Mechanochemistry in Nanoscience and Minerals Engineering

Mechanochemistry in Nanoscience and Minerals
Engineering
Peter Baláž
Mechanochemistry
in Nanoscience and Minerals
Engineering
123
Peter Baláž
Institute of Geotechnics
Slovak Academy of Sciences
Watsonova 45
043 53 Košice
Slovakia
[email protected]
ISBN: 978-3-540-74854-0 e-ISBN: 978-3-540-74855-7

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Dedicated to the memory of my son Pali
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Preface
There are three keywords in title of this book. Mechanochemistry is a branch of

science concerned with chemical and physico-chemical changes of solids due to the
influence of mechanical energy. Very frequently, the small particles are product of
this mechanical treatment. Nanoscience is a branch of science dealing with particles
less than the size of 100 nm, giving to nanostructures built from them extraordi-
nary properties. It has been experienced that mechanochemistry and nanoscience
have impact on several technologies. Minerals engineering as well as many others
applications serves as an good example.
The first chapter Mechanochemistry in Nanoscience deals with both disciplines.
History, theories and models and synthesis routes are described. Special attention
is devoted to nanogeoscience and application of nanoparticles in medicine which is
hot topic for scientists and technologists.
The second chapter High-Energy Milling is devoted to energetically intensive
treatment with which special structures in mechanochemistry and nanoscience are
created. Various mills are described, the process variables which govern their me-
chanical effect as well as important phenomena accompanying the milling process.
Special techniques needed for investigation and characterization of solids in
mechanochemistry and nanoscience are described in the third chapter named Se-
lected Identification Methods.
The fourth chapter From Minerals to Nanoparticles show many examples how it
is possible to obtain nanoparticles from minerals.
Mechanochemistry in Minerals Engineering is exclusively described in the fifth
chapter. Here, various combinations of mechanochemical processing is illustrated
for extraction of elements from minerals as well as their behaviour in leaching and
sorption operations.
The largest sixth chapter Applied Mechanochemistry is devoted to applications of
mechanochemistry in various technological fields. The effect of high-energy milling
on particles (very frequently in nanodimensions) in scaled-up processes is illustrated
for technological applications in mineral processing, extractive metallurgy, chemi-
cal engineering, materials engineering, coal industry, building industry, agriculture,
pharmacy and waste treatment.
Košice, Slovakia Peter Baláž

Spring 2008
vii
Contents
1 Mechanochemistry and Nanoscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Mechanochemistry of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History of Mechanochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Theories and Models in Mechanochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Mechanical Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.4 Thermodynamics in Mechanochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.5 Kinetics of Mechanochemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Introduction to Nanoscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.1 Historical Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.2 Classification of Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.3 Theoretical Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.4 Synthesis Routes (with the Exception of Mechanochemical
Approach) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.2.5 Mechanochemical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.2.6 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.3 Nanogeoscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.3.1 Mineral Nanoparticle Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.3.2 Nano- Versus Mechano-Approach: Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.3.3 Clusters and Aggregates Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1.4 Nanoparticles in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.4.1 Size of Biological Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.4.2 Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . 83
1.5 Opportunities and Other Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2 High-Energy Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.2 Basic Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.3 Energy Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.4 Milling Equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
ix
x Contents
2.4.1 Vibration Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

