months.
Bats are generally social animals and gather together in roosts.
Bats can roost in colonies of several hundred to tens of millions.
The number of bats in a roost depends upon the type of bat.
Pipistrelle maternity, or motherhood, roosts usually contain be-
tween fifty and two hundred bats. Brown long-eared bats usu-
ally live in colonies of twenty-five up to fifty bats. Mexican
free-tailed bats are one of the more social bat species and found
in huge populations throughout their range. In Bracken Cave,
Texas, the population of Mexican free-tailed bats was estimated
at twenty million bats!
Like all mammals, female bats give birth to live young and
feed their newborns milk. Females often roost in large colonies,
with many females giving birth in the same area. Bats usually
give birth to only one young per year. During their first weeks
of life newborn bats cling to their mothers while in flight. Only
the mother cares for the young, and there is no lasting rela-
tionship between the mother and father.
Bats grow quickly; the young are often flying at four weeks.
Young microchiropterans become independent at approxi-
mately six to eight weeks, megachiropterans at about four

months old. At the age of two years bats are
sexually mature. Bats live about twenty-five
years, far longer than most mammals of a
comparable size.
BATS AND PEOPLE

Popular folklore and myths have led to A WHOLE LOT OF BATS
many people having a negative reaction to
Bracken Cave in Texas is home to the
bats. Because most people do not typically see
world’s largest bat colony. Each year, some
or interact with bats, many misunderstand-
twenty million Mexican free-tailed bats
ings about these creatures remain. The East-
gather at this cave near San Antonio to give
ern European tale of a vampire, a corpse that
birth and rear their young. And each night
came back to life and sucked blood from the
they emerge to forage for food. The twenty
neck of its human victim, dates back to the
million bats can eat more than two hundred
Middle Ages. After Bram Stoker’s Dracula was
tons of insects in a single summer night!
published in 1897, the misconception of bats
as dangerous and mysterious became more
popular. Although there are only three
species of vampire bats, all living in South and Central
America, all bats still have a reputation for sucking blood.
Bats also have a reputation for carrying rabies, a viral dis-
ease that affects the nervous system and can be spread through
bite of an affected animal. Yet less than one half of one percent
of bats carries the rabies virus. And bats are rarely aggressive,
usually attacking only if they are frightened.
Not all people consider bats a bad omen or scary. In China,
bats are considered good luck symbols. Fabrics and dishes are
often decorated with bat-shapes for good luck. Native Ameri-
cans considered the bat a protector.
Bats are beneficial to people in many indirect and direct ways.
They are one of the few predators of night-flying insects, some
of which are pests to crops and people. People have long used
the nitrogen-rich bat droppings, called guano (GWAN-oh),
as a fertilizer.
Bats also play an important role in plant pollination, the
transfer of pollen, the reproductive spores, for fertilization.
When nectar-eating bats move from flower the flower to eat,
the bats pick up pollen on their fur and disperse it as they move.
Bats are the most important pollinators among mammals in the
rainforest. They pollinate many plants that humans eat, in-
cluding bananas, figs, mangos, and peaches. Bats also are inte-
gral for seed dispersal, having led to the continued survival of
Bats 279
over 1,000 species of trees. The fruit bat dis-
perses seeds away from the parent tree by ei-
ther swallowing them and leaving the seeds
in their droppings, or carrying off the
fruit to eat.
FINDING DINNER CONSERVATION STATUS

Bats have an amazing ability to find Bat populations are in decline in the
food. Fishing bats have echolocation so United States and throughout the world. In
sophisticated that they can detect a the United States, out of forty-five bat
minnow’s fin as fine as a human hair, which species, six are federally endangered, facing
sticks up above a pond’s surface only 0.08 an extremely high risk of extinction, dying
inches (2 millimeters); that’s about the out, or threatened, close to facing the risk of
thickness of about twenty human hairs. extinction. Twenty species are categorized as
African heart-nosed bats can hear the being of special concern by the U.S. Fish and
footsteps of a beetle walking on sand from Wildlife Service.
a distance of more than six feet. And when
The World Conservation Union (IUCN)
the Central American fringe-lipped bat
includes 521 bats on its Red List of Threat-
hears the mating calls of mud-puddle frogs,
ened Species. Twenty-nine are Critically
it switches to the frogs’ lower frequency so
Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
that it can detect its exact location.
of extinction; thirty-seven are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; 173 are
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction.
The rest on the list are not currently threatened, but could be-
come so, or there is not enough information about the bats to
know how threatened they are.
With few natural predators, the primary reason for
declining bat populations is directly and indirectly related to
humans. Pesticides on plants have reduced insect populations,
the food supply for many bats. Occasionally, people hunt bats
for food, but far more harmful to bats is the destruction of their
natural areas and living spaces. Deforestation, the clearing of
trees for agriculture or people, decreases their food supply
and habitats.
People have also killed colonies of bats out of fear or
ignorance. In Central America, where vampire bats can be a
problem for livestock, locals find bat caves and blow them up,
killing entire colonies whether they are colonies of vampire
bats or not. In the United States, destroying bat habitats such
as mines have killed them and any that remain are left
without protection.

Books:
Fenton, Brock M. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, Brock M. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985.
Ruff, Sue, and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried, and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
North America. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications, Inc., 1997.
Periodicals:
Gordon, David George. “13 Reasons You Should Love Bats.” National
Geographic Kids (October 2003): S8.
Hicks, Alan. “A Bit about Bats.” New York State Conservationist
(October 1999): 2.
Kerner, Sarah. “In the Bat Cave.” Boys’ Life (June 2003): 18.
Toufexis, Anastasia. “Bats’ New Image: Researchers Say They’re Benign,
Useful and Endangered.” Time (August 21, 1995): 58.
Web sites:
“Bat Information.” The Bat Conservation Trust. http://www.bats.
org.uk/bat_info.htm (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Bats (Chiroptera).” National Parks Conservation Association. http://
www.eparks.org/wildlife_protection/wildlife_facts/bats/default.asp (ac-
“Bats in the Desert Southwest.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.
com/jan97/du_bats.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Best, Heather. “Bats: Learning to Love Them.” Wildwnc.org. http://
wildwnc.org/natnotes/bats.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Cave Life.” The National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/ozar/
cavelife.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Discover the Secret World of Bats.” Bat Conservation International, Inc.
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Harris, Tom. “How Bats Work.” How Stuff Works. http://science.
howstuffworks.com/bat.htm (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Tyburec, Janet. “Bats.” Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.
desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_bats.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Bats 281
OLD WORLD FRUIT BATS
Pteropodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Pteropodidae
Number of species: About 170
species
class Bats are broken into two categories: the Microchiroptera
(micro-keer-OP-ter-ah) and the Megachiroptera (mega-keer-OP-
subclass
ter-ah). The vast majority of bats fall under the microchiropter-
order ans, which are in general smaller than the megachiropterans.
monotypic order Pteropodidae is the only family in the megachiropteran category.
Pteropodids are commonly referred to as Old World fruit bats.
suborder The Old World refers to southern Europe, Asia, and Africa, while
▲ family New World refers to North and South America.
Old World fruit bats have a wide range in size. Pygmy fruit
bats are one of the smallest Old World fruit bats, with a head
and body length of 2.4 to 2.8 inches (6 to 7 centimeters),
smaller than many microchiropterans. Gigantic flying foxes are
15.7 inches (40 centimeters) long and can have a wingspan of
59 inches (150 centimeters).
In general, Old World fruit bats have large eyes that face for-
ward. These bats have claws on the first finger, their thumb,
and most also have claws on their second finger. Their faces
are typically doglike, with simple and relatively small ears.
Their wings are typically broad and mostly furless. The tail is
usually short or absent. With so many different species, fur
color varies greatly. Most species of the Old World fruit bat are
reddish brown, gray, or black. The underside of the bat is usu-
ally a pale color, such as a white or yellow.
Teeth are shaped to bite through fruit skin and crush the
soft fruit matter. The front incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the
front of the mouth, are small and all have canines, four pointed

teeth. Teeth at the sides and back tend to be flat and wide. In
some species, especially those that eat nectar, the tongue is long
and can stick out far beyond the end of the mouth.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Old World fruit bats can be found in tropical and subtropi-
cal regions of Africa, through southern and central Asia to
Australia, including the Philippines, a number of islands of the
Indian and Pacific Oceans, in Pakistan, and across India.
HABITAT
Old World fruit bats live in a variety of habitats. Many fruit
bats live in humid forests in tropical and subtropical areas.
Species of flying foxes live in tropical coastal areas.
DIET
As their name suggests, Old World fruit bats eat fruit along
with nectar. Some species eat primarily nectar and pollen, pow-
dery grains that contain the male reproductive cells of seed
plants. Other bats also add leaves and flower parts to their diet.

Like all bats, Old World fruit bats are crepuscular (kri-PUS-
kyuh-lur), active at dawn and dusk, or nocturnal, active at
night. During the day they roost, settle or rest, by hanging from
their feet. They may hang with their wings wrapped around
their bodies. If it is hot, they may use their wings to fan them-
selves. Many of the species roost in extremely large groups,
called camps. A bat camp may contain anywhere from ten in-
dividual bats to over one million. The larger species often roost
in large groups, whereas the smaller species tend to be more
solitary. Most roost in trees; others roost in caves, deserted
mines, or buildings.
When fruit is not available fruit bats will travel to another area.
The larger species are slow and powerful fliers. Some of these bats
will fly as far as 30 miles (15 kilometers) to reach a new feeding
area. Island bats may fly over to a neighboring island.
Old World fruit bats differ from other families of bats in that
most use smell and sight, rather than echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun), to navigate and find their food. Echolocation is the
technique of emitting sounds than detecting the location of ob-
jects from the echoes. Rousette bats are the only Old World
fruit bats that use echolocation.
Old World Fruit Bats 283

After these bats find their food they typi-
cally take it to away to a nearby tree. Smaller
species are able to eat while hovering. Large
Old World fruit bats, such as many of the
flying fox species, may have to land or grab
hold of a branch in order to eat the fruits.
DEADLY DELICACY? These bats hang upside down by one foot and
use the other foot to hold the food. They bite
The diet of flying fox bats may
off chunks of the food, swallow the juice, and
have helped solve a medical mystery.
spit out the pulp and seeds. Occasionally
Researchers have been trying to understand
they also eat the pulp.
why the Chamorro people of Guam
developed neurological, brain, disorders at Within camps of flying foxes, one male fruit
50 to 100 times the rates elsewhere. A bat usually lives with up to eight female bats.
2003 study linked this disease to the This arrangement is called a harem (HARE-
popular delicacy of the flying fox bat. These um). Females will produce one young per
bats eat cycad (SYE-kad) seeds, which come year. In other species the females may mate
from palm-like cycad plants common on with two or more males while the males will
Guam and surrounding Pacific islands. Cycad mate with as many females as possible. At least
seeds contain chemicals that are poisonous one species is considered monogamous (muh-
to the human nervous system. Researchers NAH-guh-mus), having one mate. Gestation,
continue to investigate the connection. or pregnancy, is between four and six months.
OLD WORLD FRUIT BATS AND PEOPLE

Because Old World fruit bats spit out seeds as they eat, they
are important for spreading seeds for many plant species that
people eat, and use for medicine and materials. Fruits that de-
pend on bats for pollination, the transfer of pollen, or seed dis-
persal include bananas, peaches, dates, avocadoes, mangoes,
and cashews. The species that thrive on nectar are also im-
portant pollinators. As these bats lap up nectar with their
tongues, pollen sticks to their fur and is then rubbed or
dropped when the bat visits its next flower. These bats are an
important disperser of many rainforest species, which the
planet and people depend upon.
Deforestation, clearing the forest, has caused a decline in the
population of many Old World fruit bat species as they lose
their habitats and food supply. Forests also protect bats from
natural storms, such as cyclones. People consider many of these
bats pests, as they can destroy crops, and may try to eliminate
them. Other people hunt and eat some of the Old World fruit
bats, especially the larger ones. People such as the Chamorro
of Guam consider flying foxes a delicacy.

CONSERVATION STATUS
Many of the Old World fruit bat species are facing a serious
decline in population, extinction (dying out), and the threat of
extinction. Eight species are listed as extinct by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). Thirteen species are listed as Crit-
ically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild; six species are listed as Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction; and thirty-six species are listed as Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Marianas fruit bat (Pteropus mariannus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS MARIANAS FRUIT BAT
Pteropus mariannus
Physical characteristics: Marianas fruit bats are one of the many

species commonly called flying foxes. They are medium-sized bats
with a body length of 7.5 to 9.9 inches (19 to 25 centimeters). The
males are slightly larger than the females. The abdomen and wings
are dark brown to black with silver hairs mixed throughout the fur.
Around the neck and sides of the neck are yellow to bright gold on
most animals. In some bats, this area is pale gold or pale brown. The
color of the head varies from brown to dark brown.
Geographic range: The Marianas fruit bats are found in the

Mariana Islands, located in the western Pacific Ocean, 1,500 miles

(2,400 kilometers) southeast of Japan. They are also
found in Guam, Okinawa, and the Ryuku Islands.
Habitat: Marianas fruit bats live in tropical and

subtropical areas. They typically live near a body
of water.
Diet: These bats feed primarily on fruit, but they

do eat other parts of plant materials, such as the
flowers and leaves. Favored foods include the fruits
of breadfruit, papaya, and figs, along with the flow-
ers of kapok (KAY-pock), coconut, and gaogao.
Behavior and reproduction: Little is known

about the nightly movements and behavior of
Marianas fruit bats. Many of these bats live in large
colonies that can reach 800 individuals. A smaller
portion of these bats roost in smaller colonies of
ten to twelve; all-male colonies of ten to fifteen;
and some roost independently. During the day
these bats primarily sleep. Bats gradually leave the
colonies for several hours after sunset to forage,
search for food. These bats move from island to
island but overall, they do not move about much. The Marianas fruit bat may live in
colonies of up to 800 bats. Bats
Within larger colonies, some males form harems of several females. leave the colonies after sunset to
The males will defend the females in its group. search for food. (Illustration by
Marguette Dongvillo. Reproduced
by permission.)
Marianas fruit bats and people: Marianas fruit bats are hunted for
food and, occasionally, their fur. This is one reason these bats have
declined in population. These bats are a delicacy to the native
Chamorro culture and are illegally hunted. Habitat destruction is an-
other reason for the decline in population. The introduced species, a
species brought from another part of the world, the brown tree snake
in Guam has been a major predator on these young fruit bats.
Conservation status: Marianas fruit bats are listed as Endangered

by the IUCN. In the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
(CNMI), the Marianas fruit bat is locally listed as an endangered
species due to the decline in population. Under local law it is illegal
to hunt the fruit bat anywhere in the CNMI. ■

Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus)
INDIAN FLYING FOX

Pteropus giganteus
Physical characteristics: Named for its physical similarity to a fox,

the Indian flying fox has reddish brown fur and the shape of its head
is similar to a fox. These bats are one of the largest of all bats and have
a wingspan of more than 4 feet (1.2 meters). Its head and body length
ranges from 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters). These bats have
prominent claws that they use to move through trees and branches.
Geographic range: Indian flying foxes are found throughout

Bangladesh, Myanmar, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Habitat: The Indian flying fox lives in tropical forests and swamps,
where there is a large body of water nearby.
Diet: Indian flying foxes feed almost exclusively on a variety of fruit.

They chew the fruit to obtain the juice. Very soft fruits such as bananas

are swallowed, but usually the bat spits out the
fruit pulp and seeds once it has extracted all the
juice. The Indian flying fox also feeds on the juice
and pollen of various tree flowers.
Behavior and reproduction: During the day In-

dian flying foxes roost in large camps in trees.
These sites are out in the open. Camps may con-
tain several hundred to several thousand flying
foxes. Colony size changes with the seasons, be-
coming smaller during the summer and increasing
during the rainy season. These bats typically keep
the same roost sites for many years, and the trees
become stripped of bark and leaves over time. Dur-
ing the day the bats are noisy and active. At night
they can fly great distances to forage for food. Indian flying foxes fly long
distances at night in search of
Within the roost there is often a pecking order within the male food. (© Stephen Dalton/Photo
population. The more dominant males, those that are larger and Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
stronger, take the best roosting sites. permission.)
Indian flying foxes breed from July to October. When ready to give
birth, the females will gather in upper branches of their roosting trees.
Females have one offspring after a gestation period of 140 to 150 days.
The baby will cling to its mother for about two months until it is
almost full size.
Indian flying foxes and people: While it once fed mainly on wild
fruit, the bat now increasingly feeds on cultivated crops of fruit trees,
which has caused many people to consider these bats pests. Farmers
have used various methods to get rid of these bats. These foxes are
also hunted in parts of Pakistan for its fat, which is used for medi-
cine. People have also cleared the trees from many of the islands where
these bats live, causing the population to decline.
Conservation status: The Indian flying fox is not considered threat-

ened by the IUCN. In Pakistan, this species is specifically exempted
from protection under wildlife regulation. ■

Egyptian rousette (Rousettus aegyptiacus)
EGYPTIAN ROUSETTE
Rousettus aegyptiacus
Physical characteristics: Rousettes are relatively small compared

to other Old World fruit bats. The head and body are approximately
4.5 to 5 inches long (11.4 to 12.7). These bats have a simple, dog-
like face and ears, large eyes, and a very short tail that sticks out. The
tail is about 0.4 to 0.9 inches (1 to 2.2 centimeters) long. The fur of
these bats is brown, and often tinged with gray.
Geographic range: Egyptian rousettes are found in southern, west-

ern, and eastern Africa, Egypt, the Middle East, and Cyprus.

Habitat: Egyptian rousettes roost in humid areas, such as dark caves Eqyptian rousettes are usually
found roosting in caves. (© Clive
and abandoned buildings. Most are found roosting in caves. In
Druett/Papilio/Corbis.
Cyprus, some colonies may move to open sites in March. Reproduced by permission.)
Diet: Rousettes feed on many kinds of soft fruits, the juice of

hard fruits, and certain leaves. Figs and dates form its main diet in
dry regions.
Behavior and reproduction: Egyptian rousettes roost primarily in

caves. They also roost in buildings, ancient ruins, trees, and rock
crevices. They can form colonies of up to several thousand individu-
als. In South Africa, camps had an estimated 7,000 to 9,000 bats. In
Pakistan, these bats appear to form small roosting colonies of about
twenty to forty individuals. The bats use smell to help them locate
their food.
While Egyptian rousettes appear to have good vision, these bats
also use echolocation. Scientists think they use echolocation to help
them navigate in caves and at night. As opposed to the echolocation
calls of many other bats, humans can hear the echolocation calls of
rousettes. They make a clicking sound with their tongue.

Some populations breed two times during the year. Females have
one offspring per year and gestation is about four to six months. In
Egypt, a field study found they breed year round.
Egyptian rousettes and people: Fruit farmers are the most impor-
tant threat to populations. In Turkey and Israel, rousette caves have
been fumigated, filled with smoke or fumes in order to kill pests, or
the caves have been closed off by walls.
Conservation status: Egyptian rousettes are not listed as threatened

by the IUCN. ■

Dwarf epauletted fruit bat (Micropteropus pusillus)
DWARF EPAULETTED FRUIT BAT

Micropteropus pusillus
Physical characteristics: Dwarf epauletted fruit bats are relatively

small. Their head and body length is approximately 2.6 to 3.7 inches
(6.7 to 9.5 centimeters). Males are larger than females. While the tail
length varies among individual bats, it is never long, ranging from
not having a tail to 0.2 inches (0.4 centimeters). Fur is typically a
light brown with a paler color on the underside. The hair is moder-
ately long, thick, and soft. At the base of the ear are small whitish
tufts of hair and males have pouches in their shoulder with tufts of
white hair.
Geographic range: Dwarf epauletted fruit bats are found in west-

ern, southwestern, and central Africa.

Habitat: These bats live in open woodlands and
on the edges of forests. Dwarf epauletted bats have
also been found between the leaves of dense
bushes, usually close to the ground.
Diet: Dwarf epauletted bats feed on small fruits,

nectar, and pollen. When eating the fruits, these
bats place their mouths around the ripe fruit and
slowly suck its juices. They then drop the uneaten
fruit pulp when they are finished.

about the dwarf epauletted bat’s behavior and
mating behavior. Dwarf epauletted bats are inde-
pendent, typically roosting alone, with one other
bat, or in small groups of up to ten. These bats
move about frequently and do not have a regular
roosting spots or feeding areas. These bats may eat
two and a half times their body weight in a single
night. It digests quickly and disperses, spreads,
large quantities of seeds as it flies between feeding
sites.
These bats are polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-mus),
having more than one mate. There are two breed-
ing seasons. Studies in the Ivory Coast indicate that
births peaks from about March to May and from
September to November. The gestation period is
Dwarf epauletted fruit bats live five to six months. Young females can mate at six months and give
in open woodlands and on the birth at twelve months.
edges of forests and feed on
small fruits, nectar, and pollen. Dwarf epauletted fruit bats and people: There is no known
(Illustration by Brian Cressman.
Reproduced by permission.) relationship between dwarf epauletted bats and people.
Conservation status: Dwarf epauletted bats are not listed as

threatened. ■

Queensland tube-nosed bat (Nyctimene robinsoni)
QUEENSLAND TUBE-NOSED BAT

Nyctimene robinsoni
Physical characteristics: Queensland tube-nosed bats are also

called eastern tube-nosed bats. These bats have nostrils shaped like
tubes that jut out about 1 inch (2.5 centimeters). Researchers do not
yet understand the purpose of these tubes. Their head and body length
is 3 to 5.1 inches (7.5 to 13 centimeters) with a tail length of 0.8 to
1 inch (2 to 2.5 centimeters). These bats have light brown fur with a
dark stripe down the back. Their wings are brown with yellowish spots.
Geographic range: Queensland tube-nosed bats are found in

eastern Australia.

Female Queensland tube-nosed
bats typically have one offspring
per year. A baby is shown here,
hanging on a branch.
(© B. G. Thomson/Photo
permission.)
Habitat: These bats live in tropical rainforests and subtropical rain-

forests.
Diet: These bats feed on fruit.
Behavior and reproduction: Queensland tube-nosed bats roost

on branches of trees that have thick vegetation. They are solitary
and do not appear to roost in groups. The bats often fly very close
to the ground as they search for food. Queensland tube-nosed
bats are polygamous with one breeding season. Females generally

have one offspring per year. Gestation is approximately four to five
months.
Queensland tube-nosed bats and people: By clearing these bats’ nat-

ural habitats, people have caused the population of this bat to decline.
Conservation status: Queensland tube-nosed bats are not listed as

threatened by IUCN. They are listed as vulnerable in Australia’s New
South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Fruit Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
5.1 Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.pteropodidae.html (accessed on July 2,
2004).
Periodicals:
Petersen, David. “Wait Until Dark.” Backpacker (October, 1993): 24.
“Plants, Bats Magnify Neurotoxin in Guam.” Science News (December
6, 2003): 366.
Thewissen, J. G. M., and S. K. Babcock. “The Origin of Flight in Bats.”
Bioscience (May 1992): 340–345.
Web sites:
Craig, P., ed. “Flying Foxes (Fruit bats).” Natural History Guide to
American Samoa. http://www.nps.gov/npsa/book/index.htm (accessed
on July 2, 2004).
“Digital Morphology.” National Science Foundation Digital Library at the
University of Texas. http://www.digimorph.org (accessed on July 2, 2004).
http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Fruit bats.” The Wild Ones. http://www.thewildones.org/Animals/
fruitBat.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Lemke, Thomas O. “Marianas Fruit Bats Near Extinction.” Bat Conser-
vation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/v3n1-1.html
(accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Mammals of the CNMI” Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.
http://www.cnmidfw.org/wildlife/index.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).

MOUSE-TAILED BATS
Rhinopomatidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Rhinopomatidae
class Also known as long-tailed bats, the bats in this family have
a tail almost as long as their head and body. This slender, long
subclass
tail is unique among all the bats. These bats are small to
order medium-sized, about 2 to 3.5 inches (5 to 9 centimeters), not
monotypic order including the tail. Their backs are generally gray-brown to dark
brown, and they may be lighter on their underside.
suborder
The ears of mouse-tailed bats are rather large and connected
▲ family by a band of skin across the forehead. The ears extend past the
nose when they are laid forward. Their snouts have a small,
rounded noseleaf, a horseshoe-shaped flap of skin around
the nose.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Mouse-tailed bats are generally found in Africa and Asia,
across the Sahara, from western Africa through the Middle East
to India and Thailand.
HABITAT
Mouse-tailed bats are usually found in arid, extremely dry,
regions. This can range from deserts to extremely dry wood-
land. They roost, rest or settle, in caves, rock clefts, wells,
pyramids, and buildings.
DIET
Mouse-tailed bats eat insects, including flying ants, termites,
beetles, and moths.

As the months turn cooler the bat begins
store fat, especially in the abdominal, stom-
ach, region. These fat deposits can equal the
bat’s normal body weight. During the winter
months when insects are in short supply some
species of mouse-tailed bats go into a type of
deep sleep called torpor, and they absorb the TUNING TO BATS
fat deposits. During this period the bat is able
Bats are difficult to study because
to survive for several weeks without food and
they fly and are only active at night.
water. In some areas, some species migrate
Radio tagging, the marking of bats with
between summer and winter roosts.
a radio transmitter, is one technology that
researchers are using to study bats.
Transmitters are typically 5 percent of the
When mouse-tailed bats roost they often bat’s body weight and can be glued to the
hang by the thumbs as well as the feet. They bat’s back or put on a collar. Results from
emerge from their roosts at dark and begin these studies show that long-tailed bats are
their search for food. The small mouse-tailed highly selective in choosing nest sites and
bat has an unusual flight in that it rises and sites are usually used for only one day.
falls, much like some small birds. This
species travels by a series of glides, some of
great length, and occasionally it flutters,
about 20 to 30 feet (6 to 9 meters) above the ground.
Like all bats, mouse-tailed bats are nocturnal, active at night.
They use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to pinpoint,
identify, and capture their prey, the animals they hunt for food.
In echolocation, the bats call out a high-frequency sound in the
ultrasonic ranges, which is above the sounds humans can hear.
These sound waves bounce off of objects and echoes or bounces
back to the bat. The bat can then determines the location, size,
distance, and speed of the object.
Mouse-tailed bats generally hunt in the open air high above
ground. With small prey distributed throughout a large space,
the bats must cover a large search area to find an insect. Mouse-
tailed bats can travel up to 12 miles (20 kilometers) from their
roost sites in a single night.
Female bats give birth to one young annually. The young are
fully grown and weaned in about six weeks. Reproduction peri-
ods of these bats depends upon where they live and their species.
MOUSE-TAILED BATS AND PEOPLE

Mouse-tailed bats are indirectly helpful to humans because
they eat many insects that humans consider pests.
Mouse-Tailed Bats 299

CONSERVATION STATUS
One species, MacInnes’ mouse-tailed bat, is categorized as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild due to
the destruction the bat’s natural habitat. The other three species
are not listed as threatened with extinction.

Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-tailed bat (Rhinopoma hardwickei)
HARDWICKE’S LESSER SPECIES

MOUSE-TAILED BAT ACCOUNT
Rhinopoma hardwickei
Physical characteristics: Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-tailed bats are

also called long-tailed bats, referring to their long, thin mouse-like tail.
The tail can be as long to the length of the head and body combined.
These bats are relatively smaller than other species in the family.
They have a body length of about 2.5 inches (5.5 centimeters), and
their forearms range in length from 2 to 2.5 inches (5.2 to 6.4 cen-
timeters). They weigh about 0.4 to 0.5 ounces (11 to 14 grams).
The fur of lesser mouse-tailed bats is soft. It is generally a gray-
brown color on the upper side of and a paler color of the same shade
on its underside. These bats appear to be furless on their faces and
backsides. These bats feature large ears that are connected by a band
of skin across the forehead. The snout has a small, rounded noseleaf.
Directly above the nostrils are slits that they can open and close.

Geographic range: Lesser mouse-tailed bats
extend from northern Africa to southern Asia.
They are found in Morocco, Senegal, Egypt, Israel,
Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Yemen,
Afghanistan, India, Socotra Island, and Pakistan.
Habitat: Lesser mouse-tailed bats typically live in

extremely dry or arid regions, They are found in
mostly treeless areas ranging from deserts to grass-
lands and dry woodland.
Diet: Lesser mouse-tailed bats feed on flying in-

sects, such as moths and beetles. These bats build
up a large fat reserve in their lower abdomen and
can go without feeding for two months.
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-tailed Behavior and reproduction: Lesser mouse-tailed bats have unique
bats live in dry regions. To help adaptations, changes in body structures and functions, for life in dry
them survive, they can close
valves in their nostrils to keep regions. They can close valves in the nostrils to keep from breathing
from breathing in dust, and they in dust. They can also control their kidneys to reduce water loss. In
can control their kidneys to extremely hot weather these bats move into a shelter.
reduce water loss. (© Merlin
D. Tuttle, Bat Conservation Lesser mouse-tailed bats find their food using echolocation. Stud-
International. Reproduced by ies have found that when several of these bats forage for food to-
permission.) gether, each uses an echolocation call of a different sound frequency.
Lesser mouse-tailed bats roost in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyra-
mids, palaces, and houses. They gather in both large and small
colonies. Colonies can number in the thousands, or range from one
to ten individuals. They often hang by their thumbs as well as feet.
Studies have found that roosting sites are generally used for only one
day, and then they will select another site.
Studies indicate that lesser mouse-tailed bats are polygamous (puh-
LIH-guh-mus), having more than one mate. Female lesser mouse-
tailed bats produce one offspring annually. They gestate, are pregnant,
for a period of 90 to 100 days. In a field study of lesser mouse-tailed
bats, birth occurred over ten days in mid-December. The young be-
gan flying at five to six weeks.
Lesser mouse-tailed bats and people: Lesser mouse-tailed bats eat

insects that many humans consider pests. There are indications that
these bats may be declining in population, due to human activities. Rea-
sons for the population decline include clearing these bats’ forest habi-
tats, disturbing their roosting sites, and introducing animals into an
area that are predators of these bats, animals that hunt them for food.

Conservation status: Lesser mouse-tailed bats are not currently
in danger of extinction. There is some evidence that long-tailed
bats are now rare or absent at many sites where formerly they were
common. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Periodicals:
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich and Elisabeth K.V. Kalko. “Echolocation by Insect-
Eating Bats.” BioScience (July, 2001): 557–569.
Web sites:
“Bat Information.” The Bat Conservation Trust. http://www.bats.
org.uk/bat_info.htm (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Hester, L., and P. Myers. “Rhinopomatidae.” Animal Diversity Web.
Rhinopomatidae.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy B. and Tenley Conway. “Rhinopomatoidea.” Tree of Life
Web Project. http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Rhinopomatoidea&contgroup
=Microchiroptera (accessed on July 2, 2004).

SAC-WINGED BATS,
SHEATH-TAILED BATS,
AND GHOST BATS
Emballonuridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Emballonuridae
class Emballonurids (bats in the family Emballonuridae) are small
to medium in size. Their head and body length is about 1.4
subclass
to 6.3 inches (36 to 160 millimeters). They can weigh from 0.1
order to 3.5 ounces (3 to 100 grams), about the weight of a first-class
monotypic order letter. These bats have thirty to thirty-four teeth.
suborder For the most part, emballonurids are brown or gray in color,
but this family also includes the whitish ghost bats in the genus
▲ family Diclidurus, and bats with a pair of white stripes down their back
in the genus Saccopteryx. Emballonurids have a smooth face
and lips with relatively large eyes. Their ears are usually round
and cup-shaped, often joined by a band of skin across the fore-
head. The ears have a tragus (TRAY-gus), a flap that projects
from the inner ear. Researchers theorize the tragus plays some
role in echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun), the process of
sending out high-pitched sounds and identifying objects by in-
terpreting the sound when it bounces back.
Some emballonurids are also known as sheath-tailed bats
because of their tail. They have a short tail that juts out from the
membrane (double layer of thin skin) between their legs, and
when their legs are stretched out their tail appears to be sheathed
in the membrane. Another name for some emballonurids is sac-
winged bats, referring to the glandular sacs in their wing mem-
branes. Glandular sacs produce and release substances for use in
the body. In this case they contain a liquid with a strong odor. In
the sac-winged bats these sacs are more pronounced in males. The
position and size of these sacs differs depending upon the species.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Emballonurids live in the tropical and subtropical regions of
the world, including Mexico, Argentina, Madagascar, and
Southeast Asia.
HABITAT
Emballonuridae bats generally live in humid rainforests.
These bats tend to roost, rest or settle, in areas that are rela-
tively light compared to what other bat families prefer. Their
roosts include the entry areas to caves and other structures, the
outside of buildings, hollow trees, and leaves.
DIET
Emballonurids eat primarily insects, although they have been
seen eating fruit. They generally eat insects while flying, yet
some species are known to look for their food along the ground.
These bats start foraging, searching for food, relatively early in
the day compared to other bats. Some of these bats such as the
ghost bats, capture their meals while flying high in the open
air. Other bats, such as the proboscis bat, hunt insects above
or close to water surfaces.

By pulling their hind legs together or apart during flight, the
emballonurids can shorten or lengthen their membrane. This
gives these bats tremendous control as they steer, maneuver,
and turn in flight. Like all bats, they are nocturnal, resting dur-
ing the day and becoming active at night. During bad weather,
some species forage in the afternoon.
Some emballonurids roost in large groups, others gather in
smaller groups of about ten to forty, and a few are loners.
Colonies of African sheath-tailed bats include up to 50,000 bats,
each of which returns to a precise place in a roosting cave along
the Kenyan coast. Daytime roosts for the sac-winged bat can
reach up to sixty individuals. Proboscis bat females roost apart
from the males when the young are born. Different shelters are
used by adult male and female gray sac-winged bats during the
summer; most of the other forms seem to remain together
throughout the year.
Some emballonurids, such as the greater sac-winged bat, live
in year-round stable harems (HARE-um; group of females as-
sociated with one male), with one to eight females in an area
Sac-Winged Bats, Sheath-Tailed Bats, and Ghost Bats 305

THE FIRST FOSSILS that is patrolled by a male. Male sac-winged bats in the genus
Emballonurids were first
Saccopteryx defend their harems with energetic flight maneu-
recorded in Europe thirty-
vers. Researchers have found that harem males father an aver-
eight to fifty-four million
age of 30 percent of the offspring within their harem. The
years ago.
majority of offspring is fathered by other harem males or by
males from outside the colony.
Some of these bats perform elaborate mating rituals. The so-
cial calls they emit are audible to humans. For species in which
the males have sacs in the front wing membrane containing a
liquid with a strong scent, the males fan the odor towards the
females while hovering around them. Each afternoon, male
Saccopteryx bats store a cocktail of perfume in their wing sacs
that consists of urine, saliva and other bodily secretions.
There is a variety of different mating customs among the dif-
ferent species of emballonurids. Most of these bats are polyga-
mous (puh-LIH-guh-mus), meaning that males mate with more
than one female during the mating season. Yet the chestnut sac-
winged bat, and possibly other species, are monogamous (muh-
NAH-guh-mus), meaning a male and female mate and pair only
with each other.
Emballonurids generally give birth to a single offspring each
year. An exception is the small proboscis bat that reproduces
twice a year. Most emballonurid females give birth to their off-
spring at the beginning of the rainy season.
EMBALLONURIDS AND PEOPLE

Because emballonurids prefer roosting in open areas, these
bats are among the more common bats for people to spot. They
can be seen in trees, on buildings, and at the edges of caves.
The social calls they emit are also within human hearing range.
Some emballonurids are declining due to human destruction of
their natural habitat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
There are several emballonurid species that are endangered
or threatened with becoming endangered. The IUCN lists two
species as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction in the wild; two species as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild; and ten species as Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Greater sac-winged bat (Saccopteryx bilineata)
SPECIES
GREATER SAC-WINGED BAT ACCOUNTS
Saccopteryx bilineata
Physical characteristics: Greater sac-winged bats are relatively

small, with a body length of 1.8 to 2.2 inches (47 to 56 millimeters).
These bats are also called greater white-lined bats, referring to
the two white lines that run down their bodies. Their fur is typically
dark brown, while the underside is typically gray. These bats have
dark wings, long noses, and the females are slightly larger than the
males.
Geographic range: Greater sac-winged bats live in Central and

South America; from south Mexico to southeast Brazil.

Habitat: Greater sac-winged bats live in lowland
evergreen or semi-deciduous forests. They roost in
relatively open areas, such as hollow trees and oc-
casionally in buildings.
Diet: Greater sac-winged bats feed on insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Greater sac-winged

bats are among the most common bats seen in the
rainforest because they often roost on the outer
parts of large trees. They use echolocation to
locate their prey and then catch the insects while
flying. Echolocation is a process by which the bats
emit a variety of sounds and use the echoes from
the sounds to identify objects around them. These
bats are unusual in that males sing songs to females
during the day in their colonies. These bats have
been found roosting in relatively large colonies of
sixty individuals. Within those colonies there can
be smaller groupings of one to nine females. As
seasons change, colonies move between different
areas to forage for food.
Females give birth to a single offspring each
year, typically at the beginning of the rainy season
The greater sac-winged bat is in July or August. It is thought these bats are polygamous, meaning
also called the greater white-lined that they have more than one mate during the mating season.
bat, because of the two white
lines that run down the back.
Greater sac-winged bats and people: There is no known signifi-
(Illustration by Barbara Duperron.
Reproduced by permission.) cant relationship between greater sac-winged bats and people.
Conservation status: Greater sac-winged bats are not listed as

threatened. ■

Greater dog-faced bat (Peropteryx kappleri)
GREATER DOG-FACED BAT

Peropteryx kappleri
Physical characteristics: Greater dog-faced bats are also referred

to as greater dog-like bats. These bats are relatively small, with a head
and body length of 2.5 to 2.9 inches (63 to 75 millimeters). Their fur
is typically dark or reddish brown and their underside is paler in
color. Tufts of hair cover the head. The ears are separated at the base
and are usually, along with the wings, black in coloration. Males are
generally slightly larger than females.
Geographic range: Greater dog-faced bats live in southern Mexico

to Peru and southern Brazil.

Habitat: Greater dog-faced bats have been found
in forests, swamps, and savanna (grassland). They
roost in small, shallow caves, holes in trees, and
under fallen logs where light can enter. A study in
Costa Rica found these bats roost about 39 inches
(1 meter) from the ground.
Diet: Greater dog-faced bats eat insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Greater dog-faced

bats have been found in Costa Rica to roost in
colonies of one to six individuals. Usually there
were several adults of each sex in the group. One
unique behavior is that males sit on top of females.
This implies that the male bat is protecting or
guarding the female and that the females and males
could be monogamous. At the beginning of the
rainy season females give birth to a single offspring.
Greater dog-faced bats and people: There is no

known significant relationship between greater
dog-faced bats and people.
Conservation status: Greater dog-winged bats

are not listed as threatened. ■
Greater dog-faced bats roost in
small, shallow caves, holes in FOR MORE INFORMATION
trees, and under fallen logs.
(Illustration by Barbara Books:
permission.)
Books, 1998.
Periodicals:
Milius, S. “Male Bats Primp Daily for Odor Display.” Science News
(January 1, 2000): 557–557.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Ghost Bats or White Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World 5.1 Online. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_
mammals_of_the_world/chiroptera/chiroptera.emballonuridae
.diclidurus.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).

Schnitzer, Hans-Ulrich, and Elisabeth K. V. Kalko. “Echolocation by
Insect-Eating Bats.” Bioscience (July 2001): 557–557.
Web sites:
“Bats in Australia.” Australian Museum Online. http://www.
austmus.gov.au/bats/records/bat24.htm (accessed on July 2, 2004).
“Ghost Bat—Macroderma gigas.” UNEP World Conservation Monitoring
Centre. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html?http://www.unep-wcmc.
org/species/data/species_sheets/ghostbat.htm~main (accessed on
July 2, 2004).
“Monkeying Around! The Mammals of Southeast Asia.” Focus on Wildlife.
http://www.ecologyasia.com/FOW_Pages/mammals.htm (accessed on
July 2, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy. “Saccopteryx bilineata, Greater Sac-winged Bat.”
American Museum of Natural History. http://www.digimorph.org/
specimens/Saccopteryx_bilineata/whole/ (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Voigt, Christian C. “The Sac-Winged Bat Project.” Institute for Zoo and
Wildlife Research. http://www.izw-berlin.de/en/research/fg1/index.html?
themen/themen.html~rechts (accessed on July 2, 2004).

KITTI’S HOG-NOSED BAT
Craseonycteridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Craseonycteridae
One species: Kitti’s hog-nosed bat
(Craseonycteris
thonglongyai)
class The only species in the Craseonycteridae family is Kitti’s
hog-nosed bat or simply, hog-nosed bat. They are also called
subclass bumblebee bats, because they are about the size of a bumble-
order bee. This species was unidentified until 1974.
monotypic order Kitti’s hog-nosed bat is considered the word’s smallest mam-
mal. The head and body combined measure only 1.1 to 1.3
suborder inches (29 to 34 millimeters), and they weigh about 0.7
▲ family to 0.9 ounces (2.0 to 2.6 grams), which is about the weight of
a dime. These bats have a wingspan of about 6 inches (15 cen-
timeters), which is smaller than some butterflies.
The name hog-nosed refers to the bat’s facial appearance.
Their muzzle is pig-like, with two wide, crescent-shaped
nostrils. Their ears are relatively large with rounded tips. They
extend beyond the snout when the bat is lying forward. Their
eyes are relatively small and partially hidden by fur. Hog-nosed
bats have long and broad wings with pointed tips. Fur on the
back may be a brown to reddish brown and its belly is typi-
cally paler. These bats have twenty-eight teeth.
Kitti’s hog-nosed bats have long, slender feet and a short
thumb with a well-developed claw. They do not have an exter-
nal tail. Males have a glandular swelling at the base of the throat.
The bumblebee bat also has a web of skin between its hind legs,
which is thought to help with flying and catching insects.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Kitti’s hog-nosed bats were once found only in Thailand.
Most of these bat populations were located in Sai Yok Na-

tional Park. In 2001 a second population of
bumblebee bats was found in a cave in
Myanmar.
HABITAT
Bumblebee bats have been found deep
inside small, remote limestone caves, caves
formed by water dissolving calcium car-
bonate rock. Hog-nosed bats appear to pre-
fer caves with multiple chambers and
domed roofs located near rivers or areas
with water.
DIET
Kitti’s hog-nosed bats feed on insects, in-
cluding spiders, beetles, small flies, wasps, and
bark lice. They hunt their prey (animals they
eat) through echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-
shun), a technique in which the bats emit high-
pitched sounds that bounce off objects. The
bats then detect the objects around them by listening to the sounds’ Kitti’s hog-nosed bat is also
echoes. These sounds are too high pitched for humans to hear. called the bumblebee bat,
because of its very small size
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION (© Merlin D. Tuttle, Bat
Conservation International.
Hog-nosed bats are crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur), meaning Reproduced by permission.)
that they are active at dawn and dusk. These bats are most active
in the evening. A few minutes after the sun sets they leave the
cave and fly in a circular pattern above the cave entrance for about
one minute before flying away. They then separate into small
groups and head off to a foraging area, a place to search for food,
which is usually relatively close, within 820 feet (250 meters) of
the cave.
Hog-nosed bats eat for about thirty minutes then return to the
cave for the night. They are active again during the hours before
sunrise. In the early morning they feed and then return to the
cave.
The bats roost (settle or rest) together in caves in small
numbers of up to fifteen individuals. While they roost together,
the bats appear to be independent. They roost alone instead of
clustered together with others.
From the shape of their wings and stomach content it appears
that they can hover to catch their prey. It is unclear exactly how
the hog-nosed bat captures its food. It could snatch small insects
Kitti’s Hog-Nosed Bat 313

Kitti’s hog-nosed bat (Craseonycteris thonglongyai)
off surrounding leaves, twigs, or other surfaces. It could hunt

near the ground. Other observations conclude that these bats
may catch insects on their wings while flying.
Little is known about the hog-nosed bat’s mating habits. The
species is thought to be polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-mus),
meaning that they have more than one mate during the mat-
ing season. There is evidence to show that the bats have their
young during the beginning of the summer’s rainy season.
KITTI’S HOG-NOSED BATS AND PEOPLE

People have caused the population of hog nosed bats to
decline by disturbing their habitats and food supplies. Much
of the areas around the bats’ caves have been cleared for agri-
culture. Recreation and tourism are also reasons for the dis-
ruption of the bat’s habitat and the resulting decline in
population.

CONSERVATION STATUS
Kitti’s hog-nosed bats are listed as Endan-
gered, facing a very high risk of extinction,
dying out, by the IUCN; they are one of the
rarest bats in the world.
Books: HOLY BAT DISCOVERY!

Fenton, Brock M. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, The discovery of the tiny bumblebee
2001.
bats set a new record for the smallest bat
Fenton, Brock M. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. in the world. The Kitti of Kitti’s hog-nosed
Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 1998.
bats refers to Kitti Thonglongya, who
Nowak, Ronald M. “Kitti’s hog-nosed bats.” collected the bat in Thailand in 1968.
Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1 Online. Thonglongya went on to collect and
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mam-
mals_ discover other new bat species, such as the
of_the_world/chiroptera/chiroptera.craseonycteri- extremely rare Salim Ali’s fruit bat.
dae.craseonycteris.html (accessed on July 2, 2004).
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books,
1985.
Schober, Wilfried and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
Periodicals:
“Bats.” Science Weekly (September 27, 1995): 1.
Web sites:
“Discover the Secret World of Bats!” Bat Conservation International.
The Bioproject. http://www.bioproject.info/index.html (accessed on
July 2, 2004).
Kitti’s Hog-Nosed Bat 315

SLIT-FACED BATS
Nycteridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Nycteridae
class Slit-faced bats are small to medium in size. Head and body
length is 1.6 to 3.7 inches (4 to 9.3 centimeters), and adults weigh
subclass
0.2 to 1.2 ounces (6 to 36 grams). Also called hollow-faced bats,
order the feature that gives slit-faced bats their name is a deep groove
monotypic order that runs from their nostrils to a pit in the middle of their fore-
head. The dent is hidden by fur, which makes it hard to see.
suborder
Species of slit-faced bats have large, oval ears and their wings
▲ family are broad. Slit-faced bats range in color from orange, brown,
and red to gray. These bats also have a distinctive feature among
mammals at the end of their tail. The long tail, completely en-
closed within a membrane, ends in a T-shaped tip.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Slit-faced bats are found throughout most of Africa, South-
east Asia, and Madagascar. Most species are found in Africa.
HABITAT
Some species of slit-faced bats live in woodland savanna or
dry country, and others live in rainforests in Africa or in South-
east Asia.
DIET
A slit-faced bat’s diet depends upon the species. Most species
of these bats feed primarily on a variety of arthropods (animals
that have jointed bodies and limbs), such as moths, butterflies,
beetles, crickets, centipedes, scorpions, and spiders. Some bats,

the larger slit-faced bats, will also eat small vertebrates (ani- From the Greeks
mals with a backbone), such as frogs, birds, fish, other bats, The name Nycteris
and mice. comes from the Greek
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION word nykteros, meaning
nocturnal.
Like all bats, these bats are nocturnal, meaning they are ac-
tive at night. Slit-faced bats also use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun), the detection of an object by means of reflected
sound. It is not known how much they depend upon echolo-
cation to catch their prey (animals hunted for food). The
echolocation calls of these bats are low in intensity, or energy,
and brief. Usually the calls last only a millisecond or less.
As well as echolocation, it appears that these bats depend
upon sound to find food. Their large ears are apparently used
to listen for the low-frequency sounds of prey-generated move-
ments, such as the sound of an insect scuffling along the ground
or calls the insects may make. Slit-faced bats sometimes catch
their prey in the air, but primarily snatch their prey from a sur-
face, such as a leaf or branch.
The broad wings of slit-faced bats enable them to fly slowly
and hover, then pluck insects off ground or vegetation surfaces.
When bats, such as the large slit-faced bat, catch and kill larger
prey such as small vertebrates, they carry them off to their feed-
ing perch. These bats can hunt either lying in wait on their
perches or from slow, continuous flight low to the ground.
When they eat insects, they typically drop their wings and legs.
Like all bats, slit-faced bats are active in the night hours and
they roost (settle or rest) during the day hours. Most species
shelter alone, in pairs, or in small family groups or colonies
(group of animals of the same type living together). Roosting
sites for slit-faced bats are diverse, and may include hollow
trees, dense foliage, rocky outcrops, caves, buildings, ruins,
abandoned wells, and porcupine and aardvark burrows.
Slit-faced bats have one offspring per year, typically at the
beginning of the rainy season. Female large slit-faced bats leave
their young behind in the roost when they set out at night to
hunt. They return several times throughout the night to feed
their young.
SLIT-FACED BATS AND PEOPLE

There is no known special relationship between slit-faced
bats and people.
Slit-Faced Bats 317

CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Javan slit-faced bat and the Ja slit-faced
bat as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Three other species are listed as Near Threatened, not currently
threatened, but may become so.

Egyptian slit-faced bat (Nycteris thebaica)
SPECIES
EGYPTIAN SLIT-FACED BAT ACCOUNT
Nycteris thebaica
Physical characteristics: A distinctive feature of the Egyptian slit-

faced bat is its long ears. The bat has long, fine fur that is gray to red.
Its underparts are lighter in color. These bats are also called common
slit-faced bats. They are medium-size bats, with an adult weighing about
0.2 to 0.4 ounces (7 to 12 grams)—about the weight of five pennies.
Geographic range: Egyptian slit-faced bats are found in Africa.
Habitat: These bats live in the open savanna woodlands of sub-

Saharan Africa, in the dry or arid (extremely dry) areas of Africa.
These bats can live in a wide range of habitats, with roosts including
caves, under mines, buildings, and tree hollows.
Slit-Faced Bats 319

When the female Egyptian
slit-faced bat leaves the roost at
night to hunt, she takes her
young with her and then sets
them in another area while she
hunts. (Brock Fenton.
Diet: Egyptian slit-faced bats typically diet on arthropods, such as

spiders, crickets, and scorpions, as well as insects, such as moths
and beetles.
Behavior and reproduction: When foraging for food, Egyptian

slit-faced bats pick their prey off the ground and vegetation surfaces,
such as leaves or branches, as well as while flying. They can fly slowly
and maneuver well, which allows them to hunt close to the ground
and in dense vegetation.
These bats use echolocation and simply listening to detect their prey.
Their large ears enable the bats to pick up sounds like the scuffling of
some insects or the beating of wings. The purpose of the bird-like chirps
they make while searching for their prey at night is unknown.
The roosts of Egyptian-slit faced bats include caves, areas under
roads, mines, hollow trees, and roofs. They can be seen hanging from

veranda (a structure like a porch) rooftops in temporary night roosts
as they rest from their foraging. Observations have spotted colonies
ranging in size from several and several hundred individuals.
Females produce a single offspring each year after gestating (be-
ing pregnant) for about 150 days. When the female leaves the roost
at night to hunt, she takes her young with her and then sets them in
another area while she hunts. Both sexes reach reproductive matu-
rity at about their second year of life.
Egyptian-slit faced bats and people: There is no known signifi-

cant relationship with people.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not consider Egyptian slit-

faced bats to be threatened. ■
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press, 2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky. Buffalo, NY: Firefly
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Slit-faced Bats, or Hollow-faced Bats.” Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.nycteridae.nycteris.html (accessed on July
4, 2004).
Periodicals:
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich, and Elisabeth K. V. Kalko. “Echolocation by In-
sect-Eating Bats.” Bioscience (July 2001): 557.
Kerner, Sarah. “In the Bat Cave.” Boys’ Life (June 2003): 18.
Web sites:
Jacob, Davids. “Bats of the Western Cape.” Cape Bat Action Team (Cape
Bat). http://www.museums.org.za/sam/resources/mammal/bats.htm
French, Barbara. “Where the Bats Are Part II: Other Animals’ Shelters.”
Bat Conservation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/
v17n3-5.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
Slit-Faced Bats 321

Myers, Phil, and Bret Weinstein. “Family Nycteridae (slit-faced bats).”
accounts/information/Nycteridae.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
Taylor, Peter. “Bats: Nature’s Agricultural Allies” Science in Africa.
http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/may/bats.htm (accessed on
July 4, 2004).

FALSE VAMPIRE BATS
Megadermatidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Megadermatidae
False vampire bats are medium-sized to large bats with a head class
and body length of 2.6 to 5.5 inches (6.5 to 14.0 centimeters). subclass
Their wingspans can reach 3 feet (1 meter). The Australian false
vampire bat, also called the Australian ghost bat, is among the order
largest of the microchiropteran (my-kro-keer-OP-ter-an) bats. monotypic order
Microchiroptera is one of the two suborders of bats and includes
suborder
most of the bats in the world.
▲ family
False vampire bats have large ears joined by a band of skin
across the forehead and noseleafs, which are fleshy protrusions
from the nose. The heart-nosed bats have a leaf-like nose that
is heart-shaped.
Megadermatids (meg-ah-der-MAT-ids; bats in the family
Megadermatide) have a tail that is either short or absent. These
bats typically have relatively short and broad wings.
Their fur tends to be long and gray in color, although the
yellow-winged bats have bright yellow or orange wings and
ears, with bluish fur. False vampire bats have twenty-six
or twenty-eight teeth. The flesh-eating, or carnivorous, mega-
dermatids, such as the Australian false vampire bats, have
sharp and strong canine teeth for tearing flesh and crushing
bones.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Megadermatids are found in Africa, Asia, east India,
Philippines, and Australia.
False Vampire Bats 323

HABITAT
Megadermatids live in open, dry habitats in Australia, and
in open woodlands. They also live in the very dry or arid areas
of Africa and India. Typical habitats for heart-nosed bats
include dry lowlands, coastal strip habitats, and sometimes
river valleys.
DIET
Many of the megadermatid species are also known as false
vampire bats because people mistakenly believed that they eat
blood. Megadermatids eat insects or small vertebrates (animals
with backbones), and none of them feed only on blood. The
carnivorous species, such as the Australian false vampire bats,
eat small vertebrates that include fish, frogs, lizards, birds, mice,
or other bats. The Asian false vampire bats have a diverse diet,
feeding on everything from insects, spiders, fish, birds, and
frogs, to rodents and even occasionally smaller bats. False vam-
pire bats are among the top predators (hunters) of the forest,
hunting mainly birds, other bats, and rodents.
Yellow-winged bats eat insects on the ground or while
flying. They feed on large and small insects, including moths
and butterflies, grasshoppers, beetles, flies, and mosquitoes.

Megadermatids make echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun)
calls through the nose. Echolocation is a technique of sending
out sounds and then using the reflection or echoes of the sound
to detect objects. In bats these sounds are too high-pitched for
humans to hear. Megadermatids use their large noseleaf to focus
the sound outwards.
Megadermatids roost (settle or rest) in caves, rock crevices,
buildings, and trees. Roosting habits vary from solitary to colo-
nial. The Asian false vampire bats roost in caves, buildings, and
hollow trees in small groups, although one particularly large
colony of nearly 2,000 was reported in India. Eating a wide
range of foods from insects to birds, these bats maneuver (mah-
NOO-ver) well as they snatch their food.
False vampire bats commonly kill the prey (animals hunted for
food) by biting the head and crushing the skull. False vampires
share their prey with other members of the family group,
consisting of a pair of adults and their non-breeding young. The
Australian false vampire bat drops on small mammals from above,

and envelops them with its wings before bit-
ing the head and neck. They carry their prey
to a high point or back to the roost.
Heart-nosed bats hang upside down on a
low perch while they scan the area for their
meals. This bat eats beetles, centipedes, scor-
pions, and small bats. From its perch, typi- KEEPING WARM
cally 10 to 16 feet (3 to 5 meters) above Ghost bats cannot stand getting cold.
ground, this bat twists its body 180°, using Studies suggest that these bats need
its eyes and ears to search for prey. When it to keep their body temperatures between
spots a meal, the bat swoops down and 95 and 102.2°F (35 to 39°C). When
snatches the prey, carrying it back to its surrounding temperatures are higher or
perch. There, the bat removes the legs and lower, these bats need to need to increase
wings before eating the body. or decrease their metabolic rate to keep
Some megadermatids, such as the yellow- warm or stay cool. They move between a
winged bats, appear to be monogamous number of caves, depending upon the
(muh-NAH-guh-mus), meaning that the weather, which means they need multiple
male and female pair up, which is unusual cave sites where they can roost. Females
in bats and mammals. Heart-nosed bats mate especially need to keep warm while they
in monogamous pairs for the breeding sea- are pregnant.
son. They make an effort to keep the same
mate during the following breeding seasons.
Mated pairs have a breeding site that the male
defends. Prior to foraging for their food in the evening, the male
of the heart-nosed and false vampire bats sing from perches.
Megadermatids give birth to a single offspring during each
breeding period. In yellow-winged bats, following a gestation
(pregnancy) of about three months, most births of the single
offspring occur in April. False vampire bats also have a gesta-
tion period of about three months, and give birth at the begin-
ning of the rainy season. Sometimes, an older member of the
family may remain to sit with the young while the adults hunt.
MEGADERMATIDS AND PEOPLE

People are destroying the natural habitat of megadermatids,
causing many of these species’ populations to decrease.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the heart-nosed bat as being Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but may become so; and the
Australian false vampire bat as Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction in the wild.

Australian false vampire bat (Macroderma gigas)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT AUSTRALIAN FALSE VAMPIRE BAT
Macroderma gigas
Physical characteristics: Australian false vampire bats are among

the largest of the bats. They have forearms that range from 3.7 to 4.6
inches (9.6 to 11.8 centimeters) long, and weigh 2.6 to 5 ounces (74
to 144 grams). Their head and body length is 3.9 to 5.1 inches (10
to 13 centimeters). Females are smaller than males.
These bats are also called ghost bats, because their fur is light
brown to gray to almost white. In some areas, ghost bats have an ashy
gray back and white underparts. These bats have wide ears that meet
above the head and are fused. They have large eyes relative to their
heads, along with prominent noseleafs.

Australian false vampire bats
typically roost in caves and
abandoned mines. (© B. G.
Thomson/Photo Researchers,
Geographic range: Australian false vampire bats are found in north-

ern Australia, mainly north Queensland, along the north central coast,
and in the northwest.
Habitat: Australian false vampire bats live in both arid regions and
rainforest areas, such as north Queensland. They typically roost in
caves and abandoned mines.

Diet: The Australian false vampire bat is Australia’s only carnivo-
rous bat. These bats eat large insects, such as cockroaches, and ver-
tebrates, such as reptiles, frogs, birds, small mammals, and other
bat species.
Behavior and reproduction: Australian false vampire bats com-

monly hang from a branch and wait for their prey to pass on the
ground below. The bats then drop down, envelop the prey with their
wings and kill it by biting its head and neck. They also catch prey
while in flight. Australian false vampire bats eat large amounts of food
and consume much of their prey, including its flesh, bones, teeth, fur,
small feathers, and the exoskeletons of insects.
Australian false vampire bats move to the warmer northern Aus-
tralia area when the weather becomes cooler, and then back to the
cooler southern areas when the weather becomes warm. These bats
do use echolocation, yet they appear to capture their prey with their
extremely sensitive hearing and vision. Their echolocation calls are
less than one millisecond long. Australian false vampire bats roost
alone or in small groups. During the breeding season, for the most
part, females gather in colonies, while males gather into their own
colonies. Yet some studies have found that some males are always
present with the females. There are typically fewer than 100 bats in
a group.
Australian false vampire bats generally mate in April or May and
gestate for about three months. The females bear a single offspring.
Mothers stay with their young and also fly with them to forage
(search) for food during the first several weeks of life. Both sexes
reach reproductive maturity at about their second year of life.
Austalian false vampire bats and people: Australian Aborigines,

the early inhabitants of Australia, have a spiritual connection to
the Austalian false vampire bats. Mining operations are destroying
their roosting sites, causing a decline in their population. These bats
are also extremely sensitive to any disturbance. People that enter a
ghost-bat cave colony may cause the group to become nervous and
leave.
Conservation status: Australian false vampire bats have declined

in population because people have destroyed their habitats. They are
categorized as Vulnerable by the IUCN. ■

Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Australian Giant False Vampire Bat, or Ghost Bat.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walker/
chiroptera/chiroptera.megadermatidae.macroderma.html (accessed on
July 4, 2004).
Web sites:
“Bat.” MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2004. http://encarta.msn.
com/encyclopedia_761557637/Bat.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
French, Barbara. “False Vampires and Other Carnivores.” Bat Conser-
vation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/v15n2-5.html
Hester, L., and P. Myers. “Family Megadermatidae (False Vampire Bats).”
accounts/information/Megadermatidae.html (accessed on July 4, 2004).
“Yellow-winged bat—Lavia frans.” American Zoo. http://www.americazoo
.com/goto/index/mammals/63.htm (accessed on July 4, 2004).

HORSESHOE BATS
Rhinolophidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Rhinolophidae
class The name “horseshoe” bats comes from the distinctive shape
of their nose. Many species of bats have fleshy folds of skin
subclass
around their nostrils called a noseleaf. In the horseshoe bats, the
order lower part of its noseleaf is shaped like a horseshoe or a U-shape.
monotypic order This lower section covers the bat’s upper lip. The upper part of
the noseleaf, above the nostril, is pointed. In some species, such
suborder as Hildebrandt’s horseshoe bat, the noseleaf is hairy.
▲ family Horseshoe bat species range widely in size, from small to
moderate. The smaller species of these bats can have a head
and body length of 1.4 inches (3.5 centimeters) and the larger
species can measure 4.3 inches (11 centimeters). They weigh
from 0.15 ounces (4.3 grams; less than the weight of two pen-
nies) to 13.8 ounces (35 grams).
The fur on horseshoe bats can be a variety of colors, includ-
ing gray-brown and reddish brown fur. Other bats can have gray,
black, dark brown, yellow, or bright orange-red fur. Their fur
is long and soft. These bats have large ears that are typically
pointy and can move independently of one another. Their eyes
are relatively small. The wings are broad with rounded ends.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Horseshoe bats are found in temperate (areas with moderate
temperatures) and tropical regions of the Old World, meaning
the part of the world made up of Australia, Africa, Asia, and
Europe. These bats are found in southern Europe, Africa, and
southern Asia to northern and eastern Australia, including many

Pacific islands. They do not live in the arid (extremely dry) ranges
of Africa. In many areas, these bats have extremely small ranges.
HABITAT
Horseshoe bats live in a wide variety of areas, such as forests,
savannas, open areas, and occasionally in deserts. Horseshoe
bats can live in areas that are cooler than many other bats can
survive. They also have a wide variety of places in which they
roost, meaning rest or settle. Primary roosting sites include caves
and hollow trees. Other roosting sites include buildings, houses,
mines, holes, and tunnels. Some of these bats roost in open ar-
eas. Research indicates that the roosting sites for these bats may
be important factors in determining where they decide to live.
DIET
Horseshoe bats eat insects and spiders.

Like all bats, horseshoe bats are nocturnal, meaning they are
active at night. They begin foraging for their food later in the
evening than most other bats, typically hunting about 20 feet (6
meters) above the ground. Horseshoe bats have a fluttering or
hovering flight. These bats will catch prey (animals hunted for
food) both in flight and on surfaces, such as leaves or branches.
Some species also sit on some type of perch, such as a branch,
and snatch insects as they fly past. When foraging, or searching,
for food on surfaces, called gleaning, these bats find prey on
branches, leaves, rocks, and the ground. The bats will eat the in-
sect in flight if they are small enough. If the prey is a large insect,
they may take their prey back to a roost or a feeding perch. They
can catch the insect in their wings and store it in their cheek.
To locate their prey, horseshoe bats use echolocation (eck-oh-
loh-KAY-shun), a technique in which they send out sounds and
listen to the sounds that bounce back to locate objects. Horseshoe
bats echolocate through their noses, as opposed to most bats,
which send out echolocation calls through their mouths. Using
echolocation, horseshoe bats can detect the flutter of insects’ wings.
Most species gather together to roost, from small colonies
of about twenty individuals, to large colonies of up to 2,000
individuals. One species in particular, the woolly horseshoe bat,
roosts in pairs. These bats hang freely when they roost, not hud-
dling next to one another to keep warm as do many other bats.
When roosting, these bats wrap their wings around themselves,
enclosing their entire body.
Horseshoe Bats 331

Species that live in northern areas may hi-
bernate (deep sleep in which an animal con-
serves energy) during the winter. Other
species go into torpor every day. Torpor is a
period of inactivity in which an animal’s
heart rate slows down to conserve energy. At
SPECIES RECOVERY least one species is migratory, meaning they
travel to warmer areas when the weather be-
With a population that has dwindled comes cool. Many species that hibernate can
down to an estimated 5,000 individuals, awaken easily and change their hibernating
the greater horseshoes are one of sites occasionally, sometimes flying almost a
England’s most rare bats. Concerned about mile (1,500 meters) or more to a new place.
extinction, the country has taken steps In some species, including ones that hiber-
to help this species once again flourish. nate, females mate during the fall, but fertil-
In 1998 the English Nature Greater ization does not occur until the spring. In other
Horseshoe Bat Project was launched with species, mating and fertilization occur in the
the prime goal to increase the species spring. For bats that live in tropical areas, fe-
population by 25 percent by the year 2010. males give birth during the warm summer
With awareness, education, and specially months. In some species, males and females
designated roosting sites, the number of
live together all year, while females form sep-
arate colonies in other species. Gestation (preg-
recorded births in 2003 had reached
nancy) ranges from seven weeks to slightly over
record levels (228). Warmer winters and a
five months. Bats typically have one offspring
reduction in the use of chemicals and
per season, and the babies are independent at
pesticides in farming also contributed to six to eight weeks of age.
population growth.
HORSESHOE BATS AND PEOPLE
People have caused the decline in many
species of horseshoe bats by destroying their habitat. Altering or
disturbing these bats’ habitat can indirectly reduce their prey. The
use of insecticides, a chemical used to kill or control insects, has
also reduced the population of the bats’ prey.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Most species of horseshoe bats are in danger of a decline in
population or have already experienced population loss. Re-
searchers know little about some species of these bats and so
their conservation status is not known. Out of the species listed
in the IUCN Red List, thiry-eight species, there is one species
listed as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction, dying out, in the wild; and two as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. There are also
species that are not considered endangered globally but are in
danger of extinction in specific areas, such as the greater horse-
shoe bat, which is regarded as endangered in Europe.

Greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum)
SPECIES
GREATER HORSESHOE BAT ACCOUNTS
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum
Physical characteristics: The greater horseshoe bats are among the

largest species of its family. The length of their head and body com-
bined ranges from 2.2 to 3.1 inches (5.6 to 7.9 centimeters), and its
wingspan is from 13.8 to 15.6 inches (35 to 40 centimeters). These bats
have large, pointed ears, small eyes, and a flattened face, with a dis-
tinct horseshoe-shaped fleshy disc nose. Fur is fine and silky, typically
light brown to grayish, with a reddish color. The wings and ears are
light gray. Offspring are born gray and turn reddish brown as they grow.
Geographic range: Greater horseshoe bats are found in southern

Europe, Great Britain, India, and southern Asia to southern China
and Japan. In the United Kingdom they are primarily found only in
southwest England and south Wales.
Habitat: These bats live in forest, as well as open land, such as pas-
tures. They roost in caves, mine tunnels, and large buildings.
Horseshoe Bats 333

Greater horseshoe bats can Diet: Greater horseshoe bats eat small- to medium-sized insects,
catch their prey, such as this
including beetles, moths, and flies.
moth, while they are flying.
(© Stephen Dalton/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced Behavior and reproduction: With their broad wings, greater horse-
by permission.) shoe bats fly slowly. These bats can feed by flying low to the ground
and catching prey in flight. They also can wait for their prey on a
perch, snatching the insect as it passes. They take large prey to a
regular feeding perch.
Greater horseshoe bats emerge from their roosts about half an hour
before sunset. Between warmer months, May to August, they typically
return to their roost after about an hour and remain there until they
emerge for a second round of foraging at about dawn. From late
August until May they may remain at their roost all night.
Greater horseshoe bats hibernate. They may start hibernating near
the entrance of caves, then move to sites deeper within the cave as
the weather becomes cooler. The moistness of the caves prevents the
bats from losing too much water from their bodies.
Greater horseshoe bats breed in autumn, from September to
October, and give birth from June to July (where they’ve been stud-
ied in Europe). Females give birth to one young, after a gestation

period of about seventy-five days. The mother hangs upside down
while giving birth and the infant is born into her overlapped wings.
They can live for up to thirty years.
Greater horseshoe bats and people: People have caused the de-
cline of the greater horseshoe bats by disturbing or destroying their
roosts and prey (with pesticide use). In Great Britain, it is estimated
that the greater horseshoe bat population has decreased by 90 per-
cent since 1900.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List classifies the greater horse-
shoe bat as Near Threatened, meaning it is not yet threatened, but could
become so, around the world. But in some areas, such as Europe, this
species is considered endangered by national or regional conservation
groups. ■
Horseshoe Bats 335

Cape horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus capensis)
CAPE HORSESHOE BAT

Rhinolophus capensis
Physical characteristics: The cape horseshoe bat is small to medium

in size, with a head and body length of about 2.4 inches (6.2 cen-
timeters). Its fur on the upper side and wings are dark brown, the back
is lighter brown and the underside is brown to cream in color. It has
the distinctive horseshoe ring around the nose, with a large, wavy tri-
angular leaf extending from the horseshoe up between the eyes.
Geographic range: Cape horseshoe bats are found along the coast-
line of southern Africa.
Habitat: Cape horseshoe bats live along the coast. They are found
in coastal and sea caves.

Diet: Cape horseshoe bats eat mainly beetles.
Behavior and reproduction: These bats catch

their prey while flying slowly and low to the
ground. They also can hunt from perches, waiting
for prey to pass. When roosting, they usually hang
individually, rather than in dense clusters.
They mate in spring, August through Septem-
ber, and young are born from November to
December.
Cape horseshoe bats and people: There is no

known, significant relationship between these bats
and people.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the cape

horseshoe bat as Vulnerable. ■
Books:
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Press,
2001.
Fenton, M. Brock. The Bat: Wings in the Night Sky.
Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Horseshoe Bats.” Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.
press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.rhinolophidae.
Cape horseshoe bats live along
rhinolophus.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
the coast of southern Africa, in
Raabe, Emily. Horseshoe Bats. New York, NY: Powerkids Press, 2003. coastal and sea caves.
(Illustration by Emily Damstra.
Richardson, Phil. Bats. London: Whittet Books, 1985. Reproduced by permission.)
Periodicals:
Griffin, Donald R. “Return to the Magic Well: Echolocation Behavior of
Bats and Responses of Insect Prey.” BioScience (July, 2001): 555.
“Horseshoe Bats Sound Out the Choicest Prey.” New Scientist (March,
2003): 36.
Thi Dao, Nguyen. “My Life as a Forest Creature: Growing Up with the Cuc
Phuong National Park. (This Land).” Natural History (March, 2003): 70.
Horseshoe Bats 337

Web sites:
“Bats in Australia.” Australian Museum. http://www.amonline.net.au/
bats/records/bat15.htm (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Myers, Phil. “Family Rhinolophidae (Horseshoe Bats and Old World Leaf-
Nosed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rhinolophidae.html (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
Roberts, G. M., and A. M. Hutson. “Greater Horseshoe Bat: Rhinolophus
ferrumequinum The Bat Conservation Trust. http://www.bats.org.uk/
batinfo/gr_horse.htm (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“Greater Horseshoe Bat.” BBC Science and Nature: Animals.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/284.shtml (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Greater Horseshoe Bat: Rhinolophus ferrumequinum.” UK Biodiversity
Action Plan. http://www.ukbap.org.uk/ukplans.aspx?ID=550 (accessed
on July 5, 2004).

OLD WORLD LEAF-NOSED BATS
Hipposideridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Hipposideridae
Also called roundleaf bats, Old World leaf-nosed bats vary class
greatly in size. They have a combined head and body length
that ranges from 1.1 to 4.3 inches (2.8 to 11 centimeters). One subclass
species, Commerson’s leaf-nosed bat, is one of the largest order
insect-eating bats of all the microchiroptera (my-kro-keer-OP- monotypic order
ter-ah; one of two bat categories that includes most of the bats
in the world), with a wingspan of about 2 feet (0.6 meters). suborder
These bats are closely related to and share many of the features ▲ family
of horseshoe bats. They have a fleshy fold of skin around their
nostrils called a noseleaf, which is leaf-like in appearance. The
lower part of the noseleaf is shaped like a horseshoe or U-shape,
with leaf-like flaps of skin above that protrude outwards.
The ears of these bats vary in size. They do not have a
tragus (TRAY-gus), a flap of skin in front of the ear opening,
which is common in many bats. These bats have only two bones
in each toe. Their tail length ranges from nothing to approxi-
mately 2.4 inches (6 centimeters). Fur color ranges widely
among the species, from reddish and yellowish to brown and
cream. In several species, males and females have different fur
colors, as well as different body and noseleaf sizes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Old World leaf-nosed bats are found in tropical (hot and
humid weather) and subtropical areas of the Old World, mean-
ing the part of the world made up of Australia, Africa, Asia, and
Europe. They are found in Africa and southern Asia, east to the
Philippine Islands, the Solomon Islands, and Australia.
Old World Leaf-Nosed Bats 339

HABITAT
These bats live in a range of habitats that
include deserts and rainforests. They roost
(settle or rest) in caves, underground open-
ings, buildings, and hollow trees. One
species, the fulvous (FUL-vus) leaf-nosed
TO GROUP OR NOT TO GROUP bat, has been found in burrows of a large
The first accounts of Old World leaf-nosed porcupine in Africa.
bats came in 1831, and the family’s
classification still remains uncertain. Some DIET
scientists consider Old World leaf-nosed Old World leaf-nosed bats eat insects,
bats a subfamily of horseshoe bats. Other although little is known about the specific
researchers maintain that both groups are insects that make up their diet.
distinct families, as they are in this ref-
erence. BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
There is little information on the behav-
ior and reproduction habits of many Old
World leaf-nosed bat species. Most roost in groups that range
widely in size: from about twelve to groups of hundreds, to ap-
proximately 5,000. Some species appear to roost singly. The
primary roosting sites of these bats are caves and tunnels, yet
many roost in tree hollows and buildings.
Old World leaf-nosed bats are nocturnal, or active at night,
as are all bats. When they emerge from their roosts at night,
they use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to forage, search,
for food. Echolocation is the process of detecting objects by
sending out sounds and listening to the sounds that bounce
back from the objects. Old World leaf-nosed bats fly with their
mouth closed and send out sounds through their nose, as op-
posed to most bats that use their mouths. These bats can send
out sound in one frequency and listen to the sounds bounced
back on another frequency.
Observations show they catch their prey in flight. Many hunt
close to the ground, such as the Old World leaf-nosed bat of
the Congo.
These bats mate during the fall and females do not become
fertilized until the following year. Females generally give birth
to a single offspring each year. When the offspring become in-
dependent and sexually mature depends upon the species and
where they live.

OLD WORLD LEAF-NOSED BATS AND PEOPLE
These bats eat many insects that are considered pests to
people. Some species have been harmed by humans destroying
their habitat.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Some of the species in this family are common and others are
rare and vulnerable to threats. Since little is known about many
species in this family, the vulnerability of these bats is not fully
understood. Out of the species that the IUCN lists, two are clas-
sified as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, dying out, in the wild; fifteen as Vulnerable facing a
high risk of extinction, and twenty-three as Near Threatened,
not currently threatened, but could become so.

Trident leaf-nosed bat (Asellia tridens)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT TRIDENT LEAF-NOSED BAT
Asellia tridens
Physical characteristics: These bats have a feature on their nose

that resembles a trident, which is a spear with three prongs. The nose-
leaf is made up of the horseshoe-shaped lower part, the triangle-
shaped central part, and three spear-like projections. The nostrils are
located in the front, and there is a frontal sac behind the noseleaf.
The ears are large and nearly hairless. Fur color ranges and includes
grayish, pale yellow, and orange-brown. Some trident leaf-nosed bats
in Egypt have medium- to dark tan-colored fur. These bats have large
ears and pale faces.
Geographic range: These bats are found in Morocco, Algeria,

Egypt, Libya, Sudan, the Arabian Peninsula, and Pakistan.
Habitat: These bats live in arid (extremely dry) environments. They

have often been observed roosting in caves and artificial structures,
such as tunnels and old temples. Species have also been spotted roost-
ing in underground tunnels and under the iron roof of a shed in Iraq

in June, when the temperature inside the shed was
an estimated 100.4°F (38°C).
Diet: Trident leaf-nosed bats eat beetles, bees,

ants, and wasps.
Behavior and reproduction: Trident leaf nosed

bats catch their prey (animals hunted for food) pri-
marily while they are flying. They also may snatch
up prey from the ground and other surfaces. These
bats forage in vegetated areas and can travel far
across desert areas for food.
Roosts of several hundred individuals have been
observed. One researcher in 1980 discovered a
roost of about 5,000 individuals. When exiting and
entering roosts, these bats have been observed fly-
ing in small groups and low to the ground. In Iraq,
these bats travel to cellars and tombs when they
hibernate, from mid-September to mid-November.
They then return to their summer roosts in April.
Trident leaf-nosed bats and people: By de-

stroying their local habitats, there is some evidence
that humans have caused a decrease in the bats’
population.
Trident leaf-nosed bats live in
Conservation status: The trident leaf-nosed bat is not considered very dry areas, and may travel
to be threatened. ■ far across the desert in search
of food. (Illustration by Joseph
E. Trumpey. Reproduced
FOR MORE INFORMATION by permission.)
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Leaf-nosed Bats.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
world/chiroptera/chiroptera.hipposideridae.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).

Periodicals:
Barr, Brady, and Margaret Zackowitz. “Going Batty.” National Geographic
World (October 2001): 12.
Schnitzler, Hans-Ulrich, and Elisabeth K. V. Kalko. “Echolocation by
Insect-Eating Bats.” Bioscience (July 2001): 557.
Web sites:
“Bat.” World Almanac for Kids. http://www.worldalmanacforkids.
com/explore/animals/bat.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Van Ryckegham, Alain. “How Do Bats Echolocate and How Are
They Adapted to This Activity?” ScientificAmerican.com. http://
www.sciam.com/askexpert_question.cfm?articleID=000D349B-6752-
1C72-9EB7809EC588F2D7 (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“Jungle: Virtual Jungle Survival.” BBC Science and Nature. http://www.
bbc.co.uk/nature/programmes/tv/jungle/vjsurvival.shtml (accessed on
July 5, 2004).

AMERICAN LEAF-NOSED BATS
Phyllostomidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Phyllostomidae
American leaf-nosed bats, also called New World leaf-nosed class
bats, are made up of diverse species. They range from small to subclass
large, with a combined head and body length of 1.6 to 5.3 inches
(4 to 13.5 centimeters). This family includes the largest species order
of bat in the Western Hemisphere, the spectral vampire bat. monotypic order
These bats have a wingspan of about 3 feet (1 meter).
suborder
Some species have visible tails that are as long as 2.2 inches ▲ family
(5.5 centimeters), and others have no tail. These bats have
noseleafs, meaning fleshy protrusions on the nose. Some of these
species have noseleafs that are almost as long as the head, such
as the sword-nosed bat. In most species, the noseleaf is a
relatively simple structure shaped like a spear. Many species have
bumps, warts, and other protrusions on the head near the nose-
leaf or on the chin.
The size and shape of these bats’ heads vary widely and
reflect their diverse feeding habits. Fruit-eating bats, for exam-
ple, may have a medium-sized noseleaf, flat faces, and wide teeth
to crush fruit. Bats in this family that lap up nectar (sweet
liquid produced by plants) have a small noseleaf, long tongue,
and small teeth. Species in this family that eat meat are gener-
ally large and have sharp teeth.
Fur color of American leaf-nosed bats is generally brown or
gray, with the exception of one species, the white bat. Some
species have color patterns that include stripes on the head or
back, or white tufts of fur on the shoulders.
American Leaf-Nosed Bats 345

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These bats are also called New World leaf-
nosed bats because of where they are found.
The New World is made up of North
America, Central America, and South
America. American leaf-nosed bats are found
BLOOD-SUCKING STORIES in the southwestern United States south to
Long before Bram Stoker’s Dracula was northern Argentina, the West Indies, and
published in 1897, there were stories central Chile.
about vampires. In many human cultures,
vampires are people who return from the HABITAT
dead to feed on the blood of living people. Most American leaf-nosed bats live in the
When Spanish explorers spotted vampire forest. They can live in forests that range from
bats when they came to Central and South the dry to the tropical (hot and humid). Some
America in the 1500s, they noticed how their species live in deserts. Many species roost
feeding off the blood of other animals was (settle or rest) in caves or the hollows of trees.
similar to the vampires of their own legends. Other roosts include hollow logs, under tree
A few hundred years later European roots, mines, tree foliage, and houses. Some
explorers traveling in the New World species form tents out of leaves, settling
discovered these bats and brought them under the tent for protection and rest.
back to Europe. The bats were given the
common name vampire bats, after the DIET
vampire myths. Stoker, who lived in England, American leaf-nosed bats eat a broad range
was one of the people fascinated with the of foods and groups in the family are gener-
stories of vampire bats and incorporated ally categorized by diet. Most species eat
them into his story. With the popularity of animals, with the smaller species eating
the novel, bats in general soon became insects and other arthropods (a group of
associated with the blood-sucking vampires invertebrates that have a segmented body
and this stigma continues in modern day. and jointed limbs) and the larger species
feeding on frogs, lizards, birds, and other
bats. Other species eat nectar and fruit. Some
bats frequently eat insects and fruit. Just three species feed on
blood.

American leaf-nosed bats typically form colonies (groups),
yet the numbers in the groups vary widely both within and
among species. Sizes of groups range from pairs to colonies
made up of several hundred thousand individuals.
All species of American leaf-nosed bats use echolocation
(eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to detect objects and catch their prey
(animals hunted for food). Echolocation is when an animal

emits (sends out) high-pitched sounds that
bounce off an object and return to the ani-
mal, which can then tell where the object is.
These bats emit echolocation calls through
their nose rather than their mouth.
Mating and reproduction vary widely
among the species. Spectral vampire bats BATTY FOLKLORE
mate monogamously (muh-NAH-guh-mus- Ancient artwork and hieroglyphics
lee), meaning a male and female mate only (high-ruh-GLI-fix; a writing system that uses
with one another. The most common mating pictures instead of letters) have shown that
system is harem polygynous (HARE-um puh- many cultures in the New World had stories
LIJ-uh-nus), meaning one male mates with about bats in this family. Representations of
multiple females. Females in this family have bats show these bats have a characteristic
one offspring either once or twice a year. noseleaf. Many show bat traits added to a
human figure. In New World myth and art,
AMERICAN LEAF-NOSED BATS the underworld, the world of the dead, was
AND PEOPLE one of the most important themes. Bat
Many of these bats are important pollina- imagery was common because bats share
tors for plants, meaning they disperse pollen, several themes in the underworld, such as
the fine grains that contain the male repro- they are active in the dark, and they roost in
ductive cells of seed plants. These bats help caves, which were considered openings to
forests’ and plants’ continued survival. the underworld. Vampire bats specifically
Through deforestation and destroying these were also part of folklore for the Mayans,
bats’ natural habitat, people have caused the who revered a vampire bat god. “Camazotz,”
decline in many of these bats’ populations. the death bat, killed dying men on their way
Much of the negative myths and superstitions to the center of the Earth. Hieroglyphics and
about bats come from the three species in this graphic drawings of the vampire bat are
family that feed on blood. These vampire bats found throughout the Maya ruins in southern
are considered pests to many farmers and Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras.
feared for the spread of rabies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Out of the seventy-one listed species, the 2003 IUCN Red List
categorizes four species as Endangered (facing a very high risk
of extinction, or dying out, in the wild) and twenty-five species
as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the wild).

California leaf-nosed bat (Macrotus californicus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS CALIFORNIA LEAF-NOSED BAT
Macrotus californicus
Physical characteristics: California leaf-nosed bats are small to

medium sized, with a head and body length combined of 2.1 to
2.5 inches (5.3 to 6.4 centimeters). They have a visible tail that ranges
from 1.4 to 1.6 inches (3.5 to 4.1 centimeters). These bats have a
large noseleaf, large ears, and broad wings. Their fur is brown or gray.
The underside is lighter, typically a brown or tan color.
Geographic range: California leaf-nosed bats are one of only a few

species of this family found in the United States. These bats are found
in southern California and Arizona, as well as northwestern Mexico.
There is also a record of the bat being found in Texas.
Habitat: California leaf-nosed bats live in arid (extremely dry) habi-

tats. They roost in caves, mines, and abandoned buildings. They

often roost in well-lit areas. They select mines and
caves that stay warm in the winter months due
to the heat from the Earth.
Diet: These bats eat insects, such as crickets,

moths, beetles, and a variety of other arthropods.
Behavior and reproduction: California leaf-

nosed bats gather in colonies of hundreds to
thousands. Smaller groups have also been found.
To locate prey, California leaf-nosed bats use
both echolocation and the sounds made by the
prey. They also can use vision to find prey, and
when they do, they stop producing echolocation
calls. They capture their prey both while flying
and from gleaning, picking the prey off surfaces
such as vegetation and the ground. After they
catch it, they take the prey to a roost to eat. They only eat certain California leaf-nosed bats live in
parts of the prey, dropping legs, wings, and other parts of the insect extremely dry places, and
feed on insects and other
on the ground. arthropods. (© Merlin D. Tuttle/
These bats mate in August, September, and October. Males attract Bat Conservation International/
females by flapping their wings and vocal sounds. Females form ma- Reproduced by permission.)
ternity colonies, and the female has one offspring the following spring.
California leaf-nosed bats and people: The disturbance of these

bats’ natural habitats through mining has caused a decrease in these
bats’ population.
Conservation status: The California leaf-nosed bat is listed as

Vulnerable. ■

Vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus)
VAMPIRE BAT
Desmodus rotundus
Physical characteristics: Vampire bats have a combined head and

body length of about 2.7 to 3.7 inches (6.8 to 9.3 centimeters). One
of these bats’ striking features is their pointed front teeth. These bats
have dark grayish brown fur, which is lighter on the underside. Ears
are pointy and there is no visible tail. The thumb is clawed. Females
are generally larger than males.
Geographic range: Vampire bats are found in northern Mexico to

central Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Trinidad.

Vampire bats do feed on
animal blood—usually livestock,
such as pigs or cows.
(M. W. Larson/Bruce Coleman
Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Habitat: Vampire bats live in warm climates, in both tropical and sub-
tropical (nearly tropical, with warm temperatures and little rainfall)
areas. They are commonly found where there is plenty of livestock.
These bats are found roosting in caves, mines, tree hollows, and
occasionally abandoned buildings.
Diet: Vampire bats feed on blood. These bats need about 2

tablespoons (29.6 milliliters) of blood each day; this is about
60 percent of the bat’s body weight. Bats need to feed nightly.
Behavior and reproduction: Vampire bats are social animals; they

roost in colonies that can range from twenty to 100 individuals. Much
larger colonies of thousands have also been found.
Vampire bats approach their intended food source stealthily. They
can walk, run, and hop along the ground, using their strong hind limbs
and thumbs. At night, when vampire bats emerge to hunt for food,
their victims are often sleeping. The bat will land beside the sleeping
animal and then climb up until it finds a feeding spot. With its sharp
front incisor teeth, the bat pierces the animal’s skin and laps up blood
from the wound. Vampire bats have chemicals in their saliva that stops
blood from clotting. The bite rarely wakes a sleeping victim.
These bats occasionally will share the blood with other bats from
its colony. After one female grooms another, the female being
groomed may regurgitate (re-GER-jih-tate; throw up) part of her
blood meal for the grooming female. It is also common to see females
regurgitate food for their offspring.

Vampire bats mate year round. Females typically give birth to one
offspring in April to May, or October to November. The offspring
remain with their mothers for several months after they are weaned.
They often share blood from the same wounds with their mothers.
Vampire bats and people: The fact that these bats feed on blood,
combined with mythological stories about vampires, has caused many
people to fear all bats. While the fears are largely myths, vampire bats
can transmit rabies to humans and animals. These bats have caused
tens of millions of dollars of damage to livestock farmers by trans-
mitting rabies. They are considered pests in many livestock areas
where they live. Also, researchers are investigating the anti-clotting
properties of these bats’ saliva to help with people who have strokes,
in which a blood clot in the bloodstream cuts off blood supply to a
part of the brain.
Conservation status: In areas with lots of livestock, vampire bats

flourish. These are not considered threatened animals. ■

Pallas’s long-tongued bat (Glossophaga soricina)
PALLAS’S LONG-TONGUED BAT

Glossophaga soricina
Physical characteristics: Pallas’s long-tongued bat is named for its

most distinctive feature: its long tongue. It is a relatively small bat,
with a head and body length combined of 1.8 to 2.3 inches (4.5 to
5.9 centimeters). Its visible tail is short, only about a quarter of an
inch (0.6 centimeters). Fur color is dark brown to reddish brown,
and the underside is paler. These bats have a long, narrow snout,
small eyes, and short, rounded ears.
Geographic range: Pallas’s long-tongued bats are found in northern

Mexico, Paraguay, northern Argentina, Trinidad, Grenada, and Jamaica.

Habitat: These bats live in lowland habitats.
They are more commonly found in dry forests than
in wet forests. Bats roost in a variety of sites,
including caves, hollows in trees, mines, and aban-
doned houses.
Diet: Pallas’s long-tongued bats feed on nectar,

pollen, and insects. When those foods are scarce,
they will eat fruit as well.
Behavior and reproduction: Pallas’s long-

tongued bats often share their roosting sites with
other species. They are social animals, forming
colonies of several hundred individuals to a few
thousand. Smaller colonies have also been found.
The bats use their long, narrow tongues to lap
Pallas’s long-tongued bats are nectar from plants. Individuals forage for food independently.
important to their ecosystems
because they disperse seeds Females give birth to a single offspring twice each year. Females
and pollinate flowers, such as form maternity colonies. The seasons of birth vary depending
this banana flower. (© Merlin D. upon where the bats live. In Costa Rica, births occur in December to
Tuttle/Bat Conservation
International/Photo Researchers, February, then in April to June.
Pallas’s long-tongued bat and people: Pallas’s long-tongued bats
are important to the ecosystem because of their role in dispersing
seeds as well as pollinating night-blooming cacti (KACK-tie or KACK-
tee; plural of cactus) and many other species of plants.
Conservation status: These bats are not threatened. ■

White bat (Ectophylla alba)
WHITE BAT
Ectophylla alba
Physical characteristics: These bats are relatively small, with a

combined head and body length of 1.6 to 1.9 inches (4 to 4.7 cen-
timeters). They are named for the color of their fur. The hair over
their entire body is white to a light gray tinge. A ring of dark gray
hair surrounds the eyes. Ears and noseleaf are yellow.
Geographic range: White bats are found from eastern Honduras to

western Panama.
Habitat: White bats live in moist or wet tropical forests. They roost
in makeshift tents about 6.5 feet (2 meters) above the ground.
Diet: White bats eat figs and other fruits.

White bats roost in a “tent” they Behavior and reproduction: White bats modify leaves of plants in the
made from a heliconia leaf in
relatively low-growing plants of forests to make roosts. These bats chew
the rainforest of Costa Rica.
(© Michael & Patricia the large leaves, nipping the center so that the two sides of the leaf fold
Fogden/Corbis. Reproduced by downward to form a “tent,” under which the bats gather. The bats have
permission.) been found roosting singly and in groups of two, four, and six.
White bat females apparently bear only a single young. In Costa
Rica, females give birth in April. The males were observed sharing a
tent with females until the young were born.
White bats and people: There is no known connection between

white bats and people.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List categorizes the white bat
as Near Threatened, or close to becoming threatened. ■

Books:
Books, 1998.

Raabe, Emily. Vampire Bats. New York: Powerkids Press, 2003.
Periodicals:
Clayton, Julie. “Wanted: Bloodsuckers; After Millions of Years of Bloody
Enmity, Humans are Turning to Leeches, Ticks and Vampire Bats
for Help. Julie Clayton Meets Our New Medical Allies.” New Scientist
(July 13, 2001): 42.
“Discovering Bats Beyond the Belfry.” Business Times (November 9,
2001).
Seppa, N. “Compound in Bat Saliva May Aid Stroke Patients.” Science
News (January 18, 2003): 37.
“Stroke Patients get Vampire’s Kiss.” Current Science (April 11, 2003): 13.
“Vampire Bats Don’t Learn From Bad Lunch.” Science News (March 15,
2003): 173.
Web sites:
“The Secret Life of Bats.” Fathom. http://www.fathom.com/course/
21701775/session5.html (accessed on June 21, 2004).
Tomlinson, Denise. “Natural History of the Vampire Bat.” The Organiza-
tion for Bat Conservation at Cranbrook Institute of Science. http://
www.batconservation.org/content/meetourbats/vampire.htm (accessed
on June 21, 2004).
“Phyllostomidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Phyllostomidae.html (accessed on
June 21, 2004).
“Vampire Bats.” NationalGeographic.com. http://www.nationalgeographic.
com/kids/creature_feature/0110/vampirebats.html (accessed on June 21,
2004).

MOUSTACHED BATS
Mormoopidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Mormoopidae
class Moustached bats are named for their moustache-like dis-
tinctive feature. Above their upper lip, they have tufts of stiff
subclass
hair. Their lips are large, with flaps and folds of skin on the
order bottom. When their mouth is open it appears to form a funnel.
monotypic order There are three common names for species in this family: mous-
tached bats, ghost-faced bats, and naked-backed bats.
suborder
These bats are relatively small to medium size. The size of
▲ family these bats’ forearms range in length from approximately 1.4
inches (3.6 centimeters) to 2.6 inches (6.6 centimeters).
Moustached bats have a small bump on their nose and their
eyes are relatively small. All bats in this family have a tail. Ears
vary in size and shape but always have a tragus (TRAY-gus),
meaning a flap of skin at the bottom of the external ear. In
some species, the wings connect to the body at a point high
along the middle of the back, making the surface of the back
appear naked. These bats are commonly referred to as naked-
backed bats. Ghost-faced bats can be easily identified by the
folds of skin that reach from ear to ear, across the chin.
The fur of moustached bats can be gray, bright orange, brown,
or reddish brown. Within species, individuals can vary widely
in color. The fur color of some species in this family may change
in different seasons. Fur in this family is short, fine, and thick.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Moustached bats are found from the southern United States,
including Arizona and southern Texas, through to Mexico,

Central America, and South America to
Brazil, and much of the West Indies.
HABITAT
These bats generally live in tropical (hot
and humid) habitats below 10,000 feet
(3,000 meters). They live in the rainforest, NEW FAMILY: NEW NAME
forest, and in open areas. They generally Mormoopidae have a complex history of
roost in caves, mines, tunnels, and the hol- how they became their own family. These
lows of trees. Some of these bats have been bats were first described in the early
found in houses. 1800s. For most of the twentieth century,
this group was usually considered a
DIET
subfamily of the Phyllostomidae, and
Moustached bats feed on a wide range of given the name Chilonycterinae. (Some
insects, including flies, beetles, moths, and authorities continue to classify the
mosquitoes. mormoopids as only a subfamily of
Phyllostomidae.) Mormoopidae became
accepted as a distinct family and in 1972
Moustached bats generally roost together was given its own name and family.
in large colonies. Observations of the Par-
nell’s moustached bats have found approxi-
mately 5,000 individuals roosting together.
Moustached bats, like all bats, are nocturnal, meaning they
are active at night. At night they emerge to forage for food by
using echolocation, the detection of an object by listening to
reflected sounds that are called out. They catch their prey (an-
imals hunted for food) while flying. In forested habitats, these
bats often search for prey, animals they hunt for food, along
trails and roads and fly low, within 3.3 feet (1 meter) of the
ground. The wings of these bats are associated with the ability
to maneuver, fly rapidly, and remain in the air for long peri-
ods of time.
At the beginning of the rainy season, females give birth to a
single young each year. Gestation (pregnancy) lasts approxi-
mately sixty days.
MOUSTACHED BATS AND PEOPLE

These bats can eat large numbers of nocturnal insects, in-
cluding many that are harmful to crops and ones that are con-
sidered pests, such as mosquitoes. Humans are causing the loss
of population among some species of these bats by destroying
their habitat.
Moustached Bats 359

CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists two species as Near Threatened, meaning they
are not currently threatened, but could become so. MacLeay’s
moustached bat is listed as Vulnerable, meaning it faces a high
risk of extinction.

Parnell’s moustached bat (Pteronotus parnellii)
SPECIES
PARNELL’S MOUSTACHED BAT ACCOUNT
Pteronotus parnellii
Physical characteristics: Like other bats in this family, Parnell’s

moustached bat has distinctive stiff hairs around its mouth. The
fur color is medium to dark brown. These bats are relatively
small with forearms ranging from 2.2 to 2.5 inches (5.5 to 6.3
centimeters). They have wingspan of about 13.4 to 13.8 inches
(34 to 35 centimeters).
Geographic range: These bats are found throughout the Greater

Antilles, Central America, southern Mexico, northern South America
Moustached Bats 361

east of the Andes, northern Colombia, Venezuela,
Brazil, Peru, and the Guianas.
Habitat: Parnell’s moustached bats roost in mines

and caves, generally in large chambers and pas-
sageways far from the cave entrance. These bats live
in habitats ranging from arid to humid, tropical
forests.
Diet: Parnell’s moustached bats eat insects, pri-

marily beetles and moths.
Behavior and reproduction: Parnell’s mous-

tached bats are extremely active. They are most ac-
tive in the early evening. Observations of these bats
in Mexico saw them emerging from their roost
shortly after sunset. Some of the bats returned
within one and a half hours, but most appeared to
remain away from the roost for five to seven hours.
The total number of bats in the cavern system was
estimated at 400,000 to 800,000 individuals. It was
estimated that these bats consumed between 4,190
and 8,380 pounds (1,900 to 3,805 kilograms) of
insects each night.
These bats have a body temperature that varies
with the environment, called heterothermic (het-
ur-oh-THER-mic). When they are feeding, their
body temperature remains high. When at rest, their
Parnell’s moustached bats roost
body temperature and heart rate lower, thus conserving energy. When
in mines and caves, generally in their heart rate slows down to conserve energy, the bats are going into
large chambers and torpor. Protected in their roost, Parnell’s moustached bats can go into
passageways far from the cave
torpor from several hours to several months. If they go into a long-
entrance. (Illustration by Barbara
Duperron. Reproduced by term torpor during the winter months it is considered hibernation.
permission.) These bats catch their prey while flying and can detect insects
through dense vegetation. They are the only species of New World
(North America, Central America, and South America) bat to have
developed specialized echolocation calls. Structures within the ears
of these bats work with the nerve cells to allow the bat to hear nar-
row and specific frequencies. This distinctive call enables the bat to
sense the speed things move at, and thus relate its hearing to mov-
ing objects.
The only time males and females roost together during the year is
when they are mating. Females have one offspring a year after a

gestation period of approximately fifty days. Babies have no fur. Most
of these bats usually give birth at the start of the rainy season, even
though some may mate several months earlier.
Parnell’s moustached bats and people: The relatively large bats

of this species consume large numbers of insects, many of which are
considered pests to humans, such as mosquitoes. One bat is capable
of consuming over 1,000 insects per night. Occasional reports have
connected these bats with rabies, a viral disease that affects the ner-
vous system and can be deadly. Rabies is usually transmitted by the
bite of an infected animal.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not list these bats as

threatened. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Periodicals:
Insect-Eating Bats.” Bioscience (July, 2001): 557.
DeBaca, Robert S., and Clyde Jones. “The Ghost-faced Bat, Mormoops
megalophylla, (Chiroptera: Mormoopidae) from the Davis Mountains,
Texas.” The Texas Journal of Science (February, 2002): 89.
Web sites:
Bat Conservation International, Inc. Discover the Secret World of Bats.
Weinstein, Bret, and Phil Myers. “Family Mormoopidae (Ghost-faced
Bats, Moustached Bats, and Naked-backed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web.
Mormoopidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Moustached Bats 363

BULLDOG BATS
Noctilionidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Noctilionidae
class Bulldog bats’ lips are similar in appearance to a bulldog’s.
The lips are thick and the upper one hangs over the bottom
subclass
lip, forming pouches. Their upper lip is split in the middle. The
order nose, which sticks out slightly over the lip, is long and thick.
monotypic order The ears are pointed and relatively large. Both species have long
legs, and large feet with well-developed claws. The bats have
suborder long, narrow wings. They also have a visible tail. Bulldog bats
▲ family have a strong odor, often described as fishy.
Bulldog bats are relatively large bats, having a combined
head and body length that ranges from approximately 2.2 to
5.2 inches (5.7 to 13.2 centimeters). Males are larger than
females.
Bulldog bat fur is typically short and slightly curly. Fur col-
ors range from bright orange to orange-brown and gray-brown.
There can be a pale stripe running down their backs. The un-
dersides of these bats are lighter in color. At one point re-
searchers thought that male bulldog bats were different in color
than females. Males were said to be bright yellow, brown, and
orange, and females a brown or gray color. Research has shown
that fur color may vary among the species as a whole, and is
not necessarily distinct between the sexes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Bulldog bats are found in Mexico, Central America, and
South America as far south as Argentina. The greater bulldog
bat also lives on islands in the West Indies.

HABITAT
Bulldog bats are found living near water
and in other moist habitats. Greater bulldog
bats generally roost, settle or rest, in dark
caves, often located on the seashore, and the
hollows of trees. Lesser bulldog bats roost in
hollow trees, and in buildings. FLYING WITH BIRDS
Look closely at a group of pelicans
DIET
during the day and you might spot a few
Both species of bulldog bats eat insects, greater bulldog bats, or fisherman bats, in
but greater bulldog bats feed primarily on their midst. While these bats generally feed
fish, along with frogs and crustaceans, fresh- at dusk and during the night, observers
water and saltwater animals with no back- have also seen them in the late afternoon
bone, such as shrimp. The greater bulldog flying alongside pelicans over water.
bat is one of only a handful of bats known Pelicans are large aquatic birds that eat
to eat fish. Lesser bulldog bats feed primar- fish. The bats probably catch small fish
ily on insects. disturbed by the pelicans.
Like all bats, bulldog bats rest during the
day. While bulldog bats may sometimes leave their roost in the
late afternoon, they are most likely to begin foraging for food
at dusk, sunset. Both species catch their prey, animals hunted
for food, using echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun), the tech-
nique of detecting objects from calling out sounds and listen-
ing to the echo reflected from the object. These bats use
echolocation to detect prey in flight, on the surface of the
water, or directly below the water’s surface.
After bulldog bats catch their prey they either eat the insect
in flight or tuck away the partially-chewed food in their cheeks.
These bats have pouches in their cheeks that can stretch to
hold extra food. By storing the food, bulldog bats do not have
to return to their roost after each catch. Mother and father
bulldog bats can store food in their cheeks to bring to their
young.
Bulldog bats are found living in colonies or groups of about
thirty individuals up to several hundred. One kind of colony
has young male bats. Another type of colony is made up of
males, females, and their young. When they begin foraging for
food, groups of up to fifteen leave their colony at the same time.
Female bulldog bats generally give birth to one offspring
once a year. In general, bulldog bats mate in November and
Bulldog Bats 365

December, and then give birth in April through June. Births
have also been recorded in the fall. The newborns can fly and
become independent after one month. Both the male and fe-
male look after the baby, an unusual behavior for bats.
BULLDOG BATS AND PEOPLE

Bulldog bats eat insects that many people may consider pests.
Water pollutants and habitat destruction are likely to harm the
population of bulldog bats.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Bulldog bat species are not listed as threatened.

Greater bulldog bat (Noctilio leporinus)
SPECIES
GREATER BULLDOG BAT ACCOUNT
Noctilio leporinus
Physical characteristics: The greater bulldog bat, also called the fish-
ing bat, is a relatively large bat. These bats have a wingspan of almost
three feet (1 meter), and a combined head and body length ranging
from 4.6 to 5 inches (11.9 to 12.7 centimeters) Males are larger than
females. Their feet and claws are much larger than the lesser bulldog
bats, and their claws are very sharp. The fur is short and repels water.
Geographic range: Greater bulldog bats are found in parts of Cen-

tral and South America, and throughout many islands on the Caribbean.
Bulldog Bats 367

Greater bulldog bats use
echolocation to find ripples
(produced by swimming fish) on
the water’s surface. They drag
their claws through the ripples
and grab the fish with their
claws. (© Stephen Dalton/Photo
permission.)
Habitat: Greater bulldog bats live in lowland and moist habitats that
are near a water source, including the seashore, lakes, river basins,
and ponds.
Diet: Greater bulldog bats eat primarily fish. They also eat crab and
insects, including winged ants, crickets, and scarab beetles.
Behavior and reproduction: Greater bulldog bats typically roost in

caves near a water source and in tree hollows. They roost in colonies
of up to several hundred individuals bats. Each colony may have a
distinctive odor. They emerge at dusk to forage for food in groups of
five to fifteen.
Greater bulldog bats use echolocation to detect the ripples along the
water’s surface, which indicates a fish swimming. Groups of these bats
zigzag low over the water and send out chirpy echolocation calls. The
bats can track fish movement by predicting their speed and direction.
Then they drag their sharp claws through the ripples and snatch the
fish with their large, sharp claws. Once out of the water, the fish is car-
ried to a perch, where the bat eats it. Greater bulldog bats may also

capture insects and crustaceans on the surface of the water. Prey is ei-
ther eaten in flight, stored in its cheeks, or carried to a roost to be eaten.
These bats have powerful wings. If they drop into the water while
they are foraging they can use their wings like paddles. Once they
have gained enough speed in the water the bat lifts itself up into flight.
Female greater bulldog bats generally have a single offspring each
year. The breeding season may vary regionally. In the Northern Hemi-
sphere, mating typically begin in November and the young are born
in May and June.
Greater bulldog bats and people: The health of a population of

greater bulldog bats may act as an indication of water pollution.
Conservation status: Greater bulldog bats are not listed as

threatened. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Bulldog Bats, or Fisherman Bats.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
chiroptera/chiroptera.noctilionidae.noctilio.html (accessed on June 22,
2004).
Raabe, Emily. Bulldog Bats. New York: Powerkids Press, 2003.
Periodicals:
Pennisi, Elizabeth. “Gone Batty: Illuminating the Murky World of Tropical
Bats.” Science News (April 30, 1994): 284.
Insect-Eating Bats.” BioScience (July 2001): 557.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Noctilionidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Noctilionidae.html
Bulldog Bats 369

Pederson, Scott. “Bulldog or Fisherman Bat: Noctilio leporinus.” Bathead.
http://biomicro.sdstate.edu/pederses/guidenlep.html (accessed on
June 22, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy. “Noctilio albiventris minor, Lesser Bulldog Bat.”
DigiMorph. http://digimorph.org/specimens/Noctilio_albiventris/whole

NEW ZEALAND
SHORT-TAILED BATS
Mystacinidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Mystacinidae
New Zealand short-tailed bats are small to medium-sized class
bats. Their head and body length ranges from 2.3 to 3.5 inches subclass
(5.8 to 8.9 centimeters). They can weigh from 0.4 to 1.2 ounces
order
(11 to 35 grams). As their name suggests, these bats have a
short tail. The nose or snout of New Zealand short-tailed bats monotypic order
is relatively long and it sticks out over the lips. suborder
These bats have unique wing membranes, the thin pieces of ▲ family
skin that form their wings. The parts of the wing membranes
that run along the body are thick and leathery. When not
flying, these bats can fold their wings beneath this thick
membrane part.
Fur color on these bats is typically brown-gray or brown-
black, with the tips of the hairs being white to grayish. This
gives the bat a frosted look. The fur is velvety, short, and thick.
New Zealand short-tail bats have relatively large ears. These
bats have thick bodies with short, strong legs. The claws on
their feet are pointy and sharp. The thumbs have a large claw
with a talon, a sharp hooked claw, at the end and each of the
toe claws also has a talon.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
New Zealand short-tailed bats are found on New Zealand
and some of its offshore islands. New Zealand is made up of
two large and many smaller islands in the southwest Pacific
Ocean, east of Australia.
New Zealand Short-Tailed Bats 371

HABITAT
New Zealand short-tailed bats are found in moist forests,
where they roost, settle or rest. These bats also forage, search,
for food along low-growing shrubbery and the coastline. The
greater short-tailed bat was once found on two islands but it
was last sighted in 1967 and is considered extinct.
DIET
New Zealand short-tailed bats eat a broad range of foods.
They are omnivores, meaning they eat both plants and animals,
which is unusual in bats. Their diet includes flying and resting
arthropods, animals without a backbone with jointed legs and
segmented bodies, fruit, nectar, and pollen. The bat has a rela-
tionship with a rare and parasitic plant, called woodrose, or pua
reinga. The flower produces nectar on the forest floor. As the
bats move around eating the nectar they pollinate the plants.
New Zealand short-tailed bats are the woodrose’s only pollina-
tor. Researchers have also observed New Zealand short-tailed
bats sometimes feeding on birds and carrion, animals that have
already been killed.

New Zealand short-tailed bats are active on the ground more
than any other species of bat. Like all other bats, they are noc-
turnal, meaning they are active at night. Several hours after
dusk, they begin foraging for food by running along the ground,
up trees, and along tree branches.
These bats typically roost in the hollow trees of forests. They
have also been found roosting in caves, houses, and in burrows,
holes that they dig in the ground. Observations have shown
that these bats roost in large groups of 100 to 500 individuals
during the day. They also may roost in far smaller groups, and
sometimes singly. When the weather becomes cooler, the bats
go into a state of inactivity called torpor, but they will come
out of their roosts on warmer winter nights to forage, or search,
for food.
To find food, New Zealand short-tailed bats use echoloca-
tion (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun), a technique in which the bats de-
tect objects by sending out high-pitched calls and then listening
to the reflected sound. They also find prey, animals hunted for
food, by listening for movements and using their sense of smell.
They commonly hunt prey on the forest floor, often forming

burrows or holes under leaf litter in the
ground to forage for food. When they tuck
their wings away, these bats use the front
arms like front legs, which helps them move
along the ground.
Female New Zealand short-tailed bats give
birth to one offspring once a year. The timing RAT TROUBLE
of mating and births appears to vary accord- Before humans arrived on New Zealand
ing to their location. Limited observations of there were no predators of bats and they
the greater New Zealand short-tailed bat sug- were free to roam on the ground. When the
gest that a single young may be born from Maori, the first settlers of New Zealand,
spring to autumn. arrived they brought Polynesian rats with
them. Polynesian rats were predators of
NEW ZEALAND SHORT-TAILED BATS
New Zealand bats and they quickly spread.
AND PEOPLE
By the early 1800s, when European
People have caused a population decline settlers arrived in New Zealand, the greater
in the New Zealand short-tailed bats, pri- short-tailed bat had been devastated. It
marily through introducing predators, ani- was extinct over 98 percent of its habitat
mals that hunt the bats for food, and and only survived on two small rat-free
destroying the bats’ natural habitat. In sto- islands. The lesser short-tailed bat was not
ries the Maori (MAH-oo-ree), the original affected as badly.
settlers of New Zealand, associate bats with
a mythical, night-flying bird that foreshad-
ows death or disaster.
The lesser short-tailed bats play an important role in the con-
tinued life of plants in New Zealand. As they feed on nectar
and other plant material, they move from plant to plant and
spread pollen, the fine grains that contain the male reproduc-
tive cells of seed plants. They are the only pollinators of the
woodrose, an endangered and unique flower. These bats also
are predators on insects that people may consider pests.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the lesser New
Zealand short-tailed bat as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of ex-
tinction, and greater New Zealand short-tailed bat as Extinct,
no longer existing. The lesser New Zealand short-tailed bat is
known to be present on several islands. Populations have de-
clined to about ten populations that may contain only a few
thousand individuals.

Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bat (Mystacina tuberculata)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LESSER NEW ZEALAND SHORT-TAILED BAT
Mystacina tuberculata
Physical characteristics: Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats are

a relatively small species of bat. The length of their body and head
together ranges from 2.3 to 2.6 inches (5.8 to 6.6 centimeters). The
wingspan of these bats is 11 to 11.4 inches (28 to 29 centimeters).
There are three subspecies of the lesser New Zealand short-tailed bat,
and all vary in size. The bats that live in the south are larger than
those that live in the north.
Also called a northern short-tailed bat and the New Zealand long-
eared bat, these bats have fur that is short, thick, and velvet-like. Their
fur is typically brown-gray or dark brown in color. The hairs have
white on the tips, which gives these bats a frosted appearance. These

The lesser New Zealand
bats have large, simple ears. The thumbs and each of the toe claws short-tailed bat is the only
have a talon at the end. pollinator of the woodrose, an
endangered and unique flower
in New Zealand. (Illustration by
Geographic range: Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats live on Barbara Duperron. Reproduced
New Zealand and some of its offshore islands. Fossil evidence sug- by permission.)
gests that these bats once lived on all the islands of New Zealand. In
recent years, populations of these bats decreased to only an estimated
ten locations on several islands.
Habitat: Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats are found primarily

in the moist, native forests of New Zealand. They often roost in the
hollows of trees but have also been found roosting in houses, caves,
and burrows. They have been observed foraging for food and flying
along coastlines and in grassy areas with low shrubbery.
Diet: Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats have a wide range of food
options. They eat both flying and non-flying arthropods, nectar,
pollen, fruit, and other plant materials. Observations have also spot-
ted these bats eating both young and adult birds, along with the meat
of animals that are already dead.

Behavior and reproduction: Unlike most bats, the lesser New
Zealand short-tailed bat spends much of its time scurrying about on
the ground, up trees, and along branches. Their ability to fold their
wings up prevents them from injury as they move about. When they
fold up their wings the bats can walk on their hind legs and use their
front arms. These bats still fly but it is not known how much they
use flight.
These bats roost in large groups of 100 to 150 individuals or more,
and also to roost in small groups. They emerge several hours after
dark to search for food. These bats chew out cavities, holes, and tun-
nels to use as roosts.
Researchers are still working to understand these bats’ mating and
reproduction. The bats have a breeding season in which males and
females separate. At dark, males travel to the hollows in trees where
they call out a high-pitched call or song. Females visit and mate with
the males each evening, before they begin foraging for food. Females
give birth to one offspring each year. In the northern populations the
young are born in the summer, January and December; in the south-
ern populations they are born later, April to May. Newborn bats are
furless and born with their eyes open. They are able to fly in four to
six weeks, and reach adult size at eight to twelve weeks.
Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats and people: Because Lesser

New Zealand short-tailed bats eat pollen, nectar, and other plant ma-
terials, they play a significant role in the continued survival of many
plant species. People have had a significant impact in the decline of
the population by introducing bat predators, such as Polynesian rats.
The introduction of other species has also indirectly harmed the bat
population. The Australian brush-tailed possum was introduced to
start a fur industry, and one method of killing the possum is with
cyanide poison that often contains added fruit smells to lure the
animal. Since the lesser short-tailed bat spends a great deal of time
on the forest floor, this poison can attract the bats. It is unknown
how many bats have been killed by this method. People have also
caused the decline of these bats by clearing the forests where these
bats live.
Conservation status: Lesser New Zealand short-tailed bats are pro-

tected by law and listed by the Department of Conservation of New
Zealand as a species of highest conservation priority. The New
Zealand Red Data Books lists this species as Vulnerable to Endan-
gered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near
future. The IUCN lists the lesser short-tailed bat as Vulnerable. ■

Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “New Zealand Short-tailed bats.” Walker’s Mammals
chiroptera/chiroptera.mystacinidae.mystacina.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
Periodicals:
Flannery, Tim. “A Lost Menagerie.” Natural History (November 2001): 66.
“Hunt for the Short Tailed Bat.” Wairarapa Times (February 26, 2000).
Jones, G., P. I. Webb, J. A. Sedgeley, and C. F. O’Donnell. “Mysterious
Mystacina: How the New Zealand Short-Tailed Bat (Mystacina tubercu-
lata) Locates Insect Prey.” Journal of Experimental Biology (December
2003): 4209–4216.
Web sites:
Daniel, Mike. “New Zealand’s Unique Burrowing Bats Are Endangered.”
Bat Conservation International, Inc. http://www.batcon.org/batsmag/
v2n3-1.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“New Zealand Short-tailed bats.” BBC Science and Nature. http://
www. bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/668.shtml (accessed on July
5, 2004).
Weinstein, B., and P. Myers. “Family Mystacinidae (New Zealand Short-
tailed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu/site/accounts/information/Mystacinidae.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).

FUNNEL-EARED BATS
Natalidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Natalidae
class Funnel-eared bats get their name from the shape of their ears,
which are large and formed like a funnel. They are small and
subclass slim with relatively long legs that can be longer than the head
order and body combined. Combined the head and body is approxi-
monotypic order mately 2 inches (5 centimeters) long. Their wings are long and
slender with a slender tail that is completely enclosed in a tail
suborder membrane. They also have small eyes.
▲ family Adult males have a large structure typically in the center of
the forehead called the natalid (NAT-ah-lid) organ. The func-
tion of this is uncertain.
The fur of these bats is soft and long with color ranging from
gray, yellowish, reddish, to deep chestnut. One species, the
Mexican funnel-eared bat, has two color phases, or types: one
in which fur is light, tan to pinkish light brown, and the other
in which fur is darker, a yellowish or reddish brown. The belly
is paler in both phases.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The five species of funnel-eared bats are found in several ar-
eas. One species is found in northern Mexico, eastern Brazil,
and specific Caribbean islands. Another species occurs in north-
ern South America and nearby islands. The other three species
are found on islands in the Caribbean.
HABITAT
These bats live in lowland forests that are dry and deciduous,
forests where the trees lose their leaves at the end of the

growing season. In general, they are found
below 984 feet (300 meters). In Venezuela,
these bats were found in habitats from sea
level to about 8,200 feet (2,500 meters). Typ-
ically, these bats roost, rest or settle, in the
darkest areas of caves and mine tunnels. They
also have been found roosting in tree hollows. WHAT A BABYFACE
DIET The genus (JEE-nus) name Natalus

These bats feed on small insects. comes from the Latin word natus meaning
to be born. (Natus is also the root word for
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION nature.) These bats were given this name
Funnel-eared bats form colonies, groups, of because they are small and look like
up to 300 individuals. Some observations have newborns even as adults.
also found fewer than a dozen individuals.
These bats often roost with other families of
bats. Northern populations may travel to warmer areas in the win-
ter. Some species of bats have been observed hanging singly, alone.
Since they are nocturnal, active at night, funnel-eared bats
leave their roost about half an hour after sunset to forage,
search, for food. They use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun)
to locate their prey, animals hunted for food. Echolocation is
the detection of objects by emitting, sending out, sounds and
listening to the returning sounds that bounce off objects. These
bats flutter their wings rapidly while flying, like a moth, and
can maneuver (mah-NOO-ver) easily. This allows them to en-
ter and exit dense plant growth.
Females bear a single offspring late in the dry season, when
they establish separate maternity colonies. Little is known about
the mating behavior of these bats, but findings show that males
mate with more than one female during the season.
FUNNEL-EARED BATS AND PEOPLE
Bacteria that cause fevers in humans have been isolated in one
species of funnel-eared bat, the Trinidadian funnel-eared bat. Many
bats, such as this one, have bacteria or other organisms associated
with their droppings, waste, that can lead to diseases in people.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists Gervais’s funnel-
eared bat as Near Threatened (not currently threatened, but could
become so in the future), and the Bahaman funnel-eared bat as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Funnel-Eared Bats 379

Funnel-eared bat (Natalus stramineus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT FUNNEL-EARED BAT
Natalus stramineus
Physical characteristics: Funnel-eared bats, also called Mexican

funnel-eared bats, have the funnel-shaped ears that are characteristic
of the family. They have long, slender hind legs. They have black,
stiff hairs above the upper lip, appearing like a moustache, and white
hairs below the lower lip. The natalid organ is shaped like a bell and
covers the muzzle, the snout.
Fur color occurs in both a light and a dark phase. The light phase
is generally a light to medium tan and the dark phase is a reddish
brown. The belly is paler in both phases, and of a similar color.

Geographic range: Funnel-eared bats are found
in northern Mexico to eastern Brazil, Cuba,
Jamaica, Lesser Antilles, and Tres Marias islands
off western Mexico.
Habitat: Funnel-eared bats generally live in de-

ciduous forests. They may also live in moister for-
est areas.
Diet: Funnel-eared bats feed on insects.
Behavior and reproduction: These bats were

found roosting in large colonies with thousands of
individuals in Venezuela. At high altitudes, some
colonies may go into torpor, a dormant state,
during the cooler months.
In general, bats of this species roost in the dark-
est areas of caves and mines. Females form mater-
nity roosts during the breeding season. Gestation,
pregnancy, lasts approximately ten months.
Offspring are born weighing more than 50 percent
of the mother’s weight.
Funnel-eared bats roost in the
darkest areas of caves and
Funnel-eared bats and people: There is no known special signifi- mines. (© Merlin D. Tuttle, Bat
cance between funnel-eared bats and people. Conservation International.
Conservation status: Funnel-eared bats are not considered threat-
ened by the IUCN. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Funnel-eared Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/chiroptera/
chiroptera.natalidae.natalus.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Funnel-Eared Bats 381

Web sites:
Simmons, Nancy. “Natalus stramineus, Mexican Funnel-eared Bat.” Digi-
Morph. http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Natalus_stramineus/head/
Weinstein, B. and P. Myers. “Family Natalidae: Funnel eared bats.”
accounts/information/Natalidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).

SMOKY BATS
Furipteridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Furipteridae
Smoky bats are also commonly called thumbless bats. While class
they do have a thumb, it is small, enclosed in the edge of the
subclass
wing, and can appear invisible. Other bats, on the other hand,
use their thumbs to grip surfaces while crawling, and to hang order
right side up while giving birth. Smoky bats are among the monotypic order
smallest of bats, having a head and body length combined of
1.4 to 2.6 inches (3.5 to 5.8 centimeters). Their forearms are suborder
about 1.2 to 1.6 inches (3 to 4 centimeters) long. Females are ▲ family
slightly larger than males.
These bats appear delicate, with broad wings that are rela-
tively long. The snout is pig-like in appearance, being short and
turned up at the tip. Set close together, the nostrils are oval or
triangular. Ears resemble funnel-eared bats. They are separate,
large, and funnel-shaped, reaching almost to the jaw line. These
bats have tiny eyes that are hidden by fur and their large ears.
They also have long legs and short feet, with claws on the end
of their feet. The tail is relatively long, but it does not reach
past the edge of the tail membrane (layer of thin skin).
The fur is generally coarse. The smoky bat has triangular,
wart-like fleshy projections around its mouth and lips.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The two species of the family are found in different areas.
The thumbless bat is found west of the Andes, from central
coastal Ecuador south to northern Chile. The smoky bat is
found in Costa Rica, lowland Brazil, Peru and Trinidad.
Smoky Bats 383

HABITAT
Furipterids (members of the family Fu-
ripteridae) live in diverse habitats. The thum-
bless bat has been found living in lowland
rainforests to the arid (extremely dry) deserts
of South America to cultivated land. The
BAT RELATIVES smoky bat appears to have a narrower range
There are no known fossils in this family. of habitats, found primarily in lowland,
In general, bats do not fossilize well moist forests. Many of these bats live in iso-
because of their small, delicate skeletons. lated populations. They are found primarily
Scientists consider the smoky bats to in caves, tree hollows, and human-made
be most closely related to Central and structures.
South American disk-winged bats and
DIET
funnel-eared bats.
Bats in this family feed on insects,
primarily moths and butterflies.

Little is known about the species of bats in this family. Be-
cause they are small, agile flyers in isolated populations, smoky
bats are difficult to catch and study. It is known that these bats
roost in colonies (groups) between 100 and 300 individuals.
Like all bats, the smoky bats become active at night (noc-
turnal). The long and broad shape of their wings allows them
to fly slowly and with great agility to forage, search, for moths
and butterflies. This also gives them the ability to forage for
prey (animals eaten for food) in dense forest undergrowth.
SMOKY BATS AND PEOPLE

People have caused the decline of the species in this family
due to harming their natural habitats.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List categorizes
the thumbless bat species as Vulnerable, meaning it is facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild. The smoky bat is not con-
sidered threatened.

Smoky bat (Furipterus horrens)
SPECIES
SMOKY BAT ACCOUNT
Furipterus horrens
Physical characteristics: The smoky bat is the smaller of the two

species in this family. Head and body length is approximately 1.3 to
1.6 inches (3.3 to 4 centimeters), and their forearms can range from
1.2 to 1.6 inches (3 to 4 centimeters). These bats weigh about 0.1
ounces (3 grams)—only slightly more than the weight of a penny.
Females are larger than males by about 10 to 15 percent.
These bats have dense fur. Fur on the head is long and thick. Fur
color ranges from brownish gray, dark gray, to a slate blue. Color on
the belly is paler. The fur on these bats’ head is long and thick. It
covers the head and reaches to the snout, almost concealing the
Smoky Bats 385

mouth. Ears are dark and stiff, and the snout is
black.
Geographic range: These bats are found from

Costa Rica to southern Brazil, including Venezuela
and Colombia. They are also found on Trinidad
but they have not been found on any other
Caribbean island.
Habitat: These bats live primarily in humid rain-

forests of Costa Rica south to Brazil. They often live
near streams. They have also been found in ever-
green forests and clear areas. They have been found
in caves, hollows in trees, and beneath rotting logs.
Diet: Smoky bats eat small moths.
Behavior and reproduction: These bats fly slowly

and flutter similar to the way moths fly. These bats
wait for complete darkness before they leave their
roost to begin foraging. They search for prey
beneath the forest canopy, at heights ranging from
3.2 to 16.4 feet (1 to 5 meters).
Colony size varies but it appears these bats do
group together in relatively large numbers. One
colony observed contained fifty-nine individuals.
The smoky bat has a reduced Another found colony contained approximately 250 individuals di-
thumb that is enclosed in the
vided into groups of four to thirty roosting in holes in the walls. In
wing membrane. (Photograph by
Maarten Vonhof. Reproduced by another cave there were 150 bats roosting separately from one other.
permission.) Discovered colonies primarily include males, females, and young.
Observations have also found there are all-male colonies, suggesting
that females may have separate sites to raise their young.
Smoky bats and people: There is no known connection between

smoky bats and people.
Conservation status: These bats are not considered threatened. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.

Nowak, Ronald M. “Smoky Bats, or Thumbless Bats.” Walker’s Mammals
chiroptera/chiroptera.furipteridae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Web sites:
Simmons, Nancy. “Furipterus horrens Thumbless Bat.” DigiMorph.
http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Furipterus_horrens/whole (ac-
Weinstein, B., and P. Myers. “Family Furipteridae (Smoky Bats and Thum-
bless Bats.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu/site/accounts/information/Furipteridae.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
Smoky Bats 387

DISK-WINGED BATS
Thyropteridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Thyropteridae
class These bats are about the size of a person’s thumb, having a
head and body length that ranges from 1.2 to 2.3 inches (3 to
subclass
5.7 centimeters). They weigh from 0.10 to 0.17 ounces (3 to
order 5 grams), about the same weight as one to two pennies.
monotypic order These bats are also called New World sucker-footed bats,
named after the suction cup-like feature found on their feet.
suborder
These bats have circular suction cup disks with short stalks on
▲ family the soles of the feet and the bottom of their thumbs. The disks
on the thumb are larger than those on the feet. They also have
a well-developed claw on their thumb.
Bats in this family have small eyes. There is a small wart-like
projection above the nostrils, and there is no noseleaf (leaf-
shaped fleshy protrusion). The tail juts out freely past the mem-
brane (thin layer of skin), so it is visible. The ears are large and
shaped like a funnel. The muzzle is long and slender. Nostrils
are circular and set relatively far apart.
Species in this family have long, fluffy hair. Fur color ranges
from a medium reddish brown to slightly darker. The under-
sides of these bats are white or brown. The ears can be either
black or yellow.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
These bats are found in Central and South America, east of
the Andes, including southern Nicaragua to the Guianas and
Peru, and southern Mexico to Bolivia and southern Brazil, and
Trinidad.

HABITAT
Disk-winged bats live in the moist parts of
forests. They are common in many areas, and
in Costa Rica there are up to four colonies
(groups) for every 2.5 acres (1 hectare). They
generally roost (rest or settle) in a curled leaf
of some plant, such as the heliconia plant or SUCKER COUSINS?
the banana tree, before the leaf opens. One of the puzzling features of the
disk-winged bats is their relationship to the
DIET Old World sucker-footed bat. Both families
Disk-winged bats eat insects. of bats feature suction-like disks that allow
them to grip onto vertical, smooth surfaces.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION Yet the Old World sucker-footed bat is
Disk-winged bats use only their suction- found primarily in the rainforests of
like disks to grip and stick to the smooth sur- Madagascar, far away from where New
faces of the curled-up leaves in which they World disk-winged bats are found. The Old
roost. They do not use their feet or claws to World bat also has suction cups on its
touch the surface of the leaves. thumbs and roosts in young, rolled leaves,
but their suction cups are thought to be the
These bats can support their entire weight
result of an evolutionary convergence with
with the suction of a single disk. Sweat
the suction cups of the New World bats.
glands keep the disks’ undersurfaces moist,
This means that both groups of bats
which helps provide the vacuum seal for
evolved the suction cups separately, not as
sticking to the surface. Beneath each disk is
a result of their relationship to one another.
a muscle that controls the vacuum. This mus-
Unfortunately, there is no fossil record for
cle can create the seal and, when the bat
the New World disk-winged bats.
wants to come unstuck, the muscle also un-
does the seal. These bats will also lick their
disks to help with the suction. Studies have
found that these bats have lost the ability to roost on rough
surfaces, such as trees and rocks.
Generally only one or two disk-winged bats roost in the same
leaf, yet observers have found as many as eight individuals in
one leaf. Roosting inside curled leaves protects them from the
weather and predators. Leaves open within days, and groups
must change roosts often.
Like all bats, these bats are nocturnal, meaning that they are
active at night. When more than one bat roosts in a leaf, these
bats spread out evenly, one above the other. In Costa Rica, a
study reported that group sizes ranged from one to nine, and
averaged six bats. Generally, the same group moves together
from one old leaf to a new roosting site. Bats in this family
Disk-Winged Bats 389

have been found roosting with bats in another family, the pro-
boscis bat.
Unlike most other bats, individuals in this family typically
hang with their head upward. Disk-winged bats use echoloca-
tion (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to find prey (animals hunted for
food) and detect objects. Echolocation is a process for locating
objects by emitting, sending out, sounds, which are reflected
back to the bat by objects in the sound’s path.
Females roost together in hollow logs to give birth. Males in
this family are thought to be polygynous (puh-LIJ-uh-nus),
meaning they mate with more than one female during the mat-
ing season.
DISK-WINGED BATS AND PEOPLE

People have caused the decline in this family’s population
due to disturbing and destroying their natural habitat. Because
they feed on insects, these bats eat many insects that people
may consider pests.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although these bats are common in some areas, the IUCN
lists Thyroptera lavali as Vulnerable. In 1999, findings observed
that Thyroptera lavali was restricted to a small area in extreme
northeastern Peru.

Spix’s disk-winged bat (Thyroptera tricolor)
SPECIES
SPIX’S DISK-WINGED BAT ACCOUNT
Thyroptera tricolor
Physical characteristics: Fur color of Spix’s disk-winged bats ranges

from dark brown to reddish brown. Their undersides are a cream or
yellow, and their ears are blackish. The sides of their bodies are an in-
termediate color, which is why they were given the name tricolor,
which means to have three colors. These bats weight about 0.14 ounces
(4 grams). They have a head and body length combined of 1 to 1.5
inches (2.7 to 3.8 centimeters). Females are slightly larger than males.
Geographic range: Spix’s disk-winged bats are found in tropical

forests from Veracruz, Mexico to southeast Brazil.

Spix’s disk-winged bat roosts
with its head upright. Most other
bats, besides disk-winged bats,
hang upside down. (Brock
Fenton. Reproduced by
permission.)
Habitat: Spix’s disk-winged bats have been found in rainforests,

swamps, and clearings. They have generally been found living below
2,625 feet (800 meters) and have not been recorded living above 4,265
Diet: Spix’s disk-winged bats feed on insects, such as small bee-

tles and flies. Spix’s bats eat about 20 percent of its weight each
night.

Behavior and reproduction: This species roosts in young, partly
uncurled leaves. They are found roosting in leaves of heliconia plants,
recognizable by their large leaves. Roosts contain about six individ-
ual bats, composed of one or more adult males, several females and
several juveniles of both sexes. Female Spix’s bats have been observed
taking their offspring for the evening flight in search of food.
These bats are polygynous, meaning that the bats mate with more
than one female at a time. These bats breed twice annually. Gestation
(pregnancy) lasts about two months. For the first month of life off-
spring either remain in the roosts or cling to their mothers when they
go out to feed, even though young can weigh up to 46 percent of the
mother’s weight. Offspring can generally fly after one month.
Spix’s disk-winged bats and people: Aside from eating insects

some people consider pests, these bats have no known significant re-
lationship with people.
Conservation status: These bats are not considered threatened. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Disk-winged Bats, or New World Sucker-footed
Bats.” Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/
walkers_mammals_of_the_world/chiroptera/chiroptera.thyropteridae
.thyroptera.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Ruff, Sue and Don E. Wilson. Bats. New York: Benchmark Books, 2001.
Schober, Wilfried and Eckard Grimmberger. The Bats of Europe and
Periodicals:
Reebs, Stephen. “Sticky Situation.” Natural History (June 2002): 16.
Milius, Susan. “Save Our Sounds: In Some Libraries, Noise is Good.”
Science News (September 14, 2002): 16.
Web sites:
Clarke, Diana. “Nomads of the New World Tropics.” The Sun and Your Skin.
http://yourskinandsun.com/article1091.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).

Weinstein, B., and P. Myers. “Family Thyropteridae (Disc-Winged Bats).”
accounts/information/Thyropteridae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).

OLD WORLD
SUCKER-FOOTED BAT
Myzopodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Myzopodidae
One species: Old World
sucker-footed bat
family C H A P T E R (Myzopoda aurita)

Also known as the Madagascar sucker-footed bat, the sucker- class
footed bat family has only one known species. Bats in this fam-
subclass
ily are small to medium in size, having a head and body length
combined of 2.3 inches (5.7 centimeters), and a tail length of order
approximately 1.9 inches (4.8 centimeters). The tail extends monotypic order
beyond the tail membrane (layer of thin skin). The bat weighs
about 0.3 ounces (8 grams). suborder
Old World sucker-footed bat is named after the suction-like ▲ family
pads or disks on their wrists and ankles. These pads are horse-
shoe shaped. They are attached directly to the feet and ankles,
without a stalk as in the disk-winged bats.
Old World sucker-footed bats have large ears, which are
about 1.2 to 1.4 inches (3 to 3.5 centimeters) long. The ears
do not have a tragus (TRAY-gus), which is a small flap of flesh
in front of the opening of the ear. The upper lip extends be-
yond the lower lip. Their thumbs are small and have a vesti-
gial (ves-TIJ-ee-al; not fully developed) claw.
These bats are occasionally called golden bats because of
their fur color. Their moderately thick fur is brown to golden
brown in color with some reddish shades.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
This species has been found only in Madagascar. It has been
observed primarily from areas that stretch the full length of the
east coast, and one area on the west coast. There are fewer than
twenty localities where this bat has been recorded.
Old World Sucker-Footed Bat 395

HABITAT
Old World sucker-footed bats are found
primarily in the rainforests along eastern
Madagascar.
DIET
FAMILY MATTERS
An examination of one bat’s droppings
The relationship between the Old World found that moths were its main food source.
sucker-footed bat and the New World It is not known what other prey (animals
disk-winged bats has long interested eaten for food) or other foods the bats
researchers given that both families may eat.
feature suction-like disks. The Old World
sucker-footed bat, now only found in BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Madagascar, is thought to have lived in Little is known about the behavior and
East Africa at one time. The suction cups mating habits of these bats. Their suction
appear to have evolved independently disks allow them to cling onto smooth sur-
of those found on disk-winged bats. faces, yet they do not appear to hold the bat’s
Sucker-footed bats were discovered in body as tightly to a vertical surface as those
1878 and classified as a distinct family in of the disk-winged bats. The bats probably
1904. They were considered closely related use the pads to hold on to the smooth, hard
to the disk-winged bats, and grouped stems and leaves of palms and other smooth
together under one superfamily. Yet recent surfaces.
findings have put this relationship in
question. The sucker-footed bat may have
They have been found roosting (resting or
evolved at a much earlier date than the
settling) in the unrolled leaf of a traveler’s
disk-winged bats, and may not be able to
palm. One bat was discovered over a small
be grouped with any other bat family.
stream, another in a vanilla plantation, and
one in a sparsely forested area over a path
close to a stream. These bats have also been
recorded flying over urban areas. They prob-
ably roost in a variety of palm species and other similar types
of plants.
Like all bats, Old World sucker-footed bats are nocturnal,
meaning that they are active at night. One bat was caught in a
net about one hour after sunset.
Old World sucker-footed bats can maneuver (mah-NOO-ver)
well in flight. They have been observed spending long periods
of time hovering over freshly dug and planted paddy fields, as
well as within forest clearings. It is assumed they were feeding
in these areas.
These bats use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to cap-
ture their prey. Echolocation is the process for locating objects

by emitting, or sending out, sounds, which are
reflected back to the bat by objects in the
sound’s path. Old World sucker-footed bats
emit relatively long echolocation calls with
complex frequency modulated (FM) calls.
No information is available about this
species’ mating and breeding habits.
OLD WORLD SUCKER-FOOTED BATS

AND PEOPLE
These bats are considered extremely rare
and the IUCN defines the loss of forest due to
human interference as the most likely threat
to this species.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Old-World sucker footed bats are considered one of the Old World sucker-footed bat
world’s rarest species. The IUCN Red List categorizes these bats (Myzopoda aurita). (Illustration by
Jonathan Higgins. Reproduced
by permission.)
Old World sucker-footed bat (Myzopoda aurita)
Old World Sucker-Footed Bat 397

as Vulnerable, meaning they are facing a high risk of extinc-
tion in the wild.
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Sucker-footed Bat.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
chiroptera/chiroptera.myzopodidae.myzopoda.html (accessed on July 5,
2004).
Russ, Jon, and Daniel Bennett, eds. The Bats of Madagascar: A
Field Guide with Descriptions of Echolocation Calls. Glossop, U.K.: Viper
Press, 2001. http://mampam.50megs.com/bats/madagascar/2000/
mad2000. pdf (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Family Myzopodidae (Old World Sucker-Footed Bat).” Animal
information/Myzopodidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Simmons, Nancy. “Myzopoda aurita, Old World Sucker-Footed Bat.”
DigiMorph. http://www.digimorph.org/specimens/Myzopoda_aurita/head/

FREE-TAILED BATS AND
MASTIFF BATS
Molossidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Molossidae
Molossids (mol-LOSS-ids; members of the family Molossi- class
dae) range widely in size from small to moderately large bats.
subclass
They have a forearm length of approximately 1.1 to 3.4 inches
(2.7 to 8.5 centimeters), and weigh from 0.2 to 3.8 ounces (5 to order
167 grams). Free-tailed bats are named for their thick tail that monotypic order
extends far beyond the tail membrane (thin layer of skin). The
mastiff bats are named after their facial resemblance to the mas- suborder
tiff dog. ▲ family
Some species of molossids have a distinctive wrinkled upper
lip, while others have a smooth upper lip. Muzzles of all these
bats are generally short and wide and often have wide, fleshy
lips that may have folds or creases. Many have a distinctive pad
over their noses. The upper surface of this pad often has small
horn-like projections. Ears of free-tailed bats are relatively short
and thick, often joined across the forehead and point directly
forward. The eyes of these bats are relatively small, while the
lips are large. All species have long and narrow wings that are
thick and, along with the tail, are covered in a leathery mem-
brane. Molossids also have short, strong legs and broad feet.
On the outer toes of each foot are curved bristles that the bat
uses for grooming its fur.
Molossids generally have short, velvety fur. One group of
bats in this family is called the hairless bats because their hair
is so short that the animal appears to be naked. Some species
have a crest of hairs on the top of the head that stands upright.
Fur color may be gray, tan, black, or brown. Many species have
Free-Tailed Bats and Mastiff Bats 399

two color phases, or types, a reddish one and brownish or black-
ish color phase.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Molossids are found throughout the world’s warmer areas.
They are primarily found in South America and Africa, as well
as from southern Europe and southern Asia through Malaysia,
and east to the Fiji Islands. They are also found in the central
and southern part of the United States, south through the West
Indies, Mexico, and Central America to the southern half
of South America. Except for one other family of bats, the
Vespertilionidae, molossids are found in the widest geographic
area.
HABITAT
With molossids spread out all over the world, they are found
living in a wide range of habitats. They are commonly found
in both natural and urban areas. These bats are most plentiful
in arid (extremely dry) and semi-arid conditions. They prefer
to live in temperatures that are at least 110°F (43°C). These
bats roost (rest or settle) in sites such as caves, tunnels, build-
ings, hollow trees, foliage, decayed logs, and holes in the
ground. They also shelter under bark, rocks, and iron rooftops.
DIET
Molissids eat a variety of insects, such as moths and ones
with hard shells, such as beetles and stinkbugs.

Molossids are generally strong flyers that can fly quickly for
long periods of time. Like all bats, these bats are nocturnal,
meaning they are active at night. These bats fly all night,
whereas other bats typically fly a short time during the night.
They can fly six or seven hours without stopping.
Molossids catch their prey using echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun), a technique where the bat detects objects by re-
ceiving the reflection of sounds it produces. They fly with their
mouths open and send out echolocation calls. They forage,
search for food, in groups and head towards large swarms of
insects. They also look for food around streetlights, which at-
tract insects, such as moths. They generally catch their prey
while they are flying.

THAT’S A LOT OF GUANO
A colony with thousands or millions of bats caves, using mining cars to transport guano
will produce a lot of guano, and people have to the cave entrance. Most of the guano was
been putting these droppings to use for a shipped to southern California to help the
long time. Before people began to sell guano developing citrus industry. In about twenty
as fertilizer, the Confederate Army was using years of operation, over 100,000 tons of
guano during the Civil War (1861–1865), as guano was taken from Carlsbad Cavern. Six
a source of gunpowder. It is thought that this companies attempted to make a profit in this
guano was collected from the Brazilian free- venture, but all failed due largely to high
tailed bat. In the late 1800s came the transportation costs. Bat droppings in
discovery of the millions of bats in Carlsbad Carlsbad Caverns over the past 17,000 years
Caverns, New Mexico, and their associated have formed guano deposits covering several
guano, which was valuable. In the early thousand square feet to a depth of almost
1900s mining operations started in the 50 feet (15 meters)!
Because they live in warm areas, molossids do not need to

hibernate (become inactive in the cooler months to conserve
energy). Some of these bats travel to even warmer areas in the
winter.
Molossids have a range of roosting habits, from solitary to so-
cial, living in large colonies (groups) of millions of individuals.
Between those two extremes, sizes of colonies range from hun-
dreds to thousands of individuals. Most of these bats do form
colonies in the size of a few tens to several hundred individu-
als. Molossids generally return to their roosting sites every year.
Their colonies generally give off a strong, musky odor.
Little is known about the mating habits of most molossids.
Most species are considered polygynous (puh-LIJ-uh-nus),
meaning the male mates with more than one female during the
mating season. Females of most species appear to produce one
offspring per year. Two young are born on rare occasions, and
the black mastiff bat in Trinidad possibly has two litters per
year. During pregnancy, females generally form maternity
colonies that are separate from the males. In these colonies, fe-
males relocate and nurse their young independently.

