INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad -500 043

LINEAR AND DIGITAL

IC APPLICATIONS

Prepared by
1. Mr. D Kalandar Basha, Associate Professor
2. Mr. B Naresh, Assistant Professor
3. Mr. N NAGARAJU, Assistant professor
 Course Contents

 Unit 1 - Operational Amplifier

 Unit 2 - OP-Amp,IC555 & IC565 Applications

 Unit 3 - Data Converters

 Unit 4 - Digital Integrated circuits

 Unit 5 - Sequential Logic IC’s & Memories

Text Books:

1. Linear Integrated Circuits – D. Roy Choudhury

2. Op-Amps & Linear ICs – Ramakanth A. Gayakwad.
3. Digital Fundamentals – Floyd and Jain
 Unit 1- Integrated Circuits

 What is an Integrated Circuit?

 Where do you use an Integrated Circuit?

 Why do you prefer an Integrated Circuit to the circuits

made by interconnecting discrete components?
Def: The “Integrated Circuit “ or IC is a miniature,
low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and
passive components that are irreparably joined
together on a single crystal chip of silicon.

In 1958 Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments invented first IC

Applications of an Integrated Circuit

 Communication

 Control

 Instrumentation

 Computer

 Electronics
Advantages:

 Small size

 Low cost

 Less weight

 Low supply voltages

 Low power consumption

 Highly reliable

 Matched devices

 Fast speed
 Classification

 Digital ICs
 Linear ICs
Integrated circuits

Monolithic circuits Thick Hybrid circuits

&Thin film

Bipolar Uni polar

Pn junction Dielectric JFET

MOSFET
isolation isolation

Classification of ICs
 Chip size and Complexity
 Invention of Transistor (Ge) - 1947
 Development of Silicon - 1955-1959

 Silicon Planar Technology - 1959

 First ICs, SSI (3- 30gates/chip) - 1960

 MSI ( 30-300 gates/chip) - 1965-1970

 LSI ( 300-3000 gates/chip) -1970-1975

 VLSI (More than 3k gates/chip) - 1975

 ULSI (more than one million active devices are integrated on single
chip)
 SSI MSI LSI VLSI ULSI

< 100 active 100-1000 1000- >100000 Over 1

devices active 100000 active million
devices active devices active
devices devices
Integrated BJT’s and MOSFETS 8bit, 16bit Pentium
resistors, Enhanced Microproces Microproces
diodes & MOSFETS sors sors
BJT’s
 Selection of IC Package
Type Criteria

Metal can 1. Heat dissipation is important

package 2. For high power applications like power
amplifiers, voltage regulators etc.

DIP 1. For experimental or bread boarding

purposes as easy to mount
2. If bending or soldering of the leads is
not required
3. Suitable for printed circuit boards as
lead spacing is more
Flat pack 1. More reliability is required
2. Light in weight
3. Suited for airborne applications
 Factors affecting selection of IC package

 Relative cost

 Reliability

 Weight of the package

 Ease of fabrication

 Power to be dissipated

 Need of external heat sink

 Temperature Ranges

1. Military temperature range : -55o C to +125o C (-55o C to +85o C)

2. Industrial temperature range : -20o C to +85o C (-40o C to +85o C )

3. Commercial temperature range: 0o C to +70o C (0o C to +75o C )

 Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a multi-

terminal device which internally is quite
complex.
 Operational Amplifier

An “Operational amplifier” is a direct coupled high-gain

amplifier usually consisting of one or more differential
amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and
output stage.

The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be

used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals and was
originally designed for computing such mathematical
functions as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
integration.
 Basic Information of Op-Amp

Op-amps have five basic terminals, that is, two input

terminals, one output terminal and two power supply
terminals.
 Packages

The metal can (TO) The Flat Package

Package

The Dual-in-Line (DIP)

Package
 Basic Information of an Op-amp
contd…

Power supply connection:

The power supply voltage may range from about + 5V to

+ 22V.

The common terminal of the V+ and V- sources is

connected to a reference point or ground.
Manufacturer’s Designation for Linear ICs

 Fairchild - µA, µAF

 National Semiconductor - LM,LH,LF,TBA

 Motorola - MC,MFC

 RCA - CA,CD

 Texas Instruments - SN

 Signetics - N/S,NE/SE

 Burr- Brown - BB
Fairchild’s original µA741 is also manufactured by
other manufactures as follows

 National Semiconductor - LM741

 Motorola - MC1741

 RCA - CA3741

 Texas Instruments - SN52741

 Signetics - N5741
 741 Military grade op-amp

 741C Commercial grade op-amp

 741A Improved version of 741

 741E Improved version of 741C

 741S Military grade op-amp with higher slew rate

 741SC Commercial grade op-amp with higher slew rate

 Differential Amplifier
V0 =Ad (V1 – V2 )

Ad =20 log10 (Ad ) in dB

Vc =
(V1  V 2 )
2
CMRR= ρ = | |A
d

Ac
Characteristics and performance parameters of
Op-amp
 Input offset Voltage

 Input offset current

 Input bias current

 Differential input resistance

 Input capacitance

 Open loop voltage gain

 CMRR

 Output voltage swing

 Characteristics and performance parameters of Op-
amp

 Output resistance

 Offset adjustment range

 Input Voltage range

 Power supply rejection ratio

 Power consumption

 Slew rate

 Gain – Bandwidth product

 Equivalent input noise voltage and current

 Characteristics and performance parameters of Op-
amp

 Average temperature coefficient of offset parameters

 Output offset voltage

 Supply current
 1. Input Offset Voltage

The differential voltage that must be applied between the

two input terminals of an op-amp, to make the output
voltage zero.

It is denoted as Vios

For op-amp 741C the input offset voltage is 6mV

 2. Input offset current

The algebraic difference between the currents flowing into

the two input terminals of the op-amp

It is denoted as Iios = | Ib1 – Ib2|

For op-amp 741C the input offset current is 200nA

 3. Input bias current

The average value of the two currents flowing

into the op-amp input terminals

It is expressed mathematically as

I b1  I b 2
2

For 741C the maximum value of Ib is 500nA

 4. Differential Input Resistance

It is the equivalent resistance measured at either the

inverting or non-inverting input terminal with the other
input terminal grounded

It is denoted as Ri

For 741C it is of the order of 2MΩ

 5. Input capacitance

It is the equivalent capacitance measured at either the

inverting or non- inverting input terminal with the other
input terminal grounded.

It is denoted as Ci

For 741C it is of the 1-4 pF

 6. Open loop Voltage gain

It is the ratio of output voltage to the differential input

voltage, when op-amp is in open loop configuration,
without any feedback. It is also called as large signal

voltage gain

It is denoted as AOL AOL=Vo / Vd

For 741C it is typically 200,000

 7. CMRR

It is the ratio of differential voltage gain Ad to common mode

voltage gain Ac

CMRR = Ad / Ac

Ad is open loop voltage gain AOL and Ac = VOC / Vc

For op-amp 741C CMRR is 90 dB

 8. Output Voltage swing

The op-amp output voltage gets saturated at +Vcc and –

VEE and it cannot produce output voltage more than +Vcc
and –VEE. Practically voltages +Vsat and –Vsat are
slightly less than +Vcc and –VEE .