2.4.2 Planetary Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.4.3 Mixer Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.4.4 Attritors (Stirred Ball Mills) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.4.5 New Mill Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.4.6 Process Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.5 Accompanying Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.5.1 Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.5.2 Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5.3 Amorphization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5.4 Mechanochemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5.5 Agglomeration and Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.6 Surfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3 Selected Identification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.5 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6 Atomic Force Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.7 Transmission Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.8 X-Ray Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.9 Mössbauer Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.10 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4 From Minerals to Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.2 Solid–Gas Reactions Stimulated by Mechanical Activation . . . . . . . . 177
4.2.1 Stibnite Sb2 S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.2.2 Cinnabar HgS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.2.3 Galena PbS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.2.4 Sphalerite ZnS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.3 Mechanochemical Reduction via Solid–Solid Reactions . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.3.1 Redox Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.3.2 Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.3.3 Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.3.4 Wolframates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.3.5 Titanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.3.6 Sulphides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.3.7 Other Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Contents xi
5 Mechanochemistry in Minerals Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.2 Mechanochemical Solid–Solid Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.2.1 Mechanochemical Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.3 Mechanochemical Solid–Liquid Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.3.1 Milling and Leaching as Separated Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.3.2 Oxidative Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.3.3 Acidic Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.3.4 Alkaline Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5.3.5 Selective Leaching of Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
5.3.6 Non-Cyanide Leaching of Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
5.3.7 Simultaneous Milling and Leaching (Mechanochemical
Leaching) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.4 Sorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.4.1 Zinc Sorption on Calcite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5.4.2 Sulphides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6 Applied Mechanochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.2 Mineral Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.2.1 Sulphides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
6.2.2 Other Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.3 Extractive Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.3.1 Mechanical Activation as Pretreatment Step for Leaching . . 303
6.3.2 Attritors in Hydrometallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.3.3 Mechanochemical Processes for Ore Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.4 Chemical Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.4.1 Crystal Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.5 Materials Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6.5.1 Thermoelectric Power Generator Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.5.2 Room Temperature Solders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6.5.3 Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.6 Coal Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.6.1 Humic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
6.7 Building Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.7.1 Mechanical Activation of Quartz SiO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
6.7.2 Mechanical Activation of Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.7.3 Solidification of Silicate Concretes with Mechanically
Activated Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.7.4 Modification of Concrete Properties by Application
of Waste Materials After Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
6.7.5 Manufacture of Exterior Wall Panels with Intervention
of Mechanical Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
xii Contents
6.8 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

6.9 Pharmacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
6.9.1 Solubility of Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
6.9.2 Polymorphism and Amorphization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
6.9.3 Biological Activity of Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
6.9.4 Mechanochemical Synthesis of Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
6.10 Waste Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.10.1 Mineral Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6.10.2 Materials Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.10.3 Organic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Acknowledgements
The completion of this book would not have been possible without influence of
many people on my professional life. Wish to thank my first teacher in science Ivan
Žežula, the learner of the only Czechoslovak Nobel laureate Jaroslav Heyrovský,
who arouse my enthusiasm for science. Klára Tkáčová, a founder of the Slovak
mechanochemical school, supervisor of my PhD. thesis first introduced me to the
charm of mechanochemistry.
As early workers in the field of mechanochemistry it was pleasure to personally
meet such pioneers as Peter Adolf Thiessen, Gerhard Heinicke, Hans-Peter Heegn
and Eberhard Gock of Germany, Vladimir Vjačeslavovič Boldyrev, Pavel Yurievič
Butyagin and Evgenij Grigorievič Avvakumov of Russia, Emmanuel Gutman of
Israel, Zoltán Juhász of Hungary and Mamoru Senna and Fumio Saito of Japan. Of
course, the list is not complete and several hundreds of contributions from labora-
tories of active mechanochemists throughout the world can be traced at the end of
each chapter of the book. My best thanks is extended to all mechanochemists whose
contributions created this work.
The completion of this book would have been impossible without the tremendeous
help of Erika Dutková, my post-doc student, who gave the final shape to the
manuscript.
The preparation of this book was partly supported by the project APVV-0347-06
from the Research and Developing Agency of Slovakia.
I would like to thank my wife Ela, for her encouragement, patience, and love.
xiii
Chapter 1
Mechanochemistry and Nanoscience
1.1 Mechanochemistry of Solids
Mechanochemistry is a branch of chemistry which is concerned with chemical and

physico-chemical changes of substances of all states of aggregation due to the in-
fluence of mechanical energy.
1.1.1 History of Mechanochemistry
The above mentioned definition is based on theoretical considerations of Ostwald