MOLOSSIDS AND PEOPLE
Like many insect-eating bats, molossids eat many insects
that humans consider to be pests. The one hundred million
Mexican free-tailed bats that live in Texas in the summer eat
an estimated 1,000 tons (907 metric tons) of insects each night,
many of which destroy crops. In California and other areas,
farmers build bats houses to attract these bats so they will eat
the pests. People also collect the bat droppings (guano; GWAH-
no) of molossid bats that live in large colonies, using the guano
as a fertilizer as it is rich in nitrogen. Some species of these bats
have also been associated with spreading disease, such as ra-
bies. Rabies is a viral infection that attacks the nervous system
and can be deadly.
People have caused the decrease in population of molossids
by destroying and disturbing their natural habitat. These bats
have also been harmed through eating insects that have come
into contact with pesticides, chemicals designed to control pests.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The survival of many of these species is under threat. The
IUCN lists Gallagher’s free-tailed bat, Niangara free-tailed bat,
and Wroughton free-tailed bat, as Critically Endangered, mean-
ing they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
The Incan little mastiff bat is listed as Endangered, meaning it
faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild. Fifteen other
species are listed as Vulnerable, meaning they face a high risk

Naked bat (Cheiromeles torquatus)
SPECIES
NAKED BAT ACCOUNTS
Cheiromeles torquatus
Physical characteristics: Naked bats are the largest molossids, with

a head and body length ranging from 4.5 to 5.8 inches (11.5 to
14.5 centimeters). They weigh from 3.2 to 5.7 ounces (96 to 170 grams).
Also called naked bulldog bats, these bats are almost completely hair-
less. They have scattered short hairs and bits of longer hair around
a scent gland on their neck. This haired gland produces a strong,
foul odor.
These bats have loose, dark gray, brown, or black skin. A naked
bat has bristles on its toes, which it uses for cleaning and grooming.
Another distinguishing characteristic of the bat is the pocket of skin
along its sides. These flaps of skin form a wing pouch that the bat

The naked bat is the largest bat
in its family. They are called
“naked” bats because they have
very little hair on their bodies.
(© Simon D. Pollard/Photo
permission.)
folds its wings into when it rests. Ears are separate and their lips are
smooth. Big toes have a flat nail instead of the typical claw.
Geographic range: Naked bats are found in Southeast Asia, in-

cluding Malaysia, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, and sur-
rounding islands.
Habitat: These bats live in tropical forests and several live on islands.
They roost in caves, rock crevices, tree hollows, and holes in the ground.
Diet: Naked bats feed on insects, primarily termites and winged ants.
Behavior and reproduction: Naked bats are strong, fast fliers. They
fly high above the forest canopy (the tops of trees) or above clearings
to forage, or search, for food. When they fold their wings into their
pouch, these bats can move about relatively easily on all four limbs.
This species of bat roosts in large colonies. Nearly a thousand in-
dividuals were observed in a hollow tree, and a colony of about 20,000
was observed in a cave in Borneo.

There are usually two offspring. The young are most likely left in
the roost when the parents leave to forage for food in the evening.
Naked bats and people: In certain areas, most of the forest habi-
tat of the naked bat has been destroyed by development, logging, and
cultivation. People have hunted these bats for food and killed them
because they mistakenly believed these bats were harming their crops.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List categorizes these bats as

Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so. In
specific areas, this species has significantly declined, and is protected
by law. ■

Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis)
BRAZILIAN FREE-TAILED BAT

Tadarida brasiliensis
Physical characteristics: Also called the Mexican free-tailed bat,

Brazilian free-tailed bats are small to medium in size, with a total head
and body length of approximately 3.8 inches (9.5 centimeters).
Geographic range: Brazilian free-tailed bats are found in the south-

ern half of the United States, as well as Mexico, Central America,
South America to southern Chile and Argentina, and much of the
Lesser and Greater Antilles.

Habitat: Brazilian free-tailed bats are primarily
found in arid and semi-arid habitats. They are also
found in urban areas, moist forests, and grassland
areas. These bats roost in caves, mine tunnels, tree
hollows, and under bridges. They also are fre-
quently found in and around buildings.
Diet: These bats feed on a range of insects, in-

cluding moths, beetles, weevils, mosquitoes, flying
ants, and leafhoppers.
Behavior and reproduction: Brazilian free-tailed

bats are best known for their immense roosting
colonies. While roosts of several dozen have been
found, these bats also roost in colonies that reach
the millions. A colony that lives in Bracken Cave,
Texas, makes up the largest colony of mammals in
the world, with an estimated twenty million indi-
viduals in this summertime maternity colony. They
Brazilian free-tailed bats may
fly high above the ground when foraging for prey, except when sweep-
roost in colonies of millions of
ing over a body of water to drink. bats. These are some of the
Mating among these bats is considered promiscuous (prah-MISS- largest colonies of mammals in
the world. (John Hoffman/Bruce
kyoo-us), meaning males and females mate with more than one other Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
bat. Females bear a single offspring once a year in May to July. In permission.)
maternity roosts where millions of bats are packed tightly together,
mothers are able to identify and nurse their own young.
Brazilian free-tailed bats and people: Many of the insects these

bats eat are considered pests by humans. These bats are also known
carriers of rabies.
Conservation status: Many of the large colonies have declined dra-

matically in numbers. The IUCN lists Brazilian free-tailed bats as Near
Threatened. ■
Books:
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Free-tailed Bats and Mastiff Bats.” Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,

1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
chiroptera/chiroptera.molossidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Raabe, Emily. Free-Tailed Bats. New York: Powerkids Press, 2003.
Periodicals:
Bowers, Barbara. “Going to Bat for the Bats.” Audubon (December
2003): 86
Finnegan, Lora J. “Bats about Bats.” Sunset (July 1993): 38
Kerner, Sarah. “In the Bat Cave: These Guys Got an Up-close Look at
One of the World’s Most Misunderstood Creatures. Lesson Learned: Bats
get a Bad Rap!” Boys’ Life (June 2003): 18
McCracken, Gary F., and John K. Westbrook. “Bat Patrol: Scientists
Discover That High-flying Mammals are Bad News for Bugs.” National
Geographic (April 2002): 114
Vine, Katy. “Pow (Going Batty)!” Texas Monthly (January 2004)
“Wings in the Dark.” Weekly Reader (October 31, 2003): 4
Web sites:
“Natural Resources: The Bat Colony.” Carlsbad Caverns National Park:
National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/cave/bats.htm (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Discover the Secret World of Bats.” Bat Conservational International,
Inc. http://www.batcon.org (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Kee, Lim Gaik. “Bats are Pollinators not Pests.” Nature Watch. http://
habitatnews.nus.edu.sg/pub/naturewatch/text/a062b.htm (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Malaysian Bat Conservation.” EarthWatch Institute. http://www
.earthwatch.org/expeditions/kingston/meetthescientists.html (accessed
on July 5, 2004).
“Naked Bat (Cheiromeles torquatus).” The Forest Department: Sarawak,
Malaysia. http://www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my/forweb/wildlife/mgmt/tpa/
nbat.htm (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Myers, P. “Family Molossidae (Free-tailed Bats).” Animal Diversity Web.
Molossidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).

VESPERTILIONID BATS
Vespertilionidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Chiroptera
Family: Vespertilionidae
species
Although this group of bats is large and contains many class
different-looking species, they do share several characteristics.
subclass
Compared to many other bats that have what might be described
as bizarre noses with flaps and other fleshy decorations, the ves- order
pertilionid (ves-per-TILL-ee-on-id) bats have plain faces. They monotypic order
are even known as the “plain-faced bats.” Some species have noses
shaped like tubes, however, with nostrils at the end of the tube. suborder
The “webbed tail,” known as a patagium (pah-TAY-jee-um), ▲ family
is actually a membrane or a thin bit of skin that stretches be-
tween the hind legs and aids the bat in flight. In these bats, the
patagium is hairless. Their ears are noticeable and sometimes
quite large, and they also have tails at the middle of the patag-
ium that can be as long as the body. All have an obvious out-
growth, called a tragus (TRAY-gus), arising from the bottom of
the ear. Most of them have small eyes. Overall body length
ranges from about 1.4 to 5.5 inches (3.5 to 14 centimeters) and
weight from 0.01 to 1.6 ounces (2.5 to 45 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Vespertilionid bats live in temperate to tropical climates
worldwide. They are absent from far northern North American
and Eurasia, as well as Antarctica.
HABITAT
The habitat varies in this large group of animals. Many of
them spend the day resting in caves, or in tight little places,
Vespertilionid Bats 409

like cracks in a house or a barn, underneath bark or in the hol-
low of a tree. Some even rest during the day, a behavior called
roosting, inside curled leaves or in other sheltered spots within
vegetation. At night, when they become active, the bats are
often seen flying above open spaces, or over or near wetlands,
rivers and streams, and lakes and ponds. During winter months,
the bats typically hibernate. In colder climates, the bats over-
winter in caves or other places with relatively stable tempera-
tures. In warmer climates, they may simply choose a spot
beneath a loose piece of bark or in the hollow of a tree.
DIET
The diet for most of the vespertilionid bats consists of in-
sects, and many species eat their body weight in insects each
night. A few species eat other things, including spiders, scor-
pions, fish, and lizards.

Like other bats, the vespertilionid bats use sound waves to
find their way through their habitat and to find food. They make
high-pitched sounds, ones that we cannot hear, and then
listen as the waves bounce off of objects and return to them as
echoes. Using this method of “seeing” with sound, they can fly
quickly between tree limbs and around objects, while also find-
ing and identifying prey insects. It is common for a vespertil-
ionid bat to notice a moth or other flying insect while both the
bat and insect are in flight, then swoop in and capture the in-
sect in midair. Using echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun),
they can also spot insects on plants and pick them off of leaves.
Echolocation is particularly useful in these animals that rest
during the day and look for food in the dark of night. A few
species become active around sunset, sometimes even a little
earlier, but most wait until the skies darken before they leave
their roost and begin looking for food. Because they are such
excellent and swift fliers, the vespertilionid bats avoid most
predators. Occasionally an owl is able to catch one at night, but
their biggest threat of predation (hunting by animals that eat
them for food) comes from larger land animals that stumble
upon a roost while the bats are resting.
Bats have a fairly set schedule with certain activities occurring
during specific seasons. Mating occurs in the fall in most species.
Some bats don’t engage in any courtship rituals, but for the most

part, scientists know little about these behav-
iors in most bats. In the fall, bats that live in
cooler climates begin to disappear, probably
to start migrating to warmer climates for the
winter. Cool- and warm-climate bats typically
participate in hibernation, although some
warm-weather bats remain active all year. BIRDS AREN’T THE ONLY ANIMALS
Some vespertilionid bats hibernate alone, and TO MIGRATE
others hibernate together in large groups, When people hear about a fall migration,
often numbering a hundred or more. If the they usually think of birds that fly south for
temperature rises sufficiently in the winter, the winter. Other animals, including bats,
the bats may awaken and fly about in search migrate, too. Some bats may fly several
of food. When spring arrives, males typically hundred miles (kilometers) to escape the
strike out on their own, but females usually winter cold. The noctule, a medium-sized
form colonies in roosts, which may be in caves bat from Europe and Asia, makes
or other hideaways, and share the duties as- migrations of 400 miles (670 kilometers) or
sociated with raising young, which are born more each year—quite a feat for an animal
in late spring to early summer. (A few warm- that is only about 3 inches (7.6 centimeters)
weather species may be able to have young at long in body length and weighs about an
other times of the year.) Most mothers have ounce (28 grams).
one or two young, called pups, a year. A few
species may have up to four pups at a time.
The pups begin flying in about a month and then start hunting
for insects on their own. Some remain with the colony for their
first year, but others leave earlier.
Bat behavior is a field with many unanswered questions. Al-
though scientists know a good deal about the behavior of a few
species, they know little about most of the vespertilionid bats.
VESPERTILIONID BATS AND PEOPLE
Humans frequently don’t recognize the benefits of bats. Ves-
pertilionid bats eat many insects, including mosquitoes, crop-
damaging beetles, and other pest species. Just five bats can eat
15,000 or more insects in a single night. Besides their benefit
in keeping insect populations in check, bats have become a part
of the folklore of many cultures. Much of the folklore, includ-
ing that portrayed in horror books and movies, describes bats
as evil creatures bent on sucking blood. Vespertilionid bats en-
gage in no such activity, and rarely even fly close to a human.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Red List of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) con-
tains two Extinct, died out, species; seven Critically Endangered,

facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; twenty
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild;
fifty-two Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and
seventy-three Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but
could become so. Those categories total 154 bats, more than
half of all vespertilionid species. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service lists thirteen vespertilionid bats as endangered. For
many of the species, habitat destruction and pesticide use are
major reasons for their declines. Both organized and grassroots
efforts are now under way to protect many bat populations.
These include the preservation of roosting and hibernation
sites.

Pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus)
SPECIES
PALLID BAT ACCOUNTS
Antrozous pallidus
Physical characteristics: Unlike many of the dark-furred, small-

eyed vespertilionid bats, the pallid bat is yellowish with larger eyes.
It also has large ears. Adult size ranges from 3.6 to 5.5 inches (9.2 to
14 centimeters) in body length and 0.5 to 1 ounce (13 to 29 grams)
in weight. Its tail is a little more than a third of its body length.
Geographic range: The pallid bat lives in western North America

from southern Canada to northern Mexico, also western Cuba.
Habitat: Their daytime roosts are in cracks and crevices of rocky

outcroppings and in caves, usually near a water source. At night, they

The pallid bat eats insects, typically roost nearby in tree hollows, under bridges, or in some other
scorpions, and other hiding place.
invertebrates, and possibly small
lizards and mammals, such as
mice. (© Merlin D. Tuttle/Bat Diet: These bats eat insects, scorpions, and other invertebrates
Conservation International/Photo (animals without backbones); possibly small lizards and mammals,
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by such as mice.
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: They leave their daytime roosts after

sunset, then begin looking for insects by flying between about 1 and
7 feet (30 centimeters to 2.1 meters) above the ground. They mate in
fall to early winter, and females give birth to one or two pups in late
spring to early summer. The young stay with their mothers in ma-
ternity roosts, and begin flying about a month and a half later.
Pallid bats and people: This species visits plants, probably in search
of insects. In so doing, it picks up and delivers pollen, which helps
fertilize plants.
Conservation status: The pallid bat is not threatened. ■

Western barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus)
WESTERN BARBASTELLE
Barbastella barbastellus
Physical characteristics: This large-eared bat ranges from 1.8 to

2.4 inches (4.5 to 6.0 centimeters) in body length with a tail nearly
as long, and 0.2 to 0.4 ounces (6 to 12 grams) in weight. Its back fur
is black with white tips, and its belly fur is lighter.
Geographic range: The western barbastelle lives in central and

northern Europe.
Habitat: These bats prefer upland forests, usually near water.
Diet: This species eats mainly flying insects, which they catch in
midair. They will also swoop down to plants and pluck insects from
their leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: This bat becomes active before sunset

when it emerges from its daytime roosts in trees, caves, and other se-
cluded spots. It is more solitary than many other vespertilionid bats,

with many individuals spending the summer alone.
Females will sometimes form small maternity
colonies. Hibernation begins in late fall. Many
questions remain about this rather rare bat’s
behavior.
Western barbastelles and people: Like other

insect-eating bats, the western barbastelle rids its
habitat of many insects that humans might con-
sider pests.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List lists

this bat as Vulnerable. ■
The western barbastelle lives in

central and northern Europe,
preferring upland forests, usually
near water. (Illustration by
Emily Damstra. Reproduced
by permission.)

Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus)
LITTLE BROWN BAT

Myotis lucifugus
Physical characteristics: Similar in appearance to the big brown

bat, this species is a bit smaller. Its body length averages 3.1 to
3.7 inches (20 to 27 centimeters) with a tail a little less than half that
size. It weighs 0.2 to 0.5 ounces (6 to 14 grams). The little brown bat
is light to dark brown above with a lighter belly.
Geographic range: This bat lives in Canada, the United States, and
Mexico.
Habitat: When they aren’t flying in search of food, they do their sum-
mertime resting in tree hollows, underneath bark, or in barns, attics, and
other such structures. During winter, they typically hibernate in caves.
Diet: Their diet consists mainly of flying insects.

Little brown bats fly in search
of food, mainly flying insects.
(© Joe McDonald/Corbis.
Behavior and reproduction: They mate in the late summer to early

fall. The females typically have just one pup in late spring or during
the first half of summer. The young grow quickly, but don’t mate un-
til at least the following year.
Little brown bats and people: Like many other insect-eating bats,
the little brown bat helps to control pest insect populations.
Conservation status: This bat is not threatened. ■

Common bentwing bat (Miniopterus schreibersi)
COMMON BENTWING BAT

Miniopterus schreibersi
Physical characteristics: Unlike other vespertilionid bats, bent-

wing bats have a long third finger that they can bend beneath their
wing when they aren’t flying. The common bentwing bat has a thick
gray, yellow, or brown fur coat. It ranges from 2.0 to 3.1 inches (5.1
to 7.8 centimeters) in body length and weighs 0.3 to 0.6 ounces
(8 to 16 grams). Its tail is about as long as its body.
Geographic range: This bat lives in Madagascar, southern and

northwestern Africa, southern Europe, southern Asia, eastern and
northern Australia, and New Guinea.
Habitat: They tend to prefer woodlands and fields that are near
caves or other roosting sites.
Diet: Adult bats will eat up to a third of their body weight in flying
insects every night.

Owls may sometimes catch
common bentwing bats while
Behavior and reproduction: They mate in the fall, and females typ-
they are flying for insects. ically give birth to one pup each summer. The females form large ma-
(Brock Fenton. Reproduced ternity roosts where they raise their young together. A roost can
by permission.)
contain several thousand pups. The pups are old enough to mate and
have their own families in about a year. Predators for common ben-
twing bats include owls that may occasionally catch the bats in the
air, as well as snakes and cats that may find a roost.
Common bentwing bats and people: Like most other bats, the in-
sect diet of this species helps to keep pests in check.
Conservation status: The IUCN Red List considers this species

Near Threatened, likely due to predation and disturbance to mater-
nal roosts. ■
Books:
Altringham, J. Bats: Biology and Behavior. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University
Press, 1996.
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001.

Kunz, T., and P. Racey eds. Bat Biology and Conservation. Washington,
DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998.
Kurta, A. Mammals of the Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor: The Univer-
sity of Michigan Press, 1995.
Nowak, R. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
Web sites:
IUCN 2003. 2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. http://www.
redlist.org (accessed July 5, 2004).
Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http://
endangered.fws.gov/ (accessed on July 5, 2004).

PRIMATES
Primates
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
order C H A P T E R
There are many different types of primates. Some are very class
small—the smallest primate is the pygmy mouse lemur, which
subclass
weighs only one ounce (30 grams). Others are very large—the
largest primate is an adult male gorilla. A full-grown male ● order
gorilla can weigh 375 pounds (170 kilograms) or more, and monotypic order
be as tall as 6 feet (1.8 meters). Primates include the lemurs,
lorises and bushbabies, tarsiers, New World monkeys, Old suborder
World monkeys, apes, and humans. family
Because there are so many different types of primates, ap-
pearance varies quite a bit. Body hair may be long, as in the
orangutan or the golden lion tamarin. Other primates have
short fur all over the body, such as the chimpanzee or pygmy
marmoset. There are many quite colorful primates. The male
mandrill of Central Africa has bright red and blue on his face
and red, blue, and violet coloration on his rump. The Japanese
macaque is medium brown with a red face. The golden langur
of China has flame orange fur with a bright blue face.
But even though primates may be quite different in size and
color, they do have many things in common. Primates tend to
have longer arms and legs in relation to body size than other
mammals. Their hands and feet are shaped so that they can hold
on to objects very well. On a primate’s foot, the big toe is set far
apart from the other four digits, or toes. This allows an especially
strong wraparound grasp on branches. Every primate has this
special grasping action of its feet except humans. The ventral or
bottom surface of both hands and feet have special pads that help
Primates 423
primates grip. This is another way that enables primates to
achieve a better hold on tree limbs. Also, primates usually have
rounded skulls with a large brain for their body size. Their eyes
are set forward in the face for stereoscopic vision, which allows
them to see things around them in three-dimensions (or “3-D”),
rather than two-dimensions, like a page in a book.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Primates are found in Africa, Asia, and South and Central
America. The largest number of primates live in Africa, includ-
ing the pottos, bushbabies, guenons, mangabeys, colobus mon-
keys, chimpanzees, gorillas, and baboons. Tarsiers, macaques,
lorises, and most of the leaf monkeys live in Asia. Lemurs and
aye-ayes are found only on the island of Madagascar. The New
World monkeys, such as the marmosets, tamarins, and squirrel
monkeys, live in South and Central America.
HABITAT
Primates live in a variety of habitats, including evergreen
tropical rainforests with rain throughout the year, dry scrub
forests, dry areas that have forests along river banks, coastal
scrublands, bamboo stands, and dry deciduous forests where
trees lose their leaves each year. For example, the mandrills and
chimpanzees can be found in rainforests, and the ring-tailed
lemurs live in dry woodlands. Rainforests are evergreen forests
with a short dry season and high rainfall. Woodlands are areas
with a lot of trees and shrubs.
DIET
Primates eat a wide variety of foods. All primates may eat in-
sects, leaves, nuts, seeds, plant gums or fluids, and fruits. But
each primate may have a food preference. The indri prefers
young plants and leaves, fruit, and seeds. The aye-aye eats fruit
and insect larvae (LAR-vee), or young. The blue monkey eats
fruits, leaves, and slow-moving insects, as well as occasional
birds and small animals.

Most primates are arboreal, living in trees. Some are active
during the day, such as the black lemurs and chimpanzees.
Others are active only at night, such as the owl monkeys and
lesser bushbabies. A few primates live primarily on the ground,

such as mandrill baboons and gorillas,
even though they may sleep in trees for
protection.
A few primates live alone most of the time,
such as the orangutan and the potto. However,
most primates are quite social, living together
SOUNDING OFF
in small or large groups. Verreaux’s sifaka lives
in groups of about six animals. The moustached Primates make a wide variety of
monkey lives in groups of up to thirty-five vocalizations, or sounds. The dourocouli (or
animals. The savanna baboon may have 200 night monkeys) of South America grunt.
animals in its group. Depending on species, the Howler monkeys sound their loud howl from
groups have different numbers of males and the trees at dawn, during territorial
females. The indri has equal numbers of males arguments, and when they hear loud noises.
and females. The guenons, or forest monkeys, Long-haired spider monkeys squeak, grunt,
have one male to each group of adult females. hoot, wail, moan, and scream. The sifakas
This is sometimes called a harem (HARE-um) get their name from the clear “si-fak!” call
group. The gray-cheeked mangabey groups that they make. Male mandrills both grunt
have two adult females to one adult male. and make high-pitched crowing sounds. The
Bornean orangutan male makes a booming
Primate females give birth to live young.
sound that can be heard a half mile away.
Compared to other animal species of the same
Tamarin monkeys and marmosets make a
size, they have long pregnancies. Bushbabies
bird-like twittering sound. Marmosets
are pregnant four to five months, and may
can make ultrasonic sounds that humans
have one to three babies each time. Baboons
can’t hear.
are pregnant for six months, and usually have
one baby each time. Gorillas are pregnant for
eight and a half months and have one baby
each time. Babies are usually born covered with fur, and with
their eyes and ears open.
Dedicated care by one or both parents is usual for primates.
Babies nurse for a long time. There is a lot of physical contact
between the infant and the mother—this is often because the
infants travel with the mother, clinging to her fur. In some pri-
mate species, such as the cotton-top tamarin and Goeldi’s mon-
key, they travel with the father too. They may ride clinging to
a parent’s front, belly, or back.
Primates often interact with each other in social ways. Groom-
ing, or cleaning, each other is one example. Depending on species,
grooming may be done with the teeth, with hands, or with a fin-
ger, or grooming claw, which has a long nail specialized for
grooming. Primates also interact with sound communication.
Each sound is a form of communication.
Primates 425
PRIMATES AND PEOPLE
People hunt some non-human primate
species for meat, unproven medicinal uses of
their body parts, or capture them for pets. Zoos
collect primates as exhibit animals. Some pri-
mates, such as the baboon, rhesus monkey,
THE ORGAN GRINDER’S MONKEY and the common marmoset, are used in labo-
In the early 1900s, the 6-pound ratory biomedical research. Current breeding
(2.7-kilogram), brown, pale-fronted capuchin programs have slowed the practice of taking
monkey would hold out its hand for money these animals from the wild. A few primates,
when its organ grinder owner played music in close contact with human living areas, have
in the streets of New York and Boston. The become crop pests, such as the macaques who
capuchin is a very intelligent primate. It has raid fruit trees that humans grow.
a large brain relative to its small size, and If not threatened, primates seldom bother
excellent eye-to-hand coordination, enabling human beings. However, some may harbor
it to accurately pick up the tiniest items. It viruses that can be transmitted to human be-
would grab fruit and coins from passers-by ings, such as Ebola, a usually fatal disease.
on the street.
CONSERVATION STATUS
About one-third of all primate species are
threatened. Of these, 120 species are Criti-
cally Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild; Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction;
or Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. Critically En-
dangered species include the Sumatran orangutan, one species
of snub-nosed monkey, three lion tamarin species, and two gen-
tle lemur species. Most of the problems for these tree-dwelling
animals come from deforestation, or tree destruction and re-
moval. Hunting in some areas is also a problem, as are brush
fires. Tourism, while increasing local awareness, also means in-
creased development to house and feed tourists. There are cap-
tive breeding programs and protected national parks, but as
habitat loss continues, extinction of several species is predicted.
Books:
Alden, Peter C. National Audubon Society Field Guide to African Wildlife.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.
Coppard, Kit. Africa’s Animal Kingdom. London: PRC Publishing Ltd., 2001.
Fink Martin, Patricia A. Lemurs, Lorises and Other Lower Primates.
Danbury, CT: Children’s Press, 2000.

Maynard, Thane. Primates: Apes, Monkeys, and Prosimians. Danbury,
CT. Franklin Watts, 1999.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
“New Primate Faces Appear in Brazil.” National Geographic (December
1998): Earth Almanac section.
Schleichert, Elizabeth. “Can We Save the Lemurs?” Ranger Rick
(December 2000): 18–22.
Stewart, Doug. “Prosimians Find a Home Far From Home.” National
Wildlife (Feb/Mar 1998): 33–35.
Web sites:
Holder, M. K. “See and Hear.” African Primates at Home. http://www
.indiana.edu/~primate/primates.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Conservation International press release. Eastern Lowland Gorilla
Population Plummets 70 Percent since 1994. http://conservation
.org/xp/news/press_releases/2004/033004.xml (accessed on July
5, 2004).
Primates 427
LORISES AND POTTOS
Lorisidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Lorisidae
class Lorises and pottos have short heads covered with hair. Snouts,
or nose areas, are small. Their C-shaped ears are close to the scalp,
subclass and they have large, round, dark eyes. Arms and legs are long
order and about equal length. All ten fingers and ten toes have a claw,
monotypic order but the claw is longest on the second toe. This is called a groom-
ing claw, and lorises and pottos use it to comb through and clean
suborder their fur. The index finger is quite small compared to the rest of
▲ family the fingers, and their thumbs and big toes are located far from
the other four fingers and toes. When these animals wrap their
hands or feet around a tree branch, their grasping hold is very
strong, allowing them to hold onto a branch for a long time.
Lorises and pottos are very small animals. The tiniest loris is
the gray slender loris. It is only 8.5 inches (21.5 centimeters)
long from head to the start of its tail. It weighs only 9 ounces
(255 grams). The potto is the largest member of the Lorisidae.
Tail length varies in the lorises and the pottos. Some, such as the
slender loris, have no tail. Others may have a tail length of up
to 2.5 inches (6.5 cm). Their color varies; pottos and lorises can
be cream colored, pale brown, grayish brown, reddish brown,
orange-brown, or dark brown. Some have mixed fur colors. Some
lorises have contrasting markings or striped areas. The color con-
trast may be especially visible when it forms a ringed area around
the large eyes, as it does in the pygmy slow loris.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The slow lorises live throughout tropical rainforests in
Southeast Asia. The slender lorises are found in the tropical

forests of India and Sri Lanka. Pottos occur
only in the tropical and subtropical forests of
West and Central Africa.
HABITAT
Lorises and pottos live only in thickly
forested areas. Most often, they live in the LORISID COMMUNICATION
trees of tropical rainforests, forests where When Asian lorisids want to communicate
the trees are evergreen and there is a lot of with each other, they make specific noises,
rain. or vocalizations. Sounds vary by species, and
include panting, hissing, growling, soft and
DIET loud whistles, rapid clicking, and chirping.
Lorises are omnivores, eating both plants The clicking sound made by infants when
and very small animals. They are nocturnal, separated from their mother is a series of
feeding at night. They locate food with their short, sharp, rapid clicks called a “zic” call.
keen sense of smell. Diet includes insects,
lizards, fruits, leaves, birds’ eggs, and gum,
the liquid from plants. Each species, or type, of Lorisidae, may
have a food preference. When feeding, they hang by their feet
from a branch.

Lorisids (species in the family Lorisidae) are usually solitary
animals, each having a specific range for its food searches. How-
ever, the home range (place where an animal feeds and lives)
of males may overlap that of females. During the day, lorisids
may sleep on a tree branch, in a hollow tree trunk, or in the
fork of a tree. They typically sleep while curled up, with head
and arms tucked between their thighs. While they see well in
daylight and dark, they search for food at night. The animals
move very slowly and carefully. Sometimes they don’t even dis-
turb tree leaves as they pass through. This careful behavior helps
them to avoid predators, animals that hunt them for food. While
moving through tree branches, they tend to drag their bottoms
to mark their trail with urine. If a lorisid hears even the slight-
est sound that might mean a predator is nearby, it just stops and
hangs on to a branch. With strong arms and legs, it can stay
that way for hours, until it feels it can safely move again.
Lorisids may have more than one mate. Pregnancy is from
about four to six months, depending on the species. Lorisids
usually have just one baby at a time. Babies weigh from 1 to 2
ounces (28.4 to 56.7 grams). After a baby is born, it hangs on
Lorises and Pottos 429

to the front fur of its mother’s body for a few
weeks. Sometimes, as she searches for food
at night, the mother may place her infant on
a small branch. The infant holds onto the
branch until the mother returns. At night,
while the mother sleeps, the baby holds onto
POTTOS DEFEAT AN ENEMY her belly. As the infant grows, it begins to
travel on its mother’s back. Then it follows
If a potto senses a predator, or enemy,
her. As the mother looks for food, she also
it holds onto a branch and stays very still.
is teaching her young how to look for, and
Because its arms and legs are so strong, it
recognize, suitable food. Young lorisids stay
can stay in this non-moving position for
with their mother until they are about a year
several hours, until the predator gives up
old, then go off on their own.
and goes away.
If it must fight, the potto first turns its LORISES, POTTOS, AND PEOPLE
thickened neck hump, or shield, toward the Large zoos may have special exhibits of
attacker, while keeping its hands and feet lorisids and pottos. In their native homes, in
tightly clamped on a branch. It then makes some areas, they are trapped and kept as pets.
a series of sideways movements. It tries to Occasionally the larger species are used as
hit the enemy with its hump. If the potto is food.
successful, the enemy falls to the ground
below. CONSERVATION STATUS
While no Lorisidae are considered En-
dangered, two are Vulnerable (facing a high
risk of extinction, or dying out, in the wild) due to habitat
loss. Two are Near Threatened (not currently threatened with
extinction), and four species are fairly common.

Pygmy slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)
SPECIES
PYGMY SLOW LORIS ACCOUNTS
Nycticebus pygmaeus
Physical characteristics: This small loris is only 10 inches long

(25.5 cm). It has no tail. Weight is just 11 ounces (310 grams), with
males and females about the same size. The pygmy loris is colorful.
It has bright orange-brown fur on its upper back and a light orange-
gray area on its upper chest. Its face is gray, with a dark orange-brown
eye mask, and a white stripe between its eyes.
Geographic range: The pygmy slow loris is found in China, Laos,

and Vietnam.
Habitat: Pygmy slow lorises thrive in evergreen tropical rainforests.
Diet: Pygmy slow lorises eat fruit, insects, and gums (plant juices).
Some scientists believe this species prefers to eat gum, because in cap-
tivity they have been seen making holes in tree wood to get plant sap.
Behavior and reproduction: Pygmy slow lorises usually travel and

feed alone. Each has a preferred territory where it lives. During the

Young pygmy slow lorises stay
with their mother until they are
about a year old, then go off on
their own. (Rod Williams/
Naturepl.com. Reproduced
by permission.)
day, the pygmy slow loris sleeps holding on to branches in the midst
of thick leaves and branches. At night, they use their strong arms and
legs to move slowly and carefully, hand-over-hand, through trees.
Like other lorisids, they mark their trails with urine.
Their mating system is not currently known. Females are pregnant
for 192 days, a little more than six months. They may have one offspring
(baby), or twins. Babies stay with the mother for a few weeks, hanging
on to her belly. As the infant grows, it clings to its mother’s back while
she travels. Then it follows her. Young pygmy lorises stay with their
mother until they are about a year old, then go off on their own.
Pygmy slow lorises and people: Because they move around mostly
at night, and are quite small, few people see them. However, some
pygmy slow lorises are kept as pets in their native areas. Large zoos
may include them in special exhibits.
Conservation status: The pygmy slow loris is listed as Vulnerable

due to habitat loss from deforestation. ■

Potto (Perodicticus potto)
POTTO
Perodicticus potto
Physical characteristics: Pottos have dark fur on the top of their

body, and light brown fur underneath. They have a body length of
15 inches (38.1 centimeters) with a 2.5-inch tail (6.5 centimeters). A
grown potto weighs only about 2.75 pounds (1.25 kilograms). Its dark
eyes are large and round.
As protection from predators, a potto’s upper back has a humped
area of thickened skin on top of long vertebral spines. This thickened
area, often called a shield, is covered by fur and contains long tactile,
or feeler, hairs. These tactile hairs help detect a possible predator at-
tack, and the shield can be turned toward the predator to help pro-
tect the potto from the attack.

The potto’s upper back has a
humped area of thickened skin
on top of long vertebral spines.
This thickened area, often called
a shield, can be turned toward
an attacking predator for
protection. (Rod Williams/Bruce
permission.)
Geographic range: Pottos are found in Africa, including Nigeria,

Sierra Leone, Ghana, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, and Kenya.
Diet: Pottos eat mostly fruit, but they also eat insects and gums
(plant juices). They find insects by smell. They will eat insects that
other animals might avoid, such as ants, hairy caterpillars, slugs, and
stinky beetles.
Behavior and reproduction: Pottos usually live alone. They move

about at night in the trees, traveling quite slowly hand over hand.
They mark their trails with urine. During the day, pottos sleep in
thickly leaved branches.
Female pottos usually have one infant after being pregnant for
about 163 days. A potto baby weighs just 2 ounces (56.7 grams).
It has a thin layer of fine fur. It eyes are open. From the first day, the
infant holds on to the mother’s front and travels with her until it
becomes more independent. It will leave its mother at about one
year old.
Pottos and people: Potto habits of moving slowly and carefully at

night, high in the trees, make them difficult to study.
Conservation status: Pottos are listed as Vulnerable. The major

problem is habitat, or living site, destruction due to deforestation,
cutting down trees. ■

Books:
Alterman, Lon, Gerald A. Doyle, and M. Kay Izard, eds. Creatures of the
Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians. New York: Kluwer Academic Publish-
ers, 1995.
Ankel-Simons, Friderun. Primate Anatomy: An Introduction. San Diego,
Konstant, William R., and Ronald M. Nowak. Walker’s Primates of the
World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
Martin, Patricia A. Fink. Lemurs, Lorises, and Other Lower Primates.
Danbury, CT: Children’s Press, 2000.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Lorises, Potto, and Galagos.” In Walker’s Mammals
of the World Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
primates/primates.lorisidae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Rowe, Noel. The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates. East Hampton,
NY: Pogonias Press, 1996.
Periodicals:
Churchman, Deborah. “Meet the Primates!” Ranger Rick 31, no. 10
(October 1997): 8.
“Super Slow, Super Fast.” Ranger Rick (August 1995): 3.
“Wildlife of Tropical Rain Forests.” National Geographic World (January
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
“Loridae.” Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center. http://www
.primates.com/primate/loridae.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Schulze, Helga. “Loris and Potto Conservation Database.” Loris Con-
servation Project. http://www.loris-conservation.org/database/info.html
Schulze, Helga. “Acoustic Communication in Northern Ceylonese Slen-
der Lorises and Some Information about Vocalization by Other Forms
or Species of Lorisidae.” Loris Conservation Project. http://www.loris-
conservation.org/database/vocalization/Loris_voices_with_figures.html

BUSHBABIES
Galagidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Galagidae
class The largest bushbaby is the brown greater bushbaby. An
adult male weighs 3.1 pounds (1.4 kilograms). Body length is
subclass
12.5 inches (31.5 centimeters) with a 16.5-inch (41-centimeter)
order tail. The smallest bushbaby is the mouse-size Demidoff’s bush-
monotypic order baby. An adult male weighs 2.5 ounces (65 grams). Its body is
5 inches (13 centimeters) long, with a 7-inch (18-centimeter)
suborder tail. Females are somewhat smaller than males.
▲ family Bushbabies are usually gray, reddish, or brown with lighter
underparts, having gray or dark eye patches. Their fur is thick
and soft, and larger bushbabies have quite long bushy tails that
help them balance. All bushbabies have rounded heads, short
pointed faces with forward-facing eyes, and a pointed snout, or
nose area. They can rotate their head in a full circle. Their ears
individually bend backward or wrinkle forward, enabling them
to better locate sounds. Bushbabies have a special reflective, or
mirror-like layer at the back of their retina, or light-receiving,
part of the eye. This lets them see in extremely dim light. It
also makes their eyes shine in the dark, like a cat’s eye.
Bushbabies have larger hindlegs, or back legs, than forelimbs,
or front legs. Very strong hindlegs and very long anklebones
enable most species to move extremely quickly and accurately.
A bushbaby’s hands and feet have five long slim fingers, or dig-
its, on each forelimb and five long, slim toes on each hindlimb.
Their fingertips have round flat pads of thickened skin that help
them grip firmly onto branches. All digits have nails, except
the second digit of the hind foot, which has a long curved claw

for grooming or cleaning. For grooming,
bushbabies also use their lower incisors, or
front teeth, and pointed canine teeth as
a toothcomb. Underneath the tongue is a
false-tongue, which is used to clean the
toothcomb.
SOUNDING OFF
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The common name bushbaby comes
Bushbabies are found in many parts
from their loud wailing territorial sound,
of Africa, from sea level to 6,000 feet
which sounds somewhat like a human baby
(1,800 meters).
crying. Bushbabies make a variety of
different sounds, as well. The Senegal
HABITAT
bushbaby makes a high-pitched scream
Bushbabies live in many areas, from when upset, has an alarm call which
dry, thorny scrub to evergreen tropical includes grunting, clucking, whistling,
rainforests. wailing, and sneezing, as well as grunts
when it is ready to fight. Infants call to their
DIET
mothers with a “tsic” sound, and mothers
Depending on the species, bushbabies reply with a cooing or soft hooting sound.
usually eat fruit, gum or plant fluids, and in-
sects. They can find insects by sound alone
and snatch them from the air as they fly past.

Bushbabies are nocturnal, searching for food at night. They
usually remain in trees, but occasionally travel on the ground.
Most leap from branch to branch. Some can leap long distances
from one branch to another. Others hop on their strong hind
legs between branch supports. Some can hang onto vertical sup-
ports, such as tree trunks. While most move quickly, the thick-
tailed bushbaby sometimes moves very slowly and quietly.
Bushbabies usually sleep in social groups of eight to twenty
members. During the day, they rest in hollow trees, tree forks,
or old bird nests. Some make sleeping nests from leaves. In a
few species, a mated pair and their young may sleep together.
In other groups, the adult male does not sleep in the group-
sleeping nest. He keeps in contact with females when they are
outside the sleeping nest.
Bushbabies forage, or search for food, by themselves. Males
have larger territories, or feeding areas, than females. These of-
ten overlap those of several female groups. Scent, sounds, and
facial expressions all play a role in bushbaby communication.
Bushbabies 437
An adult male bushbaby may mate with several females.
Twice a year, one to three infants are born. The young are fully
furred with their eyes open at birth. Bushbaby young spend a
week or longer in a hidden tree nest. The mother may leave
them there while searching for food, or she may travel, carry-
ing her young in her mouth. When she eats, these babies are
placed to cling onto branches. Later, bushbaby young may ride
on their mother’s back as she searches for food. A baby is
weaned, or stops feeding on breastmilk, at about two months
of age. It becomes independent at about four months of age.
Females may remain in their birth area or travel to new areas.
BUSHBABIES AND PEOPLE

Bushbabies are often captured by local people as pets. The
larger species may be used as food or killed for their fur. Bush-
babies may also be taken for zoo exhibits. Bushbabies can be
carriers for the yellow fever virus. Mosquitoes feeding on them
can transmit the disease to humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Most species are common in Africa. However one species is
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, and six are
Near Threatened, not threatened, but could become so, due to
habitat, or living area, destruction.

Senegal bushbaby (Galago senegalensis)
SPECIES
SENEGAL BUSHBABY ACCOUNTS
Galago senegalensis
Physical characteristics: The Senegal bushbaby is also known as

a lesser galago or lesser bushbaby. It is gray with yellowish highlights.
It has soft, thick fur. Its large eyes are surrounded by thick dark eye-
rings. It has very large, moveable ears. A bushbaby can rotate its head
in a circle, like an owl. The Senegal bushbaby is 6.5 inches long (16.5
centimeters) with a 10.5-inch (26-centimeter) tail. Adult males weigh
11 ounces (315 grams), with adult females being slightly smaller.
Geographic range: Senegal bushbabies are found in sub-Saharan

Africa, from Senegal to Kenya.
Habitat: Senegal bushbabies live in dry forests, thorny scrublands,

and grasslands with some trees.
Bushbabies 439
Diet: Senegal bushbabies usually feed on the
gum, or liquid, from acacia (uh-KAY-shah) trees
and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Senegal bushbabies

are nocturnal, moving about at night. They usu-
ally stay in trees, hanging vertically, or up and
down, on tree trunks. They move by making long
leaps from branch to branch, up to 10 to 13 feet
(about 4 meters). They also can kangaroo-hop on
the ground.
A Senegal bushbaby adult male may mate with
several females. Females give birth twice a year and
are pregnant for about four months. The pregnant
mother prepares a leafy birthing nest. Babies weigh
about 0.42 ounces (12 grams) at birth. Mothers
nurse babies for about three months. For the first
few weeks, the infants cling to the mother’s fur as
Senegal bushbabies move she travels. Young males leave their parents at about ten months of
around at night, usually staying age, but females may stay longer. They are ready to have a litter by
up in the trees and moving from
branch to branch. (© Gallo
twelve months of age.
Images/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.) Senegal bushbabies and people: Senegal bushbabies play a small
part in the lives of local people.
Conservation status: Senegal bushbabies are not currently endan-

gered, but may become threatened by habitat loss due to land clear-
ing for farming purposes. ■

Northern greater bushbaby (Otolemur garnettii)
NORTHERN GREATER BUSHBABY

Otolemur garnettii
Physical characteristics: The northern greater bushbaby, also

known as Garnett’s bushbaby, Garnett’s galago, small-eared galago, or
greater bushbaby, has reddish to grayish brown fur. It lacks facial mark-
ings and has very large, light-sensitive eyes. At night, the pupil opens
into a complete circle to allow for better vision in the dark. Adult males
weigh 1.75 pounds (795 grams) with females slightly smaller. Body
length, including the head, is 10.5 inches (26.5 centimeters), and they
have a 14.5-inch (36.5-centimeter) long bushy tail.
Geographic range: Northern greater bushbabies are found in north-

eastern Africa.
Bushbabies 441
Habitat: Northern greater bushbabies live in
coastal and highland forests.
Diet: The northern greater bushbaby usually

feeds on fruits and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: The northern

greater bushbaby adult male may mate with sev-
eral females. Adult females give birth to one or two
infants at a time. They are pregnant for eighteen
weeks. Until two weeks of age, the babies stay in
a leafy nest. They then cling to the mother’s fur as
she travels searching for food.
The northern greater bushbaby runs and walks
on all four limbs along tree branches, following
regular pathways. Occasionally it searches for food
on the ground, where it may hop like a kangaroo,
or jump-run, hopping first on hind legs, then on
forelegs. It hides during the day to avoid predators,
such as large snakes.
The northern greater bushbaby
eats fruit and insects. (© Tom & Northern greater bushbaby males and females often share feeding
Pat Leeson/Photo Researchers, territories as well as nests. However they usually feed alone at night.
Inc. Reproduced by permission.) Adult males will tolerate younger or lesser males within their feed-
ing range. During the day, these bushbabies return to tree hollows or
vine tangles to sleep as a group.
Northern greater bushbabies and people: Northern greater bush-

babies have no known interaction with people.
Conservation status: These bushbabies are rather common and not

immediately threatened. ■
Books:
Alden, Peter C. National Audubon Society Field Guide to African Wildlife.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.
Coppard, Kit. Africa’s Animal Kingdom. London: PRC Publishing Ltd, 2001.
Kennaway, Adrienne. Bushbaby. Manningtree, U.K.: Happy Cat Books,
2002.
CT: Franklin Watts, 1999.

Ricciuti, Edward R., and Bruce S. Glassman. What on Earth is a Galago?
Woodbridge, CT: Blackbirch Press, 1995.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Stevenson, William. Bushbabies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1980.
Periodicals:
Bearder, Simon K. “Calls of the Wild.” Natural History (August 1995):
48–58.
Churchman, Deborah. “Meet the Primates!” Ranger Rick 31, no. 10
(October 1997).
“Monkeyshines on the Primates.” Monkeyshines Publications (1994): 39.
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Galagonidae.” http://www.primates.com/
primate/galagonidae.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
The Chaffee Zoo. “Lesser Bush Baby.” http://www.chaffeezoo.org/
animals/bushbaby.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Singapore Zoo Docent. “Galagos or Bushbabies.” http://www.
szgdocent.org/pp/p-galago.htm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Bushbabies 443
DWARF LEMURS
AND MOUSE LEMURS
Cheirogaleidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Cheirogaleidae
class Dwarf lemurs and mouse lemurs are the smallest lemurs. The
subclass pygmy mouse lemur weighs just one ounce (30 grams). The
largest of these lemurs is the fork-crowned lemur, weighing
order 16.5 ounces (460 grams), or about a pound. The head and body
monotypic order length of dwarf and mouse lemurs ranges from 4.9 to 10.8
suborder inches (12.5 to 27.4 centimeters), depending on species. Tail
length is about as long as total body length.
▲ family
Dwarf and mouse lemurs have large ears and large, mirror-
like eyes set close together. They have excellent night vision.
Depending on where they live, these lemurs may have grayish
hair or reddish brown hair. Their underbody hair is much
lighter, sometimes whitish or yellowish brown. Body hair is
soft, thick, and woolly.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dwarf and mouse lemurs live in Madagascar, an island off
the southeast coast of Africa.
HABITAT
Dwarf and mouse lemurs live in a variety of forested habi-
tats, including evergreen rainforest, deciduous forest where
trees lose their leaves each year, and semiarid forest, which
doesn’t get rain part of the year. Mouse lemurs are also found
in patches of scrub vegetation where there are small bushes,
and in people’s gardens in settled areas.

DIET
Dwarf and mouse lemurs usually eat fruit
and insects, but some species prefer other
foods too. Coquerel’s mouse lemur licks the
sweet body liquids that are the waste matter
produced by some planthopper insects. Fork-
crowned lemurs primarily feed on plant MATING COMPETITION
gums, or sticky plant liquids. Many of the Female mouse lemurs are all ready to
dwarf and mouse lemurs slow down in the mate at one time. Male mouse lemurs can
dry season when plants and insects are not defend only one female at a time. So it’s
as readily available. They survive on stored very difficult to keep a group of females all
body fat in their tail until the plentiful rainy to themselves for mating. Rather than do
season starts, when they become active again. a lot of fighting, dominant males have a
way to put other males out of action. The
urine of stronger male mouse lemurs
Dwarf and mouse lemurs are nocturnal, or contains chemicals producing a smell that
active at night. They search for food by them- makes weaker males sterile, or unable to
selves, usually in the smaller branches of reproduce. In addition, these weaker males
trees and shrubs. can’t even make the special trills, or calls,
Dwarf and mouse lemurs are quite social. used to attract females for mating.
They have group nests, which they share
during the day. The nests can be within tree
hollows or tree branches. Five of the little fat-tailed dwarf
lemurs may share a tree hole. Mouse lemur nests may have
two to nine residents. These nests may have female dwellers,
with the males nesting alone or in pairs, or both male and
female dwellers. Dwarf lemurs have male-only or female-only
nests. Communication is with scent and a variety of calls.
Calls include those for keeping contact, mating, alarm, and
distress.
Mouse and dwarf lemurs usually travel along branches on
all four legs, leaping at times. They can use their tail for bal-
ance. Some species can take long leaps from one branch to an-
other. A gray mouse lemur may also move on the ground with
froglike hops. Each species, or type, of dwarf or mouse lemur
marks its trail with scent while traveling. These markings, de-
posited by scent or smell glands, or from urine, give informa-
tion about the traveler’s age, sex, and whether it is ready for
mating.
After mating, mouse and dwarf lemur females have a two-
to three-month pregnancy, depending on species. They may
have one to three infants each birth. Births usually take place
Dwarf Lemurs and Mouse Lemurs 445

during the rainy season, when food is plentiful. The smaller
mouse lemur infants weigh about 0.175 ounces (5 grams) each.
The larger Coquerel’s mouse lemur infants can have a birth
weight of 0.42 ounces (12 grams) each. Mouse and dwarf lemur
infants are raised in a nest made of twigs and leaves.
DWARF AND MOUSE LEMURS AND PEOPLE

Dwarf and mouse lemurs are not often hunted for food
because of their small size.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Dwarf, red, and gray mouse lemurs are still fairly common.
However, they and other small lemur species are at risk due to
destruction of their forest habitats, or dwelling places, by hu-
man logging, farming, and cattle and goat grazing. It is esti-
mated that only 10 percent of Madagascar’s forests remain. The
World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists three species as
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; one as Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and one as Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could become so.

Red mouse lemur (Microcebus rufus)
SPECIES
RED MOUSE LEMUR ACCOUNT
Microcebus rufus
Physical characteristics: The red mouse lemur, also called the rus-
set mouse lemur and the brown mouse lemur, is reddish brown on its
back and light gray or whitish underneath. It has a whitish stripe be-
tween its large round eyes. Its moveable ears are rounded, thin, and
hairless. Red mouse lemurs are among the smallest primates. An adult
is 5 inches long (12.5 centimeters) with a 5.6-inch tail (14 centimeters).
A full-grown red mouse lemur weighs 1.5 ounces (43 grams). Females
are about the same size as males.
Geographic range: Red mouse lemurs are found in eastern

Madagascar.

Habitat: Red mouse lemurs live in coastal rain-
forests.
Diet: The red mouse lemur eats a lot of fruit, pre-

ferring fruit from plants in the mistletoe family. It
also eats insects, spiders, flowers, and gum, or plant
juices, and occasionally small frogs and lizards.
These lemurs have been seen eating millipedes and
scarab beetles as big as they are.
Behavior and reproduction: The red mouse lemur

lives in trees and travels through all forests heights.
It makes round, leafy nests in hollow trees or among
branches. It sleeps during the day, and is nocturnal,
active and feeding at night. Each red mouse lemur
searches for food by itself. From July to September,
A red mouse lemur marks its
territory. These markings give
fat is stored in its tail. A tail with stored fat may increase this mouse
information about the mouse lemur’s weight by 1.6 to 2.6 ounces (50 to 80 grams). Then, during the
lemur’s age, sex, and whether it harsh dry season, June to September, it slows down considerably for short
is ready for mating. (Photograph
periods, becoming almost motionless, utilizing its stored fat as food.
by Harald Schütz. Reproduced
by permission.) From two to nine male and female red mouse lemurs usually share
a sleeping nest. Males may also nest by themselves or in pairs. Home
ranges vary with food availability. Males usually have a larger home
range than females.
The red mouse lemur has several ways of moving. It runs along
branches on all four limbs, like a squirrel. It also may leap as far as
9.8 feet (3 meters) from one tree branch to another, landing on all
four limbs. Its long tail helps with balance.
The mating season of the red mouse lemur is from September to
October. The female is pregnant about two months, and gives birth
to one to three infants. A newborn weighs about 0.18 ounces
(5 grams). The infants stay in their nest for three weeks, with the
mother leaving only briefly to seek food and water. Weaning, or tak-
ing the young off breastmilk, occurs in February when there is the
greatest amount of food available.
Red mouse lemurs and people: These lemurs are not considered
important by local people.
Conservation status: The red mouse lemur is common in some ar-

eas, but could become threatened due to losing habitat through log-
ging and grazing by cattle and goats. ■

Books:
Boitani, Luigi, and Stefania Bartoli. Simon & Schuster’s Guide to Mam-
mals. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983.
Darling, Kathy. Lemurs on Location. New York: HarperCollins, 1998.
Dunbar, Robin, and Louise Barrett. Cousins: Our Primate Relatives.
London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and other
Primates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Lasky, Kathryn. Shadows in the Dawn: The Lemurs of Madagascar.
New York: Gulliver Books, 1998.
Powzyk, Joyce A. In Search of Lemurs. Washington, D.C.: National
Geographic, 1998.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Living on the Edge: On the Verge of Extinction, Do Lemurs
Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World (Jan–Feb 2002):
12–17.
Hubbard, Kim. “For the Love of Lemurs.” Audubon (September 2000):
60–67.
Mitchell, Meghan. “Securing Madagascar’s Rare Wildlife.” Science News
(November 1, 1997): 287.
“Tiny Lemur: Big Find.” National Geographic Explorer (October 2003):
22–24.
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
“Cheirogaleidae: Dwarf Lemurs, Mouse Lemurs.” Animal Diversity Web.
http://www.Primates.com/primate/cheirogaleidae.html (accessed on
July 5, 2004).
“Microcebus rufus: Brown Mouse Lemur.” http://info.bio.sunysb.edu/
rano.biodiv/Mammals/Microcebus-rufus (accessed on July 5, 2004).
“The Mouse Lemur.” http://bibliofile.mc.duke.edu/gww/Berenty/
Mammals/Microcebus-murinus/ (accessed on July 5, 2004).

LEMURS
Lemuridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Lemuridae
class Lemur males and females are about the same size. Lemurs
weigh 4.4 to 10 pounds (2 to 4.5 kilograms), depending on
subclass
species, with the mongoose lemur being the smallest. Adult
order head and body length is 11 to 22 inches (28 to 56 centimeters).
monotypic order Thickly furred lemur tails are from 11 to 22.5 inches (28 to
65 centimeters) long.
suborder
For jumping ease, lemurs have strong hind or back limbs
▲ family which are longer than their forelimbs, or front legs. For better
branch hold, thumbs and big toes are set at an angle to
the other digits, or fingers and small toes. The palms of
the hands and soles of the feet are deeply ridged, or creased,
adding to strong branch grip. A clawlike grooming nail is pre-
sent on the second toe of each hind foot. It is used to clean
their fur.
Lemurs have foxlike heads with long muzzles, or nose areas.
Large, round, owl-like eyes can be bright red, orange, yellow,
or blue. Ears are medium size. Special comb-shaped front teeth
are used for grooming in addition to the grooming nail. Lemurs
lick their noses to keep them clean and damp. This helps with
odor sensing.
Lemurs can be brown, gray, black, and reddish, often with
mixed colors. For example, the ruffed lemur is black and white,
and the red ruffed lemur is flame-red with a black face and a
white neck patch. Lemur fur is thick and soft. Males and fe-
males may look alike, or quite different, depending on the
species.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Lemurs are found in Madagascar and the
Comoros Islands.
HABITAT
Lemurs live in tropical forests, or warm
STINK FIGHTS
damp forested areas, plus subtropical areas
located near tropical areas. These include dry When ringtailed lemur mating occurs in
scrub, dry tropical deciduous forests where April, males begin fighting over females.
leaves fall off during winter months, and oc- These fights involve lots of loud noises, and
casionally grassy areas. “stink fights.” The wrists of male ringtailed
lemur have scent or stink glands. Males
DIET pull their long tail between their wrists,
Lemurs eat plant foods, including flowers, picking up the smell. Males then stand
plant juices, fruits, leaves, seeds, and seed- face-to-face, shaking their stinky tail in the
pods. Occasionally some feed on insects, direction of their enemy. As yet, no one is
small vertebrates such as lizards, and bird’s sure how a winner is declared.
eggs. Bamboo lemurs prefer young bamboo
shoots and leaves.

All lemurs are arboreal, living in trees. Some species also
spend time on the ground. When in trees, lemurs walk and run
on all fours. They also leap between trees. Their tail helps in
balancing and steering during these leaps.
Lemurs are social, living in groups of two to twenty mem-
bers, depending on species. Large groups break up into smaller
groups to look for food, then rejoin at night. Within each group,
lemurs groom each other. This is a very important lemur ac-
tivity, reinforcing group bonding.
Most lemurs search for food during the day, although some
species, like the mongoose lemur, may feed in the day or evening.
They are territorial, each group claiming a certain feeding area.
When groups meet at territory boundaries, or edges, they get
quite upset. Alarm calls and branch shaking are used to get an-
other group to move away. Besides different alarm calls, there
are sounds for greeting, meeting other lemurs, and threat calls.
Females often supervise lemur groups. A dominant, or
stronger, female in each group leads males and other females
in searching for food and shelter. Females have first food
choices, with males waiting their turn. Females also choose
Lemurs 451
their mating partners. Females are ready to have young at two
to three years old.
After mating, females are pregnant about four months. They
usually give birth when the monsoon, or rainy season, starts.
There are usually one or two infants each birth, although the
ruffed lemur may have up to six infants.
At first, a newborn lemur rides under its mother’s body,
clinging onto her fur. At a month old, it begins riding on its
mother’s back. Shortly after, the young lemur starts wandering
on its own. It is weaned, or taken off breastmilk, by five months.
LEMURS AND PEOPLE

People hunt and trap lemurs for food. Some lemurs are kept
as pets. Others are shipped overseas for the illegal pet trade.
Sometimes lemurs are killed if they’re blamed for feeding
on food crops. However, ecotourism (travelers coming from
abroad to see local wildlife) is helping lemurs to survive. Eco-
tourism brings in a lot of money, so it is hoped that local peo-
ple will benefit and aid world efforts to keep lemurs from
becoming extinct, dying out.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Madagascar is the only place where lemurs are found. Animal
grazing, farming, tree cutting for fuel and brush fires decrease
habitat, or living areas. Since only 10 to 15 percent of
Madagascar’s forests remain, all lemur species are threatened or
could become threatened. Two species are Critically Endangered,
facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; one
species is Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; and
five species are Vulnerable, facing high risk of extinction.

Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)
SPECIES
RINGTAILED LEMUR ACCOUNTS
Lemur catta
Physical characteristics: Ringtailed lemurs are about the size of a

cat. Males and females look alike. Adult weight is 6.5 to 7.75 pounds
(3 to 3.5 kilograms). Head and body length is 15 to 18 inches long
(39 to 46 centimeters). These lemurs are gray with white undersides.
Black eye-rings in a white fox-like face surround bright orange eyes.
They have a very long, black-and-white ringed tail, which is held
straight up in the air as they walk.
Ringtailed lemurs have scent glands on their inner wrists and

armpits. These glands give off a stinky substance, or liquid. Ringtailed
lemurs use this to mark their feeding areas.
Lemurs 453
Geographic range: Ringtailed lemurs are found
in Madagascar.
Habitat: Ringtailed lemurs live in dry brush

forests and dense forests near riversides. There is
a separate ringtailed lemur population living on
rocky areas and cliffs within in a national
Madagascar park.
Diet: Ringtailed lemurs eat flowers, leaves, some

tree sap, and fruit. Tamarind tree seedpods are a
favorite food.
Behavior and reproduction: Ringtailed lemurs

live in groups of fifteen to twenty-five members.
The female ringtailed lemur
There are males and females in each group. The strongest female leads
gives birth to one or two young. each group. Female ringtailed lemurs have first food choice, and may
The mother carries them around slap males on the nose and take food from them.
for a few months. (John
Giustina/Bruce Coleman Inc. Ringtailed lemurs are diurnal, searching for food during the day.
Reproduced by permission.) They spend half their food-seeking time on the ground, walking on
all four limbs. Powerful hind legs permit easy leaps into nearby trees.
When ringtailed lemurs meet, they tap noses. At night, groups go
to sleep under big trees. Before falling asleep, there is often a shrill
group whoop-like call. Group members huddle together for warmth,
sometimes making a purring sound. In the morning, before food search-
ing, ringtailed lemurs sit upright on the ground. The sunlight warms
them up. Ringtailed lemurs also like to sunbathe during the day.
Mating occurs in April. The female gives birth to one or two young.
At first they are carried everywhere by the mother. By three months old,
while still carried about, they are playing with other young ringtailed
lemurs. Youngsters are weaned, or stop nursing, by six months old. Fe-
males in ringtailed lemur groups often have “aunt behavior.” They help
take care of infants and watch over the young when they play.
Ringtailed lemurs and people: Ringtailed lemurs are hunted for

food and sold in the illegal pet trade. However, they are increasingly
important in ecotourism.
Conservation status: The ringtailed lemur is considered Vulnera-

ble due to hunting, fires, and tree removal for farm land, all of which
destroy lemur habitat. ■

Crowned lemur (Lemur coronatus)
CROWNED LEMUR
Lemur coronatus
Physical characteristics: The crowned lemur has a contrasting

color, or “crown,” on the top of its head. Males have brownish fur
with orange fur encircling a whitish face. Their crown is a black fur
patch between the ears. Females have short, gray-brown body hair
with a red-orange patch on their crown. Both males and females have
round orange eyes.
Adult crowned lemurs weigh 4.5 pounds (2 kilograms). Head plus
body length is 13.4 inches (34 centimeters) long, with a 17.7-inch
(45-centimeter) tail. They have scent glands on various parts of
their body.
Geographic range: Crowned lemurs are found in Madagascar.
Lemurs 455
Crowned lemur males (on the
left) and females (on the right)
Habitat: Crowned lemurs live in dry to moist forests.
live together in social sleeping
groups. (Photograph by Harald Diet: Crowned lemurs prefer fruit, but also eat flowers, flower
Schütz. Reproduced by
permission.)
pollen, and leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: Crowned lemurs live in groups of about

six members. Within a group, communication is by various vocaliza-
tions, or sounds, as well as bonding through mutual grooming, or fur
cleaning. Crowned lemurs are mainly diurnal, feeding in the daytime,
with an afternoon rest. However they may feed for a few hours at night.
They search for food at all tree levels, as well as on the ground.
Crowned lemur males and females live together in social sleeping
groups. Females are in charge, with the strongest one leading the en-
tire group. Mating takes place at twenty months old. One to two off-
spring are born each time.
Crowned lemurs and people: Poachers, or illegal hunters, kill

crowned lemurs for food, and local people may kill them if lemurs
take food from their farms.

Conservation status: Crowned lemurs are considered Vulnerable
due to poaching, brush fires, farming, and logging. ■
Books:
London: Dorling Kindersley: 2000.
Geographic, 1998.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Living On the Edge Lemurs: On the Verge of Extinction, Do
Lemurs Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World (January–
February 2002): 12–17.
60–67.
(November 1, 1997): 287.
(December 2000): 18–24.
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
Animal Facts. “Ring-tailed Lemur.” http://www.chaffeezoo.org/animals/
ringTailedLemur.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
The Lemur Database. “Crowned Lemur.” http://www.stormloader.com/
lemur/crowned.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
The Lemur Database. “Ring-Tailed Lemur.” http://www.stormloader.
com/lemur/ringtailed.html (accessed on July 5, 2004).
Lemurs. “Lemur catta.” http://bibliofile.mc.duke.edu/gww/Berenty/
Mammals/Lemur-catta/index.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Lemurs 457
AVAHIS, SIFAKAS, AND INDRIS
Indriidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Indriidae
Number of species: 8 to 10 species
class This family (also spelled Indridae) includes the indris (IN-
dreez), sifakas (suh-FAH-kuhz), and the avahis (ah-VAH-heez)
subclass or woolly lemurs. Head and body length is 10.4 to 20.5 inches
order (26.4 to 52 centimeters). Weight ranges from 2.2 to 16.1
pounds (1 to 7.3 kilograms). The sifakas and avahis have rather
monotypic order
long tails, while the indris have just a stump.
suborder Indriids (members of the Indriidae family) fur color varies.
▲ family Avahis can be whitish, brownish, or reddish. Indris are black
and white. Sifakas are mostly black or dark brown. Fur can be
woolly or silky. Contrasting fur colors occur on their backs,
eyebrows, top of head, and head ruffs (a fringe of long hairs
around the neck). Eye colors include golden brown, orange,
and yellow. Indriid eyes are reflective, like mirrors, increasing
their ability to see in dim light.
Indriids’ hind limbs are longer than forelimbs. There are five
fingers on each of two forefeet and five toes on each of two hind
feet. All toes have nails except the second digit, or toe. This digit
has a grooming (or cleaning) claw. Indriids also have a dental
toothcomb, or special front teeth, used for fur cleaning.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Indriids are found in Madagascar.
HABITAT
Indriids live in a wide range of environments, including orig-
inal forests, disturbed forest fragments, and desert areas with
spiny plants.

DIET
Indriids feed on fruit, leaves, bark, and
flowers.

Groups of avahis and indris have two to
six members, usually an adult male and fe- ONCE UPON A TIME: SLOTH LEMURS
AND BABOON LEMURS
male and their young offspring. Sifakas have
groups of up to ten members. Females are The family Indriidae has lost over half of
dominant, or in charge, in both the sifakas its species in the last 1,000 years. Lost
and indris. Little is known about avahis. species include the sloth lemurs and the
Indris and sifakas mate at three to five baboon lemurs. Sloth and baboon lemurs
years old. Little is known about avahis, or were large. Sloth lemurs might have weighed
woolly lemurs, although they usually have up to 441 pounds (200 kilograms). They
one offspring each time. climbed slowly and hung from tree branches.
Sifakis and indris are diurnal, or active Baboon lemurs weighed up to 49 pounds
during the day. Avahis are nocturnal, or ac- (22 kilograms). They probably traveled on the
tive at night. ground and within trees. Sloth and baboon
All indriids are vertical clingers, able to lemurs became extinct, not one exists
climb up and down trees. They can leap long anymore, anyplace, primarily due to forest
distances between trees. Indris usually stay destruction and human hunting.
in trees, while sifakas occasionally travel on
the ground.
Scent marking and facial expressions are important means
of communication for all the indriids. Vocalizations, or sounds,
are also important. Among other sounds, avahis make shrill
whistles, sifakas bark, honk, and making sneezing noises, and
indris can sound somewhat like a loud clarinet.
INDRIIDS AND PEOPLE

Sifakas and indris are protected in some areas by taboos, or
forbidden deeds. Due to their human-like hands and faces, they
may be thought of as ancestor spirits, and so should not be
harmed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Six indriids are considered threatened due to loss of habitat
occurring from deforestation (tree removal), fire, poaching, and
encroaching human populations. The golden-crowned sifaka is
considered Critically Endangered, or at an extremely high risk
of extinction, dying out.
Avahis, Sifakas, and Indris 459

Milne-Edwards’s sifaka (Propithecus edwardsi)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS MILNE-EDWARDS’S SIFAKA
Propithecus edwardsi
Physical characteristics: The Milne-Edwards’s sifaka is black or

dark brown with a large whitish patch on its lower back. Its fur is
long and soft, and its face is hairless and black. Front legs are short,
and hind limbs large and strong. Eye color may be orange. Males and
females look alike. Adult weight is 12.3 pounds (5.6 kilograms). Head
and body length is 18.9 inches (48 centimeters), with a long tail used
for balancing. Sifaka males and females have scent glands for mark-
ing territory.
Geographic range: These sifakas live on the southeastern coast of

Madagascar.
Habitat: Milne-Edwards’s sifaka is found in moist, humid mountain

rainforests.

Diet: Milne-Edwards’s sifaka eats fruits, fruit
seeds, leaves, and flowers.
Behavior and reproduction: The Milne-Edwards’s

sifaka is diurnal, or active during daylight hours. It
travels by leaping and clinging onto trees. It usually
feeds within large trees, but may food search on the
ground. On the ground, sifakas hop on their hind
legs in an upright position, holding arms above their
heads for balance. At night they sleep with a social
group high in the trees. Sleeping locations can
change each night to avoid predators.
Social groups have up to ten members. These
groups may be all male, all female, or mixed. Fe-
males are dominant, leading their group and de-
manding first choice of food. However, males
defend the group against large raptors, such as
hawks and eagles.
Sifakas are mature at four to five years old. Fe-
males may mate with several males. One infant is
born every two years. Newborns weigh 4.4 ounces
(125 grams). They cling to the mother’s underside
for their first month, then ride on her back for the
next four months. Infant mortality, or death rate,
is high.
Milne-Edwards’s sifakas have several vocaliza-
tions, or sounds. The loud alarm barking sound
warning about bird predators may last up to fifteen
Milne-Edwards’s sifakas sleep
minutes. A short, quick “zusss” call warns of ground predators, or high in the trees at night. When
enemies. Quiet “moos” tell of a group’s current location. Lost sifakas they’re on the ground, they hop
give a long, warbling whistle to announce where they are. in an upright position, holding
their arms over their heads for
balance. (Illustration by Gillian
Milne-Edwards’s sifakas and people: In some areas, it is forbid- Harris. Reproduced by
den by local custom to hunt sifakas because they resemble humans. permission.)
Conservation status: Though not listed as Threatened, Milne-

Edwards’s sifakas may become threatened due to hunting, logging,
firewood use, land clearing to provide pasture for livestock, and slash-
and-burn agriculture. It has so far been impossible to keep and breed
this sifaka in captivity. ■

Indri (Indri indri)
INDRI
Indri indri
Physical characteristics: The indris are the largest living prosimians

(or “before apes”). They weigh 13.2 to 16.5 pounds (6 to 7.5 kilograms).
Head and body length is about 23.6 inches (60 centimeters). The tail
is stubby.
An indri is mostly black with white areas. A black hairless face has
large tufted ears and a pointed nose area. Large eyes are yellow. Body
hair is long and silky. Feet have strong big toes, and long hands have
strong thumbs, creating a very powerful tree branch grasp. A special
throat sac enables indris to make loud sounds.
Geographic range: Indris are found in northeastern Madagascar.

Baby indris cling to their
mother’s underside for four
months, and then begin riding
on her back. (Photograph by
Harald Schütz. Reproduced by
permission.)
Habitat: Indris live in humid moist forests from sea level to 6,000
Diet: Indris eat leaves, flowers, and fruits. When these foods are
hard to find, the indri uses its tooth comb to scrape tree bark and
dead wood as food.
Behavior and reproduction: Indris are diurnal, moving about only

in the daytime. They live in social groups of two to six members, usu-
ally a male and female pair and their young. Female indris are dom-
inant, or in charge. However, males are responsible for defending
group feeding territory, which they mark with scent glands.
Indris are arboreal, living in trees. They leap between tree trunks.
Leaps can be as long as 33 feet (10 meters). Indris seldom move on the
ground; when they do, they walk upright, moving forward by hopping
and holding their somewhat short arms above their body. At night, be-
fore going to sleep, indris have a group grooming session.

Indris begin mating at seven to nine years old. There are two to
three years between births. Only one offspring is born each time. Tiny
babies cling to the mother’s underside until four months of age, then
begin riding on her back. Leaping practice begins at this time. By
eight months of age, young move about by themselves, although they
stay with the parents for about two years.
Indris sound like a clarinet, a musical instrument, early in the
morning. These calls can be heard up to 2 miles (3 kilometers)
away. The indris are very territorial, making shrill cries warning
other groups to stay away. There are also loud howling or singing
sessions by group members. These howling songs can last up to four
minutes. Other sounds made by indris include hooting and barking
to warn of nearby predators, and grunts and wheezes when
frightened.
Indris and people: In many areas there are local taboos against peo-
ple harming indris, however hunting does occur.
Conservation status: Indris are considered Endangered, facing a

very high risk of extinction, due to logging, hunting, and slash-and-
burn agriculture (cutting down trees and burning remnants to clear
land for farming). ■
Books:
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other
Nowak, Ronald M., and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of
the World. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1983.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Lemurs: Living on the Edge: On the Verge of Extinction,
Do Lemurs Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World
(January–February 2002): 12–16.
(November 1, 1997): 287.
“Sifaka.” Ranger Rick (August 1999): 37–38.

Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Indridae.” http://primates.com/primate/indriidae.
html (accessed on June 21, 2004).
Animal Info. “Diademed Sifaka.” http://www.animalinfo.org/species/
primate/propdiad.htm (accessed on June 21, 2004).
Animal Info. “Indri.” http://www.animalinfo.org/ species/primate/indrindr.
htm (accessed on June 21, 2004).
“Indri.” http://members.tripod.com/uakari/indri_indri. html (accessed
on June 21, 2004).
Science & Nature: Animals. “Indri.” http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
wildfacts/factfiles/335.shtml (accessed on June 21, 2004).

SPORTIVE LEMURS
Lepilemuridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Lepilemuridae
class Sportive lemurs, also called weasel lemurs, have a head and
body length of 9.8 to 13.8 inches (25.0 to 35.0 centimeters).
subclass
Tail length is 9.8 to 12 inches (25 to 30.5 centimeters). The
order tail may be shorter or longer than the body, depending on
monotypic order species. Body weight is 1.1 to 2.2 pounds (0.5 to 1 kilograms).
suborder Sportive lemurs have short, pointed heads with large round
ears. They have binocular vision, they’re are able to see with
▲ family both eyes at the same time. In the mouth, lower front teeth are
joined and tilted forward. This dental-comb is a grooming, or
fur-cleaning aid. Sportive fur is woolly and dense. All sportive
lemurs have very long, strong hind limbs. They are much longer
than the forelimbs, or front legs.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sportive lemurs live only on the island of Madagascar, which
is off the east coast of Africa.
BIOMES
Evergreen forests, where the trees stay green all year, and
hot, dry forests.
HABITAT
Most sportive lemurs live in forested areas, ranging from
evergreen rainforests to hot dry forests.

DIET
Sportive lemurs feed mostly on leaves.
Sportive lemurs may also eat flowers, bark,
and fruit. They are different from other
lemurs in being able to feed on difficult-to-
digest food, such as cactus-like leaves. When
these partially digested leaves are eliminated ONCE THERE WERE MORE
as waste, in order not to waste any nutrition The koala lemur doesn’t exist
remaining, the sportive lemurs will eat this anymore—it is extinct. It weighed 88 to 176
waste. Basically, they digest everything twice. pounds (40 to 80 kilograms) and had a
This process is called cecotrophy (SEE- quite large head and a short body, with
cuh-troh-fee), and is present in other animals, front legs longer than the hind legs. All legs
but not in other lemurs. were somewhat curved, and hands and
feet were quite long. The koala lemur would
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION hold onto tree trunks, moving upward with
Sportive lemurs are nocturnal, moving short hops. When humans came to
about at night. They often gather in groups Madagascar, koala lemurs and their living
between the hours of twilight and darkness areas were destroyed. They disappeared
before moving on to their separate feeding entirely by the 1500s.
territories, or areas. During the day, they
sleep curled up in a ball within a hollow tree,
in thick leafy areas, or among vines. They may use the same
nesting area for several years. In the afternoon, they tend to
stick their heads out of their hiding place, either watching their
surroundings or napping.
Sportive lemurs have powerful, long, hind legs. They move
by leaping from tree trunk to tree trunk, then clinging onto
the tree trunk. Sportive lemurs may leap as far as 13 feet
(4 meters) at a time. Large pads on their hands and feet help
with holding on to tree trunks. They are also able to run on all
four limbs, or hop on their two hind limbs. They can do this
on tree branches or on the ground.
Male sportive lemurs often live alone. A mother and her chil-
dren stay together. A male’s territory includes that of several
females. Males, and sometimes females, defend their territories
from other sportive lemurs of the same sex by vocalizations,
or sounds, body actions, chasing, or, if that doesn’t succeed,
fighting.
Mating occurs at about eighteen months. Males will visit sev-
eral females for mating purposes. Females are pregnant for four
and a half months. One infant is born each year. Mothers may
Sportive Lemurs 467

carry their young in their mouth as they leap from tree to tree,
or leave them clinging onto branches while the mother hunts
for food. At about one month the young start seeking food on
their own. The young remain with the mother for about a year,
until the next baby is born.
SPORTIVE LEMURS AND PEOPLE

Sportive lemurs are hunted for food.
CONSERVATION STATUS
All seven species of sportive lemur are listed by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN) due to loss of forest habitat, or liv-
ing spaces. This is due to slash-and-burn agriculture, where
forests are burned to clear land for people’s homes and farms.
Cattle and goat overgrazing also destroys habitat. Two species
are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, and five are Near

Red-tailed sportive lemur (Lepilemur ruficaudatus)
SPECIES
RED-TAILED SPORTIVE LEMUR ACCOUNTS
Lepilemur ruficaudatus
Physical characteristics: Red-tailed sportive lemurs, also called

lesser weasel lemurs, measure about 11 inches (28.0 centimeters)
long, including head and body. Their tail is 9.8 to 10.2 inches (25 to
26 centimeters), slightly shorter than body length. Weight is about
1.3 to 2.0 pounds (0.6 to 0.9 kilograms). Eyes are yellow. Upper fur
is light gray-brown, with front fur reddish brown. Undersides are
whitish.
Geographic range: Red-tailed sportive lemurs are found in south-

western Madagascar.
Habitat: Red-tailed sportive lemurs live in dry forests.
Sportive Lemurs 469

Red-tailed sportive lemurs may
make their nests in holes in
trees. (Photograph by Harald
permission.)
Diet: Red-tailed sportive lemurs usually eat leaves, but they also eat
fruit. Because tough leaves are difficult to fully digest, these lemurs
re-digest some of their waste matter, so they can obtain all the nu-
trition from their food.
Behavior and reproduction: Mating occurs about eighteen

months of age. Male red-tailed sportive lemurs mate with several
females during the mating season. Females are pregnant about four
and a half months, giving birth to one baby per year. The young
stay with their mother and follow her about until they are about
one year old.
Red-tailed sportive lemurs are arboreal, living in trees. A female
and her young live in individual tree hollows and tree nests. Males
live alone, having home ranges, or activity areas, that overlap that of
several females. During the first few weeks of a red-tailed sportive
lemur’s life, the mother carries it about in her mouth. Later, an in-
fant clings to her fur. However, when she goes food searching, she
often leaves her young clinging to a branch or in a tree hollow.

Red-tailed sportive lemurs are nocturnal, active at night. They are
very territorial, protecting their feeding areas. Males make loud crow-
like calls to tell other males that an area is already taken. Males, and
sometimes females, defend their feeding territory with noise, threat-
ening body movements, chases, and even fighting.
Red-tailed sportive lemurs and people: Red-tailed sportive lemurs

are hunted for food.
Conservation status: Red-tailed sportive lemurs are Near Threat-

ened due to habitat destruction by fire and overgrazing of cattle and
goats as well as hunting. ■
Sportive Lemurs 471

White-footed sportive lemur (Lepilemur leucopus)
WHITE-FOOTED SPORTIVE LEMUR

Lepilemur leucopus
Physical characteristics: The white-footed sportive lemur, also

called the white-footed weasel lemur, weighs 1.2 to 1.3 pounds (0.5
to 0.6 kilograms). Body and head length measures about 9.8 inches
(25.0 centimeters). Their tail is the same length. This lemur has large
ears and whitish circles around large orange eyes. Its upper-body fur
is gray-beige with brown shoulders. It has white on its forelegs and
hindlegs.
Geographic range: The white-footed sportive lemur lives in south-

ern Madagascar.
Habitat: The white-footed sportive lemur lives in trees, bushes,

and grass in deserts with spiny plants and forests near streams and
rivers.

Diet: The white-footed sportive lemur prefers to
feed on thick, juicy leaves. However these may be
rare in the dry areas it lives, so it eats tough, fi-
brous leaves. Because these leaves are hard to
digest completely, it will eat some of its waste
matter to extract, or get out, any remaining food
value.
Behavior and reproduction: The white-footed

sportive lemur is arboreal, living in trees. It has
very strong, long hind limbs and travels by leap-
ing between trees, then clinging onto tree trunks
while climbing.
The basic family group of a white-footed
sportive lemur is a mother and her young children.
They sleep in tree holes, on branches, or in nests
within thick vines. Each female group has its own
small feeding territory. Males live alone in tree
holes or vine bunches. Each male’s feeding territory, or area, overlaps White-footed sportive lemurs are
that of several females. During the mating season, a male will mate arboreal, meaning they spend
with more than one female. most of their time in the trees.
They move from tree to tree by
White-footed sportive lemurs mate between May and July. Females leaping. (© Nigel J. Dennis/Photo
are pregnant for about four and a half months. Females have one baby Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
at a time. It is very tiny, weighing about 1.8 ounces (50 grams). Ba-
bies feed on mother’s milk for about four months. When the females
go out to search for food, babies are left clinging to a tree branch.
Mothers make special noises, which sound like a kiss, to keep in
contact with them. The young are mature, or adult, at eighteen
months.
White-footed sportive lemurs are nocturnal, or active at night. They
are highly territorial, protective of their feeding areas. Males, and
sometimes females, threaten intruders with noises and physical dis-
plays. Intruders may be chased or even injured.
White-footed sportive lemurs and people: People hunt white-

footed sportive lemurs for food.
Conservation status: White-footed sportive lemurs are Near

Threatened due to forest fires, overgrazing by livestock, hunting, and
poor land use. They are found in two Nature Reserves, a Special
Reserve, and the Berenty private reserve. ■
Sportive Lemurs 473

Books:
Geographic, 1998.
Sleeper, Barbara. Primates. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 1997.
Periodicals:
Banks, Joan. “Living On the Edge Lemurs: On the Verge of Extinction, Do
Lemurs Have a Fighting Chance?” National Geographic World (Jan–Feb
2002): 12–17.
60–67.
(November 1, 1997): 287.
(December 2000): 18–24.
2000): 22–25.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Family Megaladapidae (Sportive Lemurs).”
Megaladapidae.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Lemurs. “Lepilemur leucopus.” http://bibliofile.mc.duke.edu/gww/
Berenty/Mammals/Lepilemur-leucopus/index.html (accessed on July 6,
2004).
Lemurs. “Red-tailed Sportive Lemur.” http://members.tripod.com/
uakari/leilmur_ruficaudatus.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Lemurs. “White-footed Sportive Lemur.” http://members.tripod.com/
uakari/lepilemur_leucopus.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).

AYE-AYE
Daubentoniidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Daubentoniidae
One species: Aye-aye (Daubentonia
madagascariensis)
An aye-aye (EYE-eye) has long, woolly, black or dark brown class
hair tipped with white. Its head is rounded with a short face. subclass
Large, hairless black ears are 4 inches (10 centimeters) long
order
and 2.8 inches (7 centimeters) wide. Large eyes are golden
brown. The aye-aye has white around its nose and above its monotypic order
eyes. Front teeth, or incisors, are quite large. The incisors grow suborder
continuously, and keep growing back as they are worn down
▲ family
by the aye-aye gnawing on trees.
The aye-aye is about 16 inches (40 centimeters) long, in-
cluding head and body. It has a bushy tail, which, at 22 inches
(55 centimeters), is longer than its body. An aye-eye weighs
about 6 pounds (2.7 kilograms). Males and females are about
the same size.
An aye-aye’s arms and legs are about the same size, enabling
it to move easily on all fours. Especially unique, or different,
are the aye-aye’s forefeet or hands. Its hands have five long thin
fingers, with an extremely long thin bony middle finger. There
is a pointed, clawlike nail on every finger and toe, except for
the big toes, which have flat nails. The aye-aye uses its hands
for feeding or cleaning itself.
Another unusual feature is the aye-aye’s two nipples, for
nursing or breastfeeding, which are placed on the lower ab-
domen rather than on the chest. Aye-ayes are the only primates
with this body arrangement.
Aye-Aye 475
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Aye-ayes are found in Madagascar.
HABITAT
Aye-ayes live in several habitats, including
rainforests where the weather is damp or wet
NOSY MANGABE SPECIAL RESERVE throughout the year, dry forests that get lit-
Aye-ayes were once thought to be extinct tle rain, mangroves or riverbank tree areas,
in Madagascar. But in 1957, a small group and bamboo thickets or groups.
was discovered living on Madagascar’s east
coast. There were many attempts to protect DIET
its habitat there, but the aye-aye population An aye-aye’s diet consists of fruits, fungi,
kept growing smaller. Finally, to prevent the seeds including coconuts, nectar (sweet liq-
aye-ayes total disappearance from the world, uid) from palm tree flowers, and wood-
two French scientists spent weeks collecting boring beetle larvae (LAR-vee) or young. To
nine protesting aye-ayes. They were released get at the soft larvae feeding within trees, the
on a nearby uninhabited island called Nosy aye-aye walks along tree branches, its nose
Mangabe. This island is just 2 square miles pressed against the bark. The aye-aye has ex-
(5.2 square kilometers) in size. However it is cellent hearing. It may tap on a branch, lis-
covered in dense rainforest with many very tening for hollow spaces created by larval
tall trees. Scientists hoped the aye-ayes feeding. When a larva is located, the aye-aye
would survive there. For many years, gnaws quickly through the wood with its
scientists weren’t sure. Aye-ayes move about long incisors, or front teeth. Larvae are
only at night, and vegetation is thick, so they squashed with the aye-aye’s unique long, thin
are hard to find. However, eventually middle finger. Squashed remains are scooped
some nests and aye-ayes were seen. It is out, bit-by-bit, and licked off the tip of this
hoped that aye-ayes will multiply on this middle finger. Larvae add protein and fat to
protected island. the aye-aye’s diet.
The aye-aye also uses its strong incisors to
tear through the outer surface of hard-shelled
nuts. Unripe coconuts are a favorite. The aye-aye chews on
them until it makes a hole. Then, it uses its long middle finger
to scrape out the thick coconut milk and the softer interior,
eating both.

Aye-ayes are nocturnal, or active at night. Each spends most
of the day in an individual nest hidden among thick vines that
are within a high fork of a tall tree. Each round nest, about
20 inches (50 centimeters) wide, is constructed of leaves and
twigs woven together. Each nest takes about twenty-four hours
to build. It has a closed top, a side entrance, and a bottom layer

Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis)
of shredded leaves. An aye-aye may build up to twenty nests

in its home range. Aye-ayes often change their daytime sleep-
ing nest. Many different aye-ayes may individually occupy a
nest over a period of time.
Each aye-aye usually lives alone, however young may stay
with the mother for quite a while. Little is known about their
social behavior. Female home ranges, or feeding areas, are not
usually shared. Male home ranges are larger, and may overlap
female home ranges. Range boundaries are marked with urine
and with a special scent gland. Some scientists believe that aye-
ayes may search for food in male-female or male-male pairs.
When moving upward, the aye-aye climbs with a series of
rapid leaps, one after another. It also walks on four limbs on
the ground, but more slowly.
A female aye-aye is ready to mate at three to four years old.
Mating can occur during several months of the year. Several
males fight over who will be the one to mate with a female.
However, after this mating, the female may mate again with a
different male. Pregnancy is about five months. Females only
Aye-Aye 477
The aye-aye taps on tree bark to
find grubs and insects burrowing
within the bark of a tree.
(Photograph by Harald Schütz.
give birth every two to three years. Births can occur at any time
of the year. There is only one infant each time. Babies are
weaned, or stop nursing, at about seven months old.
When moving about in the trees, aye-ayes are usually quiet.
But they can make many different vocalizations, or sounds. These
include an “eep” call when meeting another aye-aye, a “hai-hai”
alarm call when fighting over food, and a begging “bird call”
given by young aye-ayes that want to feed with older animals.
AYE-AYES AND PEOPLE
In many unprotected areas, aye-ayes are destroyed by the lo-
cal people, either due to superstition, or because of aye-aye crop
raiding on coconut plantations—large coconut growing areas.
This problem began when their normal feeding areas were
destroyed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Aye-ayes are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk
of extinction, or dying out, due to superstition-related killing,
loss of habitat due to logging, and use of former tree land for

crop growing. At one time they were considered to be extinct,
however some were later found and moved to safer sites. Cur-
rently there are aye-ayes in about sixteen reserves, or semi-
protected areas, and some other places.
Books:
London, New York, and Sydney: Dorling Kindersley, 2001.
Kavanagh, Michael A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other
CT: Franklin Watts, 1999.
Nowak, Ronald M., and John L. Paradiso, eds. Walker’s Mammals of the
World. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
Periodicals:
“Aye-aye.” Ranger Rick (April 1999): 36–38.
Erickson, Carl. “Aye-aye, Sir: There’s Food in These Timbers.” National
Geographic (March 1992).
Skelton, Renee. “Creature of the Night.” National Geographic World
Magazine (1994): 18–31.
Web sites:
Animal Diversity Web. “Daubentoniidae: Aye-aye.” http://www.primates
.com/primate/daubentoniidae.html (accessed on June 22, 2004).
Animal Info. “Aye-aye.” http://www.animalinfo.org/species/primate/
daubmada.htm (accessed on June 22, 2004).
ARKive. “Aye-aye.” http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/
Daubentonia_madagascariensis/more_info.html (accessed on June 22,
2004).
Docent. “Aye aye.” http://www.szgdocent.org/pp/p-aye.htm (accessed
on June 22, 2004).
Science & Nature: Animals. “Aye aye.” http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
wildfacts/factfiles/327.shtml (accessed on June 22, 2004).
UNEP, WCMC, WWF. “Aye-aye—Daubentonia madagascariensis.”
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/species/data/species_sheets/ayeaye.htm
Aye-Aye 479
TARSIERS
Tarsiidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Tarsiidae
class Tarsiers (TAR-see-urz) weigh 2.8 to 5.8 ounces (80 to 165 grams).
Body length is 3 to 6 inches (8 to 15 centimeters), and tail length
subclass
is 5 to 11 inches (13 to 28 centimeters). They range in color from
order sandy to grayish brown to reddish brown. The undersides may
monotypic order be yellowish beige, grayish, or bluish gray. Relative to their body
size, tarsiers have the largest eyes of all mammals. Their goggle-
suborder like eyes cannot move within the sockets, but a flexible neck can
▲ family rotate the head 180 degrees for a backward look.
The tarsier is named for its powerful, extended tarsals
(TAR-sullz), or ankle bones. The tarsals, together with the
merging at the ankles of the two lower-leg bones, the tibia and
fibula, allow for remarkable leaps. Fingers and toes are enlarged
at the tip, with adhesive pads for gripping vertical branches.
The tail is nearly naked, except for a tuft of hair on the tip.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tarsiers are found in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Borneo.
HABITAT
Tarsiers live in a variety of habitats. They occupy mainly sec-
ondary forests with enough canopies that provide vertical
branches for clinging, usually about 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8
meters) above the ground. Tarsiers also inhabit shrublands,
bamboo thickets, mangroves, grasslands, and plantations. They
also live in primary forests with their characteristic dense
canopies and thinner lower vegetation.

DIET
Tarsiers are carnivores, feeding mainly on
live animals, including cockroaches, beetles,
moths, lizards, snakes, and roosting birds.
They consume almost every part of their
prey, including the feathers, beaks, and feet
of birds. FLYING ACROBAT
When preparing to leap from one tree
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION branch to another, the tarsier rotates its
Tarsiers are arboreal, spending most of head 180° toward the intended landing
their time in trees. They forage alone at night, spot. Then pushing off from its perch using
although some species may be active at dawn its powerful hind legs, it leaps backward.
or dusk. When catching large insects, the tar- The body takes off like an acrobat’s, twists
sier closes its eyes, opening them only after around in mid-air, and aligns with the
putting the prey into its mouth. An insect’s forward direction of the head. The tarsier
sharp body parts could do damage to the tar- then lands vertically, grasping the branch
sier’s big, exposed eyes. Tarsiers leap and with its fingers and toes.
cling to vertical branches. They communi-
cate through high-pitched calls. When they
get together to sleep during the day, tarsier
pairs may perform duets, or a group may vocalize together as
if in greeting.
Tarsiers have just one partner, mating year round or sea-
sonally, depending on the species. After a pregnancy of about
six months, the mother gives birth to a single, well-developed
infant, about one quarter of her weight.
TARSIERS AND PEOPLE

Some people take tarsiers for pets. Some farmers mistakenly
believe tarsiers eat crops and may kill the tarsiers. Actually, tar-
siers help control some harmful insects, including grasshop-
pers, caterpillars, and moths.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the Dian’s tar-
sier as Lower Risk/Conservation Dependent, meaning its survival
depends on conservation efforts. The Eastern tarsier is listed as
Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could become so,
because of habitat loss and degradation due to human activities.
The Philippine tarsier and three other species found in Indone-
sia are listed as Data Deficient, meaning the species may be well-
studied but information about distribution is lacking.
Tarsiers 481
Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS PHILIPPINE TARSIER
Tarsius syrichta
Physical characteristics: The Philippine tarsier has soft gray fur, a

body length of about 5 inches (13 centimeters), and a tail length that
is twice as long (9 inches, or 23 centimeters). It weighs about 4 to 5
ounces (113 to 142 grams). The head is round and the snout is short.
The enormous eyes that seem too big for the sockets are immobile. For
side and back vision, the tarsier swivels its head, sometimes almost a
full circle. The large, thinly textured ears move like giant antennas to
track sounds made by crawling insects and other prey. Long fingers
and toes have suction pads at the tips for gripping tree branches. All
nails are flattened, except for the second and third toes, which are
grooming claws used for removing dead skin and parasites from the
fur. The nearly naked tail has a sandy coloration, with a tuft of hair at
the tip. The inside part of the tail has ridges that help prop the tarsier
against a tree trunk or branch, especially while it sleeps.
Geographic range: The Philippine tarsiers are found in the

Philippine Islands.

Habitat: Philippine tarsiers inhabit small trees
found under the canopy of less mature forests.
They also occupy coastal rainforests. They live in
tree hollows close to the ground and are also found
in thick bushes and bamboo roots.
Diet: Philippine tarsiers prey on live crickets,

beetles, termites, lizards, spiders, scorpions, frogs,
and birds.
Behavior and reproduction: Philippine tarsiers

mostly live in trees and shrubs, moving from
branch to branch by leaping and clinging to verti-
cal branches with their padded fingers and toes.
The average jump covers about 5 feet (1.4 meters),
with the greatest leaps recorded at 20 feet
(6 meters). They also sleep while clinging to vertical branches, sup- The Philippine tarsier is usually
ported by their tail. Individuals sleep alone in dense vegetation close quiet, but calls out to others by
to the ground. On the forest floor, they hop, holding the long tail squeaking in a high note, trilling,
or chirping. (© Tom McHugh/
straight. They are nocturnal (active at night), preferring to forage Photo Researchers, Inc.
alone. They are usually quiet, but call out to one another by squeak- Reproduced by permission.)
ing in a high note, trilling, or chirping. Tarsiers scent mark tree
branches, using urine and secretions from skin glands found within
the lips, on the chest, and in genital areas.
A male Philippine tarsier may form a family group with one or two
females and their offspring. Due to a long pregnancy (about six
months), the newborn is well developed, having a full coat and open
eyes. The mother carries the infant in her mouth while she forages
in trees, resting the infant on branches while she feeds. The newborn
is able to cling to branches and can jump after a month.
Philippine tarsiers and people: Some Filipinos believe it is bad luck

to touch a tarsier. Others take tarsiers for pets. However, tarsiers do
not make good pets. They dislike being handled and will inflict seri-
ous bites. They do not thrive in zoos, dying soon after captivity.
Conservation status: IUCN lists the Philippine tarsier as Data De-

ficient, a category that does not refer to a threatened species. This
means that the species may be well studied, but information about its
population status is lacking. Nevertheless, tarsiers have experienced
habitat loss because of the clearing of land for agriculture and
timber. ■
Tarsiers 483
Western tarsier (Tarsius bancanus)
WESTERN TARSIER
Tarsius bancanus
Physical characteristics: The western tarsier is yellowish beige or

sand-colored. Enormous, goggled eyes take up most of its face. The
eyes cannot move within the sockets, so a flexible neck turns the head
around almost 180° for a backward look. Large ears are in constant
motion as they follow the sounds of possible prey. The fingers and
toes are very long and have suction pads at the tips for gripping tree
branches. Fingernails and toenails are flattened, except for those on
the second and third toes. These two toes have grooming claws, used
for cleaning the fur of dead skin and parasites and for scratching. The
long, rod-like tail is bare with a small clump of hair at the end. Ridges
on the inside part of the tail support the tarsier when it clings to tree
trunks or branches.
Geographic range: Western tarsiers are found in Indonesia.
Habitat: Western tarsiers favor secondary forests, with their dense

ground vegetation and small trees. They also inhabit primary forests,

characterized by a full-ceiling canopy and trees of different heights.
They are found in human settlements and plantations.
Diet: Western tarsiers eat primarily large insects, including beetles,

cockroaches, praying mantis, cicadas, butterflies, and grasshoppers. They
also feed on birds, bats, and snakes. They even eat poisonous snakes.
Behavior and reproduction: The western tarsier forages for food

alone at night and at dawn and dusk, listening for sounds made by
insects on the ground and catching them with its hands. It closes its
eyes when attacking insects to protect its eyes. During the day, males
and females sleep separately, either among vines and tangled vegeta-
tion or while clinging to vertical tree trunks or branches. Using urine
Tarsiers 485
and scent gland secretions, tarsiers scent mark tree branches to ad-
vertise territory ownership. They are rather quiet, although females
vocalize when ready to mate.
Western tarsiers may be monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), hav-
ing just one partner, or polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus), with males
having several partners. Births occur throughout the year, although
more births occur between February and June at the end of the rainy
season. Females give birth to a single infant that weighs about one
quarter of its mother’s weight. The well-developed infant is born with
a full coat and open eyes. It can climb right away after birth.
Western tarsiers and people: The Ibans, the indigenous people of

Sarawak, Borneo, who were once head-hunters, considered the west-
ern tarsier as an omen animal. They had seen the tarsier rotate its
head full circle and thought the tarsier had a loose head. A head-
hunter who encountered a tarsier would turn around right away so
as not to incur the spirits’ spell on him and his people. Today, tar-
siers are taken for pets but do not survive in captivity.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the western tarsier as Data

Deficient, a category that does not refer to a threatened species. This
means that the species may be well-studied, but there is not enough
information about its population status. ■

Books:
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other Pri-
mates. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Napier, John R., and Prue H. Napier. The Natural History of the Primates.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1986.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Primates of the World. Baltimore: The Johns
Preston-Mafham, Rod, and Ken Preston-Mafham. Primates of the World.
New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1992.
Web sites:
“Philippine Tarsier: Tarsius syrichta.” The Philippine Tarsier Foundation,
Inc. http://www.bohol.net/PTFI/tarsier.htm (accessed July 6, 2004).
Ramos, Serafin N. Jr. “The Tarsiers of Sarangani.” Sarangani, Mindanao,
Philippines Website. http://www.sarangani.gov.ph/news/tarsier/
m04tarsier.html (accessed July 6, 2004).
“Tarsiers (Tarsiidae).” Singapore Zoological Garden Docents. http://
www.szgdocent.org/pp/p-tarsir.htm (accessed July 6, 2004).

SQUIRREL MONKEYS
AND CAPUCHINS
Cebidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Cebidae
Cebids (members of the family Cebidae, including squirrel class
monkeys and capuchins) have round heads, forward-facing
subclass
eyes, rounded snouts, and small ears. Squirrel monkeys are
the smallest cebids. They have a slim body with a dense, soft order
fur that is gray to black on the crown of the head. The body monotypic order
may be yellow, golden, or reddish. The shoulders are gray
to olive, and the underparts are white to yellow. The forearms, suborder
hands, and feet are yellow to golden. The furry tail has a ▲ family
black tip.
Capuchins have a heavy body build. The face is covered with
short fur, while the rest of the body has longer fur. Color ranges
from black to brown to yellowish beige. The chest and shoul-
ders have patches of white, and the underparts are light-colored.
The tail is usually coiled at the tip, earning it the nickname
ringtail monkey.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Squirrel monkeys are found in most of South America and
in Central America (just Costa Rica and Panama). Capuchins
are found in most of South America and Central America and
the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Tobago.
HABITAT
Cebids are found in the spreading forest canopy and in
smaller understory trees. Squirrel monkeys also inhabit
swamps, while capuchins thrive in dry forests.
Squirrel Monkeys and Capuchins 487

DIET
Squirrel monkeys eat predominantly fruits and insects, but
also feed on flowers, shoots, buds, leaves, spiders, frogs, bats,
and crabs. Capuchins consume mainly fruits, but also eat insects,
snails, lizards, small birds, baby squirrels, crabs, and oysters.

Cebids are arboreal (tree-dwelling) and diurnal (active dur-
ing the day). They form large groups headed by a dominant
male. Capuchin groups have a dominant female that submits
only to the dominant male. The dominant male defends his
group but does not try to control the members. Squirrel mon-
key groups, on the other hand, may or may not have dominant
females, depending on the species. However, only the domi-
nant male mates with the receptive females. Nevertheless, all
cebids, males and females, have several partners. Females have
a single infant, which keeps a close relationship to its mother.
Fathers do not share in childrearing. Cebids use vocalizations
to communicate. They urinate on their hands, then rub them
on their fur and feet to scent mark territory. This behavior is
called urine washing.
CEBIDS AND PEOPLE

Cebids are popular as pets and zoo exhibit animals. They are
used in medical research. They have been used in the space
program to test the effects of space travel. Capuchins are trained
to help disabled persons, using their human-like hands to per-
form daily tasks, such as feeding people.
CONSERVATION STATUS
IUCN lists the yellow-breasted capuchin as Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction, because
of habitat loss and degradation, and hunting for food. It clas-
sifies the red-backed squirrel monkey as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction, and the black squirrel monkey and
the crested capuchin as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of ex-
tinction, due to habitat loss and degradation.

Common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus)
SPECIES
COMMON SQUIRREL MONKEY ACCOUNTS
Saimiri sciureus
Physical characteristics: Common squirrel monkeys weigh 1.5 to

2.75 pounds (0.6 to 1.2 kilograms), with the males being larger than
the females. They measure about 12 inches (30 centimeters), with a
tail length of about 16 inches (41 centimeters). The fur is short and
dense. The round head is gray to black on top, with a white face mask
and a black snout surrounded by black fur. Eyes are large and ears
are small. The back is olive-gray, and the underparts are light yellow.
The forearms, hands, and feet are yellow-orange. The long tail tipped
with black is non-prehensile, or incapable of grasping things such as
tree branches.

Geographic range: Common squirrel monkeys
are found in Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana,
Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela.
Habitat: Common squirrel monkeys occupy the

middle layers of the forest with abundant vines and
other vegetation. They also inhabit mangroves and
forests along rivers and streams.
Diet: Common squirrel monkeys feed mainly on

soft fruits and insects. They also eat frogs, spiders,
snails, crabs, and occasionally bats.
Behavior and reproduction: Depending on avail-

able habitat, common squirrel monkeys live in
groups of twenty to 300. Subgroups of males,
mothers with offspring, and juveniles are formed
within the main group. They are active during the
day, foraging together in small groups. They are
mostly arboreal but are sometimes found on the
ground. They normally walk on all fours, but can
move on their hind legs.
Males and females have several partners. Before
the mating season, adult males gain weight on the
upper body and in the genital organs in what is
Common squirrel monkeys feed known as the “fatted male” condition. They also fight with one an-
mainly on soft fruits and insects. other to determine who will mate with the females. One large off-
(Norman Owen Tomalin/Bruce spring is born during the rainfall season when food is plentiful. The
permission.)
young stay with the mother for about a year. Males do not share in
parenting.
Common squirrel monkeys and people: Common squirrel mon-

keys are sometimes hunted for food. They are sold as pets and used
for medical research.
Conservation status: Common squirrel monkeys are not consid-

ered a threatened species. ■

White-throated capuchin (Cebus capucinus)
WHITE-THROATED CAPUCHIN
Cebus capucinus
Physical characteristics: White-throated capuchins weigh 5.9 to

8.6 pounds (2.7 to 3.9 kilograms), with males being larger than fe-
males. They measure about 18 inches (46 centimeters) with a tail that
is just as long. The robust body is fully furred, with white to yellow-
ish coloration on the throat, head, and shoulders. The back, arms,
and legs are black. The long, black, hairy tail is semiprehensile, able
to wrap around tree branches, but unable to function as a fifth limb
for holding objects.

Geographic range: White-throated capuchins
are found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Panama.
Habitat: White-throated capuchins occupy ever-

green forests with full canopies and those with less-
developed canopies but dense understory. They
also inhabit mangroves and dry deciduous forests.
Diet: White-throated capuchins feed on plants

and animals. Fruits are their favorite food, but they
also eat shoots, leaves, flowers, buds, berries, and
nuts, as well as insects, spiders, crabs, small birds,
baby squirrels, and lizards. They eat oysters, using
rocks to open the shells.
White-throated capuchins are in Behavior and reproduction: White-throated capuchins form groups
the trees for all of their activities, of ten to twenty individuals, typically with more adult females than
including sleeping. (J-C Carton/ males, but ruled by a large, older male. They are arboreal and active
Bruce Coleman Inc. Reproduced
by permission.) during the day. When foraging, they call out to one another, using
squeaks, shrieks, and chatters. They groom each other, looking
through each other’s fur to remove parasites and dirt. Males defend
the group’s territory, rubbing urine on their fur and feet and distrib-
uting that scent among the trees. They have been known to throw
branches and fruits at perceived enemies, including humans.
Adults have several partners. Females have single births. The new-
born clings to its mother’s undersides or across her shoulders. After
six weeks, the infant rides on its mother’s back. Males do not share
in childcare. Young males leave their birthplace as early as age two.
White-throated capuchins and people: White-throated capuchins

are the familiar creatures associated with organ-grinders who used to
entertain in city streets. They are popular in zoos worldwide. Their
intelligence makes them a prime candidate for medical research.
Farmers consider them pests for raiding crops.
Conservation status: White-throated capuchins are not considered

a threatened species. ■

Weeper capuchin (Cebus olivaceus)
WEEPER CAPUCHIN
Cebus olivaceus
Physical characteristics: Weeper capuchins weigh 5.3 to 6.6

pounds (2.4 to 3 kilograms), males being larger than females. They
measure about 20 inches (55 centimeters) with a tail that is just as
long. They have an orange-brown body and yellowish shoulders and
upper arms. A wedge-shaped, dark brown coloration extends from
the forehead to the back of the head. The long, brown tail tipped with
black is semiprehensile, so it can wrap around a branch.
Geographic range: Weeper capuchins are found in Brazil, French

Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela.

Weeper capuchins live in groups
of eight to fifty individuals with a
dominant male. Young females
stay with the group, but young
males leave when they are
as young as two years old.
Habitat: Weeper capuchins inhabit the middle and lower layers of

evergreen rainforests. They also live in dry forests, mountain forests,
gallery forests (woods along streams and rivers), and shrub woodlands.
Diet: Weeper capuchins eat fruits, buds, shoots, and roots of small
trees. They also feed on insects, snails, and birds.
Behavior and reproduction: Weeper capuchins form groups of

eight to fifty individuals, ruled by a dominant male. They are arbo-
real and forage during the day. They take breaks to groom each other’s
fur, removing parasites and dirt. Capuchins claim territory by urine
washing. They soak their hands with urine, which they rub on their
fur and feet, leaving the scent throughout their forest routes. They
show aggression by shaking branches and bouncing up and down.
They have about a dozen vocalizations, one of which is a sad sound
that earned them the name “weeper.”
All receptive females mate with the dominant male at a given time.
Females have single births. The newborn is able to cling to its mother’s
fur right away. The father does not take care of the young but may
find food for the mother. Females stay with the group, but males leave
home as early as two years of age.
Weeper capuchins and people: Weeper capuchins are hunted for

food in some areas. They are also used in medical research.

Conservation status: Weeper capuchins are not considered a
threatened species. ■
Books:
Kinzey, Warren G., ed. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and Be-
havior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.
Periodicals:
Bergman, Charles. “The Peaceful Primates.” Smithsonian (June 1999):
78–86.
Web sites:
Broekema, Iris. “Natural History of the White-Throated Capuchin
(Cebus capucinus).” The Primate Foundation of Panama. http://www
.primatesofpanama.org/academicresources/articles/capuchin.htm (ac-
Schober, Nathan, and Chris Yahnke. “Cebus olivaceus (Weeping Ca-
puchin).” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu/site/accounts/information/Cebus_olivaceus.html (accessed on July 6,
2004).
The Squirrel Monkey Breeding and Research Resource. “Saimiri Natural
History.” University of South Alabama Department of Comparative Med-
icine. http://www.saimiri.usouthal.edu/saimiri.htm (accessed on July 6,
2004).

MARMOSETS, TAMARINS,
AND GOELDI’S MONKEY
Callitrichidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Callitrichidae
class Callitrichids (cal-ih-TRICK-ids; members of the family
subclass Callitrichidae) are among the smallest primates and include the
world’s smallest monkey, the pygmy marmoset. They have lux-
order
urious, silky fur that ranges from the brightly colored to the
monotypic order
more subdued black or brownish black. Some species come in
suborder several color combinations. A shock of hair may be worn on
▲ family top of the head, over the nape and shoulder, or as a beard. All
have claws on fingers and toes, except for the big toes. The
claws are useful for vertical clinging. Non-prehensile (non-
grasping) tails are long, sometimes several inches longer than
the body. Most callitrichids have scent glands in different ar-
eas of their bodies.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Callitrichids are found in most of South America and in
Central America (Panama and Costa Rica).
HABITAT
Callitrichids occupy various habitats, including primary
forests with well-developed canopies and secondary forests
with dense understories. They live in open woodlands,
bamboo thickets, and scrub forests, as well as forests along
rivers.

DIET
Fruits, insects, and gum (a sticky sub-
stance from tree bark) make up the main diet
of all callitrichids. Most also eat nectar (sweet
liquid from flowering plants), lizards, tree
frogs, baby birds, bird eggs, butterflies, and
COOPERATIVE PARENTING
spiders.
In tamarin and marmoset groups, just
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION one female gives birth, producing twins
each time. At birth, the twins weigh as
Callitrichids are very social animals, living much as 25 percent of the mother’s weight.
in extended family groups made up of a Juvenile siblings and other adults help take
breeding pair, their offspring, and other rel- care of the infants, sharing food after the
atives. They are arboreal (tree-dwelling) and infants are weaned from milk and guarding
diurnal (active during the day). They per- them against predators. Family members
form mutual grooming, or looking through take turns carrying the twins, especially
each other’s fur to remove parasites and dirt. since there are no places to set the babies
Only one female breeds in a family, giving down in tree tops.
birth to twins. Goeldi’s monkeys are the
exceptions, having single births. The father
and other family members share in childrearing, taking turns
carrying the infants and sharing food with them. They guard
their territories, sending messages through scent marking, loud
calls, body language, and facial expressions.
CALLITRICHIDS AND PEOPLE

Marmosets and tamarins are sold as pets. These animals are
commonly used in medical research, especially in the United
States.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the black-faced
lion tamarin and the black lion tamarin as Critically Endan-
gered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction, because of
habitat loss/degradation from logging and hunting. The pied
tamarin is also classified as Critically Endangered due to hu-
man expansion into its habitat. Five species are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction, because of habitat
loss/degradation resulting from deforestation for agriculture:
the buffy tufted-ear marmoset, the buffy-headed marmoset, the
Marmosets, Tamarins, and Goeldi’s Monkey 497

golden-headed lion tamarin, the golden lion tamarin, and the
cotton-top tamarin. The IUCN classifies two other species as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, due to habitat
loss/degradation from logging and hunting.

Cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus)
SPECIES
COTTON-TOP TAMARIN ACCOUNTS
Saguinus oedipus
Physical characteristics: The cotton-top tamarin gets its name

from the long, white hair that starts as a wedge at its forehead and
flows all way to the nape of the neck. Black or brown fur covers the
back, and white fur covers the undersides. The black face is framed
in grayish fur. The arms and legs are grayish white. The long, brown-
ish black tail helps in keeping balance when jumping and climbing.
It has claws for vertical climbing, except for the big toe, which has a
flat nail. It weighs about 12.4 to 15.9 ounces (350 to 450 grams) and
measures 7.9 to 11 inches (20 to 28 centimeters), plus an additional
12.2 to 16.1 inches (31 to 41 centimeters) for the tail.

Cotton-top tamarins prefer the
tropical deciduous forests
that are typically found on the
edges of rainforests. They
live in Colombia. (Gail
M. Shumway/Bruce Coleman
Geographic range: Cotton-top tamarins are found in Colombia.
Habitat: Cotton-top tamarins are found in rainforests, but prefer the

tropical deciduous forests that are typically found on the edges of
rainforests. They also inhabit open woodlands and dry forests.
Diet: Cotton-top tamarins eat mainly ripe fruits, insects, and spi-
ders. They also feed on flowers, buds, young leaves, nectar, gum, tree
frogs, snails, and lizards.

Behavior and reproduction: Cotton-top tamarins live in groups of
three to ten individuals, consisting of a dominant pair, their offspring,
and several subordinate males and females. During the day, they travel
through the forest as a group foraging for food. They take long breaks
for grooming sessions to remove parasites and dirt from each other’s
fur. Cotton-top tamarins are vocal, making long calls to contact group
members or to greet other tamarin species. They scent mark territo-
ries and use body language to communicate, such as raising their head
fur or nape fur when agitated.
Only the dominant pair breeds, usually having twins. Infants travel
with their parents by clinging to their fur. Both parents care for the
young, although fathers usually carry the young. The parents are as-
sisted by older siblings and other group members, who also share
their food with the young. Young females leave home at about eigh-
teen months of age, while young males stay longer until they are about
two years old.
Cotton-top tamarins and people: Cotton-top tamarins are popular

as pets. They are used in medical research, especially in the study of
colon cancer.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the cotton-top tamarin as En-

dangered because of habitat loss and degradation due to deforesta-
tion for agriculture and ranching. ■

Goeldi’s monkey (Callimico goeldii)
GOELDI’S MONKEY
Callimico goeldii
Physical characteristics: Goeldi’s monkeys have long, silky,

brownish black fur, with a mane of hair covering the neck and shoul-
ders and longer hairs on the rump. They weigh about 1.1 pounds
(500 grams) and measure 8 to 9 inches (20 to 23 centimeters), with
a tail length of 10 to 12 inches (25 to 30 centimeters). Unlike other
callitrichids, they have thirty-six teeth instead of thirty-two, due to
an extra molar on both sides of the jaws. The long tail is used for bal-
ance in traveling through the trees. They have claws, except for the
large toes that have flat nails.

The Goeldi’s monkey’s diet
consists predominantly of fruits
and insects. (Norman Owen
Geographic range: Goeldi’s monkeys are found in Bolivia, Brazil,

Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Habitat: Goeldi’s monkeys prefer secondary forests with less-

developed canopy and dense bamboo grasses and shrubs. They also
inhabit deciduous scrub forests.
Diet: The Goeldi’s monkey’s diet consists predominantly of fruits

and insects. It also eats tree frogs and occasionally forages for
grasshoppers, crickets, and cockroaches on the forest floor.

Behavior and reproduction: Goeldi’s monkeys live in groups of two
to nine individuals, made up of one to three adult males and females.
During the day they travel through the forest by vertical clinging and
leaping, instead of on their four feet. They communicate through a
variety of vocalizations, including trills for warning signals and whis-
tles for long-distance calls.
Each group has two breeding females, who may give birth twice a
year. Unlike tamarins and marmosets who give birth to twins, Goeldi’s
monkeys give birth to a single young. The mother alone takes care
of the newborn for almost three weeks, after which the father and
other family members share in parenting. The infant is carried on the
back. However, when escaping predators, animals that hunt them for
food, the monkeys do not take their young with them, but hide them
among vegetation. They themselves hide in the lower shrubbery. In-
fants become independent by the eighth week.
Goeldi’s monkeys and people: Goeldi’s monkeys are trapped for

the pet trade.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists Goeldi’s monkey as Near

Threatened, meaning they are not currently threatened, but could be-
come so, due to habitat loss and degradation from human settlements
and logging. It is classified as vulnerable in Colombia because of lim-
ited populations. ■

Pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea)
PYGMY MARMOSET
Cebuella pygmaea
Physical characteristics: The smallest of the New World primates,

the pygmy marmoset weighs about 4.4 ounces (125 grams) and mea-
sures about 5 inches (13 centimeters), with another 8 inches (20 cen-
timeters) for the tail. The fine, soft fur is brown and tinged with
yellow, resulting in a grizzled look that makes it blend in with the
tree branches. The fur is thicker on the head and chest, giving it a
larger appearance. The orange or yellow hands and feet have claws,
except for the big toes. The non-prehensile tail maintains balance
when the marmoset darts through the forest. The lower jaw has chisel-
shaped front teeth for gouging holes in tree barks to extract gum.

The pygmy marmoset is the
smallest of the New World
primates. (© Art Wolfe/The
National Audubon Society
Collection/Photo Researchers,
Geographic range: Pygmy marmosets are found in Bolivia, Brazil,

Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.
Habitat: Pygmy marmosets prefer forests along rivers, as well as

flood-plain forests. They also occupy scrub forests.
Diet: Pygmy marmosets consume mainly tree gum, which they col-
lect by excavating holes on tree barks with their sharp lower incisors

and canines. The gum hardens when exposed to air but can be dis-
lodged for a fresh supply. Marmosets also feed on insects, spiders,
lizards, and grasshoppers.
Behavior and reproduction: Pygmy marmosets live in groups of two

to nine individuals, typically an adult pair and their offspring, which
may include up to four generations. Some groups may have more than
one male and female, but just one breeding pair. Marmosets breed
throughout the year, producing twins. The whole family shares in
child care.
Pygmy marmosets are active during the day, traveling on all fours
and sometimes clinging and leaping vertically. They communicate
through various vocalizations, body postures, and facial expressions.
They are territorial, defending their forest sites using scent gland se-
cretions. Defense of their territory involves calls, threat displays, and
chasing of intruders.
Pygmy marmosets and people: Pygmy marmosets are sometimes

kept as pets.
Conservation status: The pygmy marmoset is not a threatened

species. ■
Books:
Angier, Natalie, and Nicholas Wade, eds. “Cotton-Top Tamarins: Coop-
erative, Pacifist and Close to Extinct.” In The Science Times Book of
Mammals. New York: The Lyons Press, 1999.
Kinzey, Warren G., ed. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and
Behavior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.
Tattersall, Ian. Primates: Lemurs, Monkeys, and You. Brookfield, CT: The
Millbrook Press, 1995.
Periodicals:
Richardson, Sarah. “A Monopoly on Maternity.” Discover (February
1994): 28–29.

Web sites:
Golden Lion Tamarin Conservation Program. “About Lion Tamarins.”
Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.si.edu/
ConservationAndScience/EndangeredSpecies/GLTProgram/Tamarins/
About.cfm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Paschka, Nick, and Phil Myers, eds. “Callimico goeldii.” Animal
information/Callimico_goeldii.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“Pygmy Marmoset.” Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://
natzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates/Facts/FactSheets/PygmyMarmosets/
default.cfm (accessed on July 6, 2004).

NIGHT MONKEYS
Aotidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Aotidae
Night monkeys, so named because they are the world’s only class
nocturnal (active at night) monkeys, are medium-sized animals
subclass
weighing about 2 pounds (0.9 kilograms). They measure about
13.5 inches (34 centimeters), with a tail length of about 14.6 order
inches (37 centimeters). Forward-facing, large eyes dominate the monotypic order
round face. The large size of the eyes makes up for the lack of a
reflective eye layer used by many nocturnal mammals for night suborder
vision. Night monkeys are also called owl monkeys because of ▲ family
their round, flat face and eyes that resemble those of an owl.
Night monkeys have a thick, woolly fur that ranges in color
from gray to brown, with yellow to orange undersides. An or-
ange stripe runs down the back. Large white or gray patches sur-
round the eyes and the mouth. Three dark stripes extend from
the top of the nose and on each side of the head. The stripes vary
in darkness and width. Very small rounded ears seem almost ab-
sent in the thick fur. A sac under the chin can be inflated to make
vocalizations louder. The long, bushy tail is non-prehensile, or
incapable of grasping. It is used for balance when traveling
through the forest on hands and feet and for leaping.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Night monkeys are found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Colombia, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, and Venezuela.
HABITAT
Night monkeys inhabit evergreen tropical rainforests and de-
ciduous scrub forests. They also occupy forests along rivers.
Night Monkeys 509

They prefer dense middle-level canopies and understories with
tangled vines that provide cover for sleeping sites. They also
like hollows in old trees.
DIET
Night monkeys eat mainly fruits, but also consume leaves,
flowers, insects, tree frogs, spiders, bats, birds, and eggs. They
forage, search for food, at all levels of the forest, from the
canopy down to the forest floor.

Night monkeys are arboreal and live in family groups con-
sisting of an adult pair and two or three offspring. During the
day, the family sleeps in tree hollows or tangled vines. At night
they forage for food throughout the forest levels, sometimes de-
scending to the ground. They are especially active on moonlit
nights, when they can see better. Night monkeys are adaptable.
In Argentina, when the nights get cold at certain times of the
year, the animals sleep at night and look for food during the day.
Night monkeys are monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus),
having just one partner. The female gives birth to one offspring
a year. The mother nurses the infant for up to eight months,
but only carries the infant during the first week after birth and
when nursing. The father provides almost all the child care. He
carries the infant when the family travels through the trees. He
also plays with the infant and the older offspring and guards
them from predators, animals that hunt them for food. If the
father dies, the older sibling, not the mother, assumes infant
care. The young leave home at about three years of age.
Night monkeys scent mark territories with a behavior called
urine washing. They wet their hands with urine, then rub them
on their coats and the soles of their feet. The urine scent is
transferred to the leaves and branches during their travels. They
also communicate using secretions from scent glands on the
chest and on the base of the tail. Conflicts between neighbors
tend to occur when the moon is bright, perhaps because they
can better see aggressive physical signals that include arching
the back, erecting the fur, passing wastes, and urinating. The
monkeys emit a variety of calls, including shrill cries, squeaks,
and loud owl-like hoots that can be made louder by inflating
the throat sac. Young males wishing to attract a mate hoot for
long periods of time during a full moon.

NIGHT MONKEYS AND PEOPLE
Night monkeys are hunted for their meat and fur by native
people. They are sold as pets and used for medical research.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Andean night monkey as Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild, because of small
populations and habitat destruction from deforestation. The
gray-bellied night monkey is also classified as Vulnerable due
to hunting by humans and collection for the pet trade and med-
ical research.
Night Monkeys 511

Three-striped night monkey (Aotus trivirgatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT THREE-STRIPED NIGHT MONKEY
Aotus trivirgatus
Physical characteristics: The three-striped night monkey has a

woolly, dense fur that varies in coloration from grizzled gray to brown
to reddish. Its undersides are orange or yellowish. The ears are small
and rounded. Very large eyes are forward-facing and are brown or or-
ange. Large white patches surround the eyes and the mouth, giving
the appearance of alertness even when sleeping. Three dark stripes
extend from the top of the nose and on each side of the head. The
distinctive facial markings may prove helpful for communications
among family members, especially on moonless nights. The legs,
which are longer than the arms, are used for jumping. An inflatable

Three-striped night monkeys live
in family groups, which typically
consist of the parents and their
infant and juvenile offspring.
(© Kevin Schafer/Corbis.
sac under the chin is used to produce loud vocalizations. The orange,
bushy tail, which is tipped in black, is non-prehensile. It is used for
maintaining balance when leaping on branches and moving on hands
and feet through the different levels of the forest. Males weigh about
1.8 pounds (0.8 kilograms). Females are slightly smaller. The mon-
keys measure 9.5 to 18.5 inches (24 to 47 centimeters) with a tail
length of 8.7 to 16.5 inches (22 to 42 centimeters).
Geographic range: Three-striped night monkeys are found in

Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela.
Habitat: Three-striped night monkeys inhabit different types of

forests, including evergreen forests, wet and dry forests, and forests
along rivers. They prefer forests with thick, tangled vines and thickets
Night Monkeys 513

for cover during sleep or rest. They also thrive near human
developments.
Diet: Three-striped night monkeys feed mainly on fruits, supple-

menting them with insects, tree frogs, nectar, and leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: Three-striped night monkeys live in

family groups in forest trees. A typical family consists of the parents
and their infant and juvenile offspring. The family forages at night,
staying up longer on moonlit nights. They travel through the same
areas of the trees, which is especially helpful in finding their way in
the dark. They usually move on all fours, but can jump from tree to
tree. During the day, they share a sleeping site among tangled vines,
dense vegetation, or in a tree hollow.
Mothers give birth to a single infant annually, although they may
have twins, but very rarely. Fathers are the principal caregivers, car-
rying the infant starting from birth. They play with the infant and older
offspring, guard them against predators, and also teach them. The in-
fant is given to the mother only during nursing. The mother does not
participate in play and gives the infant back to the father immediately
after it is fed. The infant is weaned by eight months of age. Older off-
spring help the father care for the newborn. The young stay with the
family for up to three years, leaving peacefully on their own.
Three-striped night monkeys are territorial, advertising their own-
ership with secretions from scent glands in the chest and the tail base.
They also use urine for scent marking. They soak their fur and the
soles of their feet with urine, which gets transferred to leaves,
branches, and trunks. They are loud creatures, announcing their pres-
ence with different types of sounds. They use an owl-like hoot when
ready to mate or when separated while foraging in the dark. They
whoop and grunt to threaten intruders, and trill when greeting each
other. Hostile physical communications include back-arching, fur-
raising, defecating, and urinating.
Three-striped night monkeys and people: Three-striped night

monkeys are hunted for food by native people. They are also trapped
and sold as pets. These monkeys have been found to be carriers of
the human malaria parasites. They are especially valued for research
in the development of drugs used for treatment and prevention of
malaria.
Conservation status: The three-striped night monkey is not a


Books:
Web sites:
“Aotus trivirgatus (Northern Gray-Necked Owl Monkey).” The Pri-
mate Foundation of Panama. http://www.primatesofpanama.org/
academicresources/articles/monoculture/atrivirgatus.htm (accessed on
July 6, 2004).
The Squirrel Monkey Breeding and Research Resource. “Aotus Natural
History.” University of South Alabama Department of Comparative
Medicine. http://www.saimiri.usouthal.edu/aotus_natural_history.htm
Night Monkeys 515

SAKIS, TITIS, AND UAKARIS
Pitheciidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Pitheciidae
class Pitheciids (PITH-uh-sidz; members of the family Pitheciidae)
subclass are small- to medium-sized monkeys, ranging from the small-
est, the titis, to the largest, the uakaris. Male bearded sakis and
order uakaris are about 20 percent larger than the females. Male and
monotypic order female white-faced sakis differ in coloration. The bald uakari
is easily recognized by its pinkish to bright red naked face. All
suborder
pitheciid species have long coats, except for the short-furred
▲ family bearded saki. The bald uakari alone has a short tail, about a
third of its body length. The rest of the species have long, non-
prehensile (nongrasping) tails.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pitheciids are found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname.
HABITAT
Pitheciids inhabit a variety of rainforest habitats. Sakis pre-
fer the middle and lower layers of the canopy, as well as the
understory. They are found in savanna forests, mountain
forests, swamps, and forests along rivers, but not flooded
forests. Uakaris choose forests that get flooded from seasonal
rainfall for about six months. Titis occupy coastal forests, liv-
ing in the understory.
DIET
Sakis and uakaris feed mainly on seeds, especially from
tough-skinned fruits, while titis prefer fruit pulps. All species

supplement their diet with flowers, leaves,
shoots, and insects.

Pitheciids differ in the size of their social
groups, ranging from small parent-and-
offspring groups among titis to the uakari DE-STRESSING
multimale-multifemale groups of up to 100
Sakis, uakaris, and titis, like many
members. They are mostly arboreal, living in
primates, practice mutual grooming. They
the trees of the forest canopy and understory.
take turns looking through each other’s
Active during the day, these primates take
fur, carefully removing dirt, dead skin, and
breaks for mutual grooming. Pitheciids are
parasites. The parasites are usually eaten
vocal and use body postures to communi-
by the groomer. These primates seem to
cate, such as erecting the body hair to show
have found a way not only to de-stress but
aggression.
also to practice hygiene (HIGH-jeen) and
All pitheciids give birth to one infant. reinforce social bonds.
Some species breed seasonally, while others
do not. Saki fathers do not help with child
care but do groom infants. Titi fathers are the
principal caregivers, even of older offspring. The young are
weaned at different ages, with sakis being independent at about
age one and titis remaining with the parents until they are two
or three years old.
PITHECIIDS AND PEOPLE

Pitheciids are hunted for food and trapped for the pet trade.
Sakis are hunted for their long, bushy tails that are made into
dusters.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists Barbara
Brown’s titi and Coimbra’s titi as Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction, due to habitat loss or
degradation from logging. The bearded saki is classified as En-
dangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, because of hunt-
ing and pet collection, as well as habitat loss from deforestation.
Six other species are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction, and two species as Near Threatened, not currently
threatened, but could become so, due to several factors, in-
cluding hunting, capture for the pet trade, and habitat loss from
deforestation for timber and agriculture.
Sakis, Titis, and Uakaris 517

White-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS WHITE-FACED SAKI
Pithecia pithecia
Physical characteristics: The white-faced saki weighs 1.8 to 5.5

pounds (0.8 to 2.5 kilograms). It measures 13.2 to 13.8 inches (33.5
to 35 centimeters), with a tail length of 13.5 to 17.5 inches (34.3 to
44.5 centimeters). The coarse fur is long, thick, and shaggy, making
the animal seem larger. The saki is named for its white facial col-
oration, sometimes tinged with red, which is typical only of males.
Females have black or brownish fur, with a pale stripe running down
from under the eyes to each side of the face. This marked color dif-
ference is unusual in primates. Long nape hair flows forward like a
hood. The black nose is very wide, and the nostrils are flat. The long,

bushy tail is non-prehensile, or incapable of grasp-
ing. It is used for balance when traveling through
the forest.
Geographic range: White-faced sakis are found

in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname.
Habitat: White-faced sakis inhabit savanna

forests where grassland and forest meet, as well as
mountain forests. They live in palm swamps and
forests along rivers, although they do not like
flooded areas. They prefer the middle and lower
levels of the forest canopy but will forage at the
tangled vegetation below.
Diet: White-faced sakis feed mainly on seeds,

fruits, flowers, shoots, and leaves. They occasion-
ally eat birds, termites, and other insects. They
sometimes catch mice and bats, which they skin
and tear to pieces before eating. The white-faced saki is named
for the white facial coloration of
Behavior and reproduction: White-faced sakis are active during the the males. Males show the white
coloration at two months old.
day, sleeping at night curled up on branches. They are agile climbers, (Norman Owen Tomalin/Bruce
traveling and climbing on all fours. They are known as the flying Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
monkeys because of their ability to jump downward through forest permission.)
gaps of up to 33 feet (10 meters). Sakis also travel upright on their
hind feet. They show aggression by arching their back, erecting their
fur, and shaking their body. Sakis communicate using loud calls,
chirps, and high-pitched whistling.
Sakis live in small groups of up to five individuals, typically the
parents and their young. Larger groups may get together at abundant
food sources. Females give birth to a single infant from December to
April. All infants are born with female colorations. Males acquire their
striking facial coloration at two months. The mother alone rears the
young, who leave home at age one.
White-faced sakis and people: White-faced sakis are hunted for

food and collected for the pet trade.
Conservation status: The white-faced saki is not considered a


Bald uakari (Cacajao calvus)
BALD UAKARI
Cacajao calvus
Physical characteristics: The bald uakari has long, coarse, shaggy

hair that varies in coloration from white to red to reddish gold to or-
ange. The bald face is pink to bright red. It is thought that the red
face is an indication to a potential mate that the individual is healthy.
Malaria is a common disease in the Amazon rainforest, and uakaris
afflicted with the disease tend to have paler faces. Sharp incisors,
canine teeth, and powerful jaws are especially adapted for piercing
and cracking the hard shells of fruits and extracting the seeds, their
favorite food. Bald uakaris weigh about 6.6 to 7.7 pounds

It is thought that the red face of
a bald uakari is an indication
to a potential mate that the
individual is healthy. Malaria is a
common disease in the Amazon
rainforest, and uakaris afflicted
with the disease tend to have
paler faces. (R. A. Mittermeier/
by permission.)
(3 to 3.5 kilograms) and measure about 21.3 to 22.4 inches (54 to

57 centimeters), with a tail length of 5.9 to 6.3 inches (15 to 16 cen-
timeters). It is the only South American monkey with a short tail.
Geographic range: Bald uakaris are found in Brazil, Colombia,

and Peru.
Habitat: Bald uakaris prefer flooded rainforests along small rivers.

Seasonal rainfall, which can last six or more months, causes water to
cover as much as 33 feet (10 meters) of tree trunks, so the uakaris
remain in the trees during that time.
Diet: Bald uakaris are seed specialists, preferring the seeds found in
unripe fruits and those with hard skins that abound in flooded rain-
forests. They eat young saplings on the ground when the waters dry
up. They also feed on flowers, insects, and snails.

Behavior and reproduction: Bald uakaris generally live in groups
of ten to thirty individuals. Large groups consisting of up to 100 in-
dividuals form smaller groups when foraging. Uakaris sleep at night
in the forest canopy. They travel on four limbs and also leap through
the forest, although they are not expert leapers. When feeding, they
sometimes suspend themselves in the air using their limbs.
Uakaris have several mating partners. Females have single births
every two years, caring for the infants themselves. The mother car-
ries the newborn on her front during the first three or four months,
after which she carries it on her back. Infants are weaned by twenty-
one months.
Bald uakaris and people: Bald uakaris are hunted for food and
collected as pets.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the bald uakari as Near

Threatened due to continued hunting for food and trapping for the
pet trade. ■

Masked titi (Callicebus personatus)
MASKED TITI
Callicebus personatus
Physical characteristics: The masked titi weighs 0.9 to 3.6

pounds (1 to 1.7 kilograms). It measures 12.2 to 16.5 inches (31 to
42 centimeters), with a tail length of 16.5 to 21.7 inches (41.8 to
55 centimeters). The long, soft, hairy coat is grayish to yellowish or
orange. The face, hands, and feet are black. The non-prehensile tail
is long and bushy.
Geographic range: Masked titis are found in Brazil.

Habitat: Masked titis prefer coastal forests. They
are found in dense understory vegetation up to
33 feet (10 meters) high. They also inhabit banana
groves.
Diet: Masked titis feed on unripe fruits, leaves,

flowers, and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Masked titis are ac-

tive during the day. At dawn, neighboring groups
emit loud calls, usually initiated by the mated pair,
announcing ownership of a certain territory. Titis
defend their territory, chasing away intruders.
They move through the forest canopy on all fours.
They intertwine their tails when sleeping, resting,
or sitting on tree branches.
Titis mate for life, producing a single infant an-
nually. The family group consists of two to seven
individuals, typically the parents and offspring of
different ages. The father almost exclusively rears
the infant, carrying it on his back and giving it to
the mother just to nurse. The father is known to
move the infant to his underside to protect it from
the rain. He also rears the older offspring, groom-
ing them, guarding them from predators, and shar-
ing his food with them. The mother does not share
her food with the young. The young leave their
home at ages two to three.
Masked titis and people: Masked titis are

hunted for food and collected as pets.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the masked

titi as Vulnerable due to hunting and trapping by
Masked titis mate for life, and
the father provides most of the
humans, as well as habitat loss and degradation from logging. ■
child care for infants as well as
for older offspring. (Illustration
by Marguette Dongvillo. FOR MORE INFORMATION
Books:
Kavanagh, Michael. A Complete Guide to Monkeys, Apes and Other
Kinzey, Warren G., ed. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and
Behavior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.

Periodicals:
Jones, Clyde, and Sydney Anderson. “Callicebus moloch.” Mammalian
Species 112 (December 29, 1978): 1–5.
Web sites:
Heilhecker, Ellen, and Chris Yahnke. “Callicebus personatus (Masked Titi).”
accounts/information/Callicebus_personatus.html (accessed July 6,
2004).
“What’s Out There in the Primate World?” Investigate Biodiversity.
http://investigate.conservation.org/xp/IB/speciesdiversity/ (accessed
July 6, 2004).
“White-faced Saki.” Como Park Zoo & Conservatory. http://www.
comozooconservatory.org/zoo/saki.htm (accessed July 6, 2004).

HOWLER MONKEYS AND
SPIDER MONKEYS
Atelidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Atelidae
Number of species: 22 to 24
species
class The atelids (members of the Atelidae family) are the largest
New World primates. They range in color from yellowish beige
subclass
to dark red to black. Males and females of some howler species
order differ in color. Many spider monkeys have light-colored masks
monotypic order around their eyes. Howler and woolly monkeys have stocky
bodies and shorter limbs, while spider monkeys and muriquis
suborder have slimmer bodies and long tails. All tails are prehensile, ca-
▲ family pable of grasping tree branches, so that the monkeys usually
feed while suspended.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Atelids are found in Mexico, all of Central America (Belize,
Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Panama), and South America (including Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay,
Peru, and Venezuela).
HABITAT
Howler monkeys and muriquis inhabit secondary forests
with open canopies. Spider and woolly monkeys prefer full-
canopied primary forests, although spider monkeys are also
found in semideciduous and secondary forests.
DIET
Howler monkeys prefer leaves, while other atelids favor ripe
fruits. All diets are supplemented with flowers, seeds, and insects.

All atelids are arboreal (tree-dwelling) but
occasionally descend to the ground. They are
diurnal (active during the day). Some species
have grooming sessions and play time.
Atelids do not defend territories. They gen-
erally move through the forest on all fours A THIRD HAND
with brachiation (brake-ee-AY-shun; swing- All atelids have a prehensile, or grasping,
ing below branches using the arms), usually tail. A prehensile tail is muscular and is bare
assisted by the tail. underneath in the last third of the tail. The
Adults have several mating partners. Fe- bare skin has tiny, fingerprint-like ridges
males have single births, which occur at dif- that provide a firm grip around branches,
ferent intervals depending on species. The just like an extra hand. An animal can wrap
mother alone tends to the infant. Except for its tail around a sturdy branch, freeing up
howler monkeys, young males remain with its hands to reach for fruits and new leaves
the group, while females leave to join other at the end of weaker branches.
males. Male howler monkeys form their own
group and invade another group, killing the
young.
ATELIDS AND PEOPLE

Atelids are valued for their meat. Spider monkeys and
muriquis are collected as pets because they are typically
good-natured.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists eleven species as threatened because of con-
tinued hunting and habitat loss and degradation from human
activities. The variegated spider monkey, the northern muriqui,
and the yellow-tailed woolly monkey are listed as Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction, dying
out, in the wild. The Guatemalan black howler monkey, the
white-whiskered spider monkey, and the southern muriqui are
listed as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction. The
Colombian woolly monkey is classified as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction, and two other species are listed as Near
Howler Monkeys and Spider Monkeys 527

Venezuelan red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS VENEZUELAN RED HOWLER MONKEY
Alouatta seniculus
Physical characteristics: The Venezuelan red howler monkey has

thick, dark red to purplish red fur, with bright orange or gold un-
derparts. The prehensile tail is used as a third hand for picking food.
The black face is naked, and the wide jaw is covered with a thick
beard. An enlarged hyoid (HYE-oid) bone at the root of the tongue
gives the throat a swollen appearance. This bone is responsible for
producing the loud howls that gave the monkey its name. Together
with the enormous jaw, the swollen throat gives the monkey a grim
appearance. It weighs 8 to 25 pounds (3.6 to 11 kilograms) and mea-

At dawn and dusk, Venezuelan
red howler monkeys perform
deafening howls that can be
heard for at least 2 miles
(3 kilometers). (Norman Owen
sures 17.5 to 27 inches (44 to 69 centimeters), with another 21 to 31

inches (54 to 79 centimeters) for the tail.
Geographic range: Venezuelan red howler monkeys are found in

Venezuela and Brazil.
Habitat: Red howler monkeys prefer the forest canopy and under-
story. They inhabit secondary forests where the canopy is less devel-
oped but the ground vegetation is dense. They are also found in
mountain forests, mangroves, and forests by rivers and streams.
Diet: Leaves make up more than 60 percent of a howler monkey’s

diet. It prefers the young leaves that are plentiful in the treetops. It
also eats fruits, seeds, flowers, and insects.

Behavior and reproduction: Venezuelan red howler monkeys are
arboreal and diurnal. Sluggish creatures, these monkeys spend plenty
of time resting during the day. At dawn and dusk, they perform deaf-
ening howls that can be heard for at least 2 miles (3 kilometers).
These calls advertise territory and group size to avoid confrontations
with other groups. The monkeys also howl during heavy rainstorms.
Red howlers form groups of three to ten individuals, generally con-
sisting of several unrelated adults. Adults have several mating part-
ners, although the dominant male mates with all the receptive females.
Females have single births every eighteen to twenty-four months.
Mothers carry infants for about six months, first against the stomach
and later on the back. Young howlers leave home by two years of age,
although females may stay with the group. Young males leave to form
their own all-male groups, which later take over another group, some-
times killing the young.
Venezuelan red howler monkeys and people: Red howler mon-

keys are hunted for food.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not consider the Venezuelan

red howler monkey a threatened species. ■

Geoffroy’s spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi)
GEOFFROY’S SPIDER MONKEY

Ateles geoffroyi
Physical characteristics: Geoffroy’s spider monkeys have a coarse,

shaggy coat that comes in yellow, red, or black, turning lighter on the
undersides. The black hands and feet are very long and spidery, giv-
ing the monkeys their name. The hands have underdeveloped thumbs.
White cheek hair is raised, and the eyes are surrounded by pale skin
to form a mask. The prehensile tail, at 25 to 33 inches (63.5 to 84
centimeters), is longer than the head and body length of 12 to 24.8
inches (30.5 to 63 centimeters). The prehensile tail enables the large
animal to hang from a sturdy branch to pick fruits at the end of thin
branches. The monkey weighs 13 to 20 pounds (6 to 9 kilograms).
Geographic range: Geoffroy’s spider monkeys are found in Mexico,

Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Panama.