For op-amp 741C the saturation voltages are + 13V for supply voltages + 15V
 9. Output Resistance

It is the equivalent resistance measured between the output

terminal of the op-amp and ground

It is denoted as Ro

For op-amp 741 it is 75Ω

 10. Offset voltage adjustment range

The range for which input offset voltage can be adjusted

using the potentiometer so as to reduce output to zero

For op-amp 741C it is + 15mV

 11. Input Voltage range

It is the range of common mode voltages which can be

applied for which op-amp functions properly and given
offset specifications apply for the op-amp

For + 15V supply voltages, the input voltage range is + 13V

 12. Power supply rejection ratio

PSRR is defined as the ratio of the change in input offset

voltage due to the change in supply voltage producing it,
keeping the other power supply voltage constant. It is
also called as power supply sensitivity (PSV)

PSRR= (Δvios / ΔVcc)|constant VEE PSRR= (Δvios / ΔVEE)|constant Vcc

The typical value of PSRR for op-amp 741C is 30µV/V

 13. Power Consumption

It is the amount of quiescent power to be consumed by op-

amp with zero input voltage, for its proper functioning

It is denoted as Pc

For 741C it is 85mW

 14. Slew rate
It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage with time. The slew rate is specified in V/µsec

Slew rate = S = dVo / dt |max

It is specified by the op-amp in unity gain condition.

The slew rate is caused due to limited charging rate of the

compensation capacitor and current limiting and saturation of the
internal stages of op-amp, when a high frequency large amplitude
signal is applied.
 Slew rate

It is given by dVc /dt = I/C

For large charging rate, the capacitor should be small or

the current should be large.

S = Imax / C

For 741 IC the charging current is 15 µA and

the internal capacitor is 30 pF. S= 0.5V/ µsec
 Slew rate equation

dVo = Vm ω cosωt
Vs = Vm sinωt

Vo = Vm sinωt
dt
dVo
S =slew rate =
dt max

S = Vm ω = 2 π f Vm
For distortion free output, the
S = 2 π f Vm V / sec maximum allowable input
frequency fm can be obtained as
This is also called full
S
power bandwidth of the f m 
2  V m
op-amp
 15. Gain – Bandwidth product

It is the bandwidth of op-amp when voltage gain is unity (1).

It is denoted as GB.

The GB is also called unity gain bandwidth

(UGB) or closed loop bandwidth

It is about 1MHz for op-amp 741C

16. Equivalent Input Noise Voltage and Current

The noise is expressed as a power density

Thus equivalent noise voltage is expressed as V2 /Hz
while the equivalent noise current is expressed as A2
/Hz
 17. Average temperature coefficient of offset parameters

The average rate of change of input offset voltage per unit

change in temperature is called average temperature coefficient of
input offset voltage or input offset voltage drift

It is measured in µV/oC. For 741 C it is 0.5 µV/oC

The average rate of change of input offset current per unit

change in temperature is called average temperature coefficient of
input offset current or input offset current drift

It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oC . For 741 C it is 12 pA/oC

 18. Output offset voltage ( Voos )
The output offset voltage is the dc voltage present at the
output terminals when both the input terminals are
grounded.

It is denoted as Voos
 Factors affecting parameters of Op-amp

Supply Frequency Temperature

Voltage

1. Voltage gain 1. Input offset current

1. Voltage gain
2. Input resistance 2. Input offset voltage
2. Output Voltage
swing 3. Output resistance 3. Input bias current

3. Input voltage range 4. CMRR 4. Power consumption

4. Power consumption 5. Input noise voltage 5. Gain-Bandwidth

product
5. Input offset current 6. Input noise current
6. Slew rate
7. Input resistance
 Parameter consideration for various
applications
For A.C. applications For D.C. applications
Input resistance Input resistance
Output resistance Output resistance
Open loop voltage gain Open loop voltage gain
Slew rate Input offset voltage
Output voltage swing Input offset current
Gain- bandwidth product Input offset voltage and current
drifts
Input noise voltage and current

Input offset voltage and current

drifts
 Absolute Maximum Ratings of Op-amp

 Maximum power dissipation: This is the maximum

power which can be dissipated, in the internal stages of
the op-amp in the form of heat

 Operating temperature range: As specified in the data

sheet, op-amp can work satisfactorily, over the operating
temperature range, as required for the given application
 Absolute Maximum Ratings of Op-amp

 Maximum supply voltage: This is the maximum d.c.

supply voltage which can be applied to the op-amp

 Maximum differential input voltage: This rating gives

the maximum value of difference between the two input
voltages, applied to the two input terminals of the op-
amp
 Absolute Maximum Ratings of Op-amp

 Maximum common mode input voltage: This is the

maximum value of the input voltage which can be
simultaneously applied to the two input terminals

 Storage temperature range: This gives the temperature

range over which the op-amp can be stored safely.
 Op-amp characteristics dependent on the
power supply voltages

 Absolute maximum power supply voltage

 Absolute maximum differential input voltages

 Absolute maximum common mode input voltage

 Ideal Op-amp
1.An ideal op-amp draws no
current at both the input terminals
I.e. I1 = I2 = 0. Thus its input
impedance is infinite. Any source
can drive it and there is no loading
2. The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, hence the
on the driver stage
differential input Vd = V1 – V2 is essentially zero for the
finite output voltage Vo

3. The output voltage Vo is independent of the current

drawn from the output terminals. Thus its output
impedance is zero and hence output can drive an infinite
number of other circuits
 The Ideal Operational Amplifier

 Open loop voltage gain AOL =∞

 Input Impedance Ri =∞

 Output Impedance Ro =0

 Bandwidth BW =∞

 Zero offset (Vo = 0 when V1 = V2 = 0) Vios =0

 CMRR ρ =∞
 Slew rate S =∞

 No effect of temperature

 Power supply rejection ratio PSRR = 0

 Ideal Voltage transfer curve

+Vsat
AOL = ∞

-Vd +Vd
0
+Vsat ≈ +Vcc
-Vsat
 Practical voltage transfer curve

1. If Vd is greater than corresponding to b, the output

attains +Vsat

2. If Vd is less than corresponding to a, the output attains

–Vsat
3. Thus range a-b is input range for which output varies
linearily with the input. But AOL is very high,
practically
this range is very small
 Equivalent circuit of practical op-amp

AOL = Large signal open loop voltage gain

Vd = Difference voltage V1 – V2
V1 = Non-inverting input voltage with respect to ground

V2 = Inverting input voltage with respect to ground

Ri = Input resistance of op-amp

Ro = Output resistance of op-amp

 Transient Response Rise time

When the output of the op-amp is suddenly changing like

pulse type, then the rise time of the response depends on
the cut-off frequency fH of the op-amp. Such a rise time is
called cut-off frequency limited rise time or transient
response rise time ( tr )

0 .3 5
tr 
fH
 Op-amp Characteristics
 DC Characteristics
Input bias current Input offset current Input

offset voltage Thermal drift

 AC Characteristics
Slew rate Frequency response
DC Characteristics Thermal Drift

The op-amp parameters input offset

voltage Vios and input offset current
Iios are not constants but vary with
the factors

1. Temperature

2. Supply Voltage changes

3. Time
 Thermal Voltage Drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input offset voltage per

unit change in temperature. It is also called as input offset
voltage drift

 V io s
Input offset voltage drift =
T

∆Vios = change in input offset voltage

∆T = Change in temperature
It is expressed in μV/0 c. The drift is not constant and it is

not uniform over specified operating temperature range.