(Nobel Prize 1909) concerning the relationship between chemical and mechanical
energy. The German scientist significantly contributed to the development of mod-
ern chemistry by systemization of chemical disciplines. Ostwald (Fig. 1.3) was en-
gaged in the systematization of chemical sciences from the energetic point of view.
The term mechanochemistry has been used for the first time in his early works
[Ostwald 1887, 1909]. He understood mechanochemistry in a wider sense when
compared with the present view, regarding it as a part of physical chemistry like
thermochemistry, electrochemistry or photochemistry.
From twenties, the further activities in mechanochemistry can be observed.
The colloidal mill was developed (Fig. 1.1) and practically forgotten book on
mechanochemistry was published [Pierce 1928]. Here author defines mechanochem-
istry as “the new science of mechanical dispersion involving the use of principles
in physical chemistry”. He hesitated to name this science because of his remark
“. . . we shall call it mechanochemistry for lack of a better name, as it involves dis-
persion or defflocculation by mechanical means, thereby bringing about so-called
colloidal dispersions”.
However, the fact that mechanical activation can lead to chemical consequencies
was not a discovery. Since the first attempts by man to obtain fire by friction and to
the more recent data on the possibility of ignition and detonation of certain solid ex-
plosives, it has come to light that chemical reactions may be initiated by mechanical
means [Boldyrev 1986]. That is a reason to look for the beginnings of the written
history of mechanochemistry in the very early times.
P. Baláž, Mechanochemistry in Nanoscience and Minerals Engineering, 1

c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008
2 1 Mechanochemistry and Nanoscience
Fig. 1.1 Colloid mill Plauson-Oderberg for wet milling [Ostwald 1927]
Several studies has been published to find the very early traces of mechanochem-
istry [Takacs 2000, 2003, 2004; Baláž 2001].
1.1.1.1 Mechanochemistry in Antic Greece and Old Europe
The beginning of mechanochemistry of sulphides might be probably dated to antic

area. Theophrastus of Eresus (Fig. 1.3) was student of Aristotle and served as his
successor as the head of the Lyceum in Athens from 322 B.C. until his dead. His
book, “On Stones or De Lapidibus” is the earlier surviving scientific book on miner-
als. In this book the sentence . . . “native cinnabar was rubbed with vinegar in a cop-
per mortar with a copper pestle yielding the liquid metal . . . ” is given. This is a very
clear description of a mechanochemical process. The first described mechanochem-
ical reduction probably followed the reaction
HgS + Cu → Hg + CuS (1.1)
and vinegar was smartly used to prevent the side effects which usually accompany
dry milling on air. It remains a mystery why the mechanochemical preparation
of mercury from its sulphide according to reaction (1.1) was forgotten during the
Middle Ages.
However, as published recently, examples of other mechanochemical reactions
between 300 B.C. and the end of the 18th century can be also traced in medieval
literature [Takacs 2000]. Agricola documented several examples of chemical reac-
tions under influence of mechanical action which can be connected with mining and
metallurgical operations [Agricola 1546, 1556].
It is interesting to note that in the 17th century Bacon (Fig. 1.3) referred to four
treatments that, in essence, are still among the most important procedures to prepare
1.1 Mechanochemistry of Solids 3
active solids: one of them is milling [Bacon 1658]. It was Wenzel who stressed out
the fact that by heterogeneous reactions the degree of conversion depends mainly on
the surface area of reacting solids and is not proportional to their amount [Wenzel
1777].
1.1.1.2 Faraday’s Contribution to Mechanochemistry
Faraday, famous English physicist noticed in 19th century that certain hydrated salts
dehydrated spontaneously when mechanically treated [Faraday 1834]. However, as
stated recently his contribution to mechanochemistry started earlier [Takacs 2007].
In his book published in 1827, a twenty-page chapter was dedicated to mortars and
comminution [Faraday 1827]. A very direct reference to a mechanochemical process
was published in 1820 on the decomposition of silver chloride [Faraday 1820]. The
reaction proceeds according to the equation
2AgCl + Zn → 2Ag + ZnCl2 (1.2)
and the experiments applying “mortar milling” have been repeated with Sn, Cu and
Fe metals. According to Faraday’s description, the reaction between silver chloride
and zinc is fast and highly exothermic, raising the possibility a mechanochemically
induced self-sustaining reaction [Takacs 2002].
The reaction (1.2) was studied recently with modern mechanochemical tools. The
mechanically induced self-sustainity of the process has been verified [Takacs 2007].
However, Faraday’s contribution to solid state chemistry exceeds the frame of
mechanochemistry. He contributed also to nanoscience (see later in this chapter).
One of the first bridges between mechanochemistry and nanoscience has been built.
1.1.1.3 Carey Lea, the First Mechanochemist
The interesting papers concerned with the effect of mechanical energy on properties
of substances were published by American scientist Lea [Lea 1891a, b, 1892–1894].
His contribution to the mechanochemistry has been analyzed recently by contem-
porary mechanochemists [Baláž 2001; Takacs 2003].
Lea published many works in his brilliant carrier, starting with the ground-
breaking papers on colloidal silver [Lea 1866, 1891a, b]. He discovered, what he
called three allotropic forms of silver: “soluble silver”, “insoluble silver”, and “gold-
yellow or copper-coloured silver”. He recognized that these allotropic forms, which
formed colloids containing particles too small to be seen in any microscope of the
day, suggested numerous applications [Smith 1972; Whitcomb 2006].
After studying the transformations of silver metal, he turned attention to halides
of Ag, Hg, Pt and Au. From halides, chlorides, bromides and iodides were studied.
Investigation of these compounds were summarized and a paper was red before
American National Academy of Science in April 1892 when Lea was elected to
membership. In case of AgCl and AgBr two modes of mechanical effect were
applied: simple pressure and shearing stress. The observation recorded proved the
existence of perfect uniformity in the action of both kinds of mechanical energy on
the halides. When heated, AgCl melts without decomposition, but under the effect
of low stress it decomposes with the formation of elemental silver
2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl2 (1.3)
The reaction probably preceeds through silver subchloride formation.