Habitat: Geoffroy’s spider monkeys prefer the
top level of the forest canopy, where ripe fruits and
young leaves are abundant. They occasionally de-
scend to the middle layers. They inhabit mountain
forests and mangroves.
Diet: Spider monkeys eat mainly ripe fruits. They

especially prefer those with big seeds. They also
feed on young leaves, flowers, buds, insects, insect
larvae, and bird eggs.
Behavior and reproduction: Geoffroy’s spider

monkeys form groups with over forty individuals.
When food is scarce, smaller subgroups and lone
monkeys split from the main group when feeding.
They forage, search for food, mostly in the early
morning, resting the remaining part of the day.
Spider monkeys are agile climbers, using their tail
as an extra limb to move through the trees. They
also travel on all fours and brachiate. They can
jump down through forest gaps of over 33 feet
While they usually travel on all
(10 meters). The monkeys tend to go back to the same sleeping
fours, or use their arms to swing
from branch to branch, Geoffroy’s areas at nightfall.
spider monkeys can also jump Adults have several partners. Some males and females are domi-
down through forest gaps of over
33 feet (10 meters). (Erwin and nant over others, but males competing for the same females are
Peggy Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc. seldom aggressive with one another. A female determines which part-
Reproduced by permission.) ner she will take. On average, females give birth to a single infant
every three years because infants take that long to be independent.
This is the longest period of infant dependency known among mon-
keys. Young females leave home, while young males remain in their
birthplace.
Geoffroy’s spider monkeys and people: Humans hunt spider mon-

keys for food.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not list Geoffroy’s spider

monkey as a threatened species. ■

Colombian woolly monkey (Lagothrix lugens)
COLOMBIAN WOOLLY MONKEY

Lagothrix lugens
Physical characteristics: Colombian woolly monkeys range in

color from black to blackish brown to lighter gray, with darker un-
dersides, head, limbs, and tail. The fur is short, thick, and soft. The
head is large and round, with a flat face and a snub nose. The ears
are small. The body is stocky, with a protruding belly and a long,
thick, muscular tail. The powerful prehensile tail can hold the large
animal while suspended from a branch, as well as function as an
additional hand. Woolly monkeys measure 20 to 27 inches (50.8 to
68.6 centimeters), with a tail length of 23.6 to 28.4 inches (60
to 72 centimeters). They weigh about 12 to 24 pounds (5.5 to 10.8
kilograms).

Geographic range: Colombian woolly monkeys
are found in Colombia and Venezuela.
Diet: Colombian woolly monkeys feed mainly on

fruits, supplemented with leaves, seeds, and occa-
sional insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Colombian woolly

monkeys are arboreal, sharing home ranges with
other groups of their own species without hostil-
ity. They form groups of ten to forty-five individ-
uals. Some males are dominant over other males,
and all males are dominant over females, but they
have a friendly relationship. They are diurnal,
mostly foraging in the early morning and late af-
ternoon, splitting into smaller subgroups when do-
ing so. During midday, they rest, groom each other,
and play. They greet each other by kissing on the
mouth and embracing. Woolly monkeys travel
through the forest on all fours, with some brachi-
ation. They do not jump up but drop down to a
branch by as many as 20 feet (6 meters).
Woolly monkeys have several partners, with
dominant males mating with all receptive females.
Females have single births every two to three years.
An infant can cling to its mother’s fur right away,
first holding on to her stomach and later on to her
back or side. Mothers carry the young for six to eight
During midday, Colombian woolly months, but nursing continues for up to twenty months. Young males
monkeys rest, groom each other, remain in their birthplace, while females leave home to join other males.
and play. They greet each other
by kissing on the mouth and
embracing. (Illustration by Bruce Colombian woolly monkeys and people: Colombian woolly mon-
Worden. Reproduced by keys are hunted for food and trapped for the pet trade.
permission.)
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the Colombian woolly mon-
key as Vulnerable due to habitat loss and degradation from logging
and human settlement. ■
Books:
Emmons, Louise H. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1997.

Periodicals:
Campbell, Christina J. “Female-Directed Aggression in Free-Ranging
Ateles Geoffroyi.” International Journal of Primatology (April 2003):
223–237.
Wallace, Robert. “Diurnal Activity Budgets of Black Spider Monkeys,
Ateles Chamek in a Southern Amazonian Tropical Forest.” Neotropical
Primates (December 2001): 101–107.
Web sites:
Broekema, Iris. “Natural History of the Black-Handed Spider Monkey
(Ateles geoffroyi).” The Primate Foundation of Panama. http://www.
primatesofpanama.org/academicresources/articles/spiderblack.htm
Broekema, Iris. “Natural History of the Mantled Howler Monkey
(Aloutta palliata).” The Primate Foundation of Panama.
http://www.primatesofpanama.org/academicresources/articles/howler.
htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“Spider Monkey.” Honolulu Zoo. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/spider_
monkey.htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“What is a Woolly Monkey?” The Monkey Sanctuary. http://www.
ethicalworks.co.uk/monkeysanctuary/woolly.htm (accessed on July 6,
2004).

OLD WORLD MONKEYS
Cercopithecidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Cercopithecidae
class Old World monkeys are divided into the leaf-eating
monkeys (including langurs [lang-GURZ] and colobus and pro-
subclass
boscis monkeys) and the cheek-pouched monkeys (including
order macaques [muh-KOCKS] and mandrills). Most have subdued
monotypic order dark colorations with lighter undersides. Some, such as man-
drills, have spectacular color combinations. All species have for-
suborder ward-facing eyes and short snouts. The buttocks have two
▲ family hardened pads for prolonged sitting. Most have long tails. Leaf-
eaters have a four-chamber stomach for digesting their main
diet of plants. The cheek pouches are used for storing food to
be safely eaten in trees.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Leaf monkeys are found in Asia and Southeast Asia, except
for the colobus monkeys. Cheek-pouched monkeys are found
in Africa, including the Barbary macaque. All other macaques
are found in Southeast Asia.
HABITAT
Old World monkeys live in virtually all land habitats, in-
cluding grasslands, open dry forests, dense evergreen forests,
mangroves, swamps, and forests along rivers. Some live near
humans.
DIET
Leaf monkeys eat mainly leaves. Cheek-pouched monkeys
consume fruits, seeds, insects, and occasionally young leaves.

Old World monkeys are diurnal (active
during the day). Most are arboreal (tree-
dwelling), traveling on all fours. They can
also leap, using the tail for balance. Some
species use some brachiation (brake-ee-AY-
shun, a type of locomotion in which an an- POT BELLIES
imal swings below branches using its arms. The western red colobus, the proboscis
Social groups vary in size. Larger groups may monkey, and the red-shanked douc langur,
split into subgroups when foraging. They are all considered leaf monkeys, have evolved
polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus), with males a four-chamber stomach that brings about
having several partners. Females have single a pot-bellied look. The stomach houses
births. Young females leave their birthplace, bacteria that break down fibrous leaves, the
while young males stay with the group. monkeys’ main diet. The bacterial action
not only releases nutrients from the leaves
OLD WORLD MONKEYS AND PEOPLE
but also renders harmless the poisons
Old World monkeys are hunted for food. found in some leaves.
Some species are used in medical research.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists five species as
tion, due to hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation
from agriculture, logging, and other human activities. These are
the eastern red colobus, the Tonkin snub-nosed monkey, the
Delacour langur, the white-headed langur, and the Mentawai
macaque. Twenty-two species are classified as Endangered, fac-
ing a very high risk of extinction in the wild; seventeen are Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild; and twenty
are Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
become so.
Old World Monkeys 537

Western red colobus (Piliocolobus badius)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS WESTERN RED COLOBUS
Piliocolobus badius
Physical characteristics: The western red colobus monkeys are

black or dark gray with bright red undersides. The cheeks and the lower
parts of the limbs are also bright red. The Greek word kolobos, mean-
ing “cut short,” describes the missing thumbs, which allow for faster
brachiation because thumbs do not get caught in the branches. The long
tail maintains balance when leaping. Males measure about 23 inches
(57 centimeters), with a tail length of 26.5 inches (66.5 centimeters),
and weigh 18.4 pounds (8.36 kilograms). Females are slightly smaller.
Geographic range: The monkeys are found in Cameroon, Ivory

Coast, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gambia, Ghana,
Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone.

The word “colobus” in the
western red colobus’s common
and scientific names comes
from the Greek word kolobos,
meaning “cut short,” referring to
the monkey’s “missing” thumbs.
(Ernest A. Janes/Bruce Coleman
Habitat: Red colobus monkeys prefer rainforests that provide young

leaves year round. They inhabit primary and secondary forests, forests
along rivers and streams, and wooded grasslands.
Diet: Western red colobus monkeys feed mainly on leaves, especially

young leaves, but also eat flowers and shoots. They consume only un-
ripe fruits. Ripe fruits contain sugar, which can be broken down by
stomach bacteria, causing gas and acid formation that may be fatal.
Behavior and reproduction: Western red colobus monkeys form

groups of nineteen to eighty individuals with numerous adult males
and females. They do not defend their territory. They are arboreal and
diurnal, splitting off into smaller subgroups when foraging. They
move through the trees on all fours, with some brachiation. However,
they are not agile climbers.

Males have several mating partners. Females give birth to a single
infant every two years. The mother alone carries the infant. Young
females leave home, transferring from one group to another. Males
stay in their birthplace, forming a close association with one another.
Western red colobus monkeys and people: Western red colobus

monkeys are hunted for food.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the western red colobus as

Endangered due to hunting for meat, as well as habitat loss and degra-
dation from agriculture, logging, and human settlement. ■

Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus)
PROBOSCIS MONKEY
Nasalis larvatus
Physical characteristics: The proboscis monkey got its name from

its bulbous nose, which in the male is long and drooping. It is thought
that females are attracted to the large nose. The naked face is pinkish
brown. The head and back are reddish orange, while the shoulders,
neck, and cheeks are pale orange. The undersides, legs, and tail are
grayish white. The webbed feet are useful for swimming. Males weigh
about 45 pounds (20.4 kilograms) and measure about 30 inches
(74.5 centimeters), with a tail length of 26.5 inches (66.5 centimeters).
Females are about half the male size, weighing 21.6 pounds (9.8 kilo-
grams) and measuring 25 inches (62 centimeters), with a tail length
of 23 inches (57.5 centimeters).
Geographic range: Proboscis monkeys are found in Borneo.
Habitat: Proboscis monkeys occupy coastal mangrove forests and

forests along rivers.

The proboscis monkey is found in
mangrove and lowland forests in
Borneo. (© Aaron Ferster/Photo
permission.)
Diet: Proboscis monkeys feed mainly on leaves, supplemented with

flowers and seeds. They eat unripe fruits but not ripe fruits, which,
when processed by stomach bacteria, can cause potentially deadly gas
and acid formation.
Behavior and reproduction: A proboscis monkey family consists of

an adult male and several females and their offspring. Females give
birth to a single infant and are assisted by other females with child-
care. Young males are usually expelled upon puberty, traveling alone
for a while or joining other bachelors. Proboscis monkeys do not de-
fend their territory, but adult males threaten intruders with loud
honks using their nose.
They are arboreal and diurnal, foraging in the early morning, then
taking a long rest to digest their food. They may eat again before dark.
The monkeys move on all fours and brachiate through the trees. They
often jump from the trees into the water, from heights of as much
as 53 feet (16 meters). They swim well and can stay underwater to
escape a predator. They sleep in trees with branches that extend
over water, perhaps as a lookout for their main predator, the clouded
leopard.

Proboscis monkeys and people: Proboscis monkeys are hunted
for meat.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the proboscis monkey as

Endangered due to hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation
from logging. ■

Red-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus)
RED-SHANKED DOUC LANGUR

Pygathrix nemaeus
Physical characteristics: The red-shanked douc langur is a colorful

monkey. The back and upper arms are a grizzled gray, turning to a
lighter gray on the undersides. Black hair covers the top of the head,
and long, white whiskers frame the golden face. The eyelids are pale
blue. The lower arms, wrists, and tail are white, and the hands
and feet are black. The thighs are black, and the lower legs are maroon.
Males weigh about 24.4 pounds (11 kilograms), and females weigh
about 18.6 pounds (8.45 kilograms). Males measure 23.5 inches (58.5
centimeters), plus a tail length of 27 inches (68 centimeters). Females
are 24 inches (60 centimeters) long, with a tail of the same length.

Geographic range: Red-shanked douc langurs
are found in Vietnam and Laos.
Habitat: Douc langurs inhabit primary and sec-

ondary forests. They also live in evergreen forests,
as well as in monsoon deciduous forests, charac-
terized by heavy rainfall and dry periods during
which leaves drop. They also occupy lowland and
mountain forests.
Diet: Red-shanked douc langurs eat leaves, buds,

flowers, fruits, and seeds.
Behavior and reproduction: Red-shanked douc

langurs form groups of four to fifteen individuals,
typically with more females than males. Both sexes
have dominant individuals, but males are always
dominant over females. The langurs are arboreal
and diurnal, moving through the forest canopy on
all fours and by leaping from branch to branch,
landing on their hind legs. They socialize by
grooming, going through each other’s fur to re-
move dirt and parasites. They are vocal, using
Red-shanked douc langurs form
growls and squeaks to communicate. groups of four to fifteen
Males have several mating partners. Every two years, females give individuals, and socialize by
grooming, going through each
birth to a single infant who receives plenty of attention and care from other’s fur to remove dirt and
other females. Males sometimes tend to the young. Young males and parasites. (© Art Wolfe,
females leave home when they are ready to start their own families. Inc./Photo Researchers, Inc.
Red-shanked douc langurs and people: Red-shanked douc langurs
are hunted for meat.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the red-shanked douc langur

as Endangered due to habitat loss and degradation from human
activities. ■

Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)
RHESUS MACAQUE
Macaca mulatta
Physical characteristics: Rhesus macaques have long, brown hair

with pale brown undersides. The hair at the top of the head is short.
Facial skin is pinkish, while the rump is red. Males are slightly
bigger than females, weighing about 17 pounds (7.7 kilograms) and
measuring 21 inches (53 centimeters), with a tail length of 10 inches
(24.5 centimeters). Females are about 11.8 pounds (5.4 kilograms),
measuring 18 inches (45 centimeters), with a tail length of 9 inches
(22 centimeters).
Geographic range: Rhesus macaques are found in Afghanistan,

Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand,
Laos, and Vietnam.
Habitat: Rhesus macaques are adaptable, able to thrive in mangrove

swamps, cedar-oak forests, woodlands, semi-desert scrub forests,
forests along rivers, and even human settlements.
Diet: Rhesus macaques eat fruits, seeds, leaves, flowers, grasses,

roots, bark, gum, and insects.

The Rh factor in humans is
named after the rhesus
macaque, which was first
discovered to have this
substance in its blood.
(Illustration by Barbara
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Rhesus macaques live in groups of eight

to 180 individuals, although the average size is about twenty, with two
to four times as many females as males. There are dominant males and
females within a group, with the offspring inheriting the mother’s rank.
Macaques are arboreal but descend to the ground to forage and to move
among human settlements. They prefer to sleep in the trees at night.
They communicate through facial expressions, body language, and vo-
calizations, including barks, squawks, and growls. Adults have several
partners. Females give birth to a single infant annually. Females remain
with the group, while males may transfer from one group to another.
Rhesus macaques and people: The Rh factor in humans is named

after the rhesus macaque, which was discovered to have this sub-
stance in its blood. Rhesus macaques are popular zoo animals. Farm-
ers consider them pests for eating crops.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the rhesus macaque as Near

Threatened, meaning it could become threatened, due to hunting and
habitat loss and degradation from human activities. ■

Mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx)
MANDRILL
Mandrillus sphinx
Physical characteristics: Mandrills have a grizzled brown coat and

gray-white undersides. Males have the most striking coloration of all
mammals. The large, bright red nose is enclosed by blue bony bulges.
The whiskers are white and the beard is golden. A tuft of hair on top
of the head and a mane over the shoulders can be erected for threat
displays. The rump has shades of red, blue, and lilac, and is used as a
signal when leading the group through the dense forest. Females have
almost similar colorations, but are not as striking. They have black
faces. The largest of the Old World monkeys, male mandrills weigh
about 69.7 pounds (31.6 kilograms), more than twice as heavy as fe-
males, who weigh 28.4 pounds (12.9 kilograms). Males measure 27.5
inches (70 centimeters), with a tail length of 3 inches (8 centimeters).

Females measure 22 inches (54.5 centimeter), with
a tail length of 3 inches (7.5 centimeters).
Geographic range: Mandrills are found in

Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.
Habitat: Mandrills occupy evergreen forests and

forests along rivers and coasts.
Diet: Mandrills have a varied diet of fruits, seeds,

grains, leaves, bark, mushrooms, tubers, snakes,
and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Although a typical

mandrill family consists of a male and several fe-
males and their offspring, large groups with as
many as 800 members have stayed together year
after year, foraging for food, breeding, and fight-
ing. A group having 1,350 individuals had been
recorded. However, when not mating, males tend
to be loners. Males prefer to forage on the ground,
while females and the young climb trees. They may
travel as much as 5 miles (8 kilometers) a day while
feeding. All sleep in the trees. Mandrills commu-
nicate using grunts and crowing sounds. Adults
have several partners, and females have single
births. Young females stay with the group, but
young males leave home, fighting fiercely during
mating season, using their large, sharp canines.
Mandrills are the largest of the
Mandrills and people: Mandrills are hunted for meat. Old World monkeys. (© C. K.
Lorenz/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the mandrill as Vulnerable Reproduced by permission.)
due to continued hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation from
agriculture, logging, and human settlements. ■
Books:
Fleagle, John G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd ed. San Diego,

Sterry, Paul. Monkeys & Apes: A Portrait of the Animal World. New York:
Todtri Productions Limited, 1994.
Periodicals:
Angier, Natalie. “In Mandrill Society, Life Is a Girl Thing.” New York
Times on the Web. http://www.nytimes.com/library/national/
science/052300 sci-animal-mandrill.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Ferrero, Jean-Paul. “Swingers of Borneo.” International Wildlife
(November/December 1999): 53–57.
Laman, Tim. “Borneo’s Proboscis Monkeys Smell Trouble.” National
Geographic (August 2002): 100–117.
Web sites:
“Cercopithecids (Cercopithecidae).” Singapore Zoological Garden Docents.
http://www.szgdocent.org/pp/p-cercop.htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).

GIBBONS
Hylobatidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hylobatidae
species
Gibbons have a thick coat that ranges in color from black to class
silvery gray to ash blond. They have a slender body and no tail.
subclass
The bare face is framed in white fur or other markings. The ex-
tremely long arms, with hooklike fingers, are used for brachi- order
ating (BRAKE-ee-ate-ing), or swinging from branch to branch. monotypic order
Scientists consider gibbons as the only true brachiators, having
powerful shoulder joints for reaching overhead and a wrist that suborder
can be rotated 180 degrees for switching position without tir- ▲ family
ing the arms and upper body. Gibbons are the only apes with
skin pads on their buttocks that allow them to sleep comfort-
ably sitting up.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Gibbons are found in Southeast Asia, including China,
India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
HABITAT
Gibbons prefer the upper forest canopy, where fruits are abun-
dant and spreading branches allow for continuous travel. They
also thrive in surviving areas of forests that have been logged.
DIET
Ripe fruits are gibbons’ main diet. Figs are their favorite.
They also feed on leaves, flowers, buds, shoots, bird eggs, young
birds, and insects.
Gibbons 551
Gibbons are predominantly arboreal (tree-
dwelling), defending their territory by chas-
ing intruders and shaking branches. They
sing to advertise ownership. Gibbons brachi-
ate by grasping one branch after another or
SINGING GIBBONS by propelling themselves through the air,
Gibbons typically begin their day by loosening their grasp. They walk upright on
singing. It is thought that singing serves to wide branches or on the ground, arms held
advertise territory ownership or readiness overhead to avoid tripping. They are diurnal
to mate. It also reinforces pair bonds (active during the day), but go to sleep be-
and family ties. Songs are loud and long, fore dark, sleeping in a sitting position.
lasting up to an average of fifteen to thirty The family consists of the parents and one
minutes. The songs, either solos or duets, to four juveniles. Females have single births
follow certain complicated patterns and every two or three years. The mother carries
are specific just to a particular species. the infant around her waist for the first two
Siamangs sing hooting-bark notes made months. When a juvenile reaches the age of
louder by their inflated throat sacs. five, the parent of the same sex may start
chasing it off. Offspring who refuse to leave
home stay in the vicinity of the family, but
keep a distance when feeding and sleeping.
Most leave home when they become sexually mature, or able
to reproduce, at age seven or eight.
GIBBONS AND PEOPLE

Gibbons are popular zoo animals. The Ibans, the native peo-
ple of Borneo, believe gibbons are human reincarnation, or the
reappearance of a loved one’s soul in the animal’s body. Infants
are captured for the pet trade.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Moloch gibbon and the eastern black gib-
bon as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild, due to hunting, as well as habitat loss
and degradation from logging and human settlement. The
hoolock gibbon and the black crested gibbon are listed as En-
dangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, due to habitat
loss and degradation from human activities. The pileated gib-
bon, the Kloss gibbon, and the golden-cheeked gibbon are clas-
sified as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, due to
habitat loss and degradation from human activities.

Pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus)
SPECIES
PILEATED GIBBON ACCOUNTS
Hylobates pileatus
Physical characteristics: Pileated gibbons have dense, woolly

fur. Males are black, with a black face framed in white. Hands and
feet are white. Females are silvery beige or ash blond, with a black
face and chest. The top of females’ head is also black. The body is
slender and the small head is rounded. Very long arms have hook-
like fingers for brachiation. Thick skin pads line the rears for
prolonged sitting. Males weigh 17 to 23 pounds (7.7 to 10.4 kilo-
grams), and females about 14 to 19 pounds (6.3 to 8.6 kilograms).
The average head and body length is 17.5 to 25 inches (44 to
63.5 centimeters).
Gibbons 553
A pileated gibbon family consists
of an adult pair and up to four
offspring. The family searches
for food together. (© Terry
Whittaker/Photo Researchers,
Geographic range: Pileated gibbons are found in Thailand,

Cambodia, and Laos.
Habitat: Pileated gibbons prefer primary forests with well-

developed canopies. They live in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
They also occupy monsoon deciduous forests that have periods of
heavy rainfall and dry spells, causing leaves to fall.
Diet: Pileated gibbons eat predominantly ripe fruits, supplemented

with flowers, leaves, and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: The family consists of an adult pair and

up to four offspring. The gibbons are arboreal and diurnal. Upon wak-
ing, the mated pair sings a duet, in which the offspring may join. The
family forages soon after. Gibbons are territorial, defending their home
against outsiders. They mostly travel by brachiating, but sometimes

walk on two feet or leap through wide forest gaps. The family almost
never goes down to the forest floor. They sleep before sundown, sit-
ting on tree branches.
Females give birth to an infant every two or three years. The mother
is the principal caregiver. The young tend to stay with the parents
until they are ready to start their own family at seven or eight years
of age. However, the parents may try to expel them when they reach
the age of five.
Pileated gibbons and people: Poachers (illegal hunters) kill gib-

bons for food and capture the young for pets.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the pileated gibbon as Vul-

nerable due to habitat loss from logging and human settlement. ■
Gibbons 555
Lar gibbon (Hylobates lar)
LAR GIBBON
Hylobates lar
Physical characteristics: Lar gibbons have thick, shaggy fur that is

dark brown, beige, or a combination of both. The hands and feet are
white. The black naked face is surrounded by a ring of white hair. Ex-
tremely long arms end in slender fingers that hook over branches when
brachiating. The buttocks have thickened pads, adapted for prolonged
sitting while asleep. Males weigh 11 to 16.8 pounds (5 to 7.6 kilograms),
and females about 9.7 to 15 pounds (4.4 to 6.8 kilograms). The aver-
age head and body length is 16.5 to 23 inches (42 to 58 centimeters).
Geographic range: Lar gibbons are found in China, Indonesia,

Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand.

Lar gibbon mother with young.
The parents might send their
young away by age five, but
some females stay with the
family until age eight. (Gail
Shumway/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Habitat: Lar gibbons prefer the high forest canopy where plentiful
fruits are found. They occupy evergreen and semi-evergreen forests.
They also inhabit monsoon deciduous forests, characterized by heavy
rainfall and dry periods during which leaves fall.
Diet: Lar gibbons feed mainly on fruits, supplemented with flow-

ers, leaves, and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Lars gibbons are arboreal and diurnal.

Brachiation is their chief means of moving through the forest. On the
ground and on wider branches, they walk on two feet, holding their
long arms over their heads for balance and to avoid tripping over the
Gibbons 557
arms. They are territorial, chasing neighbors off their home bound-
aries and advertising ownership by loud singing.
The family consists of the mated pair and their young. However,
there have been reports of the adult male or female moving in with
the neighbors. Some stay permanently; others eventually return home.
Females give birth to one infant every two or three years. When a ju-
venile reaches the age of five, the parent of the same sex may force
it to leave. The young may continue to stay in the vicinity of the fam-
ily, but keeps a distance when feeding and sleeping. Young females
typically leave home by age eight.
Lar gibbons and people: The young are captured for the pet trade,
and the mothers are usually killed.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the lar gibbon as Near Threat-
ened, not threatened, but could become so, due to habitat loss
and degradation from agriculture, logging, and capture for the pet
trade. ■

Siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus)
SIAMANG
Symphalangus syndactylus
Physical characteristics: Siamangs are the largest gibbons, weigh-

ing about 18 to 29 pounds (8 to 13 kilograms), with a head and body
length of 29.5 to 35.5 inches (75 to 90 centimeters). Their black fur
is long and shaggy, making them look larger. The face is reddish
brown. Both sexes have a pinkish throat sac that can be inflated to
magnify the siamangs’ booming and barking calls. Thick skin pads
on the rear provide comfort when sleeping in a sitting position.
Hooked fingers at the end of long arms allow for brachiation. The
second and third toes are fused by a webbing of skin.
Geographic range: Siamangs are found in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Gibbons 559
Male and female siamangs have
a pinkish throat sac that can be
inflated to magnify the siamangs’
booming and barking calls. (© R.
Van Nostrand/Photo Researchers,
Habitat: Siamangs are found in the lower canopy of evergreen forests.

They also occupy mountain forests and monsoon deciduous forests,
characterized by heavy rainfall and dry periods during which leaves fall.
Diet: Siamangs consume ripe fruits, leaves, flowers, shoots, and insects.
Behavior and reproduction: Siamangs are arboreal and diurnal.

Upon waking, they sing harsh barking and booming notes, made

louder by their inflatable throat sacs. Brachiation is the chief mode
of locomotion among siamangs, who are capable of gliding over a for-
est gap of 25 to 32 feet (8 to 10 meters). They walk upright when on
the ground or when branches are too wide for grasping.
The family consists of the parents and up to four offspring of dif-
ferent ages. Females have single births every two or three years. The
mother carries the infant around her waist for the first two months.
The father may help carry the infant when it stops nursing at two
years of age. Offspring who reach sexual maturity at ages seven or
eight leave the family to form their own.
Siamangs and people: Some local people revere siamangs for their
impressive songs. Poachers hunt them to sell the meat for food and
body parts for medicinal use.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the siamang as Near Threat-

ened due to habitat loss and degradation from human activities. ■
Books:
Hunt, Patricia. Gibbons. New York: Dodd, Mead, & Company, 1983.
Periodicals:
Brockelman, Walter Y., and Ulrich Reichard. “Dispersal, Pair Formation
and Social Structure in Gibbons, (Hylobates lar).” Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology (1998): 329–339.
Geissman, Thomas, and Mathias Orgeldinger. “The Relationship between
Duet Songs and Pair Bonds in Siamangs, Hylobates syndactylus.”
Animal Behaviour (2000): 805–809.
Gibbons, Ann. “Monogamous Gibbons Really Swing.” Science (1998):
677–678.
Web sites:
“Gibbon.” American Zoo and Aquarium Association Ape Taxon Advisory
Group (AZA Ape TAG). http://www.apetag.org/Ape%20Tag/gibbon.html
Gibbons 561
“Great Apes & Other Primates: Siamangs.” Smithsonian National Zoo-
logical Park. http://natzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates/Facts/FactSheets/
Gibbons/Siamang/ (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“White-Handed Gibbon.” Honolulu Zoo. http://www.honoluluzoo.org/
whitehanded_gibbon.htm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Other sources:
Gibbon Research Lab and Gibbon Network. http://www.gibbons.de
Gibbon Conservation Center. http://www.gibboncenter.org (accessed on
July 6, 2004).

GREAT APES AND HUMANS
Hominidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominidae
Gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos are dark-colored, while class
orangutans are reddish brown. All have arms that are longer than
subclass
their legs. Gorilla and orangutan males are twice as big as fe-
males. Great apes have forward-facing eyes for three-dimensional order
(height, width, and depth) viewing. They have powerful fingers monotypic order
and toes for gripping branches. They have no tails.
suborder
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE ▲ family
Orangutans are the only great apes residing in Asia, in the
countries of Indonesia and Malaysia. Gorillas and chimpanzees
live in most countries of Africa, while bonobos are found only
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
HABITAT
Great apes generally occupy fully developed forest canopies
and dense shorter vegetation. They inhabit grasslands, bamboo
forests, swamp forests, and mountain forests.
DIET
The diet of great apes includes fruits, leaves, flowers, seeds,
barks, insects, and meat.

African apes are mostly ground-dwellers, walking on their
knuckles and feet. The lighter species climb trees, swinging by
their arms from branch to branch in a mode of traveling called
brachiation (brake-ee-AY-shun). Orangutans are arboreal
Great Apes and Humans 563

(tree-dwelling). On the rare occasions that
they descend to the ground, they walk on
their clenched fists. All great apes are diur-
nal, foraging during the day and sleeping in
nests at night. Some take long breaks for
grooming sessions.
A CHOREOGRAPHED DISPLAY Great apes are not seasonal breeders. Fe-
A silverback puts on an impressive males have single births, caring for the young
threat display to protect his family from an for a lengthy period with no help from the fa-
intruder. First he hoots, and then throws thers. Male gorillas and chimpanzees engage
vegetation around. Standing erect, he in rivalries and takeovers that result in infan-
beats his chest with cupped hands. He ticide (killing of the young). Bonobo females
kicks with one leg and shows his sharp are constantly receptive to mating. Orangutan
canine teeth. Running on all fours, he rips males may commit forceful mating.
off more vegetation. Standing up again, he
GREAT APES AND PEOPLE
slaps the ground with his hands. Finally, he
rushes the intruder, stopping just a few feet Great apes are hunted by humans for meat
away to allow the intruder to leave. and trophies. Some people believe apes’ body
parts have medicinal or magical powers.
When infants are collected for the pet trade,
the mothers are often killed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the Sumatran orangutan as Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the
wild, due to hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation
from agriculture and logging. The remaining five great ape
species are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction,
for the same reasons.

Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
SPECIES
BORNEAN ORANGUTAN ACCOUNTS
Pongo pygmaeus
Physical characteristics: Bornean orangutans have long, shaggy,

reddish brown hair. Facial skin color ranges from pink to red to black.
Arms, which are longer than the orangutan is tall, are useful for reach-
ing fruits and brachiating. Scooplike hands and feet have powerful
grips for grasping branches. Cheek pads in adult males make the face
look larger. A throat pouch is inflated to produce loud, long calls to
advertise their whereabouts. Males may reach 200 pounds (90.7 kilo-
grams), with a standing height of about 5 feet (1.5 meters). Females
are about 100 pounds (45.4 kilograms), standing 3 feet (1 meter) tall.
Geographic range: Bornean orangutans are found in Indonesia

and Malaysia.
Habitat: Bornean orangutans prefer mature forests with fruiting

trees. They also inhabit mangroves, swamps, mountain forests, and
deciduous forests.

Bornean orangutans spend most
of their time in the trees, and
they feed on fruits there. Males
sometimes travel on the ground,
and they sleep in nests on the
ground. (© B. G. Thomson/Photo
permission.)
Diet: Orangutans feed mainly on fruits, supplemented with leaves,

flowers, buds, barks, honey, insects, and bird eggs. They use tools,
such as sticks, to get honey out of beehives.
Behavior and reproduction: Orangutans are mostly arboreal, al-

though heavy adult males travel on the ground, walking on their
clenched fists and feet. They ascend trees to feed. Females and juve-
niles build sleeping nests in trees, while adult males sleep on ground

nests. Orangutans use big leaves as umbrellas for protection from the
hot sun and rain.
Orangutans do not form social groups. Adult males avoid one an-
other, using long calls to warn neighbors to stay away. When en-
counters are unavoidable, fights may end fatally. Females with
offspring congregate briefly at abundant feeding sites. Females ready
to breed pursue males, who leave soon after mating. Both sexes may
have several partners. Some males force themselves on unwilling fe-
males. Females have single births every four to eight years, the longest
interval between births of any mammal. Orangutan young also have
the longest childhood of all animals. After nursing for about four
years, they stay close to their mothers for another three (males) to
five (females) years.
Bornean orangutans and people: Orangutans are hunted for meat

and infants are sold as pets.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the Bornean orangutan as En-

dangered due to hunting for food and capture of young for the pet trade.
Habitat is lost to agriculture, logging, and human settlements. ■

Western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)
WESTERN GORILLA
Gorilla gorilla
Physical characteristics: The western gorilla has short black hair

with red or brown coloration on the top of the head. The face is black.
The head is elongated, and a brow ridge sits over the eyes. A pro-
truding belly houses a large intestine for processing a plant diet. The
arms are very long, and the thick-skinned knuckles are used for walk-
ing. Big toes help grasp tree branches. At ages eleven to thirteen, males
acquire silver-gray hair on their back, earning the name silverbacks.
Males are bigger than females, averaging 352 pounds (160 kilograms)
with a standing height of 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). Females
weigh 150 to 251 pounds (68 to 114 kilograms), standing 5 feet
(1.5 meters) tall.

The western gorilla is an
herbivore, although young
gorillas may eat termites and
ants. (© Mark Newman/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Geographic range: Western gorillas are found in Angola,

Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Congo, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Nigeria.
Habitat: Western gorillas occupy open canopies and dense under-

stories and forests that have been cultivated or logged. They inhabit
swampy clearings, forests along rivers, and full-canopied primary
forests.

Diet: Western gorillas prefer fruits but also feed on plants. In swamp
forests, they eat water plants. Juveniles also eat termites and ants.
Behavior and reproduction: The gorilla family typically consists of

a dominant male (silverback), a younger male, several adult females,
and their offspring. The silverback protects the group, settles con-
flicts, and determines daily activities. The group forages on the
ground, climbing trees only for special fruits or leaves. Members com-
municate using facial expressions, body language, and vocalizations.
Females groom the silverback and mothers and infants groom each
other, but other adults do not engage in mutual grooming. Gorillas
build sleeping nests in trees, although heavier males nest on the
ground.
The silverback mates with all receptive females, but adults of both
sexes may have several partners. Females have single births every four
years, nursing the young for three years. A young female leaves home
to join a lone male or another group. She may change groups several
times. A young male may inherit his father’s position or leave home.
When ready to reproduce, he will try to take over a group. If he suc-
ceeds, he kills the infants so that the mothers will be receptive to
breeding. Scientists have found that males who stay in the neighbor-
hood after leaving home have nonaggressive encounters, because they
may be siblings or half-brothers and, therefore, have a familiar rela-
tionship.
Western gorillas and people: Western gorillas are popular in zoo

exhibits. They are hunted for meat.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the western gorilla as Endan-

gered due to hunting, as well as habitat loss and degradation from
agriculture, logging, and human developments. ■

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
CHIMPANZEE
Pan troglodytes
Physical characteristics: Chimpanzees have black hair, which may

turn gray with age, accompanied by partial balding. The naked face
varies from pink to black and has a short, white beard. They have a
brow ridge, protruding snout, and large ears. The thumbs function
like those of humans for handling objects. The large toes are used
for a firm grip when climbing trees. Males weigh 80 to 130 pounds
(36.3 to 59 kilograms), and females about 70 to 100 pounds
(31.8 to 45.4 kilograms). They stand about 3.8 to 5.5 feet (1 to 1.7
meters) tall.
Geographic range: Chimpanzees are found in many African coun-

tries, including Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Ghana,

Young chimpanzees play with Nigeria, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic
one another, as these orphaned
Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Sudan.
chimpanzees are doing. (K. and
K. Ammann/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permission.) Habitat: Chimpanzees occupy mountain forests, open woodlands,
and grasslands.
Diet: Chimpanzees are omnivorous, eating both plants and animals.

They feed on fruits, nuts, flowers, seeds, and bird eggs. Their favorite
prey is the red colobus monkey. They also eat termites, small an-
telopes, and bush pigs.
Behavior and reproduction: Chimpanzees live in communities of as

many as eighty individuals, but may form subgroups of just males, moth-
ers and young, or both sexes of different ages. A dominant male rules a
group but may be replaced at any time. Adult males dominate all females.
Males defend their territory from outside groups, sometimes killing all
the members of the outside group. Chimpanzees sleep in tree nests. They
are expert tool users, using rocks to open nuts and sticks to get termites.
They communicate through facial expressions and a variety of sounds.
Group members groom each other to strengthen social bonds.

Adults have several partners. Females have single births every four
or five years. The young nurse for about four years, staying close to
their mothers for another four years. Adolescent females may join an-
other group.
Chimpanzees and people: Chimpanzees are popular exhibit ani-

mals in zoos and have been used in movies and television shows.
They are hunted for food. They are used in medical research and were
used in the space program.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the chimpanzee as Endan-

gered due to hunting for food, as well as habitat loss and degradation
for agriculture, logging, and human settlements. ■

Human (Homo sapiens)
HUMAN
Homo sapiens
Physical characteristics: Humans differ in skin color, depending

on the amount of the pigment melanin in their skin. The body is hair-
less, except for the head, armpits, and genital areas. Scientists sug-
gest that early humans had shed their fur to prevent over-heating
when chasing their prey, and developed sweat glands on the skin sur-
face to cool the body by perspiring. The subcutaneous fat, or the fatty
layer under the skin, preserves body heat when the environment gets
cold and serves as an energy source when food is scarce.
Humans possess a distinct trait, bipedalism (bye-PED-ul-ih-zem),
or a mode of locomotion on two legs. Strong, muscular legs are
adapted for upright walking. The S-shaped curve of the spine keeps
an erect human from toppling by distributing the body weight to the
lower back and hips. However, the flexible spine, adapted by early
humans for running and catching prey, has caused problems to mod-
ern humans, especially the weak lower backbone that is not adapted
for supporting the heavy head and trunk.
Geographic range: Humans inhabit almost all of Earth’s land sur-

faces. While humans may not be able to live in the very cold regions
of Antarctica or in the central Sahara Desert, they are capable of vis-
iting those areas. Modern technology has allowed humans to travel
over water, underwater, and through the air. Humans are also able to

A group of young humans—
children. (Pat Lanza/Bruce
permission.)
live in space, such as in the International Space Station, and have

landed on the moon.
Habitat: Humans live in all land habitats.
Diet: Humans are omnivorous, feeding on both plant and animal

matter.
Behavior and reproduction: Humans differ from other primates by

their use of language, a distinct type of communication that can be
manipulated to produce an unlimited number of expressions. Humans
use symbols and communicate through symbols, such as art. Another
human-specific behavior is their reliance on tools and technology.
However, humans’ most striking characteristic is their mental ability
to create ideas.
Although a monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus) family, with a
mated male and female, typically represents the human social unit,
many cultures practice polygyny (puh-LIH-juh-nee; one male with
several mates), polyandry (PAH-lee-an-dree; one female with several
mates), and polygamy (puh-LIH-guh-mee; both sexes have several
mates). Humans are unique in that they do not generally sever ties
with relatives when they move. However, humans are capable of
aggressive and violent relationships.
Humans have no breeding seasons. While single births are most
common, multiple births occasionally occur. Human young develop
slowly, needing care and protection from adults. The young learn

social behaviors through imitation. While average life spans can vary
around the world, men and women generally live into their sixties
and seventies. While males can parent children in old age, females
stop reproducing with menopause (generally starting at age fifty), af-
ter which they may live many more years.
According to scientists, the human baby, given the big size of its
brain, needs about twenty-one months to develop fully in the mother’s
womb. But, since the female birth canal, through which a baby passes,
has evolved to a narrower size to allow for upright locomotion, ba-
bies have to be born “prematurely” (after nine months). The brain
develops further outside the womb.
Books:
Arsuaga, Juan Luis. The Neanderthal’s Necklace: In Search of the First
Thinkers. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2001.
Bright, Michael. Gorillas: The Greatest Apes. New York: DK Publishing,
Inc., 2001.
New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 2001.
Estes, Richard D. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including
Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. Berkeley, CA: The University of
California Press, 1991.
Grace, Eric S. Apes. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books for Children,
1995.
Kaplan, Gisela, and Lesley J. Rogers. The Orangutans: Their
Evolution, Behavior, and Future. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing,
2000.
Lindsey, Jennifer The Great Apes. New York: MetroBooks, 1999.
Lynch, John, and Louise Barrett. Walking with Cavemen. New York: DK
Publishing, Inc., 2003.
Povey, Karen. The Chimpanzee. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, 2002.
Russon, Anne E. Orangutans: Wizards of the Rain Forest. New York:
Firefly Books, 2000.
Tattersall, Ian. Becoming Human: Evolution and Human Uniqueness.
New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998.

Periodicals:
Bradley, Brenda J., et al. “Dispersed Male Networks in Western Gorilla.”
Current Biology (March 23, 2004): 510–513.
Jones, Clyde, et al. “Pan troglodytes.” Mammalian Species 529 (May 17,
1996): 1–9.
Stanford, Craig B. “Close Encounters: Mountain Gorillas and Chim-
panzees Share the Wealth of Uganda’s ‘Impenetrable Forest,’ Perhaps
Offering a Window onto the Early History of Hominids.” Natural History
(June 2003): 46–51.
Web sites:
Friend, Tim. “Chimp Culture.” International Wildlife (September/October
2000). Online at http:www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/2000/chimpso.
html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Great Apes & Other Primates: Gorillas.” Smithsonian National Zoologi-
cal Park. http://natzoo.si.edu/Animals/Primates/Facts/FactSheets/
Gorillas/default.cfm (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Gunung Palung Orangutan Project. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/
gporang/index.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Orangutans: Just Hangin’ On.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)
Nature. http://pbs.org/wnet/nature/orangutans/index.html (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
Sea World Education Department. “Gorillas.” Sea World/Busch
Gardens ANIMALS. http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/
gorilla/index.htm (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Stanford, Craig B. “Chimpanzee Hunting Behavior and Human Evolution.”
American Scientist Online http://www.americanscientist.org/template/
AssetDetail/assetid/24543?fulltext=true&print=yes (accessed on July 7,
2004).

LAND AND MARINE
CARNIVORES
Carnivora
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
order C H A P T E R
class The order Carnivora (kar-NIH-vuh-ruh) refers to a group of
mammals whose evolutionary ancestors were carnivores, or
subclass
meat-eaters. Over several millions of years, these ancestors had
● order adapted to the rise of bigger and more powerful herbivores,
monotypic order their main prey, by developing carnassials (kar-NAH-see-uls),
bladelike teeth that slice through flesh. Powerful jaws that move
suborder up and down were especially useful for stabbing and holding
family prey and the incisors for biting off pieces of food.
Although the 264 species in the order Carnivora come from
the same ancestors, not all species eat only meat. Therefore,
while the carnassials are very pronounced in species that eat
large prey (cats, for example), those that are not purely car-
nivorous have less developed carnassials (bears). Some, like the
aardwolf that feeds on termites, and the giant panda that eat
mainly bamboo, have no carnassials at all.
Carnivores come in a wide range of sizes. The smallest car-
nivore, the least weasel, weighs about 1.76 ounces (50 grams).
In contrast, the southern elephant seal, the largest carnivore,
weighs about 5,300 pounds (2,400 kilograms). Some carnivores
are terrestrial (land-dwelling) mammals, including the familiar
dogs, cats, bears, raccoons, hyenas, mongooses, and skunks.
Land carnivores either walk on the soles and heels of their feet
(plantigrade) or on their toes (digitigrade). A combination of
strong bones in the feet and bendable wrists allow these mam-
mals to climb, run, jump, and overcome their prey. An unde-
veloped collarbone allows for increased movements of the arms

when pursuing prey. The long baculum (penis bone) enables
prolonged mating and is especially important in species in
which mating brings on ovulation (the formation and release
of eggs from the ovary). Anal glands release substances used as
scent marks for various types of communication.
Other carnivores are marine (sea-dwelling) mammals, in-
cluding eared seals, true seals, and walruses. Marine mammals,
also called pinnipeds (fin-footed mammals), have a torpedo-
shaped body that allows for easy movement through water. The
thick layer of blubber, or fat under their skin, not only pro-
vides insulation but also contributes to streamlining (smooth-
ing out) their bodies.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Carnivores are found throughout the world. Some, however,
are not naturally occurring but have been introduced to some
areas.
HABITAT
Carnivores are found both on land and sea. Although most
terrestrial carnivores live on land, the polar bear spends most
of its time on sea ice, while the palm civet is arboreal (a tree-
dweller). The sea otter lives exclusively in the water, as op-
posed to other marine carnivores who forage in the sea and
breed on land.
DIET
The term carnivore literally means meat-eater, but not all
species in the order Carnivora live on a strict diet of meat.
Among the true carnivores are cats. Although lions in the Kala-
hari Desert have been known to eat melons, they only do so
for the moisture content, not for sustenance. Some mustelids
(weasels, martens, and otters) are also pure carnivores. The rest
of the mustelids (skunks, badgers, and tayras) are omnivores,
supplementing their meat diet with fruits, roots, and seeds. The
bears are generally omnivores, although most prefer a larger
proportion of plant food, including fruits, grasses, and roots.
The exceptions in the bear family are the giant panda that lives
exclusively on bamboo and the polar bear that consumes mainly
ringed seals.
Procyonids (raccoon family) are omnivores, with several
food specialists. Ringtails prefer meat, red pandas eat mainly
Land and Marine Carnivores 579

bamboo leaves, and kinkajous and olingos live off fruits. The
civets and genets (viverrids) eat a mixture of animals and fruits,
although palm civets are primarily frugivores (fruit-eaters). The
mongoose family, while generally favoring insects, also lives on
a mixed diet of rodents, worms, reptiles, and plant matter.
Canids (dogs) are also omnivores, eating all sizes of mammals,
as well as insects, berries, carrion (dead and decaying flesh),
and garbage.
The smallest carnivore family consists of three hyena species
and the aardwolf. While the aardwolf eats termites almost ex-
clusively, hyenas have a varied diet, ranging from large an-
telopes and reptiles to wildebeest feces and human garbage.
Hyenas are often described as scavengers who feed off the left-
over kills of other animals. However, they often hunt their own
prey. In fact, lions have been known to scavenge hyena kills.
The marine carnivores eat various marine mammals, in-
cluding fish, crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, and lobsters), mol-
lusks (clams, mussels, squid, and octopus), and penguins. Some
marine carnivores have specialized diets. The crab-eater seal
feeds almost exclusively on krill (a small shrimplike animal),
while the walrus feeds almost entirely on mollusks.

Many carnivores are solitary creatures, except for mating
pairs and mother-offspring groups. The majority are not anti-
social, as they share overlapping territories and congregate at
abundant food sources. Some belong to social groups, in which
strict rules are observed. For example, carnivores “talk” to one
another through scent marking, or the depositing of anal se-
cretions, urine, and feces. They also use a variety of vocaliza-
tions. Some use body postures to show dominance or
submission.
The typical mating system among carnivores is polygyny
(puh-LIH-juh-nee) in which a male has two or more partners.
Some, like canids, are monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus),
with a male and a female mating with just with each other. Pin-
nipeds usually breed on land. Males arrive on land to stake out
a territory. Females arrive later to give birth to the previous
year’s pup before mating. The father departs for the sea soon
after mating, leaving the mother to raise the pup. When the
pup is able to survive on its own, mother and pup leave land
for the water, going their separate ways.

CARNIVORES AND PEOPLE
The relationship between carnivores and
humans is complex. Humans have domesti-
cated the wolf and wild cats and made them
house pets. In addition, humans have trained
dogs to perform certain tasks. Collies help
herd sheep, German shepherds serve as see- IT’S ALL IN THE TEETH
ing-eye dogs, beagles sniff for drugs at air- The feature that differentiates the order
ports, and bloodhounds help locate missing Carnivora from other orders is a set of
people. scissor-like carnassial teeth, specifically the
Humans and carnivores have historically upper last premolar and the lower first molar
had conflicting interests. Thousands of years on both sides of the jaw. These are shearing
ago, early humans and carnivores competed teeth that slice animal flesh and crush
for food. Today, carnivores in the wild con- bones. Each carnassial has ridges that grip
tinue to prey on domesticated animals, even meat, much like a fork that holds a piece of
attacking and killing some humans. Humans steak in place, so it does not slide around.
who feel threatened by carnivores resort to
poisoning, trapping, and shooting, leading to
the extinction of certain species. Some carnivores are also
hunted for their fur, meat, and body parts, resulting in declin-
ing populations.
Certain government agencies and private organizations
around the world have established programs to try to save the
threatened species. Millions of dollars and plenty of human ef-
fort have been devoted to the conservation and protection of
endangered species.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) promotes the con-
servation of species, assesses their conservation status world-
wide, and publishes an annual list of threatened species. The
2003 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists 125 carnivores
as threatened. Five are listed as Extinct, no longer living: the
Falkland Island wolf, the Caribbean monk seal, the sea mink,
the Barbados raccoon, and the Japanese sea lion. The black-
footed ferret is classified as Extinct in the Wild. The five Crit-
ically Endangered species, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction, are the red wolf, the Ethiopian wolf, the Iberian
lynx, the Mediterranean monk seal, and the Malabar civet.
The Endangered list of carnivores, facing a very high risk of
extinction, consists of thirty-one species, made up of one dog,
Land and Marine Carnivores 581

one eared seal, one true seal, two bears, four cats, four mon-
gooses, four viverrids, seven mustelids, and seven procyonids.
Of these species, three are classified as endangered species in
the United States. These are the sea otter, the northern sea lion,
and the Hawaiian monk seal.
Books:
Ewer, R. F. The Carnivores. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates,
1998.
Kruuk, Hans. Hunter and Hunted: Relationships between Carnivores and
People. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
McLoughlin, John C. “The Rise of the Carnivores” and “The World of Mam-
malian Carnivores.” The Canine Clan. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Wade, Nicholas, ed. The Science Times Book of Mammals. New York:
The Lyons Press, 1999.
Whitaker, John O. Jr., and William J. Hamilton Jr. Mammals of the East-
ern United States, 3rd ed. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates,
1998.
Periodicals:
Tedford, Richard H. “Key to the Carnivores.” Natural History (April 1994):
74–77.
Web sites:
American Society of Mammalogists. Why Species Become Threat-
ened or Endangered: A Mammalogist’s Perspective. http://www
.mammal-society.org/committees/commconslandmammals/whyendan-
gered.pdf(accessed on June 23, 2004).
World Conservation Union. The IUCN Red List Collection. http://
www.iucn.org/redlistcollection/english/index.html (accessed on June
23, 2004).

DOGS, WOLVES, COYOTES,
JACKALS, AND FOXES
Canidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Canids (members of the dog family) have a uniform body class
color with markings on the head and tail tip. Dogs typically
subclass
come in black, black and white, brown, or red. The only ex-
ception is the African wild dog that has patches of black, white, order
and yellow. The canid’s coat consists of a dense underfur and monotypic order
an overcoat of waterproof guard hairs, which retain a large
amount of body heat for survival in very cold climates. Canids suborder
range in weight from the fennec fox, at about 3 pounds (1.3 ▲ family
kilograms), to the gray wolf, which can be as heavy as 175
pounds (80 kilograms). They are digitigrade, walking on their
toes. This enables them to make quick stops and turns. A keen
sense of smell comes from more than 200 million scent cells
in the nose (humans have about five million scent cells).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Canids live on every continent except Antarctica.
HABITAT
Most canids favor areas where forests meet open country.
Some live in deserts. The Arctic fox and some gray wolves oc-
cupy the tundra. The bush dog and raccoon dog prefer thick
forests near water. Canids have also adapted to human
environments.
DIET
Canids primarily prey on other mammals. Large prey include
elk and caribou, and small animals include rodents and rabbits.
Dogs, Wolves, Coyotes, Jackals, and Foxes 583

They also eat insects, berries, carrion (dead
and decaying flesh), and garbage.

Canids live in packs, or social groups,
ruled by a male and his partner. They com-
A SUPERB ATHLETE municate through vocalization, including
The red fox is sometimes compared to barks, growls, and howls. They also use body
an athlete, with its stamina and grace. It language, such as erecting the fur, to show
can hunt day and night, trotting more than dominance. Canids mate for life, with the
6 miles (10 kilometers) a day and running whole pack parenting the young.
as fast as 30 miles (48 kilometers) per
hour. When attacking prey, the fox uses a CANIDS AND PEOPLE
lunge-and-pounce move, first crouching Many canids are hunted for their fur. Hu-
very low, then jumping as far as 17 feet mans have always felt threatened by certain
(5 meters) over ground to pounce on the canids, such as wolves and foxes. Canids
surprised prey. sometimes prey on pets and livestock.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The United States lists the red wolf as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, because of habitat loss
due to deforestation and hunting. The IUCN classifies the
African hunting wolf and the Ethiopian wolf as Endangered be-
cause of habitat loss resulting from human settlement and
killing.

Gray wolf (Canis lupus)
SPECIES
GRAY WOLF ACCOUNTS
Canis lupus
Physical characteristics: The gray wolf, ancestor to the domestic

dog, is the largest of the wild dogs. Males weigh up to 175 pounds
(80 kilograms). The smoky gray fur is tipped with brown or red hair.
The long, bushy tail helps the wolf keep its balance when running,
while large, padded paws provide traction (resistance to slipping), es-
pecially in snow.
Geographic range: Gray wolves, although sparsely populated, oc-

cur in more than fifty countries, including the United States, Canada,
Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Italy.
Habitat: Gray wolves live in deciduous forests inhabited by their

main prey, herbivores (plant-eaters), such as deer, elk, and moose.
They also thrive in the tundra and desert, where they prey on small
animals.
Diet: Packs hunt large ungulates, or hoofed animals, such as elk and
deer, but lone wolves usually hunt smaller animals, including rabbits,

Gray wolves live in packs of as
many as thirty individuals. The
pack uses facial expressions,
body postures, and vocalizations
to communicate. (Tom
Brakefield/Bruce Coleman Inc.
beavers, and mice. Wolves also eat carrion and prey on domestic live-
stock, insects, fish, and berries. In the Arctic, they eat birds, seals,
and caribou. An adult eats an average of 5.5 to 13 pounds (2.5 to 6
kilograms) of food per day. If food is unavailable, it can fast for two
or more weeks.
Behavior and reproduction: Gray wolves live in packs of as many

as thirty individuals, consisting of parents, offspring, and relatives.
The top dogs are the dominant male and female, called the alpha pair.
They alone breed and feed first. However, younger and more power-
ful members may replace the leaders at any time. Sometimes, couples
pair off and leave the pack.
The pack uses facial expressions, body postures, and vocalizations
to communicate. Members show submission by licking the leader’s
face or rolling on their back. Howling is used to warn other packs that
a certain territory is taken, to announce the start of a hunting expe-
dition, or to summon members to help defend a kill. The pack hunts
together, traveling for up to 30 miles (about 48 kilometers) a day.
Gray wolves mate for life, producing six or seven pups a year. Pack
members care for the young when the mother goes hunting. Adults
feed weaned pups regurgitated (re-GER-jih-tate-ed) food, partly di-
gested food kept in the stomach and brought up to the mouth.

Gray wolves and people: Although humans have always felt threat-
ened by wolves, no attack has ever been reported. In fact, wolves avoid
human contact. Some hunters regard wolves as competitors for big
game (wild animals hunted for sport).
Conservation status: In 1973, on the brink of extinction from ex-

tensive killing, gray wolves were placed under the protection of the
newly enacted U.S. Endangered Species Act. They were subsequently
reintroduced to the Yellowstone National Park. Some states estab-
lished programs to protect them. Since then, the gray wolf popula-
tions have increased. In 2003, gray wolves (except those in the
Southwest) were reclassified as Threatened, or likely to become ex-
tinct in the foreseeable future. The IUCN does not list the gray wolf
as a threatened species worldwide. ■

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
RED FOX
Vulpes vulpes
Physical characteristics: The largest of all foxes, the red fox is red-
dish brown with a white- or black-tipped bushy tail. It weighs 6 to
15 pounds (2.7 to 6.8 kilograms). The snout, backs of the ears, and
the lower legs and feet are black. Sensitive, pointed ears can detect
prey from 150 feet (45 meters) away. Sensitive whiskers guide the
fox in inflicting a killing bite on the prey’s body.
Geographic range: The most widely distributed of all canids, the

red fox is found in the United States, Canada, Australia, Europe
(except Iceland), and Asia.
Habitat: Red foxes prefer a mixture of woodlands and open areas.

They thrive in the tundra and desert, where they prey on animals for-
aging for food at night. They live close to humans in farmlands, the
suburbs, and cities, where rabbits, rodents, and garbage pits abound.
Diet: Red foxes prefer rodents but also feed on rabbits, squirrels,
insects, earthworms, birds, and carrion. They eat fruits and human

Red foxes are active at dusk,
night, and dawn, and do their
hunting then. They hunt for
animals such as these arctic
ground squirrels. (Erwin and
Peggy Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc.
leftovers. Foxes eat about 1 to 3 pounds (0.5 to 1.5 kilograms) of

food a day. When full, they continue to hunt for prey, but unlike
wolves who gorge themselves, foxes cache (store in a hidden place)
excess food. They bury the food in a hole, occasionally digging it up,
then reburying it.
Behavior and reproduction: Red foxes are crepuscular (kri-PUS-

kyuh-lur; active at dawn and dusk) and nocturnal (active at night),
timing their foraging habits with those of their prey. They live alone,
except when breeding. Males and females pair off in late winter or
early spring, producing five to thirteen kits. Fathers provide food to
the family, and nonbreeding daughters or sisters may share the den
and help in child rearing. Red foxes are playful creatures, engaging
in games of chasing and mock fighting.
Red foxes and people: Red foxes are prized for their fur and for the
sport of fox hunting. However, a love-hate relationship exists between
foxes and humans. Some suburbanites treat them as pets, putting out
food for them. Others detest them for stealing house pets and livestock.
Conservation status: The red fox is not a threatened species. ■

Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus)
MANED WOLF
Chrysocyon brachyurus
Physical characteristics: The maned wolf has a long, black mane

on its neck down to the middle of its back. The body is golden-red,
and the snout and legs are black. The throat, tail tip, and ears have
white markings. Very long legs allow for a better view over the tall
grasses of its habitat and for high leaps to catch prey and hold it down.
It covers great distances, moving the legs of each side of its body to-
gether, unlike other canids that move their legs alternately. It weighs
44 to 51 pounds (20 to 23 kilograms) with a shoulder height of 29
to 34 inches (74 to 87 centimeters).

Geographic range: Maned wolves are found in
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and
Uruguay.
Habitat: Maned wolves live in grassland that sup-

ports small mammals, reptiles, and insects. They
also occupy scrub forests, home to a tomato-like
fruit that makes up half of their diet.
Diet: A tomato-like fruit, Solanum lycocarpum,

which comprises 50 percent of the wolf’s diet, pro-
tects it against giant kidney worm infestation. Al-
though known for preying on domestic chickens,
maned wolves prefer rodents, rabbits, and ar-
madillos. Occasionally, they eat birds, lizards, and
seasonal fruits, such as guavas and bananas.
Behavior and reproduction: Maned wolves are

the most solitary of the canids. Males and females
only get together to breed, producing a litter of two
to six pups. They normally hunt at night. White
markings on the throat, tail tip, and on the large, erect ears serve as vi- Maned wolves usually live alone.
sual signals at a distance. They further communicate using harsh barks. They meet up with other wolves
only at breeding time.
Quite territorial, they use urine and feces as boundary markings.
(Illustration by Wendy Baker.
Maned wolves and people: The fur of the maned wolf is worn in
South America as a good luck charm. Native Brazilians harvest the
right eye from live wolves, believed to bring luck with women and
gambling.
Conservation status: The maned wolf is listed as Endangered in its

native countries due to habitat loss to overgrazing by cattle and de-
forestation, particularly for soybean farming. The IUCN classifies the
maned wolf as Near Threatened. ■
Books:
Alderton, David. Foxes, Wolves and Wild Dogs of the World. New York:
Facts on File, 2004.
Gibson, Nancy. Wolves. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Greenaway, Theresa. The Secret World of Wolves, Wild Dogs, and Foxes.
Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, 2001.

Rogers, Lesley J., and Gisela Kaplan. Spirit of the Wild Dog: The World
of Wolves, Coyotes, Foxes, Jackals, & Dingoes. Crows Nest, Australia:
Allen & Unwin, 2003.
Sillero-Zubiri, Claudio, David W. Macdonald, and the IUCN/SSC Canid
Specialist Group. “Portrait of an Endangered Species.” In The Ethiopian
Wolf—Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland:
IUCN, 1997.
Periodicals:
Henry, J. David. “Spirit of the Tundra (Arctic and Red Foxes).” Natural
History (December 1998): 60–65.
Larivière, Serge, and Maria Pasitschniak-Arts. “Vulpes vulpes.” Mam-
malian Species 537 (December 27, 1996): 1–11.
Robbins, Jim. “Weaving a New Web: Wolves Change an Ecosystem.”
27, no. 3 (1998). Online at http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/
ZooGoer/1998/3/weavingwolfweb.cfm (accessed on July 6, 2004)
Stewart, Doug. “Caught in a Dog Fight.” National Wildlife (June–July
1999): 34–39.
Walker, Tom. “The Shadow Knows (In Alaska’s Far North, the Arctic Fox
Shares its Secrets of Survival).” National Wildlife (February/March 2002):
46–53.
Web sites:
“Canid Species Accounts.” IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group.
http://www.canids.org/SPPACCTS/sppaccts.htm (accessed July 6,
2004).
“Delisting a Species.” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Services. http://
endangered.fws.gov/recovery/delisting.pdf (accessed July 6, 2004).
Gorog, Antonia. “Chrysocyon brachyurus (Maned Wolf).” Animal
information/Chrysocyon_brachyurus.html (accessed July 6, 2004).
Hinrichsen, Don. “Wolves Around the World: The Global Status
of the Gray Wolf.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.defenders.org/
publications/wolvesarworld.pdf (accessed July 6, 2004).
Ives. Sarah. “Wolves Reshape Yellowstone National Park.” National
Geographic Kids News. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/kids/2004/
03/wolvesyellowstone.html (accessed July 6, 2004).

BEARS
Ursidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Ursidae
Bears have big heads, round ears, small eyes that face for- class
ward, very short tails, and stocky legs. They are plantigrade,
subclass
walking on the heels and soles of their feet like humans do.
Each paw has five curved claws that are not retractable, or can- order
not be pulled back. monotypic order
Bears come in many colors, from the familiar black, brown, suborder
and white to blonde, cinnamon, and blue-gray. Some have a
yellow, orange, or white chest marking in the form of a patch, ▲ family
a letter V or U, or a short horizontal line. Spectacled bears are
called “spectacled” because of the light markings around their
eyes. Among Malayan sun bears, the smallest species, males
are 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 meters) long and weigh between 60
and 150 pounds (27 and 70 kilograms). In comparison, male
polar bears on average are 8 to 9 feet (2.4 to 2.7 meters) long
and weigh 900 to 1,300 pounds (400 to 590 kilograms).
Females, or sows, of all species are usually smaller than males,
or boars.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Spectacled bears are found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, and Venezuela. Brown bears live in the United States,
Canada, Europe, and Asia. American black bears inhabit
the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Malayan sun bears,
sloth bears, and Asiatic black bears thrive in Asia. Giant
pandas live in China, while polar bears occupy the Arctic
regions.
Bears 593
HABITAT
Bears live in a variety of habitats. For ex-
ample, spectacled bears can be found in
the dense rainforests of South America, and
Malayan sun bears thrive in tropical rain-
forests in Southeast Asia, while polar bears
SURVIVING IN THE ARCTIC live on the Arctic tundra.
The polar bear has a dense underfur next
DIET
to its skin and a water-repellent outer fur,
called guard hairs. The hairs are clear, hollow Bears are generally omnivores, eating both
tubes that conduct sunlight to the black skin, plants and animals. However, the polar bear
where heat is absorbed. The clear tubes is almost entirely carnivorous, eating mainly
reflect sunlight, making the outer coat ringed seals, while the giant panda lives ex-
appear white. Blending in with the whiteness clusively on bamboo. The sloth bear favors
of the ice and snow, the polar bear can easily termites and ants. The other species, while
sneak up on its prey. The hollow hairs also preferring plant sources, also eat young ani-
keep the bear afloat when swimming. A thick mals and fish.
layer of blubber, or fat, further insulates the
body from the cold. Compact ears also BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
prevent heat loss. Fur-covered feet serve as Bears maintain a solitary lifestyle, living
snowshoes, while thickly padded soles alone, except when mating and rearing their
provide traction against slippage on ice. young. When food is plentiful, they share but
keep their personal space. Bears are usually
crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk). Their
excellent memory enables them return to past
food sources. They are agile tree climbers and fast runners,
reaching speeds of up to 30 miles per hour (48 kilometers per
hour). Polar bears and Asiatic black bears are expert swimmers.
Most bears mate during spring or summer, but the fertilized
egg undergoes delayed implantation, during which it takes
up to six months to attach to the uterus and start developing.
As a result, cubs are born tiny, ranging in weight from
about 11 ounces (325 grams) in sun bears to 21 ounces (600
grams) in polar and brown bears. Most sows have two cubs,
although some have as many as five. Depending on the species,
cubs may stay with their mothers for one to more than four
years.
BEARS AND PEOPLE

People hunt some bear species for meat and trophies. Some
Asian cultures use bear parts to treat diseases. In addition, many
zoos house bears as exhibit animals.

CONSERVATION STATUS
The giant panda is considered Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction, or dying out, in the wild. The spectacled,
sloth, and Asiatic black bears are considered Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction in the wild. These and other bear
species are threatened by declining populations due to losing
habitat, as humans clear more land for agriculture, mining, and
other activities.
Bears 595
American black bear (Ursus americanus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS AMERICAN BLACK BEAR
Ursus americanus
Physical characteristics: Although most American black bears are

black, some are brown, cinnamon, blue-gray, or even white. Siblings
(brothers and sisters) may have different colors. Some bears have a
white chest marking. They stand about 5 feet (1.5 meters) tall. Males
weigh about 250 to 350 pounds (110 to 160 kilograms), almost twice
as much as females (150 to 175 pounds, or 70 to 80 kilograms).
Geographic range: American black bears are found in the United

States, Mexico, and Canada.
Habitat: American black bears thrive in forested regions, wetlands,

and meadows. They range in the frozen tundra (treeless plain) of

American black bear cubs are
usually born in the winter and
stay with their mothers for up to
two years. (Tom Brakefield/Bruce
permission.)
Alaska and Labrador, Canada. They are also found around campsites
and other places where human food and garbage are available.
Diet: American black bears are mostly herbivores, preferring berries,

fruits, grasses, and roots. With strong claws, they dig up insects in
the ground and pry open honeycombs. In the absence of plant food,
they eat fish, young birds, and small mammals. They also feed on car-
rion (dead and decaying flesh) and campsite leftovers.
Behavior and reproduction: American black bears are active at

dawn and dusk, sleeping or resting most of the day and night. They
are, however, adaptable, adjusting their schedule to mate or to avoid
humans or predators (animals that hunt them for food). Skillful tree
climbers, they scale tree trunks with their curved claws to escape
predators, such as timber wolves and grizzly bears. Except for moth-
ers and cubs, these bears are loners, although they may feed close to-
gether at an abundant food source. From late spring to early summer,
adults breed for a few days, then go their separate ways. On average,
two cubs are born in mid-winter. They remain with their mothers for
up to two years.
American black bears and people: People hunt American black

bears for meat and trophies. Poachers, or illegal hunters, kill the an-
imals for body parts believed to have healing powers. The bears very
Bears 597
rarely attack humans, although they may become aggressive in places
where human food is found. Some bears damage cornfields and
beehives.
Conservation status: American black bears are not in danger of

extinction (dying out). ■

Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)
GIANT PANDA
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
Physical characteristics: Giant pandas are white, with black fur

around the eyes and on the ears, shoulders, chest, and legs. Each front
paw has six toes, the last toe functioning as a thumb. Actually an ex-
tension of the wrist bone, the oversized thumb helps the panda grasp
bamboo stems. Powerful jaws and large molar teeth help grind the
tough bamboo.
Giant pandas have bigger heads and shorter legs than other bears.
Adults are about 5.5 to 6 feet (1.7 to 1.8 meters) in body length. Males
weigh about 175 to 280 pounds (80 to 125 kilograms), and females
weigh about 155 to 220 pounds (70 to 100 kilograms).
Geographic range: Pandas are found in southwestern China.
Habitat: Giant pandas live in mountainous bamboo forests.
Bears 599
Giant pandas live in bamboo
forests in China. They are
an important symbol for
conservation. (© Keren
Su/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)
Diet: The giant pandas’ diet consists almost entirely of bamboo. Oc-
casionally they eat bulbs and small animals, such as bamboo rats and
musk deer fawns.
Behavior and reproduction: Although giant pandas mostly live

alone, they communicate through different sounds, including squeals,
honks, and snorts. They share community scent-marking areas, send-
ing messages through anal-genital secretions rubbed on surfaces. They
also use urine to mark tree trunks, with the males doing so on hand-
stands for higher markings. Giant pandas mate during spring. Sows
give birth to twins half of the time, but usually only one cub survives
when two are born.

Giant pandas and people: Giant pandas are major attractions in
zoos around the world. In addition, their endangered status has made
them symbols for conservation.
Conservation status: The giant panda is Endangered, driven from

its habitat by human activities, such as deforestation, or the clearing
of land, for farming. The panda cannot reproduce fast enough to re-
cover its losses. Females mate only in the spring and within just a
two-to-three-day period. Only one cub survives, and the mother waits
up to three years to mate again. ■
Bears 601
Polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
POLAR BEAR
Ursus maritimus
Physical characteristics: Polar bears, the largest land carnivores,

have a thick white or yellowish coat, a long body and neck, black
nose, and small eyes and ears. The front paws, webbed like a duck’s
feet, function as paddles for swimming. The long, sharp claws are
used for grasping and killing prey. On average, adult males weigh
about 900 to 1,300 pounds (400 to 590 kilograms) and stand 8 to 9
feet (2.4 to 2.7 meters). Adult females weigh about 450 to 600 pounds
(200 to 270 kilograms) and stand 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 meter).
Geographic range: Polar bears live in the icy Arctic Ocean and in
the countries that extend into the ocean: United States (Alaska),
Canada, Russia, Norway, and Greenland (a territory of Denmark).
Habitat: Polar bears prefer the Arctic pack ice, formed when big
pieces of thick ice are frozen together. In summer, when the ice melts,
they live on land, staying close to the water.
Diet: Polar bears eat mainly ringed seals and occasionally bearded
seals. They also prey on walruses and belugas. In warmer months,
they hunt ducks and rabbits, as well as feed on mussels, berries, and
kelp, a brown seaweed.

Behavior and reproduction: Polar bears mostly keep to themselves Polar bears give birth to one or
two cubs at a time. The cubs
but do not defend a particular home territory. They gather on shore
stay with their mothers for at
to share beached whales and walruses. A bear may share its food with least two and a half years. (John
another if the latter begs submissively through body language, such Swedberg/Bruce Coleman Inc.
as nodding its head. Polar bears are very tidy, washing themselves in Reproduced by permission.)
the ocean after meals.

Polar bears mate in the spring. In the fall, after stuffing herself with
food, the pregnant sow digs a den in deep snow and hibernates while
awaiting childbirth. Cubs that are born in winter nurse until spring,
with the mother living off the fat storage in her body. Cubs stay with
their mothers for at least two and a half years.
Polar bears and people: Once hunted as trophies and for their fur
and meat, polar bears are now protected by the laws of the five coun-
tries where they live.
Conservation status: Some scientists believe that, within a hundred

years, polar bears may become extinct if Earth’s temperature continues
to rise. Warmer temperatures cause more arctic ice to melt, preventing
Bears 603
the bears from hunting their primary food source, the ringed seals, on
the sea ice. ■
Books:
Busch, Robert H. The Grizzly Almanac. New York: The Lyons Press, 2000.
Craighead, Lance. Bears of the World. New York: Voyageur Press, 2000.
Lumpkin, Susan, and John Seidensticker. Smithsonian Book of Giant
Pandas. Washington, D.C. and London, England: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Patent, Dorothy Hinshaw. A Polar Bear Biologist at Work. New York:
Grolier Publishing, 2001.
Periodicals:
Conover, Adele. “Sloth Bears: They Eat Ants, but Take On Tigers.”
Smithsonian (January 2000): 88–95.
Fair, Jeff. “When Bears Go Fishing.” Ranger Rick (June 2001): 38–39.
Kleiman, Devra G. “Giant Pandas: Bamboo Bears.” ZooGoer 21, no. 2
(1992) Online at http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/
1992/2/giantpandasbamboobears.cfm (accessed on June 15, 2004).
Morrison, Jim. “The Incredible Shrinking Polar Bears.” National Wildlife
42, no. 2 (2004) Online at http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.
cfm?articleId=880&issueId=66 (accessed on June 15, 2004)
Zoffka, Kennda. “Sleeping with the Bears.” Odyssey (January 2002):
38–39.
Web sites:
American Zoo and Aquarium Association Bear Advisory Group. “Bear
species.” The Bear Den. http://www.bearden.org/species.html (ac-
“Black Bears.” National Park Service, Big Bend National
Park. http://www.nps.gov/bibe/teachers/factsheets/blackbear.htm (ac-
Sea World Education Department. “Polar Bears.” SeaWorld/Busch
Gardens Animal Information Database. http://www.seaworld.org/
infobooks/PolarBears/home.html (accessed on June 15, 2004).

RACCOONS AND RELATIVES
Procyonidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Procyonidae
Procyonids (members of the Procyonidae family) range in class
size from the ringtail, at 2 pounds (1 kilogram), to the north-
subclass
ern raccoon, at 35 pounds (16 kilograms). Most have a rounded
head. The erect ears may be rounded or pointed. The snout order
may be short or long. Except for kinkajous, procyonids have monotypic order
long tails with alternating dark and light rings. In the kinka-
jou, the ringless tail is prehensile, able to grab on to tree suborder
branches. Fur coloration ranges from pale yellowish gray (ring- ▲ family
tail) to reddish brown (red panda) to grayish black (white-
nosed coati [kuh-WAH-tee]). Most have facial markings. Each
paw has five toes with short, recurved claws, or claws that curve
back. Procyonids are generally plantigrade, walking on the heels
and soles of their feet instead of on their toes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Except for red pandas, procyonids are found throughout
Central America (including Costa Rica and Panama), South
America (including Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), the United States, Canada,
Mexico, Germany, and Russia. Red pandas live in Asia, in-
cluding China, India, Nepal, and Tibet.
HABITAT
Some procyonids prefer forested areas close to streams and
rivers where they can fish for food. Many inhabit a mixed conif-
erous-deciduous forest, with rich vegetation and canopies (up-
permost forest layers made up of the spreading branches of
Raccoons and Relatives 605

trees) that provide sleeping and resting sites.
Some have established residence in farm-
lands, cities, and suburban areas.
DIET
Procyonids are omnivorous, consuming
both meat and plant food. However, ringtails
DO RACCOONS WASH THEIR FOOD
BEFORE EATING IT? prefer animal matter (rodents, insects, and
birds), while red pandas eat mainly bamboo
The northern raccoon’s species name leaves. Fruits are the favorite food of kinka-
lotor comes from the Latin meaning jous and olingos.
“washer.” This relates to captive raccoons’
tendency to dunk their food in water. Some BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
scientists believe that captive raccoons are Procyonids are adept climbers and usually
trying to duplicate their behavior in the wild, live in trees. Of all the species, the kinkajou
where they search for and grasp food rarely leaves the forest canopy. Groups of
underwater using their sensitive forepaws. kinkajous usually feed together in fruit trees.
In captivity, when raccoons dip their food Some species are solitary, while others live
in water, they give the impression of
in pairs or in family groups. They are noc-
turnal (active at night), except for the coatis,
washing the food before eating it.
which are diurnal (active during the day).
Some communicate through vocalizations,
including chirps, screams, hisses, and barks.
Only the red panda is territorial, claiming an area of land for
its own and defending it against intruders.
Most procyonids do not mate for life. Breeding occurs com-
monly in the spring. In warmer climates, breeding may occur
throughout the year. Females give birth to one to seven cubs
and raise the cubs by themselves.
PROCYONIDS AND PEOPLE
Procyonids are hunted for their meat and fur. Raccoons and
coatis are considered pests for attacking chickens and damag-
ing crops. The northern raccoon is a carrier of rabies, an often
deadly disease affecting the central nervous system and trans-
mitted through the raccoon’s saliva.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists the red panda as Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction in the wild, due to habitat loss and frag-
mentation (division of a habitat into small areas, resulting in
insufficient food sources and home range) as a result of forest
clearing. They are hunted by humans for their fur and preyed
on by domestic dogs. Seven other procyonid species are con-
sidered Endangered as well.

Northern raccoon (Procyon lotor)
SPECIES
NORTHERN RACCOON ACCOUNTS
Procyon lotor
Physical characteristics: The northern raccoon wears a black “ban-

dit” face mask, has a large rounded head, rounded ears, and a pointed
snout. The tan underfur topped with gray to black guard hairs gives
it a grizzled appearance. The bushy tail has alternating black and white
rings. Five long front toes work like human fingers for catching food
and putting it into the mouth. The sensitive skin on the toes helps
raccoons distinguish the texture of their food. In the suburbs and
cities, raccoons use these toes to pry open trash containers. Raccoons
are plantigrade, walking on the soles and heels of their feet. Body
length is 18 to 25 inches (50 to 65 centimeters), and the tail mea-
sures another 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 centimeters). They weigh 10
to 35 pounds (4 to 16 kilograms).

In cold climates, northern
raccoons sleep in their dens for
days or even months, living off
fat reserves from summer and
autumn feedings. They do not
truly hibernate, because they get
up during warm spells. (Leonard
Lee Rue, III/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Geographic range: Northern raccoons are found in the United

States, Mexico, Canada, Panama, the Netherlands, Russia, and
Germany.
Habitat: Raccoons prefer forested areas, especially those near

streams and rivers where they can forage for food. Forests provide
nuts, berries, and tree hollows for dens. Highly adaptable, raccoons
are equally at home in farmlands, cities, and the suburbs, inhabiting
barns and attics.
Diet: Northern raccoons are opportunistic feeders, eating any food

that is available. They enjoy fruits, berries, cereal grains, nuts, fish,
crayfish, frogs, insects, and bird eggs. They dine on corn in rural ar-
eas and have adapted to eating garbage in suburban and urban areas.
Behavior and reproduction: Northern raccoons are solitary, except

when mating, raising young, or gathering at human environments,
such as garbage pits. They are nocturnal, sometimes spending the day

resting on branches high up in trees. Expert climbers, they can de-
scend a tree headfirst. They are also good swimmers. Although they
typically walk leisurely, they can run as fast as 15 miles per hour
(24 kilometers per hour).
Raccoons mate in late winter, with males having several partners.
In the spring, the female gives birth to a litter of one to seven cubs
in a tree hollow or abandoned animal burrow (a hole or a tunnel).
The mother sometimes carries a newborn by the nape of the neck,
the way cats do with kittens. The male does not participate in par-
enting. In cold climates, raccoons sleep in their dens for days or even
months, living off fat reserves from summer and autumn feedings.
However, they do not truly hibernate, getting up during warm spells.
Northern raccoons and people: Raccoons are hunted for their

meat. Their fur is made into caps and coats. They are considered pests
for raiding cornfields, chicken coops, and garbage bins. They carry
the rabies virus, which can be passed on to humans through bites.
Conservation status: The northern raccoon is not a threatened

species. ■

Red panda (Ailurus fulgens)
RED PANDA
Ailurus fulgens
Physical characteristics: The red panda has a body length of 20 to

24 inches (50 to 60 centimeters) and a tail length of 12 to 20 inches
(30 to 50 centimeters). Its light weight of 6.5 to 11 pounds (3 to 5
kilograms) allows for climbing higher, thinner tree branches, with the
long, bushy tail helping keep its balance. The tail has alternating red-
dish brown and tan rings. Reddish brown waterproof guard hairs pro-
tect a dense woolly underfur. Brownish black fur covers the back of
the ears, belly, throat, and legs. Large pointed ears fringed with white
sit atop a round head. White fur covers the cheeks and the areas over
the small eyes and around the black nose. Large reddish brown tear
marks run from the eyes to the corners of the mouth.

Each front paw has an extended wrist bone, used for grasping bam- The red panda has to eat lots of
leaves to get the nutrition it
boo, its main food. Powerful jaw muscles and broad teeth are adapted
needs from them—it spends
for chewing the tough bamboo. Although flat-footed, the panda is thirteen hours eating up to 2 to
considered semiplantigrade because the heels of its back feet do not 3 pounds (1 to 1.4 kilograms)
touch the ground. Thick white fur keeps the soles warm in cold per day. (© Tim Davis/Photo
weather. The sharp claws can be pulled back like a cat’s to keep from permission.)
getting dull when walking on hard surfaces.
Geographic range: The red panda occurs in Assam, Bhutan, China,

India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sikkim, and Tibet.
Diet: The red panda is a folivore, eating almost exclusively the leaves
of bamboo. On rare occasions, it eats fruits, berries, acorns, other
grasses, as well as bamboo rats, insects, young birds, and bird eggs.
It spends up to thirteen hours consuming 2 to 3 pounds (1 to 1.4
kilograms) of leaves. The panda has a carnivore’s digestive system
that is not adapted for processing plant fiber. Since it gets very little
nutrients from the small amount of digested food, it has to eat plenty
of leaves.

Behavior and reproduction: Red pandas sleep and rest in tree
branches. They are active at night, daybreak, and dusk, mostly
foraging for bamboo. Although loners, they communicate through vo-
calizations and body language. They scent mark territorial boundaries
with anal secretions, urine, and feces. Sweat glands between the paw
pads secrete fluid that helps pandas find their way around their home
range. While territorial, red pandas are not aggressive. They warn
each other off by bobbing their heads, raising the forepaws, and
hissing.
Pandas pair off to mate, separating soon after. Due to delayed im-
plantation during which the fertilized egg does not attach to the uterus
for up to three months, newborns weigh just about 4.4 ounces (about
120 grams). The litter may consist of one to four cubs, but typically
just two. To produce enough milk, the mother increases her bamboo
intake threefold. The cubs stay with her for about a year or until she
is ready to breed again.
Red pandas and people: Red pandas are popular zoo animals. Some
Asian cultures make caps from the fur, believed to bring good for-
tune, especially to newlyweds.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the red panda as Endangered

due to habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from clearing forests
for agriculture, timber, and fuel. Poachers (illegal hunters) harvest
fur for trade. ■
Books:
Glatston, Angela R. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Pro-
cyonids and Ailurids: The Red Panda, Olingos, Coatis, Raccoons, and
their Relatives. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1994.
Kite, Patricia. Raccoons. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company,
2004.
MacClintock, Dorcas. Red Pandas: A Natural History. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1988.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Raccoons.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/carnivora/carnivora.
procyonidae.procyon.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Zeveloff, Samuel I. Raccoons: A Natural History. Washington, D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002.

Periodicals:
Dorn, Jonathan. “Who Was That Masked Critter?” Backpacker (Decem-
ber 1995): 24–26.
Gilbert, Bil. “Ringtails Like To Be Appreciated: Although They Are by Na-
ture Loners, These Clever ‘Cats’ Don’t Mind a Little Human Compan-
ionship.” Smithsonian (August 2000): 64–70.
Lotze, Joerg-Henner, and Sydney Anderson. “Procyon lotor.” Mammalian
Species 119 (June 8, 1979): 1–8.
Roberts, Miles. “Red Panda: The Fire Cat.” ZooGoer 21, no. 2 (1992).
Online at http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1992/2/
redpandasfirecat.cfm (accessed on July 6, 2004).
Roberts, Miles S., and John L. Gittelman. “Ailurus fulgens.” Mammalian
Species 222 (November 14, 1984): 1–8.
Web sites:
Heath, Terrell, and Josh Platnick. “Ailurus fulgens (Red Panda).” Animal
Diversity web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Ailurus_fulgens.html (accessed on July 6, 2004).
“Procyonids: Raccoons, Ringtails & Coatis.” Arizona-Sonora Desert
Museum. http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_procyonids.html

WEASELS, BADGERS, SKUNKS,
AND OTTERS
Mustelidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Mustelidae
class Mustelids, members of the family Mustelidae, may either
have a slim, elongated body and long tail like weasels, mink,
subclass
martens, and otters, or a stocky body and short tail like bad-
order gers and wolverines. Some have webbed feet for swimming.
monotypic order Their fur may be uniform in color, striped, or spotted. They
may be white, silver, brown, or black in color. The smallest
suborder mustelid, the least weasel, is also the smallest carnivore, weigh-
▲ family ing about 1.76 ounces (50 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Mustelids are found on all continents except Antarctica. They
live in such countries as the United States, Canada, Mexico, Japan,
Mongolia, Great Britain, Ireland, Finland, Algeria, and Morocco.
HABITAT
Mustelids inhabit a wide range of habitats. Sea otters live ex-
clusively in the ocean, while river otters forage for food in water
but den (make a den, or place to live) on land. Some live in the
desert like the honey badgers, and others in tundra marshes, like
ermines. Some take over their prey’s dens, such as black-footed
ferrets. Others, including skunks and badgers live near humans
under abandoned buildings, in golf courses, and in parks.
DIET
Mustelids are either true carnivores, such as weasels, martens,
and otters, feeding mainly on meat, or omnivores, like skunks,
badgers, and tayras, consuming both animals and plants. Their

diet consists of rodents, rabbits, reptiles,
birds, insects, fruits, roots, and seeds.

Mustelids are mostly nocturnal, active at
night. Most are solitary, except for otters and
European badgers, which form social groups. DANCE OF DEATH
Some are excellent swimmers and skillful
The weasel is known for its dance of
climbers. Musk secreted by anal glands is
death, actually a ploy to catch prey. The
used to scent mark territory, as a defense
weasel stands in full view of a potential
mechanism in skunks, or for communication.
audience. It dances, spins, does
Only the giant otter mates with just one somersaults, and jumps up and down.
partner. Some species experience delayed im- Curious onlookers, including rabbits and
plantation, during which the fertilized egg birds, watch transfixed. Some may draw
waits several months before attaching to the closer for a better look. The weasel then
uterus to continue development. Females suddenly stops dancing, rushes the closest
have a litter of one to twelve offspring, de- spectator, and puts a killing bite on its neck.
pending on the species. Males do not partic-
ipate in parenting.
MUSTELIDS AND PEOPLE

Mustelids are hunted by humans for their fur. Ferrets are
kept as pets, while otters are kept in zoo exhibits. Some are
considered pests for spraying musk and for digging up lawns
and golf courses. Others carry diseases.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The United States classifies the black-footed ferret as En-
dangered due to habitat loss to agriculture and the declining
population of prairie dogs, its main prey. The IUCN lists the
black-footed ferret as Extinct in the Wild, and four otters, two
weasels, and one mink as Endangered, facing a very high risk
Weasels, Badgers, Skunks, and Otters 615

Ermine (Mustela erminea)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS ERMINE
Mustela erminea
Physical characteristics: Ermines have slender bodies, useful for

pursuing prey through narrow passages. They have a triangular head,
rounded ears, and a long neck. Long, sensitive whiskers help track
prey. The fur changes with the season and acts as a camouflage (KAM-
uh-flaj), white in winter to blend in with the snow and brown with
yellowish undersides and feet in summer. Their tails measure 2 to 4
inches (3 to 10 centimeters) and have black tips all year-round, which
helps distract attention from the predator’s body. The body is 6 to 10
inches (15 to 25 centimeters) long. Ermines weigh just 4.4 to 12.3
ounces (125 to 350 grams).
Geographic range: Ermines live in the United States and Canada,

Asia (including Japan, India, Mongolia, and Siberia), Europe (in-
cluding Scandinavia and Ireland), Algeria, and Greenland.
Habitat: Ermines prefer forests, grasslands, and marshy plains that

provide cover and prey. They live in tree roots, hollow logs, and

burrows, holes or tunnels, inherited from their prey, usually lining An ermine turns from its brown
fur color for summer to its white
their nest with fur from their prey.
color for winter. The fur changes
with the season and acts as a
Diet: Ermines are carnivorous, eating rodents, rabbits, ground squir- camouflage, helping the animal
blend in with its surroundings.
rels, birds, and insects. They eat as much as half their body weight
(Erwin and Peggy Bauer/Bruce
in food and store extra food for later use. Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Ermines are loners, except for breed-
ing pairs and mother-offspring groups. They use musk, an anal se-
cretion, to mark territory and as a signal for mating. Ermines also
communicate through squeaks, trills, and screeches. They are active
throughout the day and night. Expert hunters, they prey on animals
several times their size, killing them with a bite at the back of the
neck.
Ermines mate in late spring to early summer, but the fertilized egg
undergoes delayed implantation, waiting nine to ten months before
attaching to the uterus to resume development. Females give birth to
one or two litters of four to eight offspring the following spring and
raise the young alone. Females become sexually mature, capable of

reproducing, at two months of age, while males attain sexual matu-
rity at one year. It is not unusual for adult males to mate with very
young females, sometimes before they are weaned from their mother’s
milk. This ensures new generations even if males might not be around
for mating.
Ermines and people: Some people value ermines for killing rats and
mice. Americans used the black-tipped tails as ornaments, while
European royalties made ceremonial robes out of the whole fur.
Conservation status: Ermines are not a threatened species. ■

Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)
STRIPED SKUNK
Mephitis mephitis
Physical characteristics: Striped skunks have silky black fur. A

white stripe starts on top of the head, and separates into two stripes
down the sides of the back. Anal glands produce strong-smelling musk
that protects against intruders. Sharp forefeet claws are designed for
digging. The body is 13 to 18 inches (33 to 45 centimeters) long, and
the tail measures 7 to 10 inches (18 to 25 centimeters). They weigh
about 4 to 18 pounds (2 to 8 kilograms).
Geographic range: Striped skunks live in the United States, Canada,

and Mexico.
Habitat: Striped skunks prefer a mixture of farmland, forest, and

grassland, where they den in barns, under wood piles and in under-
ground burrows. They adapt to desert conditions, sleeping in cool

A young striped skunk forages
for insects. Rodents and insects
make up most of a skunk’s diet.
permission.)
dens during the day and foraging at night when their prey are active.
They also thrive in the tundra, especially in marshes during the sum-
mer thaw. Skunks also live in suburban areas.
Diet: Striped skunks are opportunistic feeders, eating whatever food

is available. Their main diet consists of small rodents and insects.
They also consume reptiles, frogs, worms, birds, bird eggs, fruits, and
seeds.
Behavior and reproduction: Striped skunks are active at night. They

dig underground dens, use a hollowed tree stump, or share a home with
rabbits and raccoons. During severe winters, they become inactive for

several months, living off stored fat in their body. They do not truly hi-
bernate, moving about when the weather warms up. Males are typically
solitary but several females may den together. Mating occurs in Febru-
ary and March, with the males having several partners. Litters of four
to ten young are born in May and are raised by the females. The young
stay with the mother for up to two years.
When threatened, striped skunks give warning by stamping their
front feet and growling. If the intruder does not leave, skunks raise
their tails and spray a foul-smelling musk. The spray can travel up to
10 feet (3 meters), causing nausea and burning the eyes and nose.
Striped skunks and people: Skunk musk, with its odor removed,
is an important perfume ingredient that enables perfume to evapo-
rate slowly and emit fragrance longer. Striped skunks kill rodents and
insects that destroy crops but they sometimes assault chickens and
damage beehives. In North America, they are carriers of rabies, an of-
ten deadly disease affecting the central nervous system and transmit-
ted through the skunk’s saliva.
Conservation status: Striped skunks are not threatened. ■

European otter (Lutra lutra)
EUROPEAN OTTER
Lutra lutra
Physical characteristics: European otters are river otters with an

elongated body and a broad, flat head. When diving, otters close the
valves in their ears and nose to keep water out. The fully webbed feet
work like paddles, while the flattened, muscled tail acts as a rudder
for steering underwater. Sensitive whiskers help them find food, es-
pecially in muddy waters. The dark brown fur has two layers: a dense,
wooly underfur and coarse, waterproof guard hairs. European otters
weigh about 15 to 33 pounds (7 to 15 kilograms). Their body length
is 25 to 33 inches (65 to 85 centimeters), and the tail length is 15 to
20 inches (36 to 52 centimeters).
Geographic range: European otters are found in Europe including

Great Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Ireland, Norway, Greece,
Scotland, Albania, and Finland, Asia including Japan, Taiwan, Java,
Sri Lanka, and Sumatra, and North Africa.
Habitat: European otters are found in freshwater habitats including

rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds. They live along seashores where

European otters search for food
in the water. When diving, they
close valves in their ears and
nose to keep water out.
(Illustration by Gillian Harris.
freshwater pools are formed from abundant rainfall. They den on land,
inhabiting swamps along rivers and lakes, and on dry land among
tree roots and abandoned animal burrows.
Diet: European otters consume fish, frogs, crabs, small rodents, and
aquatic birds. They eat small prey in the water, but haul out larger
prey to shore. They eat the equivalent of 20 percent of their body
weight every day.
Behavior and reproduction: Although European otters forage for

food in water, they den and breed on land, and are active at night.
Otters seek freshwater for drinking and for washing sea salt from their
guard hairs to keep them waterproof. They scent mark territories with
anal secretions and deposit feces on logs and rocks to keep out
trespassers. They are playful animals, often seen sliding down mud
banks and icy slides. They communicate through chirps, chuckles,
and whistles.
Breeding starts in February in water or on land. Males have two
or more mating partners. The mother gives birth to two to four kits
in April or June. The father leaves after the babies are born, while the
young stay with the mother for about a year.
European otters and people: European otters are legally protected

in some countries. Commercial fishermen consider them pests for
raiding fisheries.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the European otter as Vulner-

able, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild, due to habitat

destruction from dam construction, drainage of wetlands, and con-
version of rivers into canals, as well as water pollution from agricul-
ture and industries. Illegal hunting continues in many areas. Accidental
trapping in fishermen’s nets is also a common occurrence. ■

European badger (Meles meles)
EUROPEAN BADGER
Meles meles
Physical characteristics: European badgers have broad bodies,

short legs, and short tails. They have gray backs, black undersides
and legs. The white face has two parallel black stripes that start at the
snout, cover the eyes, and extend to the ears. Their loose coat allows
the badger to wriggle out of a predator’s grasp or to quickly turn
around and bite back. Long, strong front claws are designed for dig-
ging dirt and wasp nests, beehives, and insect larvae in grass roots.
A see-through layer of skin protects the eyes from flying dirt and pro-
vides moisture. The back feet work like shovels for pushing out dirt.
The badger weighs 22 to 44 pounds (10 to 20 kilograms), with a body
length of 24 to 33 inches (60 to 85 centimeters) and a tail length of
6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 centimeters).
Geographic range: European badgers occur in all European countries

and a number of Asian countries, including China, Japan, and Iran.
Habitat: European badgers prefer dense forests, but also inhabit

open fields, hedgerows, and parks.

Diet: Earthworms make up about 50 percent of
the European badger’s diet. They also feed on small
rodents, hedgehogs, snails, insects and their larvae,
as well as fruits, seeds, mushrooms, and roots.
Behavior and reproduction: European badgers

live together in social groups called clans, consisting
of twelve to fourteen adults and their cubs. A dom-
inant male and female rule the clan. Badgers are ter-
ritorial, marking the boundaries of their home range
with feces and an anal secretion called musk. They
also mark one another with musk for easy identifi-
cation. Badgers forage for food at night. In winter,
they sleep for days but do not truly hibernate.
Badgers mate during most of the year but im-
plantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus can be
delayed by about ten months, resulting in almost
all cubs being born in February or March, when
food is abundant. A litter averages two to three
cubs, but may have as many as five. The young stay
European badgers are nocturnal with their mother until fall.
and live together in large
underground connected European badgers and people: European badgers have damaged
tunnels called “setts.” (Hans
gardens, lawns, and golf courses. Scientific experiments in Great
Reinhard/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permission.) Britain found that badger are carriers of bovine tuberculosis (bTB),
and can transmit the disease to cattle. Government-sponsored killing
of badgers in areas where cattle had developed bTB ended because it
did not reduce cattle infection. The government continues to moni-
tor the situation.
Conservation status: European badgers are not considered a

Books:
Darbyshire, John, and Laurie Campbell. Badgers. Moray, U.K.: Colin
Baxter Photography, 1998.
Foster-Turley, Pat, Sheila Macdonald, Chris Mason, and the IUCN/SSC
Otter Specialist Group, eds. Otters: An Action Plan for their Conserva-
tion. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1990.
Ivy, Bill. Weasels. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational Corporation, 1986.
Love, John A. Sea Otters. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1992.

Nowak, Ronald M. “Old World Badger.” Walker’s Mammals of the
World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
carnivora/carnivora.mustelidae.meles.html (accessed July 7, 2004).
Paine, Stefani. The World of the Sea Otter. San Francisco, CA: Sierra
Club Books, 1993.
Periodicals:
Bauman, Richard. “Getting Skunked: Understanding the Antics Behind
the Smell.” Backpacker (May 1993): 30–31.
Conniff, Richard. “You Can Call Him ‘Cute’ or You Can Call Him Hungry.”
Smithsonian (February 1997): 81–91.
King, Carolyn M. “Mustela erminea.” Mammalian Species 195 (April 8,
1983): 1–8.
Line, Les. “The Benefits of Badgers.” National Wildlife (December-
January 1995): 18–23.
Wade-Smith, Julia, and B. J. Verts. “Mephitis mephitis.” Mammalian
Species 173 (May 25, 1982): 1–7.
Weidensaul, Scott. “The Rarest of the Rare.” Smithsonian (November
2000): 118–128.
Web sites:
“Black-footed ferret.” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. http://endangered.
fws.gov/i/A07.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
National Federation of Badger Groups. http://www.badger.org.uk/tb/
Division of Fish, Wildlife and Marine Resources. “Furbearer Profiles: The
Striped Skunk.” New York State Department of Environmental Conser-
vation. http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/wildgame/
skunkinny.htm (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Badgerland Home Page. http://www.badgerland.co.uk/main.html
“Mustelids.” Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. http://www.desertmuseum
.org/books/nhsd_mustelids.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).

CIVETS, GENETS,
AND LINSANGS
Viverridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Viverridae
class Viverrids (civets, genets, and linsangs) have long, slender
bodies and short legs. Some have a uniform coloration, while
subclass
others are marked with spots, bars, or both. The fur is short.
order The tail, sometimes longer than the body, is bushy and may be
monotypic order ringed with alternating dark and light colors. The snout is
pointed, and the ears are erect. Most have five toes on each
suborder paw. Viverrids are the only carnivores with perineal (per-uh-
▲ family NEE-uhl) glands (perfume glands between the anus and the
genital organs) that produce a strong-smelling substance used
for defense, territory marking, and sexual communication.
These glands are most developed in civets and genets.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Viverrids are found in western Europe (including France,
Portugal, and Spain), Southeast Asia (including Thailand,
Malaysia, and Indonesia), and most of Africa.
HABITAT
Viverrids occupy tropical deciduous forests that provide
canopies (uppermost layer of a forest consisting of spreading
branches). They also inhabit tall grasses and thick brush for
cover. Some prefer wetlands, while others live near rivers and
streams.
DIET
Most viverrids eat rodents, insects, reptiles, frogs, birds,
crabs, carrion (dead and decaying flesh), eggs, fruits, and nuts.

Palm civets are predominantly frugivores, eating pulpy fruits
and berries.

Viverrids are generally solitary, although some may live in
pairs or small groups. The palm civet and the African linsang
are almost exclusively arboreal (tree-dwelling). The otter civet
and the aquatic genet live near rivers and streams.
Most viverrids scent mark territories and tree branches with
perineal secretions. They also deposit feces on rocks, topping
them with perineal secretions to advertise ownership. Some
species produce sounds, including hisses, screams, and coughs.
Some breed throughout the year. Others breed during certain
seasons. Some may give birth two or three times a year. The
average litter size is two to three kittens; up to six may be born.
Kittens are born with a full coat, although the markings may
not be clear. Males do not share in parenting.
VIVERRIDS AND PEOPLE

Viverrid meat is consumed by some people. Some species are
kept as pets to control rodents. Humans sometimes kill those
that attack poultry and lambs. Oil from the civet is valued by
perfume makers for enhancing the quality of fragrances.
In 2002, an outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS) in southern China was linked to the consumption of
masked palm civet. SARS is an infectious, potentially deadly
disease. When the World Health Organization announced the
end of the SARS outbreak in July 2003, more than 8,000 cases
had been reported in 27 countries, with 774 deaths. In Janu-
ary 2004, when SARS resurfaced in China, authorities ordered
the killing of all palm civets raised on farms. Other animals, in-
cluding the raccoon dog and the Chinese ferret badger, also
carry the SARS virus. These are not eaten by humans and have
not been destroyed.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists eight species as threatened. The Malabar civet
is classified as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high
risk of extinction, due to habitat loss, predation, and hunting
by humans. The otter civet and the crested genet are listed as
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, because of
habitat loss/degradation, predation, and hunting by humans.
Civets, Genets, and Linsangs 629

Five species are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction, mostly because of habitat loss/destruction and hunt-
ing by humans. These are Owston’s palm civet, Hose’s palm
civet, the Malagasy civet, the Sulawesi palm civet, and Jerdon’s
palm civet.

African civet (Civettictis civetta)
SPECIES
AFRICAN CIVET ACCOUNTS
Civettictis civetta
Physical characteristics: The African civet’s fur ranges from sil-

very gray to creamy yellow with black-brown markings arranged in
rows. A black mane of hair from the neck to the tail is erected when
the civet gets scared or excited, making the animal seem larger. A
black mask covers the eyes, with grayish fur above the eyes all the
way to the small, round ears. The snout is black, with white on each
side. A white stripe bordered by black stripes runs from the neck
down to the front of the shoulders. This distinctive feature may serve
to direct harmless, playful bites during mock-fighting or mating. The
tail is partly ringed with alternating black and lighter colors, with
solid black on the bottom half. Black legs and feet have long, curved
claws. The perineal glands produce an oily substance called civet that

is used in the perfume industry. The civet uses this
secretion for scent marking its territory. The body
length is 27 to 33 inches (67 to 84 centimeters),
and the tail is another 13 to 19 inches (34 to 47
centimeters). The largest of the viverrids, the
African civet weighs about 22 to 38 pounds (10 to
17 kilograms).
Geographic range: African civets occur in

countries south of the Sahara Desert, including
Senegal, Somalia, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and the island of
Zanzibar.
Habitat: African civets prefer woodlands and ar-

eas of tall grasses and dense shrubs for resting and
cover. Mothers and young nest in tangled roots and
African civets are active at night, burrows (holes) abandoned by other animals.
feeding mainly on fruits, but also
eating some rodents, insects,
reptiles, and other meat. (Cyril Diet: African civets are omnivores, feeding on plants and animals.
C. Laubscher. Bruce Coleman,
They eat mainly fruits, supplementing them with rodents, insects, rep-
tiles, frogs, birds, crabs, and carrion. They can eat up to 4 pounds
(2 kilograms) of food per feeding, but can fast (go without food) for
up to two weeks. They sometimes take poultry and lambs in human
environments.
Behavior and reproduction: African civets are solitary, except when

mating and raising young. They are nocturnal (active at night), sleep-
ing by day in tangled growths of vegetation or in tall grasses. They
defend territories, marking boundaries with perineal secretion. Fe-
males use this secretion to advertise readiness to mate. Civets also de-
posit feces in piles, topped with the secretion, for identification and
to claim ownership of a territory. Civets communicate through dif-
ferent sounds, including screams, growls, and coughs.
Mating occurs throughout the year. Females give birth two to three
times a year, usually to two to three young. Young civets are quite
developed when born, having a full coat with faint markings and able
to crawl right away. The mother introduces solid food to her young
after about a month and a half. Before this event, the young perform
a unique behavior called mouth suckling, in which they drink the
mother’s saliva by licking her mouth. However, they continue nurs-
ing up to fourteen to sixteen weeks of age.

African civets and people: For centuries, the perfume industry has
used the perineal secretion from African civets, called civet or civet
oil, to make fragrances last longer. Although artificial civet oil has
been available since the 1940s, some perfumers prefer the real thing.
In Ethiopia, civet continues to be extracted from caged animals.
African civets are sometimes considered pests for preying on poultry
and lambs.
Conservation status: The African civet is not a threatened species. ■

Common genet (Genetta genetta)
COMMON GENET
Genetta genetta
Physical characteristics: The common genet has a slender, flexi-

ble body that enables it to go through narrow openings to pursue ro-
dents, their main prey. A yellowish or grayish coat is covered with
black or brown markings arranged in rows. When threatened or
scared, the hair covering the back is erected to give the appearance
of a larger size. The long tail has alternating dark and light rings. The
snout is pointed, and the ears are rounded. White coloration covers
the areas around the eyes and mouth. The sharp claws, used for climb-
ing trees and catching prey, are sharpened on tree barks and kept in
a protective sheath when not in use. Secretions from the perineal
glands are used to mark territory and as a means of communication.
The body length is 17 to 22 inches (43 to 55 centimeters). The tail
measures 13 to 16 inches (33 to 51 centimeters). Weight is about
3 to 6 pounds (1.5 to 2.5 kilograms).

Common genets are active
during the night and sleep
during the day in a hollow tree
or a burrow left by another
animal. (Photograph by Harald
permission.)
Geographic range: The common genet is found in France, Portugal,

Spain, Arabia, northern Africa (including Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt), and
all African countries south of the Sahara Desert.
Habitat: Common genets inhabit forested areas where they have

trees for climbing and tree hollows for sleeping and resting. Grass-
lands provide cover for stalking and ambushing prey. They also live
near humans, such as in barns and parks.
Diet: Common genets are omnivores, eating rodents, frogs, reptiles,

insects, and fruits. They prey on nesting birds and occasionally take
poultry.
Behavior and reproduction: The common genets are equally at

home on the ground and in tree branches. They are active at night,
sleeping during the day in a tree hollow or a burrow abandoned by
another animal. They are solitary, communicating with one another
using perineal secretions to mark ground surfaces and tree branches.
They make catlike sounds, such as meows and purrs. They also growl
and hiss. Genets pair off briefly to mate, mostly in February and
March. In summer, the mother gives birth to a litter of one to four

kittens, but normally two to three, nursing them for about two
months.
Common genets and people: Genets are sometimes kept as pets to

control rodents. They occasionally prey on poultry and game birds.
Conservation status: The common genet is not a threatened

species. ■
Books:
Kruuk, Hans. Hunter and Hunted: Relationships Between Carnivores and
People. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M. “African Civet.” Walker’s Mammals of the
World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www. press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_
world/ carnivora/carnivora.viverridae.civettictis.html (accessed on
June 23, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. “Civets, Genets, Linsangs, Mongooses, and Fossas.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online. 5.1. Baltimore: Johns
walkers_mammals_of_the_world/carnivora/carnivora.viverridae.html
Nowak, Ronald M. “Genets.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online.
5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/carnivora/carnivora.
viverridae.genetta.html (accessed on June 23, 2004).
Schreiber, Arnd, Roland Wirth, Michael Riffel, and Harry Van Rompaey.
Weasels, Civets, Mongooses, and their Relatives: An Action Plan for the
Conservation of Mustelids and Viverrids. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1989.
Periodicals:
Ray, Justina C. “Civettictis civetta.” Mammalian Species 488 (June 23,
1995): 1–7.

MONGOOSES AND FOSSA
Herpestidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Herpestidae
Mongooses are a family, Herpestidae, of small to medium- class
sized, mainly carnivorous Old World mammals. Their overall
subclass
appearance suggests a small, generalized mammalian carnivore.
They have long bodies, short but powerful legs, and long, of- order
ten bushy tails. In some ways, they converge with (resemble) monotypic order
the mustelids (mammal family Mustelidae: weasels, badgers,
skunks, otters, wolverines) of the New World. suborder
Family Herpestidae, including species in Madagascar, in- ▲ family

cludes about thirty-five species and seventeen genera (JEN-uh-
ruh), although not all taxonomists, or classifiers of animal
types, agree as to the exact number of genera and species. The
large island of Madagascar, off the southeast coast of Africa, has
eight mongoose species arranged in four genera, probably all
descended from a single founder species that rafted on floating
vegetation from Africa. The Malagasy mongooses are classified
in a subfamily of their own, the Galidiinae. All other mongoose
species are classified within subfamily Herpestinae.
Adult head-and-body length throughout family Herpestidae
runs 9 to 25.5 inches (23 to 65 centimeters), tail length 9 to
20 inches (23 to 51 centimeters), and weight just under 1 pound
to 9 pounds (0.4 to 4.0 kilograms). The exception to these
measurements is the fossa of Madagascar, the largest of the
Herpestidae and the most un-mongoose-like of all mongoose
species. A fossa can grow up to 31.5 inches (80 centimeters)
head-and-body length, with a tail just as long, and an adult
weight of 20 pounds (9.1 kilograms).
Mongooses and Fossa 637

Fur colors in herpestids are various shades
of brown and gray, with lighter, sometimes
white, fur on the underside. Some species
carry stripes or stipplings on their darker fur.
The fur can vary in texture as well, from soft
to coarse, short to long. There are five clawed
MONGOOSES AND HORNBILLS digits on each of the four paws, the claws of
GETTING ALONG the forefeet long, sharp, and curved. Except
The dwarf mongoose has a mutually
for the fossa, the claws are not retractable,
beneficial relationship with two bird species,
meaning they cannot pull them back into the
the red-billed hornbill and the eastern
paw. The small head and face taper to a
yellow-billed hornbill. In the scrub country of
pointed muzzle, sometimes with a straight
eastern Kenya, the mongoose and either of
bridge from crown to the end of the snout,
the hornbill species forage together, eating
or there may be a distinct, sloped forehead
the same prey, the hornbills keeping their
where the head and muzzle join. The ears are
senses alert for the presence of threat
short and rounded.
animals, especially birds of prey. The Herpestids carry glands for scent-marking
companionship allows the mongooses to in their cheeks and near their anuses. Some
forage in peace, while the birds benefit from species can shoot out a foul-smelling fluid
creatures flushed out by the mongooses. from the anal glands.
The hornbills sound off with warning calls
when a predator approaches, even warning GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
at the sight of predators of mongooses that Mongooses live in mainland Africa, south-
are not enemies of hornbills. ern Europe, Madagascar, southern Asia in-
cluding India, the Malay Peninsula as far as
and including Sumatra, Borneo and Java; also
the islands of Hainan and Taiwan.
HABITAT
Mongooses live in various types of forest, including humid
tropical rainforest, also dry grasslands and near-desert. They
shelter in self-made burrows in the ground or in termite
mounds, or in natural shelters like hollow logs and spaces
within rock piles.
DIET
Mongoose species have generalized, mainly carnivorous diets,
helping themselves to insects, crabs, millipedes, earthworms, rep-
tiles, amphibians, mammals, birds, birds’ eggs, fruits, and roots.
Before eating toads or caterpillars, a mongoose will roll them
back and forth on the ground to wipe off skin poisons of toads
and irritating hairs of caterpillars. Among mongoose species that

eat bird eggs, a mongoose will break open an individual egg by
holding it in its forepaws and pitching it backward between its
hindlimbs and into a rock, or by standing up on its hind legs
and dropping the egg. Several species eat fruit as supplements to
a mainly meat diet. Some species swim in ponds and streams,
searching for fish and other aquatic animals.
An individual mongoose baits a snake by skillfully avoiding
and dodging the reptile’s lunges until it tires and slows down
in its actions, enabling the mongoose to dart in and seize the
snake behind its head, killing it by biting, then eating the snake
at leisure. Mongooses are not immune to the venom, so that a
mongoose-on-snake tussle is always dangerous and can end in
death for either party.

Mongooses are energetic, aggressive, and playful. They may
hunt and forage alone or in groups. Some species are noctur-
nal, active at night, others are diurnal, active during the day.
Diurnal species often start their days by sunning, outstretched
on rocks or the ground near their shelters, and exercising to
limber themselves up for a day of foraging.
Mongooses live in colonies of up to fifty individuals. These
may live in burrow networks or just build temporary shelters
for themselves during migratory foraging.
Some mongoose species breed seasonally, others breed
throughout the year, females giving birth two or three times
annually. Gestation periods range from forty-two to eighty-four
days. There are one to four young per litter. Captive Egyptian
mongooses have lived for over twenty years.
MONGOOSES AND PEOPLE

Mongooses and humanity share intertwined histories. The
animals have been the source of innumerable folk tales in their
native lands, e.g., “Rikki-tikki-tavi,” the famous short story by
British writer Rudyard Kipling, based on native legends of In-
dia. Mongooses have been praised for destroying pests and con-
demned for preying on non-pests, especially domestic poultry.
From ancient times until the present, mongooses have been
introduced by humanity to mainlands and islands over much
of the world, in attempts to keep down problem populations
of rats and snakes: Italy, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, many of
the Caribbean islands, and the islands of Hawaii and Fiji. Since

mongooses are so highly adaptable, they soon outdo the orig-
inal problem they were introduced to control by becoming pests
themselves, preying on harmless and beneficial local bird and
mammal species, and raiding poultry. A number of countries
that have learned the lesson the hard way and now outlaw the
possession or importation of mongooses.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN), includes on its Red
List of Threatened Species, four mongoose species considered
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, and five Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction. Three Vulnerable and three
Endangered species are in Madagascar. The main threats to mon-
goose species are habitat destruction, and, on Madagascar, habi-
tat loss plus competition and predation by introduced predators
like dogs and cats. Nevertheless, family Herpestidae, overall, is
flourishing.

Ring-tailed mongoose (Galidia elegans)
SPECIES
RING-TAILED MONGOOSE ACCOUNTS
Galidia elegans
Physical characteristics: In appearance, the ring-tailed mongoose

more or less follows the general mongoose body plan, while being a
particularly beautiful and striking species, with red-brown to dark
brown body fur and a long, bushy tail striped alternately with broad,
red-brown and black rings. The underside is very dark to black. The
head-and-body length of an adult Malagasy ring-tailed mongoose runs
12.5 to 14 inches (32 to 36 centimeters), tail length, 10.5 to 12.5
inches (27 to 32 centimeters), and body weight of 1.5 to 2.2 pounds
(0.7 to 1 kilograms).
Geographic range: This mongoose lives in eastern and western

Madagascar.

Ring-tailed mongooses feed on Habitat: The ring-tailed mongoose inhabits humid tropical rainfor-
small mammals, birds, birds’
est along Madagascar’s east and northwestern coasts, and drier, sea-
eggs, frogs, fish, reptiles,
insects, and fruits. (Photograph sonal forest along much of the west coast.
by Harald Schütz. Reproduced
by permission.) Diet: Ring-tailed mongooses feed on small mammals, birds, birds’
eggs, frogs, fish, reptiles, insects, and fruits. They also prey on two
small primate species native to Madagascar, the greater dwarf lemur,
and the brown mouse lemur.
Behavior and reproduction: Ring-tailed mongooses mate from

April to November, and a single young is born from July to Febru-
ary. The gestation period runs seventy-nine to ninety-two days. The
young is sexually mature at two years of age. A captive ring-tailed
mongoose lived for over thirteen years.
Malagasy ring-tailed mongooses forage and hunt during daylight.
They can swim and climb trees easily but do most foraging on the
ground. These mongooses forage and hunt in groups of up to five,
each group made up of a mated pair and offspring. As they wander,
the mongooses mark trees and rocks of their territory with anal scent
glands. They shelter in burrows during nights.

The ring-tailed mongoose and people: This animal seems to have
little fear of humanity other than natural caution, and will investigate
native villages and biological research camps, stealing whatever hu-
man garbage or food they can lay hands on. They may add domestic
poultry to their diets, resulting in people hunting and harrassing them.
Conservation status: This mongoose is listed as Vulnerable by the

IUCN. Some naturalists, after very recent surveys of the species in
Madagascar, consider it of little or no conservation concern because
of its high numbers and adaptability. ■

Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)
FOSSA
Cryptoprocta ferox
Physical characteristics: Its name derived from a native Malagasy

word, and pronounced “foosh,” this puzzling animal is as worthy of
biodiversity poster status as the more famous lemurs of Madagascar.
The fossa is the largest of all mongoose species, with an adult head-
and-body length of 24 to 31.5 inches (61 to 80 centimeters), a tail as
long as the head and body, and an adult weight of eleven to twenty
pounds (5 to 10 kilograms). A fossa looks like a combination of dog,
cat, and mongoose, and has retractable claws, like a cat’s, something
not seen in other mongoose species. If approaching head-on, a fossa
gives the impression of a scaled-down puma, but a side view shows
the snout to be longer than that of the true cats, but shorter and wider
than the norm among mongoose species. The gray-brown nostril pad

Fossas are the largest native
predator of Madagascar.
(Photograph by Harald Schütz.
is furless and prominent, like a dog’s. The overall appearance and be-
havior suggests a cat rather than a dog.
The body is long and sleek and the legs are short but powerful, as
in a mongoose. The coat color is rich reddish-brown, the undersides
lighter but stained with an orange secretion from skin glands. This
secretion is more abundant in males than in females. There are five
padded digits on each of the four feet. Though its movements are of-
ten considered plantigrade, meaning that the entire foot, from the
toetips to the back of the heel, touch the ground when walking, fos-
sas have also been seen to walk digitigrade, that is, only on the toetips.
The large, prominent eyes are brown and lustrous, and have pupils
that can retract to vertical slits, as in cats. The ears are large, promi-
nent, and narrower than in typical mongoose species.
The fossa was originally classified as a direct descendant, little
changed, of the ancestor species that gave rise to cats (Felidae) and

dogs (Canidae). That classification arose from both to the appearance
of the fossa and to the notion that Madagascar was a natural refuge
for primitive mammal species driven to extinction elsewhere by more
advanced species. At the same time, the fossa is the living creature
closest in form to the dog-cat ancestor. Its classification is still un-
certain. Genetic comparison studies strongly support the fossa and
the other Malgasy mammal carnivores as being descendants, having
changed forms over the ages through adaptive evolution, of a single
colonizing species of mongoose. The founder species must have
floated from Africa to Madagascar twenty to thirty million years ago.
The fossa is the end result of adaptive evolution by which a mon-
goose, over countless generations, became something like a cat. At
the same time, the fossa keeps a number of mongoose-like features.
Scientists have found remains of a larger species related to the fossa,
since named Cryptoprocta spelea.
Geographic range: Fossas live in all of the forested areas of Mada-

gascar.
Habitat: Fossas live in the humid tropical rainforests of Madagas-

car’s east coast and the drier forests along its western coast.
Diet: The fossa is carnivorous and able to deal with nearly all sorts
of small to large prey animals on Madagascar, including the larger
lemur species, which can be bigger than house cats. Fossas also prey
upon snakes, tenrecs (native insectivorous mammals of Madagascar),
and rodents, most often introduced rats. Fossas only rarely feed on
insects and other invertebrates.
Behavior and reproduction: Fossas hunt at any time of night or

day. They can swim and are adept at climbing and jumping among
trees while chasing prey. The animals can turn their ankles so that
their hindfeet face rearward, a unique adaptation that aids them in
keeping a grip on treetrunks. The long tail acts as a balance while the
fossa climbs or jumps between trees. Fossas hunt alone, or in family
groups made up of a mother and her young.
There is a single annual mating season from October into Decem-
ber. Gestation lasts six to seven weeks. Litters number two to four
young. Fossa young are very cute and endearing. They have big ears
and eyes, their faces suggest a combination of domestic kitten, puppy,
and lion cub, and they stare out at the world with the intent, slightly
bewildered stare of young domestic kittens.
Mating is a complex affair, resembling that of cats. A female in heat
stations herself in a tree, while several males, following her scent, gather

around the tree, vocalizing and fighting among themselves. Then, one
at a time, the males climb the tree and are accepted or rejected by the
female. If she accepts a male, she will usually walk farther out on a
branch but allow the male to mount her from behind, his forepaws rest-
ing on her neck, while he gently grips the female’s nape in his jaws. A
single mating can last for several hours, and the female will mate with
several of the gathered males.
Only the mother raises the young, in a tree hollow or a hollowed-
out termite nest. The young of both sexes reach sexual maturity at
four years. A most interesting phenomenon among female fossa young
is that they pass through a brief pseudo-masculine stage in their sec-
ond year, during times of becoming less dependent on the mother
and reaching sexual maturity. Their genitals come to resemble those
of an adult male, they leave ano-genital scent markings on objects, as
do adult males (adult females do not, except in mating season), and
the female young secrete more of the fur-staining orange fluid than
do adult females. Why this occurs is unanswered, and the young
females lose the masculine characteristics as they approach sexual
maturity.
Fossas have been known to live for twenty years in captivity.
Fossas and people: The fossa has not fared well with humans in
Madagascar. Fossas raid chicken coops, leaving resentment behind,
and an aura of superstitious fear surrounds them.
Conservation status: The fossa is listed as Endangered by the IUCN.

Although widespread throughout Madagascar, the fossa’s population
density and total population are low, making it especially vulnerable
to deforestation, which is ongoing and rampant in Madagascar. ■
Books:
Estes, R. The Behavior Guide to African Mammals. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press, Ltd., 1991.
Garbutt, N. Mammals of Madagascar. New Haven, CT.: Yale University
Press, 1991.
Goodman, Steven M., and Jonathan P. Benstead, eds. The Natural His-
tory of Madagascar. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press,
2003.
Jolly, Alison. A World Like Our Own: Man and Nature in Madagascar.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1980.

Periodicals:
Creel, S., Nancy Creel, David E. Wildt, and Steven L. Monfort. “Behav-
ioural and Endocrine Mechanisms of Reproductive Suppression in
Serengeti Dwarf Mongooses.” Animal Behaviour no. 43 (1992):
231–245.
Creel, S. R., “Inclusive Fitness and Reproductive Strategies in Dwarf
Mongooses.” Behavioral Ecology no. 5 (1994): 339–348.
Dollar, Luke, “Assessing IUCN Classifications of Poorly-Known Species:
Madagascar’s Carnivores as a Case Study.” Small Carnivore Conserva-
tion, the Newsletter and Journal of the IUCN/SSC Mustelid, Viverrid and
Procyonid Specialist Group no. 22 (2000): 17–20.
Hawkins, C. E., J. F. Dallas, P. A. Fowler, R. Woodroffe, and P. A. Racey.
“Transient Masculinization in the Fossa, Cryptoprocta ferox (Carnivora,
Viverridae).” Biology of Reproduction 66, no. 3 (March 2002): 610–615.
Rasa, O. A. E., “Behavioural Parameters of Vigilance in the Dwarf Mon-
goose: Social Acquisition of a Sex-Biased Role.” Behaviour no. 110
(1989): 125–143
Rood, J. P., “Dwarf Mongoose Helpers at the Den.” Zeitschrift fur
Tierpsychologie no. 48 (1978): 277–287
Rood, J. P., “Mating Relationships and Breeding Suppression in the Dwarf
Mongoose.” Animal Behavior no. 28 (1980): 143–150.
Yoder, Anne D., et al. “Single Origin of Malagasy Carnivora from an
African Ancestor.” Nature 421 (2003): 734–737.
Web sites:
“Carnivores of Madagascar.” Earthwatch. http://www.earthwatch.org/
expeditions/dollar/meetthescientists.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).

AARDWOLF AND HYENAS
Hyaenidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Hyaenidae
The spotted hyena (hi-EE-nah) is the largest of three species class
that include the striped and brown hyenas. Hyenas weigh about
subclass
57 to 190 pounds (26 to 86 kilograms). The aardwolf (ARD-
wolf), included in the Hyaenidae family, weighs about 20 to 30 order
pounds (9 to 14 kilograms). All hyaenids (members of the monotypic order
Hyaenidae family), except the spotted hyena, have long, shaggy
coats. A mane of hair down the back can be erected to make suborder
the animals look larger. All have a bushy tail and a sloping ▲ family
back. Anal gland secretions are used for marking territories.
Spotted hyena females have genitals resembling those of males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hyenas and aardwolves are found in the Middle East (in-
cluding Turkey, Israel, and Saudi Arabia), Pakistan, India, and
in Africa south of the Sahara Desert (except the rainforests of
The Democratic Republic of the Congo).
HABITAT
Hyenas and aardwolves occupy grasslands, bush country (wild,
uncultivated land), and open woodlands. They dig burrows (holes)
underground or live in burrows abandoned by other animals.
DIET
The striped and brown hyenas are mainly scavengers, feeding
off the leftover kills of other animals. They also eat hares (rela-
tives of rabbits), rodents, reptiles, vegetables, and fruits. Brown
hyenas along the Namib Desert eat South African fur seal pups
Aardwolf and Hyenas 649

and other sea organisms. The spotted hyena
mostly hunts its own prey, such as gazelles,
antelopes, wildebeests, and zebras. Aard-
wolves feed almost exclusively on termites.

PULLING RANK Spotted and brown hyenas live in groups
called clans, dominated by a female. Striped
Among spotted hyenas, rank is passed on
hyenas are solitary, but small family groups
by mothers to their female offspring. In the
may share a den. Females of spotted and
communal den, a dominant female’s cub
brown hyenas stay with the clan for life. Male
learns from her mother which clan members
spotted hyenas are driven from the clan upon
she can push around. A dominant female
puberty, while male brown hyenas may
will attack a subordinate female, which choose to stay with the clan or leave. Hyenas
encourages her offspring to do the same. scent mark territories by depositing anal se-
After repeated aggressive displays by her cretions on grass stalks. Aardwolves are soli-
mother, the cub starts bullying the offspring tary, although, like hyenas, they communicate
of subordinate females. The dominant through scent marking. Hyaenids are active at
female participates in the bullying. night or at dawn and dusk.
Spotted and striped hyenas breed year
round, while brown hyenas are seasonal breed-
ers. Litter size varies, with one to two cubs for the spotted hyena,
up to four for the striped hyena, and as many as six for the brown
hyena. Brown and striped hyenas wean their young at about one
year, while the spotted hyena nurses for up to a year and a half.
Aardwolves may be seasonal or nonseasonal breeders, giving birth
to two to four cubs, who leave home by age one.
HYAENIDS AND PEOPLE
Some African cultures believe hyenas possess magical pow-
ers. Others consider hyenas as pests for preying on domestic
livestock. The brown hyena is a popular exhibit animal in zoos.
In Africa, garbage is left out for the spotted and striped hyenas
to eat. Aardwolves are useful to humans for eating termites.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the brown and
striped hyenas as not currently threatened, but may become
threatened because of, among other things, accidental killing
from the poison-spraying of pests. The spotted hyena also may
become threatened because of killing by humans and habitat
loss or degradation as a result of land clearing for agriculture
and livestock. The aardwolf is not a threatened species.

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)
SPECIES
SPOTTED HYENA ACCOUNTS
Crocuta crocuta
Physical characteristics: Spotted hyenas range in color from sandy

to brown, with black or dark brown spots. The short, bushy tail is
black. The sloping back, caused by front legs that are longer than the
hind legs, allows for long-distance pursuit of prey. The massive jaws
can crush bones, teeth, hooves, and horns. The neck and back are
covered with a short mane of hair that can be raised to make the
hyena seem larger.
Females are larger than males. In southern Africa, females weigh
up to 190 pounds (85 kilograms) and males up to 135 pounds (60
kilograms). Eastern African hyenas are lighter, with females weigh-
ing about 125 pounds (55 kilograms) and males about 110 pounds
(49 kilograms). The female’s genital organ resembles that of the male

Spotted hyenas hunt animals because of overproduction of testosterone, the male hormone re-
that are much larger than they
sponsible for the development of the penis. The female mates and
are, such as antelopes, zebras,
and young giraffes. (Norman O. gives birth through her pseudopenis (SUE-doh-pee-nis).
Reproduced by permission.) Geographic range: Spotted hyenas are found in Africa in countries
such as Chad, Sudan, Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
Habitat: Spotted hyenas prefer grasslands inhabited by their her-

bivorous (plant-eating) prey, such as antelopes and wildebeests. They
also occupy woodlands and semi-deserts.
Diet: Spotted hyenas mostly hunt rather than scavenge food. They
prey on animals several times their size, including gazelles, antelopes,
wildebeests, and zebras. They also eat the young of giraffes, hippota-
muses, and rhinoceroses, as well as reptiles, domestic livestock, and
human garbage. They tear pieces of flesh from prey, killing it in a few
minutes. They eat very fast, consuming flesh, skin, teeth, bones,
horns, and even hooves. A hyena can eat 33 pounds (15 kilograms)
of meat per feeding, throwing up indigestible food as pellets.
Behavior and reproduction: Hyenas live in clans of as many as eighty

members, ruled by a dominant female. Daughters inherit their moth-
ers’ status. Males are submissive to all females and to the dominant fe-
male’s offspring. Young males are expelled from their homes between
ages two to four. They join other clans, starting at the lowest rank. Sons
of dominant females may be allowed to stay longer and are more likely

to become dominant males in the clan they join. Female members
occupy the same territory, defending it against intruders, sometimes to
the death.
Spotted hyenas are either nocturnal (active at night) or crepuscular
(active at dusk and dawn). They hunt alone, although they will join
forces to catch large prey. They chase down their prey, running 25 to
31 miles (40 to 50 kilometers) per hour and covering a distance of up
to 3 miles (5 kilometers). They target young, old, and sick animals.
The spotted hyena is also called the “laughing hyena” because of its
high, cackling laugh. It laughs when it is being chased or attacked or
to show submission. Hyenas whoop to call clan members to defend ter-
ritory or to hunt. Greetings involve sniffing each other’s genital areas.
They scent-mark territories with anal secretions and feces.
Adults get together only to mate, which may be at any time of the
year. A long pregnancy (up to four months) results in well-developed
cubs, usually one or two, born with teeth and able to walk. Cubs are
kept in a small den inaccessible to adults and predators. When female
cubs come out to nurse, they compete for their mother’s milk, some-
times resulting in the death of the sibling who cannot nurse. Within
the den, cubs may kill littermates during fights for dominance. After
two to four weeks, the mother takes her young to a communal den,
where cubs of all ages are raised together. Mothers do not nurse each
other’s young. Cubs learn to recognize clan members and establish
social rankings. They are weaned from their mothers’ milk at about
fourteen to eighteen months. Males do not share in parenting.
Spotted hyenas and people: Some African cultures believe hyenas

possess magical powers. Humans kill hyenas for preying on domes-
tic livestock.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the spotted hyena as Lower

Risk/Conservation Dependent (could become threatened) due to
killing by humans and habitat loss or degradation as a result of land
clearing for agriculture and livestock. ■

Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus)
AARDWOLF
Proteles cristatus
Physical characteristics: The aardwolf is yellowish white to reddish

brown, with several black stripes along the body and legs. A dark mane
running from the back of the head down to the tail can be erected to
make the aardwolf seem bigger. A sloping back results from hind legs
that are longer than the forelegs. The teeth are very small and widely
spaced. The spatula-shaped tongue and sticky saliva are adapted for lick-
ing up termites. Sharp canine teeth are designed for fighting enemies.
Both sexes are about the same size, about 20 pounds (9 kilograms) in
southern Africa and up to 30 pounds (14 kilograms) in East Africa.
Geographic range: Aardwolves are found in Africa, including South

Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Kenya, and Somalia.

Habitat: Aardwolves prefer grassland, open
country, and rocky areas, where they live in bur-
rows they have dug up or taken from aardvarks or
springhares.
Diet: Aardwolves feed primarily on two varieties

of termites that forage on the ground surface. They
can eat about 200,000 termites a night. They also
eat other insects, small birds, eggs, mice, and car-
rion (dead or decaying animal flesh).
Behavior and reproduction: Aardwolves are

solitary, feeding at night when their favorite ter-
mites emerge. When these termites become inac-
tive in winter, aardwolves switch to another
termite species that are active in the late afternoon.
When scared or threatened, aardwolves roar and
growl. They scent mark territories by depositing
anal secretions on grasses. Aardwolves within the
same territory erect their back hair until they rec-
ognize each other. Mothers and young sniff each
other’s noses to establish identity. Aardwolves gen-
erally mate with just one partner, although a
dominant male may mate with the partner of a sub-
ordinate male. The litter consists of two to four
cubs. Males babysit the young, guarding the den against predators Aardwolves can eat 200,000
when the mothers feed. The young leave home by one year of age. termites during one night of
feeding. (© Terry Whittaker/
Aardwolves and people: Aardwolves may be hunted as a food Corbis. Reproduced by
source. They sometimes are poisoned when pesticides are sprayed to permission.)
control locusts in some areas.
Conservation status: Aardwolves are not a threatened species. ■
Books:
Angier, Natalie. “Hyenas’ Hormone Flow Puts Females in Charge.” In The
Science Times Book of Mammals. New York: The Lyons Press, 1999.
Ewer, R. F. The Carnivores. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing Associates,
1998.

Mills, Gus, Heribert Hofer, and IUCN/SSC Hyaena Specialist Group. Sta-
tus Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Hyaenas. Gland, Switzerland,
and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN, 1998.
Morgan, Sally. Hyenas. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers,
2003.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Striped and Brown Hyenas.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
carnivora/carnivora.hyaenidae.hyaena.html (accessed on June 21,
2004).
Periodicals:
Holekamp, Kay E, and Laura Smale. “Behavioral Development in the
Spotted Hyena.” BioScience (December 1998): 997–1005.
Koehler, C. E., and P. R. K. Richardson. “Proteles cristatus.” Mammalian
Species 363 (October 23, 1990): 1–6.
Pickrell, John. “Rebranding the Hyena.” Science News (April 27, 2002):
267–269.
Rieger, Ingo. “Hyaena hyaena.” Mammalian Species 150 (May 8,
1981): 1–5.
Web sites:
“Spotted Hyena.” Woodland Park Zoo Animal Fact Sheets.
http://www.zoo.org/educate/fact_sheets/savana/hyena.htm (accessed
on June 21, 2004).

CATS
Felidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Felidae
Cats range in color from pale gray to brown, many with class
rosettes, spots, and stripes that help them blend in with their
subclass
natural surroundings. The head is rounded, with a short snout.
Ears are rounded or pointed. Sensitive whiskers are useful for order
night movements and for inflicting the fatal bite on a prey’s monotypic order
body. Tiny, rough projections on the tongue are used to scrape
meat off bones. Feet are padded for quiet stalking of prey. Claws suborder
in most species are retractable, or can be pulled back into a ▲ family
sheath of skin, to keep the nails sharp for climbing trees and
clasping prey. The cat’s ability to land on its feet from a fall is
due to a flexible spine that can turn the body around.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Cats naturally occur in most areas of the world, except
Australia, the polar regions, and some oceanic islands.
HABITAT
Cats inhabit all types of habitats with the exception of tun-
dra and polar ice. Most species occupy more than one type of
habitat.
DIET
Large cats prey on ungulates (hoofed animals) such as deer,
zebras, and wildebeests, but also eat other meat. Small cats eat
rabbits, hares, rodents, snakes, frogs, fish, and birds. Many con-
sume carrion (dead and decaying flesh).
Cats 657
Most cats are solitary, except when mat-
ing and raising young. Only lions form so-
cial groups. Cats defend territories but avoid
physical confrontations through different
means of communication. They scrape tree
IS IT REALLY TEAMWORK? trunks and scent-mark with urine and feces.
Contrary to popular opinion, lions who They use sounds, including roars, meows,
hunt together do not necessarily team up purrs, hisses, and growls. They also use body
to catch a prey animal. If members of the language. Most hunt at night, but may show
pride see that a lone member might be able increased activity at dawn and dusk. Many
to overcome the prey, they simply watch are excellent climbers, and some are good
and wait to share the food. Only when the swimmers. Males and females have several
members realize that a large prey cannot mating partners, producing an average of two
be caught unassisted would they risk injury to four kittens per litter. The young stay with
and jump in to help. their mother for up to eighteen months,
longer for big cats.
CATS AND PEOPLE

The African wild cat is considered the ancestor of domestic
cats. Experts believe ancient Egyptians tamed the cat to catch
rodents. Cats are prized for their fur and as trophies. Some are
popular exhibit animals in zoos. Large cats prey on humans
and livestock.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The United States classifies the Florida panther and the east-
ern puma as Endangered. The World Conservation Union
(IUCN) lists the Iberian lynx as Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; four species
as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; twelve
species as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and eight
species as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
become so.

Lion (Panthera leo)
SPECIES
LION ACCOUNTS
Panthera leo
Physical characteristics: Lions have a short orange-brown coat

tinged with gold. Males have manes, used for gender recognition at
distances and protection during fights. A dark clump of fur covers
the tail tip. Enormous shoulders and muscular legs are used to tackle
large prey. Powerful jaws grasp prey and cut through tough skin. Li-
ons measure 62 to 100 inches (160 to 250 centimeters), and another
24 to 40 inches (60 to 100 centimeters) for the tail. They weigh 270
to 570 pounds (120 to 260 kilograms).
Geographic range: Lions occur in countries south of the Saharan

Desert, including Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.
The Asiatic lion lives in western India.
Habitat: Lions prefer a mixture of thick bush, scrub, and grass that
afford cover for stalking and ambushing prey. They also live in open
woodlands and deserts.
Cats 659
Female lions may give birth to Diet: Lions prey on buffalo, zebra, and wildebeest. They also eat ro-
one to six cubs at a time.
dents, lizards, birds, and grass. An adult male eats as much as 110
Mothers help to nurse and
raise each other’s cubs. (Joe pounds (50 kilograms) per feeding, but may fast (go without food)
McDonald/Bruce Coleman Inc. for several days.
Behavior and reproduction: Lions live in groups called prides,

consisting of two to eighteen related females, their cubs, and one to
seven unrelated males. Every two or three years, adult male groups
called coalitions try to take over prides to mate with the females.
If the newcomers win, they attempt to kill the resident cubs in
order to produce their own. Mothers band together to defend their
young.
Mothers who lose their young become receptive to mating, pair-
ing off with several partners, and giving birth to one to six cubs. Moth-
ers share nursing and cub rearing. Between ages two to four, young
males are driven from the pride by dominant males or the new coali-
tion. Females stay with the pride for life, doing most of the hunting
at night. Males advertise territorial boundaries through urine mark-
ings and group roars.

Lions and people: Many African cultures believe the lion’s body
parts have magical and healing powers. Lions may be killed as threats
to humans and livestock.
Conservation status: The lion is listed as Vulnerable and the Asi-

atic lion as Critically Endangered due to habitat and prey base (the
animals lions hunt for food) loss, as well as killings by humans. ■
Cats 661
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
TIGER
Panthera tigris
Physical characteristics: The largest of cats, tigers range in color

from pale yellow to reddish ochre (brownish yellow). Each tiger has
a black stripe pattern that is uniquely its own. In the wild, tigers blend
in with the natural background, especially against tall grasses, which
break up their body shape. Males have a ruff of hair around the face.
Ears are black with a white circle in the middle. The body length is
75 to 150 inches (190 to 310 centimeters). The tail measures 28 to
40 inches (70 to 100 centimeters). Tigers weigh 140 to 670 pounds
Geographic range: Tigers are found in Bangladesh, China, India,

Myanmar, Sumatra, and Russia.

Female tigers raise their cubs
for about two years. After that,
female cubs usually stay near
their mother’s home range, but
male cubs may travel far away
to establish their territories.
(© Tom Brakefield/Corbis.
Habitat: Tigers inhabit coniferous and deciduous forests that pro-

vide prey and cover. They also inhabit jungle grasslands and mangrove
swamps. They need water for drinking and swimming.
Diet: Tigers prey on deer, wild pigs, wild cattle, and occasionally
young elephants and rhinoceroses, birds, reptiles, and fish. An adult
eats up to 90 pounds (40 kilograms) per feeding. It hides surplus kill
to eat later.
Behavior and reproduction: Tigers are solitary, hunting at night.

Good swimmers, they will pursue an animal into the water. They roar
to advertise ownership of a territory. They further communicate
through scratches on trees and scent marks with urine, feces, and anal
and cheek secretions.
A male and female pair off briefly, producing an average of two to
three cubs. The mother rears the young for about two years. Young
females stay close to their mother’s home range, but young males may
travel far to secure their own territories. When a male takes over an-
other’s territory, he kills the cubs because a tigress will not mate while
caring for her young.
Tigers and people: Tigers represent either good or bad spirits in

some religions. They are illegally hunted for their fur. Body parts are
Cats 663
used by some Asian cultures for medicine. They are killed for at-
tacking humans and livestock.
Conservation status: The tiger is listed as Endangered due to

habitat loss, illegal hunting for fur and traditional medicine, and
declining prey. ■

Puma (Puma concolor)
PUMA
Puma concolor
Physical characteristics: The puma, also known as cougar,

panther, or mountain lion, has coloration ranging from silvery gray
to reddish brown. Having the longest hind legs of all cats, the puma
can jump 18 feet (5.5 meters) up a tree. Pumas measure 41 to
77 inches (105 to 196 centimeters), with another 26 to 31 inches
Cats 665
A puma can take down a large (67 to 78 centimeters) for the tail. They weigh about 75 to 264 pounds
animal by breaking the animal’s (34 to 120 kilograms).
neck with its powerful jaws.
(© Charles Krebs/Corbis.
Reproduced by permission.) Geographic range: Pumas are found in the United States, Canada,
Mexico, South America (including Argentina, Bolivia, and Venezuela),
and Central America (including Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Panama).
Habitat: Pumas prefer forested areas with cover for hunting and
resting. They are adaptable, also occupying mountain areas, swamp-
land, and grassland. They thrive in the desert, getting moisture from
the flesh of prey.
Diet: Pumas feed on deer and other large ungulates, large rodents,
rabbits, raccoons, and even bats, grasshoppers, and occasionally do-
mestic livestock. A puma eats 20 to 30 pounds (9.1 to 13.6 kilograms)
of meat per feeding, burying extra kill and returning later to feed.
Behavior and reproduction: Pumas are solitary animals, mostly

hunting at night. They mark territorial boundaries with urine, feces,
and scrapes on tree trunks. Scent marks are also used for mating

signals. Pumas cannot roar but communicate through squeaks, purrs,
growls, and hisses. Both sexes have several partners, mating through-
out the year. Females give birth every other year to one to six kit-
tens, making the young leave her territory after about two years.
Pumas and people: Human expansion into puma habitat has re-
sulted in close encounters with the animals. Pumas in the suburbs
and cities are likely to be killed.
Conservation status: The United States classifies the Florida pan-

ther and the eastern puma as Endangered due to habitat loss to for-
est clearance, prey reduction, and human expansion. The IUCN lists
the puma as Near Threatened. ■
Cats 667
Snow leopard (Uncia uncia)
SNOW LEOPARD
Uncia uncia
Physical characteristics: Snow leopards are light gray with black-

brown rosettes and spots and sides tinged with yellow. This leopard
measures 39 to 51 inches (99 to 130 centimeters). The furry tail,
nearly as long as the body, acts as a warm wrap during sleep or rest
and provides balance during leaps. An enlarged nasal cavity warms
cold air entering the body. Long hind legs are adapted for jumping
up to 45 feet (14 meters), while wide, furred paws are designed for
walking on snow. Snow leopards weigh 77 to 120 pounds (35 to
55 kilograms).
Geographic range: Snow leopards occur in Afghanistan, Bhutan,

China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan,
Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.