The value of input offset voltage may increase or
decrease with the increasing temperature
Input Offset Voltage Drift
2 Slope can be of
either polarities
Vios
in 1
mv
0
-1

-2
TA , ambient
temp in oc
-55
-25 0 25 50 75
 Input bias current drift
It is defined as the average rate of change of input bias
current per unit change in temperature

Thermal drift in input bias current = I b

T
It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oc. These parameters vary
randomly with temperature. i.e. they may be positive
in one temperature range and negative in another
 Input bias current drift

100

80
Ib in
nA 60

40
TA ambient temp.
20
in oC

-55
-25 0 25 50 75
 Input Offset current drift

It is defined as the average rate of change of input offset

current per unit change in temperature

I ios
Thermal drift in input offset current =
T

It is measured in nA/oC or pA/oc. These parameters vary randomly with

temperature. i.e. they may be positive in one temperature range and negative in
another
 Input Offset current Drift

2 Slope can be of
either polarities
Iios in
nA 1

0
-1

-2
TA , ambient
temp in oc
-55
-25 0 25 50 75
 AC Characteristics
Frequency Response
Ideally, an op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth but practically op-
amp gain decreases at higher frequencies. Such a gain reduction
with respect to frequency is called as roll off.

The plot showing the variations in magnitude and phase

angle of the gain due to the change in frequency is called
frequency response of the op-amp
 When the gain in decibels, phase angle in degrees are
plotted against logarithmic scale of frequency, the plot is
called Bode Plot

The manner in which the gain of the op-amp changes with

variation in frequency is known as the magnitude plot.

The manner in which the phase shift changes with variation

in frequency is known as the phase-angle plot.
 Obtaining the frequency response

To obtain the frequency response , consider the high frequency model

of the op-amp with capacitor C at the output, taking into account the
capacitive effect present
Where
AOL
AOL ( f )  AOL(f) = open loop voltage gain as a
1 j2fRo C function of frequency
AOL = Gain of the op-amp at 0Hz F =
AOL
AOL ( f )  operating frequency
f
1  j( Fo = Break frequency or cutoff
frequency of op-amp

)
fo
For a given op-amp and selected value of C, the frequency fo is constant.
The above equation can be written in the polar form as

AOL
AOL ( f )  2
 f 
1  
 fo 

 f 

AOL ( f )  ( f )   tan   1

 f0 
Frequency Response of an op-amp
 The following observations can be made from the frequency response of an
op-amp
i) The open loop gain AOL is almost constant from 0 Hz to the break
frequency fo .
ii) At f=fo , the gain is 3dB down from its value at 0Hz . Hence the frequency

fo is also called as -3dB frequency. It is also know as corner frequency

iii) After f=f , the gain A (f) decreases at a rate of 20 dB/decade or
o OL

6dB/octave. As the gain decreases, slope of the magnitude plot is -

20dB/decade or -6dB/octave, after f=fo .

iv) At a certain frequency, the gain

reduces to 0dB. This means 20log|AOL | is
0dB i.e. |AOL | =1. Such a frequency is called gain cross-over frequency or
unity gain bandwidth (UGB). It is also called closed loop bandwidth.

UGB is the gain bandwidth product only if an op-amp has a single breakover
frequency, before AOL (f) dB is zero.
 For an op-amp with single break frequency fo , after fo
the gain bandwidth product is constant equal to UGB

UGB=AOL fo

UGB is also called gain bandwidth product and denoted as ft Thus

ft is the product of gain of op-amp and bandwidth.
The break frequency is nothing but a corner frequency fo . At this
frequency, slope of the magnitude plot changes. The op-amp for
which there is only once change in the slope of the magnitude plot,
is called single break frequency op-amp.
 For a single break frequency we can also write

UGB= Af ff

Af = closed loop voltage gain Ff =

bandwidth with feedback

v) The phase angle of an op-amp with

single break frequency varies between 00 to 900 . The maximum possible
phase shift is -900 , i.e. output voltage lags input voltage by 900 when
phase shift is maximum

vi) At a corner frequency f=fo , the phase

F
shift is -450. o = UGB / AOL
 The modes of using an op-amp

 Open Loop : (The output assumes one of the two

possible output states, that is +Vsat or – Vsat and the
amplifier acts as a switch only).

 Closed Loop: ( The utility of an op-amp can be greatly

increased by providing negative feed back. The output in
this case is not driven into saturation and the circuit
behaves in a linear manner).
 Open loop configuration of op-amp

 The voltage transfer curve indicates the inability of op-

amp to work as a linear small signal amplifier in the open
loop mode

 Such an open loop behaviour of the op-amp finds some

rare applications like voltage comparator, zero crossing
detector etc.
 Open loop op-amp configurations

 The configuration in which output depends on input, but output has

no effect on the input is called open loop configuration.

 No feed back from output to input is used in such configuration.

 The opamp works as high gain amplifier

 The op-amp can be used in three modes in open loop
configuration they are

1. Differential amplifier

2. Inverting amplifier

3. Non inverting amplifier

 Differential Amplifier

The amplifier which amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages is called differential amplifier.

V o AOLVd  AOL (V1 V2 )  AOL (Vin1 Vin2 )

Key point: For very small Vd , output gets driven into saturation due to high AOL ,
hence this application is applicable for very small range of differential input
voltage.
 Inverting Amplifier

The amplifier in which the output is inverted i.e. having 180o

phase shift with respect to the input is called an inverting
amplifier

Vo = -AOL Vin2

Keypoint: The negative sign indicates that there is phase shift of 180o between
input and output i.e. output is inverted with respect to input.
 Non-inverting Amplifier

The amplifier in which the output is amplified without any

phase shift in between input and output is called non
inverting amplifier

Vo = AOL Vin1

Keypoint: The positive output shows that input and output are in phase and
input is amplified AOL times to get the output.
Why op-amp is generally not used in open loop
mode?

As open loop gain of op-amp is very large, very small input

voltage drives the op-amp voltage to the saturation level.
Thus in open loop configuration, the output is at its
positive saturation voltage (+Vsat ) or negative saturation
voltage (-Vsat ) depending on which input V1 or V2 is more
than the other. For a.c. input voltages, output may
switch between positive and negative saturation voltages
This indicates the inability of op-amp to work as a linear small signal
amplifier in the open loop mode. Hence the op-amp in open loop
configuration is not used for the linear applications
 General purpose op-amp 741

The IC 741 is high performance monolithic op-amp IC. It is

available in 8pin, 10pin or 14pin configuration. It can
operate over a temperature of -550 C to 1250 C.

Features:
i) No frequency compensation required
ii) Short circuit protection provided
iii) Offset Voltage null capability
iv) Large common mode and differential voltage range
v) No latch up
Internal schematic of 741 op-amp
The 8pin DIP package of IC 741
 Realistic simplifying assumptions

 Zero input current: The current drawn by either of the

input terminals (inverting and non-inverting) is zero

 Virtual ground :This means the differential input voltage

Vd between the non-inverting and inverting terminals is
essentially zero. (The voltage at the non inverting input
terminal of an op-amp can be realistically assumed to be
equal to the voltage at the inverting input terminal
 Closed loop operation of op-amp

The utility of the op-amp can be increased considerably by

operating in closed loop mode. The closed loop
operation is possible with the help of feedback. The
feedback allows to feed some part of the output back to
the input terminals. In the linear applications, the op-
amp is always used with negative feedback. The
negative feedback helps in controlling gain, which
otherwise drives the op-amp out of its linear range, even
for a small noise voltage at the input terminals
 Ideal Inverting Amplifier
1. The output is inverted with respect to input, which is indicated by minus
sign.