On the other hand, mercurous chloride Hg2 Cl2 sublimes under effect of tem-
perature. However, under pressure (a glass rod was used in these experiments) the
decomposition reaction leading to elementary mercury and chlorine was observed
Hg2 Cl2 → 2Hg + Cl2 (1.4)
This is one of Lea’s frequently cited results, the first example of a mechanochem-
ical reaction that brings about an outcome different from the effect of heat [Takacs
2004].
These initial results were followed by systematic investigations published in a
series of articles during 1893–1894. As an example can serve the reaction
2NaAuCl4 → 2Au + 2NaCl + 3Cl2 (1.5)
The reaction has been performed under influence of mechanical stress. However,
the decomposition cannot be produced by heat. Many others compounds were stud-
ied by Lea under the effect of sharp stroke of the pestle like silver tartrate, carbonate,
citrate, oxalate, arsenate, sulphite, salicylate, orthophosphate and ferricyanide. The
main objective of these studies was the initiation of endothermic reactions, specifi-
cally the decomposition of compounds with negative heat of formation, by the ap-
plication of mechanical force.
Lea has shown for the first time the parallelism between the action of electric-
ity, heat, light, chemical action and mechanical force on the silver halides and al-
lotropic silver. He experimentally proved the theoretical ideas of Ostwald’s who in
his textbooks on general chemistry understood the equivalency of electrochemistry,
thermochemistry and photochemistry with mechanochemistry. There is an interest-
ing note in Ostwald’s book “Die Welt der vernachlässigten Dimensionen” about Lea
investigations [Ostwald 1927]. Ostwald appreciated him as one of the most known
American researchers in the field of colloid chemistry (colloid chemistry studies
small particles including nanoparticles).
This is one of the first documented traces of evidence the mutual connection
between mechanochemistry and nanoscience.
1.1.1.4 From Simple Decompositions to Solid State Reactions in a Mill
Another American chemist Parker also appreciated the Lea’s results but on the other
hand critized that almost entirely his research was devoted to single compounds
[Parker 1914]. Parker studied the solid-solid reaction (1.6) by trituration
Fig. 1.2 The first