Snow leopards live in high
mountain regions, preferring
areas near cliffs and ridges.
(Cincinnati Zoo. Reproduced
by permission.)
Habitat: Snow leopards live in high mountain regions, preferring

steep, broken areas near cliffs and ridges. They also inhabit arid or
semi-arid shrubland.
Diet: Snow leopards feed mainly on blue sheep and ibex, a wild
goat. They also eat small animals, including marmots, hares, and game
birds. They may take livestock, including young yaks, sheep, goats,
and horses. They occasionally eat plants.
Behavior and reproduction: Snow leopards are generally active at

dawn and dusk. They are solitary but communicate by scent mark-
ing with urine, feces, and scratches on the ground and tree trunks.
They cannot roar but make sounds, including screams, hisses, and
mews. Leopards pair off only to mate, averaging two to three cubs.
The cubs stay with their mother for about two years.
Snow leopards and people: Snow leopards’ bones and body parts
have replaced tiger parts in traditional Asian medicine. Illegal hunt-
ing for fur continues in some Asian countries. Snow leopards are also
killed for preying on domestic livestock.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the snow leopard as Endan-

gered due to several factors: loss of prey, killing by herders, poach-
ing, and habitat loss and fragmentation due to human activities,
especially the raising of livestock. ■
Cats 669
Bobcat (Lynx rufus)
BOBCAT
Lynx rufus
Physical characteristics: Bobcats have a light gray to reddish

brown coat covered with black spots and bars. The tip of the “bobbed,”
or short, tail is black on the upper side. The face is framed in bushy
hair. Black ears with a white center have long hairs inside that are
very sensitive to sound. A shoulder height of 18 to 23 inches (46 to
58 centimeters), thick fur, and large ears give the appearance of a
larger size. Bobcats measure 24 to 42 inches (62 to 106 centimeters)
in length, and the tail is another 5 to 8 inches (13 to 20 centimeters).
It weighs 13 to 37 pounds (6 to 17 kilograms).
Geographic range: Bobcats are found in the United States, Canada,

and Mexico.
Habitat: Bobcats inhabit coniferous forests, mixed coniferous and

deciduous forests, swamps, and desert scrub. They prefer thick

understory (short vegetation under taller trees) for the cover provided Bobcats eat mainly hares and
rabbits, but also prey on deer,
by the dappled shade of tall trees.
which they can take when the
deer are resting. (Erwin and
Diet: Bobcats mainly eat rabbits and hares. They also feed on ro- Peggy Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc.
dents, large birds, snakes, fruits, and carrion. They prey on deer, Reproduced by permission.)
which are taken when resting.
Behavior and reproduction: Bobcats are active at all hours, but most
active at dawn and dusk. They are good climbers and may rest in trees.
They are also excellent swimmers. Bobcats scent mark territorial
boundaries with urine and feces. They are solitary, except when mat-
ing and raising young. Males have several partners. An average litter
consists of two to three kittens, which stay with their mother for nine
to ten months. Young females stay close to their mothers’ home ranges,
while young males may travel far to establish their own territories.
Bobcats and people: In the 1960s and 1970s, bobcat furs were in
high demand due to restrictions in the trade of other cat furs. De-
mand for the furs continues, and research regarding the harvest of
bobcat fur continues as well.
Cats 671
Conservation status: The bobcat is not a threatened species. ■
Books:
Aaseng, Nathan. The Cougar. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, Inc., 2001.
Alderton, David. Wild Cats of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1993.
Lumpkin, Susan. Small Cats. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1993.
Malaspina, Ann. The Jaguar. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books, Inc., 2001.
Schlaepfer, Gloria G. Cheetahs. New York: Benchmark Books, 2002.
Seidensticker, John. Tigers. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, Inc., 1996.
Periodicals:
Newman, Cathy. “Nature’s Masterwork: Cats.” National Geographic
(June 1997): 54–76.
Packer, Craig, and Anne E. Pusey. “Divided We Fall: Cooperation among
Lions.” Scientific American (May 1997): 52–59.
Web sites:
“All About Tigers.” The Tiger Information Center. http://www.5tigers.org/
Directory/allabouttigers.htm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Cheetahs in a Hot Spot.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) Nature.
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/cheetahs/index.html (accessed on
June 23, 2004).
“Great Cats.” Smithsonian National Zoological Park. http://nationalzoo.
si.edu/Animals/GreatCats/catfacts.cfm (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Species Accounts.” IUCN Species Survival Commission: Cat Specialist
Group. http://lynx.uio.no/catfolk/sp-accts.htm (accessed on June 23,
2004).

EARED SEALS, FUR SEALS,
AND SEA LIONS
Otariidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Otariidae
Otariids, eared seals, have streamlined, smooth, bodies that class
allow them to move easily through water. A layer of blubber,
subclass
or fat, provides insulation. The dog-like head has small exter-
nal flaps for ears. Long whiskers are sensors for finding food order
and alerting against predators. Flippers can be turned forward monotypic order
for walking on land. In water, the front flippers function as
oars, while the back flippers steer and provide balance. Males suborder
are two to four times larger than females. ▲ family
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Otariids haul out on land near the waters they inhabit, in-
cluding the United States, Canada, Mexico, Argentina, Chile,
Ecuador, Peru, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.
HABITAT
When breeding or molting, shedding fur, otariids gather
on rocky coastlines, sandy and gravel beaches, and caves.
They also breed in mainland areas in Africa, Argentina, and
Peru.
DIET
Otariids feed on krill, a small shrimp-like animal, fish, crus-
taceans like shrimps, crabs, and lobsters, mollusks such as
clams, mussels, squid, and octopuses, and penguins. A small
fur seal weighing 110 pounds (50 kilograms) consumes about
4 to 5 pounds (1.8 to 2.3 kilograms) of food per feeding.
Eared Seals, Fur Seals, and Sea Lions 673

Otariids are active both day and night. Ex-
pert divers, they swim to the deepest parts
of the ocean floor to forage, find food. They
breed annually, except for the Australian sea
lion that breeds every seventeen-and-a-half
ADJUSTABLE EYES months. Some species migrate far to rook-
An eared seal’s eyes are adapted for eries, breeding colonies. Females give birth
seeing in hazy seawater and bright to one pup a year.
sunlight. Underwater, the pupil, or opening
at the front of the eye, expands to let in as OTARIIDS AND PEOPLE
much light as possible. In addition, a In the nineteenth century, fur seals were
mirror-like layer behind the eyes reflects hunted for their fur, meat, and blubber. To-
light back to the retina, increasing the day fishermen consider seals as competitors
amount of light entering the eyes. Out of for fish. Seals’ body parts may be used as
the water, the pupil adjusts to the bright aphrodisiacs, believed to increase sexual
sunlight by narrowing into a tiny pinhole. desire, or ornaments. Seals may be threat-
ened by pollution caused by humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the United
States classify the Steller sea lion as Endangered, facing an ex-
tremely high risk of extinction in the wild. They are at risk due
to extensive commercial fishing of pollock, its major prey fish,
human pollution, accidental tangling in commercial fishing
gear, and hunting by humans.
The IUCN lists many otariids as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild. The Galápagos fur seal is vulner-
able due to parasites and predators. The Juan Fernández fur seal
is threatened by a limited population as a result of inbreeding.
Guadalupe fur seals are vulnerable because of excessive har-
vesting. Northern fur seals are endangered by habitat loss or
degradation due to human activities. Hooker’s sea lions are at
risk due to accidental entanglement in fishing gear and human
hunting. Finally the Galápagos sea lion is vulnerable as a result
of El Niño events, illegal hunting, and tangling in fishing gear.

Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella)
SPECIES
ANTARCTIC FUR SEAL ACCOUNTS
Arctocephalus gazella
Physical characteristics: Antarctic fur seals have a thick water-

proof underfur and an overcoat of long guard hairs. Bulls, adult males,
are dark brown or charcoal-gray. A long mane of hair protects bulls
when fighting over breeding territories. Bulls measure about 6 feet 7
inches (2 meters) long and weigh up to 440 pounds (200 kilograms).
Adult females, cows, are smaller in size, about 4 feet 5 inches (1.4
meters) long and weigh up to 110 pounds (50 kilograms). They are
gray, with cream-colored throat and chest.
Geographic range: Antarctic fur seals live in the Southern Ocean

surrounding Antarctica. They breed on the islands south of, or close
to, the Antarctic polar front. About 95 percent breed on South
Georgia in the South Atlantic Ocean.
Habitat: Antarctic fur seals live in the open seas and congregate on
land to breed, molt, and rest.

Diet: Antarctic fur seals are the only otariids that
feed mainly on krill. They sometimes consume
fish, squid, and birds.
Behavior and reproduction: Antarctic fur seals

are solitary, alone, at sea, usually foraging at night.
Adult and subadult males congregate on land to
molt. Cows may assemble in herds but do not so-
cialize. Growing seals stay at sea for several years,
only returning to their birthplaces to mate for the
first time.
In late October, bulls arrive at rookeries to claim
territories. They quarrel, sometimes biting one an-
other. Males fast, go without food, for as long as
two months while protecting their territory. In
November, cows arrive, choose a bull’s territory,
and give birth to a single pup conceived the previ-
ous year. A bull has an average of eleven to sixteen
cows in his territory. At birth, the pup vocalizes with
its mother. After nursing for a week to ten days, the
Antarctic fur seal pups stay on
land for about four months. cow mates with the territorial bull. The female then feeds at sea for up
Growing seals stay at sea for to six days. A returning mother calls out to her pup who answers back.
several years, returning only After smelling the pup to make sure it is hers, and then nurses for three
when they’re ready to mate.
(© Paul A. Souders/Corbis. or more days. The periodic foraging and nursing lasts about four months.
Reproduced by permission.) In April, all seals leave for the sea, each going its own way.
Antarctic fur seals and people: Once hunted almost to extinction

for their fur, meat, and blubber, these seals are currently protected
by international agreements and by the islands where they breed.
Conservation status: The Antarctic fur seal is not a threatened

species. ■

California sea lion (Zalophus californianus)
CALIFORNIA SEA LION

Zalophus californianus
Physical characteristics: California sea lions have a torpedo-like

body, with flippers for swimming and moving on land. Males have
brown or black fur, a bulky upper body, and a thick mane over the
shoulders. A crest, or a distinctive bump on the forehead, is topped
with blonde or light brown hair. They weigh as much as 772 pounds
(350 kilograms). Females are much lighter, weighing up to 220
pounds (100 kilograms), and are tan in color.
Geographic range: California sea lions live in the Pacific Ocean

along central Mexico to southern California. In between breeding sea-
sons, males migrate, travel, to feeding sites off Oregon, Washington,
and British Columbia, Canada.
Habitat: California sea lions breed on sandy, gravel, or rocky beaches.

California sea lions are the
fastest marine carnivore and
can swim up to 25 miles (40
kilometers) per hour. (Phillip
Colla/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Reproduced by permssion.)
Diet: California sea lions are opportunistic feeders, eating whatever

is available. They feed mainly on squid and octopuses, but also
consume fish, including anchovies, salmon, rockfish, and small
sharks. They eat at all hours of the day. They typically swallow small
prey whole in water but take bigger prey to land to shake them into
small pieces. Males prey on northern fur seal pups and small true
seals.

Behavior and reproduction: California sea lions are active the
whole day. They are the fastest marine carnivore and can swim up to
25 miles (40 kilometers) per hour. They often swim in groups, cov-
ering large distances by porpoising, leaping over water. They also rest
together on the water surface in a horizontal position called rafting.
Breeding season lasts from May through July. Bulls wait for the
pregnant cows to come ashore before establishing territories. After
giving birth to one pup, mothers nurse their young, then forage at
sea, sometimes taking the newborn with them. Three or four weeks
later, mating occurs in the water. Mothers recognize their pup by
sound and smell. A pup may nurse for a whole year at the rookery.
The males leave for the ocean soon after breeding.
California sea lions and people: California sea lions are most fa-
miliar as talented performers in marine parks and circuses. Some fish-
ermen consider them pests because they steal fish from nets. Sea lions
have been trained by the U.S. Navy to detect suspicious swimmers
and divers near military ships and ports because they have excellent
underwater directional hearing and low-light vision and are able to
make repeated deep dives. A sea lion can approach an intruder with-
out being heard. Using its flippers, it will clamp a handcuffs-like de-
vice carried in its mouth onto the person’s leg, allowing sailors to
apprehend the suspect. The U.S. Navy has normally relied on sea li-
ons to recover practice mines undersea.
Conservation status: The California sea lion is not a threatened

species. ■

Galápagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki)
GALÁPAGOS SEA LION

Zalophus wollebaeki
Physical characteristics: Male Galápagos sea lions are dark brown

to black, weigh up to 550 pounds (250 kilograms), and have a bump
on the forehead. Females are lighter, weighing as much as 176 pounds
(80 kilograms) and are tan or blonde in color.
Geographic range: Galápagos sea lions inhabit the Galápagos

Islands, a group of islands considered a province of Ecuador.
Habitat: Galápagos sea lions favor gently sloping sandy and rocky
beaches for breeding.

Galápagos sea lion pups nurse
for up to a year, or until a sibling
is born. (Tui De Roy/Bruce
permission.)
Diet: Galápagos sea lions feed on squid and fish, including sardines,
anchovies, mackerel, and rockfish in the upwelling waters, nutrient-
rich waters rising from the ocean depths, along the coasts. During El
Niño events, when fish populations either die or migrate, sea lions
dive down deeper into the ocean to feed on lantern fish.
Behavior and reproduction: Galápagos sea lions stay on the islands

year round. During the day, they forage in waters close to the islands.
The breeding season is long, lasting from May to January. The cow
nurses her pup for about a week, then feeds at sea, returning peri-
odically to nurse. Three weeks after giving birth, cows are ready to
mate. A bull may have as many as thirty cows in his territory. Some

cows ignore boundaries, seeking males in other territories. Mating oc-
curs in shallow water or on land. Bulls may help guard pups from
sharks by a warning call or by moving them away from the water.
Pups nurse for up to a year or until a sibling is born. Some cows nurse
both the yearling and the newborn for another year.
Galápagos sea lions and people: Galápagos sea lions are popular
tourist attractions on the islands. They are illegally hunted for their
teeth for adornment, and the male genitals are believed to be aphro-
disiacs, items that intensify or arouse sexual desires, in some Asian
cultures.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists the Galápagos sea lion as Vul-
nerable due to El Niño events, tangling in fishing gear, and illegal
hunting for body parts. ■
Books:
Bonner, Nigel. Seals and Sea Lions of the World. New York: Facts on
File, Inc., 1994.
DuTemple, Leslie A. Seals and Sea Lions. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books,
Inc., 1999.
Grace, Eric S. Sierra Club Wildlife Library: Seals. Boston: Little, Brown
and Company, 1991.
Jackson, Michael H. Galápagos: A Natural History Guide. Calgary,
Canada: The University of Calgary Press, 1985.
Miller, David. Seals & Sea Lions. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “California Sea Lion.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online. 5.1 Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/pinnipedia/
pinnipedia.otariidae.zalophus.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Patent, Dorothy Hinshaw. Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses. New York:
Holiday House, 1990.
Reeves, Randall R., Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham, and James A.
Powell. Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2002.
Periodicals:
Holmes, Bob. “Exploring the Sensory Lives of Sea Lions.” Ranger Rick
(June 2000): 2.
Momatiuk, Yva, and John Eastcott. “The Art of Bullying (Behavior of North-
ern Fur Seals).” National Wildlife (August–September 1999): 50–56.

Nelson, Roxanne. “The Blubber Bunch at Pier 39.” Ranger Rick
(November 1996): 14–16.
Web sites:
Bruemmer, Fred. “Comeback on a Castaway’s Island.” National Wildlife
Federation. http://www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/2001/seal.html
“Golden Seals of the Skeleton Coast: Life amid the Wrecks.” Public
Broadcasting Service (PBS) Nature. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/
goldenseals/index.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Murphy, Verity. “Let Slip the Sea Lions of War.” BBC News Online.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2839155.stm (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
“Pinniped Species Information Page.” Seal Conservation Society.
http://www.pinnipeds.org/species/species.htm (accessed on July 7,
2004).
“Steller Sea Lion Biology.” North Pacific Universities Marine Mammal Re-
search Consortium. http://www.marinemammal.org/steller_sea_lion/
fastfacts.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).

WALRUS
Odobenidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Odobenidae
One species: Walrus (Odobenus
rosmarus)
class The walrus is the second largest pinniped, after the elephant
subclass seal. Walruses are 44 to 126 inches (112 to 320 centimeters)
long and weigh 139 to 2,662 pounds (63 to 1,210 kilograms).
order Their streamlined, smooth, body allows for easy movement
monotypic order through water. They are sparsely covered with short, cinnamon
brown hair, which is darker in young walruses. In older males,
suborder
the hair is almost absent, giving a naked appearance. The wrin-
▲ family kled skin measures 0.75 to 2 inches (2 to 5 centimeters) thick.
Adult males have large, coarse bumps on the neck and shoul-
ders. Underneath the skin is a layer of blubber, or fat, about
0.4 to 6 inches (1 to 15 centimeters) thick, which protects
against the cold and serves as storage for food energy.
Although its head is quite small compared to the rest of its
body, the walrus has a powerful skull. If the seawater freezes
while the walrus is underwater, it uses its skull like a sledge-
hammer to break through the ice overhead, up to 8 inches (20
centimeters) in thickness. The walrus has no external ears, just
small openings covered by a fold of skin. About 600 to 700 stiff
whiskers form a mustache and act as antennas for detecting
prey. The thickened upper lip is used to feel around for food
in the muddy sediments of the ocean floor. Two air pouches
in the throat extend to the shoulders. They can be inflated to
function as life preservers, enabling the walrus to sleep or rest
in an upright position with its head above water. Males pro-
duce bell-like sounds with these inflated air pouches when
courting females.

Walruses have webbed flippers. The back
flippers act as paddles for swimming, while
the front flippers do the steering. On land or
ice, walruses use their flippers the same way
eared seals use theirs. The back flippers are
turned forward and, together with the front
flippers, are used for moving around. How- WHY DOES A WALRUS TURN WHITE
ever, unlike eared seals, walruses cannot lift THEN BRIGHT PINK?
their enormous body off the ground. They
In cold seawater, the walrus closes its
walk by pushing off the ground with the help
blood vessels in the skin to prevent blood
of the belly and flippers. The thick blubber
flow to that area, thus preventing heat loss.
helps cushion its underparts while walking.
The absence of blood gives the skin a pale
The walrus is known for its long, ivory appearance. On land under the sun, the
tusks, which are enlarged upper canine, dag- walrus’s thick blubber makes it feel hot. To
ger-like, teeth. The teeth first extend out of prevent overheating, blood vessels in the
the mouth when they are about one year old. skin are opened to carry heat from inside
The tusks serve many functions. They are the body and get rid of it through the skin,
used for hauling out (getting out of the wa- turning it pink.
ter) onto the ice. This is where the first part
of the walrus’s scientific name came from.
The Greek word odobenus means “tooth
walker” or “one who walks on his teeth.” The tusks are also
used to threaten rivals for breeding territories and for actual
fights. Dominant males typically have larger tusks and use them
as power displays. Walruses sometimes use their tusks to sup-
port their head while sleeping or resting on ice. They sleep or
rest vertically in water with the tusks hooked over the edge of
an ice floe, a large sheet of floating ice. The tusks grow with
age. In adult males, they can grow up to 3 feet (1 meter) long
and weigh about 12 pounds (nearly 5.5 kilograms) each.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Walruses are found mainly in the coastal areas of the Arctic
Ocean and adjoining seas. There are two populations of wal-
ruses. Pacific walruses are found in the Bering, Chukchi, and
Laptev Seas. Atlantic walruses occupy the coastal regions of
Greenland and northeastern Canada.
HABITAT
Walruses live mainly in the sea, occupying pack ice, large
pieces of ice frozen together, that floats on the continental shelf,
the shallow part of the ocean floor that starts at the shoreline.
Males haul out on sandy, cobble, or boulder beaches.
Walrus 685
Though not considered
Threatened, the walrus is
protected by the governments of
the countries in which it lives.
Only native people are allowed
to hunt walruses legally. (Dotte
Larson/Bruce Coleman Inc.
DIET
Walruses eat primarily bivalve mollusks, clams and mussels.
They also feed on marine worms, crabs, shrimp, octopus, squid,
and sea cucumbers. They occasionally eat fish and seals, in-
cluding spotted, ringed, and bearded seals. The walrus squirts
the muddy sediments on the ocean floor with water from its
mouth, exposing the mollusks. Then it sucks the meat out of
the shell. An adult walrus consumes about 4 to 6 percent of its
total body weight daily. It can eat 3,000 to 6,000 clams per meal.

Walruses socialize in groups called herds, although males
and females keep to their groups except when mating in the
winter. They travel and forage together in small groups, and
several hundred may haul out on ice floes. Thousands of wal-
ruses congregate on beaches to molt, shed, or rest. They typi-
cally lie close together, oftentimes draped over one another.
However, they can annoy one another, at which point they hit
their neighbors with their tusks. Sometimes fighting occurs.
However, walruses are supportive of one another. They will
help a neighbor who is being attacked by a polar bear or at-
tempt to get a dead animal off an ice floe into the water to get
it away from a hunter.

Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus)
Walruses follow the pack ice throughout the year. In spring,

they migrate north toward the Arctic Ocean to feed. Males haul
out onto beaches along the Alaskan and Russian coasts to molt
and rest, while females migrate farther north. Females give birth
on pack ice in the spring and summer. Unlike other pinnipeds,
walruses do not mate right after giving birth.
In the fall, they follow expanding pack ice, this time heading
south. In the winter, males follow herds of females and their
young at sea. When the mother-offspring groups haul up on ice
floes, the males remain in the water close by. The males go
through a courtship display of producing bell-like sounds un-
derwater, followed by whistles and teeth-clacking above the wa-
ter. The males also fight for dominance, and only the winner will
mate with the females of a certain herd. Mating occurs under-
water, after which males rejoin their all-male group. This yearly
migration north and south covers about 2,000 miles (3,000 kilo-
meters), with walruses swimming or riding on moving ice.
Walruses spend about two-thirds of their lives in the water.
They are slow swimmers, typically going up to 4.3 miles
(7 kilometers) per hour, but can reach a speed of up to 22 miles
(35 kilometers) per hour. They can stay underwater for
25 minutes, although they usually remain underwater for just
10 minutes because they forage on shallow ocean floors.
Pregnancy lasts fifteen months due to delayed implantation,
during which the fertilized egg grows a little then waits four to
five months before attaching to the uterus for further develop-
ment. A single calf is born during the spring migration north.
Nursing usually occurs in water, with the calf hanging upside
Walrus 687
down. The calf can swim at birth. Calves remain with their
mothers for two years, although they forage for other food be-
fore being completely weaned from their mother’s milk. Young
females stay with female herds, while young males leave to join
all-male herds. The long nursing period means that females do
not give birth annually. Mothers are very protective of their
young, fighting off intruders with their tusks. They carry
their newborn on their back in the water. On land, they hold
their calf close to their body with their front flippers when they
perceive danger. Walruses have been known to guard one
another’s young and to adopt orphans.
WALRUSES AND PEOPLE

Native people of the Arctic have always associated the wal-
rus with spiritual power. For thousands of years, they depended
on walruses for subsistence, hunting them for food and fuel, as
well as material for shelter, clothing, boats, sled, tools, and hand-
icrafts. In the seventeenth century, Europeans first harvested
walruses commercially, especially for their ivory tusks, eventu-
ally causing declining populations. Today, walruses are legally
protected by the governments of the United States, Canada, and
Russia. Only native people are allowed to hunt them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Walruses are not a threatened species.
Books:
Bonner, Nigel. “The Walrus.” In Seals and Sea Lions of the World.
Knudtson, Peter. The World of the Walrus. San Francisco: Sierra Club
Books, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Walrus.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http:// www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/pinnipedia/pinnipedia.
odobenidae.odobenus.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Reeves, Randall R., Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham, and James A.
Powell. Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2002.

Periodicals:
Fay, Francis H. “Odobenus rosmarus.” Mammalian Species 238 (May
24, 1985): 1–7.
Lanken, Dane. “Grace Under Water.” Canadian Geographic (March
2002): 48–53.
Rosing, Norbert. “Walrus: Giant of the Arctic Ice.” National Geographic
(September 2001): 62–78.
Schleichert, Elizabeth. “Giants of the North.” Ranger Rick (November
1997): 4–11.
Web sites:
Alaska Science Center-Biological Science Office. “Pacific Walrus Re-
search.” U.S. Geological Survey. http://www.absc.usgs.gov/research/
walrus/home.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Sea World Education Department. “Walrus.” Sea World/Busch Gardens
Animal Information Database. http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/
Walrus/home.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Vlessides, Michael. “In Search of the Tooth Walker.” National Wildlife
Federation. http://www.nwf.org/internationalwildlife/2000/walrusnd.
Walrus 689
TRUE SEALS
Phocidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Phocidae
class True seals have a tapered shape, with short hair covering
their body. Underneath the thick skin are 5 to 6 inches (11 to
subclass
13 centimeters) of blubber, or fat, that conserves body heat and
order stores food energy. They are also called earless seals, because
monotypic order they do not have external ears. The ears are just tiny openings
on each side of the rounded head. Unlike eared seals, true seals
suborder cannot rotate their back flippers for walking. For movement on
▲ family land, they crawl on their undersides, with the rear end and front
flippers pushing the body along. In water, the webbed back flip-
pers act as paddles, while the front flippers are used for steer-
ing and balance.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
True seals inhabit all oceans, except the Indian Ocean. Some
species live in inland lakes in Siberia, Russia, and Finland.
HABITAT
True seals forage, search for food, at sea, but haul out (get
out of the water) to land to breed, molt, or shed fur, and rest.
They prefer ice floes, large sheets of floating ice, or fast ice, ice
attached to a land mass. They also inhabit sand, cobble, and
boulder beaches, as well as caves and rocky outcrops.
DIET
True seals eat mostly fish. They also feed on krill, squid,
octopuses, and other seals.

True seals congregate on land or ice to
breed and molt. The males and females of
some species migrate, travel, separately from
breeding to foraging areas. Others species do
not migrate. Only the male elephant seals
and gray seals gather groups of females DEEP DIVERS
during the breeding season. In some species, Northern elephant seals are able to dive
cows, females, nurse their young for just a to deep ocean depths because of certain
few days, fattening up the pup, and then bodily adaptations. They reduce oxygen
letting it fend for itself. use in the muscles, tissues, and other
organs and redirect that oxygen supply to
TRUE SEALS AND PEOPLE
the important organs, the heart and brain.
Native people have always depended on Human divers may suffer decompression
seals for food, oil, and fur, taking only what sickness, or the “bends,” when rising to the
they need for their local populations. water surface because of nitrogen bubbles
Commercial sealers, on the other hand, have trapped in the blood. Seals collapse their
overhunted some species. lungs when diving, ridding the lungs of any
air, and therefore avoid the bends.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Three true seals are considered threatened
species due mainly to habitat loss or degra-
dation. The Caribbean and Hawaiian monk seals are listed as
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction, by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service. The World Conservation Union
(IUCN) lists the Mediterranean monk seal as Critically En-
wild, the Hawaiian monk seal as Endangered, and the Caspian
seal as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
True Seals 691

Harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS HARP SEAL
Pagophilus groenlandicus
Physical characteristics: Harp seals got their name from the harp
pattern on their back. Adult males and females are light silvery gray
with a black face. In males, the harp marking is black. In females, the
marking may be broken into smaller patterns. Each seal measures
about 5.6 feet (1.7 meters). Males weigh about 297 pounds (135
kilograms) and females about 240 pounds (109 kilograms). Harp seals
have a thick layer of blubber that protects them from the cold and
stores food energy. The front flippers have strong, sharp claws for
hauling out of the water and moving across ice. The back flippers
function as oars for swimming but cannot be turned forward for
walking.
Geographic range: Harp seals live in the Arctic and the North
Atlantic Oceans. They breed off the coast of northeastern Canada,
off the east coast of Greenland, and in the White Sea off the north-
western coast of Russia.

Habitat: When not foraging or migrating, harp seals live on ice floes Harp seals nurse their pups for
about two weeks, then leave the
in the open sea. They breed and molt on offshore pack ice. They for-
pups on their own. After another
age, search for food, under the ice or in open water. two weeks, the pup sheds its
white downy coat, replacing it
with a shorter silvery gray coat.
Diet: Harp seals feed on a variety of fish, including capelin, cod,
(Tom Brakefield/Bruce Coleman
and herring. They also eat shrimp, crabs, and squid. Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Harp seals feed and travel in large

groups. They are playful, porpoising or making arcing leaps over wa-
ter, like dolphins and sea lions. They are excellent divers, able to stay
underwater for thirty minutes at a time. They vocalize underwater
and on land.
Females gather on pack ice in late winter to give birth to single
pups and nurse for about two weeks. Soon after, each cow mates in
the water, then returns to sea, leaving her pup permanently. Within
those two weeks, the pup grows from about 24 pounds (11 kilograms)
to about 80 pounds (36 kilograms). After another two weeks, it sheds
its white downy coat, replacing it with a shorter silvery gray coat.
They learn to swim and find their own food. After mating, the adult
True Seals 693

males leave to feed at sea, hauling up on shore to molt for about a
month before continuing their northward journey.
Harp seals and people: In the 1970s and 1980s, pressure from con-
servationists caused the closing of American and European markets
for seal products. The seal trade has continued, with new markets in
Russia, China, Poland, and Ukraine bringing in millions of dollars for
the fur alone. In addition, seal genitals are marketed to Asian mar-
kets as aphrodisiacs (aff-roh-DEE-zee-acks), substances that are sup-
posed to increase sexual desire. In 2004, the Canadian government
announced an additional quota of 100,000 seals available for hunting
for an annual total of 350,000 seals.
Conservation status: Harp seals are not a threatened species. ■

Northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris)
NORTHERN ELEPHANT SEAL

Mirounga angustirostris
Physical characteristics: The northern elephant seal got its name

from the male’s nose, which resembles an elephant’s trunk. Males weigh
three or four times as much as females, averaging 3,750 pounds (1,704
kilograms) and measuring about 13.2 feet (4 meters). Females are about
1,122 pounds (510 kilograms) and 10.6 feet (3.2 meters) long. Males
are dark brown. The thickened, pinkish throat and neck protect them
against sharp teeth during fights at the rookeries, breeding grounds.
The nose can be inflated to give a bigger appearance and to make loud
noises for threat displays. Females are light to chocolate brown.
Geographic range: Northern elephant seals forage in the North

Pacific Ocean and breed off the coast of northern California to Baja,
Mexico.
True Seals 695

The northern elephant seal’s Habitat: Northern elephant seals forage at sea as far north as the
nose can be inflated to give a
Gulf of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. They breed on sandy, cob-
larger appearance and to make
loud noises for threat displays. ble, and pebble beaches.
(Jen and Des Bartlett/Bruce
Coleman Inc. Reproduced by Diet: Northern elephant seals feed on deep-sea fish, such as Pacific
permission.)
whiting, ratfish, and shark, as well as squid, octopuses, crabs, and eels.
Behavior and reproduction: Northern elephant seals spend up to

90 percent of their time underwater, diving for twenty to thirty min-
utes, and then coming up for air for about three minutes. They have
been recorded diving as deep as 1 mile (1.6 kilometers). Average div-
ing depths range from 1,650 to 2,300 feet (about 500 to 700 meters).
In winter, bulls haul out to establish breeding territories. Pregnant
cows go ashore a month later, giving birth to single pups. After nurs-
ing for about a month, females mate with the territorial bull and with
other subordinate males. She then goes back to the sea, leaving the
pup to fend for itself. Both sexes fast, go without food, while on land,
up to three months for the males. After foraging at sea, each migrates
back to the breeding grounds to molt. Each year, seals shed both old
skin and hair in what is called catastrophic molt. Northern elephant

seals migrate a long distance twice a year, to breed and then to molt,
traveling over 6,000 miles (10,000 kilometers) each way.
Northern elephant seals and people: Northern elephant seals were

thought extinct by the late 1800s due to overharvesting for its
blubber, primarily used in lamp oil. Since the early 1900s, when the
seals appeared in Mexico and California, the U.S. government and
Mexican government have taken steps to protect them.
Conservation status: Northern elephant seals are not a threatened

species. ■
True Seals 697

Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi)
HAWAIIAN MONK SEAL

Monachus schauinslandi
Physical characteristics: Adult Hawaiian monk seals have short,

silvery gray coats, which turn lighter on their undersides. As a seal
ages, its coat turns a deep brown with each molt. Females, at about
7.5 feet (2.3 meters) and 528 pounds (270 kilograms), are larger than
males. Males measure about 6.9 feet (2.1 meters) long and weigh
385 pounds (175 kilograms).
Geographic range: Hawaiian monk seals are found in the United

States.
Habitat: Hawaiian monk seals inhabit the Pacific Ocean waters sur-
rounding the northwestern Hawaiian islands. They breed, rest, and
molt on coral reef islands. A small number are found on the main

Hawaiian Islands. Cows choose breeding areas with a coral shelf that Hawaiian monk seals live in
the Pacific Ocean waters
affords protection from the sun and sharks.
surrounding the northwestern
Hawaiian islands. They breed,
Diet: Hawaiian monk seals feed on deep-water fish and other fish rest, and molt on coral reef
found in the coral reefs. They also eat squid, octopuses, and lobsters. islands. (© Frans Lanting/Photo
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Hawaiian monk seals are solitary, liv-
ing alone, except during the breeding season. Females give birth to a
single pup that they nurse for four to six weeks. A cow sometimes
nurses another cow’s pup. Females mate soon after they leave their
pups, typically in the water. Bulls are believed to have several part-
ners. In areas where males outnumber females, mobbing occurs, in
which a group of adult males attempt to mate at once with an adult
or an immature female, sometimes fatally injuring that individual.
These seals are active at night, sleeping during the heat of day.
They do not migrate, but may spend many days foraging at sea be-
fore going ashore to sleep. They do not tolerant humans. When dis-
turbed, they either do not go ashore to breed or give birth in a less
preferred site. Pups usually do not survive under these conditions.
True Seals 699

Hawaiian monk seals and people: Hawaiian monk seals have re-
cently inhabited the main Hawaiian islands. Since they are listed as
Endangered and, therefore, legally protected, their appearance on
tourist beaches has prompted restrictions or closure that may turn
people against them.
Conservation status: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and IUCN
lists the Hawaiian monk seal as Endangered due to habitat loss to hu-
man expansion, lack of young females for mating, male mobbing of
females, reduced prey, and entanglement in ocean debris and com-
mercial fishing gear. ■
Books:
Bonner, Nigel. Seals and Sea Lions of the World. New York: Facts on
File, Inc., 1994.
Cossi, Olga. Harp Seals. Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, Inc., 1991.
Grace, Eric S. Sierra Club Wildlife Library: Seals. Boston: Little, Brown
and Company, 1991.
Le Boeuf, Burney J., and Richard M. Laws, eds. Elephant Seals: Popu-
lation Ecology, Behavior, and Physiology. Berkeley, CA: University of
Reeves, Randall R., Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham, and James
A. Powell. Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 2002.
Periodicals:
Bruemmer, Fred. “Five Days with Fat Hoods.” International Wild-
life (January/Febrary 1999). Online at http://www.nwf.org/
internationalwildlife/1998/hoodseal.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Kovacs, Kit. “Bearded Seals: Going with the Floe.” National Geographic
(March 1997): 124–137.
Tennesen, Michael. “Testing the Depths of Life.” National Wildlife
(Feb/Mar 1999). Online at http://nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article. cfm?
articleId=187&issueid=67 (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Williams, Terrie M. “Sunbathing Seals of Antarctica : The Puzzle Is How
Do They Keep Cool? (Weddell Seals).” Natural History (October 2003):
50–56.

Web sites:
“The Hawaiian Monk Seal.” Pacific Whale Foundation. http://www.
pacificwhale.org/childrens/fsmonkseal.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Hawaiian Monk Seal” Seal Conservation Society. http://www.
pinnipeds.org/species/hawaimnk.htm (accessed on July 7, 2004.)
“Pagophilic Seals: Fast Facts.” Pagophilus.org: Science and Conservation
of Ice Loving Seals. http://www.pagophilus.org/index.html (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
“Steller Sea Lion Biology.” National Marine Mammal Laboratory. http://
nmml.afsc.noaa.gov/AlaskaEcosystems/sslhome/StellerDescription.html
True Seals 701

WHALES, DOLPHINS, AND
PORPOISES
Cetacea
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
order C H A P T E R
Cetaceans (sih-TAY-shunz) are whales, dolphins, and por- class
poises. These mammals live, eat, reproduce, and rest in the wa-
subclass
ter. They range in size from that of a small human—5 feet (1.5
meters) and 110 pounds (50 kilograms)—to huge, building- ● order
sized animals of 110 feet (33 meters) and 400,000 pounds monotypic order
(180,000 kilograms). Their ancestors were land mammals. More
than fifty million years ago, these ancestors evolved physical suborder
characteristics that allowed them to live successfully in the wa- family
ter. Today scientists believe that the closest living land-based
relative of whales, dolphins, and porpoises is the hippopotamus.
All cetaceans share certain physical characteristics that allow
them to live their entire life in the water. Most notably, they
all have streamlined, smooth, bodies to cut down on friction
and turbulence as they move through the water. This stream-
lining has come about because the bones in their front legs are
shortened and compressed to form paddles called flippers that
have no fingers or claws. In addition, their back legs are so re-
duced that all that remains are a few internal pelvic bones.
Likewise, they have no external reproductive organs. Male
cetaceans have a retractable penis, which means that they can
draw it up inside their body. The nipples of the female are also
hidden in a slit within their belly.
The need to be streamlined has affected the shape of the skull
and the sense organs found it in. The bones of the skull and
the jawbones have become elongated, stretched out. The nos-
trils, usually on the front of the face in land mammals, have
Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises 703

moved to the top of the head and are called
blowholes. There can be one or two blow-
holes, depending on species, or a single slit
on the top of the head. Blowholes are con-
nected to the lungs and can be closed to keep
out water when the animal dives.
WHY DON’T WHALE CALVES DROWN Cetaceans have no external, outside, ears,
WHEN THEY NURSE? although they have very good hearing. Sound
Whale calves must nurse from their is transmitted to the internal ear through
mothers while in the water. How can the bones. Most members of this order have good
baby suckle and not suck huge amounts of eyesight, although some species that live in
water into its lungs when it breathes? The cloudy water have lost most of the ability to
answer lies in an adaptation to aquatic life. see. Cetaceans use a complex system of
Unlike land mammals where air and food communication and are thought to be highly
share a single passage into the body, intelligent. They have large brains in pro-
the digestive system and the breathing portion to their body size.
passage of the whale are separate. The All members of this order are hairless, they
whale’s blowhole leads directly to the may have a few hairs at birth, but have a thick
lungs, while the mouth and esophagus, layer of oil and fat called blubber under the
throat, lead only to the stomach. This skin. They are warm-blooded; their core body
allows the whale calf to eat and breathe at temperature stays about the same as that of a
the same time. human, even in cold Arctic waters. Cetaceans
have no sweat glands. They regulate their
temperature by controlling the amount of
blood flowing through their flippers and fins, which are not cov-
ered with blubber.
Members of this order are known for their ability to make
deep dives and remain underwater for long periods. Sperm
whales have been known to dive more than 6,080 feet (1,853
meters). They have an efficient circulatory system that allows
them to store and retrieve large amounts of oxygen in their
blood and muscle tissue. In addition, when they dive, they re-
duce blood flow to their skeletal muscles, decreasing oxygen
use in the muscles while keeping blood flow to the brain. Fi-
nally, when they dive, they expel, push out, the air in their
lungs. Reducing the amount of air in the lungs helps them with-
stand the high pressure that occurs when they dive deeply.
Although all cetaceans have common characteristics that suit
them to life in the water, different species have evolved phys-
ical and behavioral features that allow them to eat certain foods
or inhabit specific zones. There are two suborders of whales,
each with identifying physically characteristics. Mysticeti are

the baleen (buh-LEEN or BAY-leen) whales. These whales have
no teeth. To feed, they filter large amounts of water through
flexible plates in their mouth called baleen. The baleen strains
out krill, small shrimp and plankton, which they collect with
their tongue and swallow. This suborder includes the largest
whales on Earth.
Odontoceti, the other suborder of whales, all have teeth that
they use to catch fish, squid, octopus, and marine mammals
such as seals, dolphins, and other whales. They are often re-
ferred to as toothed whales to distinguish them from baleen
whales. These whales use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun)
to navigate and find prey. Echolocation involves making sounds
that bounce off objects. Sense organs pick up the echo or re-
flected sound and use the timing, direction, and strength of the
echo in order to locate objects. In some species, echolocation
is so sensitive that it can locate an object less than 0.5 inches
across (1.25 centimeters) at a distance of 50 feet (15 meters).
Unlike toothed whales, baleen whales do not have a highly de-
veloped sense of echolocation.
This order also contains porpoises and dolphins. These an-
imals are smaller than most whales, and some dolphins and
porpoises live in fresh water rivers rather than in salt water.
Strictly speaking, porpoises belong to only one family and are
distinguished by their spade-shaped teeth. However, casual lan-
guage makes little distinction between the terms porpoise and
dolphin.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Cetaceans are found in all oceans of the world. In the Arc-
tic and Antarctic they avoid ice-covered water, since they must
rise to the surface to breathe. Dolphins live in the ocean, but
are also found in several freshwater rivers in Asia and South
America.
HABITAT
The ocean is divided into different zones or regions based
on depth, closeness to land, and underwater features. Cetaceans
inhabit virtually all ocean zones, including zones in semi-
enclosed water such as the Red and Black Seas. Cetaceans that
live in freshwater rivers inhabit clear, rapidly flowing water and
dark muddy water.

DIET
Members of this order are primarily carnivores, meat eaters.
Baleen whales have evolved special filter-like structures to
gather small shrimp, small fish, squid, and plankton. Other
cetaceans actively hunt prey, either alone or in cooperative
groups. Typically they eat whatever fish are found in the oceanic
zone that they inhabit. Many also eat squid, octopus, shrimp,
and crabs. A few species, especially the killer whale, hunt other
whales, seals, sea lions, sea turtles, and sea birds.

Cetaceans generally have pregnancies that last ten to sixteen
months. Like all mammals, they nurse their young. The young
tend to stay with their mothers for at least a year and often
much longer. Many cetaceans give birth only every two to five
years. These animals do not become capable of reproducing
for about three to ten years. Large whales may live for close to
100 years and are slow to mature.
Cetaceans have evolved a wide spectrum of behaviors. Some
species such as the spinner dolphin are known for the way they
leap out of the water, while other species, like almost all por-
poises, rarely jump when they come to the surface. Some mem-
bers of this order live in groups of up to one thousand, while
others live in groups of ten or fewer animals. Some groups show
great social stability and communication. Killer whales, for ex-
ample, are known to hunt in packs. Other social groups are
simply casual associations, with members coming and leaving
at will. Communication seems to involves several different
types of sounds combined with echolocation.
CETACEANS AND PEOPLE

People have been fascinated with cetaceans from the earliest
times. These animals have figured in stories and mythology in
many countries. Perhaps the best known example is the bibli-
cal story of Jonah being swallowed by a whale.
Whales have been hunted for their oil, meat, baleen, and bones
for hundreds of years. As sailing and hunting technologies im-
proved, increasing pressure was put on some whale species.
Whaling, whale hunting, reached its peak in 1847 when about
700 American ships, along with ships from many other nations,
took part in whale hunts. In 1935, the United States and several
European countries entered into the first international agreement

to protect certain species of whales. Since then, there have been
other international agreements, all of which have loopholes that
allow at least some whale hunting to continue. In 1972, the
United States passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act. This
legislation extended protection to all cetaceans as well as other
marine mammals such as seals, sea lions, and sea otters. Today,
whale hunting, along with regulation of other types of fishing,
continues to be a source of international tension.
Other pressures on cetaceans include being trapped and ex-
hibited, put on display, for entertainment. Many tourist desti-
nations offer visitors the opportunity to swim with dolphins in
confined areas, and businesses trap wild dolphins for this pur-
pose. In addition, the United States Navy trains dolphins to re-
trieve potentially dangerous materials from under water.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Interest in protecting cetaceans is high, and several organiza-
tions such as the American Cetacean Society and the Whale and
Dolphin Conservation Society in Great Britain work hard at pro-
moting conservation awareness among the public. Public pres-
sure has lead to the development of “dolphin-safe” fishing nets
and “dolphin-free” tuna, but many cetaceans are still drowned
when they accidentally become trapped in fishing gear. Estimates
of populations of different species are difficult to make, but the
population of many species appears to be declining. Some, such
as the baiji, a Chinese river dolphin, are Critically Endangered,
facing an extremely high risk of extinction.
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales
Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: DK Publishing, 2002.
Gowell, Elizabeth T. Whales and Dolphins: What They Have in Common.
New York: Franklin Watts, 2000.
Mead, James G., and Joy P. Gold. Whales and Dolphins in Question: The
Smithsonian Answer Book. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. “Order Cetacea.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/cet
acea/cetacea.html (accessed on July 8, 2004)

Other sources:
American Cetacean Society. P.O. Box 1391, San Pedro, CA 94536.
Phone: (310) 548-6279. Fax: (310) 548-6950. E-mail: info@acsonline
.org Web site: http://www.acsonline.org.
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. P.O. Box 232, Melksham,
Wiltshire SN12 7SB United Kingdom. Phone: (44) (0) 1225 354333.
Fax: (44) (0) 1225 791577. Web site: http://www.wdcs.org.

GANGES AND INDUS DOLPHIN
Platanistidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Platanistidae
One species: Ganges and Indus
dolphin (Plantanista
gangetica)
The single member of this family is a dolphin that lives in class
freshwater rivers on the Indian subcontinent. At one time, sci-
subclass
entists thought that there were two species in this family, the
Indus river dolphin and the Ganges river dolphin. However, re- order
cent genetic testing shows that even though these groups are monotypic order
separated geographically, they are the same species. Native peo-
ple call these dolphins “susu,” which sounds like the noise they suborder
make when they breathe. ▲ family
Ganges and Indus river dolphins are small, gray-brown dol-
phins. Adults measure between 5 and 8 feet (1.5 to 2.5 meters)
and weigh between 150 and 200 pounds (70 to 90 kilograms).
These dolphins have a long beak, or snout, and when they close
their mouth, their sharp front teeth are still visible. They use
these teeth to catch their prey, animals they hunt for food,
mainly fish. Ganges and Indus river dolphins have a small hump
behind the center of their back instead of a dorsal (back) fin.
Their flippers are broad and paddle-shaped, and their blowhole
is a single slit, set off-center on the top of their head. Unlike
other dolphins, the opening to their ear is below their eyes.
Ganges and Indus river dolphins have poorly developed eyes.
They are able to see only light and dark patterns, which is why
they are sometimes called blind river dolphins. Instead of re-
lying on sight to find food, they use a system called echoloca-
tion (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun). Dolphins make sounds (scientists
disagree about how this is done) that seem to be focused
through the melon, a lump of fatty tissue in the dolphin’s
Ganges and Indus Dolphin 709

forehead, and skull and then sent out into
the environment. When the sounds bounce
back, the echo is passed through special tis-
sue in the lower jaw to the inner ear. From
the time it takes to collect the echoes, their
strength, and their direction, dolphins con-
LOW WATER struct a “sound picture” of their environ-
ment. This process is so sensitive, that they
Ganges and Indus river dolphins have
can “see” an object the size of a kernel of
developed an unusual method of swimming
corn at a distance of 50 feet (15 meters), and
on their side with their tail held slightly
can find their way around muddy waters as
higher than their head. As they swim, they
well as clear waters. Ganges and Indus river
drag one flipper along the bottom to stir up
dolphins also use sound to communicate
food. Scientists believe that this is an
with each other.
adaptation that allows them to live in water
as shallow as 3 feet (1 meter) deep.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
While swimming like this, these dolphins
sometimes carry their young on their back. The Ganges and Indus river dolphin is
found only on the Indian subcontinent.
Indus river dolphins live in about a 100-mile
(160-kilometer) stretch of the Indus River
where it flows through the Sind and Punjab provinces of
Pakistan. Their distribution is limited by two dams built in the
1930s.
Ganges river dolphins live in the Ganges, Meghna, Brahma-
putra, and Karnaphuli Rivers, and their tributaries (streams that
flow into these rivers). These rivers flow through western In-
dia, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. The dolphins’ range has
been reduced, and populations have been fragmented or sepa-
rated from each other by the construction of dams and water
control projects, especially along the Ganges River.
HABITAT
These dolphins live in freshwater rivers from sea level to an
elevation of 820 feet (250 meters). They can be found in clear,
swift-moving water or muddy, cloudy water. They are often
found where streams feed into the main river or where there
are eddies, which are currents in the water that run opposite
the main current. These river dolphins prefer living in water
10 to 30 feet deep (3 to 9 meters), but they are able to live in
water as shallow as 3 feet (1 meter). They can survive a
wide range of water temperatures, from about 46 to 91°F
(8 to 33°C).

Scientists once thought the
Ganges river dolphin and the
Indus river dolphin were two
separate species. But genetic
testing shows there is just one
species, the Ganges and Indus
river dolphin. (Illustration by
Patricia Ferrer. Reproduced by
permission.)
DIET
Ganges and Indus river dolphins eat bottom-dwelling fish
such as carp and catfish, and occasionally shrimp and clams.
In captivity they eat from 1 to 3.3 pounds (0.5 to 1.5 kilograms)
of fish daily.

Unlike some social dolphins, Ganges and Indus river dolphins
swim alone or with one or two other dolphins. Adults rarely
leap out of the water or expose much more of their body than
their beak (snout) and melon. Compared to other dolphins, they
swim slowly, although they are capable of short bursts of speed.
Ganges and Indus river dolphins use echolocation to find their
food and navigate around objects in the river. They also com-
municate with each other frequently through pulses of sound.
Not much is known about the reproductive behavior of these
dolphins. Pregnancy is believed to last eight to eleven months.
Newborns are about 3 feet (1 meter) long when they are born,
and weigh about 17 pounds (7.5 kilograms). It appears that
births occur throughout the year. Scientists are not certain, but
they think the young nurse anywhere from two months to one
year. These dolphins are capable of living long lives and do not
become sexually mature (able to reproduce) until they are about
ten years old.
GANGES AND INDUS RIVER DOLPHINS AND PEOPLE

River dolphins live in rivers that run through heavily popu-
lated and extremely poor areas. These dolphins are sometimes

Ganges and Indus dolphin (Plantanista gangetica)
hunted for their oil, which is used in folk medicines for hu-
mans and livestock. Occasionally dolphin meat is eaten, and it
is often used as bait to attract other fish. Dolphins are also ac-
cidentally trapped and drowned in fishing nets. Human devel-
opment, such as dam building, water control projects, and
pollution have all decreased the river dolphin population.
CONSERVATION STATUS
River dolphins are Endangered, facing a very high risk of ex-
tinction. There may be fewer than one thousand individuals re-
maining in the Indus River, while the outlook is equally grim
in other river systems, including the Ganges River.
River dolphins are threatened mainly by human development.
Dam building, begun in the 1920s, still continues today. Not
only do dams isolate groups of dolphins, they interfere with mi-
gration and water flow. Heavy fishing, reducing water flow, and
preventing flooding all decrease the population of fish that are
the main source of food for these animals. In addition, pollution

puts a strain on their health and may shorten their lives. Hunt-
ing and “accidental intentional” killing of dolphins in fishnets
also are threats to their survival.
To combat the decline in population, the Whale and
Dolphin Conservation Society recommends establishing pro-
tected habitats, training local people to manage river dolphins
as a protected resource, educating the public to substitute other
oils for dolphin oil, and enforcing protection laws already in
existence.
Books:
Press, 2002.
Smith, Alison M., and Brian D. Smith. “Review Status and Threats to
River Dolphins and Recommendations for Their Conservation.” In Envi-
ronmental Reviews. Vol 6, edited by T. C. Hutchinson. Ottawa, Canada:
NRC Research Press, 1998, 189-206.
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on
July 8, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org

BAIJI
Lipotidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Lipotidae
One species: Baiji (Lipotes
vexillifer)
class The baiji is a freshwater river dolphin that lives in the
Yangtze (yang-see) River in eastern China. It has a long, nar-
subclass
row beak (snout), which curves slightly upward and grows
order longer with age. It has a steeply sloped forehead and tiny eyes
monotypic order that are set high on the sides of the head. These eyes are only
slightly functional and leave the dolphin almost completely
suborder blind. This is why baijis use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-
▲ family shun) to navigate and find food. Baijis have about 130 teeth,
which are all alike in size and shape. The cone-shaped teeth
are made for catching fish, not chewing.
The baiji has short, round flippers and a low, triangular
shaped dorsal (back) fin. It has a very distinctive notch in the
middle of its fluke, or tail. The body is a bluish gray, fading into
white on its stomach. The average length for a baiji is between
6.5 and 8 feet (2 and 2.4 meters). Females grow to be larger
than males. They weigh between 220 and 355 pounds (100 and
160 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The baiji lives along the 1,056 miles (1,700 kilometers) of
the Yangtze River in eastern China. During the late spring and
early summer, this freshwater dolphin moves to smaller streams
and lakes if the water is high enough. At one time the lakes of
Dongting and Poyang were home to the baiji year-round, but
with the drop in water level these lakes can no longer support
its presence.

HABITAT
The baiji is often found at places where
tributaries (smaller streams) enter the river
or along sandbars and dikes. When resting,
it spends a lot of its time where the river is
wide and slow moving. The baiji comes
closer to shore to feed. During this time, it THE LEGEND OF THE BAIJI
uses its long beak or snout to probe through There is a legend about the baiji that
the mud on the river’s bottom. says there was once a young girl who was
beaten by her stepfather. One day while
DIET they were out in a boat, the boat capsized
Baijis, like many dolphins, are carnivores and both the girl and her stepfather were
and have a diet consisting only of fish. A wide thrown into the water. It is said that the girl
variety of species is consumed, limited only emerged as a baiji while the stepfather
by the size of fish that can fit down its throat. emerged as a black finless porpoise.
Most of the fish are less than 2.6 inches (6.5
cm) long and weigh less than 9 ounces (250
grams). The baiji does not chew its food. It eats the whole fish
at once, head first.

Little is known about the baiji because so few of them are
left in the world. In the wild they are extremely shy, easily
frightened, and difficult to approach. The baiji are thought to
live in groups of two to seven individuals, but groups as large
as sixteen have been observed. They do not leap out of the wa-
ter the way some other dolphins do, but only expose their head
and beak when they come to surface after dives.
The baiji’s dives are often short, only lasting ten to twenty
seconds, but they can be as long as two minutes. While un-
derwater, they emit a wide range of sounds. These includes a
whistle sound used to communicate and a variation of clicks
used in echolocation.
Echolocation involves making sounds that bounce off objects.
Sense organs pick up the echo or reflected sound and use that in-
formation to locate objects. The forehead of a dolphin is a lump
of fatty tissue called the melon. The dolphin makes sounds (sci-
entists disagree about how this is done) that seem to be focused
through the melon and skull and then sent out into the environ-
ment. When the sounds bounce back, the echo is passed through
special tissue in the lower jaw to the inner ear. From the time it
Baiji 715
takes to collect the echoes, their strength, and
their direction, dolphins construct a “sound pic-
ture” of their environment. This process is so
sensitive that they can “see” an object less than
one-half inch (1.25 centimeters) across at a dis-
tance of 50 feet (15 meters).
The baiji is a very fast and strong swimmer
and has been seen swimming over 60 miles
(100 kilometers) in three days going against the
current. While resting, the baiji stays in areas
of very slow current.
Little is known about how this animal re-
produces, because there have been no studies
conducted on baiji reproduction. It is thought
that males become mature at four years of age,
while females mature at the age of six. A sin-
gle calf is born in the spring, after a pregnancy
of ten to eleven months. These calves are about 3 feet (91 cen-
timeters) long and weigh between 6 and 11 pounds (2.5 and
4.8 kilograms). The baiji can live up to twenty-five years in the
wild.
BAIJI AND PEOPLE

The baiji is very shy and has little interaction with humans. The
presence of humans has made a major disturbance in the life of
baijis. Chemical pollution, accidents, hunting, and habitat loss are
all reasons for the decline in its numbers. Another large problem
is the number of dams located along the Yangtze River. These dams
alter the water level and flow of the current along the river and
block fish migration. They also separate and isolate groups of baiji.
Propellers interfere with the dolphin’s use of echolocation.
Baijis often get confused and run into boats, hurting themselves.
They can also be accidentally hooked or netted by fishermen.
Many scientists believe that there are only a few dozen of these
animals left in the world today. The baiji is the world’s most
endangered cetacean. There are no baijis held in captivity. Both
a male and female who had been hurt and taken into captivity
in different locations died.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Hope of saving the baijis is dim. Although it was declared a
National Treasure of China and has been protected from hunting

Baiji (Lipotes vexillifer)
since 1975, the population continues to decline. Human use of

the Yangtze River may be too intense for the baiji to survive.
There have been many ideas about how to help this dolphin
survive, including capturing animals for breeding, developing
“semi-natural reserves,” and conducting population surveys.
One idea even involved cloning the dolphin to help its popu-
lation grow. In order to clone one of these dolphins at least
three would need to be caught, which is a next to impossible
task considering that fewer than ten are seen each year. Many
successful breeding techniques have been developed for other
dolphin species, including the bottlenosed dolphin. However,
the baiji has not had the same luck as the bottlenosed, and
every attempt to breed a baiji in captivity has failed. Now the
idea of starting a breeding program seems even more unlikely
because the only male who had ever been in captivity died in
2002 after living alone in a tank for twenty-three years. Sadly,
despite what is being done to protect the baiji, it seems that
they are doomed to extinction.
Baiji 717
Books:
Ellis, Richard. Dolphins and Porpoises. New York: Knopf, 1989.
Press, 2002.
Smith, Alison M., and Brian D. Smith. “Review Status and Threats to
River Dolphins and Recommendations for Their Conservation.” In Envi-
ronmental Reviews. Vol. 6, edited by T. C. Hutchinson. Ottawa, Canada:
NRC Research Press, 1998.
Web sites:
July 8, 2004).

FRANCISCANA DOLPHIN
Pontoporiidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Pontoporiidae
One species: Franciscana dolphin
(Pontoporia blainvillei)
Franciscana dolphins are also called La Plata dolphins, class
because the first described specimen, or animal, came from
subclass
the mouth of La Plata River, Uruguay, in 1884. These dolphins
are considered river dolphins, even though they live in the order
ocean near the shoreline. Originally scientists thought that the monotypic order
franciscana dolphin moved from fresh water to salt water dur-
suborder
ing its lifetime, but now they know that it spends its entire life
in the ocean. In the past, franciscana dolphins have been clas- ▲ family
sified in several different dolphin families, but they are cur-
rently classified in a family of their own.
The franciscana dolphin is one of the smallest members of
the cetacean order. They measure between 4.4 and 5.7 feet (1.3
and 1.7 meters) and weigh between 75 and 115 pounds (34
and 53 kilograms). Females are larger than males. Franciscana
dolphins are gray-brown on their back and lighter underneath.
Young franciscana dolphins are darker than older animals. Very
old animals can appear almost white.
The most notable feature of the franciscana dolphin is its
long, slender beak, or snout. They have the longest beak of any
dolphin. Their beak may be 15 percent of their body length.
Franciscana dolphins have triangular dorsal, or back, fins
with rounded tips. Their flippers are broad and short. This
dolphin has between 208 and 242 teeth small teeth. The blow-
hole, or nostril, is a crescent-shaped slit. Unlike the Ganges and
Indus river dolphins, franciscana dolphins have good eyesight.
Franciscana Dolphin 719

Even though franciscana dolphins can see
well, they use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun) to find food and navigate through
their environment. The forehead of a dolphin
is a lump of fatty tissue called the melon.
Echolocation is a sensory system in which
HOW DO DOLPHINS SLEEP? dolphins make sounds that seem to be fo-
cused through the melon and then sent out
Dolphins must rise to the surface to
into the environment. When the sounds
breathe every few minutes. How can they
bounce back, the echo is passed through spe-
do this and still sleep? The answer is found
cial tissue in the lower jaw to the inner ear.
in the way their brain functions. One half
From the time it takes to collect the echoes,
or hemisphere of the brain rests, while the
their strength, and their direction, dolphins
other stays alert and makes sure the
construct a “sound picture” of their envi-
dolphin surfaces and breathes. When one
ronment. This system is extremely sensitive
half of the brain is rested, it takes over and
and allows the animal to locate very small
the other half sleeps.
objects. Scientists disagree about just how
the dolphins actually make the sounds.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Franciscana dolphins are found in the Atlantic Ocean along
the coasts of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina in South America.
Their northern boundary is near Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and their
southern boundary is the Valdes Peninsula in Argentina. Their
distribution within this range is uneven. In some places they
are rare or absent, and in others they are more common.
HABITAT
Franciscana dolphins are usually found within 33 miles (53
kilometers) of shore in waters no more than 30 feet (10 meters)
deep. Often they are found in muddy, murky water with poor vis-
ibility. They seem to prefer estuaries, which are places where rivers
empty into the ocean and fresh water mixes with salt water.
DIET
Franciscana dolphins eat a wide variety of small bottom-
dwelling fish, squid, octopus, and shrimp. Most of the fish they
feed on are less than 4 inches (10 centimeters) long.

Franciscana dolphins usually swim alone or in small groups.
Several dolphins may cooperate when feeding. They will swim

The franciscana dolphin is called
a river dolphin, but it spends its
life in the ocean. (Illustration by
Barbara Duperron. Reproduced
by permission.)
in a tight circle, surrounding the fish and pushing them

together.
Franciscana dolphins are very quiet and shy at the surface.
They rarely jump and often only raise their heads out of the
water enough to breathe. They are preyed upon by sevengill
sharks, hammerhead sharks, and possibly killer whales.
Female franciscana dolphins give birth to one calf after
an eleven-month pregnancy. Most calves are born between
October and January, spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
Newborns are about 28 inches (71 centimeters) long and weigh
16 to 19 pounds (7 to 8.5 kilograms). They nurse, feed on their
mother’s milk, for about three months. After that, they con-
tinue to nurse, but also eat fish until they are completely weaned
and not dependent on their mother’s milk at about nine months.
There is some disagreement about when these dolphins become
sexually mature and able to reproduce. Estimates range from
two to four-and-a-half years. Their average natural lifespan is
about fifteen years.
Franciscana dolphins do not strictly migrate. However, it ap-
pears that in areas off the coast of Argentina where there is no-
ticeable seasonal variation in water temperature, they may
change their range. This movement does not seem to happen
off the coast of Brazil, where water temperatures remain more
constant throughout the year.

Franciscana dolphin (Pontoporia blainvillei)
FRANCISCANA DOLPHINS AND PEOPLE

Franciscana dolphins are shy and rarely intentionally inter-
act with people. However, these dolphins are sometimes caught
in fishing nets. In these cases, their oil is used in tanning leather,
and their flesh is used as pig feed or shark bait.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The wild population of franciscana dolphins is unknown. Be-
cause of this, they are given a Data Deficient conservation sta-
tus. However, it is estimated that up to 1,500 of these animals
are drowned every year by becoming tangled in gillnets and
other fishing gear. Scientists believe that as a result, the wild
population is decreasing. In addition, because these dolphins
live close to shore, they are more at risk for habitat pollution
than dolphins that live in the open ocean.

Books:
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. “Franciscana, or La Plata Dolphin.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world /
cetacea/cetacea.pontoporiidae.pontoporia.html (accessed on July 8,
2004).
Web sites:
July 8, 2004).

BOTO
Iniidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Iniidae
One species: Boto (Inia geoffrensis)
class Botos, also called Amazon river dolphins or pink river dol-
phins, live only in fresh water rivers in South America. They
subclass are the largest and most abundant of the river dolphins. Adult
order botos range in length from 6.6 to 8.5 feet (2 to 2.5 meters) and
in weight from about 185 to 400 pounds (85 to 180 kilograms).
monotypic order
Males are larger than females. Young animals are usually dark
suborder gray. As they mature, their color changes and they become pink.
▲ family However, individuals that live in dark, muddy water tend to re-
main darker than those that live in clear water.
Botos have thick bodies and a large slender beak (snout) that
contains about 140 teeth. Instead of a distinct dorsal (back) fin,
they have a small triangular peaked ridge along their back. Their
flippers are large and pointed. Botos are very flexible, allowing
them to live in shallow, cluttered environments. One reason for
their flexibility is that their cervical vertebrae, or neck bones,
are not fused or joined, giving them the freedom to twist and
turn their head easily.
Botos have good eyesight both above and under water. How-
ever, because they often live in dark, murky water, they usu-
ally rely on echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to avoid
objects and find food. The forehead of a dolphin is a lump of
fatty tissue called the melon. Dolphins make sounds (scientists
disagree about how this is done) that seem to be focused
through the melon and skull. These sounds are then sent out
into the environment. When the sounds bounce back, the echo
is passed through special tissue in the lower jaw to the inner
ear. From the time it takes to collect the echoes, their strength,

and their direction, dolphins construct a
“sound picture” of their environment. This
system is extremely sensitive and allows the
animal to locate objects very small objects.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Botos are found in the Amazon and Orinoco SAVED BY BAD LUCK
River systems in Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia,
Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela. They Along the South American rivers where
require fresh water and do not live in estuar- the botos live, the dolphin is associated
ies (EST-yoo-air-eez) where rivers meet the with unhappiness. The boto is said to turn
ocean. into a man at night, one who seduces
young girls and impregnates them. The
HABITAT boto is also said to turn into a lovely girl
Botos live mainly in dark, cloudy water. who leads men into the river and takes
They seem to prefer areas where water cur- them away forever. Seeing a boto is sup-
rents meet and cause turbulence. Several stud- posed to be bad luck and burning boto oil
ies have found that they are attracted to places in a lamp is supposed to make people who
where streams flow into the main river chan- look at the lamp go blind. The boto’s con-
nel or to areas around sand bars or sharp nection to bad luck and unhappy events
bends in the river. Botos live in water with
may have helped save it, since the boto has
temperatures ranging from about 73 to 86°F
never been hunted for oil or food.
(23 to 30°C). During the rainy season (No-
vember to May) when rivers flood, they move
out of the main river channel into the shal-
low flooded forests. As the waters go down, they move back into
the deeper main channels.
DIET
Botos eat a broad range of food, including up to fifty differ-
ent species of fish. Most of the fish they eat are from 8 to 12
inches (20 to 30 centimeters) long, although they are able to
eat fish as long as 31 inches (80 centimeters). During the rainy
season, the forests flood, fish swim into the flooded areas to eat
seeds and fruits, and botos follow the fish. They are able to
move easily in this shallow water, because they are so flexible
and they have a well-developed sense of echolocation. When
the water level starts to fall, the fish and the botos return to
the deeper main channel.
Botos also eat small turtles, mollusks (hard shelled animals
like clams), freshwater shrimp, and crabs. Other species of dol-
phins have only sharp cone-shaped teeth. Botos have this type
of tooth, but also have some teeth that are modified for grind-
ing. This allows them to eat a wide variety of food.
Boto 725
Boto (Inia geoffrensis)

Botos usually swim alone or occasionally with one or two
other botos. They communicate with each other using a series
of “clicks” that are above the range of human hearing. These
communication sounds are not well understood. Botos kept in
captivity have been aggressive toward each other, suggesting
that in the wild they need to keep a certain distance between
themselves and other botos. They are occasionally observed in
larger groups when feeding.
Botos swim slowly, sometimes on their backs. They come to
the surface to breathe every thirty to sixty seconds, but rarely
leap out of the water or even show much of their body above
the surface. They are, however, playful and curious. Botos have
been seen playing with floating logs or turtles and have been
known to come up to boats and rub against them.

Female botos give birth to a single calf after an eleven-month
pregnancy beginning when they are three to five years old. Af-
ter that, they have a single calf every two to five years. Most
births occur between May and August, newborns being about
30 inches long (75 centimeters) and weighing about 15 pounds
(7 kilograms). They nurse, feed on their mother’s milk, for more
than a year. Natural lifespan is estimated at about thirty years.
Botos do not appear to migrate.
Boto 727
BOTOS AND PEOPLE
Botos are not hunted, but are sometimes intentionally killed
to prevent them from destroying fishing gear. Botos are asso-
ciated in folklore with misfortune and bad luck.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although the population of botos in the wild is not known,
it is estimated to be in the tens of thousands. Botos are consid-
ered Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. The biggest
threat comes from human development. In 2000, there were ten
dams on the Amazon River that fragmented, or separated, groups
of botos and interfered with their free movement. More dams
are planned on the rivers that botos inhabit. In addition, water
control projects that prevent the forest from flooding during the
rainy season reduce food available for fish. This causes the fish
population to decrease, meaning the botos will also have less
food. Other threats to the boto include mercury pollution from
the mining of gold near the rivers, other types of pollution as-
sociated with human development, and accidental drowning in
fishing gear. Although the boto is protected by law in some parts
of its range, enforcement is difficult and not very effective.
Books:
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Balti-
more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/ (accessed on July 8, 2004)
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed July 8,
2004).
Convention on Migratory Species. http://www.cms.int/ (accessed July 8,
2004).

PORPOISES
Phocoenidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Phocoenidae
Porpoises are mostly ocean-dwelling marine mammals, al- class
though some species can also live in freshwater rivers. They are
subclass
often confused with dolphins. In casual conversation many
people incorrectly use the terms dolphin and porpoise to mean order
the same thing. Both porpoises and dolphins came from a com- monotypic order
mon ancestor, ancient relative, however they have been distinct
families for about eleven million years. suborder
Porpoises have a blunt snout, as opposed to the beak and ▲ family
elongated snout of dolphins. Their dorsal, back, fins are trian-
gular. They have thick, stocky bodies that help them to con-
serve heat in cold waters. There are several differences between
the skulls of porpoises and dolphins, but the most obvious is
in the teeth. Porpoises have between sixty and 120 almost tri-
angular, spade-shaped teeth, while dolphins have cone-shaped
teeth. Most members of this family lack a melon. The melon is
a fatty organ on the forehead. This gives their heads a tapered
rather than a bulging look.
Porpoises range in weight from 90 to 485 pounds (40 to 220
kilograms) and in length from 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.2 meters).
The smallest porpoise is the vaquita (vah-KEE-tah), which lives
in the Gulf of California in Mexico. Dall’s porpoise and the
spectacled porpoise are the two largest porpoises. In all species
except the spectacled porpoise, females are larger than males.
Porpoises range in color from black to gray to tan. Gener-
ally, their backs are dark and their bellies are lighter. Some,
such as the spectacled porpoise and Dall’s porpoise, have quite
Porpoises 729
distinctive black and white markings. Others, such as the fin-
less porpoise, are a single dull color.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Porpoises are found along the coasts of large parts of North
and South America (except the tropics and subtropics), Europe,
and in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. They are also found
off the coast of Siberia and northern Japan.
HABITAT
Porpoises live in a variety of ocean habitats. The spectacled
porpoise lives in cold, open ocean in the Southern Hemisphere.
Another Southern Hemisphere porpoise, Burmeister’s porpoise,
lives in warmer, shallow waters along the coast of South Amer-
ica. This porpoise can also live in freshwater rivers. The finless
porpoise and the vaquita also like shallow warm water. The har-
bor porpoise and Dall’s porpoise both live in cold water habitats.
DIET
Porpoises are carnivores, meat eaters. They eat mainly fish.
The type of fish they prefer depends on the habitat in which
they live. They also eat squid and octopus. Some also eat shrimp
and mollusks (hard shelled animals like clams). Many porpoises
migrate seasonally in order to follow the fish they feed on. Their
natural predators, animals that hunt them for food, are some
sharks, killer whales, and bottlenosed dolphins.
Porpoises use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun) to help
find food. They make sounds (scientists disagree about how this
is done) that are sent out into the environment. When the sounds
bounce back, the echo is passed through special tissue in the lower
jaw to the inner ear. From the time it takes to collect the echoes,
their strength, and their direction, the animal can construct a
“sound picture” of its environment. This system is extremely sen-
sitive and allows the animal to locate very small objects.

Except for the finless porpoise on the Yangtze (yang-see; or
Chang) River in China, which seems to have become used to
heavy boat traffic, porpoises tend to avoid boats. This makes
them difficult to study. They rise to the surface to breathe qui-
etly without showing much of their bodies. Rarely do they leap
above the surface of the water. Generally porpoises live in small

groups of no more than ten individuals.
When larger groups occasionally gather, it
may be to feed or follow schools of fish.
Very little is known about the reproduc-
tion of vaquita and spectacled porpoises.
Other porpoises become mature at three to
five years, and have a single calf every year BLACK PORPOISE
after that. Pregnancy lasts about eleven Like some other cetaceans, Burmeister’s
months and mothers nurse their young, feed porpoise turns entirely black almost as
them breast milk, for more than a year. Por- soon as it dies. Early descriptions of this
poises live about fifteen years. animal were based on dead specimens, so
scientists mistakenly named the animal the
PORPOISES AND PEOPLE
“black porpoise.” Although Burmeister’s
Because porpoises are shy and avoid boats, porpoise is mostly dark gray with a paler
they have very few interactions with people. underside, the name stuck, and it is still
Until the mid 1940s, they were hunted for often called the black porpoise today.
food and oil, but now intentional hunting oc-
curs only occasionally in Greenland and in
the Black Sea. They are, however, often
caught and drowned in fishing gear.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The vaquita is the least abundant porpoise. There may be
only a few hundred individuals remaining. The vaquita is con-
sidered Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild. It lives in northern Mexico in the Gulf
of California where there is a lot of commercial fishing. The
main threat to its survival is being accidentally killed by be-
coming entangled in fishing nets.
The harbor porpoise is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction. It is a protected species in the United States
and Canada. Threats to its survival include pollution and acci-
dental death in fishing gear. Little is known about the popula-
tion levels of the other four species of porpoises.
Porpoises 731
Harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS HARBOR PORPOISE
Phocoena phocoena
Physical characteristics: Harbor porpoises have short, thick bodies

with brown or dark gray backs and whitish bellies. Their lips and chin
are black. They have a rounded forehead and no beak. Females are
larger than males with an average weight of 130 pounds (60 kilograms)
and an average length of 5.5 feet (1.6 meters). Males weigh about
110 pounds (50 kilograms) and measure about 4.8 feet (1.4 meters).
Geographic range: Harbor porpoises are found along the U.S. and
Canadian coasts in the North Atlantic, around Greenland and north-
ern Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the northern Pacific along
the North American coast and in Asia as far south as northern Japan.
Habitat: These animals live in cold costal waters, bays, tidal chan-
nels, and estuaries. They appear to prefer water between 65 and 200
feet (20 and 60 meters) deep.
Diet: Harbor porpoises eat cold water fish such as herring and mack-
erel. They also eat squid and octopus.

Behavior and reproduction: Harbor porpoises are
shy and avoid people. They rarely leap out of the
water when they go to the surface to breathe. They
are heard more often than they are seen, because
they make a loud puffing sound when they surface
to breathe.
Harbor porpoises and people: From 1830 to

about 1950, these animals were hunted for food
and oil, but today little hunting takes place.
Conservation status: Harbor porpoises are con-

sidered Vulnerable, because they are often drowned
accidentally by commercial fishing gear. ■
Porpoises 733
Burmeister’s porpoise (Phocoena spinipinnis)
BURMEISTER’S PORPOISE
Phocoena spinipinnis
Physical characteristics: Burmeister’s porpoise, sometimes called

the black porpoise, measures between 4.6 and 6 feet (1.4 and 1.8 me-
ters) and weighs 88 to 154 pounds (40 to 70 kilograms). This por-
poise has a dark gray to black back and a dark gray belly. Its small
dorsal (back) fin is located farther back on its body than the fin of
any other porpoise.
Geographic range: Burmeister’s porpoise is found in South America

from Brazil south to Tierra del Fuego in the Atlantic Ocean, and then
north in the Pacific Ocean as far as the coast of Peru. It is more com-
mon on the Atlantic side of South America than on the Pacific side.

Habitat: This porpoise prefers cold, coastal water no more than 500 Burmeister’s porpoises make
feet (152 meters) deep. quick, jerky movements when
they swim, and are barely visible
when they come up to breathe.
Diet: Burmeister’s porpoise eats about nine species of fish, mainly (Illustration by Michelle
hake and anchovies. It also eats squid, small shrimp, and mollusks. Meneghini. Reproduced by
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Burmeister’s porpoises make quick,
jerky movements when they swim. They do not leap out of the wa-
ter and are barely visible when they come up to breathe. They seem
to live in groups of fewer than eight individuals. They are very shy
and difficult to study, so little is known about their behavior or re-
productive cycle. They appear to mate between June and September
and give birth about ten months later.
Burmeister’s porpoise and people: Burmeister’s porpoises have

been hunted for meat in Chile and Peru.
Conservation status: Information about the population of Burmeis-

ter’s porpoise is not known, so they have been given a Data Deficient
conservation rating. The greatest threat to this species is drowning by
becoming caught in fishing gear. This species became protected by
law in 1994, and since then the number of individuals killed has
decreased. ■
Books:
Carwadine, Mark, and Martin Camm. Smithsonian Handbooks: Whales,
Porpoises 735
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Web sites:
July 7, 2004).
Culik, Boris and Convention on Migratory Species. Phocoena phocoena.
http://www.cms.int/reports/small_cetaceans/data/P_phocoena/p_
phocoena.htm (accessed July 7, 2004).
Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. http://www.wdcs.org (ac-

DOLPHINS
Delphinidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Delphinidae
Dolphins are found in all oceans and many rivers of the class
world. They are often confused with other aquatic animals. Dol-
subclass
phins arose from the same ancestor as porpoises, but have been
a separate family for at least eleven million years. In addition, order
the common names of some dolphins lead to confusion. For monotypic order
example, the killer whale is actually a dolphin. With genetic
testing now available, some re-classification of individual dol- suborder
phin species is occurring. ▲ family
Dolphins have long, streamlined, torpedo-shaped bodies
adapted to life in the ocean. Generally they are fast, acrobatic,
agile swimmers. The bones in what would be the hand and arm
of a land animal are compressed into a web of bones to make
flippers. Their back legs are so reduced that all that remains
are a few internal pelvic bones. They have strong, muscular
tails. Dolphins breathe through a single blowhole on top of their
head. All dolphins have a melon, a fatty organ on their fore-
head that they use for echolocation. Echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun) involves making sounds that bounce off objects.
Sense organs pick up the echo or reflected sound and use in-
formation about the echo’s timing, direction, and strength to
determine the location of objects. They have a single type of
cone-shaped tooth, but the number of teeth ranges from four
to about 260, and the size varies with the size of the species.
Dolphins are able to taste, but not smell.
Within this family there are many physical differences in size
and color. The smallest dolphin is the endangered Hector’s
Dolphins 737
dolphin. They are about 4.5 feet (1.4 meters) long and weigh
about 117 pounds (53 kilograms). The largest is the killer
whale, which can measure 30 feet (9 meters) and weigh 12,000
pounds (5,600 kilograms). Dolphins come in many colors, in-
cluding black, white, gray, tan, brown, orange, and pink. Some
have distinctive color patterns, while others are a single color.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dolphins are found in every ocean and sea and in many ma-
jor river systems. They are the largest family of cetaceans.
HABITAT
Dolphins live in salt water, fresh water, and brackish water, a
mixture of salt and fresh water. They live in both the open ocean
and in coastal waters, although more live shallow water. Their
distribution is determined mainly by the availability of prey.
DIET
Dolphins are carnivores, meat eaters. They eat fish and squid
and capture their food one fish at a time. The type of fish they
prefer depends on the zone of the ocean that they inhabit. Killer
whales eat fish, but they also hunt seals, sea lions, other dol-
phins, whales, porpoises, and sea birds.
Dolphins use echolocation to navigate and find prey. Echolo-
cation allows dolphins to use high-pitch sounds that bounce
off objects in order to determine their location. In some species,
echolocation is so sensitive that it can locate an object less than
0.5 inch across (1.25 centimeters) at a distance of 50 feet
(15 meters).

Dolphins are highly intelligent social animals. Many species
appear to live in cooperative groups, groups that work together.
They may live in groups called pods of fewer than five or as
many as several thousand. To some extent, group size depends
on the availability of food. Within a large group, animals often
separate by age and sex.
Dolphins have excellent hearing and communicate with
each other by producing a variety of different sounds, often
identified as “clicks,” “pulses,” and “whistles.” Some of these
sounds may be identifiers for individual animals, but this
communication is not well understood. Dolphins living in

clear water may also communicate by flip-
ping and flashing patches of color on their
bodies.
There are many examples of dolphins
working cooperatively. They may work to-
gether to locate and round up a school of fish
DOLPHIN COMMUNICATION
or chase them into shallow water or to at-
tack a predator, an animal that hunts them Scientists who have recorded dolphin
for food. They have been seen helping new- whistles have found that individual animals
born or injured animals to the surface to react much more strongly to the whistle of
breathe. They are best known for their acro- an individual that is related to them than
batics. They often leap and spin out of the to a whistle of a stranger. It appears that
water, sometimes in large, coordinated each dolphin has a signature whistle all its
groups. They are curious and playful. Some own that is recognized by its family.
dolphins will catch a ride on the waves a boat
makes as it passes through the water. Dol-
phins can be taught behaviors or tricks when
in captivity.
Dolphins mate and give birth in the water. From an early
age, both sexes do a lot of touching and stroking, rubbing and
sex play behavior with their own and the opposite sex. Sexual
maturity, the ability to reproduce, occurs when individuals are
between five and sixteen years old. Larger species tend to ma-
ture later than smaller ones. A single calf is born after a preg-
nancy lasting ten to fifteen months.
The bond between mother and calf is extremely important
and may last many years. Calves begin to catch fish when
they are a few months old, but may continue to nurse for
three-and-a-half years or more. Even after they are weaned,
no longer nursing, they remain with their mother for a year
or longer.
DOLPHINS AND PEOPLE

Dolphins are familiar to most people from exhibitions at ma-
rine parks and movies and television programs such as “Flip-
per.” Dolphin-watching tours attract thousands of ecotourists,
who travel to observe these animals without interfering with
them. More controversial are resorts where tourists can swim
with captive dolphins. Dolphins are hunted for food in some
places in the world. They are also trained by the United States
military to retrieve small underwater objects.
Dolphins 739
CONSERVATION STATUS
The conservation status of dolphins depends upon the
species. Hector’s dolphin is considered Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, because it is often killed
accidentally by fishing gear. Population estimates are not avail-
able for most species.
Dolphins are threatened by hunting, accidental capture in
fishing nets, pollution, and capture for display in captivity. In
the 1990s public pressure resulted in the development of dol-
phin-free fishing nets and the sale of dolphin-free tuna. These
changes have resulted in a substantial decrease in the number
of dolphins accidentally harvested during fishing. Dolphins are
protected in the United States under the 1972 Marine Mammal
Protection Act and are the focus of many conservation and re-
search organizations.

Killer whale (Orcinus orca)
SPECIES
KILLER WHALE ACCOUNTS
Orcinus orca
Physical characteristics: Killer whales, or orcas, are the largest dol-

phins, measuring 30 feet (9 meters) and weighing up to 12,000
pounds (5,600 kilograms). They have a striking black and white pat-
tern of mainly black above and white below, and they have the tallest
dorsal fin of any cetacean. The dorsal fin can reach 6 feet (2 meters)
in height. They are the top predators in the ocean.
Geographic range: Killer whales live in all the oceans of the world,
but are most abundant in cold water areas such as the Arctic and
Antarctic.
Habitat: Killer whales prefer cold water, but can live in warmer
temperatures. They tend to live in water that is less than 650 feet
(200 meters) deep. Rarely they have been known to swim up rivers
such as the Columbia in the United States and the Thames in England.
Diet: Killer whales have the most varied diet of any dolphin. They
hunt fish, seals, sea lions, other dolphins, porpoises, and whales. Their
Dolphins 741
Killer whales chase sea lions
onto the beach, and then attack
them. (© François Gohier/Photo
permission.)
diet depends primarily on what is available in their region of the

ocean. They are swift swimmers and hunt in packs. They can suc-
cessfully attack a blue whale, the largest animal on the planet, or a
great white shark. In some places they chase sea lions up onto the
beach and attack them. They are able to swallow a small seal whole.
Adults eat 3 to 4 percent of their body weight daily.
Behavior and reproduction: Killer whales live in stable pods. Males

often stay with their mothers for years after they are weaned. Like
other dolphins, they use echolocation and make sounds to commu-
nicate with members of their pod.
Killer whales have pregnancies that last from fifteen to eighteen
months and produce a single calf. Calves stay dependent on their
mothers for several years. New calves are born only every three to
eight years.
Killer whales and people: Most people know of killer whales from
exhibits at marine parks and movies. Since they can regularly be seen
near shore, they are often the object of dolphin-watching tours. In
1985, the first killer whale was successfully born in captivity. That

whale lived to adulthood and produce calves of her own. It is not
clear how long killer whales live in the wild. Estimates range from
thirty to fifty years.
Conservation status: Killer whales are not threatened. Their main

threat appears to be pollution of their habitat. ■
Dolphins 743
Common bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
COMMON BOTTLENOSED DOLPHIN

Tursiops truncatus
Physical characteristics: Common bottlenosed dolphins, also

called Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins, range in size from 8 to 12.5 feet
(2.5 to 3.8 meters) and in weight from 500 to 1,100 pounds (227 to
500 kilograms). These dolphins can be colored brown to gray on their
backs and light gray to white on their bellies. There are several dis-
tinct subpopulations in different regions of the world.
Geographic range: These dolphins are found worldwide in warm

and temperate, moderate temperature, waters. In the United States
they are the most abundant dolphin along the Atlantic coast from
Massachusetts to Florida.
Habitat: Common bottlenosed dolphins prefer warm shallow water

and are often found along the coast in harbors and bays, although
they also inhabit open ocean.
Diet: These animals eat fish, squid, and shrimp. They often feed
cooperatively, herding fish together to make them easier to catch. In

shallow water they may chase fish into a sandbar
where they are trapped.
Behavior and reproduction: Common bot-

tlenosed dolphins form pods of varying size. Pods
in the open ocean seem to be larger than those
close to shore. The pods are moderately stable and
tend to migrate in order to follow the fish. Those
pods living in cooler waters usually migrate to
warmer water in the winter.
Common bottlenosed dolphins are curious and
playful. They often ride the waves produced by the
passage of a boat through the water. They can jump
as high as 16 feet (4.9 meters) out of the water.
Female bottlenosed dolphins have their first calf
between the ages of five and twelve years. Preg-
nancy lasts about twelve months and produces a
single calf. Calves stay with their mothers for about
three years, after which another calf is born. Bot-
tlenosed dolphins have been successfully born and
raised in captivity.
Common bottlenosed dolphins and people:

Common bottlenosed dolphins are the dolphins
Bottlenosed dolphins often ride
most frequently exhibited in marine park shows. They are very the waves produced by passing
acrobatic and can be taught many behaviors in captivity. boats. (Tom Brakefield/Bruce
Conservation status: Not enough information is available to give permission.)
the common bottlenosed dolphin a conservation rating, however, they
do not appear to be threatened. The main threat to their habitat is
pollution. ■
Dolphins 745
Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris)
SPINNER DOLPHIN
Stenella longirostris
Physical characteristics: Spinner dolphins, also called long-

snouted dolphins, are known for their acrobatic displays. Spinner dol-
phins are about 7.7 feet (2.3 meters) long and weigh about 170 pounds
(78 kilograms). Males are usually larger than females. They vary in
color from individuals that are all gray to ones having black backs,
gray sides, and white bellies.
Geographic range: Spinner dolphins are found worldwide in trop-

ical and subtropical waters.
Habitat: Spinner dolphins mainly live in the open ocean, although

they may come into shallow waters to feed.
Diet: Spinners are carnivores. They tend to feed at night and eat
mainly fish, squid, octopus, and shrimp.

Spinner dolphins form pods that
Behavior and reproduction: Spinner dolphins form schools or pods may contain more than 1,000
that may contain more than 1,000 individuals. They are very social individuals. They are very social
and communicate with each other by sound and touch. They are best and communicate with each other
by sound and touch. (© Tony Wu/
known for their ability to leap out of the water and turn on their lon-
www.silentsymphony.com.
gitudinal, long, vertical, axis. Some can spin as many as seven times Reproduced by permission.)
on one jump. This behavior gave them their common name.
Less is known about the reproductive behavior of spinner dolphins
than some other species because they live farther out in the ocean
and they do not survive well in captivity. Females produce one calf
after about a ten-and-a-half-month pregnancy. New calves are born
about every three years.
Spinner dolphins and people: Spinners were the first dolphins cap-
tured for display in marine parks because of their ability to leap and
spin, but they do not survive well in captivity. Their amazing leaps
and spins attract ecotourists who want watch these animals in their
natural habitat. Because they often associate with tuna, they are some-
times accidentally killed by fishing gear.
Conservation status: Spinner dolphins are not threatened. ■
Dolphins 747
Books:
American Cetacean Society, Chuck Flaherty and David G. Gordon. Field
Guide to the Orcas. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1990.
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M. “Dolphins.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/cetacea/
cetacea.delphinidae.html (accessed on July 8, 2004)
Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed on July
8, 2004).
“Animal Information.” Sea World. http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info
Dolphin Research Center. http://www.dolphins.org (accessed on July 8,
2004).

BEAKED WHALES
Ziphiidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Ziphiidae
Beaked whales are the second largest family of living whales. class
They get their name from their long, narrow snout, or beak. In
some species, the snout slopes gradually into the forehead. In subclass
others, the forehead bulges out over the beak. Beaked whales order
breathe through a blowhole on top of their head. They have a
monotypic order
melon, a fatty organ in their forehead that they use for echolo-
cation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun). suborder
Beaked whales are toothed whales. However, all species ex- ▲ family
cept Shepherd’s beaked whale have very few teeth. Males usu-
ally have only one or two teeth in the lower jaw and just stubs
or no visible teeth at all in the upper jaw. The lower jaw teeth
grow into tusks in some species. In females of some species,
the teeth never erupt, or break through the skin, although in
x rays they can be seen in the jaw.
Beaked whales are medium-sized whales ranging from about
13 to 42 feet (4 to 13 meters) in length and weighing up to
25,000 pounds (11,500 kilograms). They have cigar-shaped
bodies that are thicker in the middle than at either end. Their
dorsal (back) fin is small and set farther back toward the tail
than in other whales. The bones in what would be the hand
and arm of a land animal are compressed into a web of bone
to make small flippers that fit against their body in depressions
called flipper pockets. The back legs are so reduced that all that
remains are a few internal pelvic bones. Beaked whales have
strong, muscular tails that, unlike most other whales, are not
notched. They range in color from light brown to gray to black.
Males and females may have different color patterns.
Beaked Whales 749

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Beaked whales live in every ocean of the world. The only
place they are not found is under the permanent ice pack at ei-
ther pole.
HABITAT
Beaked whales are mainly deep water whales. They can be
found beyond the continental shelf in water as shallow as 660
feet (200 meters) and as deep as 9,900 feet (3,000 meters). Most
live at depths of 3,300 to 9,900 feet (1,000-3,000 meters). These
whales are often found around underwater formations such as
canyons, shelf edges, and seamounts. A seamount is an under-
water mountain that does not break the surface.
DIET
Beaked whales are good divers. Scientists believe that they
feed on squid, fish, shrimp, and crabs that live on or near the
ocean floor, because they have discovered these animals plus
stones in the stomachs of dead beaked whales.
Beaked whales have well-developed melons and use echolo-
cation to find and catch their prey. Echolocation involves mak-
ing sounds or clicks that are then focused through the melon
and skull. These to sounds bounce off objects. Sense organs
pick up the echo or reflected sound and use information about
its the timing, direction, and strength to determine the loca-
tion of objects. This is particularly useful, since little sunlight
penetrates to the depths where these animals feed.
Since beaked whales have few teeth, they feed by sucking in
their food. They have up to six groves in their throat that can
expand and along with their strong tongue suck prey into their
mouth. These whales also have between four and fourteen
chambers, or sections, to their stomach.

Not too much is known about beaked whale behavior or re-
production, because these animals live mainly in the open ocean
and are hard to observe. They usually are seen in pods (groups)
of ten or fewer animals, and within a pod they seem to swim
or dive all at the same. This suggests that like other cetaceans,
they have a good communication system. Some species
regularly migrate, while others seem to stay within a home
range.

From the scars that appear on the skin of
some males, it appears that they fight each
other with their tusks for the right to mate
with females. One calf is born at a time. It
stays with the mother and nurses for at least
one year.
STRANDED ON LAND
BEAKED WHALES AND PEOPLE
Scientists cannot explain why whales
Three species of beaked whale were
strand themselves on shore. Individual
hunted mainly from the 1880s to the 1920s
whales that strand are usually old or sick.
for their oil and spermaceti: the northern bot-
However, sometimes whole pods, meaning
tlenosed whale, Cuvier’s whale, and Baird’s
dozens of animals, will strand at once.
whale. Otherwise beaked whales have few in-
Usually these are deep-water toothed
teractions with humans because they live so
whales. Some scientists believe that their
far off shore.
echolocation system does not function well
when they accidentally stray into shallow
CONSERVATION STATUS
water. Others think the whales are
Not enough is known about most species escaping a predator or are frightened by
of beaked whale to give them a conservation human-made underwater noises. Another
rating. However, four species, the northern theory is that disease or pollution makes
bottlenose whale, the flathead bottlenose, them disoriented. Whatever the reason,
Baird’s beaked whale, and Arnoux’s beaked people have recorded strandings for
whale, although not vulnerable to extinction, hundreds of years all over the world.
are listed as in need of conservation efforts. Stranded animals that cannot be re-floated
often die because they are so heavy out of
water they cannot expand their lungs to
breathe.
Beaked Whales 751

Northern bottlenosed whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS NORTHERN BOTTLENOSED WHALE
Hyperoodon ampullatus
Physical characteristics: The northern bottlenosed whale is also

called the Atlantic bottlenosed whale, the flathead, or bottlehead. Males
reach a maximum length of about 30 feet (9 meters), while females
grow only to about 25 feet (7.5 meters). In addition, males develop a
large, bulging forehead. The forehead of the female is much smoother.
Both sexes have a short beak or snout and range in color from dark
brown on the back to pale yellow on the belly. Mature males often
have a white or light patch on the forehead. Males have one pair of
small teeth in the lower jaw. In females, the teeth never break through
the skin.
Geographic range: These whales are found in pockets in the North

Atlantic off Norway, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, and as far south as
Spain and North Africa on the European side. On North American
side, they are found off the Labrador and Nova Scotia in Canada and
as far south as Rhode Island in the United States. One particularly
well-studied group lives in an area called the Gully, a deep canyon
off Sable Island, Nova Scotia.
Habitat: Northern bottlenosed whales prefer deep, cold to moder-

ate (32 to 63°F; 0 to 17°C) water, and sometimes travel into broken
ice fields. They are usually seen in areas where the water is more than

3,300 feet (1,000 meters) deep and are more common in the north-
ern part of their range than in the southern part.
Diet: Northern bottlenosed whales feed near or at the ocean floor.

They eat mainly squid, but will also eat fish, sea cucumbers, starfish,
and shrimp. Like all toothed whales, they use echolocation to hunt
their prey.
Behavior and reproduction: Northern bottlenosed whales live in

groups of four to ten individuals. They are excellent deep divers and
have been known to regularly dive to depths of between 2,600 and
4,600 feet (800-1400 meters) and stay under water for seventy min-
utes. These whales seem to migrate north in the summer and south
in the winter in a regular pattern.
Not much is known about bottlenosed whale reproduction, al-
though it is believed that males buck each other in the head in com-
petitions to breed with females. Females are thought to be sexually
mature (able to reproduce) at about seven to ten years old. A single
calf is born in the spring or early summer after a twelve-month preg-
nancy. It stays with its mother and nurses for at least one year. North-
ern bottlenosed whales are thought to live for thirty to forty years.
Beaked Whales 753

Northern bottlenosed whales and people: These whales have few
interactions with people.
Conservation status: These whales were hunted from the 1880s

until the 1970s, mostly in Norway. One estimate is that Norwegian
fisherman killed 60,000 northern bottlenosed whales between 1880
and 1930 and 5800 from 1930 to 1973. Hunting stopped in 1973,
and in 1977 the whale became legally protected from hunting. An-
other threat to this species is human development. In Nova Scotia, a
large undersea oil and gas field is being developed only about 3 miles
(5 kilometers) from the Gully where these whales live. ■

Shepherd's beaked whale (Tasmacetus shepherdi)
SHEPHERD’S BEAKED WHALE

Tasmacetus shepherdi
Physical characteristics: Shepherd’s beaked whale, also called the

Tasman beaked whale, has not been well studied. What is known
about it comes mainly from about twenty stranded whales that have
been found in various places in the Southern Hemisphere.
Shepherd’s beaked whale is the only whale in this family to have
more than half a dozen teeth, It has about 90 to 100 small peg-like
teeth in both the upper and lower jaw. Two teeth in the lower jaw of
males develop into tusks. Shepherd’s beaked whale is about 23 feet
(7 meters) long. It has a dark brown or gray back, two light stripes
along its side and a light cream-colored belly.
Geographic range: These whales are found in temperate (moder-

ate) water from Chile to South Africa to New Zealand.
Habitat: Shepherd’s beaked whale lives in deep water in open

ocean.
Beaked Whales 755

Shepherd’s beaked whale lives
in deep water in the open
ocean, and was not discovered
until 1937. Scientists do not
know much about its behavior.
(Illustration by Bruce Worden.
Diet: Unlike other members of this family that eat squid, the Shep-
herd’s beaked whale appears to eat mainly fish.
Behavior and reproduction: This whale was not discovered until

1937. It is very rare. Almost nothing is known about its behavior or
reproduction.
Shepherd’s beaked whale and people: There have been only about
half a dozen sightings of this whale outside of strandings.
Conservation status: Not enough information is available to give

this whale a conservation ranking, although the absence of sightings
suggests that it is rare. ■
Books:
American Cetacean Society, Chuck Flaherty, and David G. Gordon. Field
Press, 2002.
books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world (accessed on July 8, 2004)

Web sites:
American Cetacean Society. http://www.acsonline.org (accessed July 8,
2004).
Culik, Boris. “Hyperoodon ampullatus.” Convention on Migratory Species.
http://www.cms.int/reports/small_cetaceans/data/H_ampullatus/
h_ampullatus.htm (accessed July 8, 2004).
cessed July 8, 2004).
Beaked Whales 757

SPERM WHALES
Physeteridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Physeteridae
class The family of sperm whales contains the largest toothed
whale—the giant sperm whale—and two smaller toothed whales.
subclass
All are dark gray above, lighter gray on the belly, and have erupted
order (visible) teeth only in the lower jaw. Although these animals range
monotypic order in size and weight from 9 feet (2.7 meters) and 600 pounds (270
kilograms), to 60 feet (18.3 meters) and 125,000 pounds (57,000
suborder kilograms), they have other physical features in common.
▲ family All members of this family have a spermaceti (spur-mah-CEE-
tee) organ in their forehead. This produces a waxy substance
called spermaceti. At the animal’s body temperature, it is a clear
yellowish liquid. After processing, it becomes a white waxy solid.
It was prized in the 1800s and 1900s for making smoke-free
candles and soap and as a way to waterproof cloth (called oil-
skins). Later it was used in cosmetics, ointments, as a lubricant
for watches and machinery, and in automatic transmission fluid.
Today it has been replaced by human-made oils and waxes.
The purpose of the spermaceti organ is not clear. Some sci-
entists think that it helps the whale regulate its buoyancy, or
ability to sink or float, during dives. Others believe that it is
used to focus the sounds made for echolocation (eck-oh-loh-
KAY-shun) and communication. Echolocation involves making
sounds that bounce off objects. Sense organs pick up the echo
or reflected sound and use information about the timing, di-
rection, and strength to determine the location of objects.
Echolocation allows whales to find food in water so deep that
there is no natural sunlight.

Members of the sperm whale family share
other physical characteristics. Their heads
are asymmetrical, meaning that if they were
divided in half along the long axis of the
body, the features in the right half would
look different from the features in the left
half. This is not common in mammals. As a WHAT IS SPERMACETI?
result, a single S-shaped blowhole that allows
Spermaceti or sperm oil is a waxy
the whale to breathe is located on the left
substance, not a true oil, found in the
side of the body. The left nasal passage is
head of marine mammals, especially the
used for breathing, but the right one is nar-
giant sperm whale. At the animal’s body
rower and is thought to be used to produce
temperature, it is a clear yellowish liquid.
sounds.
After processing, it becomes a waxy solid.
It was prized in the 1800s for making
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
candles and soap and as a way to
Members of this family are found in waterproof clothing (called oilskins). It was
oceans worldwide. later used in cosmetics, ointments, and as
a lubricant for watches. Today man-made
HABITAT
oils and waxes are used in its place. An
These are deep-water whales, living in wa- average sperm whale has 1,900 liters
ter over 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) deep. Smaller (500 gallons) of spermaceti.
species may live in slightly shallower water.
DIET
Sperm whales eat mainly squid, although they will also
eat fish, crabs, and octopus that live on or near the ocean
bottom.

Sperm whales appear to be very social, communicating
through a series of clicks, whistles, and similar sounds. It ap-
pears as if each whale has a personal identification sound called
a coda, that it makes when it meets other whales. These
animals live in small groups. The composition of the group
with regard to age, gender, and size changes as these animals
age.
Almost nothing is known about reproduction in the
smaller species of this family. Female giant sperm whales give
birth about every five years after a pregnancy that lasts between
fourteen and sixteen months. Mothers and calves have
strong social bonds, and calves nurse for many years after
birth.
Sperm Whales 759

SPERM WHALES AND PEOPLE
Sperm whales were hunted for their sper-
maceti, blubber, and meat for many years.
Minimal hunting still occurs. In parts of New
Zealand, sperm whales form the basis of
whale watching ecotoursism, where tourists
WHAT IS AMBERGRIS? observe whales without disturbing them.
Ambergris is a substance made in the
CONSERVATION STATUS
digestive system of sperm whales. Sperm
whales eat squid, which have sharp beaks Not enough is known about the smaller
that they use for biting food. The whales sperm whales to give them a conservation rat-
cannot digest the beaks of the squid, and ing. Although there is some debate about pop-
eventually they begin to irritate the whale’s ulation size, giant sperm whales are considered
digestive system. In response, sperm Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, be-
whales produce a material to cover the cause of slow recovery from population de-
beaks. This is known as ambergris. It is clines that resulted from hunting.
rare and valuable. Since ancient times,
ambergris has been used in perfumes to
make the scent remain longer. Today
human-made additives are available that
do the same thing.

Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus)
SPECIES
SPERM WHALE ACCOUNTS
Physeter macrocephalus
Physical characteristics: Sperm whales, sometimes called giant

sperm whales to distinguish them from the smaller members of this
family, are the largest toothed whales. They can reach 60 feet (18.3
meters) in length and weigh 125,000 pounds (57,000 kilograms).
Males are much larger than females, who reach only about 36 feet
(11 meters) and 33,000 pounds (15,000 kilograms). Although these
whales are usually dark gray, they can also be black or white (albino).
An albino sperm whale is famous as the monster great white whale
in Herman Melville’s story Moby Dick.
Sperm whales, especially males, have huge square asymmetrical
heads that take up about one-third the length of their body. They have
the largest brain of any mammal, larger even than the brain of the gi-
ant blue whale, the largest mammal on earth. Their brain weighs an
average of 20 pounds (9.2 kg). For comparison, the average adult hu-
man brain weighs less than 3 pounds (1.3 kilograms). The spermaceti
organ can contain more than 500 gallons (1,900 liters) of spermaceti
Sperm Whales 761

Sperm whales can dive to oil. Their blubber can be almost 14 inches (35 centimeters) thick. Sperm
depths of more than a mile (2.2
whales have about thirty-five to fifty large cone-shaped teeth in their
kilometers), and stay underwater
an hour before coming to the lower jaw only. When the whale closes its mouth, these teeth fit into
surface to breathe. (© François pockets in the roof of the mouth. These teeth were prized by sailors
Gohier/Photo Researchers, Inc. who carved pictures on them in an art form known as scrimshaw.
Geographic range: Giant sperm whales are found in every ocean
of the world.
Habitat: These whales live in deep water and are often found near
underwater features such as seamounts (underwater mountains that
do not rise above the surface of the ocean) and sharp drop-offs.
Diet: Sperm whales hunt their prey by echolocation deep in the

ocean where there is no sunlight. They mainly eat squid, including
the giant squid that can be over 50 feet (15 meters) long. Many whales
have scars on the head made by the suckers of these squid as they
battle the whale. They also eat smaller squid, fish, and sharks.
Behavior and reproduction: Giant sperm whales are champion

divers and are able to dive deeper than any other whale. They can

dive to depths of more than a mile (2.2 kilometers), and stay under
water for an hour. Some scientists believe that they may be able to
dive to depths of 10,000 feet (3,000 meters). More typically, these
whales dive to depths of 1,000 to 2,600 feet (300-800 meters) and re-
main under water for thirty to forty-five minutes. They then rest at
the surface for about ten minutes before diving again. Females do not
dive as deep as males and may spend more time at the surface with
their calves. These whales swim at about 6 miles per hour (10 kilo-
meters per hour) but can reach speeds of 19 miles per hour (30 kilo-
meters per hour) when hunting or avoiding danger.
Females become sexually mature and able to reproduce when they
are about eight years old. Males may be capable of reproducing ear-
lier, but usually do not do so until they are nineteen or twenty years
old. Females give birth every five to seven years. The mother-calf bond
is strong and socially important. Mothers may continue to nurse their
young for up to thirteen years. Mothers and calves form groups of
about twenty to forty individuals (although one group of 3,000 to
4,000 animals was seen off the coast of South America) that appear to
stay together and assist each other. For example, since calves cannot
make deep dives, some females will take turns staying at the surface
guarding the young from killer whales while their others dive for food.
As the young mature, the males leave the group and swim with other
young males in groups of about twelve to fifteen individuals. As they
grow older, they split off into smaller and smaller groups. It is common
for an old male to swim alone. Males tend to move toward the poles
and come back to warmer water where the female groups stay when it
is time to breed. The males fight for the right to breed, which is why
young males rarely start reproducing until age twenty. Once mating has
occurred, the males leave the group of females and calves and go off on
their own again. Sperm whales are thought to live about seventy years.
Sperm whales make a wide variety of sounds with the help of spe-
cially modified nasal passages and air sacs. The sounds they make are
loud and carry well over long distances. It appears that each whale
has a signature “song” to identify it to other whales. They also make
clicks for echolocation and ringing sounds that may be involved in
attracting a mate.
Sperm whales and people: Sperm whales have been hunted since
the early 1700s, with peak whaling activity between 1880 and 1930
and 1950 to 1975. They are valued for their spermaceti, oil, and am-
bergris (AM-bur-gris), a waste product used in manufacturing per-
fumes. Whale meat is also eaten in some countries such as Japan.
Sperm Whales 763

Conservation status: Sperm whale hunting stopped in 1985. How-
ever, in 2000, Japan resumed hunting for what they called “scientific
research” and has continued to kill between five and ten sperm whales
each year. Sperm whales are considered Vulnerable. Because it takes
them so long to mature and they have calves only every five to seven
years, it will take a long time for their populations to recover from
hunting. They are also at risk from collisions with ships and acci-
dental entanglement in fishing nets and transatlantic communication
cables. ■

Pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps)
PYGMY SPERM WHALE

Kogia breviceps
Physical characteristics: The pygmy sperm whale is one of two

small species in this family. These whales are about 11 feet long (3.4
meters) and weigh about 600 pounds (400 kilograms). They have
blue-gray backs and a shape that makes them look something like a
shark. Unlike the giant sperm whale, their head is only about 15 per-
cent of their body length. They also have a much smaller spermaceti
organ, and their blowhole is located on the left side of the forehead.
Pygmy sperm whales have about thirty sharp, curved teeth only in
the lower jaw.
Geographic range: These whales are found worldwide in temper-

ate and tropical water.
Habitat: Pygmy sperm whales live in deep ocean and less deep wa-
ter over continental shelves. They prefer moderate or warm waters
and avoid the very cold waters of the Arctic.
Sperm Whales 765

Diet: Pygmy sperm whales feed on squid, octo-
pus, fish, and crabs. They eat deep-dwelling species
as well as species that live in the less deep waters
over continental shelves.

about these animals. They have been seen floating
without moving on the surface or swimming
slowly. They are not often observed, but when they
are seen, they are often in mother-calf pairs or in
Pygmy sperm whales are rarely groups of fewer than five animals. These animals appear to give birth
seen, and little is known about to a single calf every year after a pregnancy lasting eleven months.
their behavior. (Illustration by Beyond that, little is known about their mating behavior.
Bruce Worden. Reproduced by
permission.)
Pygmy sperm whales and people: These animals are rarely seen.
Occasionally they are accidentally caught in fishing gear.
Conservation status: Too little is known about the population of

pygmy sperm whales to give them a conservation rating. ■
Books:
Press, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald. M.Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/
Web sites:
July 8, 2004).
Bird, Jonathan. “Sperm Whales: The Deep Divers of the Ocean.” Oceanic
Research Group. http://www.oceanicresearch.org/spermwhales.htm
Culik, Boris. “Kogia breviceps.” Convention on Migratory Species.
http://www.cms.int/reports/small_cetaceans/data/K_breviceps/K_
breviceps.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).

BELUGA AND NARWHAL
Monodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Monodontidae
Beluga whales and narwhals are the only two living species class
in this family. Although they look quite different, these species
subclass
share certain physical characteristics, including a very small
beak and small head. Their neck bones (cervical vertebrae) are order
not fused or joined together, giving them the ability to turn monotypic order
their head without turning their entire body. Neither species
has a dorsal (back) fin, only a ridge where the fin normally is suborder
found. The lack of a fin is unusual in whales. Members of this ▲ family
family range in size from 13 to 16 feet (4 to 5 meters) and in
weight from 1,500 to 3,500 pounds (680 to 1,600 kg).
Both species change color as they age. Belugas are born gray,
but gradually become white by the time they reach maturity at
seven to nine years. Narwhals are born gray. As young animals,
they become almost completely blue-black. In adulthood they
become mottled (spotted) dark gray, with more dense splotches
on the back and less dense ones on the belly. In old age, they
become white.
The main difference in these species is in their teeth. Belu-
gas have simple teeth in both the upper and lower jaw. Nar-
whals have only two teeth in the upper jaw. In females, these
teeth do not erupt or become visible. In males, one tooth be-
comes a spiraled tusk that may be 10 feet (3 meters) long.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Both these species live in the Arctic oceans, although their
distribution is not continuous.
Beluga and Narwhal 767

HABITAT
Narwhals live in deep water farther north
than any other whale, following the ice pack as
it grows and recedes. Beluga whales live in shal-
lower water and are sometimes found farther
south. In the summer, they move into estuar-
NOW THAT’S FAT! ies (places where rivers empty into the ocean).
In order to keep from freezing in the from They can survive in fresh water and have oc-
cold Arctic water, beluga whales are covered casionally been found swimming hundreds of
with a layer of blubber that is 10 inches miles (kilometers) up river from the ocean.
(25 centimeters) thick. This fat makes up
DIET
half of the animal’s weight or on average
1,700 pounds (800 kilograms) of fat. Both these species are bottom feeders, div-
ing deep to eat squid, fish, and shrimp. Nar-
whals have a more limited diet than belugas.

Both narwhals and beluga whales live in small groups or
pods, although these pods may gather in groups of hundreds
or thousands of animals during migrations. These species are
social and communicate with a wide range of sounds. Both
species migrate. The narwhal follows the ice pack, moving
north as it melts in summer and south as it grows in winter.
The migration of belugas appears to be triggered by day length.
Not all groups of belugas migrate. One well-studied group that
live at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River in Canada appears
to stay there year round.
These whales give birth to a single calf at a time after a preg-
nancy lasting thirteen to sixteen months. The calf nurses, feeds
on breast milk, and remains dependent on its mother for up to
two years. Mating usually occurs in late winter or early spring
and births occur in the summer of the following year.
BELUGAS, NARWHALS, AND PEOPLE

The native people of the Arctic, the Inuit, have hunted nar-
whals and beluga whales for hundreds of years. These animals
are an important part of their diet and culture. Both species
have also been hunted commercially.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Beluga whales are considered Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction, dying out. Not enough is known about the size

of the narwhal population to give them a conservation rating.
All narwhals that have been taken into captivity have lived only
a few months. However, beluga whales do well in captivity and
are often exhibited at marine parks.

Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BELUGA
Delphinapterus leucas
Physical characteristics: Beluga whales, sometimes called white

whales, begin life colored light gray, then turn darker gray and be-
come white as they mature. They are the only species of whale that
is completely white. Beluga whales range in length from 13 to 16 feet
(4 to 5 meters) and in weight from 1,500 to 3,500 pounds (700 to
1,600 kilograms). Males are about 25 percent larger than females.
Geographic range: These whales are found worldwide in the Arc-

tic. Isolated populations also exist in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada,
and in Cook Inlet, Alaska.
Habitat: Belugas live in cold water of almost any depth. During the
summer they gather in shallow water at the mouths of rivers. At other

Belugas live in pods of fewer
than ten animals, but these
pods often gather into large
herds of hundreds of animals.
(© François Gohier/Photo
permission.)
times, they migrate through deep, open ocean. They can survive in fresh
water, and have been occasionally found in rivers far from the ocean.
Diet: Belugas eat a wide variety of squid, fish, crabs, shrimp, clams,
worms, and octopus that they find by echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-
shun). They can easily dive to depths of 3,300 feet (1,000 meters).
Their teeth are not made for capturing prey. Instead, they suction
food into their mouths and swallow it whole.
Behavior and reproduction: Belugas are some of the most playful

whales. They have been seen swimming and playing either alone or
with other whales with all kinds of floating objects. They live in pods
of less than ten animals, but these pods often gather into large herds
of hundreds of animals.
Belugas are the most vocal species of whale. Their voices are loud
and varied. They make clicks, chirps, whistles, squawks, and other
high-pitched sounds.
Mating occurs in early spring and a single calf is born about four-
teen months later. During the summer, females gather in shallow

waters at the mouths of rivers to give birth, probably because the wa-
ter there is warmer than in the open ocean. Calves nurse for about
two years. A new calf is normally born every three years. Belugas are
thought to live between thirty-five and forty years in the wild.
Natural predators, animals that hunt them for food, of the beluga
whale include killer whales and polar bears. Polar bears lie in wait at
breathing holes in the ice and attack when the whale surfaces to take
a breath.
Beluga whales and people: Belugas have been hunted commer-

cially for food mainly by the Russians. They adapt well to captivity
and are also captured for display in marine entertainment parks. Eco-
tourists visit the population in the St. Lawrence River to observe them
in their natural environment.
Conservation status: Beluga whales are considered Vulnerable.

Some populations, like the one at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River
are coming under increasing pressure from chemical pollution, ship-
ping, and the development of undersea oil and gas fields. ■

Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)
NARWHAL
Monodon monoceros
Physical characteristics: Narwhals grow to be about 14 to 15.5 feet

(4.2 to 4.7 meters) long and weigh 2,200 to 3,500 pounds (1,000 to
1,600 kilograms). Males are much larger than females.
The most outstanding physical feature of the narwhal is its ivory
tusk. The tusk is a tooth that in males grows out of the left side of
the upper jaw in a counter-clockwise spiral. Tusks can grow to be
one-third the length of the body, or 30 feet (10 meters) long, and
weigh 20 pounds (10.5 kilograms). Narwhals have two teeth in the
upper jaw, and occasionally the right tooth will also grow into a tusk.
Once in a great while, a female will develop a tusk. Tusks are often
broken, but will heal and continue to grow.

Geographic range: Narwhals are limited to the coldest Arctic wa-
ters. They are not evenly distributed and are rare along Alaska, Siberia,
and parts of Arctic western Canada.
Habitat: Narwhals live in colder water than any other whale. They
follow the ice pack, moving north in the summer as it retreats and
south in the winter as it grows. They often swim long distances un-
der thick ice, coming up to breathe in small cracks called leads.
Diet: Narwhals feed along the sea bottom, eating squid and deep
water fishes. They can dive to depths of about 3,300 feet (1,000 me-
ters) and stay under water for up to twenty-five minutes. They locate
their food by echolocation. Echolocation involves making sounds that
bounce off objects. Sense organs pick up the echo or reflected sound
and use information about its the timing, direction, and strength to
determine the location of objects.
Behavior and reproduction: Narwhals are social animals. They live in

groups or pods of three to eight individuals, usually of the same sex and

age. When they migrate, these pods may gather to form groups of hun-
dreds or even thousands of animals. Narwhals have been known to work
cooperatively to open breathing holes in the ice. Several animals will si-
multaneously butt their foreheads against the ice sheet in order to break
it. This suggests that they have some form of group communication.
Narwhals mate in the early spring and have a single calf in July or
August of the following year. Scientists are not sure, but they think
that males fight each other with their tusks for the right to mate. Fe-
males normally produce a calf every three years. Pregnancy lasts about
fifteen months. Newborns are 5 feet (1.6 meters) long and weight
about 175 pounds (80 kilograms). They are born with a 1-inch
(2.5-centimeter) thick layer of blubber to protect them from the cold
water. Calves nurse for about twenty months and may remain with
their mother longer. They become physically mature between four
and seven years of age and can live fifty years in the wild. Natural
predators of the narwhal are the killer whale and the Greenland
shark.
Narwhals and people: The ivory in the tusks of narwhals has com-
mercial value. It is often carved into jewelry or decorations. The tusks
are also sold as curiosities to collectors. In earlier times, narwhal tusks
brought back by sailors may have given rise to the story of the uni-
corn, a one-horned horse.
Conservation status: Not enough is known about the population

of narwhals to give them a conservation ranking. Threats include be-
ing hunted for food and for their tusks. Global warming is of partic-
ular concern to the survival of this species, because they live in and
around the ice pack. ■
Books:
Press, 2002.

Web sites:
8, 2004).
Drury, C. “Monodon monoceros (Narwhal).” Animal Diversity Web
Monodon_monoceros.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Williams, S. “Delphinapterus leucas (Beluga).” Animal Diversity Web
Delphinapterus_leucas.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).

GRAY WHALE
Eschrichtiidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Eschrichtiidae
One species: Gray whale
(Eschrichtius
robustus)
Gray whales are very large animals that weigh 30 to 40 tons class
(27,200 to 36,300 kilograms) and are 45 to 50 feet (13.8 to 15
subclass
meters) in length. Females are larger than males. These whales
have a streamlined body with a narrow head. The upper jaw order
overlaps with the lower jaw, and they have two to four throat monotypic order
grooves. Each groove is about 5 feet (1.4 meters) long and al-
lows the throat to expand when the whale takes in water for suborder
filter feeding. ▲ family
Gray whales are baleen (buh-LEEN or BAY-leen) whales.
They do not have teeth. They filter feed using 130 to 180 over-
lapping plates called baleen plates that hang from the upper
jaw. These plates are made of a material called keratin (KARE-
ah-tin). This fingernail-like material frays out into thin hairs at
the end of each strand to make a strainer. Each baleen plate is
white and about 2 to 10 inches (5 to 25 centimeters) in length.
Gray whales have a 10-inch (25-centimeter) layer of blub-
ber, or fat, to keep them warm in freezing cold water. Their
skin is dark with gray patches and white splotches. Their skin
also shows many scars and patches from white barnacles and
orange whale lice. Often many more of these patches are found
on the left side of the whale than on the right because of the
way the whale scrapes along the ocean floor while feeding.
Although the gray whale does not have a dorsal (back) fin,
it does have a large dorsal hump about two-thirds of the way
back on its body. Behind the hump is a row of six to twelve
knuckles that extend to its fluke, otherwise known as its tail.
Gray Whale 777

The fluke is 10 to 12 feet (3.7 meters) across
with a deeply notched center and pointed
tips. The flippers are shaped like paddles and
are also pointed at the tips.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
DEVIL FISH Gray whales migrate between northwest
Alaska in the Chukchi Sea, where they live
Gray whales got the nickname “devil
during the summer, and the Baja Peninsula
fish” from early whalers who hunted off the
of Mexico, where they live during the win-
coast of the Baja Peninsula. They got this
ter. A few individual gray whales live year-
name because the gray whale mother is so
round in the Straits of Juan de Fuca, located
protective of its calf. The mother will make
between the state of Washington and Van-
any sacrifice, including death, to protect
couver Island, Canada, and off the coast of
her young. Soon whalers found that it was
California. Most whales, however, make the
too dangerous to hunt these whales from
10,000-mile (16,000-kilometer) trip from
boats in the water, so they started a new
Mexico to the Arctic yearly.
technique where they would herd the
whales toward the beach and harpoon
them from land. HABITAT
Gray whales prefer shallow coastal water
but dive to the ocean floor to feed. Every year
gray whales spend two to three months mi-
grating 10,000 miles (16,000 kilometers) from their summer
home in Alaska to the warmer coastal waters off of the Baja
Peninsula, Mexico, where they stay all winter.
DIET
Gray whales eat a variety of small shrimp, krill, squid, and
octopus, along with plankton and mollusks. They are seasonal
feeders, doing most of their feeding between May and Novem-
ber in the Arctic, but they are unique among baleen whales be-
cause they are bottom feeders. To eat, they dive to the bottom
and roll on to their right side. They suck the stirred-up bottom
mud and water into their mouth. This is filtered through the
whale’s baleen plates, trapping the food near the tongue where
it can be eaten.

Gray whales live in small groups (called pods) of about three
whales, although some pods may have as many as sixteen
whales. In feeding waters, pods come together, and hundreds
of whales will temporarily feed in the same area.

Although gray whales are large, they are quite agile. Nor- A LONG TRIP
mally gray whales swim only 2 to 6 miles per hour (3 to 10 Gray whales migrate
kilometers per hour), but when in danger, they can reach speeds 10,000 miles every year
of 10 to 11 miles per hour (16 to 17.5 kilometers per hour). between Alaska and
While feeding, gray whales usually swim at speeds of 1 to 2.5 Mexico. This is the longest
miles per hour (1.6 to 4 kilometers per hour). migration of any mammal.
Gray whales can do many different maneuvers (mah-NOO- During this time, they do
verz) including breaching, where they jump partially out of the not eat, but live off their
water and fall back in at an angle. This makes a loud noise and stored blubber.
is thought to either help clean off some of the barnacles and
lice on their skin or to communicate with other gray whales.
Spy hopping is another favorite maneuver. This is when the
whale pokes its head up to 10 feet (3 meters) out of the water
and looks around while turning slowly.
Gray whales can stay underwater for thirty minutes and dive
to depths of 500 feet (155 meters) while searching for food.
When they come back to the surface, they take in air through
two blowholes located near the top of their head. Before
they go under water for a long time, they spend two to five min-
utes taking deep, slow breaths. When at rest, gray whales breathe
about two to three times per minute. While sleeping, they keep
their blowhole just above the surface. Each spout, or breath, is
very noisy and can be heard up to a half mile away. The stream
of water that comes from the blowhole rises 10 to 13 feet 3 to
4 meters) above the water and is a very impressive sight.
Gray whales reach sexual maturity when they are about 36
to 39 feet (11 to 12 meters) long. This usually occurs between
five and eleven years of age. Courtship and mating involves
three or more whales of both sexes and is very complex. Both
mating and calving usually occur off the coast of Baja Califor-
nia, Mexico. After breeding, which usually takes place in late
winter or early spring, females are pregnant for twelve to thir-
teen months. When the calf is born, it is about 15 feet (4.5 me-
ters) long and weighs somewhere between 1,100 and 1,500
pounds (500 to 600 kilograms). The calf spends seven to eight
months nursing on its mother’s milk, which is 53 percent fat.
Females have a single calf only every two to four years.
When the calf is born, it immediately swims to the surface.
Its mother helps it, because the newborn cannot swim for the
first half hour of its life. Gray whales stop growing at the age
of forty and usually live to be between fifty and sixty years old.
Gray Whale 779

Adult gray whales can stay
underwater for thirty minutes.
But when calves are first born,
their mothers must help them to
swim to the surface for air,
because the newborn cannot
swim for the first half hour of its
life. (© François Gohier/Photo
permission.)
Gray whales do not have many predators, animals that hunt

them for food. The largest and most significant are humans,
who spent thousands of years hunting these whales almost to
extinction. Killer whales, also known as orcas, will attack gray
whales and often kill them. Killer whales make most of the scars
on the backs of gray whales. Most of these attacks happen off
the coast of northwest Oregon. Large sharks have also been
known to attack gray whales, but that is much less common.
GRAY WHALES AND PEOPLE

For thousands of years, people have hunted the gray whale
for oil, meat, hide, and baleen. This has caused a major decline,
and two of the three populations located throughout the world
were killed off. As the gray whale became protected by the In-
ternational Whaling Commission, whale watching has replaced
hunting. Now millions of people watch gray whales along the
peninsula of Baja California and as they migrate along the West
Coast of North America. Some gray whales are known as
“friendlies” and will come up to small boats and allow them-
selves to be touched.
CONSERVATION STATUS
At one time there were three separate gray whale popula-
tions in the world. A population in the North Atlantic became

Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus)
extinct during the mid-1700s because of overhunting. The west-

ern Pacific population was also overhunted to extinction in the
1930s. Now, only the eastern Pacific stock remains. These
whales were hunted almost to extinction in the 1850s. In 1937,
the International Whaling Commission gave the gray whale par-
tial protection, and in 1947 this was changed to full protection.
The Eastern Pacific gray whale population has made an extra-
ordinary recovery. Their numbers now range between 19,000
and 23,000 individuals. This number is close to their original
population.
Books:
Press, 2002.
Gray Whale 781

Web sites:
8, 2004).
“Baleen Whales.” SeaWorld/Busch Gardens Animal Information
Database. http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/Baleen/home.html (ac-
International Whaling Commission. http://www.iwcoffice.org/ (accessed
on July 8, 2004).

PYGMY RIGHT WHALE
Neobalaenidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Neobalaenidae
One species: Pygmy right whale
(Caperea marginata)
The pygmy right whale is the smallest of the baleen (buh- class
LEEN or BAY-leen) whales. It ranges from 5.2 to 7.2 feet (1.6-
subclass
2.2 meters) in length and weighs around 4.5 tons (4,000
kilograms). Females are larger than males. The largest female order
ever recorded was 21.3 feet (6.45 meters), while the largest monotypic order
male was 20 feet (6.05 meters). The pygmy right whale is the
only species in this family and should not be confused with suborder
right whales in the family Balaenidae. ▲ family
Like all baleen whales, the pygmy right whale is a filter
feeder. Pygmy right whales do not have teeth. Instead, it has
many overlapping plates, called baleen plates, which hang like
a curtain from the upper jaw. These plates are made of a ma-
terial called keratin (KARE-ah-tin). This horny, fingernail-like
material frays out into thin hairs at the end of each strand to
make a strainer. The whale opens its mouth to feed and sucks
in a lot of water. It then pushes the water out through the baleen
plates and uses its tongue to lick up food that remains.
The pygmy right whale’s head is one-fourth the size of its
body. Its most noticeable characteristics are a highly arched jaw
and large lips. Inside the pygmy’s mouth are 460 ivory-colored
baleen; these are lined up, with 230 on each side of the upper
jaw. This baleen is thought to be more flexible and tougher
than the baleen of any other species. Each piece varies from 1
to 28 inches (2.5 to 70 centimeters) wide and can be as long
as 4 inches (10 centimeters). The size of each baleen depends
on where it is in the mouth.
Pygmy Right Whale 783

The head of the pygmy right whale has
more hair than most other whales, with 100
hairs on the upper jaw and over 300 on the
tip of the lower jaw. This whale has very
small eyes, but good sight is not very im-
portant to it in finding food.
THE RAREST WHALE The pygmy right whale has a dark gray head
The pygmy right whale is the rarest and that, with age, gets lighter along the lower jaw
least understood of all the baleen (filter until it turns white on its underside. The back
feeding) whales. Only about two dozen of the whale is also dark gray and has two
specimens have been studied. Some blowholes located near the front of the head.
things about this whale resemble whales in Two-thirds of the way back is a very small dor-
the rorqual family. Other characteristics are sal (back) fin. The fin grows to be only about
similar to whales in the right whale family. 6 inches (15 centimeters) high. The flippers
In the past, pygmy right whales have been are darker than the rest of the body. They are
classified as part of the right whale family, very narrow and are rounded at the ends.
but today, scientists believe that it is
different enough to be put in a family of GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
its own. The pygmy right whale lives deep in
Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic, Pacific,
and Indian Oceans. Most often this species
is seen around Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South Africa,
and the southern tip of South America.
HABITAT
Pygmy right whales live where the surface water is between
41 and 68°F (5 and 20°C). Not much else is known about the
habitat preferences of this whale.
DIET
The pygmy right whale eats small squid, octopus, krill, and
shrimp-like marine animals. Their method of feeding has never
been observed, but it is thought that this whale uses a surface-
skimming technique instead of diving deep to feed.

There have been very few sightings of pygmy rights, so lit-
tle is known about their behavior. They are often seen in pairs
or pods of up to ten individuals, but there have been occasional
sightings of groups as large as eighty. To communicate, pygmy
right whales use intense thumps or tones, each quickly rising
and slowly falling, as the frequency drops.

Pygmy right whale (Caperea marginata)
The pygmy right whale is a very slow swimmer. It often

spends only a few seconds on the surface when it comes up for
air, usually just sticking its snout out of the water. The longest
recorded dive of a pygmy lasted only four minutes. This whale
is not known to do any acrobatic leaps out of the water. It is
rarely seen at sea.
Since so little is known about the pygmy whale, there is lit-
tle information about the mating season, mating practices, or
length of pregnancy. Calves are around 6.5 feet (2 meters) at
birth. Many researchers believe that calving may take place
year-round. Calves stop nursing when they are between 9 and
11.2 feet (3 and 3.5 meters) long. Sexual maturity (the ability
to reproduce) is reached when the animals are about 16 to 20
feet (5 to 6 meters) in length. Their average lifespan has not
been determined.
PYGMY RIGHT WHALE AND PEOPLE

The pygmy whale has little to no contact with humans. Be-
cause it is so rare, the pygmy has never been hunted. The only
human-caused deaths come from occasional entanglement in
fishing nets.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Only a few dozen pygmy right whales have ever been ex-
amined, and only a few hundred have been identified. They are
not on the endangered species list because of a lack of infor-
mation, but are still thought to be threatened with extinction.
Pygmy Right Whale 785

Only about two dozen pygmy
right whales have been studied,
and they are rarely seen at sea.
There is still a lot to learn about
how they live. (Illustration by
Brian Cressman. Reproduced by
permission.)
They are the only baleen whales not to have been threatened
by large-scale commercial hunting. There is concern that this
whale might be confused with the Antarctic minke whale,
which it resembles. The Antarctic minke whale is still hunted
by Japanese whalers. The pygmy is thought to be threatened by
global climate change, but not by toxic pollution. Overall, it
seems to be so rare not because of the lack of animals, but be-
cause of a lack of data and research.
Books:
Web sites:
July 8, 2004).
“Caperea marginata: Pygmy Right Whale.” Cetacea. http://www.cetacea.
org/pright.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Cover, Sarah. “Caperea marginata (Pygmy Right Whale).” Animal
information/Caperea_marginata.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Fishin’ for Facts: Pygmy Right Whale.” Whale Times. http://www.
whaletimes.org/pygrtwha.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).

RIGHT WHALES AND
BOWHEAD WHALES
Balaenidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Balaenidae
Right whales and bowhead whales are baleen (buh-LEEN or class
BAY-leen) whales. Like all baleen whales, these whales are fil-
subclass
ter feeders. Right whales and bowhead whales do not have teeth.
Instead, they have many overlapping plates, called baleen plates order
that hang like a curtain from the upper jaw. These plates are monotypic order
made of a material called keratin (KARE-ah-tin). This horny
fingernail-like material frays out into thin hairs at the end of suborder
each strand to make a strainer. The whale opens its mouth to ▲ family
feed and sucks in a lot of water. It then pushes the water out
through the baleen plates and uses its tongue to lick up food
that remains, caught by the plates.
Right whales and bowhead whales are generally between 43
and 65 feet (13 to 20 meters) long. They weigh between 168,000
and 224,000 pounds (76,200 to 101,600 kilograms). They have
large heads and a curved mouth that allows them more baleen
surface than baleen whales with a straight mouth. Because they
are mammals, whales must come to the surface of the water to
breathe. They breathe through a blowhole located on top of
their head. The blowhole is connected to the lungs.
Bowhead and right whales are almost entirely black, but they
do have a patch of white around their chin, as well as a band
of lighter color on their tail. The easiest way to tell the differ-
ence between a bowhead whale and a right whale is that right
whales have bumps around their head, near their mouth, and
around their eyes. These bumps are actually places where small
animals known as whale lice live. These parasites are not
Right Whales and Bowhead Whales 787

thought to be harmful to the whales. Bow-
head whales do not have these bumps.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Right and bowhead whales can be found
throughout most of the world’s oceans and
WHALES AND MYTHS seas. They go farther into the Arctic than
Whales have played an important role in many other whales and are capable of break-
popular culture. In the story of Pinocchio, ing through newly formed ice up to 9 inches
a father and his wooden boy are swallowed (23 centimeters) thick. These whales do not
by a whale. In Moby Dick, Captain Ahab generally enter the warmest waters close to
pursues a white whale that attacks his ship. the equator.
While these tales tell us of the fear that
people have had of whales for centuries, it HABITAT
is important to remember that whales do Right whales and bowhead whales travel
not feed on people. Most large whales are long distances and can live in a variety of
not even capable of swallowing a person. habitats. They generally find warmer tem-
peratures for birthing along coastal regions
and bays. They are capable of traveling far
into the polar regions and navigating through icy waters to find
krill for feeding.
DIET
Right whales and bowhead whales feed on small marine an-
imals called krill by using their baleen. They do this by taking
in water and krill as they open their large mouth. Next, they
close their mouth most of the way, until only the baleen is ex-
posed between their lips at the sides of the mouth, like a sieve
(SIV). Then they push the water through the baleen and out
between their lips, but the krill are trapped in the baleen and
are left in the whale’s mouth. By scraping the baleen with their
huge tongue, the whales are able to swallow the food that is
left after the water rushes out.

Like all baleen whales, bowhead whales and right whales mi-
grate. They spend the colder times of the year in warmer wa-
ter closer to the equator and then move towards the polar
regions of the Arctic and Antarctica where they spend the rest
of the year. They do most of their feeding in the colder regions,
and give birth in the warmer areas. Female right whales and
bowhead whales give birth to one young at a time after a year

of pregnancy. The young are nursed for
about six months. They reach maturity after
eight or nine years. Right whales can live as
long as seventy years, but bowheads can live
even longer, some past one hundred years.
Right and bowhead whales are known for
their songs and the other types of sounds ANCIENT TREASURES
they make. Some people have described these In 1995, a bowhead whale was killed in
sounds as grunts, roars, growls, belches, Alaska. When it was processed, it was
complex screams, or pulses. In the spring- found to have two stone harpoon blades in
time, bowhead whales send out complicated its flesh. This type of harpoon has not been
songs with themes, sets of notes that are re- used to hunt whales since the late 1800s.
peated. It is thought that these serve as com- This means that the whale had to be over
munication between males and females. one hundred years old when it was killed.
RIGHT WHALES AND BOWHEAD WHALES

AND PEOPLE
Throughout the nineteenth century and until recent times,
right and bowhead whales were among those whales most
sought by hunters. Whalers would bring in thousands of whales
every year. Not only were whales a plentiful source of meat, but
their blubber could be used to make oil for lamps. The baleen
whales were particularly prized, because baleen could be used
to make hoop skirts, shirt collars, and other clothing items be-
cause it was stiff, yet flexible. The invention of electric lighting,
as well as new kinds of metal and plastic, has eliminated the
need for almost all whale products in the modern world. In the
1930s, the International Whaling Commission banned the hunt-
ing of right and bowhead whales, although some hunting still
occurs illegally. Native people of the Arctic are still allowed to
hunt whales, and they use them for food, oil, and in the con-
struction materials of sleds, baskets, traps and other items.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Bowhead whales and southern right whales are considered
at low risk for extinction, dying out. However northern Pacific
right whales and northern Atlantic right whales are considered
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild,
and it is thought that fewer than 250 mature individuals re-
main. Since commercial whaling began, the population of these
two endangered species has been reduced by 95 percent. It is
questionable whether they will ever recover.

Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BOWHEAD WHALES
Balaena mysticetus
Physical characteristics: Bowhead whales grow to a length of 46

to 65 feet (14 to 20 meters) and can weigh as much as 112 tons (102
metric tons). They have the longest of all whale jaws and can have
as many as 350 baleen plates in their mouth. They have no dorsal, or
back, fin, but they do have a muscular bulge around the blowhole.
They are almost entirely black except for a white patch at the front
of their jaw. The bowhead has longer baleen than any other whale—
its baleen can measure 25 feet (4.5 meters) long.
Geographic range: Bowhead whales are found mostly in the north-

ern polar regions.
Habitat: Bowhead whales are accustomed to the icy waters found

in the northern polar region and can navigate waters where there is
a lot of ice.
Diet: Bowheads feed both near the surface and on the ocean floor.
This gives them a highly varied diet of small marine animals. They
eat as many as sixty different species.

Behavior and reproduction: Bowhead whales swim slowly and mi- Bowheads eat as many as sixty
different species of small marine
grate with the forming and melting of ice in the northern pole region.
mammals. They feed both near
In females pregnancy lasts fourteen months, and young are fed for a the surface and on the ocean
year after birth. floor. (Illustration by Michelle
Meneghini. Reproduced by
permission.)
Bowhead whales and people: Inuit in Alaska have hunted and
eaten bowhead whales for centuries. During the nineteenth century,
bowhead whales were hunted commercially by a number of coun-
tries. This commercial whaling was one of the reasons that people
first began to explore the Arctic region.
Conservation status: It is estimated that 10,000 bowheads still ex-

ist, and they are considered at low risk for extinction. However, cer-
tain populations have been greatly diminished and it is questionable
whether the few animals left in these areas will be able to recover
their once great numbers. ■

North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis)
NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE

Eubalaena glacialis
Physical characteristics: North Atlantic right whales are usually

43 to 53 feet (13 to 16 meters) in length and can weigh up to 100
tons (91 metric tons). They are black, but can have white areas on
their belly and chin. Like other right whales, they have rough areas
of skin that appear bumpy around their head. Barnacles and whale
lice live in these bumps.
Geographic range: North Atlantic right whales are found through-

out the seas and oceans of the Northern Hemisphere.
Habitat: These whales spend most of their time in shallow coastal

waters. They migrate between cold polar waters for feeding and
warmer southern waters for birthing and feeding their young.
Diet: North Atlantic right whales feed on almost any small marine
animal that it can filter through its baleen. They are known to feed
at the surface and to also dive in order to feed off the ocean floor
where the water is not too deep.

Behavior and reproduction: These whales usually dive for ten to North Atlantic right whales
migrate between cold polar
twenty minutes. They are slow swimmers. Males compete over a fe-
waters for feeding and warmer
male by pushing and shoving each other. The young are born in the southern waters for birthing and
warmer waters during winter and they are fed by their mother for a feeding their young. (Illustration
year after birth. by Michelle Meneghini.
North Atlantic right whales and people: North Atlantic right whales
have been hunted for almost a thousand years because of the meat,
oil, and baleen that they can provide. Today large amounts of money
are spent on preserving and restoring the small remaining population.
They are also an important part of the whale watching industry.
Conservation status: North Atlantic right whales are Endangered.

It is estimated that fewer than 250 exist in the world today. Because
of accidents with fishing vessels and accidental entanglement in fish-
ing nets, these whales have had a difficult time recovering their
numbers. ■
Books:
Hess, Bill. Gift of the Whale: The Inupiat Bowhead Hunt, a Sacred
Tradition. Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1999.
Kraus, Scott, and Ken Malory. The Search for the Right Whale. New York:
Crown Publishers, 1993.

Paulson, Dennis, and Les Beletsky. Alaska: The Ecotravellers’ Wildlife
Guide. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001.
Web sites:
“Family Balaenidae (Bowhead Whales and Right Whales).” Animal Di-
versity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Balaenidae.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
International Whaling Commission. http://www.iwcoffice.org (accessed
on July 8, 2004).

RORQUALS
Balaenopteridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Cetacea
Family: Balaenopteridae
Number of species: 7 or 8 species
Rorquals (ROAR-kwulz) are large baleen (buh-LEEN or BAY- class
leen) whales. Like all baleen whales, they are filter feeders. These
whales do not have teeth. Instead, they have many overlapping subclass
plates called baleen plates that hang like a curtain from the up- order
per jaw. These plates are made of a material called keratin
monotypic order
(KARE-ah-tin). This horny, fingernail-like material frays out
into thin hairs at the end of each strand to make a strainer. suborder
Rorquals also have a set of ridges and groves along the bottom ▲ family
of their mouth and throat. When they open their mouth to feed,
the grooves expand and make the inside of their mouth very
large so that they can suck up a lot of water. They then push
the water out through the baleen plates and use their tongue to
lick up food that remains.
Rorqual whales can be anywhere between 32 to 102 feet (10
to 31 meters) long and weigh as much as 200 tons (181
metric tons). Some rorquals have a dorsal fin on their backs,
and others have particular bumps or ridges on their head and
back that help to distinguish them from other rorquals. Females
are usually larger than males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Rorquals are found in all of the oceans of the world and the
seas that connect to these oceans. They do not live in the parts
of the Arctic and Antarctic Ocean that are covered by ice, since
they must come to the surface to breathe. Rorquals are more
often found in shallower parts of the ocean that are closer to
land. These areas are called continental shelves.
Rorquals 795
HABITAT
Rorquals can be seen most often in open waters over conti-
nental shelves. They can sometimes be found in bays and in-
lets near land.
DIET
Rorqual whales eat small fish, squid, and other small marine
animals. Much of their diet is made up by krill, which are tiny
shrimp-like animals. They obtain their food by filtering large
quantities of water through their baleen. Normally they feed at
depths no greater than 300 feet (91 meters) and stay under wa-
ter no longer than ten minutes.
To capture the large amount of food that they need, rorquals
expand their mouth and open it wide. Then they close their
mouth most of the way, leaving only the baleen exposed, like
a sieve (siv) between their lips, and squeeze the water out by
ramming their tongue against the baleen. This pushes out the
water and leaves the food behind. The blue whale, the largest
rorqual, can eat 8 tons (7.3 metric tons) of krill per day.