2. The voltage gain is independent of open loop gain of the op-amp, which is
assumed to be large.

3. The voltage gain depends on the ratio of the two resistances.

Hence selecting Rf and R1 , the required value of gain can be easily
obtained.
4. If Rf > R1,, the gain is greater than 1 If Rf < R1,, the gain is less than 1

If Rf = R1, the gain is unity

Thus the output voltage can be greater than, less than or equal to the input
voltage in magnitude
5. If the ratio of Rf and R1 is K which is other than one, the circuit is called
scale changer while for Rf/R1 =1 it is called phase inverter.
6. The closed loop gain is denoted as AVF or ACL i.e. gain with feedback
 Ideal Non-inverting Amplifier

1. The voltage gain is always greater than one

2.
The voltage gain is positive indicating that for a.c. input, the output
and input are in phase while for d.c. input, the output polarity is
same as that of input
3.
The voltage gain is independent of open loop gain of op-amp, but
depends only on the two resistance values
4.
The desired voltage gain can be obtained by selecting proper
values of Rf and R1
 Comparison of the ideal inverting and non-
inverting op-amp
Ideal Inverting amplifier Ideal non-inverting amplifier

1. Voltage gain=-Rf/R1 1. Voltage gain=1+Rf/R1

2. The output is inverted with 2. No phase shift between input

respect to input and output

3. The voltage gain can be 3. The voltage gain is always

adjusted as greater than, equal to greater than one
or less than one
4. The input impedance is R1 4. The input impedance is very
large
 Practical Inverting Amplifier

AOL R f
Closed Loop Voltage gain = ACL  
R1  R f  R1 AOL
 Practical Non-Inverting Amplifier

ACL A (R  R )
Closed Loop Voltage gain =  OL 1 f

R1  R f  R1 AOL
 Instrumentation Amplifier

In a number of industrial and consumer

applications, the measurement of physical quantities
is usually done with the help of transducers. The output
of transducer has to be amplified So that it can
drive the indicator or display system. This function is
performed by an instrumentation amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifier
Features of instrumentation amplifier
1. high gain accuracy
2. high CMRR
3. high gain stability with low temperature co-
efficient
4. low dc offset
5. low output impedance
AC AMPLIFIER
Differentiator
Integrator
 Differential amplifier
This circuit amplifies only the difference between
the two inputs. In this circuit there are two
resistors labeled R IN Which means that their
values are equal. The differential amplifier
amplifies the difference of two inputs while the
differentiator amplifies the slope of an input
Summer
 Comparator
A comparator is a circuit which compares
a signal voltage applied at one input of an
op- amp with a known reference voltage at
the other input. It is an open loop op - amp
with output + Vsat
Comparator
 Applications of comparator

1. Zero crossing detector

2. Window detector
3. Time marker generator
4. Phase detector
Schmitt trigger
INTRODUCTION TO VOLTAGE
REGULATORS
 A voltage regulator is designed to
automatically maintain a constant voltage
level. A voltage regulator may be a
simple "feed-forward" design or may
include negative feedback control loops. It
may use an electromechanical
mechanism, or electronic components.
 IC Voltage Regulators

 There are basically two kinds of IC voltage regulators:

 Multipin type, e.g. LM723C
 3-pin type, e.g. 78/79XX
 Multipin regulators are less popular but they provide the
greatest flexibility and produce the highest quality
voltage regulation
 3-pin types make regulator circuit design simple
Multipin IC Voltage Regulator

 The LM723 has an

equivalent circuit that
contains most of the parts
of the op-amp voltage
regulator discussed
earlier.
 It has an internal voltage
reference, error amplifier,
pass transistor, and
current limiter all in one
IC package.
LM 723C Schematic
 LM723 Voltage Regulator

 Can be either 14-pin DIP or 10-pin TO-100 can

 May be used for either +ve or -ve, variable or fixed
regulated voltage output
 Using the internal reference (7.15 V), it can operate as a
high-voltage regulator with output from 7.15 V to about
37 V, or as a low-voltage regulator from 2 V to 7.15 V
 Max. output current with heat sink is 150 mA
 Dropout voltage is 3 V (i.e. VCC > Vo(max) + 3)
 LM723 in High-Voltage Configuration
Design equations:
V (R  R )
Vo  ref 1 2

R2
R1 R2 Rsens  0.7
R3 
R1  R2 I max
Choose R1 + R2 = 10
k,
External pass transistor and and Cc = 100 pF.
current sensing added. To make Vo variable,
replace R1 with a pot.
 LM723 in Low-Voltage Configuration
R 4 Vo  0.7(R 4  R 5 )
I L (max ) 
R 5 R sen s
0.7(R  R )
I sh o rt
 4 5

RR
5 sen s

0.7Vo
R sens 
I short (Vo  0.7)  0.7I L(max)
With external pass transistor Under foldback condition:
and foldback current limiting
0.7R L (R 4  R 5 )
RV Vo ' 
V  2 r ef
R 5 R sens  R 4 R L
R R
o
1 2
Three-Terminal Fixed Voltage Regulators

 Less flexible, but simple to use

 Come in standard TO-3 (20 W) or TO-220 (15 W)
transistor packages
 78/79XX series regulators are commonly available with
5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 18, or 24 V output
 Max. output current with heat sink is 1 A
 Built-in thermal shutdown protection
 3-V dropout voltage; max. input of 37 V
 Regulators with lower dropout, higher in/output, and
better regulation are available.
 Basic Circuits With 78/79XX Regulators

 Both the 78XX and 79XX regulators can be used to

provide +ve or -ve output voltages
 C1 and C2 are generally optional. C1 is used to cancel
any inductance present, and C2 improves the transient
response. If used, they should preferably be either 1 F
tantalum type or 0.1 F mica type capacitors.
Dual-Polarity Output with 78/79XX
Regulators
 78XX Regulator with Pass Transistor

 Q1 starts to conduct when

VR2 = 0.7 V.
 R2 is typically chosen so
that max. IR2 is 0.1 A.
 Power dissipation of Q1 is
P = (Vi - Vo)IL.
 Q2 is for current limiting
protection. It conducts
0.7 0.7
R1  R2 
when VR1 = 0.7 V.
I max I R2  Q2 must be able to pass
max. 1 A; but note that
max. VCE2 is only 1.4 V.
 78XX Floating Regulator

 It is used to obtain an
output > the Vreg
value up to a max.of
37 V.
 R1 is chosen so that
R1  0.1 Vreg/IQ,
where I is the
V
Vo  Vreg   reg  I  R
 R Q 2
 1 
 3-Terminal Variable Regulator

 The floating regulator could be made into a variable

regulator by replacing R2 with a pot. However, there are
several disadvantages:
 Minimum output voltage is Vreg instead of 0 V.
 IQ is relatively large and varies from chip to chip.
 Power dissipation in R2 can in some cases be quite
large resulting in bulky and expensive equipment.
 A variety of 3-terminal variable regulators are available,
e.g. LM317 (for +ve output) or LM 337 (for -ve output).
Basic LM317 Variable Regulator Circuits

(a) (b)
Circuit with capacitors Circuit with protective
to improve performance diodes
 Notes on Basic LM317 Circuits