mechanochemical reactor:
A – mortar, B – iron collar,
C – pestle, D – handle,
E – rubber tubing
[Parker 1914]
Na2 CO3 + BaSO4 → Na2 SO4 + BaCO3 (1.6)
However, during milling (5–30 min) the sodium carbonate was transformed only
very slightly: yield of reaction (1.6) was only 1–3%. In further study he has shown
that under certain conditions it is possible to bring about interactions between solid
substances by means of a shearing stress, at ordinary temperatures, or at least very
greatly to increase the velocity of these reactions [Parker 1918]. In accordance with
Lea he concluded that shearing stress, such as could be applied by hand between a
pestle and mortar, is widely different in its effects from simple pressure, and that one
of the main reason why it is able to bring about reactions between apparently solid
substances is that local or surface fusion of the reacting substances is occasioned.
Parker published as the first the picture of mechanochemical reactor (Fig. 1.2).
Together with Lea they drew attention on the importance of controlling the atmo-
sphere during milling process. In order to avoid the side effects in the reactor, the
pestle and mortar as milling means were fixed in the desiccator.
1.1.1.5 Mechanochemistry in Europe: Traces in a Previous Century
In several review papers on mechanochemistry [Boldyrev and Tkáčová 2000;

Boldyrev 2002, 2006] the Russian scientist Flavickij is quoted frequently with his
contributions in solid state reactions performed by milling [Flavickij 1903, 1909].
As for the time scale his papers were published before Parker’s contributions and
their works can be appreciated as the pioneer works on solid state reactivity induced
by milling.
Later on, a big gap in mechanochemistry of inorganic solids can be traced in liter-
ature. Particularly in western countries little seems to have been done except of one
area of mechanically initiated explosion reactions in solids, an interest stimulated
by the last World War [Fox 1975]. These investigations are linked with researches
performed in England, France and Russia [Bowden and Tabor 1958; Bowden and
Yoffe 1952, 1958]. The investigations resulted in the elaboration of hot spots the-
ory (see later) which explained the initiation and development of explosion by local
increase of temperature at the contact of two solids under mechanical action. Later,
this theory was expanded for other theories, like oxidation of metals [Boldyrev and
Tkáčová 2000].
In the 1920s the effect of mechanical energy on metals was investigated
[Tammann 1929]. Tamman working in Göttingen found that not all energy is trans-
formed into the heat but 5–15% of the expended energy remains in the metal as
potential energy and increases the thermodynamic potential of the solid. As a con-
sequence of the treatment a displacement of the thermodynamic potential and a sig-
nificant increase of dissolution velocity occurs. Later Tamman and his co-workers
studied the powder reactions in oxide and carbonate systems. They observed that by
mechanical contact of quartz (SiO2 ) with calcite (CaCO3 ) the monomolecular layer
of Na2 SiO3 is formed
Na2 CO3 + SiO2 → Na2 SiO3 + CO2 (1.7)
The old alchymist dogma (unfortunately accepted also for a long time later)
that the solid state reactions can not proceed without liquid or gas medium was
definitively overcome. Hedvall, another outstanding German scientist though not
working in mechanochemistry supported by his observations Tamman’s results
[Hedvall 1938].
The other field of mechanochemistry has its traces in Tamman’s time. In twenties,
mechanochemistry of organic molecules was first elucidated. The first published pa-
pers [Wanetig 1921, 1922, 1927] were inspired by the needs of the pulp and paper
industry. The benefitial effect of milling on cellulose solubility by the mechani-
cal destruction of the macromolecule and creation of new hydrophilic groups in the
place of discrupted valence bonds was explained [Boldyrev and Tkáčová 2000]. The
research into mechanochemistry of organic molecules practically started with works
of Wanetig. The mechanical degradation of polymers illustrated on polystyrene case
started at about the same time. It was found that increase of the reactivity of poly-
mers, e.g. of solubility is parallel to the decrease of the molecular weight [Staudinger
and Dreher 1936; Hess et al. 1942]. The investigations in this field were continued
in Germany [Berlin 1958; Grohn et al. 1962; Grohn and Paudert 1963] as well as
later [Baramboin 1970; Simionesku and Oprea 1971].
In subsequent 3 decades Fink and Bowden and Tabor in particular investigated
oxidation reactions of metals, decomposition reactions and conditions of rolling and
sliding friction [Fink and Hofmann 1932, 1933; Bowden and Tabor 1958]. Thus
during the rolling friction of iron rolls on the stressed surface tarnishing layers
come into existence within a few minutes, which without mechanical stress would
normally require about 1017 years for their growth. Fink excluded the influence of
temperature for the interpretation of this effect and discussed plastic deformation as
a cause of the acceleration of the reaction [Fink and Hofmann 1932; Heinicke 1984].
The experiments were made with steel as well as with pure metals like iron, nickel
and copper. Bowden and Tabor alledge that temperatures over 700◦ C can be ob-
served at the contact of solid substances exposed to frictions. These high tempera-
tures, however, last only 10−4 –10−3 s.
The transformations of solids caused by milling were studied as early as 1940
by Clark and Rowan (1941) followed by Dachille and Roy (1960). These studies
showed that both PbO transformations (massicot→litharge, litharge→massicot) can
take place as a result of milling in a ball mill, depending on the amount of hydrostatic
pressure generated in the mill. They suggested that pure hydrostatic pressure causes
the litharge-massicot transformation, whereas bond breakage at low pressures, due
to the action of displacive shear, causes its reverse.
The small excursion into history of mechanochemistry is not exhausted by the
above given paragraphs and photographs of important players (Fig. 1.3), of course.
Theophrastus of Eresus Georgius Agricola Francis Bacon