Rorquals normally swim at around 10 to 20 miles per hour
(16 to 32 kilometers per hour). Some species, such as the fin
whale can swim at speeds of 23 miles per hour (37 kilometers
per hour) for short periods. Groups, or pods, are usually made
up of two to five individuals, but sometimes large groups of
rorquals come together where food is abundant. Generally
rorquals do not dive deeper than 300 feet (91 meters) below the
surface.
Even though different rorqual species live in different parts
of the world, they all follow a migration pattern. This means
that they spend part of the year in a warmer area and then
move, often over great distances, to a cooler area for the other
part of the year. Rorquals time their reproduction with this
yearly cycle by giving birth in the warmer area and feeding in
the cooler area. A female rorqual is pregnant for about a year,
depending on the species, before she gives birth to a single calf.
When the calf is born, it measures between 9 and 23 feet (2.7
and 7 meters) long. The young nurse, feed on their mother’s
milk, for about a year and grow rapidly. They become mature
between five and fifteen years and live, on average, fifty to eighty
years.

RORQUALS AND PEOPLE
All species of rorquals have been hunted
by people for their oil and meat. Their oil
was used in making margarine, soap, and
lubricants, or industrial oils, until the
1980s. During the early 1900s humpback
whales were hunted heavily, because they A WHALE’S FINGERPRINT
live close to land and their population was Scientists have discovered that each
severely reduced. Hunters then began hunt- humpback whale’s dorsal, back, fin and tail
ing of a number of other rorqual species. markings are unique. This is the whale’s
The blue whale became a preferred target fingerprint. Knowing this, scientists can
of whalers, whale hunters, because of its follow individual whales by photographing
size and the quantity of oil, meat, and blub- them when they leap out of the water and
ber that it could provide. Larger blue matching their fin and tail pattern to known
whales could contain as much as 9,000 gal- individual whales. Being able to track a
lons (34,000 liters) of oil. Through efforts single whale has helped scientists learn
of the International Whaling Commission, where they migrate, when they mate, how
environmental groups and other agencies, long they live, and other important infor-
large scale commercial whaling ended by mation.
1990. Today, whale watching is more pop-
ular and profitable than hunting. Accord-
ing to the World Wildlife Fund, this
ecotourism, travel for the purpose of observing wildlife and
learning about the environment, generated approximately
one billion dollars in 2000.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The International Whaling Commission, set up in 1946 by
twenty countries, has attempted to monitor and establish lim-
its on the number of whales and the kinds of whales that are
killed each year. In 1972, the United States Congress passed
the Marine Mammal Protection Act banning hunting of marine
mammals and the purchasing of their products from other
countries. While these efforts have brought an end to most
whale hunting worldwide, they may have been too late for many
rorqual species. Today, the blue whale, the sei whale, and the
fin whale are considered Endangered, facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild. Humpback whales are considered Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Studies
done by the International Whaling Commission have estimated
that there are fewer than five hundred blue whales remaining
in the world.
Rorquals 797
Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS BLUE WHALE
Balaenoptera musculu
Physical characteristics: The blue whale is the largest animal on

the planet. Their skin is gray or blue-gray with lighter colored
splotches. Blue whales grow to between 74 and 79 feet (23 and 24
meters) and weigh up to 200 tons (181 metric tons). Females are
slightly larger than males.
Geographic range: Blue whales are found in all oceans worldwide.
Habitat: Blue whales spend the spring months in the colder waters
close to the poles, but migrate toward the warmer regions closer to
the equator for the other eight months.
Diet: Blue whales eat only during the spring for about four months
when they feed in colder waters. The rest of the year, they live off
stores of blubber, fat, that they build up during the feeding season.
Blue whales eat krill and generally avoid other marine life. When they
are feeding, they can eat 8 tons (7.3 metric tons) of krill per day.
Behavior and reproduction: Although they usually swim at about

14 miles per hour (22 kilometers per hour), blue whales have been

known to swim as fast as 30 miles per hour (48 kilometers per hour). Blue whales are the largest
mammals on Earth, and can live
They dive for ten to twenty minutes to feed and generally do not dive
over one hundred years. (Phillip
more than 300 feet (91 meters) below the surface. Female blue whales Colla/Bruce Coleman Inc.
give birth in late spring and summer after twelve months of preg- Reproduced by permission.)
nancy to young that are about 23 feet (7 meters) long. Blue whales
can live past one hundred years of age.
Blue whales and people: When whalers began using ships that al-
lowed them to haul up whales no matter how large they were, the
blue whale populations dropped dramatically. Because of their size,
blue whales were highly prized, as whalers could bring in large
amounts of oil, blubber, and meat with a single kill. During the years
of 1930 and 1931, almost 30,000 blue whales were killed. During the
1960s, the blue whale gained protection from the International Whal-
ing Commission. The blue whale may not survive much longer. Some
scientists predict that the remaining population of about five hundred
whales is not large enough to support a recovery. In recent decades
the blue whale has taken a place in popular culture, and its image
has helped to promote conservation efforts and ecotourism activities
such as whale watching.
Conservation status: Blue whales are Endangered. ■
Rorquals 799
Northern minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)
NORTHERN MINKE WHALE

Balaenoptera acutorostrata
Physical characteristics: The northern minke whale is the small-

est rorqual whale, but is still between 26 and 33 feet (8 and 10 me-
ters) long. They are sleek whales with black, brown or gray backs and
lighter bellies. They have light stripes across their flippers.
Geographic range: Northern minke whales migrate from tropical

waters to the polar oceans in the Northern Hemisphere. There are
two separate populations, one in the North Atlantic and one in the
North Pacific.
Habitat: Northern minke whales live at the edge of the polar ice
fields, and sometimes even enter the fields of ice. They prefer water
close to shore, and will enter bays and inlets.
Diet: Although a large part of their diet is krill and small schooling
fish, the northern minke whale feeds on many foods that other
rorquals generally avoid, including larger fish such as salmon, cod,
and mackerel.

Unlike other members of the
family, the northern minke whale
is abundant, though it is still
protected from hunting.
(© François Gohier/Photo
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Northern minke whales are most of-

ten seen alone, in pairs, or groups of three. However, there are times
when they gather in large groups of up to fifty in rich feeding areas.
Female northern minke whales are pregnant for ten months, after
which the calves nurse for about six months. Calving usually occurs
in the winter. Calves stay with their mothers for about two years, even
when they have stopped nursing. These rorquals often live to be sixty
years old.
Northern minke whales and people: Meat from this rorqual, as well
as many other rorquals, is sought after in Japan and Korea as a spe-
cial delicacy. Their meat is extremely expensive. Despite the Inter-
national Whaling Commission’s 1986 ban on hunting, these whales
are still taken illegally because of the high price their meat brings.
Conservation status: Northern minke whales, unlike many of

their fellow rorquals, are abundant and considered at low risk for
extinction. ■
Rorquals 801
Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)
HUMPBACK WHALE
Megaptera novaeangliae
Physical characteristics: Humpback whales grow to between 38

and 49 feet (12 to 15 meters) in length and weigh between 27 and
33 tons (25 to 30 metric tons). The tail can be 18 feet (5.5 meters)
wide. They are black except for their underside, flippers, and throat,
which are white. Their head, jaw, and flippers are covered with
bumps. Each bump has at least one hair growing out of it. Scientists
do not know what these bumps or hairs are for. The humpback whale
has the longest flippers of any whale.
Geographic range: Humpback whales live in the Pacific and At-

lantic Oceans.
Habitat: Humpback whales spend the cooler months closer to the

equator and then migrate towards the north or south pole for the
warmer months.
Diet: Like most rorquals, humpback whales eat krill or small ma-
rine animals that they catch by filtering large quantities of water
through their baleen. While the largest part of their diet is krill, the
humpback whale also eats a variety of small fish. Each whale eats
about 1.5 tons (1.4 metric tons) of food a day.
Behavior and reproduction: Humpback whales tend to gather in

groups of two to five. Not only are they known for their acrobatic

ability to leap out of the water and slap the water
with their tail and flippers, but humpback whales
do some of the most complex and intricate singing
of any mammal. These songs last about twenty to
thirty minutes and are repeated for hours. The
North Atlantic whales all sing the same song, and
it is different from the song the North Pacific
humpback whales sing. Females are pregnant for
twelve months and nurse their young for another
year after birth. They usually have a new calf every
other year. Humpback whales can live up to sev-
enty-five years.
Humpback whales and people: Because hump-

back whales tend to stay closer to the land than
other rorquals, they were hunted heavily. Although
their numbers have decreased substantially, the
humpback whale is less likely to go extinct than
several other whales.
Conservation status: Humpback whales are

considered Vulnerable. ■
Books:
Clapham, Phil. Humpback Whales (World Life Library). Stillwater, MN: Female humpback whales nurse
Voyageur Press, 1996. their young for about one year,
Cooper, Jason. Baleen Whales. Vero Beach, FL: The Rourke Book and have a new calf about every
Company, 1996. other year. (V. & W. Villoch/
Miller-Schroeder, Patricia. Blue Whales. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, by permission.)
1998.
Web sites:
July 8, 2004).
International Whaling Commission. http://www.iwcoffice.org/ (accessed
on July 8, 2004).
Myers, Phil. “Family Balaenopteridae (Rorquals).” Animal Diversity
Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/
Balaenopteridae.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Rorquals 803
AARDVARK
Tubulidentata
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Tubulidentata
One family: Orycteropodidae
One species: Aardvark (Orycteropus
afer)
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

class Aardvarks have elongated, or stretched-out, heads with a pig-
like snout and tubular ears. Their muscular, arched bodies are pro-
subclass tected by a thick, grayish brown skin that is covered with bristles.
order The front feet have four toes as well as sharp claws, while the back
●
▲ monotypic order feet have five toes. The cone-shaped tail is short and tapered,
smaller at the end. The long tongue is sticky to help catch insects.
suborder Adult aardvarks are 67 to 79 inches (170 to 200 centimeters) long
family and weigh anywhere from 88 to 143 pounds (40 to 65 kilograms).
The word aardvark means “earth pig” in Dutch. In addition
to having a pig-like snout, this mammal resembles a pig in the
way it uses its front feet to dig. Like the tail, the snout tapers
at the end, and it has two nostrils that can be closed. Although
the legs are short, they are powerful—strong enough to break
through rock-solid termite mounds. The back legs are slightly
longer than the front legs. Despite having soles on the hind
feet, aardvarks move on their toes and use the front feet, with
their long claws, for digging.
Adults have about twenty teeth, and they are located in the
back of the mouth. These column-shaped teeth grow through-
out the aardvark’s lifetime and, unlike human teeth, do not have
protective enamel coating. Instead, each tooth is made of
dentin, a material that is harder than bone.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Though not common anywhere, aardvarks live primarily in
the grassland and woodlands of the part of Africa south of the
Sahara desert. They have also been seen in rainforests.

HABITAT
The deciding factor for where aardvarks live
is availability of food. They also require sandy
soil, as opposed to rocks, so that they can dig
for termites. Aardvarks live in underground
burrows that are 6.5 to 9.8 feet (2 to 3 me-
ters) long, at 45 degree angles. At the end of
the tunnel is a rounded “room” where the
aardvark curls up to sleep. Female aardvarks
give birth in this chamber. Although burrows
usually have just one entrance, some have nu-
merous entryways as well as several tunnels
extending from the main passage.
DIET
Aardvarks began eating termites thirty-five million years ago, Termites are the aardvark’s
preferred food. Aardvarks will dig
and that’s still their preferred meal. A hill of termites is not at a termite mound and eat the
enough to satisfy an aardvark, however, so it searches for en- escaping termites, or look for a
tire termite colonies. These colonies march in columns 33 to whole colony on the move and
eat them as they march along.
130 feet (10 to 40 meters) long, which makes it easy for the (© Nigel J. Dennis/Photo
aardvark to suck the termites through its nostrils. When at- Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
tacking a termite mound, the aardvark starts digging at the base permission.)
with his front claws. Once the termites begin escaping, it ex-
tends its tongue and traps them with its sticky saliva. Aard-
varks also eat ants and locusts, a type of grasshopper.
In addition to these insects, aardvarks eat an underground
fruit of the cucumber species, probably as a source of water.
Cucumis humifructus is known in South Africa as the “aardvark
pumpkin” or “aardvark cucumber.” One tribe of native people,
the !Kung San, call this plant “aardvark dung” because the aard-
vark buries its feces outside abandoned aardvark burrows and
the plant grows from seeds left in the aardvark’s feces.

Aardvarks are solitary creatures, they prefer to live alone and
have never been found in large numbers. Because they are noc-
turnal, nighttime, animals, they are not seen very often. In the
warmer seasons, they come out of their burrows just after the
sun sets. They are able to hunt and forage, gather food, even if
it is a moonless night because they rely on their sense of smell
to locate termites. Aardvarks cover 1.2 to 3 miles (2 to 5 kilo-
meters) each night at a rate of 1,640 feet (500 meters) per hour.
Aardvark 805
Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)
When searching for food, aardvarks move about in a zigzag

formation with their noses to the ground. It is thought that the
fleshy tentacles, hair-like growths, around the nostrils might
actually be chemical receptors that help find food.
Aardvarks are known for their digging abilities. In fact, aard-
varks can dig a burrow 3.3 feet (1 meter) deep faster than a
group of six adults with shovels!
The mating season of the aardvark varies. In some areas,
mating occurs between April and May, with offspring born in
October or November. In other regions, offspring are born in
May or June. Females carry their offspring for seven months be-
fore giving birth, and they bear only one offspring with each
pregnancy. The baby weighs approximately 4 pounds (2 kilo-
grams). Newborn aardvarks are hairless with pink, tender skin.
They remain in the burrow with their mothers for two weeks.
After two weeks they follow their mothers in the nightly search

for food. The infant aardvark does not eat solid food until around
three months, preferring its mother’s milk until that time.
Aardvarks move away from the mother’s den after six months
and build burrows a few feet (meters) away, but they continue
to forage together. Male aardvarks leave their mothers com-
pletely during the next mating season, but females stay with
mothers until the birth of the next baby. Male aardvarks roam
while females remain in a consistent home range. Because of
this, experts believe aardvarks to be polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-
mus), having more than one mating partner.
Humans are not the only hunters of aardvarks. Lions,
leopards, and hyenas are the main predators, animals that
hunt them for food, of aardvarks. Pythons feed on young
aardvarks as well. When they sense danger, aardvarks retreat
to the nearest hole. If a hole is not nearby, they use their
powerful claws to dig one. The claws push the dirt back-
wards while the tail sweeps it away. In the event they can-
not get to safety, aardvarks will lie on their back and fight
with all four feet.
AARDVARKS AND PEOPLE

European colonialists hunted aardvarks for their meat and
hide. Africans continue to hunt aardvarks and consider it a sport
as well as a means of survival.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Aardvarks are classified as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild, by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN).
Books:
Joyce, Peter. From Aardvark to Zebra: Secrets of African Wildlife.
Cape Town, South Africa: Struik, 2000.
McColaugh, Doreen Wolfson. Wild Lives Guidebook. African Wildlife
Federation, 1997. Online at http://www.awf.org/wildlives/60 (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
Web sites:
African Wildlife Federation. http://www.awf.org (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Science & Nature: Animals.” BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/
reallywild/amazing/aardvark.shtml (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Aardvark 807
ELEPHANTS
Proboscidea
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Proboscidea
One family: Elephantidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

class Elephants weigh 200 to 265 pounds (90 to 120 kilograms)
when they are born. Even after they reach adulthood, elephants
subclass
continue to grow. Females stop growing between twenty-five
order and thirty years and males between thirty-five and forty-five
●
▲ monotypic order years. Adult females weigh anywhere from 3.3 to 7.7 tons
(3 to 7 metric tons), depending on the species of elephant.
suborder
When compared to the size of its body, an elephant’s head
family is large. It weighs up to half a ton (half a metric ton) and is
supported by a short neck. Elephants have four, very strong
legs with feet containing five splayed, spread out, toes. The toes
are buried inside the flesh of the foot so that they are invisible
to the naked eye. When elephants stand, they are actually on
their tip-toes, and though the first visible joint looks like a knee,
it is more like a wrist or ankle. Elephant feet also have pads of
tissue to help support their massive weight. The long tail ends
in a cluster of coarse, rough, hair.
Elephants have no sweat glands, but their large ears contain
a great number of blood vessels to assist with heat loss to help
keep them cool. Their gray hide is sparingly covered with tiny,
short hairs.
The tusks of an elephant are actually teeth and are covered in
dentin, a material that is harder than bone. A third of each tusk
is hidden inside the skull, and additional dentin forms there, push-
ing each tusk out at a rate of up to 6 inches (15 centimeters)
yearly. The tusks of a male elephant can weight 110 pounds (50
kilograms) each and measure 79 inches (200 centimeters). If an

elephant were human, its trunk would be comparable to the nose
and upper lip. The trunk is extremely sensitive and flexible and
contains no bone or cartilage. Instead, it is made up of about
150,000 moveable muscles, which makes it incredibly powerful.
An elephant’s nostrils run the whole length of the trunk.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
African elephants live in central Africa, from Democratic
Republic of the Congo to Mauritania. Asian elephants inhabit
India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Bangladesh, and southern China.
HABITAT
Elephants live only in tropical and subtropical regions, but
they occupy a wide range of habitats, including savannas (a
mixture of grassland and woodland), rainforests, mountains,
semi-deserts, and deciduous (trees that lose their leaves every
year) forests. Elephants eat a wide variety of plants, so it is im-
portant that they live in an area that provides this essential di-
versity. Water is another requirement. They must live within a
day’s walking distance of water in order to survive. Also of great
importance is that the elephant has room to move about freely
without coming into contact with humans.
Elephants have been known to change wooded area into
open grassland by destroying trees.
DIET
Elephants are herbivores, plant eaters, who eat a wide range of
various plant types, including grasses, trees, vines, and shrubs.
They consume between one hundred and five hundred species of
plants, and eat everything edible on each plant, including twigs,
bark, flowers, roots, bulbs, leaves, and shoots. Tree bark is fa-
vored because it provides essential minerals and other nutrients.
What elephants eat depends on the season. During the rainy
season, 50 to 60 percent of an elephant’s diet is made up of
new grasses. As those grasses dry out in the African and Asian
sun, the elephants eat more fruit and shrubs, which account
for about 70 percent of their diet. Bamboo is a staple, basic
food, for elephants residing in the forests of Asia. Elephants in
the rainforests of Africa and Malaysia eat more leaves and fruits.
Elephants eat 220 to 660 pounds (100 to 300 kilograms) of
food daily. Anywhere from twelve to eighteen hours of each day
Elephants 809
is spent eating. Where elephants live determines their behavior
in terms of food gathering. Elephants in forest areas travel slowly,
eating plants as they cover about 3 miles (5 kilometers) each day.
Elephants who live in woodlands and grasslands spend the hottest
parts of the day in the wooded areas and graze in the grassland
as the temperatures cool down. Elephants drink up to 53 gallons
(200 liters) of water each day in hot weather. When water is hard
to find, they dig holes in dried-up streams or lake beds until wa-
ter seeps in, then they suck it up through their trunks.
An elephant’s trunk is a major eating utensil. Smaller items
are plucked or picked up with the trunk while larger items like
branches are torn away from the tree by putting the trunk
around them and twisting. To reach the top of trees, elephants
stand on their hind legs, which give them a total reach, com-
bined with the stretch of the trunk, of 26 feet (8 meters). Ele-
phants have also been observed pushing over and uprooting
trees. The trunk is also important for drinking and is used like
a straw. The elephant sucks water up its trunk only until it can
be squirted into its mouth. Water never reaches the elephant’s
nose. An elephant’s trunk can hold 2.2 gallons (8.5 liters) of
water. The only time elephants eat without the use of their
trunks is when they are nursing from their mothers.
Tusks are also useful for eating. They can strip bark from
trees, dig for roots and water, and scrape salt and other nutri-
ents from soil or rock. Food is chewed by grinding the lower
jaw against the upper jaw, using a forward and backward mo-
tion. The molars, back teeth, of an elephant are flat-topped, each
one independent from its own root. The molars are held to-
gether by a cement-like material and form blocks of enamel and
dentin about 11.8 inches (30 centimeters) long. As each set
wears down, another larger set moves forward to replace it. Ele-
phants have a total of six pairs of teeth blocks, each weighing
up to 8.8 pounds (4 kilograms). The final pair emerges into
place around forty years of age and takes about twenty years to
wear out. At that time, the elephant dies of a combination of
starvation, malnutrition, and old age.
Because elephants do not digest food effectively, only about 40
percent of food by weight is used. The intestine is 115 feet (35
meters) long in comparison the human adult intestine is about
12 to 13 feet (3.7 to 4.0 meters) long. When the elephant is full
the intestine weighs up to a ton (0.9 metric tons). An elephant
expels an average of 220 pounds (100 kilograms) of feces daily.

The female elephant, or cow, is sexually
mature between the ages of twelve and four-
teen and begins to reproduce shortly after
that. Cows typically give birth to one calf at
a time every four or five years. One of every
one hundred births results in a twin delivery. ELEPHANT EMOTIONS
The gestation period, length of pregnancy, for Studies have shown that elephants lead
an elephant cow is twenty-two months. This highly complex social lives marked by
ensures that the calf will be born during the emotions such as joy, grief, and compassion.
rainy season, when grass will be plentiful for In a 2001 Los Angeles Times Syndicate
both mother and baby. Mating takes place at article, Steve Newman reported on a
sixteen-week intervals year round. train wreck in India that killed a group of
Elephant cows give birth standing up, with elephants. The rest of the herd began
the help of other females. Within hours, the trumpeting and giving off shrill cries as they
calf will stand and take its first steps. Calves encircled their dead. The police official
nurse, feed on their mother’s milk, until they described the grieving elephants “with tears
are two or three years old, sometimes longer, rolling down their faces.” In The Astonishing
depending on the timing of the mother’s next Elephant, Shana Alexander recalled an
birth. Male calves nurse more frequently than incident when a young circus elephant
do females, which becomes evident by the dif- began to sob when scolded during a circus
ference in size after the first few years. training session.
Elephants have socially complex lives. The
social structure is matriarchal (may-tree-
ARK-ul), female-led, and the family is at the core. Each family
unit has three to twenty-five members of adult females and their
offspring. The females remain close throughout their lifetimes.
Male elephants are typically solitary, preferring their own com-
pany to that of herds. They leave their birth families between
the ages of twelve and fifteen and have no long-term bonds with
them or any other elephants.
Groups are led by the older females, who make all decisions.
Calves remain very close to their mothers, but all the females
of the group will assist in raising the calves. Elephants are highly
intelligent, and social interaction is complex. For example,
within families, individuals greet one another by making sounds
and touching each other with their trunks.
ELEPHANTS AND PEOPLE

Elephants and humans have interacted for tens of thousands
of years. As long ago as thirty thousand years, people in
Europe carved tools and ornaments from ivory tusks. Ivory has
Elephants 811
been used for carving because it’s hard yet has elasticity, flex-
ibility. Elephants play an important role in Asian culture espe-
cially. Evidence points to their domestication, taming for
human use, as early as the third millennium B.C.E. in India.
Soon after, they were used in the military to knock down en-
emy buildings. Royalty used to hunt while riding on elephants’
backs. In the United States, elephants are raised in captivity in
zoos and circuses.
CONSERVATION STATUS
All elephants are listed as Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild, by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN). They are threatened by habitat loss and poaching,
illegal hunting, for ivory, meat, and hides.

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
SPECIES
ASIAN ELEPHANT ACCOUNTS
Elephas maximus
Physical characteristics: Asian elephants weigh 3.3 to 5.5 tons

(3 to 5 metric tons) with shoulder heights of 6.6 to 9.8 feet (2 to
3 meters). They have heads that are large compared to their bodies
with large ears—but smaller ears than the African elephant—that fold
forward at top. Their trunks have one finger at tip. Asian elephants
have gray skin that fades to pink spotting on ears, face, and trunk
with age. Only males have tusks. Some males lack tusks but make up
for this by have an especially strong upper trunk region.
Geographic range: Asian elephants live in Myanmar, Cambodia,

India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Elephants 813
Asian elephants have just one
finger at the tip of their trunk.
The finger helps them to grasp
leaves and pull them off trees
for eating. (C. C. Lockwood/
by permission.)
Smaller populations can be found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, southwest

China, Indonesia, and Nepal.
Habitat: Asian elephants live primarily in forests that are wet or par-
tially moist, those containing bamboo, and grassland. They must live
with a day’s walking distance of water.
Diet: Asian elephants spend eighteen to twenty hours a day eating

and searching for food. Adults eat 220 to 440 pounds (100 to 200
kilograms) of food daily. They consume a variety of plants, which
they chew with their molars, and drink up to 53 gallons (200 liters)
of water each day.
Behavior and reproduction: Asian elephants have matriarchal social

structures that are complex. They live in family units within larger groups.
Asian elephants mate throughout the year, and the gestation period lasts
twenty-two months. Females assist each other in raising the calves within
family units. They communicate by touching one another and making
sounds. Given their size, elephants do not have many predators. Calves
and weakened adults may be attacked by hyenas, lions, and tigers.
Asian elephants and people: Asian elephants are important in

Asian cultures. They are revered in religion. Asian elephants are also
used for domestic work and in the military.
Conservation Status: Listed as Endangered by the IUCN due pri-

marily to habitat loss, but also because of poaching for ivory, meat,
and hides, especially in southern India. ■

Savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana)
SAVANNA ELEPHANT
Loxodonta africana
Physical characteristics: The savanna elephant, the better-known

of the two African elephants, weighs anywhere from 4.4 to 7.7 tons
(4 to 7 metric tons), with a shoulder height of 8.2 to 13 feet (2.5 to
4 meters). The savanna elephant’s head is not as high as the Asian
species and has just a single dome; their ears are larger and fold back
at the top. The trunk has two fingers on its end. Both sexes have
tusks, but the females have smaller tusks.
Geographic range: Savanna elephants live in Mali, Namibia,

Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa.
Elephants 815
Adult African savanna elephant
(Loxodonta africana) and calf
drinking water (© St. Meyers/
OKAPIA/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Habitat: There are 250,000 to 350,000 savanna elephants living

in Africa. Savanna elephants also live in dry woodlands as well as on
savannas, which are a combination of woodland and grassland.
Diet: Adults consume 220 to 660 pounds (100 to 300 kilograms)

of plant food daily, which they chew with their molars. These ele-
phants tend to spend the hottest parts of the day in the wooded areas
and graze in the grassland as the temperatures cool down. Savanna
elephants drink up to 53 gallons (200 liters) of water each day.
Behavior and reproduction: A female cow will signal her readiness

to mate by making loud sounds through her trunk. She also has a
special courtship walk, in which she holds her head high while look-
ing back over her shoulder. Gestation period lasts twenty-two months.
Newborns weigh 265 pounds (120 kilograms). Males are competitive
and solitary. Savanna elephants live in a matriarchal society of fam-
ily units within the larger social structure, with up to seventy ele-
phants in a multi-family group. Females remain bonded for life.
Savanna elephants and people: The savanna elephant is at higher

risk of habitat loss than the forest elephant because it prefers envi-
ronments similar to those that humans prefer.
Conservation status: Because the savanna elephant was not recog-

nized as a species separate from the African forest elephant until 2001,
both species are still considered together in legal terms. Excessive
hunting and habitat loss has caused the African elephant to be listed
as Endangered by the IUCN. ■

Forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis)
FOREST ELEPHANT
Loxodonta cyclotis
Physical characteristics: Forest elephants weigh 2.2 to 4.4 tons

(2 to 4 metric tons), with a shoulder height of 6 to 9.8 feet (1.8 to
3 meters). Compared to the savanna elephant, it is smaller physically.
Their heads are not as high as the Asian species, nor as large as the
savanna elephant, and it has just a single dome. Forest elephant ears
are rounded and fold back at the top. The trunk has two fingers on
its end. Both sexes have tusks, but the female’s tusks are smaller. The
ivory is long and thin, straight with a pinkish hue to it. It is a harder
material than the ivory of the savanna elephant.
Elephants 817
After a pregnancy of twenty-two Geographic range: The forest elephant is thinly scattered throughout
months, female African forest
West Africa but has substantial populations in Central African rainforests.
elephants give birth to a
newborn that weighs 265
pounds (120 kilograms). Habitat: Forest elephants must live near water, and in areas with
(© Christophe Ratier/Photo varied vegetation.
permission.) Diet: Adults consume 220 to 660 pounds (100 to 300 kilograms)
of plant food daily, which they chew with their molars. Forest ele-
phants drink up to 53 gallons (200 liters) of water each day.
Behavior and reproduction: Similar to the savanna elephants, a fe-

male cow signals her readiness to mate by making loud sounds
through her trunk, and has a special courtship walk, in which she
holds her head high while looking back over her shoulder. Gestation
period lasts twenty-two months. Newborns weigh 265 pounds (120
kilograms). Males are competitive and solitary. Forest elephants live
in a matriarchal society of family units within the larger social struc-
ture, though group size is much smaller for forest elephants than for
the savanna elephants. Females remain bonded for life.
Forest elephants and people: African elephants are rarely domes-

ticated. Their numbers have been reduced by hunting for ivory and
meat as well as by loss of habitat due to logging.
Conservation status: Because the forest elephant was not recog-

nized as a species separate from the African savanna elephant until

2001, both species are still considered together in legal terms. Ex-
cessive hunting and habitat loss has caused the African elephant to
be listed as Endangered, by the IUCN. ■
Books:
Alexander, Shana. The Astonishing Elephant. New York: Random House,
2000.
de Waal, Frans. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans
and Other Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff, and Susan McCarthy. When Elephants
Weep: The Emotional Lives of Animals. Surrey, U.K.: Delta, 1996.
Moss, Cynthia. Echo of the Elephants: The Story of an Elephant Family.
New York: William Morrow, 1992.
Moss, Cynthia. Elephant Memories. New York: William Morrow, 1988.
Payne, Katy. Silent Thunder: In the Presence of Elephants. New York:
Penguin USA, 1999.
Periodicals:
Newman, Steve. “Elephants in Mourning.” Los Angeles Times Syndicate
(November 2001).
Web sites:
African Wildlife Foundation: Amboseli Elephant Research Project. http://
www.awf.org/wildlives/elephant.php (accessed July 9, 2004).
“The Elephants of Africa.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). www.
pbs.org/wnet/nature/elephants (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Elephant Information.” Friends of Elephants. http://www.friendsofelephants
.org/links/elephantInfo.html (accessed July 9, 2004).
The Elephant Information Repository. http://elephant.elehost.com/
“Understanding Elephants.” The Africa Guide. http://www.africaguide.
com/features/trvafmag/005.htm (accessed July 9, 2004).
World Wildlife Fund: Endangered Flagship Species. http://www.panda.
org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/what_we_do/flagship_species/
index.cfm (accessed July 9, 2004).
Elephants 819
HYRAXES
Hyracoidea
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Hyracoidea
One family: Procaviidae
Number of species: 5 to 11 species
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

class Hyraxes are herbivores, plant eaters, that resemble guinea
pigs. They have short legs, a stubby tail, and round ears. There
subclass
is no average size, as the species vary greatly across Africa, but
order the growth of the hyrax seems to be directly linked to precip-
●
▲ monotypic order itation, or rainfall—the largest hyraxes are in the areas with the
most rainfall.
suborder
The feet have pads on them that contain sweat glands. The
family hyrax sweats as it runs, which help its feet pads grip, making
it easier to climb. The feet are flexible and can turn upwards.
The front foot has four toes and the hind foot has three toes.
All toes have flat nails except for the second toe of the hind
foot. This toe sports a long, curved claw used for grooming.
All hyraxes have fur, but the length of it depends on the cli-
mate in which they live. The colder the temperature, the longer
the fur. Coat color ranges from light to dark, and may be brown,
white, or gray. The bulging eyes are framed by bushy white
eyebrows. The head is flat on top, and the muzzle, nose and
mouth area, is shaped like a skunk’s muzzle.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hyraxes live mainly in Africa. The rock hyrax has been seen
from Lebanon to Saudi Arabia.
HABITAT
Hyraxes easily adapt to their surroundings and can work
with any kind of shelter so long as it provides the necessary

protection from weather and predators, ani-
mals that hunt them for food.
Each species is distinct in terms of where it
lives. The bush and rock hyraxes need moun-
tain cliffs and an abundance of rocks for refuge.
Tree hyraxes prefer moist forests and savannas,
a tropical environment that contains trees and A PATCHWORK MAMMAL
shrubs and has a dry season. At higher eleva- Although the hyrax resembles a rabbit or
tions they can survive among rocks. guinea pig, it is actually closely related to ele-
phants and other hoofed animals. Its
DIET
anatomy is like an elephant and a horse. Its
The hyrax eats mostly twigs, fruit, and brain is like an elephant’s while the
bark as well as leaves, but it also feeds on stomach is like a horse’s. It has a skeleton
lizard and bird eggs. Because their food is similar to that of a rhinoceros, and its
plant based, hyraxes can go for long periods upper incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the
of time without water, getting the moisture front of the mouth, look like those found on
they need from the plants they eat. rodents. The upper cheek teeth are like
those of a rhinoceros and the lower cheek
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION teeth are similar to those of a hippopotamus.
Rock and bush hyraxes are active during
daylight hours and tend to live in groups
whereas tree hyraxes are nocturnal, active at
night, and prefer to live on their own. The social unit of the
rock and bush hyraxes includes one adult male and about
seventeen adult females, with their young. Though solitary, tree
hyraxes have been found in groups of two or three. In this
group, too, there is a hierarchy, rank structure, and the male
is at the top.
Hyraxes mate once a year. Gestation, pregnancy, lasts twenty-
six to thirty weeks, and the number of babies per female ranges
from one to four. Mothers suckle only their own babies, and the
young stop nursing anywhere from one to five months. Both
sexes are ready to mate between sixteen and seventeen months
of age. At this time, females join the adult female group while
males take off on their own. Adult females live longer than adult
males and may reach eleven years or more.
Young hyraxes are playful, with normal behavior including
biting, climbing, chasing, and fighting.
HYRAXES AND PEOPLE

Some African people hunt hyraxes for food and skin. The
tree hyrax is harvested to be used in medicine. Deep coughs
Hyraxes 821
are relieved by drinking the ash of burnt hairs mixed with honey
or water. Also, some tribes wrap newborn babies in hyrax skin
to ensure health and vitality.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Three hyrax species are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild. Because these three species are
found primarily in the African forests, their status is probably
the result of habitat destruction, as well as being hunted for food
and their fur. No other species has been given special status.

Southern tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax arboreus)
SPECIES
SOUTHERN TREE HYRAX ACCOUNTS
Dendrohyrax arboreus
Physical characteristics: From head to hind end, the southern tree

hyrax is anywhere from 12.5 to 24 inches (32 to 60 centimeters) long
and weighs 3.7 to 9.9 pounds (1.7 to 4.5 kilograms). The soft coat is
made of long, dark brown hair.
Geographic range: Southern tree hyraxes are distributed through-

out South Africa.
Habitat: They live in evergreen forests up to 13,500 feet (4,500

meters), and among boulders in the Ruwenzori Mountains.
Diet: Tree hyraxes eat leaves, twigs, and fruit year-round.
Hyraxes 823
The male southern tree hyrax
emits shrill shrieks in order to
claim his territory, and to keep
in contact with his family
throughout the night. (Illustration
by Joseph E. Trumpey.
Behavior and reproduction: Southern tree hyraxes spend daylight

hours nestled in the hollows of trees and venture out only in the safety
of the night. More often heard than seen, the male tree hyrax emits
shrill shrieks in order to claim his territory, and as an effort to keep
in contact with his family throughout the night.
Southern tree hyraxes are very good climbers but are awkward on
the ground.
Not much is known about the reproductive behavior and cycle of
the tree hyrax. Gestation lasts from 220 to 240 days, and each preg-
nancy yields one to two babies. Babies are competent tree climbers by
the end of their first day. Southern tree hyraxes live at least ten years.
Southern tree hyraxes and people: Some African people eat the
southern tree hyrax and use the skin to make rugs and clothing. They
are also used as medicine. Southern tree hyraxes play important roles
in African spiritual traditions as well.
Conservation status: Southern tree hyraxes are not threatened. ■

Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis)
ROCK HYRAX
Procavia capensis
Physical characteristics: Rock hyraxes are 17 to 21 inches (44 to

54 centimeters) long and weigh 4 to 12 pounds (1.8 to 5.4 kilograms).
Their fur is light to dark brown.
Geographic range: Rock hyraxes are found from southwest to north-

east Africa, Sinai to Lebanon, and the southeast Arabian Peninsula.
Habitat: Rock hyraxes prefer mountain cliffs and rocky outcrops or

boulders. They live in the crevices of rocks.
Diet: Rock hyraxes eat quickly, with some members of the colony
keeping watch for predators while the rest feed on leaves, fruit, lizard
Hyraxes 825
and bird eggs, and long grasses. When they eat,
rock hyraxes take a mouthful of food, then quickly
check out their surroundings. Because their great-
est predators are birds of prey, the rock hyrax must
be able to look into the sky to avoid being swooped
down upon and eaten. For this reason, they have
a protective film over their pupils that allows them
to look directly into the sun without damaging
their eyes.
Behavior and reproduction: Rock hyraxes are so-

cial creatures and live in colonies up to fifty mem-
bers. As many as twenty-five hyraxes can share one
den. Unlike tree hyraxes, rock hyraxes are busy dur-
ing daylight hours, but since they are unable to reg-
ulate their body temperature, they will not be found
foraging during very hot or very cold temperatures.
The social unit is comprised of one adult male,
Birds are important predators of up to seventeen females, and their young. Although several groups
rock hyraxes. Rock hyraxes have may live in one area, the head male will defend his territory from
a protective film over their pupils other males. Predators of the rock hyrax include leopards, snakes,
that allows them to look directly
into the sun without damaging
and birds of prey.
their eyes, so they can keep a Rock hyraxes have more than one mate, but they give birth just
look out for birds in the sky.
once a year. Pregnancy results in one to four babies per female after
(Ann & Steve Toon Wildlife
Photography. Reproduced by a gestation period of 212 to 240 days. Once a baby reaches one to
permission.) five months of age, it is weaned, taken off its mother’s milk. By six-
teen or seventeen months, the rock hyrax is ready to breed.
Rock hyraxes live anywhere between nine and twelve years, with
females living longer than males.
Rock hyraxes and people: Some African tribes hunt the rock hyrax
for food, and it is mentioned numerous times in the Bible as “conie,”
which means “rabbit.”
Conservation status: Rock hyraxes are not threatened. ■
Books:
Mostue, Trude. Wild About Animals. London: Madcap, 1999.
Ricciuti, Edward R., Jenny Tesar, and Bruce Glassman, eds. What on
Earth is a Hyrax? Detroit: Gale Group, 1996.

Periodicals:
Slattery, Derek M. “Kenya—the Rock and Tree Hyrax or Dassie.” PSA
Journal (September 2003): 29–31.
Web sites:
“Hyrax.” Out to Africa. http://www.outtoafrica.nl/animals/enghyrax.
html?zenden=2&subsoort_id=4&bestemming_id=1 (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Hyrax.” Science Daily. http://www.sciencedaily.com/encyclopedia/hyrax
“The Hyrax: More Elephant than Rodent.” BBC Science & Nature:
Animals. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/155index.shtml
“Rock Hyrax.” Nature Niche. http://natureniche.tripod.com/hyrax.html
“Rock Hyrax.” Wildlife Safari Info. http://www.wildlifesafari.info/hyrax_
rock.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
World Wildlife Fund. http://www.panda.org/ (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Hyraxes 827
DUGONGS, SEA COWS,
AND MANATEES
Sirenia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Sirenia
order C H A P T E R
class Dugongs, sea cows, and manatees are mammals that vary in
length from 9.8 feet (3 meters) to 32.8 feet (10 meters) and weigh
subclass
anywhere from 992 pounds (450 kilograms) to more than 9,920
● order pounds (4,500 kilograms). Sirenians (sye-REEN-ee-unz), mem-
monotypic order bers of the order Sirenia, are nearly hairless and skin texture
varies from smooth to rough. They have no back limbs, only
suborder short, flexible forelimbs that they use to help them swim. The
family tail of the manatee is paddle-shaped while that of the dugong
and sea cow is fluked with long, horizontal fins, like a whale.
Eyes are small, and their ears are not visible. Sirenians vary in
color from gray to brown. The manatee has both upper and lower
molars, flat teeth suitable for chewing, which are replaced on a
regular basis throughout its lifetime. Male dugongs have tusks,
and all dugongs have molars that are not replaced. Sea cows were
toothless. All appear to have whiskers.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sirenians live in tropical, subtropical, and temperate, or mild,
regions throughout the world. The exception to this is Steller’s
sea cow, now extinct, which lived only in the frigid waters of
the northwestern Pacific Ocean.
HABITAT
Manatees and dugongs live in shallow, warm coastal waters
that contain plentiful vegetation. Some manatees exist in estuar-
ies (EST-yoo-air-eez), mouth of a river where fresh water mixes
with salt water, others occupy both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

The Amazonian manatee lives only in fresh-
water. The dugong lives in the Indian Ocean,
Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and the west coast of
India, in strictly saltwater habitats. The sea
cow preferred an exceedingly cold environ-
ment, and history indicates it liked a mix of
salt water and freshwater. TWIN SEA COWS CAUSE
FOR CELEBRATION
DIET
In December 2003, Beauval Zoo, located
All sirenians are vegetarians, feeding on in France, celebrated the birth of twin sea
vegetation such as sea grasses and other ma- cows—the first twin sea cow birth in captivity.
rine plants. While the dugong is strictly a
bottom-feeder, eating only what lives on the Quito, a male, and Luna, a female,
ocean floor, manatees feed from above the weighed around 44 pounds (20 kilograms)
water’s surface all the way to the bottom. each and measured 3.3 feet (1 meter).
Sirenians use their flippers to uproot vegeta- Although Daphne, the mother, was watched
tion and use their molars to chew or crush around the clock during the final days of her
food. Although male dugongs have tusks, it pregnancy, no one anticipated that she
is not clear what role these teeth play in feed- would give birth to twins.
ing, if any. It takes about one week for food As of mid-2004, mother and calves were
to digest. Manatees consume about 10 per- doing well.
cent of their body weight every day. Because
they need so much food, sirenians spend a
great portion of their time feeding.
The toothless sea cow ate algae (AL-jee) and plankton, plants
that are easy to digest without chewing.

Sirenians are semi-social mammals with the primary unit a
female and her calf. Dugongs feed in herds of tens or hundreds
of individuals. They have been recorded as traveling hundreds
of miles (kilometers) in a matter of days, an impressive feat
given that they must surface for air every few minutes. Dugongs
have poor eyesight but an acute sense of hearing.
Manatees also travel long distances in short amounts of time
and have a north-south migratory pattern, the direction or path
taken during seasonal movement from one region to another,
that keeps them swimming in warmer waters. Although most
marine mammals use echolocation (eck-oh-loh-KAY-shun), a
sensory system in which high-pitched sounds are used to de-
termine location and distance, sirenians are not known to.
Little is known about the behavior of Steller’s sea cow.
Dugongs, Sea Cows, and Manatees 829

Manatees reach sexual maturity between the ages of two and
eleven years. Gestation, pregnancy, is believed to be twelve or
thirteen months. Usually a single calf is born every two-and-a-
half to three years. Manatees do not bond, which means they
have numerous mates throughout their lifetimes. In fact, when
a female is ready to breed, she may mate with as many as twenty
males, often at the same time. Calves can swim to the surface
at birth, and they are nursed, fed with mother’s milk, until
around the age of one. Though they have no vocal cords, calves
also vocalize at birth, which is an important part of the mother-
calf bonding process. The calf remains close to its mother for
up to two years.
Pregnancy for the dugong lasts about one year and results
in the birth of a single calf, which will nurse from and remain
close to its mother for about eighteen to twenty-four months.
Birth takes place in shallow water and the calf will rise to the
surface to take its first breath. Dugong calves are about 3.3 to
3.9 feet (1 to 1.2 meters) and weigh 44.1 to 66.2 pounds (20
to 30 kilograms). Dugongs can live for seventy years.
Because Steller’s sea cow died out so quickly, most of what
we know is speculation, an educated guess based on facts. Ges-
tation lasted at least one year, and calves were seen throughout
the year, suggesting that there was no specific breeding season.
Pregnancy resulted in single births, but physical data is not avail-
able. It is believed that the sea cow was monogamous (muh-
NAH-guh-mus), having only one mate.
SIRENIA AND PEOPLE

Sirenians have been hunted by humans for food, hides, and
bone, a fact that has endangered a number of their species.
Steller’s sea cow lived for just a few decades before hunting
caused its extinction. Manatees and dugongs help balance the
marine ecosystem by recycling nutrients in sea grass beds and
keeping the plants in a continual state of growth. Without them,
the biodiversity, variety, of marine life would be in danger.
Manatees are being closely studied by scientists in hopes that
their immune systems can provide clues as to how humans can
fight cancer. Because their immune systems, which protect against
disease, are very powerful, doctors are looking for tips on how to
boost human immune systems. Specifically, they are studying a
manatee population that has become infected with papillomavirus
(pap-ih-LOH-mah-vye-rus), a virus that develops into cervical

cancer in humans. The manatees became infected in the wild and
seem to fall victim to cancers as a result. Researchers study tu-
mor tissue and blood samples taken from the infected popula-
tion, which live in a rehabilitation tank at the Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institution.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Several species of manatees are threatened, according to the
World Conservation Union (IUCN). The dugong is listed as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. It is also listed as
Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Sirenia are
in danger due to habitat destruction brought on by human ac-
tivities such as recreational boating and fishing. Today great
conservation efforts are being made around the world in hopes
of keeping the dugong and manatee from the sharing the fate
of Steller’s sea cow.
Books:
Harman, Amanda. Manatees and Dugongs. New York: Benchmark
Books, 1997.
Glaser, Karen, and John Elliott Reynolds III. Mysterious Manatees.
Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida in association with Santa Fe,
NM and Harrisburg, VA: The Center for American Places, 2003.
Powell, James. Manatees. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2003.
Ripple, Jeff, and Doug Perrine. Manatees and Dugongs of the World.
Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Silverstein, Alvin and Virginia. The Manatee. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook
Press, 1995.
Web sites:
“Dugong, a Sea Cow.” BBC Science & Nature: Animals.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3073.shtml (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
“Dugong (Seacow).” Unique Australian Animals. http://australiananimals
.net/dugong.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Dugongs.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning.com/
subjects/mammals/manatee/Dugongprintout.shtml (accessed on July
9, 2004).
“France Celebrates Twin Sea Cows.” BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/
1/hi/world/europe/3290551.stm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Dugongs, Sea Cows, and Manatees 831

Lundberg, Murray. “The Steller’s Sea Cow.” Explore North. http://www.
explorenorth.com/library/yafeatures/bl-seacow.htm (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Manatees.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.defenders.org/wildlife/
new/marine/order.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Manatees: Birth and Care of Young.” Sea World. http://www.
seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/manatee/birth-&-care.htm (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
Save the Manatee Club. http://www.savethemanatee.org/ (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
“‘Sea cow’ could give cancer clues.” BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/
1/hi/health/2212081.stm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Sirenian International. http://www.sirenian.org (accessed on July 9,
2004).

DUGONG AND SEA COW
Dugongidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Sirenia
Family: Dugongidae
The near-hairless dugong and sea cow can be as long as 9.8 class
feet (3 meters) for the dugong and from 23 to 33 feet (7 to 10
subclass
meters) for Steller’s sea cow. They have no hind limbs, and the
tail is forked, similar to that of a whale. Their front limbs are order
flipper-like and without nails. Dugongs are found in various monotypic order
colorations of gray and brown, though it is unknown what color
suborder
the sea cow was. Dugongs can weigh more than 881 pounds
(400 kilograms), and scientists estimate that Steller’s sea cow ▲ family
weighed more than 9,920 pounds (4,500 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dugongs live in the tropical and subtropical Indo-Pacific.
Steller’s sea cow was found in the western North Pacific Ocean.
HABITAT
Dugongids live in coastal waters that contain sea grass.
Steller’s sea cow lived with macroalgae, large, plant-like algae
(AL-jee) also called kelp.
DIET
Dugongs primarily feed on sea grasses that grow on the
ocean’s floor in shallow water. Steller’s sea cow reportedly fed
on the surface and was never recorded as diving. Because the
sea cow was toothless, it had to crush its food between stud-
ded plates at the front of their upper and lower jaws.
Dugong and Sea Cow 833

DUGONGS AND SHARKS: AN UNLIKELY DUO
Shark Bay, Australia has a dugong Dr. Aaron Wirsing of th e Behavioral Ecology
population estimated at ten thousand to Research Group at Simon Fraser University
fifteen thousand. Dugongs seasonally migrate studied the dugong-tiger shark relationship.
to the warmer waters off Australia’s coast. Wirsing determined that Shark Bay has an
Tiger sharks prey on dugongs and recognize abundance of sea grass and dugongs may
their migration pattern. As the dugongs spend more time there because the sea grass
migrate, so do the tiger sharks. allows dugongs to escape sharks more easily.

Dugongs are semi-social and can be found in units that in-
clude the mother and her most recent calf. These pairs have
been known to live together in herds of up to hundreds when
sea grass is abundant. Not much is known about Steller’s sea
cow behavior or reproduction.
Female dugongs give birth every three to seven years. The
typical pregnancy, which lasts for about one year, usually re-
sults in the birth of one calf; twins are rare. The female pro-
vides all care for the calf, and nurses, feeds with the mother’s
milk, until eighteen months to two years of age. Georg Wil-
helm Steller, a naturalist and physician who was responsible
for the first recorded observations of the sea cow, reported see-
ing calves year-round, which suggests that mating occurred any
time of year. According to Steller’s accounts, only single calves
were born after a gestation period, pregnancy, of around one
year, possibly longer.
DUGONGS, SEA COWS, AND PEOPLE

Steller’s sea cow was hunted to extinction within thirty years
of its discovery. Dugongs have been hunted for their meat and
other body parts, and increasingly are victims of boating and
fishing accidents.

CONSERVATION STATUS
The sea cow is Extinct, no longer exists,
and the dugong is Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild, primarily due
to habitat destruction and human activities
such as recreational boating and fishing. In
2004, the largest dugong population was lo- HERE AND GONE IN THIRTY
cated in Australia. Georg Wilhelm Steller, a naturalist
and physician, recorded the first descrip-
tions of the sea cow while at sea. His phys-
ical measurements and descriptions of
anatomy allowed scientists to reconstruct
the sea cow’s skeleton, though it is unlikely
that the reconstruction is 100 percent ac-
curate.
Steller went home with his reports as
well as samples of the meat and almond-
tasting fat. Hunters flocked to Kamchatka,
Russia, the location of Steller’s discovery,
where they quickly destroyed the sea cow
population.
Steller discovered the sea cow in 1741,
and in 1768, explorer Martin Sauer recorded
the death of the last known sea cow.

Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS STELLER’S SEA COW
Hydrodamalis gigas
Physical characteristics: Steller’s sea cow was 23 to 33 feet (7 to

10 meters) long and weighed anywhere from 9,920 to 13,000 pounds
(4,500 to 5,900 kilograms). The tail resembled that of a whale. The
sea cow had a small head and no teeth.
Geographic range: Unlike other sirenians (sye-REEN-ee-unz) that

prefer warm water, Steller’s sea cow lived in frigid waters in the north-
western Pacific Ocean.
Habitat: Steller’s sea cow lived in coastal waters where kelp

grew.
Diet: The sea cow ate kelp by crushing it with studded plates
located at the front of its mouth, on both the upper and lower jaw.
Behavior and reproduction: Steller’s sea cow lived in coastal wa-

ters but reportedly had some affinity, preference, for the mouths of
freshwater creeks as well. Steller’s sea cow did not migrate, but could

be found near islands year-round. Very little is known about this Steller’s sea cow was hunted to
extinction within thirty years of
mammal’s reproductive behavior.
its discovery. (Illustration by
Wendy Baker. Reproduced by
Steller’s sea cow and people: Steller’s sea cow was a source of permission.)
meat for sailors. Within the span of three decades, it was hunted to
extinction.
Conservation status: Steller’s sea cow is Extinct. ■

Dugong (Dugong dugon)
DUGONG
Dugong dugon
Physical characteristics: Dugongs are usually gray, with nearly

hairless skin. They can grow to be 9.8 feet (3 meters) and weigh
around 880 pounds (400 kilograms). Their whale-like tail helps them
navigate the waters, as do their flipper-like front limbs. Although both
sexes have tusks, they rarely can be seen in females.
Geographic range: Dugongs live in sea grass beds and shallow trop-
ical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific from eastern Africa to
the Philippines and the South China and East China Seas.
Habitat: Dugongs live only in shallow coastal saltwater up to about

98 feet (30 meters) deep. The waters must contain sea grass beds.
Diet: Dugongs eat various sea grasses from the ocean floor. Some-
times, in its consumption of sea grass, it will ingest bottom-dwelling
invertebrates such as crabs and shrimp. Unlike other sirenians,
dugongs cannot hold their breath for long and must surface often for
air, which is why the shallow waters are their preferred habitat.

Behavior and reproduction: Despite their large
size, dugongs are graceful swimmers. Their tails
propel them slowly through the water while the
flippers help keep balance. Although their eyesight
is poor, dugongs have a well-developed sense of
hearing and find sea grass with the help of whiskers
that line the upper lip of their large snout.
Dugongs migrate, travel from one region to an-
other on a yearly basis, making regular, short dis-
tance (9 to 25 miles [15 to 40 kilometers])
round-trip journeys between feeding areas and
warmer coastal areas. In Australia, they have been
recorded as making longer trips, ranging from 62
to 373 miles (100 to 600 kilometers).
Dugongs are semi-social, often found in mother-
calf pairs, sometimes in a herd with hundreds of
individuals. They do not reproduce quickly, just
once every three to seven years. After a year of
pregnancy, the dugong gives birth to one calf,
which will be nursed for anywhere from eighteen
to twenty-four months. Dugongs are ready for mat-
ing around ten years of age. Males compete for mat-
ing rights, and mating often involves numerous
males with one female. Male dugongs do not seem to participate at Dugongs live shallow waters of
all in the care of the calf. the Indian and western Pacific
Oceans. (Kelvin Aitken/Bruce
Dugongs can live for seventy years.
permission.)
Dugongs and people: Of cultural significance to many native peo-
ples of the Indo-Pacific region, the dugong has been hunted for meat,
bones, and hide.
Conservation status: Listed as Vulnerable, the dugong is a pro-

tected species in Australia. Dugongs are often victims of boating and
fishing accidents. Pollution and dredging, a form of fishing in which
nets are scraped along the ocean floor to catch shellfish, are also re-
sponsible for the declining dugong population. ■
Books:
Bryden, M. M., H. Marsh, and P. D. Shaughnessy. Dugongs, Whales,
Dolphins and Seals: A Guide to the Sea Mammals of Australasia.
St Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1998.

Reeves, Randall R., and Pieter A Folkens. Sea Mammals of the World.
London: A. & C. Black, 2002.
Web sites:
“Dugong, a Sea Cow.” BBC Science & Nature: Animals. http://www.bbc.
co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3073.shtml (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Dugongs.” CRC Reef Research Centre. http://www.reef.crc.org.au/
aboutreef/wildlife/dugong.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Dugongs.” Humane Society of the United States. http://www.hsus.org/
ace/18871 (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Facts About Dugongs.” Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/dugong/
Vernon, Jennifer. “Dugongs Draw Hungry Sharks to Australia Bay.”
National Geographic News (January 23, 2004). Online at http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0123_040123_dugongcam.

MANATEES
Trichechidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Sirenia
Family: Trichechidae
The almost-hairless manatee is 9 to 13 feet (3 to 4 meters) class
long and weighs between 1,100 and 3,300 pounds (500 to 1,500
subclass
kilograms), depending on the species. Manatees never stop
growing as long as they are alive. The tail is paddle-like, and order
the flipper-like forelimbs have three to four fingernails except monotypic order
in the Amazonian manatee, which has no fingernails. Manatees
are brownish gray. Their eyes are tiny and are placed on the suborder
sides of the head. Their flexible lips help them manipulate food ▲ family
so that they can get it into their mouths.
Manatees have a well-developed sense of smell and hear very
well. Their eyesight, however, is not very good. Manatees com-
municate through a series of whistles and chirps.
The manatee is a relative of the elephant. The nose or snout
of a manatee acts much like the trunk of an elephant in that it
is used to gather food and bring it to the mouth. Their finger-
nails or toenails, depending on how you look at it, are also sim-
ilar to those of the elephant.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Manatees live on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In the
west, they are found from the southeastern United States
throughout the Caribbean region to southeastern Brazil and in
rivers of the Amazon River Basin. Manatees migrate, travel from
one region to another, seasonally, to Florida coastal waters dur-
ing the winter months. In the east, they live along the African
coast, from Senegal to Angola.
Manatees 841
HABITAT
Manatees live in shallow coastal waters
and estuary (EST-yoo-air-ee) waters, where
saltwater and fresh water mix. They also need
areas where marine vegetation is plentiful.
YOU ARE NOT THE ONLY ONE WHO DIET

CATCHES A COLD Manatees are primarily vegetarian, though
Water colder than 68°F (20°C) can lead they do sometimes ingest shrimp, snails, or
to sicknesses, such as pneumonia, in crabs as they feed on ocean-floor plants. A large
manatees. The colder waters make it harder manatee eats up to 200 pounds (91 kilograms)
for the manatees to get proper nutrients, so of sea grass and algae (AL-jee) each day.
they are more likely to get sick. That is why
they migrate to warmer waters in Florida
during the winter, but even those waters Manatees are semi-social and usually found
can get too cold. in mother-calf pairs. They communicate us-
ing sound, sight, taste, and touch. Communi-
The waters surrounding Florida’s power
cation is particularly important for developing
plants are warmer and 60 percent of
and maintaining the cow-calf bond.
manatees now spend time there. Scientists
are worried because some of these power Manatees are polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-
plants are getting too old and must be mus), having more than one mate. In fact, a
closed, and without the warmer waters more female can be pursued by as many as twenty
manatees may die as a result of illness. males during the breeding season, so it is vir-
tually impossible to determine who the fa-
ther of a calf is. Males do not seem to take
part in caring for the young.
Female manatees give birth every two-and-a-half to three
years. Usually only one calf is born after a year-long pregnancy.
Depending on the species, manatees are ready to breed any-
where between the ages of two to eleven, and they do so
throughout the year. Calves are born weighing 60 to 70 pounds
Manatees are unable to hold their breath for long periods of
time, so they surface for air about every three minutes except
during sleep, at which time they can rest for twenty minutes
before surfacing. Manatees have no large predator, animal that
hunts them for food, other than humans.
MANATEES AND PEOPLE

It is not uncommon for a manatee to have scars on its back
due to collision with a recreational boat, and these accidents
are the primary cause of death for the manatee population.

Though law prohibits the deliberate killing of manatees, they
are still hunted for food in many areas.
CONSERVATION STATUS
All manatees are considered Endangered, facing a very high
risk of extinction in the wild, according to the World Conser-
vation Union (IUCN). The main cause of death is habitat de-
struction and human activity, specifically recreational boating
accidents.
Manatees 843
West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT WEST INDIAN MANATEE
Trichechus manatus
Physical characteristics: Also known as the Florida manatee, the

West Indian manatee grows to 13 feet (4 meters) in length, and can
weigh up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms). The nearly hairless skin
is gray, and the body has no hind limbs. The tail is wide and paddle-
like, and the front limbs each have three to four fingernails. The eyes

are small and located on the sides of the head, and though there are West Indian manatees live in
shallow water—they must
only tiny ear openings, the manatee has a keen sense of hearing. The
surface for air about every three
West Indian manatee uses its flexible lips in conjunction with its flip- minutes while they are active.
pers to get food into its mouth. (Douglas Faulkner/Bruce
Manatees communicate by whistling, chirping, and squeaking. permission.)
Geographic range: Found in the eastern coastal waters of the

United States, from upper Virginia to the tip of Florida, around the
west coast of Florida to Louisiana. Rare sightings have occurred in
waters off New York, Texas, and the Bahamas.
Habitat: The West Indian manatee lives in coastal and estuary

waters.
Diet: West Indian manatees eat more than sixty species of vegeta-
tion including sea grasses, algae, and water hyacinths. They eat be-
tween 10 and 15 percent of their body weight every day.
Behavior and reproduction: The basic social unit of the Florida is

the female-calf pair, although these manatees do congregate in herds
Manatees 845
during mating season as well as the winter months, when they migrate
to seek refuge in warmer waters.
These polygamous manatees are ready to breed between the ages
of two-and-a half and six years, and females give birth every two-and-
a-half to three years. Each one-year pregnancy results in the birth of
one calf, though twins make up 1 to 2 percent of all births. Mothers
nurse, feed with mother’s milk, their young. The West Indian mana-
tee can live for more than fifty years.
The manatee has no major predator. Death is usually caused by
human activity.
West Indian manatees and people: The West Indian manatee has
been hunted as a source of meat, fat, oil, bone, and hide, though it
is now protected under law. Those laws, however, are difficult to en-
force. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that 25 percent of
all Florida manatee deaths are due to boating accidents.
Conservation status: The West Indian manatee is Endangered ac-

cording to the IUCN, and is protected throughout its range. It is not
known how many are illegally hunted for food each year. The pri-
mary reason for the decimation of the population is human activity,
including pollution, habitat destruction, and recreational boating and
fishing.
According to Boat/US Magazine, 2003 proved one of the most
deadly years for the West Indian manatee. A record 380 manatees
were killed that year. Ninety-eight of those deaths were the result of
red tide. Red tide is a naturally occurring phenomena that happens
when a type of phytoplankton, microscopic plants, produces chemi-
cal toxins, or poisons. These toxins are then released into the water,
killing thousands of fish, dolphins, manatees, and other marine life.
Seventy-three Florida manatees died from boating accidents in
2003, the lowest total since 1997. The most recent surveys indicate
that the Florida manatee population is over three thousand, a signif-
icant increase from six hundred recorded in 1974. ■
Books:
Faulkner, Douglas. Of Manatees and Man. Philadelphia: Xlibris Corp.,
2000.
Foott, Jeff, and Barbara Sleeper. In the Company of Manatees:
A Tribute. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2000.

Periodicals:
Bryner, Jeanna. “Brrr … Manatees Catch Cold.” Science World (January
12, 2004): 4–5.
Kalvin, Jim. “Weighing In On the Manatee Debate.” Boat/US Magazine
(September 2002). Online at http://articles.findarticles.com/p/
articles/mi_m0BQK/is_5_7/ai_91085603 (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Manatee Deaths Up, Boat Toll Down.” Boat/US Magazine (March 2004).
Online at http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQK/is_2_9/
ai_114604599 (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Web sites:
Bayan-Gagelonia, Ruby. “The Florida Manatee.” Ecofloridamag.com
http://www.ecofloridamag.com/archived/manatees.htm (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
Manatee Junction. http://www.manateejunction.org/ (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
“Manatees.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.defenders.org/wildlife/
new/manatees.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Wonderful World of the Manatee. http://www.manateeworld.net/
index.php (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Manatees 847
ODD-TOED UNGULATES
Perissodactyla
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
order C H A P T E R
class Ungulates (UNG-gyuh-luhts) are hoofed mammals. What
makes perissodactyls (puh-RIH-suh-dack-tuhlz) different from
subclass
artiodactyls (ar-tee-oh-DACK-tuhlz), is the number of toes. The
● order presence of a single toe links the horse family (including horses,
monotypic order zebras, and asses), tapir, and rhinoceros together. This single
toe is actually a combination of three toes that bear the weight
suborder together, with the middle toe being the largest of the three.
family Tapirs have four toes on the front feet and three on the back,
while rhinoceroses (frequently called “rhinos”) have three on
all feet, and horses have just one.
The smallest perissodactyl is the mountain tapir, which
weighs up to 485 pounds (220 kilograms). The white rhinoc-
eros is the largest and can weigh more than 7,700 pounds
(3,500 kilograms). Male rhinos and horses are bigger than
females, but the opposite is true for tapirs.
Horses are medium sized with long heads and the ears stand
up. The long neck is covered by a short-haired mane except in
the domestic horse, whose mane falls to one side. All horses
have long tails, and the ass and zebra have short hair at the tip.
The large, heavy body of the rhino sits on top of short, thick
legs. The eyes are small and located on each side of the head.
Though their vision is not well developed, their hearing is excel-
lent and their erect ears are rather big. Some rhinos’ skin is all but
naked, while other rhinos are covered with fine hair. The horns
of the white rhino can grow to reach 70 inches (175 centimeters).

Rhinos’ horns continue to grow throughout their lifetimes, and if
lost, will grow back.
Tapirs are heavy with short, fat limbs, a short tail, and
medium-sized ears that grow out and up. Their eyes are small.
The hind legs of the tapir are about 4 inches (10 centimeters)
higher than the front legs. Due to this difference, most of the
weight is supported by the longer hind legs. Tapir skin is tough
and sparingly covered with hair except for the mountain tapir,
whose hair is thick to protect against the cold.
Because perissodactyls eat large quantities of hard-to-chew
food, their lower jaw is deep and the mouth muscles are large.
The lips are thick and flexible. The stomach is simple and food
passes through the digestive system quickly. This makes
digestion less efficient than in other animals with more than
one stomach, such as the cow. In fact, a horse digests food only
70 percent as efficiently as a cow does.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Perissodactyls are found in Asia, Africa, and America in lim-
ited populations. Tapirs are found in Central and South Amer-
ica and in southeastern Asia. Rhinos live throughout Central
and East Africa below the Sahara Desert and in the tropical re-
gion of Asia. Horses are found in eastern and southern Africa
and Asia from Near East to Mongolia. Domestic horses live
throughout the world, and there are several wild populations
in North America and western Australia.
HABITAT
Tapirs prefer to live near permanent bodies of water and en-
joy tropical forests. The exception is the mountain tapir, who
lives in the Andes Mountains.
Rhinos can be found in rainforests, grasslands, and scrub-
lands (region similar to grassland but which includes scrub
vegetation). These mammals must live near water for drink-
ing and bathing. Asian rhino fossils have been found in the
Himalayas at an altitude of 16,100 feet (4,900 meters), though
today they’re found at altitudes of up to just 6,600 feet (2,000
meters).
Horses live in grasslands and desert scrublands. Plains zebra
and the mountain zebra prefer greener grasslands and savan-
nas where vegetation is more plentiful.
Odd-Toed Ungulates 849

DIET
Perissodactyls are herbivorous (plant-eating). The plants they
eat depend on what is available in the region in which they live.
Tapirs eat leaves, twigs, fallen fruit, and aquatic vegetation.
Rather than eat entire plants, they consume just a few leaves from
a plant and move on.
Using their upper lip to grab plants, rhinos prefer woody or
grassy vegetation. They will eat fruit occasionally, but leafy
greens are their favorite food. Because of their size, rhinos eat
a large amount of food and drink a large amount of water al-
most daily. The African species, however, can live for up to five
days without water if their food is moist. While black rhinos
will eat bushes and trees, the white rhino prefers short grasses.
Horses eat primarily grasses, but they will also eat bark,
leaves, fruits, and roots. Wild asses have adapted to their drier
environment and are able to graze the desert. Horses spend 60
to 80 percent of every twenty-four hours foraging (browsing or
grazing). Although most horses can go without water for three
days, zebras must drink frequently. Some are able to dig
waterbeds with their hooves.

Rhinos are solitary creatures seldom seen in pairs other than
the mother-offspring combination. Even mated pairs don’t re-
main together. Rhinos are territorial and have obvious displays
to prove their authority, including rolling eyes, lowered head,
and strutting. Males engage in brutal fights, and African rhinos
inflict injury by jabbing each other with upward blows of their
horns. Rhinos enjoy wallowing in mud holes because it helps
keep their body temperature down and repels insects.
Female rhinos are ready to breed between the ages of three
and five years. Gestation is fifteen to sixteen months in all species
but the Sumatran rhino has a gestation period of seven to eight
months. Mating often takes hours to complete and usually re-
sults in the birth of one calf. Rhinos weigh 55 to 145 pounds
(25 to 65 kilograms) at birth and drink up to 5.5 gallons
(25 liters) of their mothers’ milk each day to gain 5.5 pounds
(2.5 kilograms) daily. Zebras drink their mothers’ milk for up
to four years, though the white rhino begins eating solid food
by one week of age. Males begin breeding at age ten and rhinos
can live up to fifty years. What was true in the past remains true
today: humans are the main predator, hunter, of rhinos.

PRISONERS AND MUSTANGS: FORGING A FRIENDSHIP
According to HorsesAmerica.com, there as a win-win situation. In the 90 to 150 days
are more than two hundred wild horses that it takes to train a horse, the inmate develops
are unfit for adoption and must be euthanized job skills as well as a sense of trust and
(YOO-thuh-nihzd), put to death, each year, so cooperation while the horse becomes ready
that the land can be used for the grazing of for re-entry into a more domestic society.
cattle. Still others are slaughtered and sold to
All persons wanting to adopt a mustang
foreign countries for human consumption.
must first apply and be granted approval from
Despite this, about eight thousand mustangs
the BLM. Anyone with a history of physical
(another word for “wild horses”) are adopted
abuse toward animals is rejected. Between
to individuals and organizations across the
two and six months after adoption, a
country. All of this occurs under the authority
representative from the BLM makes a surprise
of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM).
visit to check on the horse and determine that
Adoption fees range from $125 to it is being taken care of properly.
$740, and half of the horses are adopted Records show that 99 percent of
from residents on the East Coast. Before (Montana) inmates who work with the
adoption, mustangs are “re-trained” to be mustangs and re-enter free society never
around humans by inmates from prisons in commit another crime. And since 1973, more
Colorado, New Mexico, Montana, Wyoming, than one hundred forty thousand wild horses
Oklahoma, and California. The BLM sees this have been adopted.
Tapirs are also solitary mammals. They spend part of the day
wallowing in mud or standing water, or simply rest in the shade.
Territorial by nature, tapirs mark their territory with their urine.
Most activity takes place at night. Tapirs swim with ease and wa-
ter is at the center of their existence. Water provides not only
food, but also safety from intruders. Able to hold their breath for
minutes at a time, tapirs will seek safety from predators by im-
mersing themselves in water. They have an acute sense of smell
and hearing, but like other perissodactyls, cannot hear well.
Though usually silent, they do communicate through grunts and
whimpers at closer range, through whistles over greater distances.
Tapirs are sexually mature at two to four years of age. They
breed year round, and females are receptive every two months.

Courtship is a noisy affair. One baby is born after a gestation
(pregnancy) period of 383 to 395 days. Young tapirs stay with
their mothers until six to eight months of age. Tapirs have been
known to live for thirty years. The primary predator of tapirs
is the jaguar.
Unlike their relatives, horses are highly social. Zebras live in
families of ten to fifteen individuals. These families include a ter-
ritorial male, several females, and their offspring. Home ranges
overlap with ranges of other families, and measure anywhere
from 31 to 232 square miles (80 to 600 square kilometers). Ze-
bras communicate via vocalization and adult males are especially
noisy at night. Within groups, other males are tolerated, but only
the territorial male may mate with the numerous females of the
family. The black and white stripes of the zebra trigger visual
neurons that attract males and females to each other. Zebras are
believed to see in color, and they have binocular vision in front.
Horses are sexually mature around the age of two years, but
males do not breed until around the age of five. After a gesta-
tion period of about one year, a single foal is born. The baby
is able to walk on its own within an hour of birth and doesn’t
mind being left alone while the mother replenishes her water
supply. Offspring are weaned (removed from mother’s milk)
at six to thirteen months. Some horses live to see forty years.
Lionesses and hyenas are the main predators of horses.
PERISSODACTYLA AND PEOPLE

Humans are largely responsible for adversely (negatively) af-
fecting the perissodactyl populations. Tapirs and rhinos have
been relentlessly hunted for food and sport, as well as for their
skins, which are used to produce high quality leather goods. Rhi-
nos are illegally hunted for their horns and other body parts,
which are used in Asian medicine, supposedly to relieve
headaches, heart and liver trouble, and skin disease. Horns are
also used to make dagger handles. Horses are the least affected
by human activity, and it wasn’t until about four thousand years
ago that they were first domesticated for use as transportation.
Since that time, cross-breeding has become common. A mule,
for example, is a cross between a male donkey and a female horse.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Nine species of Perissodactyla are listed as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction, or Critically Endangered,

facing an extremely high risk of extinction, on the 2003 IUCN
Red List. All species of rhinoceroses are included on this list.
Tapir populations are declining due to deforestation leading to
habitat destruction. Since 1970, the rhino population has de-
creased by 90 percent due to hunting. Wild horses are facing
extinction due to an increase in livestock farming, which forces
them from their pastures and watering holes.
Books:
Kalman, Bobbie. Endangered Rhinoceros. New York: Crabtree Publish-
ing Company, 2004.
Murray, Julie. Zebras. Edina, MN: ABDO Publishing Co., 2002.
Penny, Malcolm. Zebras: Habitats, Lifestyles, Food Chains, Threats.
Milwaukee: Raintree Publishers, 2003.
Web sites:
African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.awf.org (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“Management and Protection.” Horses America. http://www.
horsesamerica.com/pages/management.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Myers, P. “Order Perissodactyla.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animal-
diversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Perissodactyla.
“Wild Horses: An American Romance, Teaching Resources Page
Activities.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). http://www.pbs.org/
wildhorses/wh_teaching/wh_teaching.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).

HORSES, ZEBRAS, AND ASSES
Equidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Equidae
class Equids (EH-qwidz; horses, zebras, and asses) are built for
speed, with long legs that allow them to move efficiently. Their
subclass
single stomachs allow them to eat foods high in fiber because
order digestion occurs rapidly, and their single-toed hooves make
monotypic order navigating over rocks and hard surfaces easy.
suborder There are three species of zebra, and each has a different
▲ family stripe pattern. All equids have short coats, though those living
in higher altitudes may grow thicker coats. There is very little
size difference between the sexes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Equids live in Africa below the Sahara Desert, in the Middle
East, Arabia, Central Asia, and Mongolia.
HABITAT
Equids graze throughout the day, and various species live in
deserts to grassland and shrubland (similar to grassland, only
with small trees and shrubs as well).
DIET
Equids eat grasses high in fiber, which makes them more dif-
ficult to chew and digest. Their teeth are made for breaking
down the reedy plants, however, and their single stomach al-
lows for quick digestion.

Equids are social mammals and form
groups in which individual needs for feeding,
reproduction, and survival are met. Females
form especially strong bonds and maintain
stable communities even without the presence
of a territorial male. Usually, one male heads WHY ZEBRAS NEED STRIPES
a group and mates with several of the females. Although humans think a zebra’s stripes
He spends a good deal of his time defending make the horse easy to find and identify,
the group against “bachelor” or roaming the stripes actually act as camouflage
males who might try to mate with the females. (KAM-uh-flaj). The wavy lines of a zebra
Offspring also live with the group, usually un- blend in with the wavy-line patterns found
til the age of two or three years. in nature, such as blowing grasses among
Groups are in the best interests of equids which the zebra lives. The fact that zebra
as they provide greater defense against preda- stripes are black and white while the lines
tors, animals that hunt them for food, like of grass are yellowish green and brown
the lion. When in herds, it is more difficult doesn’t matter. The zebra’s primary
for lions to determine which zebra or horse predator, the lion, is colorblind!
is young, weak, or lame. When threatened, Those stripes serve another purpose,
equids will run away rather than fight, but if which is to help zebras identify and
forced to fight, they’ll kick with their hind recognize each other. Stripes are to a zebra
feet and bite. as fingerprints are to humans: no two are
Equids communicate through vocaliza- identical. Scientists believe this is how
tions but also by changing the position of zebras identify one another in a herd. It’s
their tails, ears, and mouths. how mothers and babies recognize each
other, and how a zebra knows which herd it
The mating system varies, depending on belongs to.
environmental conditions. Pregnancy lasts
from eleven to twelve months and usually re-
sults in the birth of one foal. And although
equids are capable of producing one foal each year, it is more
likely that a foal will be born every other year if nutritional
food is readily available. Wild equids are ready to breed at the
age of one or two years but don’t normally produce a foal un-
til the age of three to five. There is not enough data to deter-
mine how long wild equids live. Experts estimate that
90 percent of female plains zebras die by the age of sixteen
years. Their main predators are the lion and hyena.
EQUIDS AND PEOPLE

Domestic horses have played a significant role in the social and
agricultural progress of humankind. Ironically, however, it has
Horses, Zebras, and Asses 855

been humankind that has decimated the wild equid populations
through hunting, habitat destruction, and the demand for live-
stock farming.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Of the seven species, one is Extinct, died out, in the Wild;
one is Extinct altogether; one is Critically Endangered, facing
an extremely high risk of extinction; two are Endangered, fac-
ing a very high risk of extinction; and one is Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction. Wild equids are threatened
primarily by hunters, but also by livestock grazing in their habi-
tat, and inter-breeding with domestic horses and donkeys.

Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi)
SPECIES
GREVY’S ZEBRA ACCOUNTS
Equus grevyi
Physical characteristics: This zebra measures about 9.8 feet (3

meters) in length, with a shoulder height of 5.3 feet (1.6 meters). It
weighs around 990 pounds (450 kilograms) and is the largest wild
equid. The ears are large and round, and the short coat is black and
white striped. The muzzle is white, and there is a dark stripe
surrounded by white running down the length of the back.
Geographic range: Grevy’s zebra inhabits parts of Kenya as well as

southern Ethiopia. It is believed that a small population exists in
southeastern Sudan.
Habitat: Grevy’s zebras live in grassland, and must live near a

permanent water source.

Grevy’s zebras may fight one
another in disputes over
their territories. (K. and K.
Ammann/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Diet: This zebra eats grasses, but will feed on shrubs and small trees
or plants if drought conditions deplete the supply of grasses.
Behavior and reproduction: As with other equids, Grevy’s zebra

participates in a territorial mating system in which one male resides
over a large herd consisting of numerous females and their offspring.
Because pregnant and nursing females need water daily or every other
day, they are usually located near a permanent water source. This

species differs from other zebras in that it doesn’t form lasting bonds.
In fact, the composition of the herd can change on an hourly basis.
Pregnancy lasts for about thirteen months, and the foal is able to
recognize its mother by smell and sight within an hour of its birth.
This is also the time it begins to stand up and run with the herd.
Grevy’s zebra and people: Grevy’s zebra is killed for its meat and
hide as well as for medicinal purposes. Although these zebras eat the
coarse grasses that livestock cannot feed upon, their habitat contin-
ues to be threatened and depleted by domestic livestock, which com-
petes for grazing land.
Conservation status: Grevy’s zebra is considered Endangered due

to overhunting as well as competition for water and food with
people and domestic livestock. ■

Kiang (Equus kiang)
KIANG
Equus kiang
Physical characteristics: This medium-sized wild ass stands be-

tween 3.3 and 4.7 feet (1 and 1.4 meters) and has a coat that changes
with the seasons. It is dark brown in winter and chestnut red in sum-
mer. To keep warm, the length of the hair doubles in winter. The
belly is white, and there are patches of white on the neck, chest, and
shoulder. The muzzle, too, is white.
Geographic range: The kiang (kee-YANG) lives in China, India,

Nepal, and Pakistan.
Habitat: This wild ass is found in altitudes up to 16,500 feet (5,000

meters) in grasslands and steppes (regions characterized by grasses
and shrubs, with few or no trees).

Kiang are strong swimmers, and
spend time in the water on hot
days. (Illustration by Barbara
permission.)
Diet: The kiang eats primarily grasses and low shrubs.
Behavior and reproduction: Kiang live in close-knit herds ranging

from 5 to 400 individuals, which do not scatter. The herd, composed
of females and offspring, is led by an older female, and they travel in
single file. The herd seems to move in unison (as one), whether they’re
drinking, eating, or running. Unlike other horse species, kiang do not
physically touch one another. They are strong swimmers and enjoy
spending hot summer days in water.
Male kiang begin following the female herds in July, and breeding
takes place in August. After a year-long gestation (pregnancy) period,
females form breakaway herds of two to five and retreat to nearby rocky
areas to give birth to single foals. The foals thrive on mother’s milk for
the first year, after which time they become independent. Kiang live to
be around twenty years of age; the main predator is the wolf.
Kiang and people: Kiang are hunted for their meat in some areas.
Conservation status: The kiang is listed as threatened by the IUCN.

Kiang populations are most threatened by commercial hunting, habi-
tat destruction, and competition for food and water. ■

Przewalski’s horse (Equus caballus przewalskii)
PRZEWALSKI’S HORSE
Equus caballus przewalskii
Physical characteristics: This horse stands 4 to 4.8 feet (1.2 to 1.5

meters) tall and weighs around 772 pounds (350 kilograms). Its legs
are rather short while the head is large. During summertime, the coat
is short and reddish brown, a color also known as “dun.” The hairs
grow thicker and longer during the winter to provide insulation from
the cold. The mane is short and stands straight up, and the top of the
tail has short hairs. The muzzle is white with gray around the nostrils.
Geographic range: Przewalski’s horse is considered Extinct in the

Wild, but has been reintroduced in certain areas of Mongolia.
Habitat: Like the kiang, this horse lives in grassland and steppe
regions. It was last seen in the steppes of the Gobi desert.
Diet: Przewalski’s horse eats whatever grasses are available.
Behavior and reproduction: These horses form a stable family

composed of one male, numerous females, and their offspring. Other
males form what is called “bachelor” groups.

Przewalski’s wild horse spends
the majority of the day foraging
for food. (© Tom McHugh/Photo
permission.)
After 340 days of pregnancy, females deliver a single foal, usually

in April, May, or June. Foals are weaned (removed from mothers’
milk) around six to eight months and are ready to breed around the
age of two years. Wolves are the primary predators of Przewalski’s
horse, and it is believed they live to an average age of twenty years.
Przewalski’s horse and people: This horse is of great significance

to the people of Mongolia as it is their national symbol.
Conservation status: Listed as Extinct in the Wild, though rein-

troduction into Mongolia has begun. They became extinct due to
overhunting, capture by zoos, and loss of habitat. Today, reintro-
duction is difficult because there are so few left that genetic diversity
(variation of genes that create distinct differences within a species) is
nearly gone. ■
Books:
Dines, Lisa. American Mustang Guidebook: History, Behavior, and
State-by-State Directions on Where to Best View America’s Wild Horses.
Minocqua, WI: Willow Creek Press, Inc., 2001.
Draper, Judith. The Book of Horses and Horse Care. New York:
Barnes & Noble, 2003.

Shah, Anup. The Circle of Life: Wildlife on the African Savannah.
New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2003.
Periodicals:
Meadows, Robin. “An Equid Primer.” Zoogoer (September/October
1997). Online at http://natzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1997/5/
equidprimer.cfm (accessed July 9, 2004).
Moretti, Laura. “Mestengo. Mustang. Misfit.” Animals’ Voice Online
at http://www.animalsvoice.com/PAGES/features/horses1.html (ac-
cessed July 9, 2004).
Web sites:
Ballenger, L., and P. Myers. “Family Equidae.” Animal Diversity Web.
Equidae.html (accessed July 9, 2004).
“Grevy’s Zebra.” Saint Louis Zoo. http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/
abouttheanimals/mammals/hoofedmammals/grevyszebra.htm (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
“How Do a Zebra’s Stripes Act As Camouflage?” How Stuff Works.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/question454.htm (accessed July 9,
2004).
“Nature: Horses.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). http://
www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/horses/ (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Nature: Wild Horses of Mongolia.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/mongolia/ (accessed July 9, 2004).
“Przewalski Horse.” International Museum of the Horse. http://www.imh.
org/imh/bw/prz.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).

TAPIRS
Tapiridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Tapiridae
Tapirs (TAY-purz) have muscular bodies that are powerful class
enough to push through thick jungle growth. Males are slightly
subclass
smaller than females. The head is small with flat sides and a
slight upward arch. The front trunk acts as a nose. Eyes are order
small and the ears are round and able to move on their own. monotypic order
The rump is flat. Tapirs are skinnier than rhinos, and their short
legs are powerful. suborder
The tapir’s weight rests on the third toe of each of the four ▲ family
feet. Hind feet are three-toed, while front feet are four-toed. In
three of the four species, the coat is short; the mountain tapir
has longer fur. Coat color varies and can be dun, a reddish brown
color, whitish gray, coal black, and black-and-white two-tone.
Newborns have horizontal stripes and dots for the first year.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Tapirs live in South America, Central America, and South-
east Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam,
and Sumatra.
HABITAT
With the exception of the mountain tapir, these mammals
live in lowland rainforests and other moist forest regions. Moun-
tain tapirs prefer cloud forests, tropical forests that are covered
with constant clouds year-round, and paramo, treeless plateaus
of tropical South America and the Andes Mountains. Lowland
tapirs are found in grasslands and woodlands at lower elevations
Tapirs 865
in South America. All tapirs swim and spend a good deal of time
in rivers and lakes. Females often need secluded forests in which
to give birth and raise their young.
DIET
Tapirs eat small branches and leaves as well as fresh sprouts.
They pull the food from trees using their teeth and their mo-
bile snout. They also eat fallen fruit and water plants. On moun-
tains, they eat in a zigzag pattern and eat just a little bit from
each plant. This method of eating keeps food plentiful. If food
is out of reach, they will reach up, with hind feet planted firmly
on the ground and front feet pushing against rocks or other
natural objects. Lowland tapirs have been reported eating
stranded fish in the Amazon. Tapirs tend to eat before the sun
rises and after it sets.

Despite their bulk, tapirs are swift runners and agile climbers.
They are able to climb and jump vertical fences or walls mea-
suring 9.8 feet (3 meters) high. They are shy animals and de-
pend on concealment, being hidden, for safety. For this reason,
not much is known about their sleep habits. Some tapirs have
been seen sleeping in the water. In fact, tapirs will spend extra
time in the water during very hot weather, a habit that not only
keeps them cool, but protects them from insects. They can even
walk on the bottom of rivers and lakes for short periods of time.
Although tapirs prefer the dawn and dusk hours of the day,
in densely populated areas the lowland tapir becomes strictly
nocturnal, active at night, for its safety. Tapirs generally estab-
lish a central location and use the same paths to travel around
time after time. They mark their territory with urine and piles
of dung, or feces.
Tapirs are more social during the dry season and at full
moons and interact at salt licks and river banks. This is also
where courtship displays take place. These rituals include
grunting and squealing. After a thirteen-month pregnancy, the
female secludes herself and gives birth to a single calf. The calf
hides in thick shrubbery for the first two weeks, feeding off the
mother’s milk. After a few weeks, the calf begins foraging, or
searching, for food with the mother, and begins to include the
food in its diet. Calves nurse, or drink their mother’s milk, for
up to one year. Though it is not certain, male tapirs in the wild

seem to take responsibility for some of the
calf-rearing. Tapirs are monogamous (muh-
NAH-guh-mus), having only one mate, dur-
ing the breeding season, but change partners
from year to year.
Tapirs live about thirty years in the wild.
Aside from humans, it is believed that their FOLKLORE AND FACTS
main predators include jaguars, pumas, leop- ABOUT THE TAPIR
ards, tigers, and anacondas. • The word “tapir” comes from a
Brazilian Indian word meaning “thick,”
TAPIRS AND PEOPLE which refers to its hide.
The tapir is hunted for its skin, which is • Some cultures claim that the powder
used to make leather goods. It is also hunted from a tapir’s ground-up hoof can cure
for its meat as well as other parts of its body, epilepsy.
which are used to make medicine. • A Malay myth claims that God made
the tapir from leftover parts of other
CONSERVATION STATUS animals already created.
• The tapir is known as the “mountain
All four species are listed as Endangered,
cow” in Belize.
facing a very high risk of extinction in the
wild, or Vulnerable, facing a high risk of ex-
tinction in the wild, due to habitat destruc-
tion and hunting.
Tapirs 867
Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS LOWLAND TAPIR
Tapirus terrestris
Physical characteristics: Lowland tapirs are 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to

2.2 meters) in length with a tail that measures 2 to 4 inches (5 to
10 centimeters) long. They weigh 396 to 660 pounds (180 to 300
kilograms) and have a shoulder height of 2.5 to 3.5 feet (.77 to
1.10 meters). This species is tan to black or dun in color. Their
black mane runs from the forehead to mid-back.
Geographic range: Lowland tapirs are found in Brazil, Bolivia,

Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, northern Argentina, and the
Guianas.

Habitat: Lowland tapirs live in lowland rainforests and mountain The lowland tapir is a good
swimmer, and spends time in
cloud forests up to 4,920 feet (1,500 meters) in Ecuador. They live
the water to cool off during hot
in higher altitudes in other locations. weather. (Tom Brakefield/Bruce
Diet: Lowland tapirs eat trees, bushes, and herbs. They also eat permission.)
aquatic plants and walk on river bottoms as they feed. Lowland tapirs
play an important role in their ecosystem by dispersing seeds. When
they eat, they spit some of the seeds out, which can grow into plants.
This keeps food and plant life plentiful.
Behavior and reproduction: Lowland tapirs gather together around

salt licks, which they require to obtain nutrients. Otherwise, they are
mostly solitary creatures. They are agile swimmers and spend time in
the water. When frightened, they squeal loudly. On land they stand
absolutely still to avoid detection. In the water, they immerse them-
selves until only the tip of their snouts is sticking out of the water.
Pregnancy lasts 385 to 412 days and results in a single birth. During
the breeding season, lowland tapirs are monogamous. They will change
partners from season to season. In captivity, this species lives to be about
twenty-five years old. In the wild, their main predator is the jaguar.
Tapirs 869
Lowland tapirs and people: In native religions, the tapir is endowed
with magical powers. This species is hunted for its meat, leather, and
body parts for use in medicine. Lowland tapirs are important to their
ecosystem because of their ability to disperse seeds.
Conservation status: Lowland tapirs are listed as Vulnerable due

to forest destruction, hunting, and competition from domestic live-
stock. A renewed interest in the wild-meat industry is also taking its
toll on the population. ■

Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus)
MALAYAN TAPIR
Tapirus indicus
Physical characteristics: This species is 6 to 10 feet (1.85 to 2.50 me-

ters) long with a tail measuring 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters). They
weigh 550 to 825 pounds (250 to 375 kilograms) and have a shoulder
height of 35 to 41 inches (90 to 105 centimeters). This large tapir has
a black coat except for the rear half above the legs, which is white.
Geographic range: Malayan tapirs are found in Southeast Asia, in-

cluding Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia,
and Thailand.
Habitat: Malayan tapirs live in the lowland forests of swamps and

mountains up to an elevation of 6,560 feet (2,000 meters). This species
needs a permanent water source with plenty of water for drinking and
bathing. Highest populations are found in swamps and lowland forests.
Tapirs 871
Young tapirs are born with
stripes and spots on their coat,
which they lose as they mature.
This Malayan tapir’s adult coat is
growing in. (© Terry
Whittaker/Photo Researchers,
Diet: Malayan tapirs prefer tender leaves and shoots from certain
trees and bushes. They eat moss and a variety of fruits. A Thailand
study revealed that this species preferred thirty-nine plant species of
which 86.5 percent were eaten as leaves, 8.1 percent as fruit, and
5.4 percent as twigs with leaves. Because they do not digest the seeds
as well as multi-stomached animals, their feces contains seeds that
eventually lead to new plant life.
Behavior and reproduction: Malayan tapirs are nocturnal and rest

in seclusion during daylight hours. These excellent swimmers emit
shrill whistles when alarmed or trying to settle down their offspring.
They follow paths with the head down, sniffing the ground. Their
sense of smell is good while their eyesight is weak.
Pregnancy lasts between 390 and 407 days and results in a single
birth. The calf nurses for the first six to eight months, at which time
it begins eating the vegetation of adults. This species is ready for breed-
ing around the age of three years. Malayan tapirs live for about thirty
years in the wild, and their main predators are tigers and leopards.
Malayan tapirs and people: Malayan tapirs are hunted in some ar-
eas of Asia for meat and other products and illegally traded in other
areas. Humans have always been the prime enemy of the Malayan tapir.
Conservation status: This species is listed as Endangered. Their

forest habitat is being destroyed at an alarming rate for agricultural

purposes. Asian countries have laws protecting Malayan tapirs, but
they are still killed for their meat. ■
Books:
Emmons, Louise H. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide,
2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.
Kricher, John. A Neotropical Companion, 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton
Web sites:
“Animal Bytes: Tapirs.” Sea World. http://www.seaworld.org/
AnimalBytes/tapirs.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Brazilian or Lowland Tapir.” Enchanted Learning. http://www
.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/tapir/Tapirprintout.shtml
“Malayan Tapir.” Animal Info. http://www.animalinfo.org/species/
artiperi/tapiindi.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Malayan Tapir.” Animal Planet. http://animal.discovery.com/fansites/
jeffcorwin/carnival/lilmammal/malayantapir.html (accessed on July 9,
2004).
“The Tapir Gallery.” Tapir Preservation Fund. http://www.tapirback.com/
tapirgal/ (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Tapirs 873
RHINOCEROSES
Rhinocerotidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Family: Rhinocerotidae
class Rhinoceroses (commonly called “rhinos” [RYE-nose]) weigh
more than 2,200 pounds (1,000 kilograms) as adults. Their
subclass
barrel-shaped bodies are supported by short legs that end in
order three-toed feet. The mobile ears are large, tiny eyes are situ-
monotypic order ated on either side of the head, and the neck and tail are
short. Rhino horns are not made of bone, but of keratin
suborder (KARE-ah-tin), the same material in hooves, hair, and fin-
▲ family gernails. They are not attached to the skull. These horns never
stop growing, and they will re-grow should they be knocked
out in battle or otherwise.
Skin thickness varies with the species. Rhinos have large
sweat glands scattered over the skin that allows them to sweat
often and a lot to help keep them cool. Their eyesight is poor,
but their sense of hearing is well developed and facilitated by
ears that can swivel. Their most acute sense is that of smell.
Rhinos vary in coloration from gray to brown.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Found in Africa and Southeast Asia.
HABITAT
Different species prefer different habitats. The white rhino
likes grasslands and savannas (similar to grasslands but with
small trees and bushes), while the black rhino prefers bush-
land and semidesert. The Indian rhino is found on meadows

and swamplands, and Sumatran and Javan rhinos occupy
rainforests.
DIET
Rhinos are vegetarians and feed primarily on leaves, fruit,
grasses, and stems. They have one stomach, which could lead
to poor digestion. Because of their large size, however, rhinos
have longer periods of digestion, making it more efficient.
Rhinos need water not only for drinking, but for wallowing in
as well.

Rhinos are solitary (lone) animals, but are primarily found
in the mother-offspring pair. Their poor eyesight prohibits them
from clearly seeing anything farther away than 100 feet (30 me-
ters). Their sense of smell alerts them to danger. Rhinos are
normally gentle creatures and they will only charge an intruder
if they feel threatened.
Courtship behavior (mating rituals) of the rhino is so ag-
gressive that it sometimes ends in injury to one or both par-
ties. Rhino males are territorial and will fight with other males
to defend territory or to mate with females. Rhinos do not form
bonds and the sexes do not associate with each other outside
of mating.
Pregnancy lasts fifteen to sixteen months and results in a sin-
gle birth. Rhino calves remain with their mothers for two to
four years, at which time they live independently. Baby rhinos
nurse (drink mother’s milk) for one year, but begin supple-
menting with vegetation at one to two months. Rhinos are ready
to mate between the ages of four to five years, but males often
wait until the age of ten due to competition from other males.
Babies are born every two to five years. Rhinos can live to be
forty years old and have no natural predators.
RHINOCEROSES AND PEOPLE

Humans have long been fascinated with the rhinoceros, as
indicated in cave art from the Early Stone Age. Unfortunately,
this fascination hasn’t kept humans from reducing all rhino
populations. Rhinos are especially valued for their horns,
which are used to make dagger handles in Yemen (believed to
give the owners invincibility) as well as medicine in China and
Rhinoceroses 875
HUMAN GREED SPELLS DEATH FOR BLACK RHINOS
For nearly twenty years, the African Wildlife rhinos in a fenced-in area less than 1 square
Foundation has been committed to rhinoceros mile (less than 1 square kilometer). Today
conservation. Much of its funding supports it is larger than 38 square miles (98 square
black rhino protection and conservation in the kilometers) and is home to fifty-seven
Tsavo East National Park in Kenya. rhinos, half of whom were born in the
sanctuary.
In the 1970s, the black rhino population
was between six and eight thousand. By Although the numbers are slowly rising, it
1989, however, the population had dwindled isn’t happening without a cost. In May 2003
to twenty. Poaching is the sole reason for the two park rangers were murdered in an effort
decline of the rhino population throughout to protect the rhinos from poachers.
Africa. As a way to counterbalance this tragic Poaching continues throughout rhino ranges,
pattern, Tsavo East created the Ngulia Rhino but sanctuaries like NRS are key to bolstering
Sanctuary (NRS) in 1985. It began with three the rhino population.
India. Because the horn is made of keratin, the same as hair

and fingernails, the there’s no evidence to support the claim
that it holds medicinal power.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The only species that isn’t threatened is the white rhino, though
it once was in serious jeopardy. Today, the Javan, Sumatran,
and black rhinos are Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction, while the Indian rhino is considered
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction. Poaching
(illegal hunting) is to blame for the threat to all rhinos.

Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
SPECIES
SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS ACCOUNTS
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis
Physical characteristics: This is the smallest and oldest living

rhino species, with a weight from 2,200 to 4,400 pounds (999 to 1,998
kilograms) and a shoulder height of 48 to 58 inches (120 to 150
centimeters). From head to tail, this species measures 100 to 125
inches (250 to 315 centimeters). The body is covered sparingly with
short hairs, and the hide is dark red-brown. The horn closest to the
snout can measure up to 31 inches (79 centimeters), but that is un-
usually long, and it is normally much shorter. The other horn is no
longer than 6 inches (15 centimeters). Both sexes have horns.
Rhinoceroses 877
A newborn Sumatran rhinoceros,
born at the Cincinnati Zoo in
2001, is the first Sumatran
rhinoceros to be born in captivity
in 112 years. (AP/Wide World
Photo/Cincinnati Zoo.
Geographic range: Though they once roamed over Southeast Asia,

they are found only on the island of Sumatra and in the Malay penin-
sula today.
Habitat: The Sumatran rhino lives in mountainous rainforests to-

day, but experts believe it may have once occupied lowland forests,
as well. They need to live near permanent bodies of water.
Diet: This species eats mostly twigs and leaves of small trees and
shrubs. It also enjoys fruits and herbs. Although these rhinos feed on
undergrowth along streams, they will reach higher shoots and twigs
by walking on plants and pressing down on the trunk of saplings with
their round bodies.
Behavior and reproduction: Sumatran rhinos are solitary and come

together only to breed, although calves and mothers are frequently
seen together. They like to wallow in mud holes, which not only keep
them cool, but also protect their thin outer layer of skin from insect
bites and thorns. Males roam whereas females have home ranges cov-
ering 4 to 6 square miles (10 to 15 square kilometers). Each territory
has a salt lick, which the rhinos visit frequently.
Pregnancy lasts 475 days and calves weigh around 72.8 pounds
(33 kilograms). While nursing, females confine their movements to
small areas close to a salt lick. Calves leave their mothers between
sixteen and seventeen months, at which time the mother returns to
her non-breeding range. Females give birth about every four years.

Sumatran rhinoceroses and people: The number of Sumatran rhi-
nos has decreased by 50 percent in the past twelve years due to poach-
ing. It is believed that as of 2002, there are fewer than three hundred
left in existence. Captive breeding has not been successful, as it has
come to light that rhinos have strange mating habits that captivity
cannot allow.
Conservation status: Listed as Critically Endangered since 1996. ■
Rhinoceroses 879
Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
INDIAN RHINOCEROS
Rhinoceros unicornis
Physical characteristics: This species has skin that is covered in what

looks like plates of armor. Indian rhinos also have just one horn. Males
can weigh up to 4,600 pounds (2,100 kilograms), while females weigh
around 3,500 pounds (1,600 kilograms). Males measure to 150 inches
(380 centimeters) in length, females to 135 inches (340 centimeters).
Both sexes have the horn, which measures around 18 inches
(45 centimeters). The hairless skin is gray and has flat bumps on it.
Geographic range: Indian rhinos are found in Pakistan, India,

Nepal, and Bangladesh.
Habitat: The Indian rhino lives on floodplains and swamplands with

tall grasses as well as adjoining woodlands on drier ground.
Diet: This species uses its upper lip to grasp grass stems and bushes.
The lip folds back when the rhino wants to graze. The tall grasses of

the preferred region supply food year-round. During winter, woody Indian rhinoceros calves nurse
until they are two years old, and
vegetation is important. The Indian rhino also eats aquatic plants and
leave their mother just before
green fallen fruits. These rhinos will step on plants and pull down she has her next calf. (© Tom
stems so they can bite off the tips of vegetation. In doing so, they dis- McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
perse seeds, thus guaranteeing a plentiful food supply. Reproduced by permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Solitary like other rhinos, the Indian

rhino gathers around and wallows in bathing pools, as well as in feed-
ing areas. Males are aggressive and fights break out when strange rhi-
nos trespass on others’ territory. This species is very vocal. Indian
rhinos spend more than half of their time feeding.
After a courtship that includes the male chasing the female, some-
times for more than a mile (1.6 kilometers), the pair begins horn fight-
ing. This can lead to biting, and it is common for them to inflict open
wounds during mating. Pregnancy lasts sixteen months at which time
the female gives birth in a secluded forest area or dense grassland re-
gion. Calves weigh 140 to 150 pounds (65 to 70 kilograms) and nurse
until they are two years old. They leave their mothers a week or two
before the birth of the next offspring, though females may remain on
the maternal home range. Females give birth every three-and-a-half to
four years. Indian rhinos can live up to thirty years in the wild with
tigers as the only natural predator of the young.
Rhinoceroses 881
Indian rhinoceroses and people: Tourists ride on elephants’ backs
to view Indian rhinos in some sanctuaries. Local people aren’t as fond
of the animals, as the rhinos tend to eat crops at night. In some in-
stances, Indian rhinos have killed humans.
Conservation status: Indian rhinos are listed as Endangered by the

IUCN due to poaching and competition from cattle and agricultural
development. ■

White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)
WHITE RHINOCEROS
Ceratotherium simum
Physical characteristics: This is the largest rhino species. Males

can weigh up to 5,000 pounds (2,300 kilograms), while females weigh
around 3,800 pounds (1,700 kilograms). Males measure to 150 inches
(380 centimeters) in length, females to 135 inches (343 centimeters).
The body is covered sparingly with short hairs, and the hide is
gray. The horn closest to the snout measures 20 to 62 inches (50 to
158 centimeters. The other horn is no longer than 15 inches (40
centimeters). Both sexes have horns.
Geographic range: In the nineteenth century, the white rhino was

found in two separate regions of Africa: southern Chad, Central
African Republic, southwest Sudan, northeast Democratic Republic
of the Congo, and northwest Uganda; and southeast Angola, parts of
Rhinoceroses 883
White rhinos live in groups of Mozambique, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and northeast South
one dominant male, females and Africa. Today the white rhino occupies fragments of these areas and
their offspring, and some young
males. (Photograph by Harald
is restricted to game preservations and national parks.
permission.) Habitat: The white rhinoceros prefers the drier savanna regions in
southern Africa, yet prefers the moist savanna in the northern range.
Diet: The southern white rhino eats grasses and also ingests herbs
and occasionally woody shrubs. Short grasses are the preferred food
year-round, though later in the dry season, interest turns to some of
the taller grasses. The northern rhino prefers short grasses but in-
cludes medium-tall grasses in its foraging.
Behavior and reproduction: White rhinos seem to be the most com-

plex species of the family. Their range varies in size from less than 1
square mile (less than 1 square kilometer) to 5 square miles (8 square
kilometers). They spend their entire lives within these ranges, and
live in small groups with one dominant male, numerous females and
their offspring, and even some sub-adult males. Fighting is rare.
Lions have been reported to prey on young calves, but that is the
extent of natural predators.

Gestation lasts sixteen months, at which time the female seeks a
quiet place to birth her single calf. Calves nurse until the age of fifteen
to twenty-four months, though they begin eating vegetation after a cou-
ple months of age. Females are sexually mature between the ages of six
and eight years while males begin breeding around ten to twelve years.
White rhinos live no longer than about forty years in the wild.
White rhinoceroses and people: White rhinos are terrified of hu-

mans. Early European hunters brought the white rhino to near ex-
tinction as they harvested populations for their meat and other body
parts. The southern population has recovered well, but the future of
the northern species is questionable at best.
Conservation status: The white rhino is listed as Near Threatened

by the IUCN because even though population levels are higher than
other rhino species, this breed is easy to track down and hunt, so
reintroduced herds have been easily eliminated. The horn of the white
rhino is particularly valuable, fetching a couple thousand dollars per
horn on the black market. Recently, a herd of young male elephants
killed a number of white rhinos. This is normally highly unlikely, but
these particular elephants were orphaned at a young age and had no
older bulls in the herd. Once older bulls were introduced, the ag-
gression of the younger elephants subsided, demonstrating the im-
portance of hierarchy in elephant populations. ■
Books:
Cunningham, Carol, and Joel Berger. Horn of Darkness: Rhinos on the
Edge. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Martin, Louise. Rhinoceros. Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Publishing, LLC., 2003.
Toon, Steve, Colin Baxter, and Ann Toon. Rhinos: Natural History and
Conservation (WII). Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Periodicals:
Mill, Frances. “A Horse is a Horse, Of Course—A Rhinoceros is a Horse.”
Boys’ Life (February-March, 2004).
Slattery, Derek M. “Africa Rhino Conservation.” PSA Journal (July 1, 2003).
Web sites:
“Black Rhino Looks Tough, But is Powerless at the Hands of Man.”
African Wildlife Foundation: News and Headlines (May 12, 2004).
Online at http://www.awf.org/news/17013 (accessed July 8, 2004).
Rhinoceroses 885
Ellis, E. “Ceratotherium simum (White Rhinoceros).” Animal Diversity Web.
Ceratotherium_simum.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Fahey, B. “Rhinoceros unicornis (Indian Rhinoceros).” Animal
information/Rhinoceros_unicornis.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Rhino Fact Sheet.” Care for the Wild. http://www.careforthewild.org/
rhinos.asp (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Rhinoceros.” Defenders of Wildlife. http://www.kidsplanet.org/
factsheets/rhinoceros.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Sumatran Rhinoceros.” Blue Planet Biomes. http://www.blueplanetbiomes
.org/sumatran_rhino.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Wild Lives: Rhinoceros.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.awf
.org/wildlives/5 (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“White Rhino.” Save the Rhino. http://www.savetherhino.org/rhino_
facts/white_rhinoceros.phtml (accessed on July 8, 2004).

EVEN-TOED UNGULATES
Artiodactyla
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
order C H A P T E R
Because there are as many as 227 species of artiodactyls class
(ar-tee-oh-DACK-tuhlz), they vary greatly in physical charac-
subclass
teristics. The smallest is the mouse deer, which weighs less
than 2 pounds (1 kilogram) and stands up to 14 inches ● order
(35 centimeters) to the shoulder. The hippopotamus is the monotypic order
largest, weighing in at nearly 10,000 pounds (up to 4,500
suborder
kilograms). Head and ear sizes and shapes vary, as do neck
lengths, but the eyes are usually big, with long lashes. Tail and family
leg lengths vary, and fur can be short or long.
Ungulates (UNG-gyuh-luhts) are hoofed mammals. What
makes artiodactyls different from perissodactyls (puh-RIH-suh-
dack-tuhlz), is the number of toes. With the exception of two
species, all artiodactyls have an even number of toes (two or
four) on each foot. The hooves are hard and ideal for fast run-
ning, though they vary in size depending on the size and mass
of the animal. Almost all species have weapons, including
horns, antlers, and tusks or canines (the four pointed teeth near
the front of the mouth, two on each jaw).
Artiodactyls’ coats have two layers: a short underfur and
longer guard hairs on top. The top hairs repel water, and the
two layers together help control body temperature. Most species
have glands that are used for communication. These glands se-
crete strong-smelling chemicals and substances. The animals
use these to mark territory. Animal behaviorists agree that the
role of these glands in general is not completely clear.
Even-Toed Ungulates 887

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Artiodactyls can be found on every continent except for
Antarctica and Australia. They also do not inhabit oceanic
islands.
HABITAT
Habitats vary greatly. Regardless of biome, though, every ar-
tiodactyl needs abundant vegetation in order to survive. These
animals are found in valleys and on mountaintops, in deserts
and tundras. Depending on the species, they will choose habi-
tats that will protect them as they go about their daily activities.
For example, bighorn sheep live in open grasslands and mead-
ows near cliffs. The meadow allows them to feed while the
cliffs provide security from predators, animals that hunt them
for food.
DIET
Except for two species, artiodactyls are herbivores (plant
eaters). This is probably one of the reasons the order has
thrived—vegetation is an abundant food source in almost
any ecosystem, and so these animals are able to live almost
anywhere.
All artiodactyls have at least one “false stomach” located in
front of the actual stomach. Some have three. These false stom-
achs aid digestion. Because mammals don’t have the enzymes
that make digestion of plants possible, they rely on microorgan-
isms to help break down plant tissues. These microorganisms,
in combination with the action of false stomachs, make for highly
effective digestion. Artiodactyls are ruminants, meaning they
chew their food, swallow it, then regurgitate (re-GER-jih-tate;
vomit) it back into the mouth to be chewed another time.

Though often seen in pairs or trios, artiodactyls are social
and live in groups. Adult sexes live separately for most of the
year (though they may share a range), and offspring live with
females. Males tend to live where food is more plentiful be-
cause they require more energy due to their larger size. Fe-
males, on the other hand, tend to live in areas that are more
protected from predators because they have the responsibility
of raising the young, which are susceptible to predation dur-
ing the first few months of life.

THE BUSHMEAT CRISIS
Many of the world’s tropical forests are • Many forest people have lived in a
hunting zones for bushmeat (wild meat). Not trade economy—one in which they
only does the meat sustain people because it bartered or traded goods and services.
is a food source, but also because bushmeat Now that they are being forced into a
cash economy, there may be the
hunting is the livelihood of local people. Where
tendency to over-exploit their natural
once bushmeat hunting was on a smaller resources so that they can participate in
scale, involving only low-impact technologies, the economy. Bushmeat hunters may
it is now a booming international business, begin to overhunt so that they can
and one that can no longer be sustained. provide large quantities of the wild meat
to wholesale resources.
According to the Overseas Development
• New hunting technologies are killing
Institute (ODI), there are many reasons why
bushmeat animals at a faster rate than
bushmeat hunting is no longer a sustainable they are able to reproduce, thus
activity. Some of them are: decimating the herd numbers. This is
• Remote tropical forest areas are being what leads to extinction.
opened up at an alarming rate through The bushmeat crisis has become such a
logging. Whereas inhabitants who live concern that in 2004, the ODI began a project
there once existed without interaction in
titled “Wild Meat, Livelihoods Security and
the modern world, they are now being
given access to a cash economy and Conservation in the Tropics.” The project’s aim
modern consumer markets. No longer are is to consider the bushmeat crisis in terms of
inhabitants native to the area, but often livelihood for humans as well as conservation
landless migrants searching for work. for the environment and animals.
Artiodactyls are equipped with horns or antlers used for

fighting, but physical confrontation is risky because it requires
energy that could be used for mating or feeding. Because of
this, many artiodactyls will use displays, or behaviors, such as
vocalizations or postures, to force an opponent to withdraw.
During these displays, the animals do their best to appear as
big as possible by raising their fur or standing sideways. They
seem to use color patterns in their communications as well,
though to what degree we do not know. For example, white-
tailed deer raise their tails as a warning signal to other deer that
danger is near. This exposes the long white hairs on the rump

and underside of the tail, so as it waves the tail from side to
side, the stark white contrasts with the darker fur and sur-
roundings, such as plants, trees, etc.
Most species give birth to one or two young at a time. The
pig is the exception, with four to eight young born each preg-
nancy. Artiodactyls breed once a year, and babies are usually
born just as plants start to bloom. This allows plentiful food
for mother and baby, which ensures nutrient-rich milk for the
mother and a long growing period for the newborn.
Babies are able to walk and even run within hours of birth,
and they either hide when mother is away or stay close to her
during the first few weeks of life. Those who hide include the
smaller species. The larger species live in more open habitats
and have fewer places in which to hide.
Male artiodactyls mate with several females each mating sea-
son, and they usually do not form bonds. Pregnancy lasts from
five to eleven months, depending on the species. Artiodactyls
are ready to breed at eighteen months of age, and females give
birth for the first time around the age of two. Artiodactyls can
live to be ten to thirty years old, but the average age of death
is much lower. Because of their keen senses and ability to run
fast, artiodactyls don’t often fall prey to other animals.
ARTIODACTYLS AND PEOPLE

For as long as people have inhabited the earth, artiodactyls
have been hunted for their meat and skins. Still today they are
valued as a source of animal protein. Domestic livestock such
as cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep are artiodactyls. Historians be-
lieve sheep and goats were the first artiodactyls species to be
domesticated, around nine thousand years ago. Whether do-
mesticated or wild, humans still rely on artiodactyls for meat,
bones, horns, fertilizer, milk, and other byproducts.
CONSERVATION STATUS
One hundred sixty species of Ariodactyla are on the IUCN
Red List of threatened mammals. Two are Extinct in the Wild;
seven are Extinct; eleven are Critically Endangered, facing an
extremely high risk of extinction; twenty-six are Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; thirty-five are Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction; sixty-six are not currently
threatened, but could become so; and thirteen are Data Defi-
cient, not enough information to make a determination.

Threats include poaching (illegal hunting), habitat loss from
deforestation and agricultural conversion, and competition with
livestock. Regardless of the threat, all are based on human de-
mands for natural resources that are slowly disappearing.
Books:
Hames, Michael, Denise Koshowski, et al. Hoofed Mammals of British
Columbia. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2000.
Web sites:
“Order Artiodactyla.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www.ultimateungulate.
com/Artiodactyla.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Artiodactyls.” Enchanted Learning. http://www.enchantedlearning.
com/subjects/mammals/classification/Artiodactyls.shtml (accessed on
July 9, 2004).
“Artiodactyls.” GeoZoo. http://www.geobop.com/mammals/art/index.
php (accessed on July 9, 2004).
Myers, P. “Order Artiodactyla.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity
.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Artiodactyla.html (accessed
on July 9, 2004).
The Nature Conservancy. http://nature.org (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Wild Meat, Livelihoods Security and Conservation in the Tropics.” Over-
seas Development Institute. http://www.odi-bushmeat.org (accessed on
July 9, 2004).

PIGS
Suidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Suidae
class Pigs are medium-sized mammals whose thick bodies weigh
anywhere from 77 to 770 pounds (35 to 350 kilograms). Some
subclass
domesticated, tamed, breeds weigh up to 990 pounds (450 kilo-
order grams). Pigs measure 34 to 83 inches (86 to 211 centimeters)
monotypic order in length and stand 21 to 43 inches (53 to 109 centimeters)
high. The exception is the pygmy hog, which is the smallest
suborder species and never grows longer than 28 inches (71 centimeters).
▲ family The neck is short and the head is long and pointed. The snout
is able to move separately from the head. The eyes are small, the
ears are long, and each foot has four toes. The two middle toes
are flattened and have hooves. The upper canines, cone-shaped
teeth on each side of the front of the mouth, are big and curve
upward, protruding from the mouth. Skin color varies, depend-
ing on the species, from brown to near black. Some species have
manes or tufts of hair. Others have warts on the face.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pigs live on every continent except Antarctica. They also oc-
cupy a number of oceanic islands. They are not indigenous (in-
DIJ-un-us), native, to all ranges, but have been introduced by
humans.
HABITAT
Pigs live in altitudes of up to 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) and
choose their habitats depending upon the availability of food,
weather conditions, and the predator, animals that hunt pigs for

food, population. African pigs occupy small territories or home
ranges while other pigs tend to roam in search of better feeding
grounds. Regardless of species, pigs build nests out of vegetation
for protection from weather as well as for resting. Warthogs do
not build their own nests but use those belonging to aardvarks.
Home ranges must have sources of shade as well as water and
mud holes. These three characteristics are important because
some pigs do not have sweat glands to cool their bodies.
DIET
Wild pigs are omnivorous, eating meat and plants, feeding
on leaves, grasses, seeds, fruits, eggs, young trees, carrion, or
dead animals, invertebrates, or animals without backbones, and
small vertebrates, animals with backbones. They also enjoy
mineral licks where they ingest nutrient-rich soil or water.

The basic group is the mother-offspring pair, and group sizes
vary from one to fifteen pigs. Females live alone or in a group
with other females, and offspring remain with their birth group
up to two years. Female offspring sometimes remain with the
group permanently, but males always leave. With the exception
of the African species, males and females interact only during
breeding season. African males live with the group year-round
and help raise the young. Male warthogs breed, leave, and then
return to help care for the offspring.
Pigs vocalize when they are alarmed or in pain as well as
when they are comfortable or breeding. Displays are used to
ward off intruders or rivals, but if that fails, pigs will fight us-
ing tusks. Cannibalism and infanticide, killing of young, have
been observed in some species, and wild piglets have been
known to be playful and social.
Wild pigs are active at night. Warthogs are active during day-
light hours.
Male pigs breed with several females each season, but warthogs
have been known to choose one mate for life. Courtship behav-
ior includes chasing and calling. Pregnancy lasts 100 to 175 days,
and during this time the female will build a nest from vegeta-
tion. Females give birth to one to twelve piglets in this secluded
spot. The litters of domesticated pigs increase in number with
age and may reach eighteen piglets. Piglets nurse, drink their
mother’s milk, up to twenty times each day. Some piglets are
Pigs 893
taken off mother’s milk as early as five weeks,
while others wait until thirty-two weeks of
age. Sexual maturity of young is reached at
eight months in some species, and at two to
five years in others.
Primary predators of wild pigs are bobcats,
GOOD NEWS FOR THE BABIRUSA coyotes, and black bears.
In February 2004, the Paguyaman
PIGS AND PEOPLE
Forest increased in size from 120 square
miles (311 square kilometers) to 200 Wild pigs and humans do not get along
square miles (518 square kilometers). This well. Wild pigs seriously damage crops by
forest is on Sulawesi, the island home to eating them or digging them up by the roots.
most of the remaining babirusa population. Humans hunt pigs for their meat and they
provide natives in Asia and parts of Africa
In addition, a poacher, illegal hunter,
with income through commercial hunting.
was prosecuted in 2002 for participating in
Some wild pigs carry disease that threatens
illegal trade. Such prosecution had never
domestic livestock. In some cultures, pigs are
taken place before that, and it has served
used in place of money. Domestic pigs are
to discourage other would-be poachers. As
used in scientific and medical research, and
a result, the number of babirusas sold
their organs have been used as replacements
weekly in the local markets fell from fifteen
for human organs. Humans have been the re-
in 1991 to two in 2004.
cipients of pig hearts, kidneys, livers, lungs,
and pancreas (PAN-kree-us) tissue.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The babirusa and the Philippine warty hog are Vulnerable,
facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. The Javan pig is
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
The pygmy hog and the Visayan warty pig are Critically En-
wild. There is no enough data about the Vietnam warty pig,
but it may be extinct, died out.
The main threats to these wild pigs are hunting and loss of
habitat. Although some pigs are protected by law from hunt-
ing, those laws are not well enforced.

Forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni)
SPECIES
FOREST HOG ACCOUNTS
Hylochoerus meinertzhageni
Physical characteristics: Forest hogs measure 51 to 83 inches

(130 to 210 centimeters) in length and stand anywhere from 30 to
43 inches (76 to 110 centimeters) high. Males weigh from 319 to 606
pounds (145 to 275 kilograms) while females weigh 286 to 449
pounds (130 to 204 kilograms). Their skin is gray to blackish gray
and is sparsely covered with long, coarse hairs. Tusks are around
12 inches (30 centimeters) or shorter.
Geographic range: Western, central, and eastern tropical Africa.
Habitat: Forest hogs live in forests of all kinds up to altitudes of

12,500 feet (3,800 meters). They require a permanent water source
and prefer thick vegetation that does not grow too high to easily reach.
Pigs 895
Forest hogs are active mainly at Diet: Forest hogs eat mainly grass. They will eat carrion and eggs
night, though they come out
occasionally. This species also eats dung, feces.
during the day if humans are not
around. They eat mostly grass.
(David Madison/Bruce Coleman Behavior and reproduction: Forest hogs are active mostly at night,
Inc. Reproduced by permission.) though they will come out during daylight if humans are not around.
The social group is made up of one male, several adult females, and
offspring. Home ranges overlap, and each has a number of paths lead-
ing to feeding sites, mineral licks, and water holes. Hyenas are the
primary predators.
Mating occurs most often towards the end of a rainy season, and
pairs do not bond. After 151 days of pregnancy, sows give birth to a
litter of two to four piglets, but sometimes as many as eleven. Piglets
remain in thick cover for one week and then stay with the sow. Young
are weaned, no longer drink mother’s milk, at nine weeks.
Forest hogs and people: Forest hogs are hunted for their meat.
Some tribes use the hides for war shields. Others believe that killing
the forest hog brings bad luck.
Conservation status: Forest hogs are not threatened. ■

Babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa)
BABIRUSA
Babyroussa babyrussa
Physical characteristics: Babirusas weigh 132 to 220 pounds (60

to 100 kilograms) and measure 34 to 39 inches (87 to 100 centime-
ters) in length. They stand 25 to 32 inches (65 to 80 centimeters)
tall. Depending on location, some babirusas look naked while others
have long, stiff coats. Skin is brownish gray, and the tusks come out
the snout and curve back towards the head.
Geographic range: Babirusas are found on the island of Sulawesi,

the Togian islands, the Sulu islands, and the island of Buru.
Habitat: Babirusas are found primarily in tropical rainforests

and along the banks of rivers and lakes where water vegetation is
plentiful.
Pigs 897
Diet: Babirusas feed on fruit, nuts, leaves, roots,
and some animal material. They also eat soil and
rock at the mineral licks. Both sexes have been
known to eat their young.
Behavior and reproduction: Babirusas are most

active in the morning. Males live alone, but females
form groups with one to five other adult females
and their young. Tusks are used for attack as well
as defense, but aggressive behavior is also met with
body pushing, rubbing, and boxing. Pythons are
the babirusa’s main predator.
Though they give birth year-round in captivity,
they may do so less frequently in the wild. Preg-
nancy lasts 155 to 175 days and result in a litter
of one to two piglets. These small litters make for
Babirusas feed on fruit, nuts,
leaves, roots, and some animal a slow-growing population. Offspring are weaned between twenty-six
material. (© Kenneth W. Fink/ and thirty-two weeks, though they begin to eat solid foods at one
Photo Researchers, Inc. week. Sexual maturity is reached at five to ten months of age.
Babirusa and people: Babirusas are hunted both commercially and

for its meat. Babirusa skulls are sold in local markets to tourists and
in department stores in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Conservation status: Babirusas are considered Vulnerable. The

main threats to this species include hunting and loss of habitat. ■

Eurasian wild pig (Sus scrofa)
EURASIAN WILD PIG

Sus scrofa
Physical characteristics: Eurasian wild pigs weigh from 77 to 770

pounds (35 to 350 kilograms), though domestic species can reach
990 pounds (450 kilograms). They stand anywhere from 22 to 43
inches (55 to 110 centimeters) tall. Their skin is covered with short
bristles of varying color. Males have larger tusks than females.
Geographic range: Eurasian wild pigs are found on all continents

except Antarctica. They also live on islands.
Habitat: Eurasian wild pigs live in a variety of habitats, including

tropical rainforests, woodlands, grassland, and agricultural lands.
Diet: About 90 percent of the Eurasian wild pig’s diet is vegetation.

They feed on roots, grasses, fruits, seeds, nuts, agricultural crops, car-
rion, invertebrates and vertebrates. Eurasian wild pigs have been
known to migrate, travel to another region, when food is scarce.
Behavior and reproduction: Eurasian wild pigs are mostly active in

the morning and afternoon. The basic social unit is a small group of
Pigs 899
Eurasian wild pigs have been females and their young. Adult males are solitary, lone. These pigs
known to travel to other areas
are active 40 to 65 percent of the time.
when food is scarce.
(© Uwe Walz/Jacana/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by Eurasian wild pigs and people: Eurasian wild pigs are eaten by hu-
permission.) mans more than any other species of pig. Because they do major dam-
age to crops, they are considered a pest by many locals. Eurasian wild
pigs are hunted commercially and for food. Their skulls are displayed
as protection from evil spirits. Domesticated pigs are used as money
for the payment of fines or fees for brides in some cultures.
Conservation status: Eurasian wild pigs are not threatened. ■
Books:
Prothero, Donald R., and Robert M. Schoch. Horns, Tusks, and Flippers:
The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 2003.
Sonder, Ben. Pigs & Wild Boars: A Portrait of the Animal World. New
York: Todtri Productions, 1998.

Young, Allen M. Tropical Rainforests: A Golden Guide from St. Martin’s
Press. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001.
Periodicals:
Bagla, Pallava. “World’s Tiniest Wild Pig Subject of Big Rescue.” National
Geographic News (January 28, 2003). Online at http://news
.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/01/0128_030128_pygmyhogs.h
tml (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Web sites:
Baribusa.org. http://earth-info-net-babirusa.blogspot.com/ (accessed on
July 7, 2004).
“The Joy of Pigs.” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) Nature. http://
www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/pigs/index.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Sus scrofa, Eurasian Wild Pig.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www
.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Sus_scrofa.html (accessed on July 7,
2004).
Pigs 901
PECCARIES
Tayassuidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Tayassuidae
class Peccaries (PECK-ar-eez) weigh 30.9 to 110.3 pounds (14 to
50 kilograms), depending on the species, and are 20 to 24 inches
subclass
(50.8 to 61 centimeters) tall. The body is similar to that of a pig,
order but the legs are longer and slimmer. Peccaries’ coats are bristly
monotypic order and short but get longer from the midsection to the hindquar-
ters. There is a scent gland located near the base of the tail that
suborder emits a musky smell. The snout is well developed. Peccaries have
▲ family canines (the cone-shaped side teeth found in the front part of
the mouth on both jaws). They have numerous stomachs, which
enhance digestion, but do not have a gallbladder (a muscular or-
gan attached to the liver used to store bile, which aids digestion).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Peccaries are found in southwestern North America to
Mexico and Central America, as well as South America.
HABITAT
Peccaries live in the desert areas of the southwestern United
States and northern Mexico. They also occupy the tropical
forests and rainforests of Central America as well as the wet-
lands and forests of South America. They can be found in the
dry tropical thorn forests of Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina
known as the Chaco.
DIET
Peccaries eat a wide variety of foods, allowing them to flour-
ish in habitats other animals might find harsh. Depending on

the species and where they live, they feed on fruit (especially
the prickly pear), roots, bulbs, grass, acorns, pine nuts,
and thistles. They find food by rooting (digging with the snout)
through mud and soil. White-lipped peccaries break through
seed shells using their muscular jaws and strong teeth. The food
is fermented (broken down) by microorganisms in the fore
stomach, which makes it easier to digest.

Peccaries are social animals that live in herds ranging in
number from three to more than five hundred. Home ranges
vary in size, depending on the species and location. For the
most part, peccaries are active during the daytime, though in
Arizona and Texas, the collared peccary becomes nocturnal
(active at night) in summer.
These animals are territorial and will become aggressive
when threatened by trespassers. They growl, click their teeth,
squeal, and make alarm-like barking sounds when threatened.
When alarmed, they bristle the hairs along their neck and back.
Peccaries groom one another. They are hunted by jaguars,
bobcats, coyotes, and pumas.
Peccaries can give birth year-round, and litter sizes range from
one to four, with the average size being one to two offspring.
Pregnancy lasts 145 to 162 days, depending on the species.
PECCARIES AND PEOPLE

Peccaries are hunted throughout their range for their meat,
hides, and just for sport. Books abound on the subject of trap-
ping and hunting these animals. Selling the meat and skins is
how many local populations earn their living. The peccary skin
trade has slowed down considerably in recent years, and Peru
is the only exporter of peccary skin today. Peccaries are con-
sidered spiritual guides of several game animals in the native
communities of Amazonia.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Chacoan peccary is listed as Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction, by the IUCN, primarily due to habitat
loss, but also because it is hunted for bushmeat (wild meat).
Peccaries 903
Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT COLLARED PECCARY
Tayassu tajacu
Physical characteristics: Collared peccary adults measure 46 to 60

inches (11.8 to 152.4 centimeters) long and weigh between 40 and
60 pounds (18.2 to 27.2 kilograms). Their skin is black and gray,
with a dark stripe running down their backs. They are easy to spot
because of a whitish gray band of fur around their necks. Babies are
yellow-brown or red.
Geographic range: Known in Spanish as the javelina (pronounced

HAV-a-lee-nah), this species is found in the southwestern United

Female collared peccaries give
birth to two offspring at the end
of their pregnancy.
(© G. C. Kelley/Photo
by permission.)
States. It also lives in Central America and on the Pacific coasts of

Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, mainly inhabiting the Chaco, or dry
tropical thorn forest.
Habitat: Collared peccaries live throughout a range of habitats, from

open deserts to oak forests to tropical forests. They are also found oc-
casionally on floodplains in the Amazon.
Diet: They eat cacti (KACK-tie, or KACK-tee), roots, fruit, seeds,

shrubs, small lizards and mammals, and in Arizona, the prickly pear.
This is an ideal fruit for the collared peccary, as it has a high water
content.
Behavior and reproduction: Herd size varies depending upon habi-

tat, so groups can be comprised from as few as two to as many as
thirty individuals. This species lives in hollowed-out logs or hollows
in the ground, near water if possible. They are most active during the
cooler times of day, during the morning or after sunset.
After a pregnancy of 145 days or so, the female gives birth to two
offspring. The approximate age at first breeding is sixteen months. Not
much else is known about the reproductive behavior of this animal,
though experts believe both sexes have several mates and do not bond.
Predators of the collared peccary include bobcats, coyotes, pumas,
and jaguars.
Peccaries 905
Collared peccaries and people: This species is the most widely
hunted of all peccaries. Its meat is a source of food and money for
many rural Peruvians.
Conservation status: Collared peccaries are not considered

threatened. ■
Books:
Yule, Lauray. Javelinas. Tucson, AZ: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 2004.
Periodicals:
Port-Carvalho, Marcio. “Predation of an Infant Collared Peccary by a
Harpy Eagle in Eastern Amazonia.” Wilson Bulletin (March 1, 2003).
Web sites:
“Collared Peccary.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.com/
magnov97/nov_pap/du_collpecc.html (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Collared Peccary.” Animal Planet. http://animal.discovery.com/
fansites/jeffcorwin/carnival/lilmammal/javelina.html (accessed on July
9, 2004).
“Jaguar, Tapir, and Other Large Mammals.” Peru Nature. http://www.
perunature.com/info04.asp (accessed on July 9, 2004).
“Javelina.” Big Bend National Park. http://www.nps.gov/bibe/
teachers/factsheets/javelina.htm (accessed on July 9, 2004).

HIPPOPOTAMUSES
Hippopotamidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Hippopotamidae
Hippopotamuses (often called hippos) have huge, round class
bodies that sit atop short legs. Males weigh 600 to 4,000 pounds
subclass
(270 to 1,800 kilograms) and measure 60 to 106 inches (152
to 270 centimeters). Females weigh between 500 and 3,000 order
pounds (230 to 1,500 kilograms) and measure 58 to 106 inches monotypic order
(150 to 270 centimeters). Hippos have four toes on each foot
with slight webbing between them. Though the skin looks hair- suborder
less, there is a sparse covering of fine hairs over the entire body. ▲ family
The hippo has no sweat glands, but it does have skin glands
that secrete a fluid. Experts believe this liquid acts as a sun-
screen as well as an antiseptic (germ-killer). Hippos vary in
color from slate brown to mud brown, and in certain lighting
give off shades of purple.
The head is big with a wide mouth. The canines (pair of
pointed teeth located in the front of the mouth on both jaws)
and incisors (four front teeth, situated between the canines on
both jaws) look like tusks and grow continuously throughout
the hippo’s lifetime.
The nostrils, eyes, and ears are located high on the face,
which allows the animal to remain submerged for a long time
with very little of its body showing. The hippo has a multi-
chambered stomach, which allows for fermentation (break-
down) of food for more efficient digestion.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hippos live throughout Africa.
Hippopotamuses 907
HABITAT
Common hippos like deep freshwater locations during the
day, but venture out of the water at night to graze. The pygmy
hippo lives in the forest and spends its day near or in water.
Water is important to the hippo because if it can’t submerge it-
self, its skin will crack from dehydration and overheating.
DIET
Hippos are vegetarians and eat mainly grasses, though the
pygmy hippo also feeds on fruits and ferns. All hippos eat by
nipping off the vegetation with their powerful lips. They eat
about 88 pounds (40 kilograms) of grasses each night.

Hippos do not feed in groups (with the exception of mother-
offspring) because they are largely immune to predators and so
are able to forage without fear of attack. Male hippos are in charge
of home ranges, which they keep for four years in rivers and at
least eight years in lakes. There have been reports of hippos re-
taining the same range for the entire span of their lives, twenty
to thirty years. Herds average ten to fifteen in size, but vary from
two to fifty. Nonbreeding males, though tolerated, are often the
victims of territorial fights with breeding adult males. These
“bachelor” males tend to live in herds of their own or alone.
Though large, hippos can run 18 miles per hour (30 kilo-
meters per hour) when threatened, and they are able climbers.
They are not able to jump and won’t even attempt it.
Both hippo species mate and give birth in the water, but the
pygmy hippo also mates and gives birth on land. Pregnancy
lasts 227 to 240 days and results in the birth of a single calf.
Calves nurse (drink mother’s milk) underwater. Male hippos
begin breeding between the ages of six and fourteen, whereas
females are ready to breed between the ages of seven and
fifteen. Calves are usually born in the rainy months.
Healthy adult hippos do not fall prey very often, but young
hippos and old or sick hippos are in danger of being killed by
lions, hyenas, and crocodiles.
HIPPOPOTAMUSES AND PEOPLE

Hippos are valued as a food source in Africa. Their teeth
provide a high-quality ivory, and their hides are also of value.

HIPPO TRIVIA
• The common hippo is the second largest heads or even slashing them with
living land animal, surpassed only by the mothers’ tusk-like teeth.
Indian rhinoceros. • When hippos fight, their goal is to break
• The word “hippopotamus” means “river the front leg of their rival so that it can
horse.” no longer walk to feed.
• Unlike other mammals, it is the female • Hippos use the same trails over and over
hippo who chooses a mate. If a male to travel on their ranges. These trails can
hippo does not treat her with respect become five to six feet deep, literally
upon approach, she will not choose him! turning into tunnels.
• Mother hippos punish their babies by • Since hippos are often born underwater,
rolling them over with the mothers’ babies can swim the instant they’re born.
Hippos are considered one of the most dangerous animals in

Africa because they have no fear of humans and are aggressive.
They also raid and damage agricultural crops.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The pygmy hippo is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk
of extinction, dying out, by the IUCN, and two other species
are Extinct. The common hippo has a healthy population, but
is vulnerable to extinction in West Africa. The primary threat
to hippos is loss of habitat.
Hippopotamuses 909
Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS COMMON HIPPOPOTAMUS
Hippopotamus amphibius
Physical characteristics: The common hippo measures up to

106 inches (270 centimeters) in length and has a shoulder height of
54 to 60 inches (137 to 152 centimeters). It weighs up to 4,000 pounds
(1,800 kilograms).
Geographic range: Although this hippo is found in thirty-five sub-

Saharan countries, many of those populations are small, especially in
West Africa. So, there aren’t as many common hippos as it might seem
there would be. Zambia, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo have larger populations of this species.

Common hippopotamus calves
stay with their mothers until the
next calf is born. (© Stephen J.
Krasemann/Photo Researchers,
Habitat: The common hippo needs water deep enough to keep its
body wet or the skin will crack from overheating. For the same reason,
it enjoys wallowing in mud. Hippos leave the water at night to feed,
sometimes traveling as far as 20 miles (32 kilometers) in one night.
Diet: The common hippo grazes on short grasses. The grasses be-
come known as hippo lawns because they are nipped off so close to
the ground. There has been one case of cannibalism (eating one’s own
species) documented.
Behavior and reproduction: The hippo is a difficult species to study

because it is aggressive toward humans. The male common hippo is
territorial in the water, where he defends mating rights with the fe-
male hippos in his range, but he is not territorial on land.
Hippos are known for their bellowing (shouting), but we don’t
know what role the bellowing plays in communicating between in-
dividuals. They also have at least three distinct calls underwater.
Common hippos mate and give birth in the water. Pregnancy lasts
240 days, at the end of which the female seeks solitude in the water.
We do not know how long baby hippos nurse (drink mother’s milk),
Hippopotamuses 911
but calves remain with their mothers until after the birth of the next
calf. Common hippos are polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-mus; have more
than one mate).
Common hippopotamuses and people: This species is highly dan-

gerous to humans, particularly fishermen who invade their territories.
It raids crops and is particularly fond of rice. Humans hunt the com-
mon hippo for its meat and ivory.
Conservation status: Though not listed by the IUCN, the total num-
ber of common hippos is low, especially in West Africa, where popu-
lations are as low as fifty. In order to rule out extinction, populations
need to number at least five hundred in any given region or area. ■

Pygmy hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon liberiensis)
PYGMY HIPPOPOTAMUS
Hexaprotodon liberiensis
Physical characteristics: Measures 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters)

in length and weighs 350 to 600 pounds (159 to 272 kilograms).
Though similar to the larger common hippo in body shape, the
pygmy’s head is proportionately smaller. Also, its eyes, ears, and nos-
trils do not sit as high on the head. Its legs and neck are longer, and
the skin is closer to black than brown.
Geographic range: Found in Liberia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, and

Sierra Leone.
Habitat: Pygmy hippos are forest animals that spend the day in or
near water and roam the land at night to forage. They also live along
swamp borders.
Hippopotamuses 913
Pygmy hippopotamus calves stay Diet: Feeds on a diet of fruits, ferns, and grasses.
with their mothers for about
three years. (Tom Brakefield/
Behavior and reproduction: These hippos are usually found in
by permission.) pairs, as they are not as social as common hippos. They also are not
as aggressive.
Females give birth either on land or in water after a pregnancy last-
ing 190 to 210 days. Each delivery results in one calf that weighs an
average of 12.6 pounds (5.7 kilograms). Unlike the common hippo
calves, pygmy calves will not follow their mothers on food expeditions,
but stay in hiding and wait to be nursed two or three times a day. By
the age of five months, they weigh ten times more than they did at
birth. These calves live with their mothers until the age of three years.
Pygmy hippopotamuses and people: Pygmy hippos are not a threat

to humans but have been known to injure hunters and damage crops.
Conservation status: Listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN due to

hunting and habitat loss from logging. Several national parks in the
Ivory Coast and Guinea have been established to give protection to
the pygmy hippo. ■

Books:
Eltringham, S. Keith. The Hippos: Natural History and Conservation.
London: Academic Press, 1999.
Leach, Michael, and Frank Sloan, eds. Hippopotamus: Habitats, Life
Cycles, Food Chains, Threats. Milwaukee: Raintree Publishers, 2000.
Perry, Phyllis J. Jean. Freshwater Giants: Hippopotamuses, River
Dolphins and Manatees. New York: Scholastic Library Publishing, 1999.
Web sites:
“Hippopotamus.” ExZooberance. http://www.exzooberance.com/
virtual%20zoo/they%20walk/hippopotamus/hippopotamus.htm (accessed
on May 22, 2004).
“Hippopotamus.” Nature-Wildlife. http://www.nature-wildlife.com/
hipptxt.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Hippopotamus.” Young People’s Trust for the Environment. http://
www. yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/animal_facts/hippopotamus.html
(accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Pygmy Hippopotamus.” Wonderclub. http://wonderclub.com/Wildlife/
mammals/pygmyhippopotamus.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
Shefferly, N. “Hippopotamus amphibius.” Animal Diversity Web.
Hippopotamus_amphibius.html (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals: Hippopotamus.” African Wildlife Foundation.
http://www.awf.org/wildlives/140 (accessed on May 22, 2004).
Hippopotamuses 915
CAMELS, GUANACOS, LLAMAS,
ALPACAS, AND VICUÑAS
Camelidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
class The average height of camels is 6 to 7.5 feet (1.8 to 2.3
meters), and vicuñas, guanacos, llamas, and alpacas are 3 to 4.3
subclass
feet (.90 to 1.3 meters) tall. Camels weigh between 1,000 and
order 1,800 pounds (454 to 816 kilograms); vicuñas, guanacos, lla-
monotypic order mas, and alpacas weigh between 88.8 and 265.5 pounds (40 to
120 kilograms).
suborder
Camelidae have long, thin necks, small heads, and slender
▲ family snouts. Their tough mouths allow them to eat thick grasses
and thorny plants without pain. Camels have kneepads
which protect them as they fold their legs beneath their bod-
ies to rest.
Each foot has two flat toes. Their thick coats protect them
from cold temperatures, and only the camel sheds its hair as
temperatures rise. Camels also have special muscles that allow
them to close their nostrils and lips for long periods of time so
that they do not breathe in large amounts of sand or snow.
Camels also have humps that store fat as a source of energy
when food reserves are low. The better they eat, the fatter the
hump or humps grow.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Camelidae are found from the Arabian Peninsula to Mongo-
lia, and in western and southern South America. Alpaca and
llamas are now found throughout North America since they
have become popular ranch animals.

HABITAT
Wild camelids live in the desert and semi-arid environments
that have a long dry season and short rainy season. Guanacos
live in warm and cold grasslands up to 13,120 feet (4,000
meters) above sea level, while vicuñas live in grasslands of the
Andes Mountains above 11,482 feet (3,500 meters).
DIET
Camelids need very little water. They graze on various
grasses and salty plants, which help them retain what little wa-
ter they do drink. Dromedaries and guanacos drink salty wa-
ter no other animals could tolerate.
Both kinds of camel eat thorny desert shrubs as well as any
other vegetation found in desert or semi-arid regions. Like some
other mammals, they do not chew their food completely before
swallowing it. After eating, they regurgitate, bring up from the
stomach, the food, re-chew it, swallow again, and digest it.