 The function of C1 and C2 is similar to those used in

the 78/79XX fixed regulators.
 C3 is used to improve ripple rejection.
 Protective diodes in circuit (b) are required for high-
current/high-voltage applications.
 where Vref = 1.25 V, and Iadj is
  ref  I adj  R2
V
Vo  Vref  R  the current flowing into the adj.
 1  terminal (typically 50 A).
R (V V )
R1 = Vref /IL(min), where IL(min) is
R2 
1 o ref
Vref  I adjR1 typically 10 mA.
 LM317 Regulator Circuits

Circuit with pass transistor Circuit to give 0V min.

and current limiting output voltage
 UNIT –II

 Opamp -555
 IC-565 applications
 Filter
Filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes
signal of specified Band of frequencies and
attenuates the signals of frequencies outside the band

Type of Filter

1. Passive filters
2. Active filters
Passive filters
Passive filters works well for high frequencies.
But at audio frequencies, the inductors become
problematic, as they become large, heavy and
expensive.For low frequency applications, more number
of turns of wire must be used which in turn adds to
the series resistance degrading inductor’s
performance ie, low Q, resulting in high power
dissipation
 Active filters

Active filters used op- amp as the active

element and resistors and capacitors as passive
elements. By enclosing a capacitor in the feed back loop
, inductor less active filters can be obtained
some commonly used active filters

1. Low pass filter

2. High pass filter
3. Band pass filter
4. Band reject filter
5. All pass filter
Active Filters

 Active filters use op-amp(s) and RC components.

 Advantages over passive filters:
 op-amp(s) provide gain and overcome circuit losses
 increase input impedance to minimize circuit loading
 higher output power
 sharp cutoff characteristics can be produced simply
and efficiently without bulky inductors
 Single-chip universal filters (e.g. switched-capacitor
ones) are available that can be configured for any type of
filter or response.
 Review of Filter Types & Responses

 4 major types of filters: low-pass, high-pass, band pass,

and band-reject or band-stop
 0 dB attenuation in the passband (usually)
 3 dB attenuation at the critical or cutoff frequency, fc (for
Butterworth filter)
 Roll-off at 20 dB/dec (or 6 dB/oct) per pole outside
the passband (# of poles = # of reactive elements).
Attenuation at any frequency, f, is:
 f 
atten.(dB) at f  log  x atten.(dB) at f dec

 fc 
 Review of Filters (cont’d)

 Bandwidth of a filter: BW = fcu - fcl

 Phase shift: 45o/pole at fc; 90o/pole at >> fc
 4 types of filter responses are commonly used:
 Butterworth - maximally flat in passband; highly non-
linear phase response with frequecny
 Bessel - gentle roll-off; linear phase shift with freq.
 Chebyshev - steep initial roll-off with ripples in
passband
 Cauer (or elliptic) - steepest roll-off of the four types
but has ripples in the passband and in the stopband
 Frequency Response of Filters
A(dB) A(dB) A(dB)
HPF BPF
LPF
Pass-
band
f f f
fc fc fcl fcu
A(dB) A(dB)
Butterworth
BRF
Chebyshev
Bessel
f f
fcl fcu
Unity-Gain Low-Pass Filter Circuits

2-pole 3-pole

4-pole
 Design Procedure for Unity-Gain LPF

 Determine/select number of poles required.

 Calculate the frequency scaling constant, Kf = 2f
 Divide normalized C values (from table) by Kf to obtain
frequency-scaled C values.
 Select a desired value for one of the frequency-scaled C
values and calculate the impedance scaling factor:
frequency  scaled C value
Kx 
desired C value
 Divide all frequency-scaled C values by Kx
 Set R = Kx 
 An Example
Design a unity-gain LP Butterworth filter with a critical
frequency of 5 kHz and an attenuation of at least 38 dB
at 15 kHz.
The attenuation at 15 kHz is 38 dB
 the attenuation at 1 decade (50 kHz) = 79.64 dB.
We require a filter with a roll-off of at least 4 poles.
Kf = 31,416 rad/s. Let’s pick C1 = 0.01 F (or 10
nF). Then C2 = 8.54 nF, C3 = 24.15 nF, and C4 = 3.53 nF.
Pick standard values of 8.2 nF, 22 nF, and 3.3 nF. Kx =
3,444
Make all R = 3.6 k (standard value)
Unity-Gain High-Pass Filter Circuits

2-pole 3-pole

4-pole
 Design Procedure for Unity-Gain HPF

 The same procedure as for LP filters is used except for

step #3, the normalized C value of 1 F is divided by Kf.
Then pick a desired value for C, such as 0.001 F to 0.1
F, to calculate Kx. (Note that all capacitors have the
same value).
 For step #6, multiply all normalized R values (from table)
by Kx.
E.g. Design a unity-gain Butterworth HPF with a critical
frequency of 1 kHz, and a roll-off of 55 dB/dec. (Ans.: C
= 0.01 F, R1 = 4.49 k, R2 = 11.43 k, R3 = 78.64 k.;
pick standard values of 4.3 k, 11 k, and 75 k).
 Equal-Component Filter Design

2-pole LPF 2-pole HPF

Same value R & same value C Av for # of poles is given in
are used in a table and
filter. is the same for
RF LP and HP
Select C A  1
(e.g. 0.01 F), then: filter design.
v
RI
 Example

Design an equal-component LPF with a critical

frequency of 3 kHz and a roll-off of 20 dB/oct.

Minimum # of poles = 4
Choose C = 0.01 F;  R = 5.3 k
From table, Av1 = 1.1523, and Av2 = 2.2346.
Choose RI1 = RI2 = 10 k; then RF1 = 1.5 k, and
RF2 =
12.3 k .
Select standard values: 5.1 k, 1.5 k, and 12 k.
 Bandpass and Band-Rejection Filter
Attenuation (dB)

Attenuation (dB)
BPF BRF

f f
fcl fctr fcu fcl fctr fcu
The quality factor, Q, of a filter is given by: f ctr
Q
where BW = fcu - fcl and BW
f ctr  f cu f cl
 More On Bandpass Filter
If BW and fcentre are given, then:
A broadband BPF can be obtained by combining a LPF and
a HPF: BW 2 BW BW 2
BW
f cl   f ctr 
2
; f cu  2
 f ctr 
4 2 4 2
The Q of this filter is usually
> 1.
 Broadband Band-Reject Filter
A LPF and a HPF can also be combined to give a broadband
BRF:

2-pole band-reject filter

 Narrow-band Bandpass Filter
f ctr
BW  
1
Q
C1 = C2 = C2 R1
R2 = 2 C
R1
R1
R3 
2Q 2 1

R1 R3 can be adjusted or trimmed

1 1
f ctr  to change f ctrwithout affecting
2 R3 the BW. Note that
2 R1 Q < 1.
C
 Narrow-band Band-Reject Filter
Easily obtained by combining the inverting output of a
narrow-band BRF and the original signal:

The equations for R1, R2, R3, C1, and C2 are the same as before.
RI = RF for unity gain and is often chosen to be >> R1.
TRIANGULAR WAVE
GENERATOR
 555 IC
The 555 timer is an integrated circuit
specifically designed to perform signal
generation and timing functions.
Features of 555 Timer Basic blocks

1. It has two basic operating modes: monostable

and astable
2. It is available in three packages. 8 pin metal can ,
8 pin dip, 14 pin dip.
3. It has very high temperature stability
Applications of 555 Timer
1. astable multivibrator
.
2. monostable multivibrator
3. Missing pulse detector
4. Linear ramp generator
5. Frequency divider
6. Pulse width modulation
7. FSK generator
8. Pulse position modulator
9. Schmitt trigger
Astable multivibrator