(371–286 B.C.) (1494–1555) (1561–1626)
Michael Faraday Matthew Carey Lea Fridrich Wilhelm Ostwald

(1791–1867) (1823–1897) (1853–1932)
Fig. 1.3 Photogalery of important players in history of mechanochemistry

Table 1.1 Review papers on history of mechanochemistry

Title Author(s)
Mechanochemische Reaktionen Peters 1962
Review of the Phase Transformation and Synthesis of Lin and Nadiv 1970
Inorganic Solids obtained by Mechanical Treatment
(Mechanochemical Reactions)
Mechanically Initiated Chemical Reactions in Solids Fox 1975
Mechanochemistry of Inorganic Solids Boldyrev 1986
Accelerating the Kinetics of Low-Temperature Roy 1994
Inorganic Synthesis
Colloid-chemical Aspects of Mechanical Activation Juhász 1998
Mechanochemistry of Solids: Past, Present and Boldyrev and Tkáčová 2000
Prospects
Mechanochemistry in Extractive Metallurgy: The Baláž 2001
Modern Science with Old Routes
M. Carey Lea, the First Mechanochemist Takacs 2004
Mechanochemistry: The Mechanical Activation of Beyer and Clausen-Schaumann
Covalent Bonds 2005
Mechanochemistry and Mechanical Activation of Solids Boldyrev 2006
After these fundamental works the investigations continued as is in the follow-

ing decades summarized in a series of review papers (Table 1.1), starting with the
first pioneer review on mechanochemistry published by Peters and presented on the
1st European Symposium on Size Reduction which was held in Germany [Peters
1962].
1.1.2 Theories and Models in Mechanochemistry
1.1.2.1 Hot-Spot Theory
The first trial in mechanochemistry to explain the reason of mechanical initiation