Camelids are active during the day. All species will spit or
kick when threatened.
Bactrian camels usually live in herds of up to thirty individ-
uals, concentrating in the mountain areas where there are
springs and snow. Dromedaries form three types of herds dur-
ing the mating season. One type is that comprised of bachelor,
or single, males. The next is made up of female-offspring cou-
ples, and those made up of up to thirty adult females along with
their offspring, led by one adult male. Vicuñas maintain family
groups of one territorial male and subadults as well as females
and offspring less than a year old. The guanaco population lives
in three social groups as well including families with one adult
male and one or several females with their most recent offspring,
male groups whose numbers may reach fifty, and solitary males.
Because they are now raised domestically, llamas and alpacas
have lost their social structure.
Camelids have numerous mates and do not bond with one
another. After twelve to thirteen months of pregnancy, female
camels give birth to one newborn, which can walk within a few
hours of birth. Young remain with their mothers until the age
of two years but they not considered adults until the age of five
years. Female llamas and vicuñas also give birth to one offspring
Camels, Guanacos, Llamas, Alpacas, and Vicuñas 917

after an eleven-month pregnancy. The babies
stay with the mother until one year of age.
Pumas and foxes are the primary preda-
tors of vicuñas and llamas, while alpacas fall
prey to pumas and leopards. Camels have no
known predators.
ALPACAS: BIG BUSINESS
CAMELIDS AND PEOPLE
According to Lisa Olsen, an alpaca
rancher in North Carolina, pregnant female Camelids have been used for transporta-
alpacas can sell for $12,000 to $22,000 tion as well as a food and clothing source for
each. That is a nice profit considering that about seven thousand years. They are espe-
they are not very expensive to feed, since cially valuable as transportation in the North
they live on hay, grass, and grains. African and Asian deserts because they can
travel up to 100 miles (161 kilometers) with-
According to the Alpaca Owners and
out water. They are also able to carry heavy
Breeders Association, the record for the
loads and still keep a steady pace.
highest dollar sale of a male alpaca was
set in 2002, when a sire sold for $265,000. Camels are a sign of wealth to some desert
Like any other livestock ranching, alpaca populations. These species provide humans
breeding is a business, and it is gaining with milk, meat, and wool used to make
popularity. clothing, blankets, and tents. The fat can be
removed from their humps and melted for
use in cooking.
Llamas and alpacas were domesticated thousands of years ago.
Alpacas were first imported to the United States in 1984, and in
2004 there were more than fifty thousand registered alpacas in
the United States. Llamas are believed to be domesticated, tamed,
by about 4,000 B.C.E.
Vicuñas were used in religious rituals in the Inca empire.
Guanacos provided food, hides, and fibers for South American
cultures, but they have never been domesticated.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Camels, alpacas, and llamas are not listed by the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN) because they are domestic animals.
However, wild Bactrian camels are listed as Critically Endan-
gered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild,
due to heavy hunting and competition with domestic livestock
for water and land. Vicuñas and guanacos are listed as Vulnera-
ble, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. Vicuñas had been
hunted almost to the point of extinction for their fur and meat.

Dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius)
SPECIES
DROMEDARY CAMEL ACCOUNTS
Camelus dromedarius
Physical characteristics: Dromedary camels are 7 feet (2.1 meters)

tall at the hump and weighs 1,600 pounds (726 kilograms). Their
long neck is curved, and they have one hump. Hair is caramel brown
or sandy brown, though shades can range from nearly black to white.
The coat is long at the throat, shoulders, and hump area, and blocks
the heat of the sun. The tail is short and the eyelashes are long.
Geographic range: Dromedary camels are found in dry regions of

the Middle East through northern India, and in Africa, primarily the
Sahara Desert. This camel has been introduced to Australia.
Habitat: Dromedary camels like the desert where temperatures

often rise above 120°F (49°C).
Diet: Dromedary camels eat thorny plants, dry grasses, and salty
plants that grow in the desert. Since they eat only a few leaves from
each plant, their food supply is relatively stable. Because they do not
drink much water, dromedary camels need six to eight times more

A camel’s hump is mostly fat, salt than other animals. Salt helps the body retain water. Dromedary
which is used by the body when
camels do not sweat easily, so they lose moisture more slowly than
food is scarce. (© Dave G.
Houser/Corbis. Reproduced by other animals. Dromedary camels have been known to drink one-
permission.) third of their weight in water within ten minutes.
Behavior and reproduction: Families include two to twenty indi-

vidual camels, including one dominant male, several females, and off-
spring. The dominant male chases away competitor males by pushing
them, snapping, and spitting.
Females are ready to mate by three years, males by six years. Preg-
nancy lasts up to fifteen months. Mothers nurse, feed with mother’s
milk, their offspring for one year. Because they have no predators,
dromedary camels live anywhere from thirty to forty years.
Dromedary camels and people: Dromedary camels have been

hunted for their meat and used as transportation for thousands of
years. They are also valuable for their milk, wool, leather, and ma-
nure, which is used for fuel.
Conservation status: There are about fourteen million dromedary

camels across the globe. They are not threatened. ■

Alpaca (Lama pacos)
ALPACA
Lama pacos
Physical characteristics: Alpacas reach 3 feet (.90 meters) high

and weigh 154.3 pounds (70 kilograms). They have small heads,
short, pointed ears, and extremely long necks. Except for the face
and legs, the entire body is covered by long, thick, soft wool.
Legs are short. Alpacas are generally a dark chocolate or near-black
color, but the fibers used to make clothing come in twenty-two col-
ors. Their coats are water repellant and protect them from solar
radiation.

Young alpacas are called “cria.” Geographic range: Alpacas live in the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, and
They usually nurse for five or six
Chile. They live in high altitudes ranging from 9,840 to 15,750 feet
months. (Francisco Erize/Bruce
Coleman Inc. Reproduced by (3,000 to 4,800 meters).
permission.)
Habitat: Alpacas prefer grasslands of the high plateaus of the Andes.
Diet: Alpacas feed on grasses, shrubs, and trees. The digestive sys-
tem of an alpaca is highly efficient, which allows them to thrive on
poor vegetation where other animals could not.
Behavior and reproduction: Alpacas are gentle, even-tempered an-

imals. They are friendly and show little sign of aggression, a fact that
makes them easy to domesticate and raise commercially.
Females mate for the first time around two years, males around
three years. Pregnancy lasts 324 to 345 days and results in one off-
spring, called a cria. Cria nurse for five or six months. The average
lifespan is twenty to twenty-five years. Primary predators of wild al-
pacas are pumas and foxes.
Alpacas and people: When Spanish explorers arrived in Peru, they

found the Incan culture to be based on textiles. In an effort to con-
quer the native peoples, the explorers slaughtered 90 percent of the
alpaca population. As the natives went into hiding or escaped, they

took with them both sexes of alpacas, thereby keeping the species
alive. Today alpacas are ranch-raised for their wool. Their friendly
personalities and resistance to disease make them easy to care for.
Conservation status: Alpacas are not threatened. There are about

3.5 million alpacas in the world. ■

Llama (Lama glama)
LLAMA
Lama glama
Physical characteristics: The average height of a llama is 3.8 feet

(1.2 meters). They weigh around 309 pounds (140 kilograms). Legs
are long, and the coat is a reddish-brown. Face, ears, and legs can be
tainted black, white, or a mix of other colors.
Geographic range: Llamas live in Peru, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia,

Ecuador, and Colombia.

Llamas are typically found in
herds, such as this one near
Lake Titicaca, Bolivia. (Norman
Owen Tomalin/Bruce Coleman
Habitat: Llamas live in high-altitude grasslands up to 13,120 feet

(4,000 meters).
Diet: Llamas eat grasses and salty plants.
Behavior and reproduction: Llamas do not touch one another, not

even in mother-offspring relationships. They are very herd-oriented
and travel in groups. Llamas live to be older than twenty years.
Llamas are believed to have numerous mates. One male can mate
with up to thirty females. Pregnancy lasts about eleven months.
Llamas and people: Llama fiber is used in making ropes, cowboy

hats, and rugs. Their skin is used to make leather goods, and their
bones make instruments for weaving looms. Their meat is low in fat,
and because they move rather slowly, llamas are easy to catch. They
make great pack animals and are used throughout the world for com-
mercial mountain treks.

Conservation status: Llamas are not threatened. There were around
2.5 million llamas throughout the world in 2004. ■
Books:
Frisch, Aaron. Llamas. Mankato, MN: The Creative Company, 2003.
Karr, Kathleen. Exiled: Memoirs of a Camel. New York: Marshall
Cavendish, 2004.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Guanaco, Llama, and Alpaca.” Walker’s Mammals of
the World 5.1 Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
artiodactyla/artiodactyla.camelidae.lama.html (accessed on May 28,
2004).
Periodicals:
Freeman, Darren. “Alpaca Ranchers Spur Livestock Trend N.C. Farming
Don’t Worry—The Llama-Like Animals Don’t Spit at People.” The Virgin-
ian Pilot (March 28, 2004): Y1.
Web sites:
“About Alpacas.” AlpacaInfo.com. http://www.alpacainfo.com/newsite/
about/history.html (accessed on May 28, 2004).
“Information About Camels.” LlamaWeb. http://www.llamaweb.com/
Camel/Info.html (accessed on May 28, 2004).

CHEVROTAINS
Tragulidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Tragulidae
Chevrotains look like tiny hornless deer with small heads, ta- class
pered snouts, skinny legs, and thick bodies. From head to rump,
subclass
they measure 17 to 19 inches (44 to 85 centimeters), and they
weigh 4.4 to 29 pounds (2 to 13 kilograms). Their backs are order
rounded and somewhat higher toward their rear ends, like the monotypic order
backs of rats. Their ears are tiny and covered with hair, which
is short and thick over their entire body. The coat is reddish suborder
brown to brown with patterns of white and brown spots and ▲ family
stripes on various areas, depending on the species. Males have
tusk-like teeth on top, but females have small, cone-shaped ca-
nines, teeth on either side of the four front teeth with one set
on each jaw. Chevrotains have three fully developed stomach
chambers, which allows for efficient digestion. Each foot has
four toes.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Chevrotains are found in Southeast Asia and east central
Africa.
HABITAT
Asian chevrotains live in rainforests, lowland forests, man-
grove forests, and thickets. They prefer areas with thick vege-
tation during the day and venture into open area at night. The
vegetation provides refuge from predators. African chevrotains
live in tropical rainforests and thick growth along water courses.
This species escapes predators by diving into the water.
Chevrotains 927
DIET
Chevrotains eat grasses and leaves, favor-
ing young shoots, fallen fruits, and seeds.
They have been seen eating small animals
occasionally.
AN UNLIKELY TRICKSTER BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION

Every culture has folklore, stories that Because they are shy and come out only
have been passed down that provide at night, chevrotains are difficult to study.
explanations for events and natural They are easily frightened and jump at the
phenomena. Most folklore includes a first sign of danger. Chevrotains are loners
trickster, a creature who is able to trick and socialize only during mating and while
other characters. Tricksters are usually rearing young. The exception to this is
animals that are small compared to the the lesser Malay mouse deer, which is
larger, heroic animals of folktales. But, they monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), has
usually come out the wiser of the two. only one mate.
A famous Southeast Asian folktale is Chevrotains are territorial and mark their
about a mouse deer that outwits a fierce ranges using sounds and scent marks in-
crocodile. The tale was put into print by cluding feces, urine, and glandular secre-
Kathy and John Morris and I Nyoman tions. Mouse deer bleat softly, like a lamb,
Kartana in 1999 in the book Mouse Deer when alarmed. Although they will fight,
and Crocodile: An Asian Folktale. bouts are short and infrequent. Males fight
with their tusk-like teeth.
Females are more active than males. All
chevrotain sit on their hind legs or crouch with all legs folded
to rest.
Little is known about the mating system of chevrotains. Ges-
tation, pregnancy, lasts six to nine months and results in the
birth of one offspring each year. Babies are nursed, fed with
mother’s milk, until the age of three to six months and can
stand on their own within an hour after birth. Chevrotains are
able to mate after nine to twenty-six months, and this is when
the young leave home. These animals live to an age of eleven
to thirteen years. Their primary predators are large birds of prey
and reptiles.
CHEVROTAINS AND PEOPLE

Regardless of where they live, chevrotains are hunted by na-
tive populations for food. Some people keep them as pets. Al-
though some zoos have had success in breeding water chevrotains,
these animals have proven difficult to breed in captivity.

CONSERVATION STATUS
All four species are threatened by hunting and habitat de-
struction. The water chevrotain is listed by the World Con-
servation Union (IUCN) as Data Deficient, meaning there is
not enough population information to evaluate its risk, and
only one subspecies is Endangered, facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild.
Chevrotains 929
Lesser Malay mouse deer (Tragulus javanicus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LESSER MALAY MOUSE DEER
Tragulus javanicus
Physical characteristics: The lesser Malay mouse deer is neither

mouse nor deer, but it is the smallest living artiodactyl (ar-tee-oh-DACK-
tuhl), weighing between 3.3 and 5.5 pounds (1.5 and 2.5 kilograms) and
measuring 18 to 22 inches (45 to 55 centimeters) from head to rump.
The tail is about 2 inches (5 centimeters). The large eyes are surrounded
by a lighter ring of fur. The upper coat is brown tinged with orange, and
the underside is white. Females are somewhat smaller than males.
Geographic range: Lesser Malay mouse deer are found in Malaysia,

Cambodia, southwestern China, Indonesia, Borneo, Laos, Myanmar,
Singapore, and Thailand.

Lesser Malay mouse deer were
thought to be only active at
night, but researchers have
found that they are somewhat
active during the day, as well.
permission.)
Habitat: Lesser Malay mouse deer live in lowland forests. They are
also found near water in thick vegetation, hollow trees, and among rocks.
Diet: Lesser Malay mouse deer eat leaves, buds, grass, and fallen fruits.
Behavior and reproduction: Recent studies suggest that this

species, once believed to be nocturnal, active at night, and solitary,
is actually somewhat active during the day and tends to form monog-
amous pairs. Lesser mouse deer are territorial and routinely mark
their territory. When upset, this species will tap the ground with its
hooves at a rate of seven times per second. They will also emit a shrill
cry when frightened, but otherwise are silent.
Lesser Malay mouse deer are ready to breed at five to six months.
Pregnancy lasts four to five months and produces one fawn, rarely
two. The young can stand within thirty minutes of birth and the
mother nurses her baby while standing. Offspring are weaned, re-
moved from mother’s milk, between ten and thirteen weeks. Within
55 to 155 minutes after they give birth, female lesser Malay mouse
deer are able to get pregnant again.
Lifespan of the lesser Malay mouse deer is up to twelve years. Their
predators include reptiles and large birds of prey such as owls and hawks.
Lesser Malay mouse deer and people: This species is hunted for
its smooth skin, which is used for the production of leather goods
such as wallets and handbags.
Chevrotains 931
Conservation status: Although not threatened according to the
IUCN, the lesser mouse deer population is threatened by habitat de-
struction and hunting. Their range and numbers have increased due
to conservation efforts. ■
Books:
Morris, Kathy, John Morris, and I. Nyoman Kartana. Mouse Deer and
Crocodile: An Asian Folktale. Arlington, VA: Bamboo Books, 1999.
Web sites:
Starr, Christopher K. “Anansi the Spider Man: A West African Trickster
in the West Indies.” Acarology Conference, August 1999. http://users.
carib-link.net/rfbarnes/anansi.htm (accessed on June 1, 2004).
Strawder, N. “Tragulus javanicus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tragulus_
javanicus.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).
“Tragulus javanicus.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www.ultimateungulate
.com/Artiodactyla/Tragulus_javanicus.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).

DEER
Cervidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Ardiodactyla
Family: Cervidae
Deer have long bodies and long legs. Coats are various shades class
of brown; some species have white fur to blend in with the arc-
subclass
tic environment. They have an enhanced sense of smell. All are
capable swimmers and fast runners. Males of nearly every order
species have velvet-covered antlers that they shed each year; in monotypic order
some species, females also have antlers. Hooves help them
suborder
navigate snow, but deep snows can lead to death due to lack
of mobility, which results in predation and starvation. ▲ family
Males are usually larger than females. Deer species vary in
weight from 22 pounds (10 kilograms) to 1,764 pounds
(800 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Deer are found everywhere except Australia and Africa.
HABITAT
Depending on the species, deer live in a variety of habitats.
Most deer species prefer areas with thick forest undergrowth.
DIET
Deer are herbivores (plant eaters) that eat lichens (fungus
found on trees), leaves, twigs, shoots, berries, and grasses. They
have four stomach chambers, which allow them to chew and
swallow their food and then regurgitate (vomit) it later for fur-
ther chewing. This makes digestion more efficient.
Deer 933
Some deer are solitary (lone), but most species are polygy-
nous (puh-LIH-juh-nus; one male to several female mates). De-
pending on species, they live in mother-offspring pairs or herds
numbering into the tens of thousands of individuals.
Gestation (pregnancy) periods vary depending on species,
but usually single births, sometimes twins, result. Calves are
nursed (fed mother’s milk) for a short time. Most babies are
born able to walk, even run, within hours.
Predators include wolves, grizzly bears, coyotes, mountain li-
ons, foxes, and wild cats. Life expectancy varies by species. Some
deer live an average of two years, while others can live past the
age of fifteen years.
DEER AND PEOPLE

A number of species are important game animals through-
out the world. They are hunted for meat and sport, and the
larger species are often a source of subsistence for native cul-
tures that herd them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Of the fifty-seven species, twenty-seven are included on the
IUCN Red List. One is Extinct, died out; one is Critically En-
dangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction; four are
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; six are Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction; four are Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could become so; and eleven
are considered Data Deficient, meaning there is not enough in-
formation to determine a conservation status. Reason for
threats include overexploitation by humans as well as habitat
destruction.

Siberian musk deer (Moschus moschiferus)
SPECIES
SIBERIAN MUSK DEER ACCOUNTS
Moschus moschiferus
Physical characteristics: The Siberian musk deer weighs 18 to 36

pounds (8 to 16 kilograms) and measures 24 to 39 inches (60 to 100
centimeters). Coat is various shades of brown, and there are fuzzy
whitish yellow spots on the neck and chest, with rows of brighter
spots on both sides of the body.
Geographic range: This musk deer is found in eastern Asia.
Habitat: This deer needs plenty of lichens (LIE-kenz) to eat and

shelter from predators. It lives in coniferous forests with dense un-
dergrowth and ground moss. Siberian musk deer can move easily on
top of snow because of their light weight. Deep, loose snow is diffi-
cult for them to navigate and can kill them.
Diet: Lichens are the primary food source, comprising 80 percent

of their diet in winter. They also eat fir needles, twigs, leaves, berries,
and mushrooms in winter. Musk deer have been known to migrate
up to 20 miles (35 kilometers) for food. Lichens aid digestion in sum-
mer, at which time they also eat flowers, moss, shoots, and grass.
Deer 935
The Siberian musk deer’s highly
arched back distinguishes it
from other species of deer.
(© M. K. Ranjitsinh/Photo
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Five to seven females and their off-

spring live together on a home range. This home range overlaps with
that of a dominating male. The more important or stronger females
live at the center of the range, and as old deer die, younger ones move
toward the center. Musk deer are nocturnal (active at night). Although
fast runners, they tire quickly, so they escape predators usually by
jumping and leaping as they run.
These polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-mus) animals give birth in April,
May or June, depending on the region. Fawns are hidden for up to
two months. Primary predators include lynx, wolverine, foxes,
wolves, tiger, bear, and the yellow-throated marten.
Siberian musk deer and people: Humans hunt this species for their
musk, which is produced by an abdominal gland in males and val-
ued for its cosmetic and medical uses.
Conservation status: Listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN due to over-

hunting. ■

Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)
INDIAN MUNTJAC
Muntiacus muntjak
Physical characteristics: Measures 35 to 53.2 inches (89 to 135

centimeters) long with a shoulder height of 15.7 to 25.6 inches (40
to 65 centimeters). Weight ranges from 33.1 to 77.2 pounds (15 to
35 kilograms), with males being larger than females. Males have small
antlers about 6 inches (15 centimeters) long. Females have small
knobs where antlers would be. Coat coloration is gold and white, with
limbs and face being dark to reddish brown. Indian muntjacs have
small ears and tusk-like upper canines measuring 1 inch (2.5 cen-
timeters) in males.
Geographic range: Found in northeastern Pakistan, India, Sri

Lanka, Nepal, southern China, Vietnam, Malay Peninsula and some
nearby islands, Riau Archipelago, Sumatra and Nias Island to the west,
Bangka, Belitun Island, Java, Bali, and Borneo.
Deer 937
Indian muntjacs eat some small Habitat: Indian muntjacs live in tropical rainforests, deciduous
animals. They catch them by
forests, and scrub forests as well as hilly areas, grasslands, and sa-
biting with their canine teeth
and “punching” them with their vannas. They must remain near a water source.
strong front legs. (© W. Perry
Conway/Corbis. Reproduced by
Diet: Feed on herbs, fruit, birds’ eggs, small animals, seeds, sprouts,
permission.)
and grasses found at the edge of the forest or in a clearing. They catch
animals by biting with their canines and punching with their strong
forelegs.
Behavior and reproduction: Although they sometimes move in

pairs or small groups, adults are solitary (lone). When in danger of
predation, Indian muntjacs bark like dogs, sometimes for more than
an hour, to scare away the predator. Pythons, jackals, tigers, leopards,
and crocodiles are the primary enemies of this deer.
This deer is ready to breed between the ages of six and twelve
months. After a six-month pregnancy, females give birth to one fawn,
rarely two, which remains with the mother until the age of six months.
Though no one is sure how long muntjacs live in the wild, this species
lives about seventeen years in captivity.

Indian muntjacs and people: Muntjacs are hunted for their meat
and skins, and hunters themselves make the barking sound of the
muntjac to warn other hunters of approaching danger, such as a tiger.
Muntjac populations are a threat when found in larger numbers be-
cause they tear bark from trees, which takes a toll on sources for hu-
mans’ shelter and fuel.
Conservation status: The Indian muntjac is not considered threat-

ened. ■
Deer 939
Red deer (Cervus elaphus)
RED DEER
Cervus elaphus
Physical characteristics: Males weigh up to 480 pounds (190 kilo-

grams) and stand up to 48 inches (120 centimeters) high at the shoul-
der. Females weigh up to 240 pounds (110 kilograms) and stand up
to 44 inches (110 centimeters) high at the shoulder. The coat is a rich
red color that changes to grayish brown in the cold months. The rump
sports a creamy white patch and short tail. Males have antlers that fall
off from February to April each year. New ones grow in August.
Geographic range: Found in western Europe, northwest Africa,

Asia to western China, and northwestern America. Red deer have been
successfully introduced to New Zealand.
Habitat: Red deer prefer to live in forested areas, but in regions where
forests have been cleared, this species has adapted. They can be found
in open plains, marshlands, mountain terraces, and meadows.
Diet: Red deer feed mostly on twigs, leaves, and stems of broadleaf
trees and shrubs, needles and branches of fir trees, herbs, lichens,

Red deer stags (adult males)
roar at other males and then
fight to get the chance to mate
with a group of females. (Hans
Reinhard/Bruce Coleman Inc.
fruits, and fungi. They enjoy willow, oak, poplar, and mountain ash
trees. Those found in North America depend on western hemlock,
fir, western red cedar, willow, and ferns. They also eat skunk cab-
bage, wall lettuce, and red elderberry.
Behavior and reproduction: Active throughout a twenty-four-hour

cycle, red deer are most active at dawn and dusk. They live in small
groups within woodlands, where the forest covering offers more pro-
tection. In open spaces, they live in larger herds. Males and females
live separately except during breeding season, which is in October.
At this time, herds separate and males gather together a group of fe-
males. During breeding (also known as “rutting”) season, males be-
come more aggressive and less tolerant of one another. Rival stags
will roar at one another, lock antlers, and push at each other until
one stag “wins” the group of up to forty or so females. Now and then
stag antlers will lock, and the two deer will starve to death. Other
than this, stags rarely kill each other in the fight for dominance.
After a pregnancy of thirty-three to thirty-four weeks, females give
birth to one calf, which is weaned (taken off mother’s milk) between
Deer 941
nine and twelve months. At one-and-a-half years of age, red deer are
ready to mate. Stags live to the age of twelve years in the wild, fe-
males to ten. Predators include foxes, wild cats, golden eagles, and
wolves, which prey on the young.
Red deer and people: This deer is hunted for its meat (venison)
and for sport. Teams of red deer pulled coaches in ceremonial pro-
cessions connected with the hunting goddess Diana in Ancient Rome.
Humans are the red deer’s primary predator today.
Conservation status: Not threatened. Red deer farming is becoming

popular in all regions. Herds in Britain are large enough that they must
be culled (reduced in number by selection according to those fittest for
survival and reproduction) annually so they do not starve. ■

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
WHITE-TAILED DEER
Odocoileus virginianus
Physical characteristics: This is a small deer species, weighing 110

to 300 pounds (50 to 136 kilograms) and measuring 67 to 77 inches
(170 to 195 centimeters) long. Summer coat is a foxy-red color. Coat
changes to grayish brown in fall, and hairs grow thicker and longer.
The underpart of the tail is white, as is the throat, nose, stomach, and
area surrounding the eyes. Only males have antlers, but both sexes
have scent glands on all four hooves. Although their eyesight and hear-
ing are well developed, they rely on sense of smell to detect danger.
Deer 943
Almost 70 percent of the Geographic range: This deer is found in southern Canada and all
white-tailed deer’s diet consists
of the United States except for Hawaii, Alaska, and the southwest.
of tree and shrub leaves and
twigs. (© Raymond Gehman/ Also lives throughout Central America to Bolivia.
Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.) Habitat: Although they have adapted to live in a variety of habitats
ranging from swamps and farmland to forest, white-tailed deer pre-
fer to live in areas with dense thickets (growths of bushes) and clear
edges (for food).
Diet: Almost 70 percent of this deer’s diet consists of tree and shrub
leaves and twigs. Adults need 5 to 11 pounds (2.5 to 5 kilograms) of
food daily. In winter, stored body fat allows them to subsist on 2
pounds (1 kilogram) daily. Though watering places are often at the
center of home ranges, this animal can go without water if succulent
(water-based) plants are available.
Behavior and reproduction: When sensing danger, this deer will

stomp its hooves, snort, and point its tail up to alert other deer. Able
to run at speeds of up to thirty miles per hour, these deer are also
able jumpers and swimmers. Home ranges are usually less than one

square mile (2.59 square kilometers). Females live alone unless they
are mothers, and bucks live in small herds of three or four individu-
als except during mating season.
White-tailed deer are polygynous and begin breeding in late Sep-
tember into December. Pregnancy lasts 188 to 222 days and usually
results in the birth of twins. Within hours, they nurse and walk around
following the mother, though they prefer to hide until around ten
days, when they begin eating on their own. They nurse until eight to
ten weeks of age. Usual rate of first breeding is two years for both
sexes. Mortality rate among white-tailed deer is high, around 30 to
50 percent. Most live to be two or three years old. Predators include
bears, mountain lions, wolves, jaguars, and coyotes.
White-tailed deer and people: This species is the most numerous

of big game animals in the world. Hunters kill about three million
each year, and still the population thrives. White-tailed deer carry
Lyme disease, which has become more prevalent among humans, es-
pecially in the northeastern states. Some people consider this deer a
pest because it gets into yards and eats shrubs, flowers, and other or-
namental vegetation.
Conservation status: White-tailed deer are not threatened. ■
Deer 945
Southern pudu (Pudu pudu)
SOUTHERN PUDU
Pudu pudu
Physical characteristics: The smallest deer in the world weighs 20

to 33 pounds (9 to 15 kilograms) and stands 14 to 18 inches (35 to
45 centimeters) high at the shoulder. Its thick coat is a reddish brown,
and the lips and insides of ears are tinged with orange. Males have
short spiked antlers. Body is low to the ground. Eyes and ears are
small. The tail of this deer is so small as to be almost nonexistent.
Geographic range: The pudu lives in Argentina and southern Chile.

Habitat: This deer lives in rainforests, bamboo
groves, and in mountains. Prefers thickets for pro-
tection from wild cats and foxes.
Diet: The pudu eats twigs, leaves, fruits, seeds,

and bark. Stands on back legs to reach food if nec-
essary.
Behavior and reproduction: These solitary deer

socialize only during mating season. They traverse
the jungle via well-worn paths and form dung piles
near resting places. Each pudu has a home range
of 40 to 60 acres (16.2 to 24.3 hectares).
This polygynous deer mates in the fall. Preg-
nancy lasts about 210 days and results in the birth
of a single fawn. Babies nurse for two months. Fe-
males are ready to mate at twelve months, males
at eighteen. Life expectancy is eight to ten years.
Southern pudu and people: Hunted for food and sport. The southern pudu is the
smallest deer in the world.
(© Tom McHugh/Photo
Conservation status: Endangered due to habitat destruction and
domestic dogs. ■ permission.)
Deer 947
Moose (Alces alces)
MOOSE
Alces alces
Physical characteristics: Adults weigh 594 to 1,320 pounds (270 to

600 kilograms) and measure 7.9 to 10.5 feet (2.4 to 3.2 meters) long.
The antlers of the male are longer than those of any mammal in the
world and can measure up to 6.6 feet (2 meters) wide from tip to tip.
The head is huge and long, with a square upper lip that hangs over
the lower one. Muzzle is hairy. Coat is dark brown, fading to light
brown on the long legs. Hearing and sense of smell are excellent.
Geographic range: Moose are found in North America and Eurasia.
Habitat: Moose live in forests where there is snow in winter. They like
territory with ponds and lakes. Because they are not able to sweat, moose
need to live in cooler climates. In summer, they cool off in water.
Diet: Moose eat bark and branches during winter and enjoy leaves,
herbs, and aquatic plants in summer. In winter, adults eat 22 to
30 pounds (10 to 13 kilograms) of food each day; that amount
doubles in summer and spring. Moose can also eat toxic plants.

Behavior and reproduction: Moose live alone or in small groups. The antlers of the male moose
are longer than those of any
No social bonding occurs. Moose can run at 35 miles per hour
mammal in the world and can
(56 kilometers per hour) and swim at 6 miles per hour (9.7 kilometers measure up to 6.6 feet (2
per hour). They tend to stay in the same area, though some migrate be- meters) wide from tip to tip.
tween favored sites, up to 186 miles (300 kilometers) in European (Erwin and Peggy Bauer/Bruce
species. Home ranges are 3.1 to 6.2 square miles (5 to 10 square permission.)
kilometers).
The polygynous moose begin breeding in August. Females attract
males with a loud moaning bellow, and males groan in response. Fe-
males also emit a powerful scent. Males compete for females, and af-
ter a 215- to 243-day pregnancy, a single calf is born (though twins
are common). Young moose nurse until five months of age, and they
begin eating food as early as three weeks. They stay with their mother
until they are one year, or the next calf is born.
Almost half of all moose young die within the first year of life.
Though moose live to be five to twelve years, at eight years they be-
gin to suffer from arthritis and dental disease. Although large, moose
fall prey to grizzly bears and wolves.
Deer 949
Moose and people: Moose meat is a main source of food for many
people. In North America, more than fifty thousand moose are har-
vested annually for meat and sport. They are a main attraction in the
ecotourism industry.
Conservation status: Moose are not threatened. ■

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)
REINDEER
Rangifer tarandus
Physical characteristics: Acknowledged as the tame subspecies of

caribou, this animal weighs 121 to 699.6 pounds (55 to 318 kilo-
grams) and measures 381 to 584.2 inches (150 to 230 centimeters)
long. Males can be twice as big as females. Tails are short, and coat
color varies from dark brown to almost white, depending on the re-
gion. Hooves are large and broad, which assist the reindeer in swim-
ming. Both sexes have antlers.
Geographic range: Reindeer are found throughout the upper lati-

tudes of Eurasia and North America.
Habitat: Reindeer live in arctic deserts on Arctic Ocean islands as

well as on arctic tundra (treeless region of north polar areas). They
like coniferous forests of pine and larch trees where woody lichens
are abundant. Forest swamps and marshlands also appeal to reindeer.
Diet: The summer diet includes willows, birches, mushrooms, and

grasses. In winter, reindeer eat dry plants, cotton grass, and mosses.
Deer 951
The moss is especially important because it contains
a chemical that acts like antifreeze and keeps body
fluids from freezing. Lichens are an important
source of carbohydrates and are eaten year-round.
Behavior and reproduction: Reindeer migrate in

spring and fall, sometimes covering as many as
3,105 miles (6,000 kilometers) in one year. They
can travel at a rate of 50 miles per hour (80 kilo-
meters per hour). They live in mother-offspring
pairs, herds, and gatherings. Typical herds include
2,500 to 3,000 individuals with a single leader.
During migration, herds can reach 80,000 to
100,000 animals.
The polygynous reindeer breed in September
and October, and fights between rival males are
frequent. Victors “win” seven to eight females.
Pregnancy lasts 192 to 246 days and result in the
Reindeer shed velvet, skin birth of one calf. Newborns are able to stand within an hour and can
covering their antlers, in fall, outrun a human within twenty-four hours. They nurse for one month
when they are getting ready to and then begin grazing with the mother. Calves retain a strong bond
mate. (John Shaw/Bruce
with mothers for three months. Females live longer than males, some-
permission.) times past fifteen years. Average life expectancy for males is 4.5 years.
Primary predators are wolves, brown bear, raven, golden eagle, and
sea eagle. Calves often die during migration due to cold and exhaus-
tion; 40 percent die in the first year, 30 percent in the second.
Adult males shed antlers soon after breeding, but females don’t
shed them until spring. Reindeer are able swimmers and can cross
water bodies that are 75 miles (120 kilometers) wide.
Reindeer and people: Native peoples of the north depend on rein-

deer for their survival in terms of food and skin. A number of native
cultures in America, Siberia, and Scandinavia revolve around reindeer
and caribou herding. Velvet antlers are used in Asian medicine.
Conservation status: Reindeer are not threatened. ■
Books:
Geist, Valerius. Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecol-
ogy. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1998.

Rue, Leonard III. The Encyclopedia of Deer: Your Guide to the World’s
Deer Species, Including White Tails, Mule Deer, Caribou, Elk, Moose and
More. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2004.
Wexo, John Bonnett, et al. The Deer Family (Zoobooks). Minnetonka, MN:
Creative Publishing, 1999.
Web sites:
Fox, D. and P. Myers. “Cervidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cervidae.h
tml (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Indian Muntjac.” Sedgwick County Zoo. http://www.scz.org/animals/
m/muntjac.html (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Moose Biology with Kristine Bontaites.” Mooseworld. http://www.
mooseworld.com/biologist.htm (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Pudu puda.” Ultimate Ungulate. http://www.ultimateungulate.com/
Artiodactyla/Pudu_puda.html (accessed on June 3, 2004).
“Red Deer.” Young People’s Trust for the Environment. http://www.
yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/animal_facts/red_deer.html (accessed
on June 3, 2004).
“Science & Nature: Animals: Red Deer, Wapiti, Elk.” BBC. http://www.
bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/199.shtml (accessed on June 3,
2004).
“White-tailed Deer.” Natureworks. http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/
whitetaileddeer.htm (accessed on June 3, 2004).
Deer 953
OKAPI AND GIRAFFE
Giraffidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Giraffidae
class Giraffes stand up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) to the top of the
head and weigh 460 to 4,250 pounds (210 to 1,930 kilo-
subclass
grams). When compared to the long neck (up to 8 feet, or
order 2.4 meters), the body is short. Legs are long and end in
monotypic order hooves the size of dinner plates. Their tails grow up to 39
inches (1 meter) and have a tassel at the end. Males are usu-
suborder ally larger than females.
▲ family Eyes are large, and the long tongue (19 inches [45 cen-
timeters]) is black. Both sexes have short horns of about 5
inches (13.5 centimeters) in length, though males’ are
thicker. Males also have a middle horn and four or more small
bumps.
The okapi (oh-KOP-ee) never weighs more than 550 pounds
(250 kilograms), and its head is horse-like in shape. Its neck
is not as long as the giraffe’s. Where the giraffe’s coat is vari-
ous shades of brown with patterns of cream-colored hair, the
okapi’s coat is dark brown with white stripes on the upper legs,
white “socks” on the ankle, and dark rings at the leg joints.
Both species walk with their weight supported alternately on
their left and right legs, like camels. They use their necks to
maintain balance.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Giraffids (giraffes and okapis) are found only in sub-Saha-
ran Africa.

DID YOU KNOW?
• Giraffes breathe twenty times a minute. system: the herd sleeps while a
• Giraffes can run up to 35 miles per hour designated individual keeps watch.
(60 kilometers per hour). • The hind legs of the okapi have the same
• Okapis weren’t discovered until 1900. striped pattern and coloring as the zebra.
• Female giraffes will return to the same • Giraffes love the thorny acacia
site year after year to give birth. (uh-KAY-shah) tree and are able to eat it by
• Newborn giraffes grow as much as an closing their nostrils and producing a great
inch each day. deal of spit to help swallow the thorns.
Their lips are protected by thick hair.
• The okapi is the only mammal that can
clean its ears with its tongue. • Okapis find breeding partners by sense
• Because it takes a giraffe a long time to of smell.
stand from the lying-down position, these • The okapi was first thought to be related
animals will sleep using the buddy to the zebra.
HABITAT
Giraffes live in savannas (tropical or subtropical community
characterized by small trees and shrubs among herbs and
grasses). Okapis live in tropical lowland forests.
DIET
Giraffes are browsers (eaters of shrubs, trees, and herbs) that
eat mostly deciduous foliage in the rains and evergreen species
during other seasons. They also eat fruit and grass now and
then, and will drink water if available, but most of it comes
through the plants they eat. Okapis eat buds, leaves, and
branches as well as clay high in sulfur (to supplement their
mineral intake).

Giraffes are social whereas okapis keep to themselves. The
home ranges of giraffes are large, while those of the okapi are
small. The males of both species will fight other males to es-
tablish dominance, usually using their horns by swinging their
long necks and butting into each other.
Okapi and Giraffe 955

Giraffes are polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus; one male to sev-
eral female mates), as okapi are believed to be. Pregnancy lasts
fifteen months for the giraffe and results in the birth of a sin-
gle calf. Calves nurse (drink mother’s milk) for a year and sup-
plement their diet with browse beginning at the age of one
month. Females stay with the herd while males leave around
the age of three years. Life expectancy is twenty to twenty-five
years.
After fourteen to fifteen months of pregnancy, a single okapi
calf is born deep in the forest, where it will remain hidden for
weeks. It will spend up to 80 percent of its first two months in
hiding. Calves nurse until the age of six months and live over
thirty years in captivity.
GIRAFFES, OKAPIS, AND PEOPLE

Giraffes are poached (illegally hunted) for their hair, which
is made into thread, bracelets, fly whisks, as well as for their
meat and hide. Okapi breed successfully in zoos, though we
know very little about their behavior in the wild.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Neither species is threatened.

Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)
SPECIES
GIRAFFE ACCOUNTS
Giraffa camelopardalis
Physical characteristics: These animals stand up to 18 feet

(5.5 meters) tall and weigh between 1,200 and 4,350 pounds (550 to
1,930 kilograms). Coat patterning helps to camouflage them, and no
two coats are alike.
Geographic range: Giraffes live in sub-Saharan Africa.
Habitat: Giraffes are found in dry savannas.
Diet: Giraffes feed on leaves of more than 100 tree and shrub
species. They use their tongues and thin lips to select only the most

Newborn giraffes are 6 feet
(2 meters) tall and weigh
between 110 and 120 pounds
(© St. Meyers/OKAPIA/Photo
permission.)
nutrient-dense leaves. Male giraffes can eat up to 145 pounds (66 kilo-
grams) of food a day, but can also survive on as little as 15 pounds
(7 kilograms) a day when food is scarce. They have four stomach cham-
bers, which allows them to digest food more efficiently by swallowing
food whole, regurgitating (vomiting), chewing, and swallowing again.
They will drink water if available, but this makes them vulnerable to
predators, so they often drink with a friend keeping watch.
Behavior and reproduction: Giraffes live in herds of up to twenty

animals. Herds can be all-female, all-male, mixed, or female with
young. Home ranges vary from 2 to 252 square miles (5 to 654 square
kilometers), depending on food and water availability. Male giraffes
spend 43 percent of their time each day feeding, and 22 percent walk-
ing. Females feed for more than half the day, and walk for 13 per-
cent of the time. Giraffes rest at night. Though usually silent, giraffes
will vocalize when looking for lost calves or when in danger.
Females are ready to breed at four years, and do so year-round.
They give birth standing up, sometimes while walking, so the baby
falls about 6 feet (2 meters) to the ground. Newborns are 6 feet
(2 meters) tall and weigh between 110 and 120 pounds (50 to 55
kilograms). Babies are born with horns. Predators include hyenas, li-
ons, leopards, and wild dogs. Giraffes use their height to detect preda-
tors while they’re still in the distance.

Giraffes and people: Giraffes are hunted and poached for meat,
skin, and hair. They are a main attraction in zoos.
Conservation status: The giraffe is not currently threatened, but

has disappeared from its former range in western Africa. ■

Okapi (Okapia johnstoni)
OKAPI
Okapia johnstoni
Physical characteristics: Okapis weigh 462 to 550 pounds (210 to

250 kilograms) and stand 5 to 5.6 feet (150 to 170 centimeters) at
the shoulder. Females are taller than males.
Geographic range: Okapis are restricted to the Democratic Repub-

lic of the Congo.
Habitat: The okapi lives in tropical lowland forest near water.
Diet: Okapis feed on more than 100 species of plants, including

some that are poisonous to humans. They also eat ferns, fungi, fruit,

Okapis feed on more than
100 species of plants, including
some that are poisonous to
humans. (© William Munoz/
and grasses. Okapis ingest charcoal from trees burned by lightning.

They use well-worn paths to travel between feeding sites.
Behavior and reproduction: Most active during the day. Not terri-
torial, but males will fight for dominance. Okapis are usually silent
but will make coughing sounds during rutting (mating) season. Okapi
young are more vocal and make coughing and bleating sounds like a
lamb. They groom one another and exhibit playful behavior.
Okapis give birth to a single calf from August to October after
about fifteen months of pregnancy. Females retreat into the dense for-
est growth to give birth. Protective mothers warn off trespassers by
beating the ground with their front legs. Lifespan is thirty years in
captivity. The main predator of the okapi is the leopard.
Okapis and people: Zoos keep and breed okapis today. When
the species was initially discovered, zoos lost many okapis in trans-
port because they were unable to survive the long boat and train
rides.
Conservation status: Okapis are not currently threatened, but are

protected in the Democratic Republic of the Congo because their dis-
tribution range is so limited. Populations are healthy. ■

Books:
Leach, Michael, et al. Giraffe: Habitats, Life Cycles, Food Chains, Threats.
Milwaukee: Raintree, 2002.
Lyndaker, Susan, et al. Okapi: Mysterious Animal of Congo-Zaire. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1999.
Sherr, Lynn. Tall Blondes. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McMeel Publishing,
1997.
Periodicals:
Meadows, Robin. “A Neck Up on the Competition.” Zoogoer (July/
August 1996). http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/
4/neckuponcompetition.cfm (accessed on June 4, 2004).
Web sites:
“Okapi.” The Big Zoo. http://www.thebigzoo.com/Animals/Okapi.asp
Palkovacs, E. “Okapi johnstoni.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Okapia_
johnstoni.html (accessed on June 4, 2004).

PRONGHORN
Antilocapridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Antilocapridae
One species: Pronghorn
(Antilocapra
americana)
Pronghorn measure 52.1 to 58.8 inches (132.3 to 149.4 cen- class
timeters) long and have a shoulder height of 32.7 to 37 inches
subclass
(83.1 to 94 centimeters). They weigh 87 to 129 pounds (40 to
59 kilograms). These long-legged runners have stocky bodies, order
and their coat is various shades of brown on top, with sides and monotypic order
underparts creamy white. Males have brownish black patches
from below the ears and downward 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 suborder
centimeters). Pronghorn have a short mane on the back of the ▲ family
neck, and their tails are short (4 inches, or 10.2 centimeters).
The rump is covered by two patches of white hair. This animal
is able to regulate the amount of insulation provided by its coat
by erecting or flattening its hairs.
Both sexes have horns covered in keratin (KARE-ah-tin; pro-
tective material that makes up hair and fingernails). There are
two branches, or prongs, one curving forward and another,
shorter one pointing directly back. Males shed their horns every
year; females shed them irregularly. Pronghorn have superb vi-
sion. Researchers believe that the placement of their eyes high
on top of their skulls allows for them to keep a watch for preda-
tors while continuing to feed on lower-elevated grounds.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Found in western North America.
HABITAT
Pronghorn can be found in abundant numbers in short-grass
prairies where shrubs are readily available even with snow cover.
Pronghorn 963
PRONGHORN IN COLORADO
According to NationalGeographic.com, one cattle. The two animals eat different plants,
of the earliest mentions of the pronghorn is in so all have enough to eat.
the expedition diaries of explorers Meriwether
Winter months have proven particularly
Lewis and William Clark. As often happens
harsh for the Colorado pronghorn population
today, they compared the pronghorn to goats,
on the Pawnee National Grasslands, however.
antelopes, and gazelles.
During the winter, the animals create
The pronghorn population has taken a herds of about 100 individuals. Because
rollercoaster ride in terms of numbers. From Colorado has suffered serious drought in the
an estimated thirty to sixty million in the early twenty-first century, there isn’t enough food to
1800s, they declined to less than 15,000 by go around. Vieira reported, “Our usual fawn
1915. As of 2004, there are an estimated production was fifty to sixty fawns per one
one million on the plains of North America. hundred does. Now it’s fallen to eighteen per
According to Colorado Division of Wildlife one hundred.” In addition to starvation, the
biologist Mark Vieira, the number of lack of vegetation is prohibiting pronghorn
pronghorn in that state fell to around 2,000 from manufacturing antibodies necessary for
at the end of the twentieth century but has warding off disease.
grown to a steady 55,000 as of 2004. He “We are really desperate for moisture now.
explained to Rocky Mountain News reporter If we could get two good years, we could bring
Gary Gerhardt that pronghorn thrive in this the population back,” Viera said. Most prong-
region because they don’t compete with horn live in Montana and Wyoming.
Steppes (vegetation zones characterized by shrubs, grasses, and

few trees) are also popular habitats, and deserts are home to less
than 1 percent of the population.
Pronghorn are usually found on treeless, flat terrain between
altitudes of 3,000 to 8,000 feet (914 to 2,438 meters).
DIET
Pronghorn prefer succulent (water-based) forbs (drought-re-
sistant herbs with broader leaves than grasses) over other food.
During droughts and snowy months, pronghorn rely on shrubs
to supplement their diet. They walk while they eat and seem to
find food using smell as well as sight. They use their muscled

Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana)
lips to grab hold of plants and vegetation, bring it to their

mouths, then rip the plant apart with their teeth. Pronghorn will
drink water if available, but pronghorn get most of their water
from succulents, plants that contain a lot of water.

Pronghorn are among the fastest land animals, able to reach
speeds of 53.7 miles per hour (86.5 kilometers per hour) and
maintain that pace for several miles (kilometers) before ex-
haustion sets in. They run with their mouths open to increase
oxygen intake. Pronghorn are also strong swimmers.
Pronghorn are vocal animals, and make snorting and “sneez-
ing” sounds when sensing something unfamiliar in their habi-
tat. Fawns make soft bleating sounds (similar to lambs) that
help parents locate hidden offspring. Adult females grunt or
click when approaching hidden fawns or when being pursued
by bucks. Bucks roar when chasing does or other bucks. Dur-
ing courtship, bucks smack their lips and flick their tongues,
both of which create a low sucking sound.
Pronghorn 965
Pronghorn males may fight Pronghorn live in herds, sometimes loosely scattered, but al-
during the breeding season.
ways highly organized. When threatened, they’ll raise their white
(© Stephen J. Krasemann/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by rump hairs and snort, alerting other herd members to gather to-
permission.) gether more closely. They are active during daylight and night-
time, with peak activity occurring just after sunrise and before
sunset. They spend most of their time feeding or sleeping, the
latter of which they do in short spurts and frequently through-
out the day.
Home ranges vary greatly and are dependent on quality of
habitat, group size, season, and history of land use. Winter
and summer ranges may be as far apart as 100 miles (160
kilometers). Bucks will mark their territory with urine and
feces.
Pronghorn are polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus; one male has
several female mates), and mating occurs between July and early
October. Pregnancy lasts eight and a half months; a single fawn
is born in the spring if this is the doe’s first birth. Successive
births usually result in twins, rarely triplets. By day four, fawns
are able to outrun humans. Fawns nurse (drink mother’s milk)

until around four weeks of age, at which time they join their
mothers on feeding trips.
Pronghorn are sexually mature at sixteen to seventeen
months. Primary predators, animals that hunt them for food,
include coyotes, wolves, and bobcats. Lifespan is seven to ten
years.
PRONGHORN AND PEOPLE

Pronghorn have a long history with Native Americans. Many
Indian myths involved this animal, and it was considered the
personification of peace, good fortune, and speed. Pronghorn
often appeared on prehistoric pottery and walls.
Late in the nineteenth century, pronghorn were slaughtered
for their skins. Canada and the United States opened hunting
seasons in the mid-1900s, and by the end of 2002, almost five
million pronghorn had been legally harvested. This hunting sea-
son provides tons of meat and millions of dollars in profit for
businesses located in pronghorn country.
Pronghorn are known to damage crops, sometimes extensively.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Pronghorn are not threatened.
Books:
Byers, John A. Built for Speed: A Year in the Life of Pronghorn.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Frisch, Aaron. Pronghorn Antelope. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple
Media, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Pronghorn.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/artiodactyla/
artiodactyla.antilocapridae.antilocapra.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
O’Gara, Bart, Jim D. Yoakum, and Richard E. McCabe. Pronghorn: Ecol-
ogy and Management. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2004.
Periodicals:
Gerhardt, Gary. “Unique Pronghorn are a Sight to Behold; Speedy Ani-
mals Often Overlooked in Wildlife.” Rocky Mountain News (May 1, 2004).
Tabor, Thomas C. “The Pronghorn: Back from the Edge of Oblivion.”
Countryside & Small Stock Journal (May 1, 2004).
Pronghorn 967
Web sites:
“The Pronghorn.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.com/mag99/may/
papr/pronghorn.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Pronghorn.” Great Plains Nature Center. http://www.gpnc.org/
pronghor.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).

ANTELOPES, CATTLE, BISON,
BUFFALOES, GOATS,
AND SHEEP
Bovidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
family C H A P T E R species

Bovids (BOH-vidz) vary in weight, from 6.6 to over 2,867 class
pounds (3 to over 1,300 kilograms), with a shoulder height
subclass
range of 9.85 inches to 6.56 feet (25 centimeters to 2 meters).
Bodies range from slender with long legs to stocky and mus- order
cular. All bovid males have horns, as do many females. Horns monotypic order
are bony and covered with keratin (KARE-ah-tin; protective
material that makes up hair and fingernails). Bovids do not shed suborder
the keratin layer. They have hooves and four stomach cham- ▲ family
bers, which allows for efficient digestion.
Bovids have a number of scent glands on different parts of
their bodies. They secrete oil from these glands during mating
season, when in danger, or to mark territory.
Bovids range in color from white to black to orange-yellow.
Most are some shade of brown.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Found in Africa, Europe, Asia, and North America.
HABITAT
Bovids occupy a wide variety of habitats, including grass-
lands, swamps, tropical forests, arctic tundra, desert, cliff faces,
and mountain ledges. Most abundant in tropical forests and
grasslands. They occupy different habitats at different times of
the year, with migration (seasonal movement from region to
region) dependent upon food supply.
Antelopes, Cattle, Bison, Buffaloes, Goats, and Sheep 969

DIET
Bovids are herbivores (plant eaters) with four stomach cham-
bers. The fact that they have four chambers means they can sur-
vive on plants few other animals could digest. They feed mainly
on grasses, first by winding them around their tongues and
pulling them from the ground, then swallowing them. After some
time has passed, bovids will regurgitate (vomit) the swallowed
food, chew it, and swallow it again. Bacteria in the stomach
breaks down the food and allows digestion to occur.

Some species are solitary (lone) while others live in herds or
groups with complex social structures. Some species are terri-
torial and will defend their ranges year-round or only during
the mating season. Others live on ranges that are used each
year. Many bovids are vocal, and calls range from lion-like roars
to whistles and grunts.
Bovids are primarily polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus; one
male to several female mates). Males often defend mating ter-
ritories. Most females give birth to their first young around the
age of two or three years. Males usually wait until they are a
little older, primarily because they have to compete with other,
older males to mate. Gestation (pregnancy) times vary accord-
ing to species, but usually one, sometimes two, babies are born
each year. Females care for their young without the help of the
father. Adult males live separately, either alone or in small
herds, from the females for most of the year.
Bovid offspring nurse (drink mother’s milk) for at least a
month, sometimes until the age of two or three years. Preda-
tors include tigers, small cats, wolves, and leopards.
BOVIDAE AND PEOPLE

Bovids have been hunted extensively for meat, sport, and
hides, some species to the point of serious threat to the popu-
lation. Many species—goat, sheep, cattle, buffalo—have been
domesticated (tamed) and are raised for their meat and skin.
CONSERVATION STATUS
As of 2004, 114 species are listed on the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Loss of habitat is the main reason for threat.
Increasing human populations require more land and natural
resources. Hunting has affected bovid populations as well, but
to a lesser degree.

Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
SPECIES
WATER BUFFALO ACCOUNTS
Bubalus bubalis
Physical characteristics: Water buffalo measure 98.4 to 118.1

inches (250 to 300 centimeters) long and stand 59 to 74.4 inches
(150 to 189 centimeters) at the shoulder. They weigh between 1,543
and 2,645 pounds (700 to 1,200 kilograms), with females weighing
about 20 percent less than males. They are the largest bovids, with
disproportionately big feet and wide hooves. Fur is dark gray to black
in wild species. Tail ends in a bushy ball of black hair. Males have
crescent-shaped pointed horns that measure around 47.2 inches (120
centimeters) long. Females also have horns.
Geographic range: Found in India, Nepal, and Bhutan. A small pop-

ulation lives in a wildlife reserve in Thailand.
Habitat: Water buffalo live in tropical and subtropical forests as well

as grasslands. They live near water, from swamps to woodlands and

Water buffalo spend part of their
day in the water to stay cool and
keep insects off of them. (Erwin
and Peggy Bauer/Bruce Coleman
plains. They not only drink the water, but spend much of the day
partially submerged so that they remain cool and ward off insects.
Diet: This bovid eats grasses, herbs, aquatic plants, and other
vegetation.
Behavior and reproduction: Water buffalo form herds of females

and offspring of up to thirty individuals. Old males are solitary. Af-
ter a 300- to 340-day pregnancy, females give birth to one calf, some-
times to twins. Calves nurse for six to nine months. Female calves
sometimes remain with the mother for life. Males leave around the
age of three years. Females are ready to mate around eighteen months
of age. This bovid will interbreed with domesticated cattle.
Water buffalo and people: Water buffalo were first domesticated in

China more than seven thousand years ago. They provide meat, hides,
horns, milk, and butter fat. For native cultures, they also provide an in-
expensive method of power for plowing fields and transporting people.
Conservation status: Listed as Endangered, facing a very high risk

of extinction, by the IUCN. Domesticated populations are abundant,
but there are fewer than four thousand wild water buffalo in the world.
Existing populations are small and separated by a great distance from
each other, which limits reproduction. ■

American bison (Bison bison)
AMERICAN BISON
Bison bison
Physical characteristics: Females are 20 percent shorter in length

and 40 percent less in weight than males. Males measure 85.2 to 125.2
inches (242 to 318 centimeters) long and stand 65.7 to 73.2 inches
(167 to 186 centimeters) at the shoulder. They weigh between 1,199
to 1,999.5 pounds (544 to 907 kilograms). This is the largest mam-
mal in North America. Though it appears to hold its head low, there
is actually a hump over the shoulders. Legs are short and tail is
medium length with a tuft of black hair on the end. Coat is brown
to dark brown, and hair is longer on front and top of head, along the
neck, shoulders, and forequarters. Ears are partially hidden. Both
sexes have a beard of long hair as well as a mane of dark hair along
the lower portion of the neck to the chest. Males have short black

Millions of American bison once
roamed the Great Plains. Now
few bison remain in the wild, but
many are kept on ranches.
permission.)
horns that go out on the sides and curve upward. Females’ horns are
shorter, skinnier, and more curved.
Geographic range: Found in a select few parks and refuges of North

America.
Habitat: This bovid needs plenty of grassland and meadow for graz-
ing. It lives in mixed wood forests as well as prairies and plains.
Diet: The American bison is not picky about what it eats. They eat
huge quantities of low-quality forage (grasses, herbs, and shrubs) and
supplement their diet with berries and lichen (fungi found growing
on trees). Uses head to remove snow from vegetation during winter.
Behavior and reproduction: Form mixed groups consisting of fe-

males, calves, and males aged one to three years. During mating sea-
son, adult males may join these herds. Males form groups of up to
thirty animals, though they also are found alone or in pairs. During
migration, herds join together and may travel more than 124 miles
(200 kilometers) to find ranges where food is more plentiful. Amer-
ican bison like to wallow in shallow holes which they dig in the
ground.

These polygynous bovids mate from July through September, with
seasons varying depending on the region. Females go through 285
days of gestation and deliver a single calf in the spring, usually each
year. They like to give birth in heavily concealed areas for privacy
and protection, and they stay separated from the rest of the herd for
a couple days. Within three hours of birth, the calf can run, and it is
nursed for seven to twelve months.
American bison and people: Bison were important game animals

for native populations across North Amerca. They provided meat,
bones for tools, hides for blankets, leather for clothing, and sinews
for twine. Today, bison is raised on ranches for its meat.
Conservation status: Bison are not considered threatened. They

once ranged across half of North America and numbered in the mil-
lions. Because they are ranched throughout the continent, their pop-
ulation is not in danger of extinction, despite the fact that very few
live in the wild. Disease and parasites are the main threats to the
American bison. ■

Black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou)
BLACK WILDEBEEST
Connochaetes gnou
Physical characteristics: Also known as the gnu, this bovid weighs

242 to 396 pounds (110 to 180 kilograms) and measures 5.6 to 7.3 feet
(170 to 220 centimeters) long. Shoulder height of 3 to 4 feet (90 to
120 centimeters). Females are slightly smaller than males. Coats are
dark brown to black, with males darker than females. A short mane on
neck stands up and is whitish with black tips. The beard is black.
Geographic range: The black wildebeest lives in east-central South

Africa.
Habitat: This bovid lives primarily in open grassland where water

is available.

Black wildebeest females and
young live in herds, while males
form their own groups.
(Illustration by Patricia Ferrer.
Diet: Prefers short grasses but is known to browse on bushes and

other vegetation to supplement the winter diet. Need to drink every
one to two days.
Behavior and reproduction: Females and young form herds while

males form their own groups. Males will defend territories during
mating season by horn wrestling and loud vocalizations. Some are
migratory.
Males “perfume” themselves for courtship by rolling in their urine
and dung. They further draw attention to themselves by bellowing
out a “ge-nu” call, foaming at the mouth, and dashing madly around
while shaking their heads.
Mates from February through April, and after a gestation period
of 240 to 270 days, females give birth to a single calf. Young walk
within ten minutes of birth and are nursed for about four months.
Females are ready to breed between eighteen and thirty months, males
at three years. Lifespan in captivity is around twenty years. Lion and
hyenas will take down lame or sick adults, and babies fall prey to wild
dogs, leopards, and cheetahs.
Black wildebeest and people: Settlers viewed this bovid as a pest

and did their best to kill them all. They used their tails as fly swatters.
Conservation status: Extinct in the wild, but captive black wildebeest

populations are abundant, so they are not considered threatened. ■

Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsonii)
THOMSON’S GAZELLE
Gazella thomsonii
Physical characteristics: Weighs 29 to 66 pounds (13 to 30 kilo-

grams) and measures 3 to 4 feet (91 to 122 centimeters) with a tail
length of 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 centimeters). Females are slightly
smaller than males. Coat is reddish brown on top with a white belly.
A black stripe runs from the foreleg to the hindquarters, and there is
a white patch on the rump that extends to the black tail. Eyes rimmed
with white that reaches to the nose along the muzzle and above the
black cheek stripes. Males’ horns are slightly curved and measure 11.5
to 12.0 inches (29.2 to 30.5 centimeters) and are used solely for fight-
ing other male gazelles. Female horns are shorter and thinner and are
used to defend their feeding area.

Thomson’s gazelles run away
from predators, reaching speeds
of 40 to 50 miles per hour (65
to 80 kilometers per hour). They
can leap 30 feet (9 meters) in a
single bound and up to 10 feet
(3 meters) vertically. (Leonard
Lee Rue III/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Geographic range: Found in Kenya, Ehtiopia, northern Tanzania,

and southeast Sudan.
Habitat: Prefer the short grassy plains and savannas (tropical plant
community characterized by shrubs and trees amidst cover of grasses
and herbs) so that large herds can feed together. During the drier sea-
son, they move to the taller grasslands.
Diet: Grasses make up about 90 percent of this bovid’s diet during the
dry season, but it also feeds on shrubs and seeds, alfalfa, hay, and leaves.
Behavior and reproduction: This gazelle is most active early and

late in the day. It rests during the hottest part of the day. Rather than
fight, Thomson’s gazelles will flee from predators, reaching speeds of
40 to 50 miles per hour (65 to 80 kilometers per hour). They are fan-
tastic leapers, able to reach 30 feet (9 meters) in a single bound and
up to 10 feet (3 meters) vertically. Their speed comes from long foot
bones and anklebones.
They live in herds of two to twenty individuals, and members
can change by the hour. Multiple herds interact with each other.
Territories range from 6 to 495 acres (2 to 200 hectares) but are
usually between 25 and 75 acres (10 and 30 hectares). Because they
are water-dependent, they sometimes travel up to 100 miles (160
kilometers) to find water during the dry season.

Males establish territories during breeding season and mark them
with urine and dung piles as well as secretions from scent glands. The
polygamous (puh-LIH-guh-mus; having more than one mate at a
time) Thomson’s gazelle breeds twice annually. Females give birth to
one offspring after a gestation lasting five to six months. Mother and
baby stay separated from the herd for a couple weeks. Offspring can
run by four weeks, and they nurse for four months. Predators include
cheetahs, leopards, lions, and hyenas. Young gazelles are also killed
by pythons, eagles, baboons, and jackals. Life span in the wild is
roughly ten years.
Thomson’s gazelle and people: These gazelles are hunted for food
and skins.
Conservation status: Although predation is high, populations are

secure because they are fast breeders. Females are ready to breed again
within two to four weeks after giving birth. Thomson’s gazelle is not
threatened. ■

Kirk’s dikdik (Madoqua kirkii)
KIRK’S DIKDIK
Madoqua kirkii
Physical characteristics: This small antelope measures 22.5 to

29.5 inches (57 to 75 centimeters) long and 14 to 18 inches (35 to
45 centimeters) high. It weighs just 6 to 14 pounds (2.7 to 6.5
kilograms). The fur on its back is gray with black and white flecks; face
and legs are tan, and the chin, belly, and underside of the tail are white.
The crest of fur on the head is yellow-orange, as are the face and legs.
Ears are large, and big eyes are ringed with short white fur. Males have
large glands beneath the eyes, and their sharp horns grow to be 4 inches
(10 centimeters).
Geographic range: This dikdik is found in Tanzania, Kenya, So-

malia, Angola, and Namibia.

Habitat: This dikdik lives in dry, hot regions of
mixed woodland. Uses thickets and thorny bushes
for cover.
Diet: Kirk’s dikdik browses on herbs, leaves,

evergreen shoots, fruits and berries, and flowers
during the day and night. It rises on hind legs to
reach food if necessary, and gets minerals by eat-
ing soil and bones and by visiting saltlicks. It does
not need regular water intake.
Behavior and reproduction: This dikdik lives in

pairs and defends their territory by chasing same-
sex intruders. Territory is marked with urine,
dung, and secretions from scent glands. Males de-
fend territory boundaries by butting bordering veg-
etation and raising the hair on their heads. It makes
six different vocalizations.
Pairs are monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus;
mate only with each other) for life. After a gestation
period of 166 to 174 days, females birth one young.
Offspring are able to join parents after six weeks of
hiding in vegetation, and they nurse until eight or
ten weeks of age. Dikdiks are ready to mate between
six and eight months, and females are ready to breed
again within ten days of delivering their babies.
Kirk’s dikdik does not have to
drink water—it receives enough
Predators include eagles, pythons, lizards, lions, cheetahs, wild dogs,
moisture from dew and the and hyenas. Life span in the wild is three to four years.
vegetation that it eats. (Ann &
Steve Toon Wildlife Photography. Kirk’s dikdik and people: Common source of meat throughout its
range.
Conservation status: Kirk’s dikdik is not considered threatened.

Total population is estimated to be from the hundreds of thousands
to two million. ■

Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis)
SEROW
Capricornis sumatraensis
Physical characteristics: The serow weighs 110 to 300 pounds (50

to 140 kilograms) and measures 55 to 70 inches (140 to 180 cen-
timeters) long. Stands 33 to 37 inches (85 to 94 centimeters) tall.
Grayish black upperparts with whitish underparts. Horns are slim and
curved back.
Geographic range: Serows are found in the Himalayas of India,

Nepal, and Bhutan; western China; Southeast Asia, and Indonesia.
Habitat: Serows live in mountain forests between 6,000 and 10,000

feet (1,830 to 3,040 meters) altitude.
Diet: Eats a variety of grasses, shoots, and leaves. Does not migrate
or move far in its feeding.
Behavior and reproduction: This goat-like bovid lives alone or in

groups of up to seven individuals. They rest below
rock overhangs and cliffs during the day, and have
been known to swim between islands off the coast
of Malaysia. Moves along well-trodden paths.
Gestation lasts for seven to eight months, with
a single baby being born in September or October.
Life span is about ten years.
Serow and people: Hunted for meat and body

parts used in medicine.
Conservation status: Listed as Vulnerable, fac-

ing a high risk of extinction, by IUCN, primarily
due to poaching (illegal hunting) and habitat
loss. ■
Serows live in high mountain

forests, between 6,000 and
10,000 feet (1,830 to 3,040
meters) altitude. (Illustration by
Emily Damstra. Reproduced by
permission.)

Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)
BIGHORN SHEEP
Ovis canadensis
Physical characteristics: The maximum weight in males is 300

pounds (137 kilograms), 200 pounds (91 kilograms) in females. They
measure 49 to 77 inches (124 to 195 centimeters) long, with females
being smaller. Males have huge horns curling round and forward. Fe-
males’ horns are much smaller and curl just a little. Coats range from
reddish brown to almost black-brown with white undersides, rump,
muzzle, and back of legs. They have excellent eyesight. Bighorns vo-
calize during mating season and when in danger.
Geographic range: Bighorn sheep are found in western North Amer-

ica south to desert ranges of the southwest United States and Mexico.

Bighorn sheep do not defend Habitat: Bighorns live in deserts, but prefer mountain meadows,
territories, but they will fight over rocky cliffs, and mountains. They prefer regions where annual snow-
a female. (Bob and Clara
Calhoun/Bruce Coleman Inc. fall does not exceed 60 inches (152 centimeters) because they aren’t
Reproduced by permission.) able to paw through snow with their cloven (split) hooves.
Diet: Bighorns eat grasses, herbs, and shrubs. Those that live in the
desert eat desert plants.
Behavior and reproduction: Bighorns live in small hers of two to

nine, with mature males staying separate from the herd. They migrate
to higher elevations in the summer and to sheltered valleys during
the cold months.
Though males won’t defend territories, they will fight each other
over a female. Bighorns jump from ledge to ledge with ease and are
able to climb mountains at a rate of 15 miles per hour (24.1 kilome-
ters per hour). On level ground, they move at a rate of 30 miles per
hour (48.3 kilometers per hour). They are capable swimmers.
These polygamous bovids mate in the fall. Gestation lasts 150 to
180 days and results in the birth of one or two lambs. Offspring are
protected by their mothers for several months. Females are ready to

mate at thirty months, males between seven and eight years. Life span
in the wild averages ten years, but can reach twenty. Coyotes and
mountain lions are primary predators.
Bighorn sheep and people: Prized for its majestic horns, the
bighorn is hunted as a trophy as well as for meat.
Conservation status: Though population numbers are lower than

they were in the nineteenth century, they are stable, and the species
is not considered threatened. ■
Books:
Geist, Val. Buffalo Nation: History and Legend of the North American
Bison. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 2002.
Lott, Dale F. American Bison: A Natural History. Berkely, CA: University
of California Press, 2003.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Antelopes, Cattle, Bison, bBuffalo, Goats, and
Sheep.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns
walkers_mammals_of_the_world/artiodactyla/artiodactyla.bovidae.html
Robbins, Ken. Thunder on the Plains: The Story of the American Buffalo.
New York: Atheneum, 2001.
Periodicals:
Mills, James Edward. “Wisconsin Bison are Plentiful and Popular.”
Wisconsin State Journal (June 5, 2004).
Web sites:
“American Bison.” NatureWorks. http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/
americanbison.htm (accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Bighorn Sheep.” Desert USA. http://www.desertusa.com/big.html
“Black Wildebeest.” Singapore Zoological Gardens-Docent. (accessed on
June 7, 2004).
Fox, D., and P. Myers “Bovidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Bovidae.h
tml (accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals: Dikdiks.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://
www.awf.org/wildlives/67 (accessed on June 7, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals: Thomson’s Gazelle.” African Wildlife Foun-
dation. http://www.awf.org/wildlives/156 (accessed on June 7, 2004).

PANGOLINS
Pholidota
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Pholidota
One family: Manidae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

Pangolins are unique looking animals covered with large, class
horny, overlapping scales. They were often referred to as scaly
subclass
anteaters in the past. Typically, there are eighteen rows of
scales. The scales are often described as looking similar to shin- order
gles on a roof. The weight of the scales and skin make up about ●
▲ monotypic order
20 percent of the total body weight of most species. Scale color
can be dark brown, dark olive-brown, pale olive, yellow-brown, suborder
or yellowish. family
These animals have a small, pointed head that is smooth.
Their eyes and ears are small. The tail is broad and long, rang-
ing from 10 to 35 inches (26 to 88 centimeters). Limbs are short,
small, and powerful. The front feet are longer and stronger than
the hind feet. There are five curved claws on each foot.
Only the snout, chin, throat, neck, sides of the face, inner
sides of the limbs, and the belly are not covered with scales. In
some species the outer surface of the forelegs are also not cov-
ered. The parts of the body that are without scales are covered
lightly with hair. The hairs of the scaleless areas are whitish,
pale brown to reddish brown, or blackish. The skin is grayish
with a blue or pink color in some areas. In the Asian species,
there are both Asian and African species, there are three or four
hairs at the base of each scale. The African species have no hair
at the base of the scales.
In size, pangolins have a head and body length combined of
12 to 35 inches (30 to 90 centimeters). Females are generally
smaller than males.
Pangolins 989
These animals have no teeth. To grab food
they have a long and muscular tongue, able
to extend a great distance. In the smaller
species, the tongue measures about 6 to 7
inches (16 to 18 centimeters). In larger
species the tongue stretches about 16 inches
PANGOLIN TRAFFIC (40 centimeters). The tongue is sticky and
either round or flat, depending on the species.
Trafficking, buying and selling illegally,
appears to be one of the most harmful
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
threats to the population of pangolins.
Authorities have seized trucks, crates, and Pangolins are found in the tropical, hot
bags full of pangolin flesh, scales, and and humid climate, and subtropical areas of
entire animals. Traffickers sell the animals Africa and Asia.
and their parts to buyers who use the
HABITAT
animals for food, and because these
animals are believed to have healing Pangolins live in a variety of habitats, in-
properties to help various other ailments. cluding forests, thick bush, sandy areas, and
For example, trafficking in pangolins in open grasslands. Some species of pangolins
China increases during colder months, are arboreal, live in trees, and shelter in tree
because of the belief that pangolin blood hollows. Other species live on the land and
helps keep the body warm and enhances stay in burrows, holes, dug either by other
sexual performance. animals or themselves.
DIET
Pangolins eat almost exclusively on ants
and termites. They snatch up individual insects, and also dig
up entire ant hills and termite nests.

Pangolins move about slowly and deliberately. They often
walk only on their hind legs. The smaller species are classified
as arboreal and the larger ones as living on the land. Some
species can live both on the ground and in trees. Most of these
animals climb well and some also swim. These animals are soli-
tary or sometimes found in pairs.
When they feel threatened, pangolins can roll themselves into
a ball to defend themselves. When they are in a rolled-up posi-
tion, the sharp-edged scales act as armor, shielding any unpro-
tected skin and warding away predators, animals that hunt them
for food. Once they are rolled into a ball it is very difficult to
unroll them. A pangolin has been observed curling itself into a
ball and then rolling down a slope, traveling 98 feet (30 meters)

in 10 seconds. Pangolins can also spray po-
tential predators with a strong, foul smelling
fluid that comes from the anal region.
Almost all pangolins are nocturnal, mean-
ing they are active at night. Only one species
is active during the day. The species that live
on land use their powerful claws to make DINNER AROMA
burrows and can make an 8-foot (2.4-meter) Pangolins are picky eaters and they
deep tunnel within three to five minutes. The depend upon their well-developed sense of
arboreal pangolins use their long tails to bal- smell to locate their preferred foods. Each
ance and hang. Arboreal pangolins roll up in animal produces a specific smell. One
a ball in a tree hollow at night to sleep. report found that pangolins appear to eat
These animals have a well-developed only nineteen species of ants and termites.
sense of smell that they use to locate prey, They especially favor formacid ants, a
animals hunted for food. In general, they family of ants that includes fire ants and
have poor eyesight. As pangolins do not have harvester ants.
teeth, they grab the prey with their long
sticky tongue. They use their front claws to
tear open anthills or termite mounds. The
food enters their stomach whole, and is broken apart in the
lower area of the stomach. All species drink water frequently,
and lap it up by rapidly darting out their tongue.
Most pangolins are born between November and May, although
findings have suggested that some pangolins can breed through-
out the year. Gestation, length of pregnancy, is approximately 120
to 150 days. Generally, female pangolins have a single offspring.
At the time of birth, scales are soft, flexible and do not overlap,
but they harden after two days. Young pangolins can walk soon
after birth. Offspring are carried on the mother’s tail or back. A
threatened mother will fold her tail and keep her baby under her
body. Male pangolins may also share a burrow with females and
the young, a characteristic not common among most mammals.
Babies are nursed for three to four months, and they begin
to eat termites at about one month. Young pangolins first eat
insects they find between the mother’s scales. At about five
months old offspring become independent.
PANGOLINS AND PEOPLE

People hunt and kill pangolins for several reasons. These
animals are considered a delicacy and eaten as food in parts of
Africa. They are also believed to hold magical powers. The scales
are made into a ring as a charm against rheumatic fever, a
Pangolins 991
disease that can damage the heart, and it used to treat other
diseases. Certain groups of people mix the scales with bark from
certain trees because it is believed to ward off witchcraft and evil
spirits. Sometimes the scales are burned to keep wild animals
away. Some tribes believe that pangolins flesh has aphrodisiac,
enhancing sexual desire, values. And in certain areas, pangolins
are sacrificed for rainmaking ceremonies.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species of pangolins are listed as Near Threatened, not
currently threatened, but could become so, in the World
Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List. Deforestation, the clear-
ing of forests, has destroyed these animals natural habitat and
caused a decrease in their population. In many areas, pangolins
are legally protected animals. Aside from humans, leopards,
lions, and tigers, are the main predatory threat of pangolins.

Ground pangolin (Manis temminckii)
SPECIES
GROUND PANGOLIN ACCOUNT
Manis temminckii
Physical characteristics: Ground pangolins, also called Cape pan-

golins, have a combined head and body length of 20 to 24 inches (50
to 60 centimeters), and a tail length that ranges from 14 to 20 inches
(35 to 50 centimeters). They have no external ears. The body and tail
of these animals are covered with scales that are a grayish brown to
dark olive brown. The scales are sharp and moveable. Skin is whitish
with fine, dark hairs. Specialized thick eyelids protect their small eyes.
These animals have hind feet with blunt claws that are padded,
like those of an elephant. Their forefeet have large, digging claws.
Males are generally larger than the females.
Geographic range: Ground pangolins are found in Africa, specifi-

cally from Chad and Sudan in central Africa, down through Kenya
Pangolins 993
Ground pangolins live in forests, and Tanzania, to the northern parts of South Africa. The ground pan-
thick brush, and grasslands.
golin is the most common and most widely distributed pangolin in
During the day these animals
sleep in burrows that they dig. Kenya and Tanzania.
(© Nigel J. Dennis/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by Habitat: Ground pangolins live in forests, thick brush, and grass-
permission.)
lands. They live in areas with both high and low rainfall amounts.
Diet: Ground pangolins feed on certain species of termites and ants.

They tear open termite mounds and anthills, both on the ground and
in trees.
Behavior and reproduction: This nocturnal species lives on the

land, yet occasionally climbs trees and bushes. Ground pangolins can
move quickly, up to 160 feet (50 meters) per minute. They often do
move slowly, walking on the hind legs. They keep their body hori-
zontal to the ground when moving, using their tail for balance as it
drags behind them. During the day these animals sleep in burrows
that they dig.
Ground pangolins locate prey by smell and feed frequently—about
ninety times every night. Pangolins are known to crack pieces of

termite-infested wood across their chests to get to their prey. They
also scratch in animal droppings for ants. When the baby is two to
four weeks old the mother will carry it around on her back or tail.
Offspring will feed by themselves at about three months old.
Ground pangolins and people: The pangolins are prized for the
supposed medicinal properties of their various body parts.
Conservation status: The IUCN lists ground pangolins as Near

Threatened. ■
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, ed. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Jordan, E. L. Animal Atlas of the World. Maplewood, NJ: Hammond In-
corporated, 1969.
Periodicals:
“Pangolins in Profile.” Asia Africa Intelligence Wire (August 4, 2002).
“Wildlife Markets and Disease Transmission: The Problem Is, Pigs Do
Fly.” Life Science Weekly (July 28, 2003): 24.
Wise, Jeff. “Get Your Pangolins Here.” Esquire (July 1994): 30.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Pholidota.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pholidota.html (accessed
on May 22, 2004).
“Pangolin or Scaly Anteater.” NepalNet. http://www.panasia.org.sg/
nepalnet/ecology/pangolin.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Pangolin, Temnick’s ground.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. http://
ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/SpeciesProfile?spcode=A060 (accessed
on May 22, 2004).
“Pholidota.” American Zoo. http://www.americazoo.com/goto/index/
mammals/pholidota.htm (accessed on May 22, 2004).
“Wildlives: African Animals.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.
awf.org/wildlives/178 (accessed on May 5, 2004).
Pangolins 995
RODENTS
Rodentia
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
order C H A P T E R
class Rodents make up the largest group of mammals, representing
approximately 43 percent of all mammalian species. Families in
subclass
the order Rodentia include rats, mice, porcupines, hamsters,
● order beavers, squirrels, chipmunks, lemmings, muskrats, and guinea
monotypic order pigs (rabbits are not rodents). These families range in size from
the pygmy mice, which are 4.7 inches long (12 centimeters) and
suborder weigh 0.1 ounces (4 grams), to the capybara, which is 39.4 inches
family long (100 centimeters) and can weigh 110 pounds (50 kilo-
grams). Most rodents are relatively small animals, such as mice,
rats, and squirrels.
While there is a broad range of characteristics among the
families, the feature that sets rodents apart from other family
members is their teeth. Rodents have one pair of upper incisors
(the chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth), and one
pair of lower incisors. These teeth grow continually through-
out their life. The outer surfaces of the incisors have a thick
enamel (hard white substance) layer. Behind the incisors is a
large gap in the tooth rows. There are no canines, spade-shaped
teeth located next to the incisors. Typically there are only a few
molars at the rear of the jaws. The number of teeth rarely is
more than twenty-two.
The name Rodentia comes from the Latin verb rodere mean-
ing to gnaw, a name suitable for a rodent that is constantly
gnawing! Rodents’ incisor teeth grow throughout their life and
they grind their incisor teeth together to wear them down. If
for some reason the rodent is unable to wear its incisors down,

the tips may grow past each other and continue to grow out-
ward into spiral. This may result in the upper teeth piercing
the roof of the mouth, and the lower teeth growing upward in
front of the nose, which could kill the animal.
In general, rodents have a compact body with short legs.
They typically have four to five digits on each of the front feet
and three to five digits on the rear feet. Generally, the sole of
the foot is bare. Some rodents, such as hamsters and pocket
gophers, have cheek pouches, which allow the animals to store
and transport food. The tails of some rodent species break off
when these animals are caught by the tail, which allows them
to escape. The tail will partially grow back.
Other physical characteristics of rodents vary widely depend-
ing upon the species and where it lives. For example, rodents
that live in the desert, such as American kangaroo rats, Australian
hopping mice, and north African jerboas, have long, narrow hind
legs and feet with a long tail used for hopping over the sandy
desert floor. They all have well-developed hearing, small front
limbs, and pale coloration. Animals that live in and around the
water, such as the capybara and beaver, may have webbed or par-
tially webbed feet and tails modified for swimming.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Rodents are found in all parts of the world, including the
Arctic tundra, desert, and oceanic islands. About 70 percent of
all rodents are rats and mice, and these animals are found on
every continent.
HABITAT
The habitats of rodents are varied and numerous, from arid
(extremely dry) deserts to the arctic tundra. There are rodents
that live predominantly underground, others that live on land,
and others are primarily arboreal (living in trees). Some species
spend most of their life in the water, while others live in the
desert. Some live close to humans in urban areas and even
houses, while others make their home deep inside wetlands and
rainforests. Rodents can be found in almost every habitat and
on every continent except Antarctica.
DIET
All the families of rodents eat a wide range of foods. Most
rodents are herbivorous, plant eaters, eating a wide range of
Rodents 997
plant materials, including seeds, stems, leaves, roots, and flow-
ers. Many of these species eat primarily seeds. Some species,
such as the grasshopper mouse, eat insects and spiders. Other
species, such as the Australian water rat, are primarily carniv-
orous (meat-eating), preying (eating animals for food) on small
fish, frogs, and mollusks. Many are to some degree omnivo-
rous, eating both plants and animals. Still others have highly
specialized meals, eating only a few species of invertebrates, an-
imals without a backbone, or fungi.

Rodents show a wide range of lifestyles and habits, depend-
ing upon the family and species. There are rodents that form
burrows (holes or tunnels), such as gophers and moles; those
that live in trees, such as the commonly called flying squirrels;
rodents that spend most of their time in water, such as the
capybara; and those that are specialized to life in the desert,
such as kangaroo rats and jerboas.
Many rodents are social animals, living in large groups and
interacting with one another frequently. Prairie dogs, naked
mole-rats, and ground squirrels all live in these large colonies
(groups). Other rodents live in smaller colonies. The beaver
lives in a colony made up of the adult male and female, and
their offspring. Each colony lives in a specific territory.
The prairie dog, for example, lives in a set area that can
contain hundreds of these small animals (they look similar to
squirrels, not dogs). These colonies or towns are broken up into
certain neighborhoods. The prairie dogs post guards, they baby-
sit and they help build one another’s homes. There is a great
deal of playing, mutual grooming, and vocal communication
among the prairie dogs.
Some rodents are solitary, such as porcupines, pocket
gophers, and pocket mice. Many desert species are solitary.
Some of these species that burrow, dig, will construct and live
in their own burrow system. However, during the mating sea-
son there may be more than one individual, or a mother and
her offspring may live together.
Most rodents are active throughout the year. Some species,
such as ground squirrels, may hibernate for several months.
Species communicate with one another using sounds, smells, and
sights. For example, squeaks, grunts, and calls can be used as
alarm calls in mating and when a parent is searching for its young.

Many rodents have large numbers of off-
spring, which is one of the primary reasons
they make up the largest group of mammals.
Rodent reproduction can be divided into two
forms. One group of families has a short ges-
tation (pregnancy) period, produces multi-
ple litters per year, and has large numbers of THE APPEARANCE OF MODERN RATS
helpless offspring. Gestation periods can
Fossils show that the first rodents began
range from seventeen to forty-five days and
scampering about an estimated fifty-four
the number of litters can be up to four.
million years ago in Asia and North America.
Rodents in this group include mice, rats,
These original rodents were themselves
and pocket gophers. The other group of fam-
descendants of rodent-like ancestors called
ilies has longer gestation periods (60 to 238
anagalids, which also gave rise to the
days), fewer litters per year (generally one to
rabbits. It was not until about five million
two), and have a relatively fewer number of
years ago that the modern Muridae family
offspring.
of rodents came on the scene. The murids
The mating system of rodents depends (MYOO-rids) now make up more than half of
upon the species. A few species of rodents are all rodent species, including rats, mice, and
monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), such as hamsters. These mammals have flourished
the Patagonian mara, which forms male- due to multiple, large litters and their ability
female pairs that can last for multiple mating to adapt quickly to environmental changes.
seasons. Other species have a harem-based
(HARE-um based) mating system, one male
with a set group of females for the mating sea-
son. Many rodents are promiscuous (prah-MISS-kyoo-us), mean-
ing they mate randomly.
RODENTS AND PEOPLE
Rodents play a vital role in the ecosystem. They serve as the
prey for many animals and some animals will use their burrows
for shelter and protection.
People have caused the loss of population of many species
of rodents by destroying their natural habitat, harming them
directly, or introducing species that prey on rodents. Many
species of rodents are considered pests and even dangerous to
humans. Rodents cost billions of dollars in lost crops each year,
eating the grain stored during the winter and the seeds of plants.
Beavers can cause destruction by damming up creeks, causing
water to back up into areas where its not wanted.
Rats carried the fleas that caused the plagues of Europe. Rats
and mice help spread other deadly diseases as well, such as
bubonic (byoo-BON-ik) plague and typhus (TIE-fus).
Rodents 999
PLAGUE OF RATS
In 1347 a ship from Caffa, on the Black killed a quarter of the European population,
Sea, came ashore at Messina, Sicily. Along about twenty-five million people.
with its goods, the ship was also carrying flea- At that time, people blamed the plague on
infested rats. Most people on board were many causes, including fumes, God’s wrath,
already dead, and the ships were ordered out and the unlucky alignment of planets. It is
of the harbor, but it was too late—the plague, now known that the plague was caused by a
or Black Death, had reached Europe. The bacterium that lived in the stomach of fleas.
disease, which may have begun in Asia or These fleas mainly infect rodents, particularly
Egypt, killed within days of infection and the black rats. When the flea bites, either a rat
European population was quickly decimated. or a human, it spits some bacteria out into
(The nursery rhyme “Ring Around the Rosy” the bite wound. The bacteria were passed
is traced to the plague’s rose-colored from one rat to another by these fleas,
wounds). By 1349, the Black Death had causing the bacterium to spread. Large
swept through nearly every town and village numbers of infected rats died and the fleas
in Britain. It is estimated that the plague began biting humans.
Rodents are important as sources of food for many people.

Roasted, stuffed, or fried guinea pig, for example, is a popular
dish in Ecuador, Peru, and other South American countries. In
many parts of the world they have an economical importance
for their fur, such as the chinchilla of South America, a rodent
almost extinct in the wild but thriving in captivity.
Rodents such as mice and rats are also used extensively in
medical research because their bodily processes are similar to
humans’ and they have a rapid reproduction rate. They are used
to study many diseases and test medicines. People also use these
and other rodents, such as guinea pigs, to test the safety of
cosmetic and human food products. Many people also keep the
small and “cute” rodents as pets.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists 669 species of rodents under varying degrees
of threat and endangerment (facing varying risks of extinction
in the wild) as of 2004. There are 32 species that are listed as

Extinct (died out). Loss of habitats and the introduction of species
are the two main reasons for the loss of populations.
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, eds. Smithsonian Handbooks:
Jordan, E. L. Animal Atlas of the World. Maplewood, NJ: Hammond
Incorporated, 1969.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Order Rodentia.” Walker’s Mammals of the World 5.1
Online. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/
rodentia.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
Periodicals:
Adams, Jonathan. “A Nose for Trouble (trained rats).” Newsweek Inter-
national (January 12, 2004): 42.
Dickson-Ramos, Holly. “The World’s Largest Rodent.” Faces: People,
Places, and Culture (January 2004): 36.
Marchand, Peter J. “A Squirrel’s Glide to a Long Life.” Natural History
110, no. 8 (October 2001): 18.
Ostfeld, Richard S. “Little Loggers Make a Big Difference: The Tastes of
Two Small Rodents—the Meadow Vole and the White-Footed Mouse—
Can Determine What Trees Grow in a Forest.” Natural History (May
2002): 64.
Travis, John. “Mining the Mouse: A Rodent’s DNA Sheds Light on the
Human Genome.” Science News (February 22, 2003): 122.
“World’s Largest Rodent Risks Extinction.” United Press International
(September 20, 2002): 1008263 .
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Order Rodentia (Rodents).” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Rodentia.
Davis, William B., and David J. Schmidly. “Order: Rodentia.” The Mammals
of Texas—Online Edition. http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/ordroden.htm
Rodents 1001
Lockwood, Burleigh. “Order: Rodentia.” The Chaffee Zoo. http://www.
chaffeezoo.org/animals/rodentia.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Introduction to the Rodentia.” University of California Berkeley, Museum
of Paleontology. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/rodentia/
rodentia.html (accessed on July 8, 2004).
“Rat and Mouse FAQs.” The Rat & Mice Club of America. http://www.
rmca.org/Resources/faqs.htm (accessed on July 8, 2004).

MOUNTAIN BEAVER
Aplodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Aplodontidae
One species: Mountain beaver
(Aplodontia rufa)
This animal is also commonly called sewellel, named after the class
Chinook (American Indian tribe) word for a robe made from its
subclass
pelts. There is only one species of mountain beaver and they are
not closely related to the true beaver. These animals are about order
the same size as a squirrel, with a head and body length of monotypic order
14.3 inches (36 centimeters), and a tall length of approximately
1.2 inches (3 centimeters). suborder
They have a thickset, heavy body and short limbs. Eyes and ▲ family
ears are small. The head is broad and relatively flat. The neck
is short and thick. All the limbs have five well-developed claws.
These animals appear nearly tail-less because the tail is so short.
They have strong incisors (chisel-shaped teeth at the front of
the mouth).
The fur on these animals is thick, short, and typically a gray-
ish, dark brown or reddish brown color, with sparse guard hair,
which are coarse hairs that form the outer fur. Lighter, thick
fur lies underneath, which is called the underfur. Guard hairs
protect the underfur. Its belly is a slightly paler color, a white
or chestnut brown. There is a small white patch of short fur at
the bottom of its ears.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Mountain beavers are found in North America along the
Pacific Coast. They live in southwestern British Columbia to north-
western California, in certain coastal areas as far south as San
Francisco Bay, and in the Sierra Nevada of eastern California.
Mountain Beaver 1003

HABITAT
Mountain beavers generally live in moist
forests, especially near streams, which are
dense with herbs and shrubs. They are found
on mountains with deciduous forest to areas at
sea level, and also in coniferous forests. Moun-
HOST TO WORLD’S LARGEST FLEAS tain beavers must live in places with deep soils
The largest flea in the world, the rare so that they can burrow (dig holes or tunnels).
Hystricopsylla schefferi, is known from
collections plucked from mountain beavers DIET
and their burrows. These fleas can grow Mountain beavers are herbivores (plant-
up to one-third of an inch (9 millimeters) eaters) and feed on almost any plant material.
in length! These animals eat leaves, branches, bark, and
twigs. They also drink large amounts of water.

These animals spend much of their time along the banks of
rivers and streams. They frequently wash themselves by dipping
their front feet into the water and then scrubbing their body.
These animals are strong swimmers.
Mountain beavers live alone or in small colonies. They may
live in the same area as other mountain beavers that are some-
times referred to as colonies (groups). The concentration of
these animals is most likely due to the fact that the colony sites
make good habitats.
These animals have small home ranges, about 0.6 acres
(0.25 hectares). Within this range mountain beavers build com-
plex burrows with chambers for food storage, sleeping, and
shelter. The burrows are long and close to the surface. The ma-
jority of a mountain beaver’s time is spent in the underground
burrows. They emerge only to forage or during the brief period
of time when the young animals leave the nest to establish their
own burrow sites. Other animals may also use their burrow sys-
tem. The tunnels are cleaned and worked on regularly. If a tun-
nel is flooded by rain, the mountain beaver will swim in it.
Mountain beavers are primarily nocturnal, active at night.
They are occasionally active for short periods of time during
the daytime, especially in the autumn. When foraging for food,
they seldom wander more than a few feet (meters) from their
burrow. Although food is sometimes eaten above ground, it is
generally brought to the burrow. It cuts off the plants desired

Mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa)
and drags it to the mouth of the burrow. The food is placed

over some logs or some rocks to wilt, then is either stored or
eaten. It eats holding its food in its front feet like a raccoon.
While not a great climber, the mountain beaver climbs shrubs
and small trees to cut off small limbs and twigs. It cuts off the
branches as it climbs. Occasionally, it will let the small limbs and
twigs drop to the ground. More typically, the mountain beaver
will carry the wood down by climbing down the tree headfirst.
Mountain beavers do not hibernate (slow down their body
temperature to conserve energy) and are active year round. In
the cooler months they rarely appear above ground and at this
time, eat supplies of stored food. In the winter when vegeta-
tion is sparse, the beavers will eat bark and small twigs.
Mountain beavers have a brief breeding season. Pregnant
females have been collected from late February to early April.
Gestation (length of pregnancy) typically lasts twenty-eight to
thirty days. Females generally have one litter per year, bearing
two or three offspring, and rarely four. Newborns’ eyes are

Mountain beavers spend most of
their time in their complex
burrows, which have chambers
for food storage, sleeping, and
shelter. The burrows are long
and close to the surface. (Joseph
Van Wormer/Bruce Coleman Inc.
tightly closed and may not open fully until about fifty days later.
After about eight weeks, offspring are nearly half-grown and
able to leave the nest. Offspring reach sexual maturity late in
the second year of life.
MOUNTAIN BEAVERS AND PEOPLE

Humans have caused this family to decrease in population
by destroying its natural habitat through development and
other activities. In the Pacific Northwest, mountain beavers are
considered a pest by many foresters and gardeners because they
eat seedlings and young trees. They can also cause damage to
trees by peeling off the bark. To prevent damage to their crops
and gardens, people may use herbicides (substance used to kill
or control plants) and traps, factors that contribute to the de-
cline of mountain beavers.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists the mountain
beaver as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could

become so. Two of the seven subspecies of mountain beavers
are listed as Vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the
wild) by the IUCN.
Books:
Nowak, Ronald M. “Sewellel or Mountain Beaver.” Walker’s Mammals
rodentia/rodentia.aplodontidae.aplodontia.html (accessed on May 3,
2004).
Periodicals:
Drew, Lisa. “Creatures that Time Forgot.” National Wildlife (June–
July, 2002).
Valadka, Andrius. “Meet One of Nature’s Survivors: The Mountain Beaver
(Aplodontia rufa) is the World’s Oldest Living Rodent.” Nature Canada
(Summer 1988): 6–7.
Web sites:
Newell, T. “Aplodontia rufa.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Aplodontia_rufa.html
Altig, Ron. “Mountain Beaver: Aplodontia rufa.” Enature.com. http://www.
enature.com/fieldguide/showSpeciesSH.asp?curGroupID=5&shapeID=1
038&curPageNum=1&recnum=MA0073 (accessed on May 15, 2004).
Landes, Charles. “The Mountain Beaver (Aplodontia.” Mount Rainier
Nature News Notes (Nature Notes). http://www.nps.gov/mora/notes/
vol3-3a.htm (accessed on May 15, 2004).
“Lewis and Clark Expedition: Scientific Encounters.” National Park
Service. http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/lewisandclark/encounters.htm
“Mountain Beaver.” American Zoo. http://www.americazoo.com/goto/
index/mammals/139.htm (accessed on May 13, 2004).

SQUIRRELS AND RELATIVES
Sciuridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Sciuridae
class Squirrels are some of the most familiar rodents. They are small
to medium-sized animals with relatively long tails. Squirrels have
subclass five toes on the back feet and four on the front feet, with a well-
order developed claw on each digit. Eyes are relatively high on the head
and spread apart to allow them a wide range of vision. Size, fur,
monotypic order
shape, and tail features depend upon the type of squirrel. There
suborder are three general body forms in these animals: flying squirrels,
▲ family ground squirrels, and tree squirrels.
Flying squirrels have large, bushy tails and bodies adapted
for moving between trees. They are generally slim with long
legs. A furred membrane, double layer of thin skin, extends
between the wrist and ankle, which allows them to glide. They
have large eyes. Their fur is soft and dense and is generally
brown, gray, or blackish in color. The underside is a paler color.
Ground squirrels range widely in size. The marmots are the
largest ground squirrels, with weights of up to 16.5 pounds
(7.5 kilograms); the smallest are the American chipmunks,
which weigh up to 5 ounces (142 grams). These squirrels are
typically short legged with muscular bodies. Their tails are
furry, but generally not as bushy as those of tree squirrels.
Tree squirrels have long, bushy tails, sharp claws and large
ears. Some have well-developed ear tufts. Tree squirrels also
range extensively in size, from the pygmy squirrels that is about
the size of a mouse, to the fox squirrels that can measure 18 to
27 inches (46 to 69 centimeters). Their hind legs are extremely
long and they have long curved claws. Their tails are almost as
long as their bodies.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Squirrels are found throughout the world,
except in Australia, Madagascar, southern
South America, and certain desert regions,
such as in Egypt.
HABITAT NEW TREES FROM

There are many types of flying squirrels FORGETFUL SQUIRRELS
found in south and southeast Asia, especially For squirrels, a little forgetfulness can
in tropical, hot and humid, forests. Some turn into a lot of trees. Every autumn,
species live in northern temperate, not too hot squirrels “squirrel away” numerous nuts.
or too cold, regions, up to the Arctic Circle. For example, it is estimated that each gray
Ground squirrels live in many different squirrel buries at least 1,000 nuts every
habitats, such as grassland, forests, meadows, fall, possibly as many as 10,000 nuts in
and the arctic tundra. Chipmunks are the one one season. The squirrels can bury the nuts
type of ground squirrel that are often found several inches deep. They locate their
in dense shrubs or closed forests. buried nuts by smell, and are able to find
Tree squirrels live in forests, woodlands, nuts buried under a foot or more of snow.
gardens, cities, and farmlands. But they can forget. It is estimated that
millions of trees in the world are
DIET accidentally planted by squirrels that bury
Most squirrels eat primarily plant materi- nuts and then forget where they hid them.
als. Tree squirrels and flying squirrels often
eat nuts and seeds, and will occasionally also
feed on fungi, eggs, insects, young birds, and small snakes.
Ground squirrels also eat seeds, fruits, and nuts, but often have
diets made up of large amounts of grasses and leafy materials.

Most squirrels are active during the day, yet some species,
such as all the flying squirrels, are nocturnal, active at night.
Squirrels communicate by making shrill sounds. They also com-
municate by tail gestures, such as “flicking” the tail to indicate
that another squirrel should go away. Most squirrels wrap their
tail around themselves when resting. Squirrels build nests high
in the trees called dreys, which are made of twigs and leaves.
They line the inside of dreys with fur, feathers, or other soft
material. The nest typically will have two exits. Squirrels also
will build a nest called a den in the hollow of a tree.
Flying squirrels do not actually fly, as bats and birds do—they
leap and glide. They leap from a high point, flattening their bod-
ies and extending the legs widely, and then land at a lower point.
Squirrels and Relatives 1009

Some species can glide for as much as 1,476 feet (450 meters).
The squirrels can even turn at a right angle to avoid a branch.
Ground squirrels make burrows, tunnels or holes, which they
use to rest in during the heat of the day and escape predators,
animals hunting them for food. Many of the ground squirrels hi-
bernate, become inactive to conserve energy, for varying periods
of time. Some squirrels can hibernate for up to nine months.
Tree squirrels are solitary animals, yet some African species
travel in pairs or small groups. These squirrels build nests of
leaves or needles in hollow trees or limbs. They are active and
maneuver (mah-NOO-ver) easily in trees.
For ground squirrels, the breeding season follows shortly
after hibernation. Some species will skip a year of breeding;
others can reproduce more than once a year. Baby ground squir-
rels are generally born underground without fur. There are usu-
ally four in a liter. Flying squirrels typically give birth to small
litters of one to two offspring, which are generally blind and
naked at birth. Tree squirrels generally have a polygamous
(puh-LIH-guh-mus) mating system, meaning the male and fe-
male can have more than one mate. Litter sizes vary, depend-
ing upon the habitat and food availability.
SQUIRRELS AND PEOPLE

People have hunted squirrels for their fur and meat, and for
sport. While squirrels are generally considered playful and
harmless creatures, these animals can destroy crops and some
people consider them pests. Their burrows occasionally dam-
age irrigation systems and can harm livestock, but these ro-
dents also destroy undesirable weeds and insects. Some
squirrels are also carriers of organisms that transmit human dis-
ease, such as the plague and Rocky mountain tick fever. Peo-
ple have caused a decline in many squirrel populations by
destroying their habitats and hunting them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists two squirrel
species as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild; nine species as Endangered, facing a very
high risk of extinction; twenty-six species as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild; and thirty-four species as Near

Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans)
SPECIES
SOUTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL ACCOUNTS
Glaucomys volans
Physical characteristics: Southern flying squirrels are generally

about 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 centimeters) long, and have a black
ring around their large eyes. They have gray fur with white bellies.
Geographic range: These squirrels are found in eastern Canada

south through the eastern United States. Isolated populations stretch
to Honduras.
Habitat: Southern flying squirrels live primarily in deciduous

forests. They usually make their nests in tree hollows.
Diet: These squirrels eat nuts, seeds and berries. They will also eat
bird eggs, bird nestlings, insects and occasionally dead mice.

Behavior and reproduction: Southern flying
squirrels are nocturnal. These squirrels will form
small groups in the winter and share a common
nest to keep warm. They typically glide an esti-
mated 20 to 30 feet (6 to 9 meters) from the top
of one tree down to the trunk of another tree,
though they may glide farther.
Southern flying squirrels mate in early spring
and summer. Females give birth to two litters of
two to seven offspring. Mothers will defend their
young and move them to another nest if they are
threatened.
Southern flying squirrels and people: These

squirrels are considered gentle and are popular
as pets.
Conservation status: Southern flying squirrels

are not listed as threatened by the IUCN. They are
A southern flying squirrel generally common with some isolated populations threatened due to
spreads its hands and feet,
stretching the thin membrane
habitat loss. ■
that connects them to glide up
to 80 yards (73 meters). (© Joe
McDonald/Corbis. Reproduced
by permission.)

Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus)
EASTERN CHIPMUNK
Tamias striatus
Physical characteristics: The largest of the chipmunks, eastern

chipmunks are about 8.9 to 10.6 inches (22.5 to 26.8 centimeters) long.
They have grayish to reddish brown fur, white fur on their bellies, and
five stripes from the neck to their tail. Two of the stripes are white bor-
dered by black stripes, and one black stripe is in the center. They also
have light strips above and below their eyes, and pouched cheeks.
Geographic range: Eastern chipmunks are found in southeastern

Canada and most of the northeastern United States, south to Missis-
sippi and Virginia and west to North Dakota and Oklahoma.
Habitat: Eastern chipmunks generally live in open deciduous forests

with rocks, logs, and stumps. They can also be found in more open,
bushy areas.

The eastern chipmunk is the
largest of the chipmunks, and
is common in the northeastern
United States. (Illustration by
Brian Cressman. Reproduced
by permission.)
Diet: Eastern chipmunks primarily eat nuts, acorns, seeds, mush-

rooms, fruits, berries, and corn. They also eat insects, bird eggs,
snakes, snails and small mammals, such as young mice.
Behavior and reproduction: Eastern chipmunks construct elabo-

rate burrow systems. They are solitary, prefer to burrow alone, ex-
cept for offspring. In warmer months they spend much of their time
gathering and storing large amounts of food—they can gather up to
165 acorns in a single day. These animals remain in their dens for
the winter and sleep frequently. They wake up every few weeks to
eat the food they have stored.
These chipmunks breed from late June to early July. Litter sizes
average three to five offspring. In some areas a female may have a
second litter. Offspring will come above ground five to seven weeks
after birth.
Eastern chipmunks and people: There is no special connection

between these chipmunks and people.
Conservation status: Eastern chipmunks are not considered

threatened. ■

Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus)
BLACK-TAILED PRAIRIE DOG

Cynomys ludovicianus
Physical characteristics: Black-tailed prairie dogs have sharp teeth,

a black-tipped tail, and are about 14 to 15.7 inches (35.5 to 39.8 cen-
timeters) long. Their fur is brown, golden brown, or reddish brown,
and whitish on the underside.
Geographic range: These prairie dogs are found in areas from

Canada to Mexico. In Canada they are found in Saskatchewan; in the
United States they live from Montana to eastern Nebraska, south to
northern Mexico.
Habitat: Black-tailed prairie dogs live in open, flat and arid, ex-
tremely dry, grassy plains.

Black-tailed prairie dogs are very Diet: These animals eat primarily leaves, stems, grass roots, weeds,
social, living together in and wildflowers. They will sometimes eat grasshoppers, beetles and
underground burrows called
“towns.” (© George D.
other insects.
Lepp/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Black-tailed prairie dogs are extremely
social. They dig a complex series of tunnels deep into the ground,
which is called a town. Towns can spread over hundreds of acres and
contain thousands of prairie dogs. They communicate to one another
frequently, using yips, growls, chattering, barks and chirps.
Black-tailed prairie dogs have one litter a year. Breeding occurs
from February to March. A month after mating, the female will have
three to four offspring. Female prairie dogs are extremely protective
of their young. They will often fight with other females to guard their
territory and babies.
Black-tailed prairie dogs and people: Some farmers and ranchers

consider black-tailed prairie dogs pests. Livestock can hurt a leg if
they step into a prairie dog’s burrow, and they may compete with live-
stock for food.
Conservation status: Black-tailed prairie dogs are listed as Near

Threatened by the IUCN. ■

Alpine marmot (Marmota marmota)
ALPINE MARMOT
Marmota marmota
Physical characteristics: Alpine marmots are relatively large with

a head and body length of about 20 to 24 inches (50 to 60 centime-
ters). Their fur is thick and color varies from gray to yellow-brown
to reddish. They have large heads; short, powerful legs; short, hairy
tails; and a white bridge on their noses.
Geographic range: Alpine marmots are found in the French, Swiss

and Italian Alps, South Germany, West Austria, the Carpathian moun-
tains, and the Tatra Mountains. They have been introduced into the
Pyrenees, east Austria, and Yugoslavia.
Habitat: These animals live in open mountainous grassland areas,

at approximately 4,300 to 9,800 feet (1,300 to 3,000 meters).

Diet: Alpine marmots feed primarily on a wide
variety of vegetation, including grasses, flowers,
bulbs and seeds. They may also eat insects, birds’
eggs and occasionally each others’ young.
Behavior and reproduction: Alpine marmots are

social animals that form burrows. They live in fam-
ily groups generally made up of an adult pair and
their offspring from previous years. Colonies,
groups, can be as small as two or three to as large
as fifty, all living in one burrow system. During
warmer weather they eat heavily, and then hiber-
nate as a family from September to mid April or
May. The last animal into the burrow, usually an
adult male, plugs the entrance with hay and earth
to keep the burrow warm and safe from predators.
The thumb of the alpine marmot These animals have distinctive calls. One long whistle warns of a
has a nail instead of a claw to
aid in digging. (© St. Meyers/ threat in the air, such as an eagle, while a series of whistles may warn
Okapia/Photo Researchers, Inc. of an approaching fox.
Female marmots are able to breed at the age of two. Breeding oc-
curs once a year, a few days after they emerge from hibernation, but
females do not typically reproduce as long as the offspring remain in
the family group. Females have an average of three to four offspring.
Alpine marmots and people: Some people have long believed that
alpine marmot fat rubbed into the skin could relieve arthritis. In
Europe these animals have been a source of fur, meat, and fat for the
last thousand years. The reliance of these animals for their food has
decreased and some people consider them agricultural, farming, pests.
They are also hunted for trophies in some areas, and hunting has
caused the population of these animals to decline. Alpine marmots
have become a symbol for the Alps.
Conservation status: Alpine marmots are not listed as a threatened

species by the IUCN. ■

Gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)
GRAY SQUIRREL
Sciurus carolinensis
Physical characteristics: Gray squirrels have a head and body

length of 9.4 to 11.2 inches (24 to 29 centimeters). Fur color varies
widely within the species, generally fur is black to pale gray with a
white to pale gray belly. They have broad, bushy tails that are about
the length of their head and body combined.
Geographic range: Gray squirrels are found in eastern and central

United States, reaching southern Canada in the north. They have also
been introduced into Texas, California, Quebec, Vancouver Island,
and South Africa.
Habitat: Gray squirrels prefer forests and woodlands but they are
often seen in urban parks and yards.
Diet: Gray squirrels eat primarily tree seeds and nuts, including
acorns, hickory nuts, beechnuts, and butternuts. They also feed on
berries, mushrooms, buds, and flowers.

Behavior and reproduction: Gray squirrels
climb and jump well. They are considered solitary.
They have well-developed senses of sight, smell,
and hearing and are alert, especially on the ground.
They are active year round, sheltering in tree hol-
lows during the winter months. In the fall, gray
squirrels gather and bury, at random, a winter food
supply. When food is needed, these squirrels sniff
the ground to recover their supply.
Gray squirrels have two breeding peaks during
the year, generally December to February and May
to June. After a forty-four–day gestation period, fe-
males give birth to a litter of two to seven young.
Offspring are blind and helpless at birth, becoming
somewhat independent at eight to ten weeks old.
Gray squirrels and people: These squirrels are

hunted for sport and food. They are considered at-
tractive and enjoyable for many park visitors. For
homeowners, these squirrels may enter their
The eastern gray squirrel, homes for shelter, dig up their gardens, or eat the seeds in their bird-
despite its name, can be
feeders. They are also considered a pest in areas where they damage
colored gray or black.
(© M. H. Sharp/Photo the trees by stripping them of bark.
by permission.) Conservation status: Gray squirrels are not considered threatened
by the IUCN. ■
Books:
Periodicals:
Cohen, Jonathan. “Squirreley Fun.” Ranger Rick (December 2001): 10.
Marchand , Peter J. “A Squirrel’s Glide to a Long Life .” Natural History
(October 2001): 18–19.
McMahan, Kim Hone. “Outwit, Baffle Squirrels .” Knight Ridder/Tribune
News Service (June 5, 2003): K6208.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Squirrels, Chipmunks, Marmots, and Prairie Dogs.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_
mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/rodentia.sciuridae.html (accessed on
June 2, 2004).
Phillips, John E. “Calling All Squirrels: Get Vocal to Grab More Bushy-
tails.” Outdoor Life (August 1, 2003): 89.
Tangley, Laura. “News of the Wild (Ground Squirrels Warning System).”
National Wildlife (August–September, 2002).
Web sites:
Jansa, S., and P. Myers. “Family Sciuridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Sciuridae.
html (accessed on June 2, 2004).
“The Life of Mammals.” BBC: Science and Nature: Animals.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/mammals (accessed on June 2,
2004).
“Mammal Guide.” Animal Planet. http://animal.discovery.com/guides/
mammals/habitat/alpine/alpmarmot.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).
“Mammals.” Canadian Museum of Nature. http://nature.ca/note-
books/english/mon2.htm (accessed on June 2, 2004).
“Sciuridae.” Discover Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/
Mammalia/Sciuridae/ (accessed on June 2, 2004).
The Squirrel Place. http://www.squirrels.org/ (accessed on June 2,
2004).

BEAVERS
Castoridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Castoridae
class Beavers are among the largest of the rodents. They have
a combined head and body length of 31 to 58 inches (80 to
subclass
140 centimeters). The flat, paddle-like tail is about 9.8 to
order 17.7 inches (25 to 45 centimeters) long. The tail is broad and
monotypic order scaly. A typical beaver can weigh 33 to 75 pounds (15 to
33 kilograms), with a few beavers weighing in at 100 pounds
suborder (45 kilograms). Males and females are similar in size.
▲ family Beavers’ bodies are stocky with short limbs. Each limb has
five clawed digits. The back feet, which are larger than the front,
are webbed. The claws on the hind feet’s first and second toes
are split, appearing as a double claw. They have long, curved
incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth, that are
an orange-brown color. The incisors grow continuously.
Their eyes are small and their ears are short. Their ears are
set far back on their heads, which are broad and rounded.
Beavers can close both their ears and nostrils when underwa-
ter. Beavers have a skin fold inside their mouths, which allows
them to grasp onto items in their teeth without water entering
their throat.
Beavers’ fur is dense, made up of a fine coat of soft fur, called
underfur, beneath long guard hairs, coarse hairs that form the
outer fur and protect the underfur. The short underfur helps
the beaver with water shedding and insulation. Fur color is a
glossy yellowish brown to black. Their bellies are slightly paler
in color, ranging from a brown to yellowish brown. The tail
and feet are black.

The family name “Castoridae” refers to beavers’ castor glands,
or “castors.” A gland is a group of special cells that make sub-
stances so that other parts of the body can work. This pair of
glands, along with a pair of anal glands, releases a pungent, musky
odor. Both sets of glands lie at the base of the tail.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Beavers are found in North America, northern Europe, and
northern Asia. After a decrease in population, these animals have
been reintroduced to Russia, Scandinavia, and Argentina. They
are also found in Chile.
HABITAT
Beavers live primarily along streams, ponds, lakes, swamps
and other waterways, in areas where they can build dams. They
are found mainly in areas with a year-round water flow, but are
found occasionally in roadside ditches, drainage ditches, and
sewage ponds. They are have also become more common in
urban areas.
DIET
Beavers feed primarily on the bark and outer layers of decidu-
ous trees such as birch, willow, alder, sweet gum, magnolia,
maple, and dogwood. They eat twigs, leaves, and roots of trees
and shrubs. They also eat various parts of aquatic plants, espe-
cially the young shoots of water lilies. During the warmer months,
they may add grasses, corn, and other plants to their diet.

Beavers are generally nocturnal, active at night. They are ac-
tive year round. These animals are semiaquatic, living partly on
land and partly in water, and are graceful moving about in
water. They use their webbed feet and paddle-like tails to swim.
Beavers are hard workers and are considered the engineers
of the animal kingdom because of the complex dams and lodges
they build. Dams can be extensive, reaching over 10 feet (3 me-
ters) high and stretching hundreds of feet long. A typical dam
is 65 to 98 feet (20 to 30 meters) long. Mud and stones may
set the foundation, base, for the dam. Brush and poles are added
with the butt ends facing upstream, and mud, stones, and soggy
vegetation are used as plaster on top of the poles. A dam is built
higher than the water level. With maintenance and upkeep,
Beavers 1023
dams are used by several generations of
beavers.
Beavers may create multiple homes in their
territory. Homes can take the form of a bur-
row, hole or tunnel, along a bank to make a
den, or a wood lodge. Built of sticks and mud,
COUSINS TO A MAMMOTH the dome-shaped lodge is generally sur-
Today’s beaver had a mega cousin that rounded by the water backed up by the dam.
lived millions of years ago and was one of The lodge may eventually reach more than
the largest rodents ever known. The giant 6.6 feet (2 meters) above the surface of the
beaver was estimated at 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to water. Each home may have several under-
2.4 meters) long and weighed 450 to 700 water entrances, which must reach below the
pounds (204 to 318 kilograms). The giant winter ice. In some areas, especially near large
beaver roamed North American marshlands rivers, beavers dig complex dens instead of
until about 10,000 years ago, when they building lodges. Burrows also may have un-
disappeared. The giant beaver ate plant derwater entrances that lead to the dry areas.
materials and spent a lot of time in the Beavers live in colonies, groups, of four to
water. Unlike today’s beavers, giant beavers eight related individuals. Generally, the
had ridged cutting teeth and did not build colony consists of a mated pair of adults and
dams. Fossil evidence of the giant beaver young that are less than two years old. There
ranges from Florida to northern Canada. is usually only a single breeding female in a
colony. A single beaver colony sometimes
maintains several dams to control water flow.
The oil that beavers’ glands produce is used to mark their
territory. This oil is also used to grease the beaver’s fur coat to
make it water repellent. Constant grooming and this oil keeps
beavers’ fur waterproof. It uses its second claw on its hind feet
for grooming. Males and females display territorial behavior and
will fight trespassing beavers. Communication is through
postures, scent marking, tail slapping, and vocalizations, in-
cluding a whistling or whining call.
In the winter, beavers anchor sticks and logs underwater to
feed on during winter. If their pond freezes over, they swim be-
neath the ice and feed on previously stored food. The senses of
hearing, smell, and touch are well developed.
Beavers usually mate for life and are monogamous, have one
mate. If one of the pair dies, the beaver may then find another
mate. Females are dominant. Mating takes place once a year
from January to March. Gestation, pregnancy, is 100 to 110
days. Females generally have three to four offspring, called kits,
but can have anywhere from one to nine. Offspring generally
will nurse for two to three months.

BEAVERS AND PEOPLE
Beavers were once common throughout Europe, Asia, and
North America before people began hunting them for their
thick, glossy pelts, fur. People used these pelts for coats and
hats. People also dined on beaver and used the scents produced
by their castor glands for perfume. In Europe, beavers were
almost hunted to extinction, no longer existing, by 1860 C.E.
Beavers also can affect the water flow of an ecosystem. By
constructing dams and burrowing into banks, they increase the
wetland area and overall growth in an area. This helps organ-
isms around the area flourish. For people, beaver’s altering of
a landscape can be a nuisance. Damming can flood roads, crops,
and homes.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Populations of beavers, once extremely low, are gaining in
numbers. The Eurasian beaver is listed as Near Threatened,
not currently threatened, but could become so, by the World
Beavers 1025
North American beaver (Castor canadensis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT NORTH AMERICAN BEAVER
Castor canadensis
Physical characteristics: Also commonly called simply the Amer-

ican beaver, the North American beaver weighs from 33 to 75 pounds
(15 to 35 kilograms). They have yellowish brown to black fur.
Geographic range: North American beavers are found in Alaska,

Canada, throughout the continental United States, and the extreme
northern areas of Mexico. These animals are not found in desert
regions or southern Florida. They have also been introduced in
Finland, Russia, and Argentina.
Habitat: Like all beavers, the North American beaver is aquatic and
lives near water in the form of a pond, stream, lake, or river.
Diet: North American beavers eat a variety of plant material. They pre-
fer the cambium, the soft layer between the wood and bark, and leaves
of trees such as aspen, birch, aspen, willow, cottonwood, and alder. Their
diet also can include aquatic plants, such as pond weeds, water-lilies,
and cattails. North American beavers also eat grasses, shrubs, and herbs.

Behavior and reproduction: North American
beavers build more extensive dams that alter the
landscape than their European counterparts. They
are primarily nocturnal but are also frequently ac-
tive during the day. As the weather gets cooler,
beavers stockpile food for the winter by storing it
underwater in their lodge or den. When they are
able to break through the winter ice, these animals
continue to cut down trees. In the northern areas,
this underwater food storage may be the beaver’s
main food supply for months. In the southern ar-
eas, beavers are more active year around.
North American beavers and people: North

American beavers are part of Native American
myths. An Apache myth says that beavers have the
magic of the medicine men. Beavers have played
an integral role in the development of the United
States and Canada. These animals were highly val-
ued for the pelts. The beaver pelt became a unit of currency in colo- North American beavers eat
nial times, often leading to fights over trapping territories. The mostly cellulose, which is broken
down by microorganisms in
potential for profit, money, encouraged trappers to continue to move their cecum (SEE-kum), a part
west, and settlers soon followed the trappers. Beavers were hunted of the digestive system. (© Phil
so intensively throughout North America that the population was Schermeister/Corbis. Reproduced
by permission.)
reduced by 90 percent by the late twentieth century.
Altering its environment with dams and the creation of ponds ben-
efits the beaver’s ecosystem. The ponds help control runoff and help
the fish and other organisms flourish. There are over fifty species of
animals that live in beaver ponds. The damming of streams raises the
level of the water. This causes the tree species that cannot survive in
permanently wet soil to die, allowing for the spread of other species.
Some people consider these animals a pest. The cutting of trees can
damage crops and timber. Their creation of dams can cause flooding
that can also harm woodlands and farms.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not list the North American
beaver as a threatened species. ■
Books:
Beavers 1027
Periodicals:
Hair, Marty. “Busy Beavers Work to Build Homes.” Knight Ridder/Tribune
News Service (February 26, 2004): K5424.
Stewart, Doug. “I’ll Be Dammed! Once Nearly Extinct, Beavers are Mak-
ing a Comeback—Sometimes a Little Too Close to Home.” Time (March
29, 2004): 42–43
Wilkinson, Todd. “The Benefits of Beavers.” National Parks (January–
February 2003): 30–32
Web sites:
Lindsey, Donald W., and Christy Brecht. “American Beaver.” Discover
Life. http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/Mammalia/Castoridae/
Castor/canadensis/ (accessed on June 1, 2004).
Myers, P. “Castoridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Castoridae.html (accessed
on June 1, 2004).
“North American Beaver, Canadian Beaver.” BBC Science & Nature:
Animals. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/615.shtml
“Rodents: Castorida.” Animals Online. http://www.animals-online.be/
rodents/bevers/european_beaver.html (accessed on June 1, 2004).

POCKET GOPHERS
Geomyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Geomyidae
Pocket gophers have stout, heavy set bodies that have a class
tube-like shape. The length of their bodies varies depending upon
subclass
the species from 5 to 14 inches (13 to 36 centimeters). Males are
generally larger than females. Their legs are relatively short and order
powerful. The five claws on their thick front legs are long, sharp, monotypic order
and curved. The third claw is the longest. Their hands are broad.
suborder
The pocket gopher does not appear to have a neck. They
have short, almost hairless tails, which are extremely sensitive ▲ family
to the touch. Eyes and ears are small, and surrounded by
numerous hairs that prevent soil from getting in. They have
large and sharp incisors, chisel-shaped teeth at the front of the
mouth. They also have whiskers that extend from their nose.
The “pocket” part of their name refers to fur-lined pouches,
one on each side of their mouth, in which they carry food. The
name gopher comes from the French word gaufre meaning waf-
fle or honeycomb, and refers to the network of passages that it
digs. The pouches open into the mouth and extend from
the mouth region back to the shoulders. When filled with food,
the pouches make the pocket gopher’s head appear almost twice
its size. Pocket gophers can turn these pouches inside out
for cleaning.
Pocket gophers have loose and flexible skin. The skin is thick
around the head and throat. Fur color varies widely, even
within a species. The color generally matches the color of
freshly turned soil, a light brown to almost black. Fur is gen-
erally soft, and is short in species living in hot environments.
Pocket Gophers 1029

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pocket gophers are found in North America and extend into
Central America. They are found from southern Canada
through western North America, southward to northwestern
Colombia in South America. One species occurs in the south-
eastern United States, in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida.
HABITAT
Pocket gophers live in almost any area that has soil that they
can dig. They are found in meadows, forests, deserts, rain-
forests, and fields, from dry, extremely hot, climates at sea level
to extremely cold climates in mountainous areas. They do not
travel far, and occur in isolated areas. They spend most of their
lives underground, though they surface at times to gather food.
In certain parts of the country, the older animals may move to
moister areas during dry periods.
DIET
Pocket gophers are herbivores, plant eaters. These animals
feed primarily on the underground parts of plants, especially
the roots, bulbs, and tubers. They also cut stems and carry them
in their cheek pouches to their storage chambers.

Pocket gophers are rarely seen because they spend almost
their entire lives underground. Also, these animals are gener-
ally crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur), active at dawn and dusk,
and some are nocturnal, active at night. Pocket gophers do not
hibernate, go into a resting state to conserve energy, and in
general, are active year round.
These animals forage, look for food, through the ground,
burrowing, or digging, a set of complex tunnels. Where the
digging is easy, pocket gophers are able to tunnel as much as
200 to 300 feet (61 to 91 meters) in a single night. They dig
primarily with their powerful front claws. They use their
upper incisors to cut roots and loosen soil and rocks. They use
their sensitive tail and whiskers to feel their way around in
the dark.
Pocket gophers generally dig two kinds of tunnels. One type
of tunnel is long, winding, and shallow. They use this type to get
food from above. The second type of tunnel is deeper. They use
these tunnels for shelter, with chambers for nests, food storage,

and fecal, waste, deposits. The tunnels are usu-
ally marked above ground by small mounds of
earth. When not in use, these animals plug up
burrow entrances with dirt. Pocket gophers
can run backward in their burrows almost as
fast as they can run forward. Burrows may be
occupied by the same animal for several years POCKET GOPHERS AND CHEWING LICE
and spread over an acre (0.4 hectares) of
Studies have shown that relationships
ground.
among species of pocket gophers mirror
Pocket gophers are extremely unsocial. relationships among species of chewing
They live alone in their burrow system. lice, suggesting they have a long history of
When one pocket gopher meets another, living together. Lice are small organisms
they squeal and hiss at one another, and their that live, grow, and eat on other organisms.
teeth chatter. They may fight violently. One When pocket gophers mate, the lice on one
is often killed in the fight. gopher can jump to the other gopher to
The only time pocket gophers spend time mate with the lice infesting it. Since pocket
with others of their species is during the mat- gophers mate only with their own species,
ing season. Generally in the spring, the male the lice are limited to mating with other lice
leaves his den and briefly goes into the bur- that live on that same species of pocket
row of a female. Pocket gophers typically gopher. In this way, as pocket gophers
breed only once per year, although some formed separate species, the lice that live
species are capable of breeding in the spring on them are also likely to form separate
and fall. Gestation, pregnancy, ranges from species.
eighteen to more than thirty days, with the
smaller species having the lower gestation
times. Litter size varies from one to ten offspring. Until they are
five weeks old the babies’ eyes and ears are sealed shut. Off-
spring stay with the mother in the burrow for one to two months,
and then each sets off to burrow its own system of tunnels.
POCKET GOPHERS AND PEOPLE

Pocket gophers play an important role in the ecosystem in
which they live. They loosen and enrich the soil when they bur-
row. The occupied or abandoned burrows of these rodents are
used extensively by other animals for shelter or foraging.
Some people consider these animals to be pests. In some
areas, a single pocket gopher can destroy a family garden in less
than a month. Their burrows can harm agricultural fields, caus-
ing extensive crop damage. They can consume a great deal of the
underground parts of plants. Commercial farmers may trap and
poison pocket gophers. Humans have also destroyed or altered
these animals natural habitat, causing a decline in the population
Pocket Gophers 1031

of some of these species. Some people in Latin America consider
the meat of the pocket gopher to be a delicacy, luxury.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists fifteen species
of pocket gophers as threatened. The Oaxacan (wah-HAH-kan)
pocket gopher and Querétaro pocket gopher are listed as
tion. The Michoacan pocket gopher is considered Endangered,
facing a high risk of extinction.

Valley pocket gopher (Thomomys bottae)
SPECIES
VALLEY POCKET GOPHER ACCOUNT
Thomomys bottae
Physical characteristics: The valley pocket gopher is also com-

monly know as Botta’s pocket gopher, smooth-toothed pocket gopher,
and western pocket gopher. Valley pocket gophers have a combined
head and body length of 6 to 13 inches (15 to 33 centimeters). Claws
on their front feet are relatively small. Fur color varies among indi-
viduals, ranging from pale gray to reddish brown to black. The belly
is grayish white, white, light yellowish brown, or mottled, splotched.
An identifying characteristic of these animals is a single indistinct
groove on each incisor.
Geographic range: Valley pocket gophers are found in the western

United States into northern Mexico. They can live at altitudes from
sea level to 10,000 feet (3,000 meters).
Pocket Gophers 1033

Valley pocket gophers spend 90 Habitat: These animals can live in a wide range of habitats. They
percent of their time below
occur in soils ranging from loose sands to tight clays, and in dry
ground. By the roots, they can
pull entire plants underground deserts to mountainous meadows. They commonly live in valleys,
into their burrows. (© Tom woodlands, deserts, and agricultural fields.
McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Reproduced by permission.) Diet: Valley pocket gophers feed on below ground plants such as
roots and tubers. They especially like the roots of alfalfa. From its
root, pocket gophers can pull the entire plant into its burrow to eat
or store the food. They will also come to the surface to feed and clip
off vegetation near the entrance of their burrow.
Behavior and reproduction: Valley pocket gophers are solitary

animals that are active throughout the year. They burrow a system of
tunnels and spend about 90 percent of their time below ground.
During the breeding season males will briefly join females in their
burrows. The main breeding season is in spring, however these
animals will sometimes breed in the fall also. Females generally bear
two to four offspring per litter.
Valley pocket gophers and people: Farmers and gardeners

may consider these animals pests. Valley pocket gophers can be

destructive to plants, and people will trap or poison them. Yet the
burrowing activity of these animals cultivates the soil, and vegetation
and many organisms are dependent upon their continued activity.
Conservation status: This species is not listed as threatened by

the IUCN. ■
Books:
Clutton-Brock, Juliet, and Don E. Wilson, ed. consultants. Smithsonian
Handbooks: Mammals. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2002.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Pocket Gophers.” Walker’s Mammals of the World
rodentia/rodentia.geomyidae.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Periodicals:
Benedix, J. H. Jr. “A Predictable Pattern of Daily Activity by the Pocket
Gopher Geomys bursarius.” Animal Behaviour (September 1994):
501–509.
Brower, Kenneth. “The Proof is in the Pellet.” Audubon (March 2004): 78.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Family Geomyidae (Pocket Gophers).” Animal Diversity Web.
Geomyidae.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
“Pocket Gophers.” Colorado Division of Wildlife. http://wildlife.state.co.
us/Education/mammalsguide/pocket_gophers.asp (accessed on July 7,
2004).
“The Pocket Gopher.” Forest Preserve District of Cook County (Illinois).
http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/natbltn/400-499/nb493.htm (accessed
on July 7, 2004).
Pocket Gophers 1035

POCKET MICE, KANGAROO
RATS, AND KANGAROO MICE
Heteromyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Heteromyidae
class Pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo mice, sometimes
called heteromyids (members of the family Heteromyidae), are
subclass
small- to medium-sized rodents with external, fur-lined cheek
order pouches. The pouches open in front of the mouth and go back
monotypic order along the shoulders. They have fairly large eyes and short,
rounded ears. Pocket mice use all four feet while walking,
suborder while kangaroo rats and mice use only their rear two feet for
▲ family walking. Kangaroo rats and mice have long tails with white
tips or tufts on the end, along with relatively short front limbs.
Pocket mice have shorter, less noticeable tails. Kangaroo rats
and mice have good hearing. Kangaroo rats and mice have soft
and silky fur, while pocket mice have coats that range from
silky to spiny. The coat color varies from light to dark, de-
pending on species and habitat, often matching the soil color
on which they live.
Adults are 1.7 to 14.6 inches (4.3 to 37 centimeters) long
and weigh between 0.2 and 6.9 ounces (5 and 195 grams).
Kangaroo rats weigh between 1.2 and 6.9 ounces (33 and 195
grams); kangaroo mice weigh between 0.4 and 0.6 ounces
(10 and 17 grams); and pocket mice weigh between 0.2 and
3.0 ounces (5 and 85 grams).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Heteromyids are found in the western United States, south-
western Canada, Mexico, Central America, and northern
South America.

HABITAT
Heteromyids live in deserts, dry grasslands, and, in a few
cases, wet and dry tropical forests. Desert pocket mice and kan-
garoo rats like arid, dry, climates that contain sand, scrubs,
sagebrush, grasses, and chaparral. Kangaroo mice prefer sandy
habitats. In all cases, heteromyids like areas that contain
many seeds.
DIET
Heteromyids eat mostly seeds, but also eat green vegetation
and, in some species, insects. Desert species can go without
water for long periods of time. They leave their burrows at night
to dig through soil with their forelimbs to gather seeds into their
cheek pouches. When pouches are full, they return to one of
their caches (KASH-uhz), hidden supply areas, which are used
throughout the animal’s home range. Heteromyids defend their
territory aggressively when they have collected many seeds.

Heteromyids are nocturnal, active at night, rodents. Kangaroo
rats and mice move about mostly by hopping on their hind limbs,
while pocket mice use all four of their limbs in a walking
motion. They have a very basic social structure, mostly living
alone except for females and young. They do interact with nearby
neighbors, which are often relatives. Most species burrow
tunnel systems with multiple chambers and surface openings.
Heteromyids have well-developed communication systems.
Medium- and large-sized kangaroo rats communicate by drum-
ming or thumping the ground with their large hind feet;
familiar thumping identifies neighbors, while strangers are not
recognized. Each species has its own set of drumming patterns,
which are heard through the air and ground.
Male home territories overlap with those of other males and
females. Females occupy a territory that contains no other
females. They regularly bathe in sand, which helps to clean
their hair and to deposit their scents onto the ground. Their
scent informs other heteromyids and other animals about their
sex, identity and mating status. When a predator, an animal
that hunts other animals, is seen, heteromyids use their body
coloring to hide and avoid them. If needed, they will run away
along a crooked path. Desert heteromyids also have strong hear-
ing that lets them hear approaching predators.
Pocket Mice, Kangaroo Rats, and Kangaroo Mice 1037

Males always travel to female territories during breeding sea-
son in order to mate. Mating relationships range from one male
and one female, to several males competing for access to one
breeding female. Larger and medium sized kangaroo rats drum
their feet in order to chase away competing males. Females pre-
fer to mate with males they know, but will mate with strangers
if necessary. Males will mate with any females. Breeding occurs
only when enough moisture is available for nursing females to
provide milk to young. Females produce several litters, group
of young animals born at same time from the same mother,
each year, but the number depends on environmental condi-
tions. Litter sizes range from one to nine, but average three to
four in most species. They live ten years or longer.
POCKET MICE, KANGAROO RATS, KANGAROO MICE,

AND PEOPLE
Kangaroo rats are considered keystone species because their
burrows provide habitat for a variety of plants and animals. A
keystone species is a species that is important in maintaining
the biodiversity, the variety of different animals and plants, of
an area.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species of pocket mice, kangaroo rats, and kangaroo
mice are listed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as
tion in the wild. One species is listed as Endangered, facing a
very high risk of extinction in the wild, and one species is Vul-
nerable, facing a high risk of extinction. The IUCN also lists
nine species as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but
could become so. Many species are threatened with excessive
destruction and fragmentation, breaking up, of habitat and the
loss of plant life.

San Joaquin pocket mouse (Perognathus inornatus)
SPECIES
SAN JOAQUIN POCKET MOUSE ACCOUNTS
Perognathus inornatus
Physical characteristics: San Joaquin (san-wah-KEEN) pocket

mice are small sand-colored mice with soft coats, sparse darker back
hairs, and yellowish undersides. They do not have spiny hairs that
are often found on other pocket mice species. A line separates the
lighter belly hairs from the darker back hairs. San Joaquin pocket
mice have short ears that sometimes have a base patch of lighter hair.
Their hind feet have hair on the soles and their long tails are covered
with hair with a small hair tuft on tip. They have external fur-lined
cheek patches that are used for storing and transporting food. Adults
are 5.0 to 6.3 inches (13 to 16 centimeters) long and weigh between
0.22 and 0.39 ounces (7 and 12 grams).
Geographic range: They are found in west-central California.

Habitat: San Joaquin pocket mice inhabit arid
grasslands, deserts, and scrublands, especially
areas with fine soils.
Diet: Their diet consists of seeds of grasses,

shrubs, and forbs, broad-leaved herbaceous plants
that grow in prairies and meadows. San Joaquin
pocket mice forage, search for food, within shrub
branches. They also eat soft-bodied insects such as
cutworms and grasshoppers, and rarely drink
water, getting almost all moisture through their food.
Behavior and reproduction: San Joaquin pocket

mice do not travel far to forage, and stay away from
open areas. They bathe by rubbing their sides and
ventrum, external opening by which wastes pass in
San Joaquin pocket mice not only
primitive mammals, in the sand. Their breeding season is from March
eat seeds, but help to scatter to July. Females have at least two litters of four to six babies per litter.
them, which helps to maintain a
healthy environment. (Illustration San Joaquin pocket mice and people: San Joaquin pocket mice
by Michelle Meneghini.
help to scatter seeds, which helps to maintain a healthy environment
where it lives.
Conservation status: San Joaquin pocket mice are listed by the

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a species of special concern. Two
subspecies, populations of a species in a specific area, are listed as
Near Threatened. ■

Giant kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ingens)
GIANT KANGAROO RAT

Dipodomys ingens
Physical characteristics: Giant kangaroo rats are the largest mem-

bers of heteromyids. They have long and powerful hind limbs that are
used for hopping, and small and relatively weak front limbs that are
used for digging. These animals have very long tails that are used for
balance. Their dark tail has white lines along either side. They have
large eyes, small rounded ears, and a somewhat rounded body. Their
coat is sandy-colored with a white underside and a white stripe across
the hindquarters. Adults are 12.3 to 13.7 inches (31 to 35 centime-
ters) long and weigh between 3.0 and 6.3 ounces (93 and 195 grams).
Geographic range: Giant kangaroo rats are found in San Joaquin

Valley, California.
Habitat: They inhabit arid grasslands that contain sandy soils and
are sparsely populated by desert shrubs.

Diet: Their diet consists of seeds, which are first
stored in burrows. Sometimes seed heads are
cured, preserved, in surface caches. They also eat
insects and other vegetation.
Behavior and reproduction: Giant kangaroo rats

are nocturnal animals, hiding in their burrows
during the hottest parts of the day. Burrows are
usually shallow tunnels that contain larger cham-
bers, one that acts as a nest and the others used to
store food. They are usually found alone, and move
by hopping on their back legs. Their back, hind,
legs let them jump over 6 feet (2 meters) when es-
caping predators. Their front limbs are smaller and
used only for digging. They defend their territory,
but live peacefully with their close neighbors.
Both sexes drum their hind feet in order to
Giant kangaroo rats use their tell visitors to stay away, or to tell other giant kangaroo rats that
strong hind limbs to hop around. predators, such as snakes and kit foxes, are around. Males drum their
They can jump up to 6 feet
(2 meters) to escape from a
feet while competing with other males for the right to mate with a
predator. (© Richard R. mature female. This mating sound may include up to 300 individ-
Hansen/Photo Researchers, Inc. ual thumps that are repeated many times. The breeding season is
Reproduced by permission.) from January to May. Females have more than one breeding cycle
per year, and have an average of three breeding cycles in a breeding
season. The gestation, pregnancy, period is thirty to fifty-five days.
Typically, females are able to breed again three days after giving birth.
Young are able to breed after only two to three weeks of being born.
Giant kangaroo rats and people: Giant kangaroo rats are consid-
ered keystone species.
Conservation status: Giant kangaroo rats are listed by the IUCN as

Critically Endangered. They are also considered endangered by the
California Fish and Game Commission and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Their populations have drastically decreased due to habitat loss
as deserts are converted to agricultural lands. They no longer occupy over
95 percent of their former habitat, but are protected within the
Carrizo Plain Natural Heritage Reserve and a number of federal lands. ■

Books:
Feldhemer, George A., Lee C. Drickamer, Stephen H. Vessey, and Joseph
F. Merritt. Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB
McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Czaplewski. Mam-
malogy, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.
Whitfield, Dr. Philip. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1984.
Wilson, Don E., and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal Species of the
World, 2nd ed. Washington, DC and London: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1993.

BIRCH MICE, JUMPING MICE,
AND JERBOAS
Dipodidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dipodidae
species
class The Dipodidae family includes small to medium-sized
rodents that walk on two or four legs. In general, their back
subclass legs are slightly or much longer than their front legs. They have
order long tails, and the jerboas’ tails often have a distinctive black-
and-white “banner” at the end. These mammals’ fur is either
monotypic order
coarse or soft and colors range from soft brown to brownish
suborder yellow to purplish-brown. The Dipodidae rodents range in
▲ family length from 1.8 to 9 inches (4.5 to 23 centimeters) and weigh
from 0.2 to 15 ounces (6 to 415 grams). The birch mice and
jumping mice walk on four legs and are small, mouselike crea-
tures with long tails and small, narrow heads. Birch mice have
four legs of equal length, while the back legs of jumping mice
are somewhat longer than their front legs. Both birch mice and
jumping mice have short, blunt claws. Jerboas can be small or
medium sized, and jump or walk on their back legs. Unlike the
birch mice and jumping mice, which are mainly nocturnal but
are sometimes active during the day, jerboas are strictly night-
time creatures. They can run very quickly through sparse brush.
Their heads are large, with wide muzzles and flat snouts, and
they have large eyes for better nighttime vision. Jerboas have
compact, short bodies with short front legs and long, strong
back legs. They can have either long or short claws and three,
four, or five toes. All members of the Dipodidae family are
remarkable for their jumping ability—probably an adaptation
for evading predators in open country. Many of the mammals
can cover 10 feet (3 meters) in a single jump, using their long
tails to balance. In most species, the three central bones of the

foot are fused, creating a single bone that provides major
strength and support.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The Dipodidae family is widespread throughout the world,
and its species are present in North America, northern Africa,
the Arabian Peninsula, Europe, and Asia, where they are
believed to have originated.
HABITAT
Birch mice, jumping mice, and jerboas occupy a wide range
of habitats around the world. Birch mice are most often found
in thickets, forests, fields, moors, and steppes. Jumping mice
tend to live in woodlands, grasslands, and alpine meadows,
where they concentrate in the thick growth near streams, rivers,
and marshes. Jerboas are adapted to desert environments and
occupy moving sands, rocky plateaus, dry mountainsides, and
even clay depressions. Many of the species will live in only very
specific places, while others are less selective.
DIET
Birch mice and jumping mice eat berries, fungus, nuts, fruits,
and insects. Jerboas are omnivores, and eat insects, fruits, seeds,
bulbs, plant parts, and even other jerboas.