.
Astable multivibrator

. When the voltage on the capacitor

reaches (2/3)Vcc, a switch is closed at pin 7 and the
capacitor is discharged to (1/3)Vcc, at which time
the switch is opened and the cycle starts over
Monostable multivibrator

.
 Voltage controlled oscillator
A voltage controlled oscillator is an
oscillator circuit in which the frequency of
oscillations can be controlled by an externally
applied voltage

The features of 566 VCO

1. Wide supply voltage range(10- 24V)

2. Very linear modulation characteristics
3. High temperature stability
 UNIT - III

 DATA
CONVERTETRS
 Classification of ADCs
1. Direct type ADC.
2. Integrating type ADC

Direct type ADCs

1. Flash (comparator) type converter
2. Counter type converter
3. Tracking or servo converter.
4. Successive approximation
type converter
 Integrating type converters

An ADC converter that perform conversion

in an indirect manner by first changing the
analog I/P signal to a linear function of time or
frequency and then to a digital code is
known as integrating type A/D converter
Digital Logic families
 Overview
• Integration, Moore’s law
• Early families (DL, RTL)
• TTL
• Evolution of TTL family
• ECL
• CMOS family and its evolution
• Overview
 Integration Levels
• Gate/transistor ratio is roughly 1/10
– SSI < 12 gates/chip
– MSI < 100 gates/chip
– LSI …1K gates/chip
– VLSI …10K gates/chip
– ULSI …100K gates/chip
– GSI …1Meg gates/chip
 Moore’s law
• A prediction made by Moore (a co-founder of Intel) in
1965: “… a number of transistors to double every 2
years.”
 In the beginning…
Diode Logic (DL)
•simplest; does not
scale =

•NOT not possible

(need an active
eRleesmisetnotr)-
Transistor Logic (RTL)
•replace diode switch
with a transistor switch
=
•can be cascaded
•large power draw
 was…
Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL)
•essentially diode logic with transistor
amplification
•reduced power consumption
•faster than RTL

DL AND gate Saturating inverter

 Logic families: V levels
VOH(min) – The minimum voltage level at an output in the logical “1” state under
defined load conditions
VOL(max) – The maximum voltage level at an output in the logical “0” state under
defined load conditions
VIH(min) – The minimum voltage required at an input to be recognized as “1”
logical state
VIL(max) – The maximum voltage required at an input that still will be recognized
as “0” logical state

VOH VIH VOL VIL

 Logic families: I requirements

IOH – Current flowing into an output in the logical “1” state under specified load
conditions
IOL – Current flowing into an output in the logical “0” state under specified load
conditions
IIH – Current flowing into an input when a specified HI level is applied to that
input IIL – Current flowing into an input when a specified LO level is applied to
that input

IOH IIH IOL IIL

VOH VIH VOL VIL

 Logic families: fanout
Fanout: the maximum number of logic inputs (of the
same logic family) that an output can drive reliably

IOH IOL
DC fanout = min( ),
I
IH IL
I
Logic families: propagation delay

TPD,HL TPD,LH

TPD,HL – input-to-output
propagation delay from HI
to LO output TPD,LH – input-
to-output propagation delay
from LO to HI output

Speed-power
product: TPD  Pavg
Logic families: noise margin
HI state noise margin:
VNH = VOH(min) – VIH(min)

LO state noise margin:

VNL = VIL(max) – VOL(max)

Noise margin:
VN = min(VNH,VNL)
VNH

VNL
 TTL
Bipolar Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
•first introduced by in 1964 (Texas Instruments)
•TTL has shaped digital technology in many ways
•Standard TTL family (e.g. 7400) is obsolete
•Newer TTL families still used (e.g. 74ALS00)

Distinct features
• Multi-emitter transistors
• Totem-pole transistor
arrangement
• Open LTspice example:
2-input NAND
TTL NAND…
 TTL evolution
Schottky series (74LS00) TTL
•A major slowdown factor in BJTs is due to
transistors going in/out of saturation
•Shottky diode has a lower forward bias (0.25V)
•When BC junction would become forward biased,
the Schottky diode bypasses the current
preventing the transistor from going into saturation
 TTL family evolution

Legacy: don’t use in Widely used today

new designs
 ECL
Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)
•PROS: Fastest logic family available (~1ns)
•CONS: low noise margin and high power
dissipation
•Operated in emitter coupled geometry (recall
differential amplifier or emitter-follower),
transistors are biased and operate near their Q-
point (never near saturation!)
• Logic levels. “0”: –1.7V. “1”: –0.8V
•Such strange logic levels require extra effort
when interfacing to TTL/CMOS logic families.
•Open LTspice example: ECL inverter…
 CMOS
Complimentary MOS (CMOS)
• Other variants: NMOS, PMOS (obsolete)
• Very low static power consumption
• Scaling capabilities (large integration all MOS)
• Full swing: rail-to-rail output
• Things to watch out for:
– don’t leave inputs floating (in TTL these will
float
to HI, in CMOS you get undefined behaviour)
– susceptible to electrostatic damage (finger of
death)
Life-cycle
Combinational
Circuits
 Outline

 Boolean Algebra
 Decoder
 Encoder
 MUX
 History: Computer and the
Rationalist

 Modern research issues in AI are formed and

evolve through a combination of historical,
social and cultural pressures.
 The rationalist tradition had an early
proponent in Plato, and was continued on
through the writings of Pascal, Descates, and
Liebniz
 For the rationalist, the external world is
reconstructed through the clear and distinct
ideas of a mathematics
 History: Development of Formal
Logic

 The goal of creating a formal language for

thought also appears in the work of George
Boole, another 19th century mathematician
whose work must be included in the roots of AI
 The importance of Boole’s accomplishment is in
the extraordinary power and simplicity of the
system he devised: Three Operations
 Three Operations

 three basic Boolean operations can be

defined arithmetically as follows.
 x‫ר‬y=xy
 x‫ש‬y=x + y − xy
¬x=1 − x
 Boolean function and logic
diagram

• Boolean algebra: Deals with binary

variables and logic operations operating
on those variables.

• Logic diagram: Composed of graphic

symbols for logic gates. A simple circuit
sketch that represents inputs and outputs
of Boolean functions.
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra

(1) x+0=x
(2) x ·0=0
(3) x+1=1
(4) x·1=1
(5) x + x = x
(6) x · x = x
(7) x + x’ = x
(8) x · x’ = 0
(9) x + y = y + x
(10)xy = yx
(11) x + ( y + z ) = ( x + y ) + z
(12)x (yz) = (xy) z
(13)x ( y + z ) = xy + xz
(14) x + yz = ( x + y )( x + z)
(15) ( x + y )’ = x’ y’
(16) ( xy )’ = x’ + y’
(17) (x’)’ = x
 Gates

 Refer to the hardware to implement Boolean operators.

 The most basic gates are

Boolean function and truth
table
 Outline

 Boolean Algebra
 Decoder
 Encoder
 MUX
 Decoder
 Accepts a value and decodes it
 Output corresponds to value of n inputs

 Consists of:
 Inputs (n)
 Outputs (2n , numbered from 0  2n - 1)

 Selectors / Enable (active high or active low)

The truth table of 2-to-4
Decoder
2-to-4 Decoder
2-to-4 Decoder
The truth table of 3-to-8
Decoder
A2 A1 A0 D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1
3-to-8 Decoder
3-to-8 Decoder with Enable
 Decoder Expansion

Decoder expansion
Combine two or more small decoders with
enable inputs to form a larger decoder

 3-to-8-line decoder constructed from two 2-to- 4-

line decoders
 The MSB is connected to the enable inputs
 if A2=0, upper is enabled; if A2=1, lower is
enabled.
Decoder Expansion
Combining two 2-4 decoders to form
one 3-8 decoder using enable switch
es

The highest bit is used for the enabl

 How about 4-16 decoder

 Use how many 3-8 decoder?