of chemical reactions was developed by Bowden, Tabor and Yoffe. They found that
with friction processes for 10−4 –10−3 s temperatures of over 1000 K on surfaces of
about 1 μm2 can occur, and that these represent and important cause of mechani-
cally initiated reactions [Bowden and Yoffe 1952, 1958; Bowden and Tabor 1958].
These temperatures can also be found near the tip of a propagating crack [Weichert
and Schönert 1974]. Later this theory was expanded for other processes, like oxida-
tion of metals. However, the controversy concerning the possibility of an increase
in temperature at or on the friction surface has still not ended. Judging from indi-
rect features, centers with a high temperature exist only under extreme conditions.
These include, for example, the instant when cavitation bubbles are flooded follow-
ing the absorption of ultrasound in liquids [Suslick 1990; Butyagin 1994]. The phe-
nomenon was experimentally proved and interpreted for three substances as given in
Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 The maximum temperatures at the propagating crack [Weichert 1976]
Material Glass Quartz Sugar
Temperature (K) 3200 4700 2500
To study the chemical processes occurring at the tip of a propagating crack a

set-up has been used which allow a crystal to be cleaved directly in the vicinity of
the ionic source of a mass spectrometer [Fox and Soria-Ruiz 1970]. Their experi-
ments have shown that during the cleavage of inorganic crystals (calcite, magnesite,
cerussite, lead and sodium azides) gas evolution can be substantial which suggests
that high temperatures exists at the crack tip. However, since in brittle substances
the rate of crack propagation can approach the sound velocity, i.e. 103 m/s, the life
time excitation on the chemical bond must be 10−13 s. It is evident that under these
conditions the term temperature can be used only symbolically. Later it was proved
that the processes occurring at the tip of a crack during the cleavage of a crystal may
proceed by different mechanisms depending on the speed of crack motion [Boldyrev
et al. 1990; Boldyrev 1993].
1.1.2.2 Magma-Plasma Model
In the sixties, the first model in mechanochemistry – the magma-plasma model was
proposed [Thiessen et al. 1967]. According to this model a great quantity of energy
is set free at the contact spot of colliding particles. This energy is responsible for
formation of a special plasmatic state which is characterized by emission of fairly
excited fragments of solid substance, electrons and photons over a short time scale
(Fig. 1.4).
The surface of contact particles is rather disordered and local temperatures can
reach more than 10000 K. Thiessen distinguishes the reactions which occur in the
plasma from the reactions taking place at the surface of particles during the signifi-
cantly excited state, or immediately after its expiration. These considerations led to
Fig. 1.4 Magma-plasma

model: E – exo-electrons,
N – undeformed solid,
D – highly deformed surface
layer, P – plasma [Thiessen
et al. 1967]
an important conclusion which is valid for mechanically activated reactions – these

reactions do not obey a single mechanism.
The German school elaborated the concept of “hierarchy” of energetic states
which appeared to be very important for analysis of the processes induced by the
effect of mechanical energy [Thiessen et al. 1967; Thiessen 1979; Thiessen and
Sieber 1979a, b; Heinicke 1981]. In this concept, a large number of excitation pro-
cesses occur due to mechanical activation which are characterized by different re-
laxation times (Table 1.3).
Heinicke shown the value of classifying tribochemical reactions according to the
excitation processes initiating the individual reactions and to subdivide these exci-
tation processes in their temporal courses. This way one will arrive at a hierarchic
model, in which the most highly excited states having the shortest excitation times
stand at the beginning and the numerous other states with smaller excitation incor-
porate themselves according to their temporal occurrence in the dissipation phase
into the model [Heinicke 1981].
Long-lived states including defects and dislocations have been analyzed by equi-
librium thermodynamics [Heegn 1989]. Mechanically disordered solids have an ac-
tual free energy content G which is higher than the equilibrium free energy G*:
G = G∗ + GE (1.8a)
The excess free enthalpy is made up of the contributing defects and their distur-
bance enthalpy
GE = ∑ ci Hi∗ + T kb NA ∑ Ci ln ci (1.8b)
i i
Table 1.3 Relaxation times of excitation processes in mechanically activated solids [Heinicke
1981]
Excitation process Relaxation time
Impact process > 10−6 s