Birch mice are able to mate after their first hibernation, and
usually have one litter per year containing three to eleven pups.
Their gestation period is two to five weeks, and parents care for
the young for one month, which is quite long by rodent
standards. In jumping mice, which (with a few exceptions) are
also ready to mate after hibernation, mating pairs sometimes
produce two or three litters. The gestation period is seventeen
to twenty-three days and the litter size is usually two to nine
pups. Among jerboas, some species breed only once a year dur-
ing the spring and summer and produce litters of two to nine
pups. Others breed in the spring and fall and can produce up
to three litters a year, although their litter size is smaller (one
to eight pups). In the majority of jerboa species, pups stay in
the burrow for five to six weeks before emerging, probably be-
cause it takes extra time for them to develop the coordination
required for bipedal movement.
Birch Mice, Jumping Mice, and Jerboas 1045

Birch mice and jumping mice, while
quadrupeds (animals that move about on all
fours), also hop and use their tails to hang
onto twigs and grasses. Jumping mice can
hop up to 6 feet (1.8 meters) long and
3.3 feet (1 meter) high. Both types of mice
SANDSHOES FOR THE JERBOA are strong swimmers as well, and hop
straight up when startled. Jerboas move on
Jerboas have evolved tufts of coarse,
their hind feet exclusively and are very fast
bristly hair under the soles and toes of the
runners. The five-toed jerboa, for instance,
hind feet. These act like snowshoes,
can maintain speeds of 25 miles per hour (40
keeping the animals from sinking into or
kilometers per hour).
slipping on loose sand. The tufts also help
jerboas to kick sand backward while Jumping mice and birch mice seldom dig,
digging, preventing it from sliding back into finding shelter under logs, in other animals’
their burrows. abandoned burrows, among roots, or under
boards. Jerboas, on the other hand, typically
dig and live in complex burrows with mul-
tiple chambers that they plug during the day to seal out heat
and keep in moisture. Sometimes they have different burrows
for daytime shelter and for nighttime escape from predators.
Most members of the Dipodidae family hibernate, but for how
long and when varies widely based on geography and species.
Birch mice hibernate for six or seven months of the year, and
can lose up to half of their body weight. Species that breed in
the spring and fall hibernate for shorter periods, while those that
live in tropical regions experience only a few days of lethargy.
Species of this family are typically solitary and every indi-
vidual has its own burrow for sleeping and hibernating. In gen-
eral, these mammals seem tolerant of other individuals’
presence, although females are reportedly more aggressive in
defending their areas. Neighboring birch mice and jumping
mice species even share shelter burrows, but jerboas actively
avoid contact with other jerboas in overlapping areas. This is
problematic in places where the abundance of jerboas results
in population densities of forty to fifty individuals per 2.5 acres
(1 hectare). Some jerboas mark their territories by rolling in
sand, while others rub their genital areas on the ground.
None of the species in this family store food. Many of them,
however, have specialized ways of finding prey, such as highly
developed inner ears that help them hear tiny vibrations in the
earth and powerful hind legs that allow them to jump extremely
quickly into the air to catch passing insects.

BIRCH MICE, JUMPING MICE, JERBOAS, AND PEOPLE
While the Dipodidae family plays an important role in
numerous ecosystems, they have very little interaction with or
significance to humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species, the Armenian birch mouse and the Iranian
jerboa, are listed as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction, dying out, by the IUCN. Three other
species are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction;
three are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and nine
are considered Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but
could become so.

Hairy-footed jerboa (Dipus sagitta)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT HAIRY-FOOTED JERBOA
Dipus sagitta
Physical characteristics: Also known as the feather-footed jerboa,

rough-legged jerboa, and northern three-toed jerboa, the hairy-footed
jerboa was first discovered in 1773. Its body ranges in length from
4.5 to 6 inches (11.5 to 14.5 centimeters), while its tail is typically 7
to 7.1 inches (17.5 to 18 centimeters) long. These mammals weigh
between 2.4 and 4 ounces (69 to 104 grams). Underparts are white,
and upperparts change from orangey and black in the winter to pale,
sandy buff color in summer.
Geographic range: A resident of the Middle East, Asia, and Europe,

the hairy-footed jerboa occupies ten isolated, large areas and several
smaller fragments of habitat in the northern Iranian sand deserts,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, southwestern Kazakhstan, Mongolia,
China, and eastern Russia.
Habitat: At the northern extreme of its range, the hairy-footed jer-

boa lives in sparsely vegetated areas of pine forests, but in general this
mammal occupies sandy expanses of steppes, deserts, and semi-deserts.

In central Asia, this jerboa also lives in places with hard rocky or gravel- The hairy-footed jerboa eats
strewn surfaces. mainly desert plants and seeds,
but also occasionally eats
insects. (Illustration by Patricia
Diet: While the hairy-footed jerboa subsists mainly on desert plant Ferrer. Reproduced by
greens and seeds, it occasionally preys on insects as well. permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Hairy-footed jerboas mate with more

than one individual during the breeding season in spring. Female
bear two or three litters per season, in spring and fall. The spring-
born animals can mate at two-and-a-half to three months, and usu-
ally participate in the fall mating. Pregnancy lasts thirty-five days,
and the number of young varies from one to eight. In springtime,
female adults are usually still nursing their fall litter when they mate
again.
Hairy-footed jerboas are solitary creatures, although they will-
ingly tolerate overlapping home ranges. The vast majority of their
contacts in nature (versus those in captivity) are non-aggressive.
When captive, males and females form pairs and sleep together in
a single nest.
Hairy-footed jerboas and people: There are no records of signifi-

cant interactions between this species and humans.
Conservation status: The hairy-footed jerboa is common in all of

its habitats, with the exception of one subspecies, which is listed as
Vulnerable because of the expansion of steppes through areas of open
sand dunes in southeastern Russia. ■

Books:
Boitani, Luigi. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Mammals. New York: Fire-
side Books, 1990.
Corbet, G. B., and J. E. Hill. A World List of Mammalian Species. Oxford,
Nowak, Ronald M. “Birch Mice and Jumping Mice.” Walker’s Mammals
of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
world/rodentia/rodentia.zapodidae.html (accessed on June 13, 2004).
Nowak, Ronald M. “Jerboas.” Walker’s Mammals of the World Online
5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://www.press.
jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/rodentia.
dipodidae.html (accessed on June 13, 2004).
Simon, Noel. Nature in Danger: Threatened Habitats and Species.
Web sites:
“Family Dipodidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dipodidae.html (accessed June 24,
2004).

RATS, MICE, AND RELATIVES
Muridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Muridae
Number of species: More than
1,326 species
Rats, mice, and relatives, sometimes called murids (MYOO- class
rids; members of the family Muridae), are divided into seventeen
subclass
subfamilies, including voles and lemmings, hamsters, Old World
rats and mice, South American rats and mice, and many others. order
As a result of the large number of species, there is much monotypic order
variation in the physical characteristics of murids.
suborder
Voles and lemmings are small rodents with a broad, rounded
head; small eyes and ears; thick, cylindrical body; and short legs ▲ family
and tail. Most species’ fur is some shade of brown with paler
underparts. Lemmings look a lot like voles, but most species are
stockier, with heavier bodies and shorter tails. Adults are 3.5 to
24.5 inches (8.5 to 62 centimeters) long and weigh between
0.5 ounces and 4 pounds (15 grams to 1.8 kilograms).
Hamsters are mouse-like Old World rodents with large cheek
pouches used to carry food; stout body; short legs; wide,
(sometimes) furry feet; and short, furry tails. They have front
paws with four digits and a short thumb, and hind feet with five
digits. Their soft, thick fur varies in color (depending on the
species) from gray to reddish brown, and their underparts can
be white, gray, or black. They have excellent senses of hearing
and smell, but poor eyesight (even though they have large, round
eyes). Adults are 2 to 13.4 inches (5 to 34 centimeters) long and
weigh between 0.9 and 31.7 ounces (25 to 900 grams).
Old World rats and mice have long tails (sometimes longer
than the body) that are either furry or scaly; strong feet; long
hind feet; and opposable digits on their front feet. Adults have
Rats, Mice, and Relatives 1051

a length of 1.9 to 14.7 inches (5 to 36 centimeters) and a weight
of 0.2 to 52.9 ounces (5 grams to 1.5 kilograms).
South American rats and mice are small- to medium-sized
rodents with brownish or blackish upper coats; very small or
no external ears; grayish or whitish underparts; thinly haired
tails that sometimes have a penciled tip; and relatively small
feet. They have a head and body length of 2.4 to 11.4 inches
(6.1 to 29.0 centimeters); tail length of 1 to 6.3 inches (3 to
16 centimeters); and weight of 0.4 to 18 ounces (12 to 510 grams).
All other rats, mice, and relatives vary widely in physical
characteristics. Most species are small, usually with somewhat
long tails and brownish fur.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Rats, mice, and relatives are found throughout the world
except for the extreme polar regions of Earth.
HABITAT
Rats, mice, and relatives live in many different habitats in-
cluding open flatlands, savannas (flat grasslands), grasslands,
prairies, steppes (treeless plains that are often somewhat dry and
grass-covered), woodlands, forests, deserts, scrublands, foothills,
jungles, rainforests, wetlands, cultivated lands and fields, and
along waterways and water bodies. They are found from dry tem-
perate (mild) climates to wet tropical environments.
DIET
Most species of rats, mice, and relatives eat at least a few of
the following foods: grasses, seeds, grains, root vegetables such
as bulbs and tubers, green plant parts, conifer needles, nuts,
berries, fruits, insects and insect larvae (LAR-vee), fish, lizards,
frogs, baby birds, crabs, tadpoles, salamanders, fungus, lichens,
mosses, other small vertebrates (animals with a backbone) and
invertebrates (animals without a backbone), and carrion (de-
caying animals).

Rats, mice, and relatives are active during the day, at night,
or both night and day (depending on the species). For their size,
they can be very aggressive to predators and even to other mem-
bers of their species. The rodents can be vocal, with various
communicative sounds such as chattering, screaming, and

whistling. They set up territories and defend them vigorously.
Murids are sometimes found alone, but often are social, and are
found traveling and sleeping together. They use nests for shel-
ter and to raise their young. Some species breed throughout the
year but others only during certain seasons. Murid rodents
generally have high reproduction rates (lots of offspring) and
large populations. Litters (groups of young born at the same
time from the same mother) have one to seventeen offspring.
Young are born blind and naked, although they develop fast,
are weaned (stop drinking their mother’s milk) quickly, and are
able to reproduce within weeks or months.
RATS, MICE, RELATIVES, AND PEOPLE

Rats, mice, and relatives are generally considered pests in
agricultural and forested lands. Large species are often trapped
for their fur. Some species carry diseases that can sicken and
kill people. Rats, mice, and relatives are frequently used as lab-
oratory research animals. Some, such as hamsters and gerbils,
are kept as pets. They are often important in maintaining a
healthy ecosystem in their natural habitats.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Almost 450 species of murids are listed on the World Con-
servation Union’s (IUCN) Red List. Of these, twenty-one are
Extinct, died out; fifty are Critically Endangered, facing an
extremely high risk of extinction in the wild; seventy-four are
Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild; and
110 are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS MUSKRAT
Ondatra zibethicus
Physical characteristics: The muskrat has dark brown upperparts

and light grayish brown underparts. Adult head and body length
is 15.5 to 24.5 inches (40 to 62 centimeters) and weight is 1.1 to
4 pounds (0.55 to 1.82 kilograms).
Geographic range: They range in the western part of North America,

and have also been introduced into Europe, Asia, and South America.
Habitat: Muskrats are found around water, specially rivers, lakes,

marshes, and lagoons.
Diet: They eat aquatic plants, invertebrates, and small vertebrates.
Behavior and reproduction: Muskrats either dig burrows in earthen

banks or build large floating lodges of vegetation. They sometimes

live in families of several generations. Females have a gestation, preg- Muskrats are typically found near
nancy, period of twenty-five to thirty days, and then have a litter of water, and eat aquatic plants
and small animals. (© Alan D.
four to eight young. Five or six litters are possible each year. Carey/The National Audubon
Society Collection/Photo
Muskrats and people: People hunt and raise muskrats for fur. They Researchers, Inc. Reproduced
are often considered pests in some regions. by permission. )
Conservation status: Muskrats are not threatened. ■

Norway lemming (Lemmus lemmus)
NORWAY LEMMING
Lemmus lemmus
Physical characteristics: Norway lemmings have brown to black

fur. Adult head and body length is 3 to 7 inches (8 to 17.5 centime-
ters) and weight is 0.5 to 4.5 ounces (20 to 130 grams).
Geographic range: They are found in Scandinavia (the northern

European region of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, and
the Faroe Islands).
Habitat: These lemmings inhabit open tundra and subarctic bog

areas.
Diet: Their diet consists of mosses, lichens (LIE-kenz), bark, and

some grasses.

Norway lemmings eat mosses,
lichens, bark, and some grasses.
permission.)
Behavior and reproduction: Norway lemmings are mostly noctur-

nal (active at night). They travel long distances in mass migrations,
and are active year-round, remaining mostly beneath snow cover. The
gestation period is about sixteen days, with a litter of up to thirteen
young and up to six litters produced each year.
Norway lemmings and people: Scandinavian people have made

lemmings a popular animal in their myths and legends.
Conservation status: Norway lemmings are not threatened. ■

Black-bellied hamster (Cricetus cricetus)
BLACK-BELLIED HAMSTER
Cricetus cricetus
Physical characteristics: Black-bellied hamsters have a short hair-

less tail; a thick fur that is reddish brown above with white patches on
the flanks, nose, cheeks, and throat; and black underparts. Males are
larger than females. Adults are 8 to 12 inches (20 to 34 centimeters)
long and weigh between 4.5 and 36.3 ounces (112 to 908 grams).
Geographic range: These hamsters are found in central and east-

ern Europe, from Belgium to the Altai region of Siberia.
Habitat: Black-bellied hamsters live in lowlands such as steppes,

agricultural lands, and along riverbanks.
Diet: Their diet includes grains, beans, roots, green plant parts, in-
sect larvae (especially beetle larvae), frogs, earthworms, and field
mice. They often store cereal grains, seeds, peas, and potatoes in win-
ter burrows.
Behavior and reproduction: Black-bellied hamsters generally live

alone; are active at night; and hibernate in winter. Winter burrows can

extend more than 6 feet (2 meters) below the soil
surface. Older females with young have the most
complex burrows with several entrance tunnels,
numerous chambers for nesting and food storage,
and a dead-end tunnel for waste disposal. Breeding
takes place from June to August. A courting male
enters a female’s territory by marking an area with
his secretions, running after the female, and mak-
ing loud sniffing noises. The female drives away the
male after mating. The gestation period is eighteen
to twenty days, with a litter of four to twelve pups.
Two litters are raised each year. They sometimes
live to the age of eight years old.
Black-bellied hamsters and people: People

hunt black-bellied hamsters for food and trap them
for clothing. They are considered pests when
around cornfields, but do help to control other
pests such as mice and insects. The rodents are also
used as laboratory animals. Black-bellied hamsters often
store cereal grains, seeds, peas,
Conservation status: Black-bellied hamsters are protected under and potatoes in their winter
burrows. (Hans Dieter
European Community Habitats Directive as a threatened species in Brandl/FLPA—Images of Nature.
Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Austria. They are Reproduced by permission.)
also protected in Croatia, Bulgaria, and Slovenia. ■

Egyptian spiny mouse (Acomys cahirinus)
EGYPTIAN SPINY MOUSE

Acomys cahirinus
Physical characteristics: Egyptian spiny mice have large ears; gray-

brown to sandy spiny hairs covering its back; gray to white bellies;
and scaly, hairless tails. Adults have a body length of 2.7 to 6.7 inches
(7 to 17.0 centimeters); tail length of 1.9 to 4.7 inches (5 to 12 cen-
timeters); and weight of 1 to 2.4 ounces (30 to 70 grams).
Geographic range: These mice are distributed through Africa and

the Middle East.
Habitat: Egyptian spiny mice live in arid (dry) and semi-arid envi-
ronments like deserts and savannas, often preferring to be around
rocks. They live in burrows and are sometimes found in trees, but are
considered to be terrestrial, ground-living, animals.

Diet: They eat mostly arthropods, along with
snails, plant materials, grains, and grasses.
Behavior and reproduction: Egyptian spiny

mice are fairly social animals, living in small
groups with a dominant male who fights to main-
tain his control. They are good jumpers, and build
simple nests. The gestation period is five to six
weeks, with a litter of one to five pups. Young are
well developed when born, having thin hair, open
eyes (within a few days), and are able to breed
almost immediately. Females help each other
with the birthing process.
Egyptian spiny mice and people: People keep

Egyptian spiny mice as pets.
Conservation status: Egyptian spiny mice are

not threatened. ■
When threatened, the Egyptian
spiny mouse expands its bristles
to appear larger, hoping to scare
off the intruder. (© E. R.
Degginger/Photo Researchers,

Australian jumping mouse (Notomys alexis)
AUSTRALIAN JUMPING MOUSE

Notomys alexis
Physical characteristics: Australian jumping mice have light sandy

brown to gray upperparts; white to light gray bellies; long tails with fine
fur; large ears; narrow, large hind feet; and sebaceous (secretion) glands
that are used for territorial marking. Adults have a body length of
3.9 to 5.9 inches (10 to 15 centimeters); tail length of 3.5 to 8.2 inches
(9 to 21 centimeters); and weight of 0.7 to 1.7 ounces (20 to 50 grams).
Geographic range: They are found throughout central Australia.
Habitat: They inhabit arid desert environments; living around dunes

and grasslands so that they can easily dig large, complicated burrows.

Diet: Their diet consists of berries and other
vegetation. They can live without water as long as
they receive enough moisture from their food.
Behavior and reproduction: Australian jumping

mice are nocturnal, social creatures. As a group,
they groom, huddle, walk over and crawl under
each other, and sleep together. Their large hind
feet allow them to jump higher than 3.2 feet (1
meter). When angry with another animal, they
rush and leap at it, and punch it with their forelegs.
They generally walk on all four limbs, but when
necessary will leap with their hind legs. The ges-
tation period is about one month. Females pro-
duce a litter with an average of three pups that are
born naked and blind, but open their eyes within
three weeks. They are weaned after five weeks and
ready to reproduce within three months.
Australian jumping mice and people: People

keep these animals as pets.
Conservation status: The Australian jumping mouse is not The Australian jumping mouse’s
threatened. ■ large hind feet allow it to jump
higher than 3.2 feet (1 meter).
by permission.)

Hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus)
HISPID COTTON RAT

Sigmodon hispidus
Physical characteristics: Hispid cotton rats have a gray streaked

coat with blackish or dark brownish hairs; pale to dark grayish un-
derparts; dark tail; and five pairs of nipples, although some have four
or six pairs. Adults have a total length of 8.8 to 14.4 inches (22.4 to
36.5 centimeters); tail length of 3.2 to 6.5 inches (8.1 to 16.6 cen-
timeters); and weight of 3.5 to 8 ounces (100 to 225 grams).
Geographic range: They are found from southeast and south-

central United States through the interior and eastern part of

Hispid cotton rats usually live in
grasslands, which have plenty of
grass, their main food.
Mexico, into Central America, and to northern Colombia and

Venezuela.
Habitat: Hispid cotton rats usually live in grasslands.
Diet: Their diet consists mostly of grasses.
Behavior and reproduction: Hispid cotton rats are active during the
day and night, and are able to swim. They breed throughout the year.
The gestation period is about twenty-seven days. Litter size is from one
to fifteen pups, with northern populations having larger litters. Young
are well developed at birth; eyes open within thirty-six hours of birth;
and are weaned in ten to fifteen days. Males are able to reproduce within
sixty to ninety days, and females within ten to forty days.
Hispid cotton rats and people: Scientists observe hispid cotton rats
to help them determine how environmentally healthy an area is.
Conservation status: The hispid cotton rat is not threatened,

though two subspecies, populations that live in specific areas, are Near
Threatened (likely will be threatened in the future). ■

Gambian rat (Cricetomys gambianus)
GAMBIAN RAT
Cricetomys gambianus
Physical characteristics: Gambian rats are fairly large rodents with

short fur that can range from soft to coarse. Some species are mot-
tled, or splotched, with darker colors or may have an indistinct white
line running across the shoulders. They have large ears; dark rings
around the rather small eyes; a long and narrow head and face; cheek
pouches to collect food and other materials; smooth incisor teeth;
dark or grayish brown upperparts with red tinges; creamy underparts;
and a long, scaly tail that is hairless and completely white for the last
half of the length. They have good senses of smell and hearing, but
have poor eyesight. Adults have a body length of 9.4 to 17.7 inches
(24 to 45 centimeters); tail length of 14.3 to 18.1 inches (36.5 to

46.0 centimeters); male weight of about 6.1 pounds (2.8 kilograms); Female Gambian rats may have
up to ten litters of pups each
and female weight of about 3 pounds (1.4 kilograms).
year, with an average of four
pups per litter. (Illustration by
Geographic range: Gambian rats are found in Africa, specifically Brian Cressman. Reproduced by
from Senegal and Sierra Leone in the west to Sudan and Uganda in permission.)
the east and as far south as Angola, Zambia, and northern South Africa.
Habitat: They inhabit forests, forest edges, thickets, and sometimes

grasslands.
Diet: Their diet consists of insects, fruits (especially palm fruits and
kernels), seeds, roots, nuts, leaves, snails, and crabs.
Behavior and reproduction: Gambian rats are mostly nocturnal al-

though sometimes active during the day. They climb and swim well,
and are usually seen alone. The rodents sometimes dig a simple bur-
row that has long passageways with side chambers for bedding and
storage and is covered by dense vegetation. At other times, they use
burrows of other animals, termite mounds, or natural crevices in rocks
and hollow trees. Breeding occurs throughout the year. Up to ten lit-
ters per year are possible for females. The gestation period is twenty-
seven to thirty-six days, with one to five pups born, although four
pups in a litter is average. Young develop quickly and are able to
breed as early as twenty weeks old.
Gambian rats and people: People buy and sell Gambian rats within
the pet trade. These animals transmit diseases, such as monkeypox,
to humans. Some people hunt them.

Conservation status: Gambian rats are listed as Rare in South
Africa. Otherwise, they range from common to less common in their
other ranges, and are not listed as threatened by the IUCN. ■
Books:
F. Merritt. Mammalogy: Adaption, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston: WCB
McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Whitfield, Philip. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1984.
Wilson, Don E. and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal Species of the
World, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C. and London: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1993.

SCALY-TAILED SQUIRRELS
Anomaluridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Anomaluridae
The scaly-tailed squirrels range in size from 7.3 to 18.5 class
inches (18.5 to 46 centimeters) along their head and bodies,
with tail length measuring between 5.4 and 18.4 inches (13.8 subclass
to 45 centimeters). They generally weigh between 7 ounces and order
4 pounds (200 to 1,800 grams). The family Anomaluridae (from monotypic order
words meaning “strange-tailed”) look very much like regular
squirrels (family Sciuridae) from the outside because they have suborder
adapted to similar environments, but major differences in their ▲ family
skulls, teeth, and other internal items show that they have no
close relationship. Scaly-tailed squirrels, unlike regular tree
squirrels, have a furred “gliding membrane” on each side of
their bodies that stretches in a square shape between the front
legs and the back legs and also between the hind legs and the
tail. Only one genus, the mainly diurnal (active during the day)
Zenkerella, lacks this membrane and cannot glide. The mem-
brane is supported in front by a strut-like, rigid section of
cartilage that extends from the elbow joint, rather than from
the wrist, as in the true flying squirrels. They are the only glid-
ing mammals in Africa. Scaly-tailed squirrels are so named be-
cause of the double rows of overlapping, spiky scales on the
underside of the tails for one-third of its length along the base.
When the animals land after a glide, the scales help to keep
them from skidding on tree trunks, and also help them climb
up trees. Their silky tails are bushy on top and have strongly
colored tufts. They have strong digits for manipulating food
and climbing, and very long whiskers and large ears for their
mainly nocturnal activity. Their heads are large and placed
Scaly-Tailed Squirrels 1069

forward on the face, providing excellent
binocular vision for finding prey and good
landing places.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Scaly-tailed squirrels are native to the
INTESTINAL FORTITUDE middle region of Africa, and live mainly south
Because bark has few nutrients, the of the Sahara Desert in west, central, and east
scaly-tailed squirrels who eat it have very Africa. Countries in which they appear
long intestines so that their bodies have a regularly are Sierra Leone, Kenya, Angola,
longer time to extract nourishment. In fact, Mozambique, Ghana, Liberia, Senegal, Congo,
about half of an adult scaly-tailed squirrel’s Cameroon, Gabon, the Central African
body weight and mass is made up of its Republic, and Ivory Coast.
intestines. To compensate for this heavy
HABITAT
load, the animals’ skeletons are extremely
light so that they can still glide effectively. Scaly-tailed squirrels prefer the open
woodlands of east, central, and west Africa
and the rainforests of west and central Africa.
DIET
Larger scaly-tailed squirrels eat bark and twigs from more
than a dozen species of tree, but their favorites are miombo,
velvet tamarind, ironwood, owala oil, and awoura. They occa-
sionally also eat insects and gum (tree sap). The smaller squir-
rels eat almost nothing besides gum and insects.

Because of the remoteness of their habitats and the animals’
secretive nature, scientists know relatively little about the anom-
alurids, members of the Anomaluridae family. However, it has
been observed that the scaly-tailed squirrels clear out small
branches that obstruct their habitual gliding paths. In doing so,
along with their method of pruning the tops of non-food trees
to keep them from crowding out their favorite food trees, the
squirrels perform important functions in their ecosystems. They
dislike coming to the ground, and when forced to do so move
in a clumsy, kangaroo-like fashion to the nearest tree. Their glid-
ing membranes fold away neatly when not in use, and do not
prevent the squirrels from quickly scurrying along tree branches
like their familiar garden-variety counterparts.
Anomalurids compete with hornbill birds for dens, which
they typically make in old, hollowed out trees up to 131 feet

(40 meters) high. They also battle eagles, which sometimes come
in to snatch their young for prey. Females have litters of up to
three pups, which are born with open eyes and thick fur. Their
parents wean them from milk onto solid food by feeding the pups
already chewed food from special cheek pouches. The squirrels
communicate largely by scent, and use large glands in their groins
to mark areas, but observers have heard them making a twitter-
ing noise as well. Field biologists believe that scaly-tailed squir-
rels may reach population densities of 500 individuals per 1.2
square miles (1 square kilometer). They often spend their days
clinging to the side of a tree. The squirrels usually associate in
pairs, but some species have been seen collected into large groups
within a single den.
SCALY-TAILED SQUIRRELS AND PEOPLE

The mammals are sometimes accused of raiding oil palms
for their nuts, but in general they have very little interaction
with humans. Conservationists have worked to limit or stop
the harvesting of the squirrels’ food trees, many of which are
valuable sources of high-quality commercial lumber.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Despite logging of their food trees and a general decline in
habitat quality and quantity, scaly-tailed squirrel species are not
considered threatened.

Lord Derby’s anomalure (Anomalurus derbianus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LORD DERBY’S ANOMALURE
Anomalurus derbianus
Physical characteristics: Although Lord Derby’s anomalure’s ap-

pearance varies across its range, this species is generally grey to a rich
reddish brown with silver throughout. All of the 16 subspecies share
the same facial pattern, however, of white cheeks, forehead, and snout
with a black band over the nose, around the eyes, and on the back of
the head. The fur on their heads is dense and soft, and the silky fur
on their bodies can be up to 1 inch (25 millimeters) long. They also
all have six pairs of scales underneath their tails. Their tails are shorter
than their bodies, the last half being black. Lord Derby’s anomalure
has furless, pink ears.
Geographic range: This species is widely distributed in an area

across central Africa, from Sierra Leone in the west to Kenya in the

Lord Derby’s anomalures
supplement their diet of tree
bark with insects, tree sap, nuts,
fruits, and flowers. (Illustration
by Barbara Duperron.
east, and, less commonly, from Angola in the north to Mozambique

in the south.
Habitat: This anomalure favors habitat in moist rainforests and sea-

sonally dry woodlands from sea level to 7,875 feet (2,400 meters), al-
though they are particularly attracted to areas that contain their
favorite food trees. With regard to shelter, any tree will do for roost-
ing as long as it is hollow in places. Roosting holes have been ob-
served at both the tops and bottoms of trees, with entryways just large
enough for anomalures to fit through. The dens are constructed so
that temperature and humidity remain fairly consistent.
Diet: Like most of the larger anomalurids, Lord Derby’s anomalure

eats the bark of such trees as the miombo, velvet tamarind, ironwood,
owala oil, and awoura, preferring the thickest portions of the main
truck and large branches. The animals forage among several different
trees, taking a thin strip from a tree one night and returning to take
another strip during the next night’s feeding, stopping when the re-
moval site reaches about 6 inches (15 centimeters) wide to prevent
permanent damage to the tree. Lord Derby’s usually start a feeding
site at natural wounds in a tree’s bark caused by growth splits,
elephant damage, or falling branches. Interestingly, the trees and this
species have evolved together for so long that unlike most other
trees, the rodents’ food tree species can grow replacement bark.

The anomalures supplement their nutrient-poor bark diet with in-
sects, tree sap, nuts, fruits, and flowers.
Behavior and reproduction: Although biologists have yet to study

the social aspects of Lord Derby’s anomalure behavior, they do know
that the animals tend to share dens, and may crowd up to eight in-
dividuals into one roosting hole. They are mainly active at night, but
seem to enjoy lying in the sun in the early morning and late after-
noon. Using their gliding membrane to move across longer distances,
they perform a final abrupt upturn to cause their flight to stall and
allowing them to land safely. Biologists have measured the glide dis-
tances of Lord Derby’s anomalure females at 1,770 feet (540 meters),
but most are under 328 feet (100 meters). Males typically achieve
even greater gliding distances and move through more territory. The
Lord Derby’s are fairly quiet animals, with vocalizations that include
a variety of twitters and purrs along with growling and hissing when
threatened or disturbed.
For Lord Derby’s anomalures living in the rain forest, breeding oc-
curs year round. For residents of the dry forests, breeding occurs sea-
sonally. Pregnant females often move to a special nursery den, where
they give birth to an unknown number of pups. Although the young
are large, well formed, and able to move in a coordinated fashion soon
after birth, they stay with the female parent until they are almost fully
mature. After weaning, they receive chewed-up food from both par-
ents. Observers have noted that mothers and pups will often glide
among trees and chase each other playfully.
Lord Derby’s anomalures and people: Although biologists have

long sought to learn more about this secretive and easily frightened
species, there are no records of any significant interactions between
Lord Derby’s anomalure and humans.
Conservation status: Despite their specialized diet and habitat re-

quirements, Lord Derby’s anomalure is not threatened. However, in
Ghana, their population is on a conservation watch list due to habi-
tat destruction and degradation. ■
Books:
Kingdon, J. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1997.

Nowak, Ronald M. “Family Anomaluridae: Scaly-tailed Squirrels.”
Walker’s Mammals of the World Online 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1997. http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_
mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/ (accessed on June 14, 2004).
Wilson, D. E., and D. M. Reader, eds. Mammal Species of the World: A
Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Smith-
sonian Institution Press, 1992.
Periodicals:
Dawson, M. R., et al. “Rodents of the Family Anomaluridae (Mammalia)
from Southeast Asia.” Annals of Carnegie Museum 72, no. 3 (2003):
203–213.
Julliot, C., et al. “Anomalures (Rodentia, Anomaluridae) in Central Gabon:
Species Composition, Population Densities and Ecology.” Mammalia 59
(1995): 441–443.
Web sites:
Fact Index. “Anomaluridae.” http://www.fact-index.com (accessed on
June 14, 2004).

SPRINGHARE
Pedetidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Pedetidae
One species: Springhare (Yerbua
capensis)
class Springhares look like very small kangaroos. Their name
actually means “jumping hare” in Afrikaans (one of the official
subclass
languages of the Republic of South Africa). They have a body
order length of 13 to 17 inches (33 to 44 centimeters) when stand-
monotypic order ing upright on their hind legs, a tail length of 14 to 19 inches
(35 to 49 centimeters), and weigh 6 to 9 pounds (2 to 5 kilo-
suborder grams). Springhares have short front legs and long, powerful
▲ family hind legs. Their front legs are one quarter of the length of their
hind legs. Each front leg has five toes with long, sharp, curved
claws that are used for digging. Each hind leg has four toes
with claws that look like hoofs. The second toe from the out-
side is longer than the other toes. The heels, soles of their feet,
and base of their toes do not have any hair covering them.
Springhares have short, blunt heads, big eyes, and long
eyelashes. Their ears are narrow, have thin hairs on the upper
half, are naked on the inside, and are about 3 inches (7 cen-
timeters) long. At times, their ears have the tendency to droop
to their sides. They also have a tragus (TRAY-gus; prominence
in front of the ear’s opening) that folds back and closes the
opening of the ear to keep out sand when digging. Their necks
are thin and muscular.
Long, soft, straight hairs cover springhares’ bodies. Spring-
hares are colored pink-brown to gray on their upper half with
some black or white hairs in the fur. On the lower half, they
are brown-white. This same color also spreads upward in front
of their thighs and on the inside of their legs. Their tails are

mostly tan with a thick, dark brown or black
brush at the tip. The shading of their colors
depends on the area where they live. For ex-
ample, springhares from eastern South Africa
have fur that is paler than those that live in
the western areas of South Africa.
DEFENSE AGAINST PREDATORS
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Springhares have several lines of
Springhares can be found in Angola, defense against predators. The first is early
Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Mozambique, detection, which is aided by their wonderful
Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, senses of sight, sound, and smell. In the
and Zimbabwe. case that these senses do not alert them
enough in advance, the second is their
HABITAT ability to quickly hop away with their
Springhares live in areas that have dry and powerful hind legs. Finally, their third line of
sandy soil. They also live where there are cat- defense is to viciously bite and kick, making
tle grazing and crop cultivation (areas where use of the sharp claws on their hind feet.
preparation for growing crops is occurring).
They stay away from rocky ground and
areas with a lot of trees, and live in grassland
areas.
Springhares build burrows (also known as warrens) for shel-
ter and protection in the grasslands. They will oftentimes build
more than one warren, and they can be up to 32 inches (82 cen-
timeters) deep and can cover up to 1,200 square feet (112 square
meters). The burrows are usually created near the largest tree or
a clump of bushes within their living area. When digging these
burrows, they fold their ears back and seal their nose, so sand
does not disturb them. It is easiest for the springhares to dig these
burrows when the soil is wet during the rainy season. Sometimes
during digging, they will stop, turn around, and push the soil they
have collected back with their legs and chest. They then use their
hind legs to kick this soil above the burrow to be redistributed
on the ground. They sometimes cover the entrance of the bur-
row with soil from the inside. Springhares also create tunnels
within their burrows that can be up to 51 yards (46 meters) long.
Springhares also sometimes close down entrances to tunnels
within their burrows by sealing them closed. Their burrows are
formed in a circular shape and have many entry areas. There can
be up to eleven entrances in a burrow. This makes it easier for
springhares to escape if a predator, an animal that hunts it for
food, gains access into their burrow.
Springhare 1077
Springhare (Yerbua capensis)
DIET
Springhares mostly eat grass stems, bulbs, and fleshy roots.
When they live in crop-cultivated areas, they will eat corn,
peanuts, barley, oats, and wheat. Sometimes, they eat plant
stems. This can be seen especially in grazed areas where they
eat the lower stems or roots after other animals have already
eaten the upper grass layers. When they have a very difficult
time finding food, they will eat beetles, locusts, or other insects.
When springhares eat, they sit up and use their tails as support.
They like to eat in darkness, so they do not usually stay out and
feed when there is a full moon.

When springhares sleep, they sit on their hind legs, with
their front feet and head in between their thighs and their tail
placed around their head and body. They sleep during the day,
because they are nocturnal (active at night), although they can

The springhare uses its powerful
hind legs to jump quickly, and
may also use its hind legs to fight
an attacking animal. (© Gregory
G. Dimijian/Photo Researchers,
occasionally be seen during the day. Their large eyes are signs
that they are active during nighttime.
Springhares live alone or with another adult and young. They
are not known for creating social units and usually do not com-
municate, with the exception of occasional low grunts. They can
get along with one another in captivity, but aggression can also
occur. When in the wild, they can also make male-female pairs.
Birds of prey, large carnivores, and humans are the main preda-
tors of springhares. Sometimes, when springhares first come out
of their burrows at the beginning of the night, they leap into the
air to try to scare off any predators that may be waiting for them.
They cannot fight very well, but if they are very close to a preda-
tor, in an enclosed area, they will bite and kick fiercely with their
hind feet, which have very sharp claws. However, it is more typ-
ical that they hop away from predators using their hind legs and
head toward their burrow. Their great senses of sound, smell, and
sight help them to stay away from predators. They also help them
to notify other springhares of predators.
Springhares can be born at any time of the year. Females give
birth in bare areas of their burrows, usually having only one off-
spring at a time, but twins do occur in rare cases. The average
female springhare will have one young three times per year. At
Springhare 1079
birth, springhares weigh around 9 to 11 ounces (256 to 312
grams). When they are seven weeks old, the young leave their
mothers. They eat a lot of grasses at this point. They are then
finished growing and go off to make their own burrows.
Springhares stand on their hind feet when in an upright pos-
ture and can travel using all four feet when they are eating or
moving from place to place. When they jump, their tail be-
comes horizontal or curled upward. They can jump around 6
to 9 feet (1 to 3 meters) high and can also swerve sharply when
they’re chased by humans or other predators.
SPRINGHARES AND PEOPLE
Humans hunt springhares in areas where they cause damage
to crops. The springhares cause problems by destroying seed
and root systems in these areas. They can also be hunted as a
source of food to humans, especially in South Africa. People
may also kill them for their fur. One method they use to cap-
ture springhares, whether for fur or food, is to flood their bur-
rows with water, so that the springhares must come out, and
can be more easily captured. Another method is to chase them
by foot, but it can be difficult to grab hold of them. Springhares
may also be dangerous to humans since they can transmit dis-
eases like the bubonic plague, rickettsiasis, babesiasis, theile-
riosis, and toxicosis paralysis through parasites they may carry.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists springhares as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. This is
due to the fact that their population is decreasing from poor
habitat quality and hunting by humans.

Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, 1996.
Gould, Dr. Edwin, and Dr. George McKay, eds. Encyclopedia of Mam-
mals, 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Springhare, or Springhaas.” In Walker’s Mammals of
the World,6th ed. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
Jackson, A. “Pedetes capensis.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animal-
diversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pedetes_capensis.
html (accessed on May 21, 2004).

GUNDIS
Ctenodactylidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Ctenodactylidae
Gundis are small rodents with soft, thick, and silky fur. Their class
fur helps to insulate their bodies from harm due to extreme sun
subclass
exposure. They have large, blunt heads, flat skulls, and short,
round ears. Their very round, large eyes help them to adjust order
quickly to bright sunlight when they come out of their rock monotypic order
shelters. They have a fringe of hair around the inner margin of
their ears that protects the ears from sand that can be easily suborder
blown by the wind. Gundis have long vibrissae (stiff hairs that ▲ family
can be found near the nostrils or other parts of the face in many
mammals). They also have short legs and short, furry tails. Their
back feet are longer than their front feet, each foot having four
digits (fingers or toes). On the hind feet, the two inner digits
have stiff bristles that serve as a comb for the gundis’ fur. The
digits also have small, very sharp claws. Gundis have flexible
ribcages, which help them squeeze into small spaces.
The color of gundis is anywhere from gray to yellow-red, the
underparts usually having a whitish color. The rocks that they
live among determine their overall color, because blending into
their surroundings serves as protection. Overall, they have the
appearance of guinea pigs. Their head and body length is 6
to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters). Their tail length is 0.3 to
2 inches (1 to 6 centimeters), and they can weight up to 6
ounces (171 grams), and the females are larger than the males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Gundis can be found in northern Africa.
Gundis 1081
HABITAT
Gundis live in rocky hills, cliffs, and mountains in deserts,
sub-deserts, or on the edges of deserts. The rocks that make up
their habitat can be of any age, but they cannot be extremely
large. Gundis may even be found housed in building sites.
Within these living areas, gundis find fissures (long, deep, and
narrow openings or cracks), crevices, and caves to use for
permanent or temporary shelter. They find ledges, flat rocks,
and boulder tops to use for sunbathing. They prefer to live in
areas where they can get exposure to the morning, as well as
the evening sun. Gundis do not have adaptations for water con-
servation or temperature control, so they take advantage of the
shade and wind in the areas where they live. This helps them
to cool off during hot afternoons in the desert.
DIET
Gundis are herbivores (plant-eating animals) and mainly eat
leaves, stalks, flowers, and plant seeds. They cannot gnaw well,
so they mainly eat these softer foods. Food is usually somewhat
difficult to find in their habitat, so they have to travel far to
find it. Gundis do not store food or reserve fat in their bodies,
so their search for nourishment is never-ending. They usually
will take food back to their shelter so that they can safely eat.

Gundis are diurnal (mainly active during daytime). They can
run quickly when necessary, but they are usually slow, and also
shy. When they move, their bodies are very close to the ground;
their bellies almost touch the ground. They have rough friction
pads on their feet that help them climb rocks and surfaces that
are almost vertical. They come out of their shelters during the
first light of the day, and they are active for up to five hours
after this point. When the hottest part of the day arrives, they
rest. Then, for the two to four hours before dusk, they become
active again. However, they may not come out of their shelters
when it is cold, wet, or windy. It can become very dangerous
for gundis when it rains, because the water causes their fur to
stick together and expose their skin, which makes them very
cold very quickly. In order to retain heat in the winter, they
pile on top of one another in their shelters. Their lives basi-
cally consist of foraging (wandering in search of food),
sunbathing, playing, chasing, and exploring.

Gundis live in colonies, or groups. These colonies have dif-
ferent densities that are related to the food supply and terrain
of the region being inhabited. Shelters of the gundis serve the
purpose of keeping the heat from the day in the shelter during
cold nights as well as staying cool during the day when the
weather is hot. Gundis also have communal dunghills.
When gundis encounter predators, animals that hunt them
for food, they become immobile, in order to make the preda-
tors believe that they are dead. They may also go under rocks
in order to escape from predators. When they are excited or
alarmed, they thump their feet against the ground. Their preda-
tors include snakes, lizards, foxes, jackals, and cats.
When female gundis give birth, there are usually one to three
young in a litter. Female gundis typically only have one litter
per year. Young are born with all their fur as well as their eyes
open and feed on chewed leaves.
GUNDIS AND PEOPLE

Gundis are hunted as food by some North African tribes.
They could possibly be harmful to crops and gardens, if there
were any near their living areas.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The felou gundi is the only species that is listed as Vulner-
able, facing a high risk of extinction, by the World Conserva-
tion Union (IUCN), due to a decrease in its range and habitat.
The other species are not globally threatened, although they
could be threatened locally by human disturbances.
Gundis 1083
Mzab gundi (Massoutiera mzabi)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT MZAB GUNDI
Massoutiera mzabi
Physical characteristics: Mzab gundis are yellow or brown in color

with flat, round ears that are flattened against their heads and do not
move. They have powerful limbs and bushy tails. They have rough,
friction pads on their feet that help them climb rocks and almost ver-
tical surfaces. These pads can also stand extreme heat. Bristles above
their claws help them when they dig through sand and also when
grooming themselves. They have long, thick fur to keep them warm
during cold winters. The females weigh more than the males, adult
males weighing around 6 ounces (171 grams), and adult females
weighing around 6.7 ounces (190 grams). Their length, which in-
cludes their head and body, is 6 to 10 inches (15 to 26 centimeters).
Their tail is about 1.4 inches (3.6 centimeters) long.

Geographic range: Mzab gundis live in the
central Sahara Desert in Algeria, northern Niger,
northwestern Chad, northeastern Mali, and
southwestern Libya.
Habitat: Mzab gundis can be found in rock out-

crops in mountainous areas above the Sahara
Desert. They live in rock crevices and have many
temporary shelters that they use.
Diet: Mzab gundis eat leaves, stems, flowers,

and seeds. They sometimes drink water, but they also obtain it just
Mzab gundis are active for most
from eating plants. of the day. When it is very hot,
they rest in the shade, and if it
Behavior and reproduction: Mzab gundis sleep during the night is cold and wet, they stay inside
and forage in the early morning. They are active for most of the day, their burrows. (Illustration by
Bruce Worden. Reproduced by
with the exception of when it becomes very hot, which is when they permission.)
seek out shade. Their main activities are grooming and sunbathing.
When they are grooming, a hind leg strokes the body while their other
legs provide balance. They do not come out of their shelters when it
is cold or wet. They communicate with chirps, but not very often.
Even though males of the same and different groups can show ag-
gressive behavior toward one another, Mzab gundis live in family
groups that form close ties to one another. This can be seen espe-
cially in the fact that females will help out one another during preg-
nancy and when they are giving birth.
Young are usually born anywhere from March to June. Within an
hour of their birth, young are roaming and sunbathing. They weigh
around 0.7 ounces (20 grams) and have an adult weight within three
months of being born.
If approached by a predator, Mzab gundis lie motionless on their
side with their legs stretched out, their mouth half open, and their
eyes wide open, so they look like they are dead. They will take flight
after about two to three minutes of staying in this position.
Mzab gundis and people: Mzab gundis do not typically interact

with people.
Conservation status: Mzab gundis are not globally threatened. ■
Books:
Gundis 1085
Delany, M.J. “Rodents.” In Reader’s Digest Encyclopedia of Animals,
edited by Dr. Harold G. Cogger, et al. Sydney, Australia: Weldon Own Pty
Limited, 1993.
Gould, Dr. Edwin, and McKay, Dr. George, eds. Encyclopedia of Mam-
mals, 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Gundis.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Ctenodactylidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animal-
diversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ctenodactyli-
dae.html (accessed on May 22, 2004).

DORMICE
Myoxidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Myoxidae
Dormice look a lot like squirrels or chipmunks. Their fur is class
thick and soft and most species have long, bushy tails. Their
tails help them to balance. Species are different sizes, but their subclass
average head and body length falls into the range of 1.6 to order
8 inches (4.1 to 20.3 centimeters), their tail length ranges from monotypic order
1.5 to 6.5 inches (3.8 to 16.5 centimeters), and they weigh from
0.5 to 7 ounces (15 to 200 grams). They are nocturnal, active suborder
at night, so they have large eyes and sensitive vibrissae, stiff ▲ family
hairs that can be found near the nostrils or other parts of the
face in many mammals. They can also hear very well. These
traits help them to function at night. Dormice also live in trees,
so they have pads on the soles of their feet and strong, short
curved claws on their four front toes and five hind toes so that
they can grab onto the trees. Both their legs and toes are short.
They can also hang upside down from branches by turning their
hind feet backwards and grabbing onto the branches.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dormice are found in Europe, Africa, central and western
Asia, and Japan.
HABITAT
Dormice can be found in deciduous forests, woodlands,
grasslands, gardens, parks, rocky areas, or scrub areas. Within
these areas, they create nests where they rest during the day.
These nests are built off of the ground in holes in trees, rocky
crevices, abandoned burrows, building attics, or in wedges of
Dormice 1087
tree branches. The nests are ball-shaped, and are made out of
leaves, grass, moss, lichen, shredded bark, other plant pieces,
and saliva. They are lined with hair or feathers.
DIET
Dormice are omnivores, they eat plants and animals. Most
of the time, they get their food from the trees in which they
live. In the early spring and early summer, they eat buds and
tree flowers. In the summer, they eat insects, small rodents, and
bird eggs. In the late summer and fall, they eat fruit, berries,
seeds, and nuts. They also eat snails and young birds. The spe-
cific type of food that they eat depends on their lifestyles and
living areas, which is different from species to species. They
also eat a lot during the fall in order to build up a layer of body
fat to live on when they hibernate, go into a resting state
during the winter season.
Dormice usually live in small groups where half are younger
dormice. Families hibernate together during winter. Hiberna-
tion occurs for about seven months. During this time period,
their body temperature drops and their breathing and heartbeat
slows down. They curl into a ball, with their tail covering their
mouth so that they lose the least amount of water. They may
wake up during this period in order to eat stored food, but this
does not happen frequently. This extended resting time helps
the dormice survive when there are low temperatures and lit-
tle food to be found. Hibernation ends around April, when the
weather gets warmer. At that time, they eat a lot of food and
begin their mating season.
Dormice usually are not protective of their territory, but this
changes during the mating season, when males become aggres-
sive about their territory. Males use calls to attract the females.
Males mate with more than one female during the mating sea-
son. The females can give birth from May to October. They are
pregnant for three to four weeks. They can have anywhere from
two to ten babies in a litter, although four babies is an average.
The mother gives birth in her nest, in a tree hollow, on a branch,
or maybe even underground in a shelter. When the young are
born, they are pink, blind, and weigh around 0.07 ounces
(2 grams). They grow gray hair by the time they are seven days
old. When they are eighteen days old, they can see and hear and
have brown hair. They are soon able to go out and find food with

their mothers. When they are four to six weeks old, they are
ready to go off and live on their own, but they may stay with
their mothers through the next hibernation period. At the end
of their first hibernation, the young are around a year old, and
are ready to mate that spring. Dormice can live up to six years.
DORMICE AND PEOPLE

Due to the fact that dormice store food in their bodies in the
form of fat, humans use dormice as a food source. They typi-
cally run into humans when they are trying to find areas in
which to hibernate. They may even enter human homes for this
very purpose. They can cause problems for humans when they
eat the fruit in orchards.
CONSERVATION STATUS
More than half of dormice species are at risk. Dormice are
threatened by loss of habitat and climate change, which changes
their habitats and causes temperature shifts. The World Conser-
vation Union (IUCN) lists four dormice species as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; four as Vulnerable, facing
a high risk of extinction; and five as Near Threatened, not
currently threatened, but could become so.
Dormice 1089
Edible dormouse (Myoxus glis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT EDIBLE DORMOUSE
Myoxus glis
Physical characteristics: Edible dormice are a silver-gray color

with white or yellow undersides. They have black areas around their
eyes. They look like squirrels. They have large, round ears, small eyes,
and long, very bushy tails. They use the rough pads on their feet
to climb trees. Their head and body length is 5 to 8 inches (13 to
20 centimeters), their tail length is 4 to 7 inches (10 to 18 centimeters),
and their weight is 2.4 to 6.3 ounces (68 to 179 grams). They are the
largest of all the dormice.
Geographic range: Edible dormice live in Europe, Iran, and Turk-

menistan.
Habitat: Edible dormice can be found in deciduous and mixed

forests, and fruit orchards. Within these areas, they build their nests
in woodpecker holes, fake nest boxes, hollow trees, rocks, and barns.
They use hairs and feathers to line their nests. If there is not enough
food available in their living area, they will move elsewhere.

Diet: Edible dormice eat a lot. By the winter,
their weight will be almost double the weight they
were at the beginning of the summer. They will
eat insects in the summer, since fruit and seeds
are not ripe enough. Once fruit and seeds become
suitable for eating, they will eat them, as well as
nuts, acorns, berries, and buds. They are mostly
herbivores, plant-eating, and only eat insects or
small birds when they have no other choice.
Behavior and reproduction: Edible dormice

can be very quick and can also jump more than
23 feet (7 meters) when going from tree to tree.
The males are territorial and tough fighters dur-
ing mating season, which goes from June until
August. They will mark their territories by scent,
so that other males know not to cross over into
their areas. The males make a squeaking sound
during mating season while they follow around
the females, in hopes of attracting a mate. The
females will only give birth once a year and the
males help raise, clean, and protect the young. Edible dormice eat mainly plant
The families may stay with one another during the hibernation material, such as fruit and seeds.
They eat insects in the summer,
months. Edible dormice can make a variety of sounds, including
before the fruit and seeds are
clicks, whistles, and growling. These sounds can take on different ripe. (© B. Brossette/
meanings. If predators attack them, they can make their tails fall off OKAPIA/Photo Researchers, Inc.
as a form of defense—the predator keeps the tail, but the dormouse Reproduced by permission.)
escapes.
Edible dormice and people: Edible dormice can serve as food to

people. In some areas, they are even considered to be a delicacy. They
can also cause damage to humans when they destroy fruit or vine
crops. They may also be captured for their fur.
Conservation status: Edible dormice are listed as Near Threatened

by The World Conservation Union (IUCN), meaning that the species
is not threatened now, but could be in the near future. ■
Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1996.
Dormice 1091
“Dormice” and “Fat Dormouse, or Edible Dormouse.” In Walker’s Mam-
mals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. II. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1999.
“Dormouse.” In National Geographic Book of Mammals. Washington, DC:
National Geographic Society, 1998.
“Edible Dormouse.” In Smithsonian Handbooks: Mammals. New York:
DK Publishing, 2002.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Volume III. New
York: Facts on File, Inc., 2001.
Web sites:
“Myoxus glis.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Myoxus_glis.html (accessed on
June 12, 2004).

DASSIE RAT
Petromuridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Petromuridae
One species: Dassie rat (Petromus
typicus)
Dassie rats look a lot like squirrels. Soft and silky hair class
covers their bodies, with the exception of the undersides, which
subclass
are yellow and hairless. The hairs are joined together in groups
of three or five. Their fur color is usually brown, gray, or buff, order
or a combination of those colors. These colors help them blend monotypic order
into the surrounding rocks in their habitat. This sort of cam-
ouflage helps keep birds from spotting them from above. suborder
Dassie rats have blunt heads; big eyes; short, black, round ▲ family
ears; and long, black vibrissae, stiff hairs that can be found near
the nostrils or other parts of the face in many mammals. The
tail is shorter than the head and body length, and long hairs
cover the end part of their tails. Their tails have soft joints, which
allow the tail to break off at the base if a predator, animal that
hunts it for food, grabs a dassie rat by the tail. The dassie rat
can simply release its tail and escape, relatively unharmed.
Dassie rats’ front feet have four toes with claws. The thumbs
on the front feet are short. Their hind feet have five toes with
short, curved claws. The hind feet also have thicker hairs that
look like tiny combs and are probably used for grooming. The
soles of their feet have round, naked pads that help them
to move around in the rocky areas where they live. Their feet
are narrow. The head and body length of males is 10.9 to
14.0 inches (27.9 to 36.0 centimeters) and the head and body
length of females is 9.9 to 14.0 inches (25.3 to 35.8 centimeters).
Males weigh 6.0 to 7.4 ounces (170 to 210 grams) while females
weigh 8.8 to 9.2 ounces (250 to 261 grams). Their flexible ribs
Dassie Rat 1093

Dassie rat (Petromus typicus)
and flat skulls help them to flatten their bodies, and squeeze
into small areas when necessary. This can be helpful when es-
caping from predators. The nipples on females are on their
sides, rather on their undersides, so if they are squeezed into a
small space, the young can still feed.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Dassie rats can be found in the Southwest Arid Zone of
Africa, from southwestern Angola to the central and western
parts of Namibia to the northwestern Northern Cape Province
in South Africa.
HABITAT
Dassie rats live in areas with a lot of rocks on hills or moun-
tains. This environment allows them to find small areas
between or under the rocks to crawl into in case of an attack
by a predator. When examining living areas, dassie rats will

choose an area with good shelter over an area
with good plant life. The rocky shelters that
they choose include lookout areas and
sunbathing platforms. They make sure to
choose shelters that have protecting rocks
over the sunbathing platforms as a defense
against birds of prey that may try to attack
while they are sunbathing. In addition, feed-
ing areas are near their shelters, so they do
not have to travel long distances.
DIET
Dassie rats are herbivores, plant-eating
animals. They eat leaves, berries, seeds,
grasses, twigs, and shrubs. They look for this
food on the ground or in bushes, and take it
back to their shelters. They may use grasses
and leaves to build a nest in the shelter. Dassie
rats can regurgitate (re-GER-jih-tate), throw
up partially digested food, into their mouths
where they chew it again and then swallow
it. They are also coprophagous (kuh-PRAH-
fuh-gus), which means that they eat their own
pellets, or dung, for additional nutrients.
Dassie rats can make their
They do not usually drink water, but get all the water they need bodies almost flat, and squeeze
from their food instead. into small crevices or cracks to
escape predators. (Nigel
Dennis/African Imagery.com.
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION Reproduced by permission.)
Dassie rats are active during the daytime, especially during
the early morning and the late afternoon. They sunbathe un-
der rocks that shelter them from possible attacks by birds. They
often urinate in one spot, which makes the rocks at this spot
become white due to stains from the urine. A dassie rat may
live alone, with another dassie rat, or in a group. However, they
only travel alone or with one other dassie rat.
When a predator attacks, dassie rats squeeze into a crack or
other small area, quickly escape by jumping on rocks, or let
out a warning whistling call to show that they are scared. Dassie
rats are able to squeeze into very small cracks that most other
animals would not be able to enter.
The dassie rat mating season is from November to December.
Females give birth to one or two babies once a year, when the
Dassie Rat 1095

raining season is just beginning. The young are born almost
fully developed.
DASSIE RATS AND PEOPLE

Dassie rats do not have any special relationship with humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Dassie rats are not listed as threatened by The World
Conservation Union (IUCN), but there is only a small popula-
tion and they are not present in a large number of areas.
Books:
Alderton, David. Rodents of the World. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,
1996.
“Dassie Rat.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. 2.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Macdonald, David, ed. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Vol. 3. New York:
Facts on File, Inc., 2001.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Petromuridae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Petromuridae.html (accessed on June 12, 2004).

CANE RATS
Thryonomyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Thryonomyidae
The two species in the cane rat family, the greater cane rat class
and the lesser cane rat, are very similar in appearance, except
subclass
for the fact that one is larger and heavier than the other. The
second-largest rodents in their native continent of Africa after order
the South African porcupine, the cane rats range in length from monotypic order
1.3 to 2.6 feet (40.9 to 79.3 centimeters) and in weight from
3.1 to 14.3 pounds (1.4 to 6.5 kilograms). Males are much larger suborder
and heavier than females. Cane rats are sturdy-looking animals, ▲ family
with solid, stocky bodies, short, brown, bristly, scaly tails, and
small ears. Their speckled fur is sharp-ended and coarse, and
can be any shade between grayish and yellowish brown. Cane
rats have white lips, chins, and throats, with large, chisel-like
incisor teeth that grow continuously. The upper teeth are
grooved and bright orange. Their muzzles are squared and
padded at the nose. These rodents have short, thick legs with
heavily padded feet and straight, powerful claws with five dig-
its in front and four in back. Their skin is very thin and tears
easily, although it also heals quickly. Likewise, the tail will
break off easily if the animal is caught by it. Sexually mature,
those ready to mate, cane rats have orange-tinted fur in their
genital areas. Cane rats do not seem to see well, but their senses
of hearing and small are keen. Despite their heavy appearance,
they are extremely fast and agile creatures.
GEOGRAPHIC RA\NGE
Both species are native to Africa, where they occupy habi-
tats south of the Sahara Desert. They may be found everywhere
Cane Rats 1097

in west, central, and southern Africa all
the way down to the eastern Cape in
South Africa.
HABITAT
Although they look similar, the greater
A GENTLE GIANT and lesser cane rats prefer different environ-
When threatened, cane rats thump their ments. The greater species is semi-aquatic
powerful rear feet on the ground to alert and searches out marshes and reed beds near
others while emitting a piercing whistling rivers and streams, while the lesser species
sound. Although its teeth are formidable, a looks for dry ground in moist savannas, or
frightened cane rat will virtually always run grasslands. Both animals are excellent swim-
with great speed into dense vegetation and mers and require tall grasses for hiding and
toward the nearest open water rather than foraging purposes.
turning to fight. If captured, the animals
thrash frantically and are frequently DIET
injured. When enclosed in a box or crate, Cane rats are herbivores, plant eaters, and
the rats often use their padded noses as eat a wide variety of grasses and other plant
battering rams to try to escape. matter, as well as fruits, nuts, bark, and cul-
tivated crops. Cane rats ferment their food in
a special organ called the cecum (SEE-kum)
to help digest it. They produce two kinds of
feces: hard and soft pellets. Both are excreted, but the animals
eat the soft pellets to extract any nutrients remaining in them.

Cane rats earned their African nickname of “grass cutter”
because of their method of eating: after using their powerful in-
cisors to cut grasses at their base, the animals take the bunch
of grass in their forefeet, sit upright on their haunches, and be-
gin to feed the grass into their mouths slowly, cutting it up into
small bits. When eating and when relaxed, they make soft grunt-
ing noises.
Primarily nocturnal, cane rats create and use narrow trails
through the grass and reeds to move around their territories.
Biologists think they live in groups of no more than twelve
individuals. Males, who live with their young and a few mature
females, do not tolerate the presence of other mature males,
and aggressively defend their family groups. Males fight by
pressing their padded noses together until one eases up on the
pressure, at which point his opponent may swiftly swing his
rump around to knock the weaker rat off balance.

Despite their well-developed claws, cane rats use burrowing
only as a last resort for shelter and even then would rather use
abandoned porcupine or aardvark burrows or holes in stream
banks cause by erosion if dense vegetation for hiding is absent.
Cane rats have been observed gnawing on rocks, pieces of tusk,
and bones, presumably to sharpen their teeth.
The cane rats mate with multiple partners throughout the
year, although primarily during the rainy season when more
food is available. In captivity, pairs reproduce at any time of
the year. Pregnant females create a special nursery nest, carv-
ing out a shallow depression in a sheltered area and using leaves
and grass to line it. She gestates, is pregnant, for 137 to 172
days, and may have two litters of one to eight pups each year.
The pups are born with open eyes and are completed furred.
They nurse for about a month, but stay with the adults until
they reach sexual maturity at five months of age, when males
begin to show aggression toward each other.
CANE RATS AND PEOPLE

The meat of both cane rat species is highly prized as an ex-
cellent and good-tasting protein source in an often harsh envi-
ronment. Organized hunts for the animals are frequently held.
Some farmers have even started to domesticate “microherds”
of them, and families sometimes rely on sale of their meat for
income. In Ghana, the price of cane rat meat reportedly sur-
passes that of beef, sheep, and pork. Farmers are often angered
by the rats’ frequent raids on their crops, and encourage pythons
to come into their fields to feed on the animals.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Abundant in all areas with suitable habitat, neither the lesser
nor the greater cane rat is threatened.
Cane Rats 1099

Greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT GREATER CANE RAT
Thryonomys swinderianus
Physical characteristics: The larger of the two cane rat species, the
(male) greater cane rat ranges in length from 26.1 to 30.9 inches (67.0
to 79.2 centimeters) and in weight from 11 to 14.3 pounds (5 to
6.5 kilograms), although there are reports of these animals weighing
as much as 19.8 pounds (9 kilograms). Females are generally smaller.
Greater cane rats have powerful, stocky bodies, massive heads, and
small, broad, fur-covered ears. Perhaps their most striking feature is
their gigantic, bright-orange incisor teeth. The animals have thick,
coarse, pointed hair over its body that varies in shades of brown on
top and much lighter fur underneath, with orange-tinted fur in the
genital areas of mature adults. The forefeet are smaller than the back

feet, but both have large, well-formed claws. The
forefeet have five digits, but the first and fifth are
very small. There are reports of captive greater
cane rats living for four years or more.
Geographic range: The greater cane rat is pre-

sent in almost all countries west of the Sahara
Desert except in areas of rainforest, dry scrubland,
or desert. Their existence has been recorded in
Gambia, Cameroon, the Central African Republic,
Uganda, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia,
Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, South
Africa, and Zimbabwe.
Habitat: Greater cane rats favor low-lying,

swampy places along streams and riverbanks
where there are dense patches of reeds and tall
grasses.
The greater cane rat is a good
Diet: This species eats primarily the tender new shoots of elephant swimmer, and prefers to live in
marshes and reed beds near
grass, pennisetum grass, kikuyu (kee-KUH-yuh), and buffalo or
rivers and streams. (© Yann
guinea grass, along with the plant roots and stems. They feed on bark, Arthus-Bertrand/Cobris.
fruits, and nuts in more limited quantities. The greater cane rat also Reproduced by permission.)
eagerly forages for vegetables in cultivated gardens and are voracious
consumers of such crops as cane sugar, maize, pumpkins, sweet pota-
toes, millet, peanuts, sorghum, wheat, and cassava.
Behavior and reproduction: Mostly nocturnal, this polygamous

(puh-LIH-guh-mus) cane rat lives alone or in small family groups
with a dominant male, several adult females, and their young. They
startle easily and run immediately for the closest water, using their
excellent swimming, speed, and agility to outmaneuver predators. Fe-
males gestate for 152 to 156 days, giving birth to two to four pups
on average, although the range is from one to six.
Greater cane rats and people: Like their smaller cousins, the
greater cane rat is viewed by humans as both an important food source
and a serious threat to cultivated crops.
Conservation status: These animals are abundant in all locations

with habitat suitable for them, and not threatened. ■
Cane Rats 1101

Books:
De Graff, G. The Rodents of Southern Africa. Durban and Pretoria:
Butterworths, 1981.
Mills, M., et al. The Complete Book of South African Mammals. Cape
Town: Struik Winchester, 1997.
National Research Council. Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals
with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC: National Academic
Press, 1991.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Cane Rats.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World
http://www.www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/
rodentia (accessed on June 15, 2004).
Periodicals:
Van der Merwe, M. “Breeding Season and Breeding Potential of the
Greater Cane Rat Thryonomys swinderianus in Captivity in South Africa.”
South African Journal of Zoology 34, no. 2 (1999): 69–73.
Web sites:
Animals Online. “Great Cane Rat Thryonomys swinderianus: Fact Sheet.”
http://www.animals-online.be (accessed on June 15, 2004).

AFRICAN MOLE-RATS
Bathyergidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Bathyergidae
African mole-rats are small to medium-sized rodents with class
streamlined bodies 3.2 to 11.0 inches (83 to 281 millimeters) in
subclass
length and with a weight of 1.2 to 31.0 ounces (34 to 896 grams).
African mole-rats bodies are covered in hair that is thick and order
short, except for one species. They have robust heads, small eyes, monotypic order
very small ears, and flattened pig-like noses. The stiff hairs are
thicker on the front of the face and around the eyes. Their necks suborder
are muscular so there is not much change in size from their head ▲ family
to body and their limbs are short giving their bodies an overall
cylindrical appearance. On the outer edges of their hind feet and
on their short tail they also have stiff hairs, except for one species.
They also have stiff hairs that are used for touching that are scat-
tered all over their bodies. Under their loose skin they have long,
strong muscles. The African mole-rats have large, ever growing,
white incisors, sharp-edged teeth which are flat, in the front of
the mouth used for cutting and tearing food.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
African mole-rats are found in sub-Saharan Africa.
HABITAT
African mole-rats inhabit dry regions such as savannas, or flat
grasslands, and open woodlands. The rodents are not found in
dense forests. They are usually found in areas with plants that
provide an underground food source such as bulbs, tubers, and
rootstalks. African mole-rats live in burrow systems consisting
of a complicated network of foraging tunnels. The tunnels
African Mole-Rats 1103

usually include a deeper nest complex with an area for relieving
bodily waste, and usually one or more food storage areas. The
surface opening is sealed except when dug-out soil is taken out.
DIET
They eat bulbs, tubers, and corms, the underground stem
base of plants such as the crocus or gladiolus. Food is either
eaten when it is found or brought back to a central storage area
near the nest. Large food sources are often left to grow, and
eaten on from time to time.
African mole-rats are considered by experts to show the
widest range in social structure of all mammals. They are soli-
tary rodents, and spend much of their time underground.
Almost all species dig by biting the soil with their large incisor
teeth or in one genus (JEE-nus), a group of animals with sim-
ilar characteristics, by loosening soil with strongly developed
forefeet. Muscular lips with strong hairs keep soil out of the
mouth. The loosened soil is pushed under their bodies with their
forefeet and then collected and kicked behind them with their
hind feet until it is kicked out of the surface opening.
Courtship and mating activities are short encounters between
a male and female. Pups at about two months of age begin to make
their own burrows. Colonies of social African mole-rats have
divisions of labor for reproductive activities. A single female, the
queen, and a few chosen males do the mating. Remaining mem-
bers, who are related to the breeders, are helpers. They remain
members of the colony unless environmental conditions allow
them to go out on their own or if a breeder dies. If the breeding
female dies, some of the oldest females in the colony become
sexually active and often fight for the highest position of breeding
female. The gestation period, the amount of time the offspring is
in the womb, is forty-four to 100 days. Litter, a group of young
animals born at the same time from the same mother, size is from
less than four up to twenty-eight, depending on the species.
AFRICAN MOLE-RATS AND PEOPLE
African mole-rats are considered pests in farmlands and in
urban developments. Their burrows often damage roads, air-
port runways, and other such structures. They can also chew
through underground cables, irrigation pipes, and other
human-made objects.

CONSERVATION STATUS
One species of African mole-rat is listed as Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction in the wild, and six species are
listed as Data Deficient, meaning there is not enough informa-
tion available to decide their status.

Damaraland mole-rat (Cryptomys damarensis)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS DAMARALAND MOLE-RAT
Cryptomys damarensis
Physical characteristics: Damaraland mole-rats have either gray-

ish yellow-brown or dark brown coat colors. In either case, they have
a large white patch on the top of the head. Damaraland mole-rats have
a flattened nose; very small eyes; two large incisor teeth on top and
another set of large incisors on the bottom of the mouth; five thin
claws on each foot; and a stubby tail. They weigh about 4.6 ounces
(130 grams), with males a little larger than females. Weight varies de-
pending on social status.
Geographic range: They are widely found in Namibia, most of

Botswana, and extending into western Zimbabwe and northwestern
South Africa.

Habitat: They inhabit dry regions with an
average annual rainfall of under 15.6 inches
(40 centimeters). They prefer red Kalahari desert
arenosols, sandy soils featuring very weak or no
soil development; loose deposits of rivers and
streams; and sands.
Diet: They eat geophytes (JEE-oh-fites), plants

with underground organs such as bulbs, tubers,
and rootstalks. Large geophytes are eaten at
the place they grow, while the smaller ones are
carried back to a communal storage area. The an-
imals dig together as a group in search for food.
Behavior and reproduction: Damaraland mole-rats are highly The Damaraland mole-rat uses
its incisors for digging. (Wendy
organized and social creatures. They use their incisor teeth for digging.
Dennis/FLPA—Images of Nature.
These rodents live in colonies of up to forty animals. The colony con- Reproduced by permission.)
sists of a single breeding female, her several male partners, and their
non-breeding offspring. The breeding animals control the colony. Pups
of breeders remain as non-breeding helpers. Breeding occurs through-
out the year. The gestation, pregnancy, period is seventy-eight to ninety-
two days. The litter size is one to five, but averages three. The breeding
female can have up to four litters in one year. Breeders can live more
than ten years.
Damaraland mole-rats and people: There is no known significance

between people and Damaraland mole-rats.
Conservation status: Dameraland mole-rats are not threatened. ■

Naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber)
NAKED MOLE-RAT
Heterocephalus glaber
Physical characteristics: Naked mole-rats, sometimes called sand

puppies, are the smallest of the mole-rats. Even though they are called
both moles and rats, they are much more closely related to porcu-
pines, chinchillas, and guinea pigs. They are nearly hairless except
for scattered sensory hairs. They lack the fur typically found on ro-
dents have underdeveloped eyes and pinkish brown to pinkish gray
wrinkled skin, long buck teeth, and long tails. Adults have an aver-
age length of 3 inches (7.6 centimeters), and an average weight of
about 1.2 ounces (34 grams). Males and females look alike but size
varies with social status; and dominant individuals can weigh up to
2.8 ounces (80 grams).

Geographic range: They are widely found in the regions of the Horn Naked mole-rats live almost their
entire lives in the total darkness
of Africa; that is, the east-central Africa area that includes Ethiopia,
of underground burrows, living in
Somalia, and Kenya. the same home range for many
years. (© Gregory G. Dimijian,
Habitat: Naked mole-rats inhabit dry regions with an average an- M.D./Photo Researchers, Inc.
nual rainfall of under 15.6 inches (40 centimeters). They like fine Reproduced by permission.)
sandy soils that become very hard in dry seasons.
Diet: Their diet consists of geophytes that are found through the
coordinated foraging, searching for food, of colony members. They
almost constantly dig tunnels in search of irregular food supplies and
to escape snakes, their primary predator. The animals also eat feces,
solid bodily waste; in fact, the breeding female and the weaning pups
often beg for feces from colony members.
Behavior and reproduction: Naked mole-rats are highly social ani-

mals, living in complex underground colonies, which is unique among
mammals, and much more common among insects, with 20 to 300
animals, but with an average of 75. They live almost their entire lives
in the total darkness of underground burrows, living in the same home
range for many years. The rodents have very underdeveloped eyes so,

instead, use highly accurate sensitivities to vibrations in the ground.
They show a very highly developed division of labor that is centered
on reproduction. One breeding female mates with several males,
often one to three; all such animals are called the breeders. All other
members are non-breeding worker and soldier animals that are off-
spring of the breeders and do all the jobs necessary within their ter-
ritory in order to ensure the success of the group.
The breeding female stops non-breeding members from breeding
with aggressive behaviors. Most non-breeders never leave the colony
or breed. Odors separate friends from enemies, which is achieved by
all members from rolling about in the burrow’s toilet chamber, and
coating their bodies with the familiar scent of the colony’s feces and
urine. Naked mole-rats will fiercely attack unfamiliar intruders, such
as when another colony breaks into another colony’s burrow system.
Some breeding occurs outside the colony from animals that are highly
sexed and attracted to animals from other colonies.
The breeding female has a distinctive elongated body and up to
seven pairs of nipples. Her breeding occurs throughout the year. The
gestation period is sixty-six to seventy-four days. The average litter
size is one to twenty-eight, but the average size is twelve. Up to four
litters are born each year. They live long lives, and females are able
to reproduce into old age.
Naked mole-rats and people: There is no known significance

between people and naked mole-rats.
Conservation status: Naked mole-rats are not threatened. ■

Books:
McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. 2. Bal-
timore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Press, 1993.

OLD WORLD PORCUPINES
Hystricidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Hystricidae
The Old World (living in Africa, Asia, and Europe) porcu- class
pines (called “quill pigs” in Latin) take their English name from
the formidable spines, quills, and bristles that cover their sides, subclass
back, and tail. Their heads and bodies together range in length order
from between 13.8 to 36.6 inches (35 to 93 centimeters) and the
monotypic order
animals usually weigh between 3.3 to 66.1 pounds (1.5 to
30 kilograms). The eleven species fall into three genera ( JEN- suborder
uh-ruh; plural of genus): Hystrix, the Old World porcupines; ▲ family
Trichys, which are more slender mammals with flatter, shorter,
and less-developed quills; and Atherura, which includes the
brush-tailed porcupines. Most of the species have short tails, but
others can have tails up to half of their head-body length. Eyes
are usually small and can see only poorly, but the mammals’
small ears are very keen. Nostrils are often S-shaped and con-
tribute to a strong sense of smell.
Species in the Hystrix genus ( JEE-nus) are stocky, somewhat
lumbering animals with rounded, blunt heads; mobile, fleshy
noses; split upper lips; and coats of thick flattened or cylindri-
cal spines. The mammals stay on the ground at all times, never
venturing into trees like their cousins, the New Age porcupines
of North America. Hystrix alone among the porcupines has
chambers in its skull that can be inflated, possibly to increase
the ability to smell underground food sources. This slow-
moving genus has short, thick front and back feet, with five
digits on each foot, although the “thumb” on the front feet is
much smaller than the other digits. Their claws are short and
the pads on their feet are bare and smooth. The whole sole of
Old World Porcupines 1111

the foot touches the ground when the animals run or swim.
These porcupines have black or brown white-banded, barbless
(no barb, or hook on the end) quills that can reach up to
7.9 inches (20 centimeters) in length. The longest spines are
usually on the hindquarters and the shortest on the cheeks.
Their short tail is tipped with many thin, open-ended quills
that rattle loudly whenever the animal moves. If some quills
detach during a fight, the area will grow back new ones.
In animals of the genus Trichys, spines are short, relatively
flat, and not well developed. These more slender species, which
look almost more like bristly weasels than porcupines, do not
rattle their spines when they move or when threatened. The
species of the genus Atherura are rat-like creatures with unusu-
ally long tails tipped with a tuft of bristles. The tail is easily
broken. Their spines are also flattened, but stiletto-sharp quills
on their backs and sides make them intimidating opponents.
Webbed feet make them good swimmers, and they readily climb
trees as well. All of the Hystricidae species are primarily noc-
turnal, hiding from predators during the day. Except for the
genus Trichys, spines normally lie flat when the animals are re-
laxed, but can be raised instantly into a bristling, quivering mass
when threatened. All of the Old World porcupines have large,
chisel-shaped upper and lower cutting teeth (incisors) that grow
continuously throughout their lives. They are reputed to be quite
intelligent animals, as evidenced by their uncanny ability to avoid
traps. They normally live about ten years in the wild, and aver-
age twenty years in captivity, which they seem to tolerate well.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Old World porcupines tend to live in the warmer habitats of
southern Europe, many islands of the East Indies, across south-
ern Asia (particularly India and the Malay Archipelago), and
through all of Africa.
HABITAT
Old World porcupines generally like to live in deep burrows,
which they often dig themselves or appropriate after the for-
mer occupants leave. However, they will also live in caves, rot-
ting logs, nooks in rock walls, and hollow trees.
DIET
Mostly herbivores, plant eaters, Old World porcupines eat
numerous kinds of plant material and human-cultivated crops.

Some of their favorite foods are sweet pota-
toes, onions, bananas, grapes, corn, pine-
apple, cucumbers, and mangoes. They
sometimes eat rotten meat (carrion) and
chew up the bones as well, probably for cal-
cium. They also chew on bark, branches, and
tree trunks to keep their incisor teeth worn A MYTH DISPELLED
down to acceptable levels.
It is not true that porcupines can “throw”
or project their quills in any way, but they
do detach easily—sometimes just when the
Legendary for their ability to defend them- animals rattle them to try to scare away
selves, Old World porcupines (like their New predators. The quills do not carry poison,
World relatives) use their formidable spiny ar- although bacteria on the shafts often
mor to fend off predators (mainly birds of prey, cause serious infections if they puncture
hyenas, pythons, large owls, leopards, and wild deeply enough. Infections eventually kill
cats). Except for Trichys species, these shy, many predators unlucky enough to tangle
rather anxious creatures generally try to scare with a porcupine.
away an opponent first by clicking their teeth
together, grunting and huffing, and stamping
their hind feet, which rattles their quills to
make an intimidating buzzing noise. If that tactic fails, the por-
cupines launch a lightning-fast backward or sideways charge to-
ward the predator in an effort to puncture the offender’s skin
deeply with its quills.
The mating habits of porcupines are the subject of many jokes
and much curiosity. The truth is close to the old punchline, “Very
carefully.” Old World porcupines engage in a complex courtship
that occurs once (occasionally twice) a year from March to
December. It involves a mating dance during which the male
showers the female with urine. If she rejects her suitor, the
female becomes very aggressive, stamping her feet and shaking
her quills. If she approves of the male, he will stand still in front
of her and then move toward and away from her many times
while making certain sounds. The final phase of the courtship
occurs when the female raises her hindquarters into the air and
lowers her chest to the ground. The male approaches and mounts
her with one paw on each of her sides, holding on loosely but
not leaning on her at all. Their intercourse is accompanied by
loud squeals, grunts, and whines.
The female will carry her young (gestate) for 93 to 112 days,
and gives birth to one or two pups (sometimes up to four) in
a grassy nest within the multichambered burrow. The 12-ounce

(340-gram) pups have fur when they are born and can move
on their own immediately. They nurse for three or four months,
but after just a week the pup’s quills begin to form and they
may leave the nest with their mother. Old World porcupines
reach sexual maturity at anywhere from nine to 18 months.
OLD WORLD PORCUPINES AND PEOPLE

Porcupines are hunted in many countries for their meat,
which is considered a delicacy, and for their quills, which many
cultures use for decoration and religious symbols. Because of
their fondness for human-grown crops, they are also hunted as
a pest species. Often infested with fleas and ticks, porcupines
carry the sometimes deadly bubonic (byoo-BON-ik) plague and
rickettsiasis, a potentially serious bacterial infection.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Although many porcupine species are extremely adaptable
to changing environmental conditions, some are threatened,
according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The
Malayan porcupine is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction in the wild; and the thick-spined and North African
crested porcupines are Near Threatened, not currently threat-
ened, but could become so.

Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica)
SPECIES
INDIAN CRESTED PORCUPINE ACCOUNTS
Hystrix indica
Physical characteristics: The Indian crested porcupine is known

among the other Hystrix species for its ability to produce an espe-
cially loud rattle with its quills. It ranges in head-to-rump length from
27.6 to 35.4 inches (70 to 90 centimeters) and is the largest of the
African porcupines, ranging from 24.3 to 39.7 pounds (11 to 18 kilo-
grams). This species has a short, high head that features a prominent
mane of quills on its head and neck that can be up to 16 inches
(40 centimeters) long and which the animal can raise into a tall,
threatening crest immediately. Its sides and back are covered with
thick, cylindrical spines and its tail is layered with white, shorter
quills. Each of the porcupine’s feet is broad and has a thick, well-
developed claw for digging burrows and finding food.
Geographic range: This porcupine is endemic throughout south-

west and central Asia, including India, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh,
and Sri Lanka, and in some parts of the Middle East, such as Iran,
Israel, and Saudi Arabia.

Habitat: This species prefers to live on rock-
strewn hillsides to as high as 7,875 feet (2,400 me-
ters), but can adapt to just about any environment.
They also make homes in scrublands where trees
are sparse and in grasslands and forests. Like most
of the porcupine species, the Indian crested shel-
ters in caves, crevices, or burrows they or other an-
imals have dug. When used for a period of time,
their burrows become quite complex, with multi-
ple entrances, chambers, and exits.
Diet: Like its cousins, the Indian crested por-

cupine eats human-grown crops of almost all
kinds, in addition to wild vegetation, carrion,
small bugs and mammals, and bones or antlers.
An Indian crested porcupine with Except when parents are teaching their young to forage, the search
relaxed quills. The porcupine can for food is usually solitary. They seems to prefer wandering along
quickly raise the quills on its
head and neck into a tall crest roads or tracks, and have been observed traveling more than nine
when it’s threatened. miles in a single nighttime foraging trip.
(© S. Nagendra/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced Behavior and reproduction: Females of this species carry their
by permission.)
young for an average of 112 days before giving birth, usually in
February or March, in a grass-lined nest to a litter of one to four pups.
Most females have only one litter per breeding season. Adults form
monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus) pairs and both care for the young
during the three-and-a-half–month nursing period. Up to fifteen
members of a family group will share one burrow.
Indian crested porcupine and people: This porcupine species is

hunted as a source of food in many cultures, and its voracious ap-
petite for human-grown crops makes it a major threat to agriculture.
Its extensive burrowing is damaging in gardens and other landscaped
areas, and run-ins with the porcupines can cause serious illness and
injuries to domestic animals and humans.
Conservation status: The Indian crested porcupine is common

throughout its range. Its ability to adapt to multiple habitats and en-
vironmental changes make it a hardy species. Hunting of the creatures,
however, has all but eliminated them from areas heavily populated by
humans. ■

South African porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis)
SOUTH AFRICAN PORCUPINE

Hystrix africaeaustralis
Physical characteristics: The South African porcupine is the

biggest rodent in its native region, ranging in head-to-rump length
from 2.3 to 2.8 feet (71 to 84 centimeters) and weighing from 39.7
to 66.1 pounds (18 to 30 kilograms). Females tend to weigh slightly
more than males. Even among animals known for their sharp senses
of smell and hearing, this species has exceptionally keen senses. Their
bodies are stocky, with sharp quills up to 11.8 inches (30 centime-
ters) long emerging from among the course, black hair that covers
them. Their spines, as in the other species, are even longer, reaching
up to 19.7 inches (50 centimeters). The animals can voluntarily erect
the crest of spines and quills on their backs and napes, which are col-
ored in black and white bars. The quills on the tips of their tails are

South African porcupines eat hollow at the ends, which cause them to make a startling whizzing
bulbs and tubers, and many
sound when shaken. The South African porcupine has long whiskers
aboveground plants. Here one
feeds on gemsbok cucumbers. and air-filled cavities in the facial area of its skull, while its nasal
(Clem Haagner/Bruce Coleman bones are larger than normal for a creature of its size. All of these are
Inc. Reproduced by permission.) probably adaptations to help the porcupine find food more easily. The
creatures walk with an alternating gait, as a dog or cat would. They
can swim and climb trees well, and often live twelve to fifteen years
even in the wild.
Geographic range: This porcupine is found only African countries

south of the Sahara, not including the southwestern coastal desert.
Habitat: This species seeks out habitat with rocky outcroppings and
hillsides, but may be found at elevations up to 11,480 feet (3,500
meters) where vegetation is abundant. It requires shelter during the day,
and uses caves or other animals’ abandoned holes for that purpose.
Diet: The South African porcupine uses its powerful claws to dig
up tubers, roots, and bulbs of many kinds. They especially like such
cultivated crops as sugar cane, pineapples, bamboo, melons, cocoa

and oil palms, and corn, but also occasionally eat carrion and gnaw
on bark and bones. This species has special microorganisms in its
front large intestine and appendix that help digest tough plant fibers.
Behavior and reproduction: The animals dig out cavernous, ex-

tensive dens that can reach up to 65.6 feet (20 meters) in depth, with
a 6.6-foot (2-meter) deep central living chamber. As many as six fam-
ily members may live together in the den, and they sometimes use it
for defensive purposes by running into an entrance and erecting its
spines to make it difficult (if not impossible) for predators to pull
them out.
Reaching sexual maturity at between eight and eighteen months,
the South African porcupine is a devoted parent that cares for its
young over the long term. Females are “in heat” (estrus) for thirty-
five days, during which they mate with their chosen partner. This
species usually has two litters a year, during the wettest months
between March and April. Females gestate for 93 to 105 days, then
give birth to one to four pups in the family’s grass-lined nesting cham-
ber. Although they can eat solid food from birth, the pups nurse for
about 100 days. The female cannot conceive another litter for three
to five months after her season’s first litter is weaned, stops feeding
on breast milk.
South African porcupine and people: This species is hunted for its
meat in many locations where people consider it a delicacy, while the
porcupine’s destructive and voracious feeding habits make them the
enemy of many farmers, gardeners, and landscapers.
Conservation status: The South African porcupine is not threatened

anywhere in its range, although humans and large cats sometimes
reduce populations significantly for a short time. ■
Books:
Gould, Edwin, and George McKay, eds. Encyclopedia of Mammals, 2nd
ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. 2.
Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Vaughn, Terry A. et al. Mammology, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders
College Publishing, 2000.

Web sites:
“The Porcupine.” African Wildlife Foundation. http://www.awf.org/
wildlives (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Hystrix indica.” Discovery.com. http://animal.discovery.com (accessed
on June 22, 2004).
“Hystrix africaeaustralis.” Fernkloof Nature Reserve. http://fernkloof.
com (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Seh Porcupine-Hystrix indica.” Haryana (India) State Online. http://
haryana-online.com (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Hystricidae.” The Free Dictionary. http://encyclopedia.freedictionary.
com (accessed on June 22, 2004).
“Hystricidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.
edu (accessed on June 22, 2004).

NEW WORLD PORCUPINES
Erethizontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Erethizontidae
New World porcupines are some of the largest North Ameri- class
can rodents. They are stocky animals with many sharp quills,
subclass
modified guard hairs, and spines that in most species are hidden
beneath long fur but are visible in others. Quills lie facing down- order
ward and spines cover most of their upper bodies and tail, monotypic order
except for a few species that have no spines. The animals have
a prehensile, able to grasp by wrapping around, tail that can reach suborder
about one-fourth to over one-half its length. Its head consists of ▲ family
a blunt muzzle, small rounded eyes that are nearly hidden by
hair, and small rounded ears. Its body has humped shoulders,
short bowed legs, and long curved claws. Adults are 15.5 to 51.0
inches (40 to 130 centimeters) long and weigh between 6.5 and
22.0 pounds (3 to 10 kilograms).
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
New World porcupines are found in North, Central, and
South America, from Canada and Alaska to Argentina.
HABITAT
These porcupines live primarily in trees throughout rain-
forests and deciduous and coniferous woods, except for one
species that lives in deserts and a few others that are found in
plantations and other cultivated areas.
DIET
New World porcupines eat fruits, seeds, leaves, and bark.
New World Porcupines 1121

New World porcupines are assumed to be nocturnal, active
at night, and arboreal, living in trees, spending their days sleep-
ing in trees or in private ground places. They spend most of
their time alone, but during winter months, several animals
often share a winter den. Their winter territory averages
12 acres (5 hectares), while the larger summer territory reaches
a maximum of 35 acres (14 hectares). Although not territorial,
they defend feeding grounds during winters. They can spear
their quills into attackers with spines that are detached. When
faced with a predator, an animal that hunts and eats other an-
imals, they erect their quills so they stick out in many direc-
tions and chatter their teeth. New World porcupines either
remain stationary in a defensive position, or may charge the
predator by quickly whipping out with their quill-laden tail.
Most of the time New World porcupines do not communi-
cate with each other. Females do touch their young with their
nose, giving them gentle grunts and whines. During the mat-
ing season, porcupines become noisy with various grunts,
moans, screams, and barks. It is believed that females are ei-
ther pregnant or lactating, producing milk, for most of their
lives. The gestation period, the time period the offspring are in
the womb, lasts about 200 days. When gestation is over the
female mates again. Females nurse, feed on mother’s milk, their
newborns for eight to twelve weeks. A litter, young animals
born together from the same mother, is usually only one young,
which is born with fur and soft quills that harden quickly. The
young reach adult size in about one year, and become sexually
mature (able to mate) in one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half years.
Their average lifespan is fifteen years.
NEW WORLD PORCUPINES AND PEOPLE

Some New World porcupines are hunted by people. The
quills of some species are used in artwork.
CONSERVATION STATUS
New World porcupines are not threatened.

North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
SPECIES
NORTH AMERICAN PORCUPINE ACCOUNTS
Erethizon dorsatum
Physical characteristics: North American porcupines have stiff,

dark-brown or black hair on their back along with scattered white
barbed quills at the head, rear of body, and on the tail. They may
have more than 30,000 barbed quills, many of which have a yellow-
white base with a dark tip. Their face is a dark brown, with a woolly
belly that does not have quills. Their undersides are covered with stiff,
dark hairs. North American porcupines have a short, thick tail that
contains quills above and stiff bristles below and large, naked feet.
Their large incisor teeth are deep orange. Adults have a length of
about 39 inches (1 meter) with the tail being one-fifth to one-third
of the total length. Body weight is less than 26 pounds (12 kilograms),
but a large male can be up to 33 pounds (15 kilograms). Juveniles

Most of the time, North American have a nearly all-black head, back, and tail. Their quills are short but
porcupines do not communicate,
sharp. Females have two pairs of mammae (MAM-ee), milk-secreting
but mothers do touch their young
with their nose, giving them organ of female mammals.
gentle grunts and whines.
(D. Robert Franz/Bruce Coleman Geographic range: North American porcupines range throughout
Canada, except the far north-central regions, and down into the north-
eastern and north-central part of the United States and almost all of
the western United States except the most southern regions. They also
extend into the northern edge of central Mexico.
Habitat: North American porcupines are found in mixed hardwood

and softwood forested areas, tundra, and occasionally in open areas
and even deserts as long as plenty of water sources are around. They
prefer rocky areas, ridges, and slopes.
Diet: North American porcupines are herbivores, animals that eat

plant material, such as fruits, grains, and seeds. They feed on foliage
for much the year and on inner bark of pine and oak trees in winter.
They also eat seeds, fruits, nuts, berries, and plant stems, buds, twigs,
leaves, roots, and flowers. Their chisel-like teeth scrape away the

tough outer bark, and then slice off pieces of inner bark to eat. North
American porcupines eat alone, except for mothers and their young.
They feed at night, but sometimes during the day, especially if the
weather has been bad.
Behavior and reproduction: North American porcupines are mostly

arboreal and nocturnal animals. They are good at climbing trees,
although their slow movements seem awkward, and are good swim-
mers. They use hollow trees and logs, or gaps beneath rocks for their
winter dens. The animals normally live alone, but will share a winter
den when few good locations are available. They are not territorial,
but will defend a feeding site if resources are few. During the breed-
ing season, females produce bodily odors to show males they are ready
to mate. Several males fight over the right to mate with one female.
One of their courtship rituals is for the male to spray the female with
urine. When females are ready, they will dance with their chosen male,
rising on their hind feet, embracing while whining and grunting loudly,
and pushing one another playfully to the ground. Their main preda-
tors include mountain lions, lynx, fishers, coyotes, bobcats, red foxes,
wolves, wolverines, and great horned owls. During winter months they
stay close to their den but go further out during summer months.
They are polygynous (puh-LIH-juh-nus), having more than one
mate. Mating occurs only once a year, in the late summer and early
autumn, and only during an eight to twelve hour period when the
female is receptive. Females give birth to one but sometimes to two
young. The gestation period is about seven months. Young weigh about
1.0 to 1.1 pounds (450 to 490 grams) at birth, and are born with both
spines and fur. They double their weight within the first two weeks.
They usually feed on their mother’s milk for only a short period then
begin to feed on vegetation shortly after birth. They soon become en-
tirely independent of the mother. Young males move in and out of the
mother’s range for months or years, while young females leave the
range permanently. They become sexually mature at about one-and-
a-half years and most can live to about fifteen years of age.
North American porcupines and people: Native Americans used

their quills for artwork and as a type of currency. North American
porcupines were also hunted for food. They are often considered as
pests when they gnaw through valuable wood and trees.
Conservation status: North American porcupines are not

threatened. ■

Prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis)
PREHENSILE-TAILED PORCUPINE
Coendou prehensilis
Physical characteristics: Prehensile-tailed porcupines have a gray-

ish to yellowish brown body with short, thick spines that are whitish
or yellowish and mixed with darker hair. Their face is whitish and
undersides are gray. Their padded feet have four long-clawed toes.
The tail is small, long, black, and prehensile with a curled tip. The
last one-third of the tail does not contain spines on its upper surface,
which helps it to wrap around thin branches. Juveniles have an
orangish brown to brown body with longer fur that sometimes hides
its spines. Adults are 3 to 4 feet (0.9 to 1.2 meters) long with half of

The prehensile-tailed porcupine
uses its prehensile (grasping) tail
to help it climb from branch to
branch. (© Martin Harvey; Gallo
Images/Corbis. Reproduced by
permission.)
the length being its tail. They weigh between 9 and 12 pounds (4.0
and 5.5 kilograms).
Geographic range: They are found in eastern South America from

eastern Venezuela and Trinidad to northeastern Argentina and
Uruguay.
Habitat: The animals inhabit vine-covered rainforests and jungles,

but can also be found in agricultural areas, gardens, and drier forests
near water sources.
Diet: Prehensile-tailed porcupines are herbivores, eating mostly

fruits, seeds, stems, leaves, roots, small twigs and shoots, and bark.
They usually eat during the late part of the day.
Behavior and reproduction: Prehensile-tailed porcupines are shy,

nocturnal porcupines that are solitary, alone, or live in pairs or gather
in groups occasionally. They spend most of their time high in tree

branches; going from tree to tree by climbing down one tree, walk-
ing across the ground, and climbing up another tree. The animals
move slowly, but can move fast when they must. They are good
climbers, mostly due to their long, prehensile tail and padded, clawed
feet. Prehensile-tailed porcupines sleep during the day, usually within
a clump of vegetation in the forest’s canopy. When threatened by a
predator, they are not aggressive but will defend themselves if
attacked. Prehensile-tailed porcupines often roll into a ball and raise
their quills. Sometimes they attack the predator by quickly moving
toward the intruder with spines erect. They will also stomp feet, shake
spines, and make threatening snarls and grunts. They communicate
with each through long moaning sounds.
During breeding periods, a male will spray urine onto a female and
may also spray newborns. Females reproduce about every seven
months. They often give birth during the rainy season, but it is not
clear if this is always the case. The gestation period is 195 to 210 days.
After giving birth usually to one young, the female will almost imme-
diately mate again. Newborns are covered with red hairs and small
spines, which harden shortly after birth. Young are weaned, no longer
fed its mother’s milk, after three months. Adulthood is reached in about
eleven months and sexual maturity in about nineteen months.
Prehensile-tailed porcupines and people: People occasionally hunt

prehensile-tailed porcupines for food. They are sometimes considered
an agricultural pest.
Conservation status: Prehensile-tailed porcupines are not

threatened. ■

Books:
McGraw-Hill, 1999.
Nowak, Ronald M. Walker’s Mammals of the World, 6th ed. Vol. 2. Bal-
timore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
Press, 1993.

VISCACHAS AND CHINCHILLAS
Chinchillidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Chinchillidae
Known for their luxuriously thick fur, these cuddly-looking, class
rabbit-like animals range in head-and-body length from 11.8 to
subclass
23.6 inches (30 to 60 centimeters) and can weigh from 1.1 to
19.8 pounds (0.5 to 9 kilograms). Females are usually larger order
than males. The animals’ fur, which vary in color from brown monotypic order
to bluish gray to pearly white, have a uniform, soft underfur.
suborder
The chinchillas and mountain viscacha have especially fine,
silky fur, as well as special bristles on their back feet to groom ▲ family
themselves. As many as sixty hairs can grow out of one hair
follicle. All the species have bushy tails. Viscachas are gener-
ally larger than chinchillas, while chinchillas have much larger
ears and longer tails relative to their size. All of the species have
broad, large heads, thick necks, and strong feet and rear legs.
With its distinctive black-and-white facial pattern, the plains
viscacha is unique among the family. Depending on their
native environment, some of the animals are adapted to jump-
ing, while others have evolved to burrow. The pads of their feet
are hairless, and front feet are usually shorter than the back
feet, which are long and bony. The four digits on their front
feet are dexterous and useful in manipulating food. Their cheek
teeth grow continuously and must be worn down regularly. The
pupils of their eyes are cat-like, with vertical slits.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
This family of mammals occurs only in western and
southern South America, but their largest populations are in
Viscachas and Chinchillas 1129

southern Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, and northern Chile to the
foothills of the Andes Mountains in Patagonia (Argentina).
HABITAT
While most of the viscacha species tend to remain at eleva-
tions below 1,640 feet (500 meters), the mountain viscacha and
chinchillas colonize areas from 13,120 to 16,400 feet (4,000 to
5,000 meters). The plains viscacha lives in grasslands with
sparse vegetation, but all the other species seek out rocky ar-
eas where they can dig their burrows and hide from numerous
predators.
DIET
Chinchillids (members of the Chinchillidae family) are
mainly herbivores, plant eaters, and live on seeds and grass,
although those species endemic at higher elevations also eat
mosses and lichens. All species occasionally eat insects as well.

The mountain viscacha and all the chinchillas eat, sunbathe,
and groom while sitting erect on their hindquarters. The plains
viscacha and all the chinchillas look for food at sunset and
throughout the night, but the mountain viscacha is alert and ac-
tive by day and hides by night. All of these animals live in colonies
of some sort, but some are more tightly knit and structured than
others. For instance, the plains viscacha is compelled to use a
communal burrow system, and the colony is dominated by a
strong male and an assistant he chooses from the fifteen to thirty
members of the family group. On the other hand, chinchillas and
mountain viscachas have a more relaxed social structure in which
the colony is more spread out and can consist of from four up
to 300 animals, with different burrows housing individual fam-
ily groups. As colonial animals, there is always at least one in-
dividual on guard to watch for predators and other dangers. The
mountain viscacha has a warning call that sounds like a high
whistle, whereas the plains viscachas have a more varied palette
of sounds, including a characteristic “uh-huh” sound, numerous
whines, and their own species-specific warning calls. All six
species have been observed taking dust baths and engaging in
play chases, and all but the plains viscacha are amazingly agile
as they jump among rocky outcroppings.

Female chinchillids are very aggressive to
other females and even many males, with
much growling, teeth chattering, and urinat-
ing, although there are rarely serious fights in
the wild. They have unusually long gestation
periods for rodents of their size, carrying their
young 90 to 154 days before giving birth to LONG LIVE THE CHINCHILLA
one to six pups. The average female, which
Many chinchilla species live up to ten
reaches sexual maturity (able to mate) at from
years in the wild and sometimes over
eight to fifteen months, can produce one to
twenty in captivity. Some have even been
three litters every year. Pups are born with
known to start families at fifteen years old,
open eyes and are fully furred, and their moth-
having been sexually mature since eight
ers nurse them for six to eight weeks. This
months of age.
species usually has more than one mating
partner during the breeding season.
VISCACHAS, CHINCHILLAS AND PEOPLE

All species in this family, but especially the chinchillas, have
been intensively harvested and farmed commercially for their
valuable fur as well as for their meat. Their pelts are still the
most expensive in the world. Plains viscachas are considered a
pest and are destroyed in large numbers in many areas because
their foraging leaves large swaths of bare ground (ten of them
are rumored to eat as much as a sheep daily) and their burrows
cause many cows and horses to break legs when they acciden-
tally step into them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Due to overharvesting, the long-tailed chinchilla is listed as
Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction, by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN), while the short-tailed chinchilla
is Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of ex-
tinction. The animals are now protected by law in their native
habitats, although this is of limited benefit due to their remote
habitats. Conservation groups have attempted to reintroduce
chinchillas to Andean habitats, but with no success so far.

Long-tailed chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT LONG-TAILED CHINCHILLA
Chinchilla lanigera
Physical characteristics: As its English name indicates, the long-

tailed chinchilla has an unusually long and bushy tail, averaging
5.6 inches (141 millimeters). The animals weigh about one pound
(0.5 kilogram) and measure about 14.4 inches (365 millimeters) from
nose to rump. Females can be much larger than males. This chin-
chilla has gray and black fur on its back and sides, with lighter fur
on its belly. Every hair on its body has a black tip.
Geographic range: Also known as the Chilean chinchilla, it lives

only in the mountainous regions of northern Chile.

Mother and baby long-tailed
chinchillas may greet one
another by rubbing snouts.
(Jane Burton/Bruce Coleman
Inc. Reproduced
by permission.)
Habitat: This species lives in semiarid, rocky, and sparsely vege-

tated areas between 9,840 and 16,400 feet (3,000 to 5,000 feet).
Diet: The long-tailed chinchilla eats mainly grass and seeds of any
available plants, but sometime eats insects and bird eggs as well.
Behavior and reproduction: Biologists report that female long-

tailed chinchillas are generally monogamous, meaning that they
have only one mate. They carry their young for an average of
111 days, usually delivering two pups. Most will have two litters
a year. Mating seasons are from May to November in the South-
ern Hemisphere and from November to May in the Northern
Hemisphere.
This species is active mostly at dusk and at night. Females are the
dominant species in the colonies, which can reach up to 300 indi-
viduals, and show high levels of aggression with much vocalization.
Long-tailed chinchillas are famous for their feats of agility as they leap
about their rocky homes. Captive-bred chinchillas are very shy and
bond easily with their owners.

Long-tailed chinchillas and people: Even among mammals prized
by humans for their pelts, the long-tailed chinchilla is especially
sought after. Coats made of their fur have sold for more than
$100,000. Many of the animals are cross-bred with other species in
captivity for this purpose.
Conservation status: The IUCN has listed this species as Vulnera-

ble. With the last sighting of the animal in 1953, it is virtually unknown
in the wild. Before laws had been put in place to protect the species,
seven million pelts (individual furs) had been exported to buyers in
other countries. They are also threatened by habitat destruction—
specifically the burning and harvesting of the algarobilla shrub. ■
Books:
Burton, J. The Collins Guide to the Rare Mammals of the World.
Lexington, MA: The Stephen Greene Press, 1987.
Nowak, Ronald M. “Chinchillas.” In Walker’s Mammals of the World On-
line 5.1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. http://
www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia
Redford, K. H. Mammals of the Neotropics: The Southern Cone. Vol. 2.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Periodicals:
Jimenez, J. “The Extirpation and Current Status of Wild Chinchillas,
Chinchilla lanigera and C. brevicaudata.” Biological Conservation 77
(1995): 1–6.
Web sites:
“Long-tailed Chinchilla; Chinchilla lanigera.” ARKive Images of Life on
Earth. http://www.arkive.org (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Chinchilla lanigera.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu (accessed on June 23, 2004).

PACARANA
Dinomyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dinomyidae
One species: Pacarana (Dinomys
branickii)
Also known as Branick’s giant rat after the Polish count who class
first described the species in 1873, the pacarana is the sole mem-
subclass
ber of the Dinomyidae (“terrible mouse”) family. The name
pacarana comes from a Tupi Indian term meaning “false pig.” order
Full-grown pacaranas weigh between 22 and 33 pounds (10 to monotypic order
15 kilograms), and from nose to rump measure from 28 to
31 inches (730 to 790 millimeters). Their tails are usually suborder
7.5 inches (190 millimeters) long. Sturdy and compactly built, ▲ family
their heads are broad and large in proportion to their bodies.
They have short but extremely powerful limbs with four digits
and formidable claws on each. Pacaranas have a thick coat of
coarse, grayish brown or blackish hair with rows of white spots
on the back half of the body. The animal has bushy, white
whiskers on either side of its blunt snout and a deeply split up-
per lip. It is the third-largest rodent on Earth, after the capy-
bara and the beaver, and some people say it looks like a gigantic
guinea pig or spineless porcupine.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
A South American rodent, pacaranas’ sparse populations may
be found in the mountainous areas of a band running through
western Venezuela, western Colombia, central Ecuador, Peru,
part of western Brazil, and into northwestern Bolivia.
HABITAT
In Peru, this species occupies suitable habitat from 800 to 6,600
feet in elevation (240 to 2,000 meters), but in Venezuela they
Pacarana 1135
occur up to 7,870 feet (2,400 meters).
Pacaranas live in montane forests and rainfor-
est valleys of the Andes Mountains. They pre-
fer to live in cracks in rock walls or
outcroppings, but caves are also attractive
habitats.
PACARANAS IN SAN DIEGO?
DIET
Although their ancestors’ native land of
Colombia is thousands of miles away, a Pacaranas are mainly vegetarian and espe-
thriving colony of pacaranas has been cially favor palm berries and other fruits
established at the San Diego Zoo. The as well as the stems and leaves of tender
animals can live for at least thirteen years young plants.
in captivity, and are easily trained to
perform in shows. BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Because most pacarana behavior has been
studied among captive animals, biologists
know little about how these animals act in the wild. However,
we do know that they are active mostly at night, when they spend
most of their time in solitary searches for food. They occasion-
ally climb trees to get to food sources, but spend most of their
time on the ground, sitting up on their haunches to manipulate
food with their forelimbs. They do not seem to dig, despite their
sturdy claws. Although their Latin name indicates a placid na-
ture and slow-moving ways, pacaranas are well equipped to de-
fend themselves and have a strong will to do so. They can be
surprisingly vicious in attacks on interlopers and predators, an-
imals that hunt them for food, alike, including pet dogs and other
pacaranas. They can climb well and walk on two feet occasion-
ally for various purposes. Adults often live alone, but have also
been observed cohabitating in pairs and family groups. Their
communication with each other is fairly sophisticated and fea-
tures seven different sounds, including singing, hissing, tooth
chattering, stamping their front feet, and whining.
Pacaranas make a sound like crying to attract mating part-
ners, and then engage in an elaborate courtship ritual during
the breeding season in about November through January. The
ritual has been described as a mixture of dancing and wrestling,
with much sniffing, growling, and whimpering as a male and
female stand on their hind legs to grapple with each other and
interlock their front cutting teeth. Head-tossing is common
prior to the male mounting the female, which he does after
approaching her with dramatically trembling legs. Females

Pacarana (Dinomys branickii)
gestate, or experience pregnancy, for about 222 to 283 days and

can be quite aggressive during the pregnancy. Scientists have
never observed pacaranas building nests. Litter sizes are usu-
ally one or two pups, each of which weighs about 32 ounces
(900 grams). Young can move around independently almost
immediately and are born with eyes open and fully furred.
PACARANAS AND PEOPLE

Many native South Americans hunt pacaranas as a
food source.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN has classified the pacarana as Endangered, facing
a very high risk of extinction. Its normally low population
Pacarana 1137
The pacarana is a slow-moving,
nocturnal herbivore found in the
Andes Mountains. (Francisco
Erize/Bruce Coleman Inc.
levels, which in past years led scientists to believe the animals

were extinct, are especially vulnerable to human predation and
to habitat loss from human activities.

Books:
Anderson, Sydney. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Mammals. New York:
Fireside, 1984.
Burton, John A. Rare Mammals of the World. Lexington, MA: Stephen
Greene Press, 1987.
McKenna, Malcolm C. The Classification of Mammals. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2000.
Nature Encyclopedia: An A to Z Guide to Life on Earth. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
Periodicals:
White, T. G. “Dinomys branickii.” Mammalian Species 410 (1992).
Web sites:
“Animal Info-Pacarana.” Animal Info-Information on Endangered Mam-
mals. http://animalinfo.org (accessed on June 23, 2004).
“Comparative Placentation.” University of California, San Diego Medical
School. http://medicine.ucsd.edu/cpa/pac.html (accessed on June 23,
2004).
“Dinomys branickii.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu (accessed on June 23, 2004).

CAVIES AND MARAS
Caviidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Caviidae
Cavies and maras, also called cavids (members of the family class
Caviidae), range in size from 8 to 30 inches (20 to
subclass
75 centimeters) and have a vestigial, no longer functional, tail.
They generally have plump, robust bodies with large heads, and order
short limbs and ears. Their fur in the wild is short and coarse. monotypic order
Cavids have high-crowned jaw teeth that grow continuously.
The size and shape of cavids range from small, tailless, short- suborder
legged cavies with body lengths of 5.9 to 15.7 inches (15 to ▲ family
40 centimeters) and weights of 7.0 to 21.1 ounces (200 to
600 grams) to the larger, rabbit-like salt-desert cavies and maras
with shorter tails and, slender limbs, that are 17.7 to 29.5 inches
(45 to 75 centimeters) in length and weighs 2.2 to 35.2 pounds
(1 to 16 kilograms). Cavies have four clawed front toes and
three clawed rear toes. The rock cavy has padded feet and
claw-like toes that help it climb rocks and trees. Cavies have
flat-crowned teeth that are always growing.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Cavies are found over most of South America, except Chile
and some areas of the Amazon River basin. Maras inhabit south-
ern Bolivia, Peru, and Argentina.
HABITAT
Cavies and maras are found in a variety of habitat, depend-
ing on the species. These include marshes, tropical floodplains,
rocky mountain meadows, grassland, desert, and areas with lots
Cavies and Maras 1139

of trees and bushes near water, grasslands,
and cultivated lands. They are generally not
found in dense jungle or rainforests.
DIET
Cavies and maras are herbivores, meaning
NAME GAME they eat only plants, including grasses and
Guinea pigs are neither pigs nor from cacti (KACK-tie, or KACK-tee), and plant
the African country of Guinea. So how did material, such as seeds, flowers, and fruits.
they get their common name? One theory
is that when they were first introduced into BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
Great Britain in the 1500s, they were the Cavies and maras are diurnal, meaning
closest animal to a pig that could be bought they sleep at night and are active during the
for a guinea, an old British coin. Another is day, or crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur),
that the sounds they make reminded meaning they are active at twilight. They do
people of pigs, and since they were shipped not hibernate and live in burrows they dig or
to Europe via Guinea, people thought they were dug by other animals. They are gener-
originated from there. ally very social, living in pairs or groups.
Cavies and maras have a variety of mating
regimens, including hierarchical promiscuity
(HI-uh-raar-kick-al prah-miss-KYOO-it-ee), which is frequent
sexual intercourse based upon ranking or status in the group;
polygamy (puh-LIH-guh-mee), where they have multiple mates
in a single breeding season; and monogamy (muh-NAH-guh-
mee), which is having sexual relations with a single partner
during the breeding season. They breed year round and pro-
duce multiple litters per year. Cavids have a gestation period,
pregnancy, of fifty to seventy days. The number of offspring
per litter is usually one to three but can be up to seven. Maras
and salt-desert cavies have seasonal breeding patterns and have
litters of one or two young.
CAVIES, MARAS AND PEOPLE

Cavies, commonly known as guinea pigs, have been domes-
ticated, tamed, and used as pets for three thousand years.
Scientists also use them extensively as laboratory animals. They
are raised for food in areas of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Guinea
pigs are believed to have been used by the ancient Incas in
religious sacrifices. Small cavies are considered to be pests by
farmers in agricultural areas. Larger cavies are hunted for food
and their pelts, or fur.

CONSERVATION STATUS
No cavy species are currently listed as
endangered by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN). Maras, sometimes called
Patagonian hares, are listed as Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could
become so, by the IUCN. FAMILY TREE FEUD
Taxonomists, scientists who classify
living things, have always placed cavies and
maras in the order of rodents (Rodentia)
because they most resemble rats and mice.
However, newer research into the genes of
cavies and maras indicate they are not
related at all to rodents. Instead, some
scientists suggest that their genes, the basic
units capable of transmitting characteristics
from one generation to the next, more
closely resemble those of primates.

Rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS ROCK CAVY
Kerodon rupestris
Physical characteristics: Rock cavies are about the same size or

slightly larger than the common guinea pig, 11.8 to 15.7 inches (30 to
40 centimeters) long and weigh 31.7 to 35.2 ounces (900 to 1,000
grams). They have long, slender legs with well-developed, blunt nails
on their padded feet and one claw used for grooming. The upper body
fur is generally gray with irregular black and white patches. The lower
body fur is yellow and brown while the throat fur is white. The face has
a muzzle shape with a longer, blunter snout, similar to that of a dog.
Geographic range: Rock cavies are found in eastern Brazil from the
state of Piaui to northern Minas Gerais.

Habitat: The species prefers dry areas with rocky outcroppings near
mountains and hills.
Diet: Rock cavies are herbivores, meaning they eat only plants and
plant material. Their diet primarily consists of tender leaves and
shoots of plants.
Behavior and reproduction: Rock cavies received their name be-

cause they are excellent rock climbers. They are generally most ac-
tive late in the day. Males claim one or several rock piles as their
territory, which they will defend. Each male has a number of female
mates and each group has a hierarchy, a structured order of rank. The
gestation period is about seventy-five days. Rock cavies reach sexual
maturity, the age when they can produce offspring, at two months.
Females produce several litters per year from July to March, each with
one or two young. Individuals make several vocal sounds, including
a slow whistle when they leave their rock piles to search for food,
and an alarm whistle. The average lifespan is six to eight years.
Rock cavies and people: Rock cavies are easily tamed and make
suitable pets. Brazilians who live in the rock cavy habitat area use the
mammal as food and medicine.
Conservation status: Rock cavies are not listed as threatened by

the IUCN. ■

Mara (Dolichotis patagonum)
MARA
Dolichotis patagonum
Physical characteristics: Maras, also called Patagonian maras or

Patagonian hares, have a head and body length of 27.6 to 30 inches
(69 to 75 centimeters) and a tail length of 1.6 to 2 inches (4 to 5 cen-
timeters). They weigh form 17.6 to 35.2 pounds (8 to 16 kilograms).
Their body shape looks like that of a long-legged rodent. The hind
legs are slightly larger than the front legs, making them fast runners.
The front feet have four toes and the back feet three toes with sharp
claws. The fur of maras is grayish brown on the upper body and cream
or white on the lower body. The rump has a large white patch of fur.
Geographic range: Maras are found in central and southern

Argentina.

Maras are generally social, living
in pairs or groups. Here a
mother is shown with her
offspring. (Ernest A.
James/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Habitat: Maras prefer milder foothill regions where there is coarse

grass and scattered shrubs. They also are found in forested canyons
and open grasslands.
Diet: Maras are herbivores. Their diet includes a variety of vegetation,

such as leaves, grass, herbs, fruits, cactus, and seeds. In captivity, they
eat primarily hay, leaves, vegetables, and oats.
Behavior and reproduction: Maras are diurnal and they live in

groups of up to forty. They use a variety of movements, including
walking, hopping like a rabbit, galloping like a horse, and stotting,
which is bouncing on all four legs at once. They are very fast run-
ners, capable of reaching 27.9 miles per hour (45 kilometers per
hour). They make several vocal sounds, including a “wheet” when
they want contact with another mara, and a grunt they use to threaten
others. Maras are monogamous, meaning they have a sexual rela-
tionship with only one mate, for several years. Females give birth to
three or four litters a year, each consisting of one to three offspring.
Females reach sexual maturity at eight months. Gestation is 93 to 100
days. The average lifespan of the Pantagonian mara is five to seven
years in the wild and up to ten years in captivity.
Maras and people: Maras are hunted in the wild for food and their
skin. They are also tamed and used as pets.

Conservation status: Maras are listed as Near Threatened by the
IUCN. Their numbers appear to be declining in the wild, due pri-
marily to destruction of their habitat by humans. ■
Books:
Harris, Graham. A Guide to the Birds and Mammals of Coastal
Patagonia. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
Macdonald, David. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford, U.K.:
Siino, Betsy Sikora. The Essential Guinea Pig. Hoboken, NJ: Howell Book
House, 1998.
Waters, Jo. The Wild Side of Pet Guinea Pigs. Chicago: Heinemann
Library, 2004.
Periodicals:
Kolar, Patricia. “The C. porcellus: (a.k.a.) Pocket Pet.” Hopscotch
(August–September 2002): 46–48.
Kostel, Ken. “Guinea-zilla.” Science World (December 8, 2003): 6–7.
Morales, Edmundo. “The Guinea Pig in the Andean Economy: From
Household Animal to Market Commodity.” Latin American Research Re-
view (Summer 1994): 129–143.
Rowe, D. L., and R. L. Honeycutt. “Phylogenetic Relationships, Ecologi-
cal Correlates, and Molecular Evolution Within the Cavioidea (Mammalia,
Rodentia).”Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (2002): 263–277.
Web sites:
“Dolichotis patagonum.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dolichotis_patagonum.
html (accessed on May 4, 2004)
“Family Caviidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.ummz.
umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Caviidae.html (accessed on May 4,
2004)

CAPYBARA
Hydrochaeridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Hydrochaeridae
One species: Capybara
(Hydrochaeris
hydrochaeris)
Capybaras are the world’s largest rodents. They resemble class
guinea pigs but are much larger. They have large, broad heads
subclass
with short, rounded ears and eyes placed far back on the head.
Their snout is heavy and blunt with a large upper lip and order
big nostrils. Their neck and legs are short. Adults weigh monotypic order
between 110 and 173.8 pounds (50 to 79 kilograms) and
have a head and body length of 39.4 to 51.2 inches (100 suborder
to 130 centimeters). ▲ family
Capybaras have four toes on their front legs and three on
their back legs, all with short and strong claws. Their feet are
partially webbed, making them good swimmers. Their front legs
are shorter than the hind legs.
Their bodies are covered with short, coarse fur ranging
in color from reddish brown to grey on the upper body and
light yellow to brown on the lower body. Adult males have
a bare, raised area at the top of their snouts that contains a
scent gland that is used to mark their territories. The tail is
short and not functional. Female capybaras are usually larger
than males.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Capybaras are found on the eastern side of the Canal Zone
in Panama, and on the east side of the Andes Mountains in
South America, including Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, French
Guiana, Guyana, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, Brazil,
and northeastern Argentina.
Capybara 1147
HABITAT
Capybaras live in areas of dense trees and
plants near rivers, streams, lakes, ponds,
marshes, and swamps. There are four areas in
South America where there are large concen-
trations of capybaras: the llanos (plains) in
FISHING FOR CAPYBARAS Venezuela, the Pantanal wetlands in western
Capybara meat is considered a delicacy Brazil, the Taim lowlands in southern Brazil,
in parts of South America, especially and Marajó Island, at the mouth of the
Venezuela and Colombia. It is particularly Amazon River in northeastern Brazil.
popular during Lent, the period of forty days
DIET
before Easter, when eating meat is
prohibited by some Christian religions such Capybaras are herbivores, meaning they
as the Catholic Church. The reason for its are plant-eaters. Much of their time is spent
popularity is that in the 1700s, the Vatican grazing and foraging for food, which consists
declared capybaras to be fish, allowing primarily of protein-rich grasses. An adult
them to be eaten during Lent. The Catholic eats 6 to 8 pounds (2.7 to 3.6 kilograms) of
Church has never reclassified the capybara grasses a day. They also eat water plants,
as a mammal. fruits, and vegetables, including wild melons
and squashes.
Since grasses are difficult for most mammals
to digest, the capybara’s digestive system has adapted to make it
easier. One of these adaptations is a large fermentation chamber
in the intestines called the cecum (SEE-kum). Capybaras also en-
gage in coprophagy (kuh-PRAH-fuh-gee), which means they eat
some of their own feces. These softer feces are rich in nutrients.

Capybaras are social, living in groups of six to twenty
animals, although groups of one hundred or more have been
reported. The group has a dominant male, several adult females,
their offspring, and several submissive adult males. The group
is usually composed of family members and outsiders are rarely
accepted. There is a social hierarchy in the group as a whole
and within female members. The dominant male aggressively
and sometimes viciously enforces this hierarchy.
In the wild, capybaras are usually active in the early morning
and twilight. During the heat of the day, they rest intermittently
in shallow beds in the ground or shaded areas of shallow water.
In areas where there are higher concentrations of people,
the capybara has become nocturnal, meaning it is most active
at night.

Capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris)
When a capybara becomes startled or alarmed on land, it will

run with a gallop much like that of a horse. If it feels it is in
immediate danger, it will seek safety in water where it can stay
submerged for about five minutes. With its partially webbed feet,
the capybara is an extremely capable swimmer and diver. It can
swim while submerged or with its eyes, nostrils, and ears just
above the water’s surface, much like a hippopotamus. It can also
hide among water plants, with just its nostrils above the water
line. Capybaras can make several vocal sounds, including a low-
pitched clicking noise when it is content; long, sharp whistles;
short grunts; and a purr to indicate submissiveness. When a capy-
bara spots a predator or feels it is in imminent danger, it will bark.
Nearby capybaras will stand motionless at alert. If the caller
continues to bark, they will race into the nearest water and gather
closely in a group, with their young in the center for protection.
Capybaras are somewhat territorial and the home territory
of a herd or group averages about 200 acres (80 hectares). The
Capybara 1149
Newborns capybaras can see size of the range varies, depending on the season. Home ranges
soon after birth and eat grass
of groups often overlap. A group tends to get larger during the
after one week. Young
capybaras stay together in a dry season and smaller in the wet season when groups tend to
group and females will allow break into smaller groups as more marshes and wetlands are
infants other than their own to available. There are core areas within a group’s range that it
nurse. (Erwin and Peggy
Bauer/Bruce Coleman Inc. will protect for its exclusive use.
Reproduced by permission.) Mating occurs throughout the year but is highest in April and
May. Females usually have one litter per year although two lit-
ters are not uncommon if conditions are favorable. The female
gestation period, the time they carry their young in the womb,
is 104 to 156 days. Litter size ranges from one to eight, with
five being the average. Newborns can see soon after birth and
can eat grass after one week. Young capybaras stay together in
a group and females will allow infants other than their own to
nurse. Both males and females reach puberty, the age of sexual
maturity, at about fifteen months of age. The average lifespan
in the wild is eight to ten years. In captivity, several capybaras
have lived for more than twelve years.
Capybaras have several natural predators, animals that hunt
them for food, in the wild, including jaguars, anacondas (large

water snakes), and caiman (KAY-mun), a large reptile similar
to alligators and crocodiles. Young capybaras are eaten by foxes,
vultures, and wild dogs.
CAPYBARAS AND PEOPLE

Capybaras are hunted in the wild by humans for their meat
and skin, which is used to make wallets and purses. They are
also raised on ranches, much like cattle, for their commercial
value. Their meat when cooked is said to taste similar to pork
or chicken but with a slight fishy flavor. Its fat is used in the
manufacture of pharmaceuticals (medicinal drugs). Capybaras
are considered agricultural pests in some areas because they
raid crops of fruits, vegetables, and sugar cane.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The capybara is not currently threatened, according to the
IUCN. Hunting and exterminations by humans have caused
populations to decline in some areas, particularly Venezuela
and Peru, while they remain stable in others. However, some
conservationists say the overall numbers are in decline.
Books:
Alho, C. J. R., Z. M. Campos, and H. C. Gonçalves. “Ecology, Social
Behavior, and Management of the Capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris)
in the Pantanal of Brazil.” In Advances in Neotropical Mammalogy, edited
by K. H. Redford and J. F. Eisenberg. Gainesville, FL: Sandhill Crane
Press, 1989.
Herrera, E. “Reproductive Strategies of Female Capybaras: Dry-Season
Gestation.” In The Behaviour and Ecology of Riparian Mammals, edited
by N. Dunstone and M. L. Gorman. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press, 1998.
Periodicals:
Johnson, Owain. “World’s Largest Rodent Risks Extinction.” United Press
International (September 20, 2002.)
Jones, Bart. “In Venezuela, Rodent Has Cuisine Status.” The Atlanta
Journal-Constitution (August 18, 1999): D12.
Capybara 1151
Rowe, D., and R. Honeycutt. “Ecological Correlates, Molecular Evolution,
and Phylogenetic Relationships within the Rodent Superfamily
Cavioidea.” Molecular Biology and Evolution 19, no. 3. (2002): 263–277.
Thomas, Z., et al. “On the Occurrence of the Capybara , Hydrochaerus
hydrochaeris (Linnaeus, 1776) in the Dry Chaco of Paraguay (Mammalia:
Rodentia: Hydrochaerus.)” Faunistische Abbandlungen Dresden 22,
no. 2 (2002): 423–429.
Web sites:
Ciszek, D., and C. Winters. “Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris.” Animal Diversity
Hydrochaeris_hydrochaeris.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).

AGOUTIS
Dasyproctidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Dasyproctidae
Agoutis are medium sized rodents, about the size of a class
rabbit, with long, thin legs and a squirrel-like face. Their bod- subclass
ies are slender in the front and bulkier in the rear. There are
two genera (JEN-uh-rah; plural of genus, a group of related order
animals): Dasyprocta and Myoprocta. Agoutis have a head and monotypic order
body length of 12.6 to 25.2 inches (32 to 64 centimeters) and suborder
weigh 1.3 to 8.8 pounds (0.6 to four kilograms). They have a
large head, plump body, and glossy fur. Their faces have promi- ▲ family
nent noses with whiskers, large eyes, and small ears positioned
high on their head.
The tail on Dasyprocta species is a barely visible nub, while
the tail on Myoprocta species is longer and readily visible. There
is a wide range of colors within agoutis. In most species, the
fur on their lower bodies is usually white, yellow, or buff. Their
upper body fur ranges from pale orange, several shades of
brown, to black. Several species have faint stripes. Their hind
legs have three toes and are longer than their front legs, which
have four toes. All toes have sharp, hoof-like claws.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Agoutis are found from southern Mexico to southern Bolivia
and northern Argentina. Their range includes Brazil, Belize,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Paraguay, El Salvador, and Venezuela.
They have also been introduced into the Cayman Islands.
Agoutis 1153
HABITAT
Agoutis are found throughout the forests
of Central and South America, usually in ar-
eas with heavy brush, and near streams,
rivers, ponds, and marshy areas. They gen-
erally graze in open areas and grassland.
SOWING THE SEEDS
DIET
The agouti is an important component in
the health and regeneration of the Agoutis are primarily herbivores, meaning
rainforests. When food is plentiful, they will they are plant-eaters, although they will oc-
bury seeds of fruit and other forest trees to casionally eat seafood. Their diet consists pri-
eat later when food is scarce. This helps marily of fruit. They also eat tender leaf
distribute seeds of a wide variety of tropical plants, seeds, wild vegetables, freshwater
trees, including Virola nobilis, a giant canopy crabs, and fungi. They have extremely hard
tree of the rainforest. They often follow teeth, which they use to crack open nuts, in-
groups of monkeys and eat fruit the cluding the tough Brazil nut.
monkeys drop from trees.
The agouti is diurnal, meaning it is most ac-
tive during the day. Agoutis are fast and agile. Their movements
include walking, trotting, galloping, and they can jump up to
6.6 feet (2 meters) from a stationary position. They live mostly
on the ground, making nests inside hollow logs or under above-
ground tree roots. They also make burrows under stream banks.
Agoutis have a remarkable sense of direction and are able to
find nuts or fruits easily, even months after they have buried
them. In the wild, the agoutis’ main predators are jaguars,
ocelots, snakes, birds of prey, cats, dogs, and humans. In the
wild, agoutis have a lifespan of thirteen to twenty years.
Agoutis are monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), meaning
they mate with only one partner during a period of time, and
mate for life. They are able to breed throughout the year but
especially when there is an abundance of fruit. Agoutis reach
puberty, the age of sexual maturity, at six months. The female
agouti has one or two litters per year, each consisting of one
to four babies. Her gestation period, the time she carries her
young in the womb, is 104 to 120 days.
AGOUTIS AND PEOPLE

Agoutis are hunted for their meat and skin. They are
important seed dispersers in the tropical forests of South
America. They can also be tamed as pets.

CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species, the Ruatan Island agouti and the Coiban agouti
are listed as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction,
by the IUCN. Azara’s agouti is listed as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction, by the IUCN. No other species are con-
sidered currently threatened by the IUCN.
Agoutis 1155
Central American agouti (Dasyprocta punctata)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT CENTRAL AMERICAN AGOUTI
Dasyprocta punctata
Physical characteristics: The Central American agouti has a head

and body length of 12.6 to 25.2 inches (30 to 64 centimeters) and
weighs 1.3 to 8.8 pounds (0.6 to 4 kilograms), about the size of a
small cat. The body is slender. It has short ears, four toes on its front
feet and three on its back feet, all with sharp hoof-like claws.
Its fur is coarse and glossy and it increases in length from the front
to the rear of the body. Fur color ranges from pale yellow and orange
to several shades of brown. The fur on the rump is usually a con-
trasting darker color. Central American agoutis in eastern Panama
and Costa Rica have dark brown fur on their front, orange fur on

their middle back, and a cream-colored rump. Some Central Ameri- The Central American agouti lives
can agouti have faint stripes. in lowland rainforest in Central
and South America. (© Gregory
G. Dimijian/Photo Researchers,
Geographic range: Central American agoutis are found from the Inc. Reproduced by permission.)
states of Tabasco and Chiapas in southern Mexico to southern
Bolivia and northern Argentina. Their range includes Brazil, Belize,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Paraguay, El Salvador, and Venezuela. They
have also been introduced into the Cayman Islands.
Habitat: The Central American agouti prefers to live in rainforests,

thick bushes, savannas, and in areas farmers have cultivated for crops.
In Peru, they are concentrated around the Amazon River in the
surrounding dense, low lying tropical rainforests, and in higher rain-
forests up to about 6,600 feet (2,000 meters) in elevation.
Central American agoutis prefer to be near water and are frequently
found along the banks of rivers, streams, and lakes. They usually build
dens where they sleep in hollow logs, among rock outcroppings, and
under above-ground tree roots.
Agoutis 1157
Diet: Central American agoutis are primarily herbivores, meaning they
eat plants, although they occasionally eat seafood. Their diet consists
primarily of fruit, which they are able to hear falling to the ground from
far away. They also eat tender leaf plants, wild vegetables, freshwater
crabs, fungi, and insects. When feeding, the Central American agouti
sits on its hind legs and holds the food in its front paws, much like a
common squirrel. It turns the fruit around several times, peeling it with
its teeth.
Behavior and reproduction: A pair of Central American agoutis claims

a territory of about 2.5 to 5 acres (1 to 2 hectares), an area containing
fruit trees and a water supply. When other agoutis enter the territory,
the male drives them off, fighting occasionally becoming vicious and
causing serious wounds.
This agouti species is diurnal, meaning they are most active during
the day. They are fast and agile. Their movements include walking,
trotting, galloping, and they can jump up to 6.6 feet (2 meters) from
a stationary position. When in danger, the Central American agouti
stands motionless with one front paw raised. They spend much of their
time grooming to remove parasites, such as ticks and mites.
Central American agoutis have a courtship ritual in which the male
sprays the female with his urine several times, causing the female to
jump around in frenzy, before mating. The female has one or two
litters a year, each usually with two young although she can have
three or four. Her gestation period, the time they carry their young
in the womb, is 104 to 120 days.
Central American agoutis and people: Central American agoutis

are hunted extensively for their meat and skin. They are important
seed dispersers in the tropical forests of South America. They are also
easily tamed as pets.
Conservation status: The Central American agouti is not listed by

the IUCN. ■
Books:
Bernard, Hans Ulrich. Insight Guide: Amazon Wildlife, 4th ed. London:
Insight Guides, 2002.
Eisenberg, J. F., and K. H. Redford. Mammals of the Neotropics. Vol. 3,
The Central Tropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999.

Periodicals:
Asquith, N. M., et al. “The Fruits the Agouti Ate: Hymenaea courabil Seed
Fate When Its Disperser is Absent.” Journal of Tropical Ecology 15
(1999): 229–235.
Lambeth, Ellen. “The Tree, the Bee, and the Agouti.” Ranger Rick (March
2000): 26.
Lee, T. E. Jr., et al. “The Natural History of the Roatán Island Agouti
(Dasyprocta ruatanica), a Study of Behavior, Diet, and Description of
Habitat.” The Texas Journal of Science 52 (2000): 159–164.
Taylor, David. “The Agouti’s Nutty Friend.” International Wildlife
(March–April 2000).
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Dasyproctidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiver-
sity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Dasyproctidae.html (ac-
Agoutis 1159
PACAS
Agoutidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Agoutidae
class There are two species of paca: Agouti paca, commonly known
as the paca, and Agouti taczanowskii, commonly known as
subclass
the mountain paca. Though the genus name Agouti may be
order confusing, pacas and agoutis (family Dasyproctidae) are
monotypic order not in the same family. Pacas are among the largest of all
rodents, with a head and body length of 20 to 30.5 inches
suborder (50 to 77.4 centimeters) and weight of 13.2 to 31 pounds (6
▲ family to 14 kilograms.) Their tail length is 5 to 9 inches (13 to
23 centimeters).
The paca resembles the mountain paca in most features, ex-
cept the paca is slightly larger, has thinner and harsher fur,
shorter nostrils, larger eyes, and thicker claws.
In both species, the upper body fur varies from reddish
brown to dark chocolate or smoke-gray. There is a pattern of
white or pale yellow irregular spots on the sides, arranged in
rows of two to seven. The average number of rows is four. One
or two upper rows are shorter and limited to the rear half of
the body. Two or more middle rows run from the neck to
the rump.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pacas are found from southern Mexico to northern
Argentina. Their range includes Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,
Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.

HABITAT
Pacas primarily live in tropical rainforests
but are also found in a wide variety of forest
habitats, including mangrove swamps, decid-
uous and semi-deciduous forest, dense upland
scrub, and narrow growth along river banks.
NAME CHANGE
DIET
In the 1700s, the scientific name for the
Both species of paca eat mainly fruit but
paca was Cuniculus brisson and in the
their diet changes throughout its range and
twentieth century it was called Odobenus
based on the seasons. Other foods include
brisson. In the early twentieth century, it
roots, seeds, leaves, buds, and flowers. In the
was known by the common name of
wild, pacas are herbivores, meaning they eat
coelogenys. The paca is called conejo
only plants. In captivity, they are omnivores,
pintado in Panama, tepezcuintle in Costa
meaning they eat both plants and flesh. Pacas
Rica, guardatinajas in Mexico, hee in
in zoos eat fruits, vegetables, raw meat,
Suriname, and lapa in Venezuela. Paca is
lizards, and insects.
the common name in Brazil and Argentina.
Pacas are nocturnal, meaning that they are
most active at night, and solitary animals. In the wild, they have
sometimes been seen active in the early morning and late af-
ternoon. During the day, they sleep in a den dug under tree
roots or rock outcroppings, or in hollows in trees, usually along
riverbanks or hillsides. The den usually has several entrances
or exits concealed by leaves.
Pacas are capable swimmers and when they feel threatened,
take to the water where they can remain submerged for up to
fifteen minutes. They have an acute sense of smell and hear-
ing. They walk along fixed trails, but should a trail become
disturbed by humans or other animals, they will abandon it.
Pacas breed year-round. Females are sexually mature, able
to mate, at nine months, while males are sexually mature at
one year. The gestation, or pregnancy, period is 114 to 119 days.
Females have one or two litters of young a year, each usually
with one baby but in rare instances, two babies.
PACAS AND PEOPLE
Pacas are hunted by humans for their meat and are often
killed by farmers who see them as agricultural pests. However,
pacas are important dispersers of seeds from the Attalea oleifera
palm tree in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, and Virola surina-
mensis, a commercial timber tree.
Pacas 1161
CONSERVATION STATUS
Pacas and mountain pacas are not listed as threatened by the
IUCN. However, several wildlife surveys show their numbers
in the wild are dwindling, due to extensive hunting and habi-
tat destruction by humans.

Paca (Agouti paca)
SPECIES
PACA ACCOUNT
Agouti paca
Physical characteristics: The paca has a head and body length of

20 to 20.5 inches (50 to 77.4 centimeters) and a weight of 13 to
31 pounds (6 to 14 kilograms). They have course, slick, glossy fur that
is gray, red, black, or brown on the upper body and white on the lower
body. They may also have four horizontal rows of cream, gray, or white
spots or marks on their sides. Pacas have four toes on their front paws
and five on their back feet. They also have a somewhat arched back.
Geographic range: Pacas live in east-central Mexico to Paraguay,

including Belize, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, French
Pacas 1163
Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Suri-
name, and Venezuela.
Habitat: Pacas live primarily in rainforests near rivers and streams.

They can also be found in seasonally dry areas, swamps, and decid-
uous forests bordering water sources.
Diet: Pacas are herbivores that feed on leaves, stems, roots, seeds,
and fruit, especially avocados and mangos. Pacas do not climb trees
so they depend on tree-climbing animals such as monkeys, to drop
fruit from trees.
Behavior and reproduction: Pacas are nocturnal, meaning they are

most active at night. During the day, they sleep in a den dug under
tree roots or rock outcroppings, usually along riverbanks or hillsides.
The den usually has several entrances and exits concealed by leaves.
Pacas are capable swimmers and take to the water when they feel
threatened. They have an acute sense of smell and hearing.
The paca is monogamous and territorial, with a mated pair shar-
ing a territory, which can be up to 8.6 acres (3.5 hectares). However,

their territories are not exclusive and may overlap with other pairs
of pacas.
Female pacas usually have one litter of babies a year but can have
two or three. A litter contains one or two babies. Their gestation
period, the time they carry their young in the womb, is 114 to 119 days.
Pacas and people: Pacas are hunted by humans for their meat. They
are often killed by farmers who see them as pests.
Conservation status: Pacas are not listed as threatened by the

IUCN. ■
Books:
Domestication and Husbandry of the Paca (Agouti paca) (FAO Conser-
vation Guide: 26). United Nations, NY: Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations (FAO), 1995.
Eisenberg, J. F., and K. H. Redford. Mammals of the Neotropics. Vol. 3,
The Central Tropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999.
Periodicals:
Laska, M., et al. “Food Preferences and Nutrient Composition in Captive
Pacas, Agouti paca (Rodentia, Dasyproctidae).” Mammalian Biology
(January 2003): 31–41.
Pérez, Elizabeth M. “Agouti paca.” Mammalian Species (December
1992): 1–7.
Pimentel, Domingos S., and Marcelo Tabarelli. “Seed Dispersal of the
Palm Attalea oleifera in a Remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest.”
Biotropica (March 2004): 74–84.
Ramirez–Pulido, Jose, et al. “New Records of Agouti paca
(Linnaeus) from the Mexican State of Puebla.” The Texas Journal of Sci-
ence (August 2001): 285.
Web sites:
Fox, David L. “Agouti paca.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Agouti_paca.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Pacas 1165
TUCO-TUCOS
Ctenomyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Ctenomyidae
class Tuco-tucos are small to medium-sized rodents with heavily
built bodies, strong and large heads, and short, powerful legs.
subclass
Their general appearance is that of the pocket gopher (Ge-
order omyidae), found in North America. The head and body length
monotypic order is 8.6 to 16.9 inches (22 to 53 centimeters) and they weigh
from 3.5 ounces to 2.4 pounds (100 grams to 1.1 kilograms).
suborder Their skin is loose on their bodies, making it easier for them
▲ family to turn around in their narrow burrows. They have tiny ears
and short, stiff, hairless tails. The front paws of tuco-tucos are
longer than the hind legs.
They have very distinct bright orange incisors, the two long,
flat, sharp teeth at the front of the mouth, that are wide and
powerful. Their fur is thick and long. It varies in color between
species, including different shades of cream, red, brown, gray
and black. The upper body fur is generally darker than the lower
body fur.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Central and southern South America, including Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay.
HABITAT
Tuco-tucos range from the tropics to the sub-Antarctic re-
gions at the tip of South America. They seem to prefer coastal
areas, grassland, rainforest, deciduous forest, the large treeless
semi-arid grassy plains called steppes, and meadows. They are

found from sea level up to 13,120 feet (4,000
meters) in the Andes Mountains.
Most species live in a very small geographic
area, including the Bolburn’s tuco-tuco and
the silky tuco-tuco that inhabit extreme
southwestern Argentina. There are only sev-
eral species that have a wider geographic GOOD DIGGERS
range, such as the collared tuco-tuco, which Tuco-tucos are natural diggers. They
lives in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay, and prefer soil that is sandy or loamy, meaning
the highland tuco-tuco, found in Argentina, it is a fertile mixture of clay, sand, silt, and
Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. other organic matter. They live in burrows
that they dig. These burrows are very long
DIET
and usually have several branching
All species of tuco-tucos are believed to be tunnels, along with many entrances and
herbivores, meaning they are plant-eaters. exits, usually concealed with plant material
Their primary food sources are roots, grasses, or plugged with rocks. Within these
herbs, and shrubs. tunnels, they dig chambers for nesting and
storing food. Tuco-tucos dig with their
BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION incisors, the two long, flat, sharp teeth at
Tuco-tucos are extremely solitary animals the front of their mouths, and kick the dirt
and are found in pairs only when mating. The out of the tunnel with their strong hind legs.
one known exception is the social tuco-tuco,
found in Argentina, which lives in colonies.
They are diurnal, meaning they are most ac-
tive during the day, and polyrhythmic, meaning they alternate
between short periods of activity and resting throughout the day.
Tuco-tucos build burrows that are an intricate system of
connecting tunnels and small caverns. The main tunnel is about
46.2 feet (14 meters) long, about 2 to 2.8 inches (5 to 7 cen-
timeters) wide, and 12 inches (30 centimeters) below the surface.
The burrow usually contains a grass-lined chamber for nesting,
and several chambers for storing food. At least two species, the
talas tuco-tuco and collared tuco-tuco, keep the temperature of
their borrows at 68 to 71.6°F (20 to 22°C) by blocking and
unblocking their burrow entrances based on sun and wind.
Tuco-tucos use sounds, smells, and touch to communicate
with each other. The name “tuco-tuco” is an attempt by native
South Americans to express in words the sound that several
species of tuco-tuco make when they are giving a warning to an-
imals that invade their territory. The actual sound is more like
“tloc-tloc.” Tuco-tucos have several other sounds including a
deep rumbling noise made by the male when courting a female.
Tuco-Tucos 1167
Tuco-tucos have one or two mating periods each year where
the female produces a litter of babies. The gestation period, the
time they carry their young in the womb, varies from species
to species but generally is 100 to 120 days. Litter sizes vary
from one to seven babies, called pups. Males and females reach
are sexually mature, able to mate, at about eight months. The
average lifespan of a tuco-tuco in the wild is about three years.
TUCO-TUCOS AND PEOPLE

Tuco-tucos are hunted for their meat by several native South
American groups, including the Tehuelches and Onas. Farmers
who consider them an agricultural pest because they eat crops
often kill them. They can also cause problems for horseback
riders when their burrows cave in under the weight of the horses,
causing broken legs to the horses and often injury to the riders
when they fall.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Magellanic tuco-tuco is listed as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction, by the IUCN due to declining habitat. In south-
ern Patagonia, an area of Argentina between the Andes
Mountains and the south Atlantic Ocean, extensive grazing by
sheep on grasses and plants eaten by the highland tuco-tuco and
other agricultural activities, have caused the animal to become
rare and endangered. Three species are listed as Near Threat-
ened, at risk of becoming threatened, by the IUCN: mottled tuco-
tuco, Natterer’s tuco-tuco, and social tuco-tuco. No other species
are listed as threatened by the IUCN.