 Use how many 2-4 decoder?
 Outline

 Boolean Algebra
 Decoder
 Encoder
 Mux
 Encoders

 Perform the inverse operation of a

decoder
2n (or less) input lines and n output lines
Encoders
Encoders with OR gates
 Encoders

 Perform the inverse operation of a decoder

2n (or less) input lines and n output lines
Priority Encoder

 Accepts multiple values and encodes them

 Works when more than one input is active

 Consists of:
 Inputs (2n)

 Outputs
 when more than one output is active, sets
output to correspond to highest input
 V (indicates whether any of the inputs are
active)
 Selectors / Enable (active high or active low)
D3 D2 D1 D0 A1 A0 V
0 0 0 0 x X 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Priority Encoder
 Outline

 Boolean Algebra
 Decoder
 Encoder
 Mux
Multiplexer (MUX)

A multiplexer can use addressing bits to

select one of several input bits to be the
output.

A selector chooses a single data input and

passes it to the MUX output
It has one output selected at a time.
Function table with enable
 4 to 1 line multiplexer

4 to 1 line
multiplexer
S1 S0 F
2n MUX to 1 0 0 I0
n for this MUX is 2 0 1 I1
1 0 I2
This means 2
1 1 I3
selection lines s0
and s1
 Multiplexer (MUX)

 Consists of:
 Inputs (multiple) = 2n
 Output (single)

 Selectors (# depends on # of inputs) = n

 Enable (active high or active low)

 Multiplexers versus decoders

•A Multiplexer uses n binary select bits to choose from a

maximum of 2n unique input lines.

•Decoders have 2^n number of output lines while

multiplexers have only one output line.

•The output of the multiplexer is the data input whose index is

specified by the n bit code.
 Multiplexer Versus Decoder
I3

I2

I1

I
0
S1

S
0 2-to-4 Decoder
4-to-1 Multiplexer
Note that the multiplexer has an extra OR gate. A1 and A0 are the two inputs
in decoder. There are four inputs plus two selecs in multiplexer.
Cascading multiplexers
Using three 2-1 MUX
to make one 4-1 MUX

S1 S0 F
0 0 I0
0 1 I1
1 0 I2
1 1 I3
Example: Construct an
8-to-1 multiplexer using I0
2-to-1 multiplexers. I1

S2 S1 S0 F
I2
0 0 0 I0 I3
2-1
F
0 0 1 I1 MUX

S E
0 1 0 I2
I4
0 1 1 I3 S2 E

I5
1 0 0 I4
1 0 1 I5
1 1 0 I6
I6
1 1 1 I7 I7
Example : Construct 8-to-1 multiplexer using one 2-to-1 multiplexer and
two 4-to-1 multiplexers

S2 S1 S0 X
0 0 0 I0
0 0 1 I1
0 1 0 I2
0 1 1 I3
1 0 0 I4
1 0 1 I5
1 1 0 I6
1 1 1 I7
Quadruple 2-to-1 Line Multiplexer

Used to supply four bits to the

output. In this case two inputs four
bits each.
Quadruple 2-to-1 Line
Multiplexer
E S Y
(Enable) (Select) (Output)
0 X All 0’s

1 0 A

1 1 B
 UNIT-5
Sequential Circuits
 Combinational Logic

 Combinational Logic:
 Outputdepends only on current input
 Has no memory
 Sequential Logic

 Sequential Logic:
Output depends not only on current input but
also on past input values, e.g., design a
counter
Need some type of memory to remember the
past input values
 Sequential Circuits

Circuits that we Information Storing

have learned Circuits
so far

Timed “States”
 Sequential Logic: Concept

 Sequential Logic circuits remember past

inputs and past circuit state.
 Outputs from the system are
“fed back” as new inputs
With gate delay and wire delay
 The storage elements are circuits that are
capable of storing binary information:
memory.
Synchronous vs. Asynchronous

There are two types of sequential circuits:

Synchronous sequential circuit: circuit output
changes only at some discrete instants of time.
This type of circuits achieves synchronization by
using a timing signal called the clock.
Asynchronous sequential circuit: circuit output
can change at any time (clockless).
 Clock Period

F F
F Combinational F
Circuit

F
F

Smallest clock period = largest combinational

circuit delay between any two directly
connected FF, subjected to impact of FF
setup time.
 SR Latch (NAND version)

0 S’ S’ R’ Q Q’
Q 1
0 0
0 1 1 0 Set
1 0
Q’ 0
1 R’ 1 1

X Y NAND
00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
 SR Latch (NAND version)

1 S’ S’ R’ Q Q’
Q 1
0 0
0 1 1 0 Set
1 0
Q’ 0
1 R’ 1 1 1 0 Hold

X Y NAND
00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
 SR Latch (NAND version)

1 S’ S’ R’ Q Q’
Q 0
0 0
0 1 1 0 Set
1 0 0 1 Reset
Q’ 1
0 R’ 1 1 1 0 Hold

X Y NAND
00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
 SR Latch (NAND version)

1 S’ S’ R’ Q Q’
Q 0
0 0
0 1 1 0 Set
1 0 0 1 Reset
Q’ 1
1 R’ 1 1 1 0 Hold
0 1 Hold
X Y NAND
00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
 SR Latch (NAND version)

0 S’ S’ R’ Q Q’
Q 1
0 0 1 1 Disallowed
0 1 1 0 Set
1 0 0 1 Reset
Q’ 1
0 R’ 1 1 1 0 Hold
0 1 Hold
X Y NAND
00 1
01 1
10 1
11 0
D Latch
One way to eliminate the undesirable
indeterminate state in the RS flip flop is to
ensure that inputs S and R are never 1
simultaneously. This is done in the D latch:
D Latch with Transmission Gates

 C=1  TG1 closes and TG2 opens  Q’=D’ and Q=D

 C=0  TG1 opens and TG2 closes  Hold Q and Q’

PJF - 235 2015/7/4 Sequential Circuits

 Flip-Flops

 Latches are “transparent” (= any change

on the inputs is seen at the outputs
immediately when C=1).
 This causes synchronization problems.
 Solution: use latches to create flip-flops
that can respond (update) only on specific
times (instead of any time).
 Types: RS flip-flop and D flip-flop
PJF - 236 2015/7/4 Sequential Circuits
D Flip-Flop
 Characteristic Tables

 Defines the logical properties of a flip-flop

(such as a truth table does for a logic gate).
 Q(t) – present state at time t
 Q(t+1) – next state at time t+1
D Flip-Flop Timing Parameters

Setup time
 Sequential Circuit Analysis

 Analysis: Consists of obtaining a suitable description

that demonstrates the time sequence of inputs, outputs,
and states.
 Logic diagram: Boolean gates, flip-flops (of any kind),
and appropriate interconnections.
 The logic diagram is derived from any of the following:
 Boolean Equations (FF-Inputs, Outputs)
 State Table
 State Diagram
Example

 Input: x(t) Function?