Pearson’s tuco-tuco (Ctenomys pearsoni)
SPECIES
PEARSON’S TUCO-TUCO ACCOUNT
Ctenomys pearsoni
Physical characteristics: The head and body length for Pearson’s

tuco-tuco is 7.5 inches (19 centimeters) and they weigh about
7 ounces (200 grams). They have brown-red fur with a white band
of fur under the neck and white patches on the sides of the neck.
Geographic range: Pearson’s tuco-tucos live in Peru, Chile, south-

west Uruguay, and Entre Rios province in Argentina.
Habitat: These tuco-tucos prefer coastal sand dunes and grassland.
Tuco-Tucos 1169
Pearson’s tuco-tuco leaves its Diet: Pearson’s tuco-tuco are herbivores. Their diet consists
burrow only to find food and to primarily of grasses, herbs, shrubs, and roots.
mate. It defends its burrow
against intruders. (Illustration by
Joseph E. Trumpey. Reproduced Behavior and reproduction: The Pearson’s tuco-tuco is solitary and
by permission.) individuals come together only to mate. The animal is territorial, mean-
ing it is protective of an area it considers home and claims exclusively
for itself. It will aggressively defend its territory and burrow from other
tuco-tucos. It leaves its burrow only to find food and to mate. It has
several vocalizations, including a sound to warn intruders away from
its territory. It also has an excellent sense of hearing and can detect a
human moving from about 165 feet (50 meters) away.
The mating season for Pearson’s tuco-tuco in Peru is during the
dry season and the babies are born in the wet season, when there is
an abundance of plants. Female Pearson’s tuco-tucos have one litter
of babies per year. The number of babies ranges from two to four.
They are believed to be polygamous, meaning they take more than
one mate during the breeding season.
Pearson’s tuco-tuco and people: They are rarely hunted and be-
cause they are so solitary, they have no known significance to humans.
Conservation status: Pearson’s tuco-tuco is not listed as threatened

by the IUCN. ■

Books:
Redford, Kent H., and John F. Eisenberg. Mammals of the Neotropics:
The Southern Cone, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay. Chicago: Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, 1992.
Wilson, Don E., and DeeAnn M. Reeder. Mammal Species of the World—
A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Smith-
sonian Institution Press, 1993.
Periodicals:
“Social Tuco-tucos Develop More Variety.” Science News (August 26,
2000): 143.
El Jundi, Tarik A. R. J., and Thales R. O. De Freitas. “Genetic and Demo-
graphic Structure in a Population of Ctenomys lami (Rodentia-Ctenomyi-
dae).” Hereditas (February 2004): 18–23.
Lacey, Eileen A., and John R. Wieczorek. “Ecology of Sociality in Rodents:
A Ctenomyid Perspective.” Journal of Mammalogy (November 2003):
1198–1211.
Lessa, Enrique P., and Joseph A. Cook. “The Molecular Phylogenetics of
Tuco-Tucos (Genus Ctenomys, Rodentia: Octodontidae) Suggests an
Early Burst of Speciation.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
(February 1998): 88–99.
Schwartz, Lisa E., and Eileen A. Lacey. “Olfactory Discrimination of Gen-
der by Colonial Tuco-Tucos (Ctenomys sociabilis.)” Mammalian Biology
(January 2003): 53–60.
Web sites:
Myers, P. “Ctenomyidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://animaldiversity.
ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ctenomyidae.html (ac-
Tuco-Tucos 1171
OCTODONTS
Octodontidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Octodontidae
class Octodonts are similar in appearance and size to gerbils and
rats. They have stocky bodies, large heads, pointed noses, and
subclass
medium-sized rounded ears. Octodonts have rear legs that are
order slightly shorter than their front legs. They have four clawed
monotypic order toes on their front paws and five on their back paws.
Octodonts have a head and body length of 5 to 8.7 inches
suborder
(125 to 221 millimeters) and a tail length of 1.5 to seven inches
▲ family (40 to 180 millimeters). Their weight ranges from 2.8 to
10.6 ounces (80 to 300 grams). They have long, dense, silky
fur that is yellow, brown, or gray on their upper bodies and
white or cream on their underside. One exception is the coruro,
which is almost entirely black.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Octodonts are found in southwest Peru, Chile, Argentina,
and southwest Bolivia.
HABITAT
The octodont habitat ranges from coastal scrub brush to bar-
ren rocky outcroppings in mountains. They are found in desert,
deciduous forest, grassland, and foothills.
DIET
Octodonts are herbivores, meaning they eat only plants. All
but one species eat mainly at night. The degu feeds during the
early morning and early evening. Most species eat a diet of grass,

leaves, herbs, bark, and seeds. The coruro
feeds mostly on underground portions
of plants.

All but one species of octodont are noc-
turnal, meaning they are most active at night. TALE OF THE DEGU TAIL
Degus are diurnal, meaning they are most
Never try to catch or pick up a degu by
active during daylight hours.
its tail. As a defense against predators in
Octodonts are extremely talented and the wild, the end of the tail will come off
organized diggers. They build burrows con- when it is pulled, allowing the degu to make
sisting of many branched tunnels and multi- an escape. However, it results in a bloody
ple entrances. When digging a burrow, the injury and can become infected. Usually,
adults form a chain that speeds up the part or all of the remaining tail will either
activity. Most octodonts, such as degus,
dry up and fall off or the degu will chew it
coruros, and rock rats exhibit a complex
off. The lost part never grows back.
system of social behavior, living in colonies
of five to ten adults and their young. They
groom each other, lay bunched together
when sleeping, and the females nurse each other’s babies. Other
species of octodonts are solitary.
The mating system for octodonts is not well understood al-
though in several species it appears to involve courtship ritu-
als. Most species, including the degu and coruro, usually breed
twice a year. Females reach puberty, the age of sexual maturity
at which they can bear offspring, at six months. The gestation
period, the amount of time the young are carried in their
mother’s womb, is seventy-seven to 105 days. Litters usually
consist of four to nine babies.
OCTODONTS AND PEOPLE

Most octodonts have little interaction with humans. Degus
are used for laboratory research. They are also sold as pets in
the United States. In the wild, degus and coruros are often killed
by farmers who consider them agricultural pests, blaming them
for destroying grain fields, orchards, and vineyards.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Mocha Island degu is listed by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN) as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction,
due to their small distribution area. The plains viscacha rat is
listed as Vulnerable due to a loss of at least 20 percent of its pop-
ulation within ten years. Other species are not listed by IUCN.
Octodonts 1173
Degu (Octodon degus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT DEGU
Octodon degus
Physical characteristics: Degus, also called trumpet-tailed rats, are

similar in body size and appearance to gerbils, except for the fact that
their faces share more of a resemblance with squirrels. They have
chubby, round bodies, large heads and short necks. The head and
body length of degus are from 9.8 to 12.2 inches (25 to 31 centime-
ters, with a tail length of 2.9 to 5.1 inches (7.5 to 13.0 centimeters.
They weigh 6 to 10.5 ounces (170 to 300 grams).
They have long whiskers and relatively long tails that have very
little hair, except for a tuft of fur at the tip. The degus’ rear legs are

slightly shorter than their front legs. They have
four clawed toes on their front paws and five on
their back paws. Degus have yellow or brown fur
mixed with some black on their upper bodies,
and white fur on their underside. Their teeth are
bright orange.
Geographic range: In Chile, from the coastal

areas of the west slopes of the Andes Mountains
to about 9,000 feet (2,700 meters).
Habitat: Degus live in the brush, shrubs, and

grassy plains of grasslands and deciduous forests.
Diet: Degus are herbivores, meaning they eat

only plants. They eat mainly during the early
morning and early evening. Their diet consists
mainly of grass, leaves, herbs, bark, and seeds.
Behavior and reproduction: Degus are ex-

tremely social and live in groups of five to ten adults and their young. Degus eat mostly plants, and
search for their food in the early
They groom each other, lay bunched together when sleeping, and the morning and early evening.
females nurse each other’s babies. A degu group builds burrows con- (© Fletcher & Baylis/Photo
sisting of many branched tunnels and multiple entrances. When dig- Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by
permission.)
ging a burrow, the adults form a chain that speeds up the activity.
Degus are diurnal. In the wild, they live about one to three years.
In captivity, their average lifespan is five to nine years, with some
reportedly living up to thirteen years.
Degus usually breed twice a year. Females are sexually mature,
able to bear offspring, at six months. Litters usually consist of four
to nine babies.
Degus and people: Degus are used for laboratory research. They
are also sold as pets in the United States. In the wild, degus are
often killed by farmers who consider them to be agricultural pests,
blaming them for destroying grain fields, orchards, and vineyards.
Conservation status: Degus are not listed as threatened by the

IUCN. ■
Octodonts 1175
Books:
Boruchowitz, David. The Guide to Owning a Degu. Champaign, IL: TFH
Publications, 2002.
Griffiths-Irwin, Diane, and Julie Davis. How to Care for Your Degu.
Champaign, IL: TFH Publications, 2001.
Vanderlip, Sharon (DVM), and Michele Earle-Bridges. Degus. Hauppauge,
NY: Barrons Educational Series, 2001.
Periodicals:
Bacigalupe, Leonardo D., et al. “Activity and Space Use by Degus: A
Trade-Off Between Thermal Conditions and Food Availability?” Journal
of Mammalogy (February 2003): 331–318.
Begall, Sabine, et al. “Activity Patterns in a Subterranean Social Rodent,
Spalacopus cyanus (Octodontidae).” Journal of Mammalogy (February
2002): 153–158.
Begall, Sabine, and Milton H. Gallardo. “Spalacopus cyanus (Rodentia:
Octodontidae): An Extremist in Tunnel Constructing and Food Storing
Among Subterranean Mammals.” Journal of Zoology (May 2000): 53–60.
Gallardo, M. H., and F. Mondaca. “The Systematics of Aconaemys
(Rodentia, Octodontidae) and the Distribution of A. sagei in Chile.”
Mammalian Biology (April 2002): 105–112.
Kenagy, G. J., et al. “Microstructure of Summer Activity Bouts of Degus
in a Thermally Heterogeneous Habitat.” Journal of Mammalogy (April
2004): 260–267.
Torres-Mura, Juan C., and Luis C. Contreras. “Spalacopus cyanus.”
Mammalian Species(December 4, 1998): 1–5.
Woods, Charles A., and David K. Boraker. “Octodon degus.” Mammalian
Species (November 21, 1975): 1–5.
Web sites:
Cloyd, Emily. “Octodon degus.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Octodon_
degus.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Myers, Phil. “Family Octodontidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Octodontidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).

CHINCHILLA RATS
Abrocomidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Abrocomidae
Chinchilla rats have large, round ears, large eyes, and an class
elongated head. They have short legs with four toes on the front
subclass
feet and five toes on the back feet. The head and body length
of the chinchilla rat is 6 to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters with order
a tail length of 2.4 to 7.2 inches (6 to 18 centimeters). They monotypic order
weigh from 7.1 to 10.6 ounces (200 to 300 grams).
suborder
The fur of the chinchilla rat is thick and soft. Fur coloring
is silver-gray or gray-brown on the upper body and light brown, ▲ family
cream, white, or yellow on its underside.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
They are found from coastal areas to the Andes Mountains
in southern Peru, northern Chile, northwest Argentina, and
central Bolivia.
HABITAT
Chinchilla rats live in rock crevices and elaborate burrows
under rocks or at the base of shrubs.
DIET
Chinchilla rats are herbivores, meaning they eat only plants.
The feed at night on seeds, fruits, and nuts.

There is very little scientific information on the behavior of
chinchilla rats, due to their small population. Only a handful
of research has been done on the small rodents. What is known
Chinchilla Rats 1177

has usually been gained by observing the be-
havior of only a few of each species.
Chinchilla rats live inside burrows in
colonies of up to six individuals. Colonies are
usually close together, sometimes as little as
59 feet (18 meters) apart. Little is known about
ROCK CLIMBERS the reproductive behavior of chinchilla rats.
Chinchilla rats love to climb and are They usually mate in January or February. The
extremely talented. Although they spend gestation period, the length of time the female
most of their time on or under the ground, carries the babies in her womb, is 115 to 118
they do climb rock outcroppings, plants, days. Litters are usually one or two babies.
and trees. Sometimes they live within There are four species: Bennett’s chinchilla
crevices of rocky cliffs. Often they will build rat, which lives in the coastal foothills and
sidewalls inside their rocky dens up to high plains of the Andes Mountains in Chile;
10 feet (3 meters) high. They use a Bolivian chinchilla rat, which is found in cen-
construction material made of their own tral Bolivia; ashy chinchilla rat, found in the
feces and urine. When dry, the mixture is high plains of the Andes in Bolivia, Chile, and
almost as hard as rock. Peru; and Cuscomys ashaninki, which does not
have a common name, found in Peru.
Cuscomys ashaninki was discovered in
1999 when a single dead body was found. As a result, there is
virtually no information available on this species. The skeletal
remains of another species, Cuscomys oblativa, have been found
in Peru but the species is believed to be extinct.
Bennett’s chinchilla rat sometimes shares burrows with
similar-sized degus. A Bennett’s chinchilla rat in captivity lived
two years and four months. Their lifespan in the wild is be-
lieved to be one to two years.
CHINCHILLA RATS AND PEOPLE

Chinchilla rats are sometimes hunted by humans for their
fur, which is sold at local fur markets and has a low value. It
is sometimes sold to tourists as real chinchilla fur. They were
hunted extensively for their fur in the early twentieth century
and all species were nearly extinct by the 1920s when several
South American countries passed laws to protect them.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Bolivian chinchilla rat is listed as Vulnerable, facing a
high risk of extinction in the wild, due to its population being
confined to a small area. The other chinchilla rats are not listed
as threatened by the IUCN.

Ashy chinchilla rat (Abrocoma cinerea)
SPECIES
ASHY CHINCHILLA RAT ACCOUNT
Abrocoma cinerea
Physical characteristics: The head and body length of the ashy

chinchilla rat is 6 to 10 inches (15 to 25 centimeters) with a tail length
of 2.4 to 7.2 inches (6 to 18 centimeters). They weigh from 7.1 to
10.6 ounces (200 to 300 grams). They have large, round ears, large
eyes, and an elongated head. They have short legs with four toes on
the front feet and five toes on the back feet. The fur of the ashy chin-
chilla rat is thick and soft. Fur coloring is silver-gray on the upper
body and cream, white, or yellow on its underside.

Geographic range: Ashy chinchilla rats live in
the Altiplano, a high plateau area of the Andes
Mountains, from southern Bolivia and Peru to
central Chile.
Habitat: They are found in rocky regions of

12,000 to 16,400 feet (3,700 to 5,000 meters).
They usually live in burrows under rocks or at
the base of shrubs.
Diet: Ashy chinchilla rats are herbivores, mean-

ing they eat only plants. They feed at night on
seeds, fruits, and nuts.
Behavior and reproduction: Ashy chinchilla rats

live in burrows in colonies of up to six individu-
The ashy chinchilla rat als. Colonies are usually close together, sometimes as little as 59 feet
communicates through grunts (18 meters) apart. Little is known about the reproductive behavior of
and squeaks. (Hernan Torres.
Reproduced by permission.) ashy chinchilla rats. They usually mate in January or February. The
gestation period, the length of time the female carries the babies in her
womb, is 115 to 118 days. Litters are usually one or two babies.
This species of chinchilla rat makes several vocal sounds, includ-
ing a grunt when it is fighting or about to fight, a squeak when it is
frightened, and a low gurgle when being groomed by one of its
colony members.
Ashy chinchilla rats and people: Ashy chinchilla rats are some-
times hunted by humans for their fur, which is sold at local fur mar-
kets and has a low value. It is sometimes sold to tourists as real
chinchilla fur.
Conservation status: The ashy chinchilla rat is not listed as threat-

ened by IUCN. However, its population is believed to be low and in
decline due to hunting and habitat destruction by humans. ■
Books:

A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 2nd ed. Washington, DC:
Periodicals:
Braun, Janet K., and Michael A. Mares. “Systematics of the Abrocoma
cinerea Species Complex (Rodentia: Abrocomidae), with a Description of a
New Species of Abrocoma.” Journal of Mammalogy (February 2002): 1–19.
Huchon, Dorothée, and Emmanuel J. P. Douzery. “From the Old World to
the New World: A Molecular Chronicle of the Phylogeny and Biogeogra-
phy of Hystricognath. Rodents.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
(August 2001): 238–251.
Meserve, Peter, et al. “Role of Biotic Interactions in a Small Mammal As-
semblage in Semiarid Chile.” Ecology (January 1996): 133–148.
Meserve, Peter L., et al. “Thirteen Years of Shifting Top-Down and
Bottom-Up Control.” BioScience (July 2003): 633–646.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Abrocomidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Abrocomidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Nash, Natalee. “Abrocoma cinerea.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Abro-
coma_cinerea.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).

SPINY RATS
Echimyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Echimyidae
class The physical characteristics of spiny rats vary greatly from
species to species, from rat-sized to the size of a small cat. Their
subclass head and body length is from 4.13 to 18.9 inches (10.5 to
order 48 centimeters) and a tail length of 0.2 to 16.6 inches (0.5 to 42
centimeters). They weigh from 0.46 to 2.9 pounds (210 to 1,300
monotypic order grams). In appearance, most species of spiny rat are rat-like, with
suborder pointed noses, although several species have blunt noses and re-
semble squirrels. Their front feet have four toes while their hind
▲ family
feet have five.
Spiny rats got their name because most species have spiny
or bristly fur, most noticeably on their backs and rumps. The
spiny qualities vary between species: the armored rat has well-
developed spines, spiny rats, or casiragua, have broad and stiff
hair, and the punaré has soft fur with no hint of spines.
Fur color also varies greatly between species, with upper
body fur being gray or various shades of brown, and white or
cream on their undersides. Several species, including the toro
and the white-faced arboreal spiny rat have black-and-white or
white faces.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Spiny rats are found throughout southern Central America
and northern and central South America, from southern
Honduras to northern Argentina and Chile.
HABITAT
Spiny rats live in a wide variety of habitats, from species that
live exclusively in treetops, to forest floor dwellers to those that

live underground in complex burrow sys-
tems. Many species live near the coast, rivers,
or streams. The rato de Taquara lives exclu-
sively in bamboo thickets along stream and
river banks. They are found in both old
growth and new-growth forests, but are most
abundant in forests of intermediate age A RAT’S TAIL
where there are large numbers of fruit trees,
such as palm and fig. Spiny rats are often the As a defensive feature against
most abundant animal in their geographic predators, spiny rats have a tail that easily
range. breaks off. If grasped by the tail, it will
break off between the fourth and fifth
DIET vertebrae. The rat can then escape to its
burrow. There is little blood loss and the
Spiny rats are mostly herbivores, meaning
break does not appear to harm the rats.
they eat only plants, although some species
However, this way of escape can only be
eat insects. Their diet includes fruits, nuts,
used once since the tail does not grow
grass, and sugar cane. Several species, in-
back. A survey of spiny rats in central
cluding rato de Taquara, eat only bamboo
Panama found that 15 to 20 percent of all
shoots and leaves.
adult spiny rats did not have tails.

Spiny rats are nocturnal, meaning they are mostly active at
night. Most die if they are exposed to heat or dryness. De-
pending on the species, they live either individually, in small
groups, or like the broad-headed spiny rat, in large colonies.
The average lifespan is two to four years in the wild.
They are generally territorial, meaning they are protective of
an area they consider home and claim exclusively for them-
selves. Males and females have separate territories. Males de-
fend their burrows against other males but females are less
aggressive and their territories frequently overlap. Territories
are usually small, from 1.2 to 14.8 acres (0.5 to 6 hectares) and
can vary greatly between the seasons.
Spiny rats play a critical role in the health of the rainforest of
Central and South America by dispersing the seeds from a wide
variety of trees and other forest plants through their excretions.
They are also an important source of food for predators such as
ocelots, owls, boa constrictors, anacondas, and jaguars.
Little is known about the breeding habits of many species.
In general, spiny rats breed throughout the year and females
can give birth to four to six litters a year. The litter size ranges
from one to seven babies, with the average being two to four.
Spiny Rats 1183

Gestation period, the time the female carries the young in her
womb, varies but is generally sixty to seventy days. In the
punaré, a species of spiny rat, the females produce two or three
litters per year and gestation period is from ninety-five to
ninety-eight days.
SPINY RATS AND PEOPLE

Several species are hunted and eaten by humans, some are
killed by farmers who consider them agricultural pests, and sev-
eral species are used as laboratory animals.
CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN lists three species of spiny rats as Extinct, or died
out; one species as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction; five species as Vulnerable, facing a high
risk of extinction in the wild; and nine species are Near Threat-
ened, not currently threatened, but could become so. The re-
maining species are not listed as threatened by the World

Spiny rat (Proechimys semispinosus)
SPECIES
SPINY RAT ACCOUNT
Proechimys semispinosus
Physical characteristics: The spiny rat is about the size of a com-

mon house rat, except with a larger head and smaller ears. Head and
body length is 6.4 to 12 inches (16.0 to 30.0 centimeters) and a tail
length of 4.4 to 12.8 inches (11.2 to 32.5 centimeters). They weigh
from 10.5 to 17.5 ounces (300 to 500 grams). Their fur is orange-
brown on the upper body and white underneath.
Geographic range: The spiny rat is found in Colombia, Costa Rica,

Ecuador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.
Habitat: The spiny rat lives in rainforest, usually in dense under-

brush and near rivers and streams.
Spiny Rats 1185

The spiny rat doesn’t dig its own
burrow, but will live in burrows
dug by other animals. Males
defend the burrow against other
males. (Illustration by Barbara
permission.)
Diet: They are mostly herbivores, feeding primarily on fallen fruit

but sometimes on fungi.
Behavior and reproduction: The spiny rat is nocturnal, meaning it

is mostly active at night. It sleeps, nests, and stores food in burrows
dug by other animals, rock crevices, or hollows in trees or logs. It
does not dig its own burrow. The male defends its burrow against
other males. The lifespan of the spiny rat is two to four years.
The species breeds throughout the year and the females may have
three to six litters per year. The gestation period, the time the female
carries a litter in her womb, is sixty-three to sixty-six days, with the
number of babies ranging from one to five. They reach sexual matu-
rity at six to seven months.
Spiny rats and people: Spiny rats are trapped and eaten by local
people.
Conservation status: The IUCN does not consider the spiny rat to
be threatened. ■

Books:
Leite, Yuri L. R. Evolution and Systematics of the Atlantic Tree Rats,
Genus Phyllonrys (Rodentia, Echimyidae). Berkeley, CA: University of

A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, 2nd ed. Washington, DC:
Periodicals:
Adler, Gregory H. “Impacts of Resources on Populations of a Tropical
Forest Rodent.” Ecology (January 1998): 242–255.
Lambert, Thomas D., and Gregory H. Adler. “Microhabitat Use by a Trop-
ical Forest Rodent, Proechimys semispinosus, in Central Panama.”
Journal of Mammalogy (February 2000): 70–76.
Lara, Marcia C., and Patton, James L. “Evolutionary Diversification of
Spiny Rats (Genus Trinomys, Rodentia: Echimyidae) in the Atlantic For-
est of Brazil.” Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (December
2000): 661–686.
Marcomini, Monique, and Elisabeth Spinelli de Oliveira. “Activity Pattern
of Echimyid Rodent Species from the Brazilian Caatinga in Captivity.”
Biological Rhythm Research (April 2003): 157–166.
Matacq, Marjorie D, et al. “Population Genetic Structure of Two Ecolog-
ically Distinct Amazonian Spiny Rats: Separating History and Current
Ecology.” Evolution (July 2000): 1423–1432.
Morato, Manaf P., et al. “Profile of Wild Neotropical Spiny Rats
(Trinomys, Echimyidae) in Two Behavioral Tests.” Physiology and Be-
havior (July 2003): 129–133.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Echimyidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Echimyidae.
Spiny Rats 1187

HUTIAS
Capromyidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Capromyidae
Number of species: 14 living
species
class Hutias are medium to large, stocky rodents with broad,
round heads. They have small eyes and short, rounded
subclass
ears. Their head and body length is 14 to 32 inches (36 to
order 80 centimeters) and their tail length is 1.4 to 17 inches (3.5
monotypic order to 43.1 centimeters). They weigh 1.1 to 18.7 pounds (0.5 to
8.5 kilograms). Their stomachs are divided into three com-
suborder partments, making it one of the most complex stomachs in
▲ family all rodents.
Hutias have short legs and five toes on each foot. Each toe
has a strong, usually curved, claw. Their fur is generally thick
and coarse and the color is usually various shades of black,
brown, or gray, with the underside fur being slightly lighter.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hutias are found exclusively in the Caribbean, particularly
Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican
Republic.
HABITAT
Hutias usually live in forests, plantations, scrublands, marshy
areas, and mountainous, rocky areas of rainforest. Brown’s
hutia, also known as the Jamaican hutia, usually lives on ex-
posed areas of limestone in the interior of Jamaica. They build
their nests in rock crevices or tunnels. The largest populations
of hutia are in Cuba, including the Cuban hutia, black-tailed
hutia, and prehensile-tailed hutia.

DIET
Some hutias, such as the eared hutia, are
omnivores, meaning that they eat both plants
and flesh, but eat mostly plants. Their diet
includes leaves, fruit, and bark, and occa-
sionally lizards, and small animals. Some
species, such as Brown’s hutia, are herbi- BACK FROM THE DEAD
vores, meaning that they eat only plants. The Bahamian hutia was once common
throughout the Bahamas until the first
European settlers arrived in the 1600s.
While very shy towards humans, hutias Their numbers then started to drop due to
are usually extremely social with each other. hunting and destruction of its habitat and it
They engage in various activities as a group, was believed extinct by the 1800s. In 1966,
including foraging for food and grooming. however, a survey expedition discovered
They generally live in social groups and do hundreds of Bahamian hutias living on
not seem to be territorial. the small remote uninhabited island of
Some hutias are terrestrial, meaning they East Plana Cay. The mammal became a
live mainly on the ground, while other protected species in 1968 and by the start
species of hutia are primarily arboreal, mean- of the twenty-first century, numbered about
ing they live mostly in treetops. Most species 10,000. It has been introduced to several
are diurnal, meaning they are mostly active nearby small, uninhabited islands where it
during the day. Brown’s hutia is nocturnal, is thriving. It is listed by IUCN as Vulnerable
meaning it is most active at night. due to its limited geographic range.
Hutias breed year-round and have one to
three litters of babies a year. Females have a
gestation period, the length of time they carry their young in
the womb, of 110 to 150 days. Females have one to six babies
per litter with an average litter size of one or two. The moth-
ers nurse their young until they are about five months old, and
the young are able to reproduce at ten months. The average
lifespan is eight to eleven years.
HUTIAS AND PEOPLE

Some species of hutia are widely hunted by humans for
their meat, such as Brown’s hutia in Jamaica, despite its threat-
ened status. In some areas of Cuba hutias are abundant and
considered an agricultural pest by farmers. There is growing
concern among conservationists that more species will become
extinct soon due to human activities. Brown’s hutia is
continuing to drop in population despite its protected status
under Jamaica’s Wildlife Protection Act of 1945, which is
rarely enforced.
Hutias 1189
CONSERVATION STATUS
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) lists five species that
have recently become Extinct, died out; six species that are
tion; and four species that are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of
extinction.

Cuban hutia (Capromys pilorides)
SPECIES
CUBAN HUTIA ACCOUNT
Capromys pilorides
Physical characteristics: Cuban hutias, also known as Desmarest’s

hutias, are the largest species of hutia. They have a head and body
length of 18 to 35 inches (46 to 90 centimeters), a tail length of 6 to
12 inches (15.2 to 30 centimeters) and a weight of 6.6 to 18.7 pounds
(3 to 8.5 kilograms). They have short, stocky legs and “waddle” when
they move. Their feet are broad and each foot has five toes with
prominent claws.
They have thick, coarse fur and on the upper body, which can be
various shades of black, gray, brown, red, yellow, and cream. Their
underside fur is usually softer and a lighter shade.
Geographic range: These hutias live on mainland Cuba and its sur-
rounding islands.
Habitat: Their habitat includes tropical rainforest, mangrove forests,

marshy areas, scrubland, and the mountains of eastern Cuba.
Hutias 1191
The Cuban hutia uses its strong
claws to climb trees. (Frank W.
Lane/FLPA—Images of Nature.
Diet: Cuban hutias are omnivores, meaning they eat both plants and
flesh, but eat mostly plants. Their diet includes leaves, fruit, bark,
lizards, and small animals.
Behavior and reproduction: Cuban hutias are shy and usually live
in pairs, although pairs have often been observed living in larger,
loosely-associated groups. They are extremely social among others of
their species. They are primarily arboreal, meaning they live mostly
in treetops, and diurnal, meaning they are most active during the day.
One of the Cuban hutias’ main types of social behavior is a combi-
nation of grooming and play wrestling between a pair.
Cuban hutias breed all year but births peak in June. Females have
a gestation period, the length of time they carry their young in the
womb, of 110 to 140 days. Females have one to six babies per litter
with the average litter size of two or three offspring. The mothers
nurse their young until they are about five months old and reach
sexual maturity at ten months. The average lifespan is eight to
eleven years.
Cuban hutias and people: Cuban hutias are hunted by humans for
their meat. In some areas of Cuba they are in such abundance that
they are considered an agricultural pest by farmers.
Conservation status: The Cuban hutia is not currently threat-

ened. While the Cuban hutia is abundant in many areas of the

island-nation, their population has decreased drastically in the moun-
tains of eastern Cuba. ■
Books:
National Research Council. “Hutia.” In Microlivestock: Little-Known Small
Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.edu/books/
030904295X/html/251.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Periodicals:
Huchon, Dorothée, and Emmanuel J. P. Douzery. “From the Old World to
the New World: A Molecular Chronicle of the Phylogeny and Biogeogra-
phy of Hystricognath Rodents.” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
(August 2001): 238–251.
Nedbal, Michael A., et al. “Molecular Systematics of Hystricognath
Rodents: Evidence from the Mitochondrial 125 rRNA Gene.” Molecular
Phylogenetics and Evolution(September 1994): 206–220.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Family Capromyidae.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Capromyidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Reis, Brianna. “Capromys pilorides.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Capromys_pilorides.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Raffo, Erica. “Geocapromys_brownii.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
Geocapromys_brownii.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Hutias 1193
COYPU
Myocastoridae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Myocastoridae
One species: Coypu (Myocastor
coypus)
class The coypu, sometimes called the South American beaver
or nutria, looks like a muskrat, only larger. It has a stout
subclass
body that is highly arched and a large, somewhat triangular
order head. It has small eyes and ears on the upper part of its
monotypic order head. Coypus have a head and body length of 1.4 to 2.1 feet
(43 to 63.6 centimeters), and a tail length of 0.8 to 1.4 feet
suborder (25.5 to 42.5 centimeters. They weigh from 11 to 37 pounds
▲ family (5 to 17 kilograms).
They have short, hairless legs with the hind feet longer than
the front feet. Each hind foot has five toes, four of which are
connected by webbing. The fifth toe is used for grooming. The
front feet have four long, flexible toes without webbing, and a
non-functioning thumb. Their tails are long, round, and hair-
less. One of the coypu’s most distinguishing features is its large,
wide, bright orange incisors, the flat, sharp-edged teeth at the
front of the mouth used for gnawing and cutting and tearing
food. They can close their lips behind the incisors, allowing
them to gnaw while underwater. Their ears, nose, and nostrils
are located near the top of the head so they are above water
when the coypu is swimming.
Coypus have two types of hair; soft, dense under fur, and
outer fur of long, course, bristly hair, called guard hair. The
undercoat is dark gray and the outer coat is various shades of
red, brown and yellow. The stomach fur is soft and dense and
usually a pale yellow. The fur on the chin and around the nose
is usually white.

Coypu (Myocastor coypus)
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The coypu is native to southern South America, from the
middle of Bolivia and southern Brazil to Tierra del Fuego at the
southern tip of the continent, including Argentina, Chile,
Paraguay, and Uruguay. It has been introduced into North
America, Europe, northern Asia, east Africa, and the Middle
East where there are populations in the wild. In the United
States, it is found in fifteen states coast to coast but particularly
in Louisiana, Florida, Oregon, and Maryland. In Canada, it is
found in British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec. It is found
throughout continental Europe, including France, Germany,
Scandinavia, Austria, Russia, and Poland. Other non-native
populations include those in Israel, Zimbabwe, and Japan.
HABITAT
Coypus adapt well to a wide range of habitats, including
rainforest, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, scrub forest,
Coypu 1195
Coypus are not native to the grassland, wetland such as swamps and marshes, and the banks
United States, but were brought
to Louisiana to raise for fur. A
or shores of lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams.
number escaped, and now breed
in the wild. (© YVA Momatiuk DIET
and John Eastcott/Photo
Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by South American coypus are omnivores, meaning they eat both
permission.) plants and flesh, although they eat mostly plant material.
Coypus in other parts of the world are herbivores, meaning they
eat only plants. Their diet consists of a wide variety of plants and
plant material, including aquatic plants such as rushes, arrow-
head, smartweed, reeds, cattail, bullwhip, alligator weed, and
duckweed. They also eat plant leaves, stems, roots, bark, clover,
and cultivated crops such as sugarcane, sugar beets, and
soybeans. On occasion, coypus in South America will eat insects,
mussels, snails, mollusks, and earthworms.

Coypus are extremely passive and rarely aggressive. They are
shy and fearful; the slightest disturbance will send them scur-
rying to the shelter of water, burrow, or other hiding places.

Depending on their habitat, coypus are noc-
turnal, meaning they are most active at night,
or crepuscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur), meaning
they are most active at dawn and twilight.
Coypus are semi-aquatic, meaning they live
both on land and in water. On land, they walk
with slow, clumsy, awkward movements but WANTED: DEAD OR ALIVE
if threatened, they can run fast and jump short
In 1938, about 20 coypus were
distances. They are excellent swimmers and
imported into Louisiana from Argentina to
can remain submerged in water for more than
be bred for their fur. But many escaped
ten minutes. Coypus can close their nostrils
captivity and adapted well to the warm, wet
and lips behind their incisors while cutting
climate and swampy habitat, breeding
vegetation under the water. The coypu is
voraciously. They spread quickly to nearby
social and territorial, meaning it is protective
states. As of 2004, there were an
of an area it considers home and claims ex-
estimated twenty million coypus in the
clusively for itself and its mate or family group.
Louisiana. In 1998, it is estimated coypus
They live in groups of two to thirteen indi-
viduals, usually related female adults, their destroyed 100,000 acres of swamp and
offspring, and one adult male. Young adult marshland, posing a serious threat to many
males usually live alone. Males and females native species of birds, mammals, and
have separate territories. The average home amphibians. To combat the threat to the
range is 6.1 acres (2.47 hectares) for females environment, the Louisiana Department of
and 13.8 acres (5.68 hectares) for males. Wildlife and Fisheries received a $10
million, five-year federal grant to help
Coypus sleep and nest in burrows, which
eradicate, remove, coypus from the state.
range from a single, short tunnel, to multiple
In 2002, the state began paying hunters
tunnels with small nesting chambers. Tun-
$4 for each coypu they brought into state
nels are often 50 feet (15 meters) or more in
length. Above ground, they make raised beds wildlife offices. Most are brought in dead
of vegetation where they feed and groom. but wildlife workers kill any that are
trapped and brought in alive. In the first two
Breeding occurs year-round and females
weeks of the program, 9,000 coypus were
have two or three litters per year. The gesta-
killed. The goal is to kill 400,000 per year.
tion period, the time the females carry their
young in the womb, is 127 to 139 days. The
average litter size is six babies although it can
range from one to thirteen. Coypus born in the summer reach
sexual maturity at three to four months of age. For those born
in the fall, it is reached at six or seven months of age. The av-
erage lifespan is less than one year in the wild. In a few cases
under ideal conditions, coypus have lived for three to six years
in the wild. However, in captivity, they can live for ten years.
In the wild, coypus have many predators, including large
snakes like the anaconda and boa constrictor, large cats such
as ocelots and jaguars, red wolves, crocodiles, and otters.
Coypu 1197
COYPUS AND PEOPLE
The fur of coypus is valued for its soft, velvety texture and
people in South America, North America, Europe, and Japan
eat the meat. Much of the meat and fur from South American
comes from captive coypu breeding farms while in the United
States it comes from coypus hunted in the wild, especially in
Louisiana and Maryland.
In the 1930s, coypus were introduced into southeast
England and the population there quickly grew. Coypus were
blamed for destroying native marsh plants along riverbanks and
raiding cultivated crops. Their burrows were also believed to
weaken and damage river and stream banks. In the 1980s, the
British government began an intensive campaign to eradicate
(remove completely) coypus from England and in 1989, the
government officially declared the program a total success with
the killing of the last coypu.
There are eradication efforts underway in the United States,
Japan, and France.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Coypus are not currently threatened, according to the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). Their numbers are declining
along many rivers and lakes in Argentina due to hunting and
trapping by humans. The eradication efforts in the United
States, France, and Japan are likely to significantly reduce pop-
ulations in those areas.
Books:
Eisenberg, John F., and Kent H. Redford. Mammals of the Neotropics:

The Central Neotropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil. Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 2000.
Eisenberg, John F., and Kent H. Redford. Mammals of the Neotropics:
The Southern Cone: Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1992.
National Research Council. “Coypu.” In Microlivestock: Little-Known
Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC:

National Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.edu/
books/030904295X/html/217.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Periodicals:
“Coypu Invasion.” Sea-River Newsletters (October 27, 2003): 118.
Felipe, A. E., et al. “Characterization of the Estrous Cycle of the Myocastor
coypus (Coypu) by Means of Exfoliative Colpocytology.” Journal of
Mastozoologia Neotropical (July–December 2001): 129–137.
Guichón, M. Laura, et al. “Social Behavior and Group Formation in the
Coypu (Myocastor coypus) in the Argentinean Pampas.” Journal of
Mammalogy (February 2003): 254–262.
Kamerick, Megan. “Nutria Bounty Lures Hunters into Effort to Save
Land.” New Orleans CityBusiness (December 23, 2002).
Nickens, Edward T. “Exotic Species: Trying to Show the Door to a
Marsh Munching Immigrant from South America.”National Wildlife
(December–January 1999): 14.
Woods, Charles A., et al. “Myocastor coypus.” Mammalian Species
(June 5, 1992): 1–8.
Web sites:
D’Elia, Guillermo. “Myocastor coypus.” Animal Diversity Web.
Myocastor_coypus.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Coypu 1199
PIKAS, RABBITS, AND HARES
Lagomorpha
●
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
order C H A P T E R
class Lagomorphs are small to medium-sized mammals catego-
rized into two families: Leporidae (rabbits and hares) and
subclass
Ochotonidae (pikas [PEE-kuhz]). Rabbits and hares have long
● order hind legs adapted for running at fast speeds over open ground.
monotypic order Pikas are small mammals with large, round ears and resemble
guinea pigs in size and appearance. Adult rabbits and hares have
suborder a body length of 10 to 28 inches (25.4 to 71.1 centimeters) and
family weigh 14 ounces to 15.3 pounds (400 to 7,000 grams). They
have short, furry tails and ear sizes vary greatly and generally
are shorter in rabbits and longer in hares. The main exceptions
are the rabbit breeds known as lops, which have long, floppy
ears. Females are generally larger than males. Hares generally
are larger than rabbits and have black-tipped ears.
Rabbits and hares usually have thick, soft fur that comes in
a wide spectrum of colors, shades, and combinations, includ-
ing black, white, brown, beige, tan, blue, orange, red, pink,
cream, lilac, silver, and lavender.
Pikas are small, compact mammals with short front and rear
legs. They range in length from 5 to 12 inches (125 to 300 mil-
limeters) and weigh 3.5 to 7 ounces (100 to 200 grams). Pikas
lack a noticeable tail. They have long, soft fur that is usually
gray or brown.
Lagomorphs have eyes set high on their head, looking side-
ways, giving them a wide field of vision. They have weak but
flexible necks, allowing them to turn their heads with a wide
range of motion. Lagomorphs have a single opening to pass

both urine and feces. They also have a specialized part of their
large intestine, called the cecum (SEE-kum), which acts as a
fermentation chamber and aids in digestion of grasses.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Lagomorphs are found on every continent except Antarctica.
They are native to every continent they are found on, except
Australia where they were introduced.
HABITAT
Pikas are found in two distinct habitats. Some live among
rocks and rocky areas. Others live in meadows, steppes (semi-
arid, grass-covered plains), shrubs and desert. Hares live in
arctic tundra, steppes, wetlands, forests, and deserts. Rabbits
live in pine and deciduous forests, desert, mountainous areas,
scrubland, tropical rainforest, near rivers and streams, rocky
outcroppings, grasslands, and areas of dense brush or other
low-lying vegetation.
DIET
Lagomorphs are herbivores, meaning they are plant-eaters,
with a primary diet of grasses and herbs but also will feed on
fruit, seeds, leaves, shoots, and bark.
Behavior and reproduction differs widely between rabbits
and hares, and pikas, and within each group. Pikas are mainly
diurnal, meaning they are mostly active during the day.
Rabbits and hares are generally nocturnal, meaning they are
mostly active at night. Some species are crepuscular (kri-PUS-
kyuh-lur), meaning they are most active at dawn and twilight.
Various environmental conditions and the effects of nearby
humans may cause species to alternate between nocturnal,
diurnal, and crepuscular activities.
Pikas have several types of social structures. Those that live
in rocky areas of North America are unsocial, with males and
females having separate territories and rarely interacting except
to mate. Pikas in rocky areas of Asia live in pairs within a com-
munal territory. Burrowing pikas, in contrast, are extremely
social animals. Families of up to thirty individuals live within
burrows and there are about ten family groups within a territory.
There is a lot of interaction between family members, including
grooming, playing, and sleeping together.
Pikas, Rabbits, and Hares 1201

Rabbits and hares have similar differences
in social organization. Most rabbits and hares
in the wild live solitary lives, although they
will often graze together, and are not terri-
torial. The European rabbit is very social.
They live in “warrens” or groups of six to
FROM RODENTS TO PRIMATES twelve adults controlled by a dominant male.
The warren consists of a maze of burrows
Lagomorphs were originally classified in
and chambers.
the order rodentia, or rodents, until 1912,
when researchers recognized that they had Pikas breed in the spring, with peak breed-
several distinct features lacking in rodents. ing occurring in May and early June. Female
pikas reach sexual maturity at about one year
These features are: of age. The gestation period, the time the
• Lagomorphs have four, rather than females carry their young in the womb, is
two, incisors in the upper jaw. about thirty days. Litters consist of two to six
• The male’s scrotum is in front of the babies and are cared for exclusively by the
penis. mother. Females breed for a second time
• The penis has no bone as it does shortly after the first litter is born and usu-
with a rodent. ally produce a second litter before the end of
• Lagomorphs re-digest certain soft summer. Babies are born blind and nearly
feces to obtain nutrients. hairless but grow quickly, reaching adult size
in forty to fifty days.
In the early twentieth century, the order
Lagomorpha was established with two Rabbits breed throughout the year,
families, Leporidae (rabbits and hares) and depending on climate. Generally the breeding
Ochotonidae (pikas). There are about 91 season in the wild is spring and summer.
living species of lagomorphs. Genetic Females have multiple litters per year with lit-
testing done in the 1990s show lagomorphs ter sizes of two to eight babies on average, al-
are more closely related to primates, such though it can be as high as fifteen babies. The
as apes, and tree shrews than they are gestation period is twenty-five to fifty days,
to rodents. with the longer periods occurring in hares.
There is extremely limited parental care of
babies in lagomorphs. Most mothers visit the
young in their nest once a day, usually between midnight and
5:00 A.M. for a short period of nursing. In rabbits and hares,
the young are weaned, stop feeding on their mother’s milk, at
about one or two months of age. They reach sexual maturity,
able to reproduce, in four to six months.
LAGOMORPHS AND PEOPLE

Pikas have little economic importance to humans. They are too
small to be used as food, although they are sometimes hunted for
their fur, particularly in China. Pikas are sometimes considered

agricultural pests and killed by farmers. Rabbits and hares are
hunted worldwide for sport and for their meat and fur. They are
also raised commercially for their fur and meat. Several species
are used extensively by humans as experimental subjects in lab-
oratories. Rabbits are also raised as pets, primarily in the United
States, Canada, and Western Europe. They are sometimes con-
sidered agricultural and horticultural pests and killed by farmers
and other humans.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Six species of lagomorphs are listed by the World Conserva-
tion Union (IUCN) as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction. Twelve species are listed as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction; fourteen species are listed
as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction; and one species,
the Sardinian pika is listed as Extinct, died out. Eight species are
listed as Near Threatened, not currently threatened, but could
become so.
The primary reason for declining populations of lagomorphs
are loss of habitat, disease, especially the pox virus myxomatosis
(mix-oh-mah-TOE-sus), and conversion of habitats to agricul-
tural use by humans.
Books:
Miller, Sara Swan. Rabbits, Pikas, and Hares. New York: Franklin Watts,
Inc., 2002.
Morris, Ting. Rabbit (Animal Families.) Mankato, MN: Smart Apple
Media, 2004.
National Research Council. “Rabbits.” In Microlivestock: Little-Known
Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington, DC: Na-
tional Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.edu/books/
030904295X/html/179.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
National Research Council. “Domestic Rabbit.” In Microlivestock: Little-
Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future. Washington,
DC: National Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.nap.
edu/books/030904295X/html/183.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Pikas, Rabbits, and Hares 1203

Swanson, Diane. Welcome to the World of Rabbits and Hares. Portland,
OR: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Co., 2000.
Swanson, Diane. Rabbits and Hares (Welcome to the World of Animals).
Milwaukee: Gareth Stevens, 2002.
Periodicals:
Chapman, Joseph A., et al. “Sylvilagus floridanus.” Mammalian Species
(April 15, 1980): 1–8.
Cohen, Philip. “Rabbit-Human Stem Cell Claims Provoke Controversy and
Doubt: Scientists in China Say Stem Cell Capable of Forming Muscle or
Nerve Tissue can be Derived by Interspecies Cloning, Overcoming the
Shortage of Human Eggs.” New Scientist (August 23, 2003): 14.
Graur, Dan, et al. “Phylogenetic Position of the Order Lagomorpha (Rab-
bits, Hares, and Allies.)” Nature January 25, 1996): 333–335.
Hacklander, Klaus, et al. “The Effect of Dietary Fat Content on Lactation
Energetics in the European Hare (Lepus europaeus).” Physiological and
Biochemical Zoology (January 2002): 19–28.
Krebs, Charles J., et al. “What Drives the 10-Year Cycle of Snowshoe
Hares?” BioScience (January 2001): 25.
Roach, John. “Rabbit Woes: Easter Icons Face Survival Struggles.”
National Geographic News (April 17, 2003). Online at http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0417_030417_rabbits.html (ac-
Smith, Andrew T., and Marla L. Weston. “Ochotona princeps.” Mammalian
Species (April 26, 1990): 1–8.
Sohn, Emily. “Now Mammals are Feeling the Heat.” New Scientist
(October 5, 2002): 9.
Web sites:
House Rabbit Society. http://www.rabbit.org (accessed on July 12,
2004).
Myers, Phil. “Order Lagomorpha.” Animal Diversity Web. http://
animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lagomor-
pha.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
IUCN/SSC Lagomorph Specialist Group. http://www.ualberta.ca/
dhik/lsg (accessed on July 12, 2004).

PIKAS
Ochotonidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Ochotonidae
All pikas (PEE-kuhz) are similar in appearance, being small, class
compact mammals with large, round ears and short front and
subclass
rear legs. They resemble guinea pigs in size and appearance,
ranging in length from 5 to 12 inches (12.5 to 30.0 centime- order
ters) and weighing 3.5 to 7 ounces (100 to 200 grams). Pikas monotypic order
lack a noticeable tail. They have long, soft fur that is usually
gray or brown, often with red accents. suborder
▲ family
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Pikas are found in the mountains of western North America,
including Alaska and the Yukon, and the mountains and plains
of central Asia, including the Himalayan and Ural mountain
ranges. The countries they live in include Iran, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Russia, Japan, Mongolia, North
Korea, and China.
HABITAT
Pikas are found in two distinct habitats. Some live among
rocks and rocky areas. Others live in meadows, steppes (semi-
arid, grass-covered plains), shrubs and desert.
DIET
Pikas are herbivores, meaning they eat primarily plants.

Pikas are mainly diurnal, active during the day. An exception
is the steppe pika, which is nocturnal, meaning it is most active
Pikas 1205
at night. They have several types of social
structure. Those that live in rocky areas of
North America are unsocial, with males and
females having separate territories and rarely
interacting except to mate. Pikas in rocky ar-
eas of Asia live in pairs within a communal
VICTIM OF GLOBAL WARMING territory. Burrowing pikas, in contrast, are ex-
tremely social animals. Families of up to thirty
Many scientists believe the American
individuals live within burrows and there are
pika will become the first mammal to
about ten family groups within a territory.
become extinct due to the effects of global
There is much interaction between family
warming. The American pika lives in the
members, including grooming, playing, and
high mountains of the western United
sleeping together.
States and Canada but as the climate gets
warmer, the mammals are forced to move Pikas breed in the spring, with peak breed-
to higher elevations to find suitable ing occurring in May and early June. Female
habitats. A study between 1994 and 1999 pikas reach sexual maturity as early as
in the Great Basin, eastern Sierra Nevada, twenty-one days of age. The gestation, or
and western Rocky Mountains found a 30 pregnancy, period is about thirty days. Lit-
percent drop in the population of American ters consist of one to thirteen babies and are
pikas. Scientists believe the decline of the cared for exclusively by the mother. Females
American pika should be a wake-up call breed for a second time shortly after the first
about the consequences of global litter is born and usually produce a second
warming, which many blame on human litter before the end of summer. Some pika
pollution of the atmosphere. species can have as many as five litters per
years, including the Afghan pika, with each
litter having up to eleven babies. Pikas are
born blind and nearly hairless but grow quickly, reaching adult
size in forty to fifty days.
Pikas have a keen sense of sight and hearing, which helps
them detect predators, such as weasels, hawks, eagles, and owls.
When a pika feels threatened, it issues a loud, shrill, alarm bark
and nearby pikas immediately hide in their burrows or in rock
crevices. The one exception is when a weasel is detected, the
pika remains silent, since the small weasel can follow pikas into
their hiding places. Pikas live an average of one to two years
and more rarely, four to six years in the wild.
PIKAS AND PEOPLE

Pikas have little economic importance to humans. They are
too small to be used as food, although they are sometimes
hunted for their fur, particularly in China. Pikas are sometimes
considered agricultural pests and killed by farmers.

CONSERVATION STATUS
Four species of pika are listed by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN) as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely
high risk of extinction, dying out, in the wild; four species are
listed as Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; and
ten species are listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of ex-
tinction. One species, the Sardinian pika is considered Extinct.
Pikas 1207
American pika (Ochotona princeps)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS AMERICAN PIKA
Ochotona princeps
Physical characteristics: The American pika is a medium-sized

pika with short ears, an oval body shape, and no apparent tail. Amer-
ican pikas have a body length of 6 to 8.5 inches (16.2 to 21.6 cen-
timeters) and weigh about 6 ounces (168 grams). Their hind feet are
relatively large compared to their body, 1 to 1.4 inches (2.5 to
3.5 centimeters).
Geographic range: The American pika is found in the western

United States in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming,
Colorado, Nevada, California, and New Mexico, and in British
Columbia in western Canada.

Habitat: American pikas are found in rocky
mountain areas, grassland, coniferous forest, de-
ciduous forest, and the border between meadows
and rocky terrain.
Diet: American pikas are herbivores, meaning

they eat mainly plants. Their diet includes
grasses, thistles, sedges (a wetland plant that re-
sembles grass), and fireweed. Because pikas live
in climates with harsh winters, most species build
large hay piles during the summer to provide food
during the winter. They cut off grass stems at the
root and bring them to selected places on the sur-
face, piling them into conical-shaped mounds.
Once dry, each hay pile can weigh from 2 to
5 pounds (0.9 to 2.25 kilograms). Some pikas
store their hay in tree hollows, under tree stumps,
and in rock cavities. Each of these stashes can The American pika lives in the
weigh from 15 to 40 pounds (6.75 to 18 kilograms). western United States and
Canada. (John Shaw/Bruce
Behavior and reproduction: American pikas are diurnal, meaning permission.)
they are most active during the day. They are territorial, meaning they
defend an area they consider their home from intruders. Males and fe-
males have separate territories. They spend most of their day looking
for food, guarding their territory, and sunning themselves on rocks.
American pikas usually breed from late April to early July. The
female gives birth to two to four babies in the spring or summer. The
gestation period is about thirty days.
American pikas and people: American pikas play an important role

in maintaining the diversity and abundance of alpine meadow plants
through their storage of grasses for food during the winter.
Conservation status: The American pika is not listed as threatened

by the IUCN. However, populations have drastically declined between
1994 and 1999 and continued to decline into 2004. Seven subspecies
(populations of a species living in specific areas) are listed by the
IUCN as Vulnerable and several subspecies are considered threatened
or endangered by other conservation groups. ■
Pikas 1209
Northern pika (Ochotona hyperborea)
NORTHERN PIKA
Ochotona hyperborea
Physical characteristics: The northern pika, also known as

the Siberian pika, is slightly larger than the American pika. It
has a body length of 7 to 12 inches (17.5 to 30.0 centimeters)
and weighs about 7 ounces (200 grams). Northern pikas have medium
brown fur on their upper bodies and orange to cream fur on their
undersides.
Geographic range: The northern pika has the largest distribution

range of any pika species. It ranges from eastern Siberia to Sakhalin
Island in the Sea of Okhotsk and the northernmost Japanese island
of Hokkaido. It is found in eastern Russia, Japan, Mongolia, North
Korea, and Manchuria in northern China.
Habitat: Northern pikas live in high grassy plains, coniferous for-

est, tundra, among rocky outcroppings and crevices, and in burrows
under large stones on the land surface.
Diet: Northern pikas are herbivores, meaning they eat mainly

plants. Their diet consists mostly of grasses and herbs. Like other

pikas, they build hay piles of grasses that they feed
on during the harsh winters.
Behavior and reproduction: Northern pikas are

generally very social and curious. They are believed
to be monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus), mean-
ing a male and female pair for life. The pairs usu-
ally live in small colonies. Most females have two
litters of babies during the summer, with each lit-
ter consisting of one to five babies.
Northern pikas do not survive in captivity. The
subspecies Manehurian (Manchurian) pika dies
within an hour after being caught by humans.
Northern pikas and people: Northern pikas have

little economic importance to humans.
Conservation status: Northern pikas are not

listed as threatened by the IUCN. However, the subspecies Ochotona Male and female pairs of
northern pikas usually live in
hyperborea yesoensis found on Hokkaido Island is considered endan-
colonies with other pikas.
gered by the Japanese government. ■ (© D. Robert & Lorri
Franz/Corbis. Reproduced
by permission.)
Books:
Miller, Sara Swan. Rabbits, Pikas, and Hares. New York: Franklin Watts,
Inc., 2002.
Periodicals:
Brown, Paul. “American Pika Doomed as First Mammal Victim of Climate
Change.”The Guardian (August 21, 2003).
Buck, Kelly L., and Brandon Sheafor. “Selection of Phenolics in Alpine
Plans by Ochotona princepes (North American Pikas).” The Ohio Journal
of Science (March 2003): A-11.
Smith, Andrew T., and Marla L. Weston. “Ochotona princeps.”
Mammalian Species (April 26, 1990): 1–8.
Sohn, Emily. “Now Mammals are Feeling the Heat.” New Scientist
(October 5, 2002): 9.
Pikas 1211
Web sites:
Myers, Phil, and Anna Bess Sorin. “Family Ochotonidae (Pikas).” Animal
information/Ochotonidae.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).
Jansa, Sharon. “Ochotona princeps (American Pika).” Animal Diversity
Ochotona_princeps.html (accessed on July 7, 2004).

HARES AND RABBITS
Leporidae
▲
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Adult rabbits and hares have a body length of 10 to 28 inches class
(25.4 to 71.1 centimeters) and weigh 14 ounces to 15.3 pounds subclass
(400 grams to 7 kilograms). They have short, furry tails and ear
sizes vary greatly and generally are shorter in rabbits and longer order
in hares. The main exceptions are the rabbit breeds known as monotypic order
lops, which have long, floppy ears. Females are generally larger
suborder
than males. Hares generally are larger than rabbits and have
black-tipped ears. ▲ family
Rabbits and hares usually have thick, soft fur that comes in
a wide spectrum of colors, shades, and combinations, including
black, white, brown, beige, tan, blue, orange, red, pink, cream,
lilac, silver, and lavender.
Hares and rabbits have eyes set high on their head, looking
sideways, giving them a wide field of vision. They have
weak but flexible necks, allowing them to turn their heads
with a wide range of motion. They have a single opening
to pass both urine and feces. They also have a specialized
part of their large intestine, called the cecum (SEE-kum),
which acts as a fermentation chamber that aids in digestion
of grasses.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Hares and rabbits are found on every continent except
Antarctica. They are native to every continent they are found
on, except Australia where they were introduced.
Hares and Rabbits 1213

HABITAT
Hares live in arctic tundra, steppes, wet-
lands, forests, and deserts. Rabbits live in
pine and deciduous forests, desert, moun-
tainous areas, scrubland, tropical rainforest,
near rivers and streams, rocky outcroppings,
TEN-YEAR CYCLE grasslands, and areas of dense brush or other
A unusual and striking feature of the low-lying vegetation.
snowshoe hare is its ten-year cycle of
DIET
population increase and decline. The
number of litters per year and the number Hares and rabbits are herbivores, meaning
of young per litter is higher for about three they are plant-eaters. With a primary diet of
years, declines in the next three or four grasses and herbs but also will feed on fruit,
years, and then drops significantly in the last seeds, leaves, shoots, and bark.
three or four years of the cycle. Why this
happens is not completely understood by BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
scientists but they believe it is caused by one Rabbits and hares have several types of
or more factors, such as food availability, social structure. Most rabbits and hares in the
predation, and social interactions. wild live solitary lives, although they will
often graze together, and are not territorial.
The European rabbit is very social. It lives in
“warrens,” groups of six to twelve adults con-
trolled by a dominant male. The warren consists of a maze of
burrows and chambers.
Rabbits breed throughout the year depending upon the cli-
mate, with spring and summer being the general breeding sea-
sons in the wild. Females have multiple litters per year with
litter sizes of two to eight babies on average, although it can be
as high as 15 babies. The gestation period, the length of time
the mother carries her babies in the womb, is twenty-five to
fifty days, with the longer periods occurring in hares.
HARES AND RABBITS AND PEOPLE

Rabbits and hares are hunted worldwide for sport. They are
both hunted and raised commercially for their meat and fur.
Several species are used extensively in laboratories. Rabbits are
also raised as pets.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Two species are listed by the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) as Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk
of extinction; eight species are listed as Endangered, facing a very

high risk of extinction; four species are listed as Vulnerable, fac-
ing a high risk of extinction; and six species are listed as Near
The primary reasons for declining populations of hares and
rabbits are loss of habitat, disease, especially the pox virus myx-
omatosis (mix-oh-mah-TOE-sus), and conversion of habitats to
agricultural use by humans.
In the United States, the pygmy rabbit has experienced a sud-
den decline that has caught even conservation groups off-guard.
Although it is listed by IUCN as Near Threatened, it is listed as
an endangered species by the state of Washington. Wildlife offi-
cials estimate that as of 2003, only thirty pygmy rabbits existed
in the wild in the state’s Columbia Basin. The decline is blamed
on loss of sagebrush, its primary habitat. Mexico’s volcano rabbit
is found only on the slopes of four volcanoes near Mexico City.
Its population is estimated at about 1,000 and declining due to
encroachment on its habitat by human development. The Davis
Mountains cottontail is not listed by the IUCN but Portland
(Oregon) State University biologist Luis Ruedas has tried unsuc-
cessfully to get the state of Texas to list it as endangered. It is
found only in a small mountain range in Texas.

Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus)
SPECIES
ACCOUNTS SNOWSHOE HARE
Lepus americanus
Physical characteristics: Snowshoe hares range in length from 16.5

to 20.7 inches (41.3 to 51.8 centimeters). They weigh from 3.12 to
3.4 pounds (1.4 to 1.56 kilograms). Females are slightly larger than males.
In the summer, their fur is rust or gray-brown with a black line
running down their mid-back, cream colored on the sides of their
lower body, and a white underside. Their face and legs are cinnamon
colored. Their ears are brown with black tips and white or cream
edges. During the winter, they turn white except for their black eye-
lids and black ear tips. The bottom of their paws are covered with
dense fur, hence the name snowshoe hare.
Geographic range: Snowshoe hares are found throughout Canada

and the northern United States, including Alaska, and the Rocky
Mountains as far south as northern New Mexico.

Habitat: Snowshoe hares live in open fields,
swampy areas, riverside thickets, coniferous
forests, including subarctic coniferous forests lo-
cated south of tundra, and tundra.
Diet: Snowshoe hares have a varied diet. In the

summer, it includes grasses, flowers, wild straw-
berry plants and fruit, dandelion, clover, horsetails,
and new growth of aspen, birch, and willow trees.
In the winter, they forage, search, for buds, twigs,
bark, and evergreens.
Behavior and reproduction: Snowshoe hares are

generally solitary but large populations often live
within a small geographic area. They are noctur-
nal, meaning they are most active at night, and cre-
puscular (kri-PUS-kyuh-lur), meaning they are
also active during dawn and twilight.
When snowshoe hares sense a predator is near, they often stand This snowshoe hare’s color is
completely still, blending in with their surroundings. They are also changing from a winter white
coat to a summer brown.
fast runners, and have been clocked at speeds of up to 27 miles (43 (Leonard Lee Rue/Bruce
kilometers) per hour. They can cover 10 feet (3 meters) in a single Coleman Inc. Reproduced by
leap. They have acute hearing and are capable swimmers, able to swim permission.)
across small lakes and rivers, usually to escape predators.
Snowshoe hares breed from mid-March through August. Females
can have up to four litters per season, with litter sizes ranging from
one to eight babies. The average litter size is two to four babies. The
gestation period, the time the females carry the young in their womb,
is thirty-six days. The young reach sexual maturity, ability to repro-
duce, at one year of age.
Snowshoe hares and people: The snowshoe hare is widely hunted

by humans for its meat and fur.
Conservation status: The snowshoe hare is not listed as threatened

by the IUCN. They are common throughout their range and popula-
tions seem to be remaining steady. ■

Mountain hare (Lepus timidus)
MOUNTAIN HARE
Lepus timidus
Physical characteristics: The mountain hare is medium-sized with

short ears and hind legs. It has a body length of 18 to 24 inches (46
to 61 centimeters) and weighs 2.2 to 8.8 pounds (1 to 4 kilograms.)
Their fur changes from brown in the summer to white in the winter.
Geographic range: Mountain hares are found in Arctic and adja-

cent temperate areas of northern Europe and Asia, from Ireland to
eastern Siberia.
Habitat: Mountain hares live in tundra, subarctic coniferous forests,

mixed coniferous and deciduous forests, and transitional zones with
open clearings, swamps, and river valleys.
Diet: Mountain hares are herbivores, meaning they are plant-eaters.

Their diet varies by habitat and season. In the summer, forest dwellers
eat mostly grasses, leaves, and twigs. Tundra inhabitants eat primar-
ily alpine plants along with grasses, lichen, and bark. In the winter,
heather is the main food source.

Behavior and reproduction: The mountain
hare is primarily solitary and is seen in groups
only when breeding. The breeding season is from
January to September. Females have one or two
litters per year, with a litter size of one to four
babies. If there is an early spring, females can have
up to three litters. The gestation period, the time
the female carries the young in her womb, is
forty-seven to fifty-four days.
Mountain hares and people: Hunted by hu-

mans for its meat and fur.
Conservation status: The mountain hare is not

considered threatened by the IUCN. ■
The mountain hare is usually

solitary, only coming together
into groups to breed. (Illustration
by Amanda Smith. Reproduced
by permission.)

Desert cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii)
DESERT COTTONTAIL
Sylvilagus audubonii
Physical characteristics: A larger cottontail with large ears. Head

and body length of 14 to 15 inches (37 to 40 centimeters) and its
weight is 26.5 to 44 ounces (750 to 1,250 grams).
Geographic range: Desert cottontails are found in North America,

from Montana south to central Mexico and west through California.
Habitat: Desert and forest, from coastal areas to higher altitudes.
Diet: Desert cottontails are herbivores, eating mainly grasses but

some wood and bark.
Behavior and reproduction: The breeding season for the desert cot-
tontail is from January to August, with multiple litters per year, and

an average litter size of two to four babies. They
reach sexual maturity at eighty days.
Desert cottontails and people: Hunted by

humans mainly for sport.
Conservation status: The desert cottontail is

not listed as threatened by the IUCN. ■
Books:
Morris, Ting. Rabbit (Animal Families). Mankato,
MN: Smart Apple Media, 2004.
National Research Council. “Rabbits.” In Microlive-
stock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising
Economic Future. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press, 1991. Online at http://books.
nap. edu/books/030904295X/html/179.html (ac-
cessed on July 12, 2004). Desert cottontails live in desert
and forest areas. (John
National Research Council. “Domestic Rabbit.” In Microlivestock: Little- Shaw/Bruce Coleman Inc.
Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future.Washington, Reproduced by permission.)
DC: National Academies Press, 1991. Onlin at http://books.nap.edu/
books/030904295X/html/183.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).
Swanson, Diane. Welcome to the World of Rabbits and Hares. Portland,
OR: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Co., 2000.
Swanson, Diane. Rabbits and Hares (Welcome to the World of Animals).
Milwaukee: Gareth Stevens, 2002.
Periodicals:
Angerbjörn, Anders, and John E. C. Flux. “Lepus timidus.” Mammalian
Species (June 23, 1995): 1–11.
Chapman, Joseph A., and Gale R. Willner. “Sylvilagus audubonii.” Mam-
malian Species (September 21, 1978): 1–4.
Chapman, Joseph A., et al. “Sylvilagus floridanus.” Mammalian Species
(April 15, 1980): 1–8.
Hacklander, Klaus, et al. “The Effect of Dietary Fat Content on Lactation
Energetics in the European Hare (Lepus europaeus).” Physiological and
Biochemical Zoology (January 2002): 19–28.
Krebs, Charles J., et al. “What Drives the 10-Year Cycle of Snowshoe
Hares?” BioScience (January 2001): 25.

Roach, John. “Rabbit Woes: Easter Icons Face Survival Struggles.”
National Geographic News (April 17, 2003). Online at http://news.
nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0417_030417_rabbits.html
Web sites:
House Rabbit Society. http://www.rabbit.org (accessed on July 12,
2004).
Myers, Phil, and Anna Bess Sorin. “Family Leporidae.” Animal Diversity
Leporidae.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).

SENGIS
Macroscelidea
●
Class: Mammalia
▲
Order: Macroscelidea
One family: Macroscelididae
monotypic order
C H A P T E R

Sengis (SEN-jeez) are commonly known as elephant shrews, class
although they are not related to the shrew. Sengis range in size
subclass
from that of a mouse to a rabbit.
order
They have a head and body length of 3.5 to 12.5 inches (9.0
to 31.5 centimeters), a tail length of 3 to 11 inches (8.0 to ●
▲ monotypic order
26.3 centimeters) and weigh from 1 ounce to 10 pounds (28 grams suborder
to 4.5 kilograms). They have long, spindly legs and a nose that
is turned down. They have large heads and ears and large, dark family
eyes. Their hind legs are larger then their front legs. Sengis walk
on their toe tips rather than the feet bottoms.
The larger species of sengis have brightly colored fur ranging
in color from olive, brown, black, and red, while the smaller
species are various shades of brown and gray. Some are multi-
colored, such as the golden-rumped sengi, which has upper body
fur of a deep reddish brown and black, lighter fur on its under-
sides, and black feet, ears, and legs. Its tail is black except for
the lower third, which is white with a black tip. There is a large
patch of fur on its rump that is bright yellow. In the rufous sengi,
the long, soft fur ion the upper body is light brown, light gray,
or light orange. The underside fur is white or gray. The fur on
its face is a patchwork of white spots and black streaks.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Sengis are found throughout Africa except western Africa
and the Sahara Desert region. They are most common and
diverse in southern and eastern Africa.
Sengis 1223
HABITAT
Sengis live in deciduous forest, rainforest,
grassland, and desert areas of Africa, especially
where there is an abundance of water. They
are found in the thick ground cover of coastal
bush forests, rocky outcroppings, and high-
IDENTITY CRISIS
land and lowland forests.
Sengis or elephant shrews have been
one of the most often misclassified species DIET
of animals. Scientists who first classified Sengis are insectivores, meaning they eat
the mammal in the mid 1800s placed it in primarily insects. Their diet of insects
the order Insectivora along with true shrews includes ants, termites, beetles, spiders, cater-
(family Soricidae). It got its name because pillars, and worms. However, several species
its long down-turned nosed resembled an are omnivores, meaning they eat insects,
elephant’s trunk and physically looked like flesh, and plants. Their diet includes toads,
a shrew. It was reclassified in the order frogs, lizards, fruits, seeds, and plants. One
Scandentia (tree shrews) and then species, the golden-rumped sengi, is an
reclassified again as an ungulate, a group omnivore, meaning it eats only flesh, mainly
of mammals with hooves that include
insects and small animals.
horses and giraffes. Later, it was classified
as a lagomorph, along with rabbits and BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION
hares. More recently, examination of the
Sengis are mainly diurnal, meaning they
elephant shrew’s molecular structure
are most active during the day, but during
indicates it is a distinct order and the order
Macroscelidea was established. Based on
hot weather, they can be nocturnal, meaning
genetic evidence, the elephant shrew, now they are most active at night. Several species
called the sengi, is related to the proposed are crepuscular, meaning they are most ac-
superorder Afrotheria composed of six tive during early morning and twilight. They
orders, whose members include elephants, have well developed senses of sight, hearing,
manatees, and aardvarks. and smell. Most species are territorial, mean-
ing they are protective of an area they con-
sider home and claim exclusively for
themselves. Pairs of males and females usually have separate
but overlapping and sometimes identical territories.
Most species of sengis are believed to be monogamous
(muh-NAH-guh-mus), meaning they have only one sexual
partner during a breeding season or lifetime. Several species are
solitary and males and females get together for only several days
to mate. Females usually produce several litters a year, each with
usually one or two babies, but more rarely with three or four.
The gestation period, the time the female carries the young in
her womb, is about sixty days.

SENGIS AND PEOPLE
Sengis are sometimes hunted in areas of Africa for their meat.
Since they eat mostly insects, they help control insects such as
termites, ants, and grasshoppers, that are problems for farmers
because of the damage the insects cause to crops.
CONSERVATION STATUS
Three species of sengi are listed by IUCN as Endangered,
facing a very high risk of extinction: Somali sengi, the golden-
rumped sengi, and the black and rufous sengi. One species is
listed as Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction: the check-
ered sengi. The reasons for the listings are severely fragmented
populations and declining habitats. No other species are listed
as currently threatened.
Sengis 1225
Checkered sengi (Rhynchocyon cirnei)
SPECIES
ACCOUNT CHECKERED SENGI
Rhynchocyon cirnei
Physical characteristics: The checkered sengi adult has a head and

body length of 9 to 12.5 inches (23.5 to 31.5 centimeters) and a tail
length of 7 to 10 inches (19.0 to 26.3 centimeters).
Geographic range: The checkered sengi is found in northern and

eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, southern Tanza-
nia, northeastern Zambia, Malawi, and northern Mozambique.
Habitat: Checkered sengis live in dense, lowland and mountain re-

gions of tropical rainforest.
Diet: Checkered sengis are mainly insectivores, meaning they eat

primarily insects. Their diet includes ants, termites, and beetles.

However, they have also been known to eat small
mammals, birds, bird eggs, and snails.
Behavior and reproduction: Checkered sengis

are primarily diurnal, meaning they are most ac-
tive during the day, They can on occasion become
nocturnal, meaning they are most active at night,
especially during hot weather. They can live alone,
in mated pairs, or in small groups. They are
monogamous, meaning they have only one sexual
partner for life. They are extremely nervous ani-
mals and are always on the lookout for predators,
such as pythons and other snakes, and birds of
prey such as eagles, hawks, owls, and kestrels.
Checkered sengis have an average lifespan in the
wild of three to five years.
Checkered sengis are territorial, meaning they are protective of an A checkered sengi searches for
food. Checkered sengis eat
area they consider home and claim exclusively for themselves. Pairs mainly insects, but they also
of males and females usually have separate but overlapping territo- may eat small mammals, birds,
ries. Individuals` sleep in nests made of small pits covered with leaves. bird eggs, and snails. (© Tom
McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Checkered sengis build new nests every few days, digging a shallow Reproduced by permission.)
depression in the ground and lining and covering it with leaves. Once
constructed, it is difficult for humans to detect. A pair may build up
to ten shelters in their territories.
The checkered sengi breed year-round and have several litters per
year. The gestation period, the time the female carries the young in
her womb, is about forty-two days. The litter size is one baby, which
stays in the nest for about ten days before going out with its mother
to forage for food. It goes its own way after five to ten weeks.
Checkered sengis and people: Checkered sengis are of no known

significance to humans.
Conservation status: The checkered sengi is listed by the IUCN as

Vulnerable, due primarily to severely fragmented populations and de-
clining habitats. ■
Books:
Sengis 1227
Nicoll, Martin E., and Galen B. Rathbun. African Insectivora and Elephant
Shrews: An Action Plan for Their Conservation. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN,
1990.
Periodicals:
Downs, Calleen T., and M. R. Perrin. “The Thermal Biology of Three
Southern African Elephant Shrews.” Journal of Thermal Biology
(December 1995): 445–450.
Fredericks, Ilse. “Elephant Shrews May Help Astronauts.” Africa News
Service (September 21, 2003).
Koontz, Fred W., and Nancy J. Roeper. “Elephantulus rufescens.”
Mammalian Species (December 15, 1983): 1–5.
Rathbun, Galen B. “Rhynchocyon chrysopygus.” Mammalian Species
(June 8, 1979): 1–4.
Tabuce, Rodolphe, et al. “A New Genus of Mavroscelidea (Mammalia)
From the Eocene of Algeria: A Possible Origin for Elephant Shrews.”
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (August 2001): 535–546.
Web sites:
Myers, Phil. “Order Macroscelidea.” Animal Diversity Web.
Macroscelidea.html (accessed on July 12, 2004).

Species List by Biome
CONIFEROUS FOREST Mountain beaver Virginia opossum
American black bear Mountain hare Weeper capuchin
American pika Nine-banded armadillo Western barbastelle
American water shrew North American beaver White-tailed deer
Asian elephant North American porcupine White-throated capuchin
Bobcat Northern pika
Brown-throated three-toed Pacarana
sloth Pallas’s long-tongued bat
DECIDUOUS FOREST
Pallid bat Aardvark
Chimpanzee
Common bentwing bat Pileated gibbon African civet
Coypu Puma American bison
Desert cottontail Red deer American black bear
Eastern mole Red panda American least shrew
Edible dormouse Red-shanked douc langur American pika
Ermine Reindeer American water shrew
Gambian rat Rhesus macaque Ashy chinchilla rat
Geoffroy’s spider monkey Serow Asian elephant
Giant panda Siamang Aye-aye
Gray squirrel Siberian musk deer Bobcat
Gray wolf Snow leopard Bornean orangutan
Greater sac-winged bat Snowshoe hare Bridled nail-tailed wallaby
Hairy-footed jerboa South African porcupine Brush-tailed phascogale
Human Southern tree hyrax Brush-tailed rock wallaby
Indian crested porcupine Star-nosed mole Capybara
Kirk’s dikdik Striped skunk Central American agouti
Lar gibbon Tasmanian devil Chimpanzee
Little brown bat Three-striped night monkey Collared peccary
Malayan moonrat Tiger Common bentwing bat
Mandrill Valley pocket gopher Common brush-tailed possum
Moose Venezuelan red howler monkey Common genet
Species List by Biome lvii

Common ringtail North American beaver Bobcat
Common tenrec North American porcupine Brazilian free-tailed bat
Common wombat Northern raccoon California leaf-nosed bat
Cotton-top tamarin Numbat Collared peccary
Coypu Paca Damaraland mole-rat
Crowned lemur Pacarana Dassie rat
Degu Pallas’s long-tongued bat Desert cottontail
Desert cottontail Parnell’s moustached bat Dromedary camel
Eastern chipmunk Pileated gibbon Egyptian slit-faced bat
Eastern gray kangaroo Puma Egyptian spiny mouse
Eastern mole Pygmy glider Grant’s desert golden mole
Eastern pygmy possum Red deer Gray wolf
Edible dormouse Red fox Hairy-footed jerboa
Ermine Red kangaroo Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-
Eurasian wild pig Red panda tailed bat
European badger Red-tailed sportive lemur Human
Forest elephant Rhesus macaque Kirk’s dikdik
Forest hog Ringtailed lemur Lion
Funnel-eared bat Rock cavy Mzab gundi
Gambian rat Senegal bushbaby Naked mole-rat
Geoffroy’s spider monkey Serow North American porcupine
Giant panda Siamang Pallid bat
Goeldi’s monkey Silky anteater Parnell’s moustached bat
Gray squirrel South African porcupine Pink fairy armadillo
Gray wolf Southern flying squirrel Pronghorn
Greater dog-faced bat Spotted hyena Puma
Greater glider Star-nosed mole Red fox
Greater horseshoe bat Striped skunk Rhesus macaque
Greater sac-winged bat Sugar glider San Joaquin pocket mouse
Ground pangolin Three-striped night monkey Savanna elephant
Human Tiger Short-beaked echidna
Indian crested porcupine Valley pocket gopher Southern marsupial mole
Indian muntjac Venezuelan red howler Spotted hyena
Indian rhinoceros monkey Striped skunk
Koala Virginia opossum Trident leaf-nosed bat
Lar gibbon Water buffalo Valley pocket gopher
Lesser Malay mouse deer Weeper capuchin Virginia opossum
Lesser New Zealand short- Western barbastelle White-footed sportive lemur
tailed bat Western European hedgehog
Lion
White rhinoceros
Little brown bat GRASSLAND
White-tailed deer
Lord Derby’s anomalure Aardvark
White-throated capuchin
Lowland tapir Aardwolf
Malayan moonrat African civet
Mara DESERT Alpaca
Mountain beaver Australian jumping mouse Alpine marmot
Mountain hare Bighorn sheep American bison
lviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

American black bear Human Vampire bat
American least shrew Indian crested porcupine Virginia opossum
American pika Indian muntjac Water buffalo
Ashy chinchilla rat Indian rhinoceros Western European hedgehog
Asian elephant Kiang Western red colobus
Australian false vampire bat Lesser New Zealand short- White rhinoceros
Australian jumping mouse tailed bat Yellow-streaked tenrec
Black wildebeest Lion
Black-bellied hamster Llama
LAKE AND POND
Black-tailed prairie dog Long-tailed chinchilla
American water shrew
Brazilian free-tailed bat Lowland tapir
Babirusa
Bridled nail-tailed wallaby Maned wolf
Capybara
California leaf-nosed bat Mara
Central American agouti
Capybara Naked bat
Common hippopotamus
Central American agouti Nine-banded armadillo
Coypu
Chimpanzee Northern pika
Duck-billed platypus
Common bentwing bat Numbat
European otter
Common genet Paca
Greater bulldog bat
Common tenrec Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Malayan tapir
Coypu Pallid bat
Muskrat
Degu Parnell’s moustached bat
North American beaver
Dwarf epauletted fruit bat Pearson’s tuco-tuco
North American porcupine
Eastern barred bandicoot Pink fairy armadillo
Prehensile-tailed porcupine
Eastern chipmunk Pronghorn
Tiger
Eastern gray kangaroo Przewalski’s horse
Eastern mole Puma
Egyptian rousette Red deer OCEAN
Egyptian slit-faced bat Red fox Antarctic fur seal
Egyptian spiny mouse Red kangaroo Beluga
Ermine Rock cavy Blue whale
Eurasian wild pig Rock hyrax Burmeister’s porpoise
Forest elephant San Joaquin pocket mouse California sea lion
Gambian rat Savanna elephant Common bottlenosed dolphin
Giant anteater Senegal bushbaby Dugong
Giant kangaroo rat Short-beaked echidna Franciscana dolphin
Giraffe Smoky bat Galápagos sea lion
Grant’s desert golden mole Snow leopard Gray whale
Gray wolf South African porcupine Harbor porpoise
Greater bilby Spix’s disk-winged bat Harp seal
Greater dog-faced bat Spotted hyena Hawaiian monk seal
Greater horseshoe bat Springhare Humpback whale
Grevy’s zebra Star-nosed mole Killer whale
Ground pangolin Striped skunk Narwhal
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Tasmanian wolf North Atlantic right whale
tailed bat Thomson’s gazelle Northern bottlenosed whale
Hispaniolan solenodon Tiger Northern elephant seal
Hispid cotton rat Valley pocket gopher Northern minke whale
Species List by Biome lix

Pygmy right whale Hoffman’s two-toed sloth Silky shrew opossum
Pygmy sperm whale Human Smoky bat
Shepherd’s beaked whale Indian crested porcupine Southern pudu
Sperm whale Indian flying fox Spiny rat
Spinner dolphin Indian muntjac Spix’s disk-winged bat
Steller’s sea cow Indri Sugar glider
Walrus Kitti’s hog-nosed bat Sumatran rhinoceros
West Indian manatee Lar gibbon Three-striped night monkey
Lesser New Zealand short- Valley pocket gopher
tailed bat Vampire bat
RAINFOREST Lord Derby’s anomalure Venezuelan red howler
Australian false vampire bat Lowland tapir monkey
Aye-aye Malayan colugo Virginia opossum
Babirusa Malayan tapir Water opossum
Bald uakari Mandrill Weeper capuchin
Bennett’s tree kangaroo Masked titi Western gorilla
Bornean orangutan Milne-Edwards’s sifaka Western red colobus
Brazilian free-tailed bat Monito del monte Western tarsier
Brown-throated three-toed Mountain beaver White bat
sloth Musky rat-kangaroo White-faced saki
Brush-tailed rock wallaby Naked bat White-tailed deer
Central American agouti North American beaver White-throated capuchin
Checkered sengi Northern bettong Yellow-streaked tenrec
Chevrotains Northern greater bushbaby
Chimpanzee Okapi
Collared peccary Old World sucker-footed bat RIVER AND STREAM
Colombian woolly monkey Paca American water shrew
Common brush-tailed possum Pacarana Aye-aye
Common ringtail Philippine tarsier Babirusa
Common squirrel monkey Pileated gibbon Baiji
Common tenrec Potto Black-bellied hamster
Common tree shrew Prehensile-tailed porcupine Boto
Cotton-top tamarin Proboscis monkey Capybara
Coypu Pygmy hippopotamus Central American agouti
Crowned lemur Pygmy marmoset Common hippopotamus
Cuban hutia Pygmy slow loris Common squirrel monkey
Eastern pygmy possum Queensland tube-nosed bat Coypu
Eurasian wild pig Red mouse lemur Duck-billed platypus
Forest elephant Red-shanked douc langur European otter
Fossa Rhesus macaque Ganges and Indus dolphin
Funnel-eared bat Ring-tailed mongoose Greater bulldog bat
Geoffroy’s spider monkey Rock hyrax Greater cane rat
Giant anteater Rufous spiny bandicoot Lowland tapir
Goeldi’s monkey Short-beaked echidna Malayan tapir
Greater sac-winged bat Siamang Mountain beaver
Ground cuscus Siberian musk deer Muskrat
Hispaniolan solenodon Silky anteater North American beaver
lx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

North American porcupine Marianas fruit bat Bobcat
Northern raccoon Northern elephant seal Bornean orangutan
Old World sucker-footed bat Pearson’s tuco-tuco Brazilian free-tailed bat
Paca Walrus Capybara
Prehensile-tailed porcupine Common squirrel monkey
Pygmy hippopotamus Coypu
Smoky bat
TUNDRA
European otter
Tiger American black bear
Giant anteater
Virginia opossum Ermine
Greater bulldog bat
Water opossum Gray wolf
Greater cane rat
West Indian manatee Hairy-footed jerboa
Greater dog-faced bat
White-footed sportive lemur Human
Indian flying fox
Long-tailed chinchilla
Malayan moonrat
Moose
SEASHORE Marianas fruit bat
Mountain hare
Antarctic fur seal North American beaver
North American porcupine
California sea lion Northern raccoon
Northern pika
Cape horseshoe bat Old World sucker-footed bat
Norway lemming
European otter Pacarana
Polar bear
Galápagos sea lion Parnell’s moustached bat
Red fox
Grant’s desert golden mole Proboscis monkey
Reindeer
Greater bulldog bat Puma
Snowshoe hare
Harp seal Rhesus macaque
Striped skunk
Hawaiian monk seal Spix’s disk-winged bat
Honey possum Star-nosed mole
Lesser New Zealand short- WETLAND Tiger
tailed bat American black bear Valley pocket gopher
Species List by Biome lxi

Species List by
Geographic Range
AFGHANISTAN ALGERIA Common bottlenosed dolphin
Common bentwing bat Blue whale Common genet
Dromedary camel Common bentwing bat Dassie rat
Eurasian wild pig Common bottlenosed dolphin Egyptian slit-faced bat
Gray wolf Common genet Gambian rat
Greater horseshoe bat Dromedary camel Giraffe
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Eurasian wild pig Ground pangolin
tailed bat European otter Humpback whale
Red deer Greater horseshoe bat Kirk’s dikdik
Red fox Humpback whale Lion
Rhesus macaque Killer whale Northern minke whale
Snow leopard Mzab gundi Pygmy sperm whale
Trident leaf-nosed bat Northern bottlenosed whale South African porcupine
Northern minke whale Sperm whale
ALBANIA Pygmy sperm whale Spinner dolphin
Blue whale Red deer Spotted hyena
Common bentwing bat Red fox Springhare
Common bottlenosed dolphin Sperm whale Western gorilla
Edible dormouse Trident leaf-nosed bat White rhinoceros
Eurasian wild pig
European badger ANTARCTICA
ANDORRA
European otter
European badger Antarctic fur seal
Gray wolf
Red fox Blue whale
Greater horseshoe bat
Northern minke whale
Humpback whale
Northern minke whale ANGOLA
Pygmy sperm whale Aardvark ARGENTINA
Red deer African civet Blue whale
Red fox Blue whale Brazilian free-tailed bat
Sperm whale Common bentwing bat Brown-throated three-toed sloth
Species List by Geographic Range lxiii

Burmeister’s porpoise Brush-tailed phascogale Red deer
Capybara Brush-tailed rock wallaby Red fox
Central American agouti Common bentwing bat Western European hedgehog
Collared peccary Common bottlenosed dolphin
Common bottlenosed dolphin Common brush-tailed possum
Coypu Common ringtail
AZERBAIJAN
Franciscana dolphin Common bentwing bat
Common wombat
Giant anteater Edible dormouse
Duck-billed platypus
Greater bulldog bat Eurasian wild pig
Dugong
Humpback whale European badger
Eastern barred bandicoot
Killer whale Gray wolf
Eastern gray kangaroo
Llama Red deer
Eastern pygmy possum
Lowland tapir Red fox
Greater bilby
Maned wolf Greater glider
Mara Honey possum BANGLADESH
Monito del monte Humpback whale Asian elephant
Northern minke whale Killer whale Blue whale
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Koala Common bentwing bat
Pearson’s tuco-tuco Musky rat-kangaroo Common bottlenosed dolphin
Pink fairy armadillo Northern bettong Eurasian wild pig
Prehensile-tailed porcupine Northern minke whale Ganges and Indus dolphin
Puma Numbat Gray wolf
Pygmy right whale Pygmy glider Greater horseshoe bat
Red deer Pygmy right whale Humpback whale
Shepherd’s beaked whale Pygmy sperm whale Indian crested porcupine
Southern pudu Queensland tube-nosed bat Indian flying fox
Sperm whale Red fox Indian muntjac
Three-toed tree sloths Red kangaroo Indian rhinoceros
Vampire bat Rufous spiny bandicoot Northern minke whale
Water opossum Short-beaked echidna Pygmy sperm whale
Southern marsupial mole Red fox
ARMENIA Sperm whale Rhesus macaque
Common bentwing bat Spinner dolphin Serow
Edible dormouse Sugar glider Sperm whale
Eurasian wild pig Tasmanian devil Spinner dolphin
European badger Tasmanian wolf Tiger
Gray wolf
Red deer AUSTRIA BELARUS
Red fox Alpine marmot Black-bellied hamster
Common bentwing bat Edible dormouse
AUSTRALIA Edible dormouse Ermine
Australian false vampire bat Ermine Eurasian wild pig
Australian jumping mouse Eurasian wild pig European badger
Bennett’s tree kangaroo European badger Gray wolf
Blue whale Greater horseshoe bat Moose
Bridled nail-tailed wallaby Mountain hare Mountain hare
lxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Red deer Virginia opossum Greater bulldog bat
Red fox Water opossum Greater dog-faced bat
White-tailed deer Greater sac-winged bat
BELGIUM Hoffman’s two-toed sloth
Black-bellied hamster BENIN Llama
Blue whale Aardvark Lowland tapir
Common bottlenosed dolphin African civet Maned wolf
Edible dormouse Blue whale Nine-banded armadillo
Ermine Common bottlenosed dolphin Pacarana
Eurasian wild pig Common genet Pallas’s long-tongued bat
European badger Gambian rat Puma
Greater horseshoe bat Humpback whale Pygmy marmoset
Harbor porpoise Lord Derby’s anomalure Silky anteater
Northern minke whale Spix’s disk-winged bat
Humpback whale
Pygmy sperm whale Three-toed tree sloths
Killer whale
Rock hyrax Vampire bat
North Atlantic right whale
Senegal bushbaby White-faced saki
South African porcupine White-tailed deer
Pygmy sperm whale
Sperm whale Sperm whale
Western European hedgehog Spinner dolphin BOSNIA AND
HERZEGOVINA
BHUTAN Common bentwing bat
BELIZE Asian elephant
Blue whale Edible dormouse
Common bentwing bat Eurasian wild pig
Brazilian free-tailed bat Gray wolf
Central American agouti European badger
Greater horseshoe bat Greater horseshoe bat
Collared peccary Indian crested porcupine
Common bottlenosed dolphin Red deer
Red fox Red fox
Funnel-eared bat Red panda
Geoffroy’s spider monkey Rhesus macaque
Giant anteater Serow BOTSWANA
Greater bulldog bat Snow leopard Aardvark
Greater dog-faced bat Water buffalo Aardwolf
Greater sac-winged bat African civet
Hispid cotton rat BOLIVIA Common genet
Humpback whale Alpaca Common hippopotamus
Nine-banded armadillo Ashy chinchilla rat Damaraland mole-rat
Northern minke whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Boto
Paca Giraffe
Brazilian free-tailed bat
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Ground pangolin
Brown-throated three-toed
Parnell’s moustached bat sloth Lion
Pygmy sperm whale Capybara Savanna elephant
Silky anteater Central American agouti Springhare
Sperm whale Collared peccary
Spinner dolphin Coypu BRAZIL
Spix’s disk-winged bat Giant anteater Bald uakari
Vampire bat Goeldi’s monkey Blue whale
Species List by Geographic Range lxv

Boto Weeper capuchin Malayan tapir
Brazilian free-tailed bat White-faced saki Northern minke whale
Brown-throated three-toed White-tailed deer Pileated gibbon
sloth Pygmy sperm whale
Burmeister’s porpoise Serow
BULGARIA
Capybara Sperm whale
Common bentwing bat
Central American agouti Spinner dolphin
Edible dormouse
Collared peccary
Eurasian wild pig
Common bottlenosed dolphin
European badger CAMEROON
Common squirrel monkey
Gray wolf Aardvark
Coypu
Greater horseshoe bat African civet
Franciscana dolphin
Harbor porpoise Blue whale
Funnel-eared bat
Red deer Chimpanzee
Giant anteater
Red fox Common bottlenosed dolphin
Goeldi’s monkey
Common genet
Greater bulldog bat
Dwarf epauletted fruit bat
Greater dog-faced bat BURKINA FASO
Egyptian rousette
Greater sac-winged bat Aardvark
Forest elephant
Hoffman’s two-toed sloth African civet
Forest hog
Humpback whale Common genet
Gambian rat
Killer whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Greater cane rat
Lowland tapir Rock hyrax
Humpback whale
Maned wolf Senegal bushbaby
Lord Derby’s anomalure
Masked titi
Mandrill
Nine-banded armadillo BURUNDI Northern minke whale
Northern minke whale Aardvark Potto
Paca African civet Pygmy sperm whale
Pacarana Common bentwing bat Rock hyrax
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Common genet Senegal bushbaby
Parnell’s moustached bat Egyptian slit-faced bat South African porcupine
Prehensile-tailed porcupine Gambian rat Sperm whale
Pygmy marmoset
Lord Derby’s anomalure Spinner dolphin
Pygmy right whale
Senegal bushbaby Western gorilla
Pygmy sperm whale
South African porcupine Western red colobus
Red deer
Rock cavy
Silky anteater CAMBODIA CANADA
Smoky bat Asian elephant American bison
Sperm whale Blue whale American black bear
Spinner dolphin Common bentwing bat American least shrew
Spix’s disk-winged bat Common bottlenosed dolphin American pika
Three-striped night monkey Dugong American water shrew
Three-toed tree sloths Eurasian wild pig Beluga
Vampire bat Greater horseshoe bat Bighorn sheep
Venezuelan red howler Humpback whale Black-tailed prairie dog
monkey Indian muntjac Bobcat
Water opossum Lesser Malay mouse deer California sea lion
lxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Eastern chipmunk Rock hyrax CHINA
Eastern mole Senegal bushbaby Asian elephant
Ermine South African porcupine Baiji
Gray squirrel Western gorilla Blue whale
Gray wolf White rhinoceros Common bentwing bat
Harbor porpoise Common bottlenosed dolphin
Harp seal Dugong
Killer whale
CHAD
Edible dormouse
Aardvark
Little brown bat Ermine
African civet
Moose European badger
Common genet
Mountain beaver Giant panda
Muskrat Dromedary camel
Gray wolf
Narwhal Egyptian slit-faced bat
North American beaver Gambian rat
Hairy-footed jerboa
North American porcupine Ground pangolin
Humpback whale
North Atlantic right whale Mzab gundi
Indian muntjac
Northern bottlenosed whale Rock hyrax
Kiang
Northern raccoon Senegal bushbaby
Killer whale
Pallid bat Spotted hyena
Lar gibbon
Polar bear Trident leaf-nosed bat
Lesser Malay mouse deer
Pronghorn White rhinoceros
Moose
Puma Mountain hare
Red deer CHILE Northern minke whale
Red fox Alpaca Northern pika
Reindeer Ashy chinchilla rat Pygmy slow loris
Snowshoe hare Blue whale Pygmy sperm whale
Southern flying squirrel Brazilian free-tailed bat Red deer
Star-nosed mole Burmeister’s porpoise Red fox
Striped skunk Common bottlenosed dolphin Red panda
Virginia opossum Coypu Reindeer
Walrus Degu Rhesus macaque
White-tailed deer Humpback whale Serow
Killer whale Siberian musk deer
CENTRAL AFRICAN Llama Snow leopard
REPUBLIC Long-tailed chinchilla Sperm whale
Aardvark Monito del monte Spinner dolphin
African civet Northern minke whale Tiger
Chimpanzee Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Common genet Pearson’s tuco-tuco COLOMBIA
Dwarf epauletted fruit bat Pygmy right whale Bald uakari
Egyptian rousette Pygmy sperm whale Blue whale
Forest elephant Red deer Boto
Gambian rat Shepherd’s beaked whale Brazilian free-tailed bat
Giraffe Southern pudu Brown-throated three-toed
Greater cane rat Sperm whale sloth
Lord Derby’s anomalure Vampire bat Capybara
Species List by Geographic Range lxvii

Central American agouti Dwarf epauletted fruit bat Spiny rat
Collared peccary Egyptian rousette Spix’s disk-winged bat
Colombian woolly monkey Egyptian slit-faced bat Three-toed tree sloths
Common bottlenosed dolphin Forest elephant Vampire bat
Common squirrel monkey Forest hog Virginia opossum
Cotton-top tamarin Humpback whale Water opossum
Funnel-eared bat Lord Derby’s anomalure White bat
Giant anteater Northern minke whale White-tailed deer
Goeldi’s monkey Potto White-throated capuchin
Greater bulldog bat Pygmy sperm whale
Greater sac-winged bat South African porcupine
Sperm whale
CROATIA
Hispid cotton rat
Blue whale
Hoffman’s two-toed sloth Spinner dolphin
Common bentwing bat
Humpback whale Springhare
Killer whale Western gorilla
Edible dormouse
Llama
Eurasian wild pig
Lowland tapir
COSTA RICA European badger
Nine-banded armadillo Greater horseshoe bat
American least shrew
Northern minke whale Humpback whale
Blue whale
Paca Northern minke whale
Pacarana Pygmy sperm whale
Pallas’s long-tongued bat sloth Red deer
Parnell’s moustached bat Central American agouti Red fox
Prehensile-tailed porcupine Collared peccary Sperm whale
Pygmy marmoset Common bottlenosed dolphin
Pygmy sperm whale Funnel-eared bat
Silky anteater Geoffroy’s spider monkey
CUBA
Silky shrew opossum Blue whale
Giant anteater
Smoky bat Brazilian free-tailed bat
Greater bulldog bat
Sperm whale Central American agouti
Spinner dolphin Collared peccary
Greater sac-winged bat
Spiny rat Common bottlenosed dolphin
Hispid cotton rat
Spix’s disk-winged bat Cuban hutia
Hoffman’s two-toed sloth
Three-striped night monkey Funnel-eared bat
Humpback whale
Three-toed tree sloths Greater bulldog bat
Killer whale
Vampire bat Humpback whale
Nine-banded armadillo
Water opossum Killer whale
White-faced saki Northern minke whale
Paca
White-tailed deer Pallid bat
Pallas’s long-tongued bat
White-throated capuchin Parnell’s moustached bat
Parnell’s moustached bat
Pygmy sperm whale
Puma Sperm whale
CONGO Pygmy sperm whale Spinner dolphin
African civet Silky anteater
Blue whale Smoky bat
Common bottlenosed dolphin Sperm whale CYPRUS
Common genet Spinner dolphin Blue whale
lxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Common bottlenosed dolphin Spinner dolphin Humpback whale
Humpback whale Western gorilla Killer whale
Northern minke whale Western red colobus Northern minke whale
Pygmy sperm whale White rhinoceros Parnell’s moustached bat
Sperm whale Pygmy sperm whale
Sperm whale
DENMARK Spinner dolphin
CZECH REPUBLIC Blue whale
Black-bellied hamster Common bottlenosed dolphin
Common bentwing bat Ermine ECUADOR
Edible dormouse Eurasian wild pig Blue whale
Ermine European badger Boto
European badger Harbor porpoise Brazilian free-tailed bat
Greater horseshoe bat Humpback whale Brown-throated three-toed
Red deer sloth
Killer whale
Red fox Capybara
Central American agouti
Collared peccary
DEMOCRATIC Norway lemming
REPUBLIC OF THE Pygmy sperm whale
Galápagos sea lion
CONGO Red deer
Giant anteater
Aardvark Red fox Goeldi’s monkey
African civet Sperm whale Greater bulldog bat
Blue whale Western European hedgehog Greater dog-faced bat
Checkered sengi Greater sac-winged bat
Chimpanzee DJIBOUTI Hoffman’s two-toed sloth
Common bentwing bat Aardvark Humpback whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Blue whale Killer whale
Common genet Common bottlenosed dolphin Llama
Common hippopotamus Common genet Lowland tapir
Dwarf epauletted fruit bat Dromedary camel Nine-banded armadillo
Egyptian rousette Dugong Northern minke whale
Egyptian slit-faced bat Humpback whale Pacarana
Forest elephant Northern minke whale Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Forest hog Rock hyrax Pygmy marmoset
Gambian rat Senegal bushbaby Pygmy sperm whale
Giraffe Sperm whale Silky anteater
Humpback whale Spinner dolphin Silky shrew opossum
Lord Derby’s anomalure Sperm whale
Mandrill Spinner dolphin
Northern minke whale DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Spiny rat
Okapi Blue whale Spix’s disk-winged bat
Potto Brazilian free-tailed bat Three-toed tree sloths
Pygmy sperm whale Common bottlenosed dolphin Vampire bat
Rock hyrax Funnel-eared bat Water opossum
South African porcupine Greater bulldog bat White-faced saki
Sperm whale Hispaniolan solenodon White-tailed deer
Species List by Geographic Range lxix

EGYPT Vampire bat Moose
Blue whale Virginia opossum Mountain hare
Common bottlenosed dolphin Water opossum Northern minke whale
Common genet White-tailed deer Red deer
Dromedary camel Red fox
Egyptian rousette EQUATORIAL GUINEA Sperm whale
Egyptian slit-faced bat African civet
Egyptian spiny mouse Blue whale ETHIOPIA
Eurasian wild pig Common bottlenosed dolphin Aardvark
Greater horseshoe bat Common genet Common genet
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Forest elephant Dromedary camel
tailed bat
Humpback whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Humpback whale
Lord Derby’s anomalure Forest hog
Mandrill Grevy’s zebra
Pygmy sperm whale
Northern minke whale Lion
Red fox
Potto Naked mole-rat
Rock hyrax
Pygmy sperm whale Rock hyrax
Sperm whale
South African porcupine Senegal bushbaby
Trident leaf-nosed bat
Sperm whale Thomson’s gazelle
Spinner dolphin
EL SALVADOR Western gorilla FINLAND
Blue whale Blue whale
Brazilian free-tailed bat ERITREA Common bottlenosed dolphin
Brown-throated three-toed Aardvark Ermine
sloth
Blue whale Eurasian wild pig
Collared peccary
Common bottlenosed dolphin European badger
Common genet European otter
Funnel-eared bat
Dromedary camel Gray wolf
Geoffroy’s spider monkey
Dugong Humpback whale
Giant anteater
Egyptian slit-faced bat Moose
Greater bulldog bat
Humpback whale Mountain hare
Northern minke whale Northern minke whale
Hispid cotton rat
Rock hyrax Norway lemming
Humpback whale
Sperm whale Red fox
Killer whale
Spinner dolphin Reindeer
Sperm whale
ESTONIA Western European hedgehog
Paca
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Blue whale
Parnell’s moustached bat Common bottlenosed dolphin FRANCE
Pygmy sperm whale Ermine Alpine marmot
Silky anteater Eurasian wild pig Blue whale
Sperm whale European badger Common bentwing bat
Spinner dolphin Gray wolf Common bottlenosed dolphin
Spix’s disk-winged bat Harbor porpoise Common genet
Three-toed tree sloths Humpback whale Edible dormouse
lxx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Ermine White-faced saki Eurasian wild pig
Eurasian wild pig White-tailed deer European badger
European badger Gray wolf
European otter Harbor porpoise
GABON
Greater horseshoe bat Red deer
African civet
Harbor porpoise Red fox
Blue whale
Humpback whale
Killer whale GERMANY
Common genet
North Atlantic right whale Alpine marmot
Common hippopotamus
Northern bottlenosed whale Black-bellied hamster
Dwarf epauletted fruit bat
Northern minke whale Blue whale
Egyptian rousette
Pygmy sperm whale Common bentwing bat
Forest elephant
Red deer Common bottlenosed dolphin
Forest hog
Red fox Edible dormouse
Humpback whale
Sperm whale Ermine
Lord Derby’s anomalure
Western European hedgehog Eurasian wild pig
Mandrill
Northern minke whale European badger
FRENCH GUIANA Potto Greater horseshoe bat
Blue whale Pygmy sperm whale Harbor porpoise
Capybara South African porcupine Humpback whale
Collared peccary Sperm whale Killer whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Spinner dolphin North Atlantic right whale
Common squirrel monkey Western gorilla Northern minke whale
Funnel-eared bat Northern raccoon
Giant anteater Pygmy sperm whale
Greater bulldog bat
GAMBIA Red deer
Aardvark Red fox
African civet Sperm whale
Blue whale Western European hedgehog
Humpback whale
Lowland tapir
Common genet
Nine-banded armadillo GHANA
Gambian rat
Northern minke whale Aardvark
Greater cane rat
Paca African civet
Humpback whale
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Blue whale
Killer whale
Parnell’s moustached bat Chimpanzee
Prehensile-tailed porcupine Common bottlenosed dolphin
Pygmy sperm whale
Pygmy sperm whale Common genet
Senegal bushbaby
Silky anteater Dwarf epauletted fruit bat
South African porcupine
Smoky bat Egyptian rousette
Sperm whale
Sperm whale Forest elephant
Spinner dolphin
Spinner dolphin Forest hog
Western red colobus
Spix’s disk-winged bat Gambian rat
Three-toed tree sloths Humpback whale
Vampire bat GEORGIA Lord Derby’s anomalure
Water opossum Common bentwing bat Northern minke whale
Weeper capuchin Edible dormouse Potto
Species List by Geographic Range lxxi

Pygmy sperm whale GUATEMALA Pygmy sperm whale
Rock hyrax American least shrew Rock hyrax
Senegal bushbaby Blue whale Senegal bushbaby
South African porcupine Brazilian free-tailed bat South African porcupine
Sperm whale Central American agouti Sperm whale
Spinner dolphin Collared peccary Spinner dolphin
Western red colobus Common bottlenosed dolphin
Funnel-eared bat GUINEA-BISSAU
GREECE Geoffroy’s spider monkey Aardvark
Blue whale Giant anteater African civet
Common bentwing bat Greater bulldog bat Blue whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Greater dog-faced bat Common bottlenosed dolphin
Edible dormouse Greater sac-winged bat Common genet
European badger Hispid cotton rat Forest hog
European otter Humpback whale Gambian rat
Gray wolf Killer whale Humpback whale
Greater horseshoe bat Nine-banded armadillo Killer whale
Harbor porpoise Northern minke whale Northern minke whale
Humpback whale Paca Pygmy sperm whale
Northern minke whale Pallas’s long-tongued bat Rock hyrax
Pygmy sperm whale Parnell’s moustached bat Senegal bushbaby
Red deer Puma South African porcupine
Red fox Pygmy sperm whale Sperm whale
Sperm whale Silky anteater Spinner dolphin
Sperm whale Western red colobus
Spinner dolphin
GREENLAND Spix’s disk-winged bat
Blue whale GUYANA
Vampire bat Blue whale
Ermine
Virginia opossum Boto
Harbor porpoise
Water opossum Capybara
Harp seal
White-tailed deer Collared peccary
Humpback whale
Killer whale Common bottlenosed dolphin
North Atlantic right whale GUINEA Common squirrel monkey
Northern bottlenosed whale Aardvark Funnel-eared bat
Northern minke whale African civet Giant anteater
Polar bear Blue whale Greater bulldog bat
Reindeer Chimpanzee Greater dog-faced bat
Walrus Common bottlenosed dolphin Greater sac-winged bat
Common genet Humpback whale
Egyptian slit-faced bat Lowland tapir
GRENADA Forest hog Nine-banded armadillo
Nine-banded armadillo Northern minke whale
Gambian rat
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Paca
Humpback whale
Killer whale Pallas’s long-tongued bat
GUAM Northern minke whale Parnell’s moustached bat
Marianas fruit bat Pygmy hippopotamus Prehensile-tailed porcupine
lxxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pygmy sperm whale Killer whale Common bottlenosed dolphin
Silky anteater Nine-banded armadillo Dromedary camel
Smoky bat Northern minke whale Dugong
Sperm whale Paca Ermine
Spinner dolphin Pallas’s long-tongued bat Eurasian wild pig
Spix’s disk-winged bat Parnell’s moustached bat Ganges and Indus dolphin
Three-toed tree sloths Pygmy sperm whale Gray wolf
Vampire bat Silky anteater Greater horseshoe bat
Water opossum Sperm whale Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-
Weeper capuchin Spinner dolphin tailed bat
White-faced saki Spiny rat Humpback whale
White-tailed deer Spix’s disk-winged bat Indian crested porcupine
Three-toed tree sloths Indian flying fox
HAITI Vampire bat Indian muntjac
Blue whale Virginia opossum Indian rhinoceros
Brazilian free-tailed bat Water opossum Kiang
Common bottlenosed dolphin White bat Killer whale
Funnel-eared bat White-tailed deer Lion
Greater bulldog bat White-throated capuchin Northern minke whale
Hispaniolan solenodon Pygmy sperm whale
Humpback whale Red fox
HUNGARY Red panda
Killer whale Black-bellied hamster
Northern minke whale Rhesus macaque
Common bentwing bat Serow
Parnell’s moustached bat Edible dormouse
Pygmy sperm whale Snow leopard
Ermine Sperm whale
Sperm whale Eurasian wild pig
Spinner dolphin Spinner dolphin
European badger Tiger
Greater horseshoe bat Water buffalo
HONDURAS Red deer
American least shrew Red fox
Blue whale INDONESIA
Brazilian free-tailed bat Asian elephant
ICELAND Babirusa
Brown-throated three-toed Blue whale
sloth Blue whale
Harbor porpoise
Central American agouti Bornean orangutan
Humpback whale
Collared peccary Common bentwing bat
Killer whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Common bottlenosed dolphin
Funnel-eared bat Common tree shrew
Northern bottlenosed whale
Geoffroy’s spider monkey Dugong
Giant anteater Eurasian wild pig
Norway lemming
Greater bulldog bat European otter
Greater dog-faced bat Humpback whale
Greater sac-winged bat INDIA Indian muntjac
Hispid cotton rat Asian elephant Killer whale
Hoffman’s two-toed sloth Blue whale Lar gibbon
Humpback whale Common bentwing bat Lesser Malay mouse deer
Species List by Geographic Range lxxiii

Malayan colugo Red fox Common bentwing bat
Malayan moonrat Trident leaf-nosed bat Common bottlenosed dolphin
Malayan tapir Edible dormouse
Naked bat Ermine
IRELAND Eurasian wild pig
Blue whale
Proboscis monkey European badger
Pygmy sperm whale Gray wolf
Ermine
Serow Greater horseshoe bat
Eurasian wild pig
Siamang Humpback whale
European badger
Sperm whale Killer whale
European otter
Spinner dolphin Mountain hare
Harbor porpoise
Sumatran rhinoceros Northern minke whale
Humpback whale
Tiger Pygmy sperm whale
Western tarsier Killer whale Red deer
Mountain hare Red fox
North Atlantic right whale Sperm whale
IRAN Northern bottlenosed whale
Blue whale Western European hedgehog
Common bentwing bat Red deer
Common bottlenosed dolphin Red fox IVORY COAST
Dromedary camel Sperm whale Aardvark
Dugong Western European hedgehog African civet
Edible dormouse Blue whale
Egyptian rousette Chimpanzee
Egyptian spiny mouse ISRAEL Common bottlenosed dolphin
Eurasian wild pig Blue whale Common genet
European badger Common bottlenosed dolphin Dwarf epauletted fruit bat
Gray wolf Dromedary camel Egyptian rousette
Greater horseshoe bat Egyptian rousette Forest elephant
Hairy-footed jerboa Egyptian slit-faced bat Forest hog
Humpback whale Egyptian spiny mouse Gambian rat
Indian crested porcupine Eurasian wild pig Humpback whale
Killer whale Gray wolf Lord Derby’s anomalure
Northern minke whale Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Northern minke whale
Pygmy sperm whale tailed bat Pygmy hippopotamus
Red deer Humpback whale Pygmy sperm whale
Red fox Indian crested porcupine Rock hyrax
Sperm whale Northern minke whale Senegal bushbaby
Spinner dolphin Pygmy sperm whale South African porcupine
Trident leaf-nosed bat Red fox Sperm whale
Rock hyrax Spinner dolphin
Sperm whale Western red colobus
IRAQ Trident leaf-nosed bat
Dromedary camel
Egyptian spiny mouse JAMAICA
Eurasian wild pig ITALY Blue whale
Gray wolf Alpine marmot Brazilian free-tailed bat
Greater horseshoe bat Blue whale Common bottlenosed dolphin
lxxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Funnel-eared bat KAZAKHSTAN Springhare
Greater bulldog bat Black-bellied hamster Thomson’s gazelle
Humpback whale Common bentwing bat
Killer whale Edible dormouse KUWAIT
Northern minke whale Ermine Egyptian spiny mouse
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Eurasian wild pig Gray wolf
Parnell’s moustached bat European badger Trident leaf-nosed bat
Pygmy sperm whale Gray wolf
Sperm whale Hairy-footed jerboa
Spinner dolphin Moose
KYRGYZSTAN
Mountain hare Common bentwing bat
Red deer Edible dormouse
JAPAN Ermine
Blue whale Red fox
Snow leopard Eurasian wild pig
Common bentwing bat European badger
Common bottlenosed dolphin Gray wolf
Dugong KENYA Red deer
Ermine Aardvark Red fox
Eurasian wild pig Aardwolf Snow leopard
European badger African civet
European otter Blue whale
Gray whale Common bentwing bat LAOS
Greater horseshoe bat Common bottlenosed dolphin Asian elephant
Harbor porpoise Common genet Common bentwing bat
Humpback whale Dugong Eurasian wild pig
Killer whale Egyptian rousette Greater horseshoe bat
Marianas fruit bat Egyptian slit-faced bat Indian muntjac
Mountain hare Forest hog Lesser Malay mouse deer
Northern minke whale Gambian rat Malayan tapir
Northern pika Giraffe Pileated gibbon
Pygmy sperm whale Greater cane rat Pygmy slow loris
Reindeer Grevy’s zebra Red fox
Siberian musk deer Ground pangolin Red-shanked douc langur
Sperm whale Humpback whale Rhesus macaque
Spinner dolphin Kirk’s dikdik Serow
Lion
JORDAN Lord Derby’s anomalure LATVIA
Dromedary camel Naked mole-rat Blue whale
Egyptian slit-faced bat Northern greater bushbaby Common bottlenosed dolphin
Egyptian spiny mouse Northern minke whale Ermine
Eurasian wild pig Potto Eurasian wild pig
Gray wolf Pygmy sperm whale European badger
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Rock hyrax Gray wolf
tailed bat Senegal bushbaby Harbor porpoise
Red fox South African porcupine Humpback whale
Rock hyrax Sperm whale Moose
Trident leaf-nosed bat Spinner dolphin Mountain hare
Species List by Geographic Range lxxv

Northern minke whale Common genet Humpback whale
Red deer Forest elephant Moose
Red fox Forest hog Mountain hare
Sperm whale Humpback whale Northern minke whale
Killer whale Red deer
Lord Derby’s anomalure Red fox
LEBANON Northern minke whale Sperm whale
Blue whale
Pygmy hippopotamus
Pygmy sperm whale
Dromedary camel LUXEMBOURG
Rock hyrax
Egyptian spiny mouse Edible dormouse
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Ermine
Sperm whale
tailed bat Eurasian wild pig
Spinner dolphin
Humpback whale European badger
Western red colobus
Northern minke whale Greater horseshoe bat
Pygmy sperm whale Red deer
Sperm whale LIBYA Red fox
Trident leaf-nosed bat Blue whale
Dromedary camel MACEDONIA
LESOTHO Egyptian spiny mouse Common bentwing bat
Aardvark Eurasian wild pig Edible dormouse
African civet Greater horseshoe bat Eurasian wild pig
Common bentwing bat Humpback whale European badger
Common genet Mzab gundi Gray wolf
Egyptian slit-faced bat Northern minke whale Greater horseshoe bat
South African porcupine Pygmy sperm whale Red deer
Red fox Red fox
LESSER ANTILLES Sperm whale
Blue whale Trident leaf-nosed bat
MADAGASCAR
Aye-aye
Common bottlenosed dolphin LIECHTENSTEIN Blue whale
Funnel-eared bat Ermine Common bentwing bat
Greater bulldog bat Eurasian wild pig Common bottlenosed dolphin
Humpback whale Greater horseshoe bat Common tenrec
Killer whale Red deer Crowned lemur
Northern minke whale Red fox Dugong
Pygmy sperm whale
Fossa
Sperm whale
Spinner dolphin
LITHUANIA Humpback whale
Blue whale Indri
Common bottlenosed dolphin Killer whale
LIBERIA Edible dormouse Milne-Edwards’s sifaka
Aardvark Ermine Northern minke whale
African civet Eurasian wild pig Old World sucker-footed bat
Blue whale European badger Pygmy sperm whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Harbor porpoise Red mouse lemur
lxxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Red-tailed sportive lemur MALI Funnel-eared bat
Ringtailed lemur Aardvark Geoffroy’s spider monkey
Ring-tailed mongoose African civet Gray whale
Sperm whale Common genet Greater bulldog bat
Spinner dolphin Dromedary camel Greater dog-faced bat
White-footed sportive lemur Egyptian rousette Greater sac-winged bat
Yellow-streaked tenrec Egyptian slit-faced bat Hispid cotton rat
Gambian rat Humpback whale
Mzab gundi Killer whale
MALAWI Little brown bat
Rock hyrax
Aardvark
Savanna elephant Muskrat
African civet
Senegal bushbaby Nine-banded armadillo
Checkered sengi
North American beaver
Common bentwing bat North American porcupine
Common genet MARIANA ISLANDS Northern elephant seal
Egyptian slit-faced bat Marianas fruit bat
Gambian rat Northern raccoon
Ground pangolin MAURITANIA Paca
South African porcupine Aardvark Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Blue whale Pallid bat
MALAYSIA Common bottlenosed dolphin Parnell’s moustached bat
Asian elephant Dromedary camel Pronghorn
Blue whale Humpback whale Puma
Bornean orangutan Killer whale Pygmy sperm whale
Common bentwing bat Northern minke whale Silky anteater
Common bottlenosed dolphin Pygmy sperm whale Sperm whale
Common tree shrew Sperm whale Spinner dolphin
Dugong Spinner dolphin Spix’s disk-winged bat
Eurasian wild pig Striped skunk
Humpback whale MEXICO Three-toed tree sloths
Indian muntjac American black bear Valley pocket gopher
Killer whale American least shrew Vampire bat
Lar gibbon Bighorn sheep Virginia opossum
Lesser Malay mouse deer Black-tailed prairie dog Water opossum
Malayan colugo Blue whale White-tailed deer
Malayan moonrat Bobcat
Malayan tapir Brazilian free-tailed bat MOLDOVA
Naked bat Brown-throated three-toed Black-bellied hamster
Northern minke whale sloth Common bentwing bat
Proboscis monkey California leaf-nosed bat Edible dormouse
Pygmy sperm whale California sea lion Eurasian wild pig
Serow Central American agouti European badger
Siamang Collared peccary Gray wolf
Sperm whale Common bottlenosed dolphin Greater horseshoe bat
Spinner dolphin Desert cottontail Red deer
Sumatran rhinoceros Eastern mole Red fox
Species List by Geographic Range lxxvii

MONACO African civet Sperm whale
European badger Blue whale Spinner dolphin
Red fox Checkered sengi Tiger
Common bentwing bat
MONGOLIA Common genet
NAMIBIA
Ermine Aardvark
Common hippopotamus
Eurasian wild pig African civet
Dugong
Gray wolf Blue whale
Egyptian rousette
Hairy-footed jerboa Common bentwing bat
Egyptian slit-faced bat
Moose Common bottlenosed dolphin
Gambian rat
Mountain hare Common genet
Ground pangolin
Northern pika Common hippopotamus
Humpback whale
Przewalski’s horse Damaraland mole-rat
Killer whale
Red deer Lord Derby’s anomalure Dassie rat
Red fox Northern minke whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Reindeer Pygmy sperm whale Giraffe
Siberian musk deer Rock hyrax Grant’s desert golden mole
Snow leopard South African porcupine Ground pangolin
Sperm whale Humpback whale
Spinner dolphin Killer whale
MOROCCO Springhare Kirk’s dikdik
Blue whale Northern minke whale
White rhinoceros
Common bentwing bat Pygmy sperm whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Rock hyrax
Dromedary camel MYANMAR Savanna elephant
Eurasian wild pig Asian elephant Sperm whale
European otter Blue whale Springhare
Greater horseshoe bat Common bentwing bat
Harbor porpoise Common bottlenosed dolphin
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Eurasian wild pig NEPAL
tailed bat Gray wolf Asian elephant
Humpback whale Greater horseshoe bat Common bentwing bat
Killer whale Humpback whale Eurasian wild pig
North Atlantic right whale Indian flying fox Ganges and Indus dolphin
Northern bottlenosed whale Indian muntjac Gray wolf
Northern minke whale Kitti’s hog-nosed bat Greater horseshoe bat
Pygmy sperm whale Lar gibbon Indian crested porcupine
Red deer Lesser Malay mouse deer Indian muntjac
Red fox Malayan moonrat Indian rhinoceros
Sperm whale Malayan tapir Kiang
Spinner dolphin Northern minke whale Red fox
Trident leaf-nosed bat Pygmy sperm whale Red panda
Red fox Rhesus macaque
Red panda Serow
MOZAMBIQUE Rhesus macaque Snow leopard
Aardvark Serow Water buffalo
lxxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

NETHERLANDS Giant anteater Egyptian rousette
Black-bellied hamster Greater bulldog bat Egyptian slit-faced bat
Blue whale Greater dog-faced bat Gambian rat
Common bottlenosed dolphin Greater sac-winged bat Humpback whale
Ermine Hispid cotton rat Lord Derby’s anomalure
Eurasian wild pig Hoffman’s two-toed sloth Northern minke whale
European badger Humpback whale Potto
Harbor porpoise Killer whale Pygmy sperm whale
Humpback whale Nine-banded armadillo Rock hyrax
Killer whale Northern minke whale Senegal bushbaby
Northern minke whale Paca South African porcupine
Northern raccoon Pallas’s long-tongued bat Sperm whale
Pygmy sperm whale Parnell’s moustached bat Spinner dolphin
Red deer Pygmy sperm whale Western gorilla
Red fox Silky anteater Western red colobus
Sperm whale Sperm whale
Western European hedgehog Spinner dolphin
NORTH KOREA
Spiny rat
Blue whale
Spix’s disk-winged bat
NEW ZEALAND Common bentwing bat
Three-toed tree sloths
Blue whale Common bottlenosed dolphin
Vampire bat
Brush-tailed rock wallaby Eurasian wild pig
Virginia opossum
Common bottlenosed dolphin Humpback whale
Water opossum
Common brush-tailed possum Killer whale
White bat
Dugong Northern minke whale
White-tailed deer
Humpback whale Northern pika
White-throated capuchin
Killer whale Pygmy sperm whale
Lesser New Zealand short- Red deer
tailed bat NIGER Siberian musk deer
Northern minke whale Aardvark Sperm whale
Pygmy right whale Dromedary camel Spinner dolphin
Pygmy sperm whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Shepherd’s beaked whale Gambian rat
NORWAY
Sperm whale Mzab gundi
Blue whale
Rock hyrax
Senegal bushbaby
NICARAGUA Trident leaf-nosed bat
Ermine
American least shrew Eurasian wild pig
Blue whale European badger
Brazilian free-tailed bat NIGERIA European otter
Brown-throated three-toed Aardvark Harbor porpoise
sloth African civet Humpback whale
Central American agouti Blue whale Killer whale
Collared peccary Chimpanzee Moose
Common bottlenosed dolphin Common bottlenosed dolphin Mountain hare
Funnel-eared bat Common genet North Atlantic right whale
Geoffroy’s spider monkey Dwarf epauletted fruit bat Northern bottlenosed whale
Species List by Geographic Range lxxix

Northern minke whale Pygmy sperm whale White-tailed deer
Norway lemming Red fox White-throated capuchin
Polar bear Rhesus macaque
Red deer Snow leopard
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Red fox Sperm whale
Blue whale
Reindeer Spinner dolphin
Common bentwing bat
Sperm whale Trident leaf-nosed bat
Western European hedgehog Dugong
PANAMA Ground cuscus
OMAN American least shrew Humpback whale
Blue whale Blue whale Killer whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Brazilian free-tailed bat Northern minke whale
Dromedary camel Brown-throated three-toed Pygmy sperm whale
Dugong sloth Rufous spiny bandicoot
Egyptian rousette Capybara Short-beaked echidna
Egyptian spiny mouse Central American agouti Sperm whale
Gray wolf Collared peccary Spinner dolphin
Humpback whale Common bottlenosed dolphin Sugar glider
Killer whale Funnel-eared bat
Northern minke whale Geoffroy’s spider monkey
Giant anteater
PARAGUAY
Pygmy sperm whale Brazilian free-tailed bat
Rock hyrax Greater bulldog bat
Sperm whale Greater dog-faced bat
sloth
Spinner dolphin Greater sac-winged bat
Capybara
Trident leaf-nosed bat Hispid cotton rat
Collared peccary
Hoffman’s two-toed sloth
Coypu
Humpback whale
PAKISTAN Giant anteater
Killer whale
Blue whale Greater bulldog bat
Common bentwing bat Maned wolf
Common bottlenosed dolphin Nine-banded armadillo
Northern raccoon
Dromedary camel Paca
Paca
Dugong Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Eurasian wild pig Prehensile-tailed porcupine
Ganges and Indus dolphin Three-toed tree sloths
Puma
Vampire bat
Gray wolf Pygmy sperm whale
Water opossum
Greater horseshoe bat Silky anteater
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Smoky bat
tailed bat Sperm whale PERU
Humpback whale Spinner dolphin Alpaca
Indian flying fox Spiny rat Ashy chinchilla rat
Indian muntjac Spix’s disk-winged bat Bald uakari
Indian rhinoceros Three-toed tree sloths Blue whale
Kiang Vampire bat Boto
Killer whale Water opossum Brazilian free-tailed bat
Northern minke whale White bat Burmeister’s porpoise
lxxx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Capybara POLAND Common bottlenosed
Central American agouti Black-bellied hamster dolphin
Collared peccary Blue whale Funnel-eared bat
Common bottlenosed Common bentwing bat Greater bulldog bat
dolphin Common bottlenosed Humpback whale
Giant anteater dolphin Killer whale
Goeldi’s monkey Edible dormouse Northern minke whale
Greater bulldog bat Ermine Pygmy sperm whale
Greater dog-faced bat Eurasian wild pig Sperm whale
Greater sac-winged bat European badger Spinner dolphin
Hoffman’s two-toed sloth Greater horseshoe bat
Humpback whale Harbor porpoise QATAR
Killer whale Humpback whale Egyptian spiny mouse
Llama Moose
Lowland tapir Northern minke whale ROMANIA
Maned wolf Red deer Black-bellied hamster
Nine-banded armadillo Red fox Common bentwing bat
Northern minke whale Sperm whale Edible dormouse
Pacarana Eurasian wild pig
Pallas’s long-tongued bat European badger
Parnell’s moustached bat PORTUGAL
Gray wolf
Pearson’s tuco-tuco Blue whale
Pygmy marmoset Common bentwing bat
Harbor porpoise
Pygmy sperm whale Common bottlenosed
dolphin Red deer
Silky anteater Red fox
Sperm whale Common genet
Spinner dolphin Eurasian wild pig
European badger RUSSIA
Spix’s disk-winged bat
European otter Beluga
Vampire bat
Greater horseshoe bat Black-bellied hamster
Water opossum
Harbor porpoise Blue whale
White-faced saki
Humpback whale Common bentwing bat
White-tailed deer
Killer whale Common bottlenosed
North Atlantic right whale dolphin
PHILIPPINES Northern bottlenosed whale Edible dormouse
Blue whale Ermine
Common bentwing bat Eurasian wild pig
Pygmy sperm whale
Common bottlenosed European otter
Red deer
dolphin Gray whale
Red fox
Dugong Gray wolf
Sperm whale
Humpback whale Harbor porpoise
Western barbastelle
Naked bat Harp seal
Western European hedgehog
Northern minke whale Humpback whale
Philippine tarsier Killer whale
Pygmy sperm whale PUERTO RICO Moose
Sperm whale Blue whale Mountain hare
Spinner dolphin Brazilian free-tailed bat Narwhal
Species List by Geographic Range lxxxi

Northern minke whale SENEGAL SINGAPORE
Northern pika Aardvark Lesser Malay mouse deer
Northern raccoon African civet
Polar bear Blue whale
Red deer SLOVAKIA
Chimpanzee
Red fox Black-bellied hamster
Reindeer Edible dormouse
Common genet
Siberian musk deer Ermine
Egyptian slit-faced bat
Snow leopard European badger
Gambian rat
Sperm whale Greater horseshoe bat
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse-
Tiger Red deer
tailed bat
Walrus Red fox
Humpback whale
Western European hedgehog Killer whale
Northern minke whale SLOVENIA
RWANDA Pygmy sperm whale Blue whale
Aardvark Rock hyrax Common bentwing bat
African civet Senegal bushbaby Common bottlenosed dolphin
Chimpanzee South African porcupine Edible dormouse
Common bentwing bat Sperm whale Ermine
Common genet Spinner dolphin Eurasian wild pig
Egyptian slit-faced bat Western red colobus European badger
Gambian rat Greater horseshoe bat
Lord Derby’s anomalure Humpback whale
SIERRA LEONE
Rock hyrax Northern minke whale
Aardvark
Senegal bushbaby Pygmy sperm whale
African civet
South African porcupine Red deer
Blue whale
Red fox
Chimpanzee
Sperm whale
SAUDI ARABIA Common bottlenosed dolphin
Blue whale Common genet
Common bottlenosed dolphin Egyptian slit-faced bat SOMALIA
Dromedary camel Forest hog Aardwolf
Dugong Gambian rat African civet
Egyptian slit-faced bat Humpback whale Blue whale
Egyptian spiny mouse Killer whale Common bentwing bat
Gray wolf Lord Derby’s anomalure Common bottlenosed dolphin
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Northern minke whale Common genet
tailed bat Potto Dromedary camel
Humpback whale Pygmy hippopotamus Dugong
Indian crested porcupine Pygmy sperm whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Northern minke whale Rock hyrax Humpback whale
Pygmy sperm whale Senegal bushbaby Kirk’s dikdik
Rock hyrax South African porcupine Naked mole-rat
Sperm whale Sperm whale Northern greater bushbaby
Spinner dolphin Spinner dolphin Northern minke whale
Trident leaf-nosed bat Western red colobus Pygmy sperm whale
lxxxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Rock hyrax Northern minke whale Common hippopotamus
Senegal bushbaby Pygmy sperm whale Dromedary camel
South African porcupine Sperm whale Dugong
Sperm whale Spinner dolphin Dwarf epauletted fruit bat
Spinner dolphin Egyptian slit-faced bat
Gambian rat
SPAIN Giraffe
SOUTH AFRICA Alpine marmot Greater cane rat
Aardvark Blue whale Ground pangolin
Aardwolf Common bentwing bat Humpback whale
African civet Common bottlenosed dolphin Northern minke whale
Black wildebeest Common genet Pygmy sperm whale
Blue whale Edible dormouse Rock hyrax
Cape horseshoe bat Eurasian wild pig Senegal bushbaby
Common bentwing bat European badger South African porcupine
Common bottlenosed dolphin European otter Sperm whale
Common genet Gray wolf Spinner dolphin
Damaraland mole-rat Greater horseshoe bat Spotted hyena
Dassie rat Harbor porpoise Thomson’s gazelle
Egyptian rousette Humpback whale Trident leaf-nosed bat
Egyptian slit-faced bat Killer whale White rhinoceros
Gambian rat North Atlantic right whale
Giraffe Northern bottlenosed whale
Grant’s desert golden mole Northern minke whale
SURINAME
Ground pangolin Blue whale
Pygmy sperm whale
Humpback whale Collared peccary
Red deer
Killer whale Common bottlenosed dolphin
Red fox
Northern minke whale Common squirrel monkey
Sperm whale
Pygmy right whale Funnel-eared bat
Western barbastelle
Pygmy sperm whale Giant anteater
Western European hedgehog
Rock hyrax Greater bulldog bat
Savanna elephant Greater dog-faced bat
Shepherd’s beaked whale SRI LANKA Greater sac-winged bat
Asian elephant Humpback whale
European otter Lowland tapir
Southern tree hyrax
Indian crested porcupine Northern minke whale
Sperm whale
Indian flying fox Paca
Spinner dolphin
Indian muntjac Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Springhare
SOUTH KOREA SUDAN Pygmy sperm whale
Blue whale Aardvark Silky anteater
Common bentwing bat African civet Smoky bat
Common bottlenosed dolphin Blue whale Sperm whale
Eurasian wild pig Chimpanzee Spinner dolphin
Humpback whale Common bottlenosed dolphin Spix’s disk-winged bat
Killer whale Common genet Three-toed tree sloths
Species List by Geographic Range lxxxiii

Vampire bat Red fox Egyptian slit-faced bat
Water opossum Western European hedgehog Gambian rat
Weeper capuchin Giraffe
White-faced saki Greater cane rat
SYRIA
White-tailed deer Ground pangolin
Blue whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Humpback whale
SWAZILAND Dromedary camel Killer whale
Aardvark Egyptian spiny mouse Kirk’s dikdik
African civet Eurasian wild pig Lion
Common bentwing bat Gray wolf Lord Derby’s anomalure
Common genet Greater horseshoe bat Northern greater bushbaby
Egyptian slit-faced bat Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Northern minke whale
Gambian rat tailed bat Pygmy sperm whale
Giraffe Humpback whale Rock hyrax
Ground pangolin Northern minke whale Senegal bushbaby
South African porcupine Pygmy sperm whale South African porcupine
Red deer Sperm whale
Red fox Spinner dolphin
SWEDEN Springhare
Sperm whale
Blue whale
Trident leaf-nosed bat Thomson’s gazelle
Ermine
Eurasian wild pig TAJIKISTAN THAILAND
European badger Common bentwing bat Asian elephant
Gray wolf Edible dormouse Blue whale
Harbor porpoise Ermine Common bentwing bat
Humpback whale Eurasian wild pig Common bottlenosed dolphin
Moose European badger Common tree shrew
Mountain hare Gray wolf Dugong
Northern minke whale Greater horseshoe bat Eurasian wild pig
Norway lemming Red deer Greater horseshoe bat
Red deer Red fox Humpback whale
Red fox Snow leopard Indian muntjac
Sperm whale Kitti’s hog-nosed bat
Western European hedgehog Lar gibbon
TANZANIA
Aardvark Lesser Malay mouse deer
SWITZERLAND African civet Malayan colugo
Alpine marmot Blue whale Malayan moonrat
Common bentwing bat Checkered sengi Malayan tapir
Edible dormouse Chimpanzee Northern minke whale
Ermine Common bentwing bat Pileated gibbon
Eurasian wild pig Common bottlenosed dolphin Pygmy sperm whale
European badger Common genet Red fox
Greater horseshoe bat Common hippopotamus Rhesus macaque
Mountain hare Dugong Serow
Red deer Egyptian rousette Sperm whale
lxxxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Spinner dolphin TURKEY Senegal bushbaby
Water buffalo Blue whale South African porcupine
Common bentwing bat White rhinoceros
TOGO Common bottlenosed dolphin
Aardvark Edible dormouse UKRAINE
African civet Egyptian rousette Alpine marmot
Blue whale Eurasian wild pig Black-bellied hamster
Common bottlenosed dolphin European badger Common bentwing bat
Common genet Gray wolf Edible dormouse
Forest hog Greater horseshoe bat Ermine
Gambian rat Harbor porpoise Eurasian wild pig
Humpback whale Humpback whale European badger
Lord Derby’s anomalure Northern minke whale Gray wolf
Northern minke whale Pygmy sperm whale Greater horseshoe bat
Pygmy sperm whale Red deer Harbor porpoise
Rock hyrax Sperm whale Moose
Senegal bushbaby Red deer
South African porcupine TURKMENISTAN Red fox
Sperm whale Common bentwing bat
Spinner dolphin Edible dormouse UNITED ARAB
Eurasian wild pig EMIRATES
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO European badger Dromedary camel
Pallas’s long-tongued bat Gray wolf Egyptian spiny mouse
Prehensile-tailed porcupine Greater horseshoe bat Gray wolf
Silky anteater Hairy-footed jerboa Trident leaf-nosed bat
Smoky bat Red deer
Vampire bat Red fox
UNITED KINGDOM
Blue whale
TUNISIA UGANDA Common bottlenosed dolphin
Blue whale Aardvark Ermine
Common bentwing bat African civet Eurasian wild pig
Common bottlenosed dolphin Checkered sengi European badger
Common genet Chimpanzee European otter
Dromedary camel Common bentwing bat Greater horseshoe bat
Eurasian wild pig Common genet Harbor porpoise
European otter Dwarf epauletted fruit bat Humpback whale
Greater horseshoe bat Egyptian rousette Killer whale
Humpback whale Egyptian slit-faced bat Mountain hare
Killer whale Forest hog North Atlantic right whale
Northern minke whale Gambian rat Northern bottlenosed whale
Pygmy sperm whale Giraffe Northern minke whale
Red deer Greater cane rat Pygmy sperm whale
Red fox Ground pangolin Red deer
Sperm whale Lord Derby’s anomalure Red fox
Trident leaf-nosed bat Potto Sperm whale
Species List by Geographic Range lxxxv

Western barbastelle Polar bear Eurasian wild pig
Western European hedgehog Pronghorn European badger
Puma Gray wolf
UNITED STATES Pygmy sperm whale Hairy-footed jerboa
American bison Red deer Red deer
American black bear Red fox Red fox
American least shrew Reindeer Snow leopard
American pika San Joaquin pocket mouse
American water shrew Snowshoe hare
VENEZUELA
Beluga Southern flying squirrel Blue whale
Bighorn sheep Sperm whale Boto
Black-tailed prairie dog Spinner dolphin Brazilian free-tailed bat
Blue whale Star-nosed mole Capybara
Bobcat Steller’s sea cow Collared peccary
Brazilian free-tailed bat Striped skunk Colombian woolly monkey
California leaf-nosed bat Valley pocket gopher Common bottlenosed dolphin
California sea lion Virginia opossum Common squirrel monkey
Collared peccary Walrus Funnel-eared bat
Common bottlenosed dolphin West Indian manatee Giant anteater
Desert cottontail White-tailed deer Greater bulldog bat
Eastern chipmunk Greater dog-faced bat
Eastern mole URUGUAY Greater sac-winged bat
Ermine Blue whale Hispid cotton rat
Giant kangaroo rat Brazilian free-tailed bat Hoffman’s two-toed sloth
Gray squirrel Burmeister’s porpoise Humpback whale
Gray whale Capybara Lowland tapir
Gray wolf Collared peccary Northern minke whale
Harbor porpoise Common bottlenosed dolphin Paca
Hawaiian monk seal Coypu Pacarana
Hispid cotton rat Franciscana dolphin Pallas’s long-tongued bat
Humpback whale Giant anteater Parnell’s moustached bat
Killer whale Humpback whale Prehensile-tailed porcupine
Little brown bat Killer whale Puma
Moose Pygmy sperm whale
Maned wolf
Mountain beaver Silky anteater
Muskrat Silky shrew opossum
Pearson’s tuco-tuco
Narwhal Smoky bat
Nine-banded armadillo Sperm whale
Pygmy right whale
North American beaver Spinner dolphin
Red deer
North American porcupine Spix’s disk-winged bat
Sperm whale
North Atlantic right whale Three-striped night monkey
Vampire bat
Northern bottlenosed whale Three-toed tree sloths
Northern elephant seal Vampire bat
Northern minke whale UZBEKISTAN Venezuelan red howler
Northern raccoon Common bentwing bat monkey
Pallid bat Edible dormouse Water opossum
lxxxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Weeper capuchin Egyptian slit-faced bat Aardwolf
White-tailed deer Egyptian spiny mouse African civet
Gray wolf Checkered sengi
Hardwicke’s lesser mouse- Common bentwing bat
VIETNAM tailed bat Common genet
Asian elephant
Humpback whale Common hippopotamus
Blue whale
Northern minke whale Egyptian rousette
Common bentwing bat
Pygmy sperm whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Rock hyrax Gambian rat
Dugong
Sperm whale Giraffe
Eurasian wild pig
Spinner dolphin Ground pangolin
Trident leaf-nosed bat Lord Derby’s anomalure
Humpback whale
Indian muntjac South African porcupine
Malayan tapir YUGOSLAVIA Spotted hyena
Northern minke whale Alpine marmot Springhare
Pygmy slow loris Blue whale
Pygmy sperm whale Common bentwing bat ZIMBABWE
Red fox Common bottlenosed dolphin Aardvark
Red-shanked douc langur Edible dormouse African civet
Rhesus macaque Ermine Common bentwing bat
Serow Gray wolf Common genet
Sperm whale Greater horseshoe bat Damaraland mole-rat
Spinner dolphin Humpback whale Egyptian rousette
Northern minke whale Egyptian slit-faced bat
Pygmy sperm whale
YEMEN Red deer
Gambian rat
Blue whale Ground pangolin
Sperm whale
Common bottlenosed dolphin Savanna elephant
Dromedary camel South African porcupine
Dugong ZAMBIA Spotted hyena
Egyptian rousette Aardvark Springhare
Species List by Geographic Range lxxxvii

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grzimek’s

Student Animal Life Resource

Project Editor Rights and Acquisitions Composition

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Grzimek’s student animal life resource. Mammals / Melissa C. McDade, project

ISBN 0-7876-9402-9 (21-vol set), ISBN 0-7876-9183-6 (Mammals set),

This title is also available as an e-book

New World opossums

Monito del monte

Australasian carnivorous marsupials . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Bandicoots and bilbies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Sloths, anteaters, and armadillos . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

Insectivores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .213

vi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Whales, dolphins, and porpoises .... ...... . . . .703

viii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Odd-toed ungulates . . . . . . ....... ...... . . . .848

Even-toed ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .887

Pikas, rabbits, and hares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1200

x Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS

xii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xiii

xiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xv

xvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xvii

xviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xix

xx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xxi

xxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Pronunciation Guide for Scientific Names xxiii

xxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxv

xxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxvii

xxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxix

xxx Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxxi

xxxii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxxiii

xxxiv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxxv

xxxvi Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Words to Know xxxvii

xxxviii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Mammals xxxix

xl Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

2 months 4 months 8 months 11 months

21 days 26 days 4 weeks after birth 12 weeks after birth

Reproduction Top: Placental mammal

Other mammal features

Getting to Know Mammals xli

xlii Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

Getting to Know Mammals xliii

xliv Grzimek’s Student Animal Life Resource

WHAT DO MAMMALS EAT?

Getting to Know Mammals xlv