x
 Output: y(t) D Q A

 State: (A(t), B(t)) C Q A

 What is the Output

D Q B
 What is the Next State
Function? CP C Q

y
Example (continued)
 Boolean equations
for the functions: x
D Q A
A(t+1) = A(t)x(t) A’
C Q
+ B(t)x(t) Next State

B(t+1) = A’(t)x(t)
y(t) = x’(t)(B(t) + A(t)) D Q B

CP C Q'

Output
 State Table Characteristics
 State table – a multiple variable table with the
following four sections:
 Present State – the values of the state variables for each
allowed state.
 Input – the input combinations allowed.
 Next-state – the value of the state at time (t+1) based on the
present state and the input.
 Output – the value of the output as a function of the present
state and (sometimes) the input.
 From the viewpoint of a truth table:
 the inputs are Input, Present State
 and the outputs are Output, Next State
 State Diagrams

 The sequential circuit function can be represented in

graphical form as a state diagram with the following
components:
 A circle with the state name in it for each state
 A directed arc from the Present State to the Next State for each
state transition
 A label on each directed arc with the Input values which causes
the state transition, and
 A label:
 On each circle with the output value produced, or

 On each directed arc with the output value produced.

 Example: State Diagram
s,x=0/y=0 x=0/y=1 x=1/y=0
 Diagram gets
confusing for AB
large circuits 00 x=0/y=1 1 0
 For small circuit x=1/y=0
usually easier to x=1/y=0
understand than x=0/y=1
the state table
01 11
x=1/y=0
MEMORY
 Memory
 Sequential circuits all depend upon the presence of memory.
 A flip-flop can store one bit of information.
 A register can store a single “word,” typically 32 or 64 bits.

 Memory allows us to store even larger amounts of data.

 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 Address Data
Picture of Memory 00000000
00000001
You can think of memory as being one big array of
0000000
data. 2
 The address serves as an array index. .
 Each address refers to one word of data. .
.
 You can read or modify the data at any given
.
memory address, just like you can read or modify
.
the contents of an array at any given index.
.
.
. Word
.
.
FFFFFFF
D
FFFFFFFE
FFFFFFFF
 Memory Signal Types
 Memory signals fall into three groups
 Address bus - selects one of memory locations
 Data bus
 Read: the selected location’s stored data is put on the data bus

 Write (RAM): The data on the data bus is stored into the selected
location
 Control signals - specifies what the memory is to do
 Control signals are usually active low

 Most common signals are:

 CS: Chip Select; must be active to do anything

 OE: Output Enable; active to read data

 WR: Write; active to write data

Memory Address, Location and size

 All bits in location are read/written together

 Cannot manipulate single bits in a location
 For k address signals, there are 2k locations in memory device
 Each location contains an n bit word
 Memory size is specified as
 #loc x bits per location
 224 x 16 RAM - 224 = 16M words, each 16 bits long

 24 address lines, 16 data lines

 #bits
 The total storage capacity is 224 x 16 = 228 bits
 Size matters!
 Memory sizes are usually specified in numbers of bytes (1 byte= 8 bits).
 The 228-bit memory on the previous page translates into:

228 bits / 8 bits per byte = 225 bytes

 With the abbreviations below, this is equivalent to 32 megabytes.

Prefix Base 2 Base 10

10 3
K Kilo 2 = 1,024 10 = 1,000
M Mega 220 = 1,048,576 106 = 1,000,000
G Giga 230 = 1,073,741,824 109 = 1,000,000,000
 Read-only memory (ROM)
2k x n ROM • Non-volatile
k – If un-powered, its content retains
ADRS Data n
Out
• Read-only
CS – normal operation cannot change
OE contents
• k-bit ADRS specifies the address or location to read from
• A Chip Select, CS, enables or disables the RAM
• An Output Enable, OE, turns on or off tri-state output buffers
• Data Out will be the n-bit value stored at ADRS
ROM PROGRAMMING

 Programmed ROM (PROM): contents loaded at the factory

 hardwired - can’t be changed

 embedded mass-produced systems

 OTP (One Time Programmable): Programmed by user

 UVPROM: reusable, erased by UV light
 EEPROM: Electrically erasable; clears entire blocks with single
operation
ROM Usage
 ROMs are useful for holding data that never changes.

 Arithmetic circuits might use tables to speed up computations of logarithms

or divisions.
 Many computers use a ROM to store important programs that should not be
modified, such as the system BIOS.
 Application programs of embedded systems,PDAs, game machines, cell
phones, vending machines, etc., are stored in ROMs
ROM Structure
32Kx8 ROM
Typical commercial EEPROMs
Microprocessor EPROM
application
ROM Timing
 Memories and functions
Address Data
 ROMs are actually combinational devices, not
A2A1A0 V2V1V0
sequential ones! 000 000
001 100
 You can store arbitrary data into a ROM, so
010 110
the same address will always contain the 011 100
same data. 100 101
101 000
 You can think of a ROM as a combinational 110 011
circuit that takes an address as input, and 111 011

produces some data as the output.

 A ROM table is basically just a truth table.

 The table shows what data is stored at each
ROM address.
 You can generate that data combinationally,
using the address as the input.
Logic-in-ROM Example
Reading RAM
• 50 MHz CPU – 20 ns clock cycle time
• Memory access time= 65 ns
• Maximum time from the application of the address to the
appearance of the data at the Data Output
 WRITING RAM

2k x n memory
k ADDRESS DATA n
IN/OUT
RD/WR’
CS

 Enable the chip by setting CS = 1.

 Select the write operation, by setting RD/WR’ = 0.
 Send the desired address to the ADRS input.
 Send the word to store to the DATA IN/OUT.
WRITING RAM

• 50 MHz CPU – 20 ns clock cycle time

• Write cycle time= 75 ns
• Maximum time from the application of the address to the
completion of all internal memory operations to store a word
 Static memory
 How can you implement the memory chip?

 There are many different kinds of RAM.

 We’ll start off discussing static memory, which is most commonly used in
caches and video cards.
 Later we mention a little about dynamic memory, which forms the bulk of
a computer’s main memory.

 Static memory is modeled using one latch for each bit of storage.

 Why use latches instead of flip flops?

 A latch can be made with only two NAND or two NOR gates, but a flip-
flop requires at least twice that much hardware.
 In general, smaller is faster, cheaper and requires less power.
 The tradeoff is that getting the timing exactly right is a pain.
RAM Cell with SR Latch
RAM Bit Slice Model
8x2 RAM Using a 4x4 RAM Cell
Array
SRAM Devices
 Dynamic memory
 Dynamic memory is built with capacitors.
 A stored charge on the capacitor represents a logical 1.
 No charge represents a logic 0.

 However, capacitors lose their charge after a few milliseconds. The memory
requires constant refreshing to recharge the capacitors. (That’s what’s
“dynamic” about it.)

 Dynamic RAMs tend to be physically smaller than static RAMs.

 A single bit of data can be stored with just one capacitor and one
transistor, while static RAM cells typically require 4-6 transistors.
 This means dynamic RAM is cheaper and denser—more bits can be
stored in the same physical area.
 DRAM Cell

• DRAM cell: One transistor and one capacitor

• 1/0 = capacitor charged/discharged
• SRAM cell: Six transistors – Costs 3 times more (cell complexity)
• Cost per bit is less for DRAM – reason for why large memories are
DRAMs
DRAM Bit Slice
DRAM Including Refresh
Logic