Triboplasma < 10−7 s
Gaseous discharge ∼ 10−7 s
“Hot spots” 10−3 –10−4 s
Electrostatic charging 102 –105 s
Emission of exoelectrons 10−6 –105 s
Triboluminescence 10−7 –103 s
Lattice defects 10−7 –106 s
Dislocation motion 105 cms−1
Lattice vibrations 10−9 –10−10 s
Fracture formation 10–103 cms−1
Fresh surface at 1.3.10−4 Pa: 1–102 s
Lifetime of excited metastable states at 105 Pa: < 10−6 s
10−3 s
10−2 s
with major contributions from step and screw dislocations, outer specific surface,
particle size of primary crystallites and amorphous regions and different phases
[Hoffmann et al. 2005].
1.1.2.3 Spherical Model
During one of the first conferences on mechanochemistry in Berlin 1983 Thiessen

demonstrated the different stages of an impact stress by a spherical model (Fig. 1.5).
By this simplifying model it could be shown that the impact stress is combined
with the appearance of different species. This state is limited to very small spaces
and very short times and qualified as triboplasma [Thiessen et al. 1967]. The con-
cept of triboplasma was later developed from thermodynamic and kinetic point of
view.
The short life of triboplasma causes no Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution so that
an equilibrium temperature cannot be given and the chemical process taking place
in this excitation phase cannot be described by the laws of thermodynamics. The
conversions in triboplasmas are of a stochastic nature. The highest stage of energy
excitation changes dynamically into the next stage, characterized by the relaxation
of the plasma states and termed “edge-plasma” and “post-plasma”. A step diagram
of the energy dissipation was composed for the total process in the form of a hierar-
chy of the energy states (Fig. 1.6). A number of physical processes (see Table 1.2)
take place in this step, such as the recombination of plasma products, the propaga-
tion of dislocations, fracture processes, the propagation of photons and the emission
of electrons and photons which have important functions for the initiations of chem-
ical reactions [Heinicke 1984].
1.1.2.4 Dislocation and Phonon Theory
The authors of dislocation theory allege that the mechanical action on solid sub-
stances gives rise to dislocations which come to the surface and subsequently
become areas with increased chemical activity [Gutman 1974]. The motion of dis-
locations in solid substance is accompanied by the formation of phonons due to
interactions between dislocations and other dislocations, defects, admixtures or in-
terfaces. The phonon theory then emphasizes the distribution, mutual effect and
origination of phonons in the course of disordering of solid substances by milling
[Bertenev and Razumovskaya 1969].
1.1.2.5 Theory of Short-Live Active Centers
The essence of the theory consist in the idea that new surface arising during me-
chanical treatment is unable to stabilize in the 10−9 –10−11 s of thermal excita-
tion. During the 10−4 –10−7 s required for stabilization, chemical bonds are liable to
Fig. 1.5 Different stages of the impact stress schematically shown by the spherical model (↓ – pen-
etration into the lattice of the solid, ↑ – decay phase up to the condition of frozen lattice distortion)
[Heinicke 1984]
rearrangement, the electric surface relief is formed and further relaxation processes
proceed. The decay of short-lived centres is related to the relaxation of excess en-
ergy. In vacuo, this relaxation is due to rearrangement of chemical bonds, whereas
the interactions of short-lived centres with the molecules of surrounding medium are
responsible for relaxation in chemically active medium. This is a case of exother-
mic process which can be accompanied e.g. by luminiscence or other phenomena
involving radiation of energy [Butyagin 1973].
Fig. 1.6 Step diagram of the energy dissipation in solids stressed by impact [Thiessen and
Sieber 1979a]
1.1.2.6 Kinetic Model
The specific features of mechanochemical effects have been analyzed from the view-
point of limiting stages of the process [Boldyrev 1972]. The decomposition process
of solid substance can be evaluated according to activation, deactivation and proper
chemical reaction. We can discern two boundary cases: the decay is limited either
by the processes of excitation and bond splitting (e.g. thermal decomposition) or by
following stages (e.g. transformation of intermediates arising in the primary stage).
Two characteristic features of mechanochemical effects have been determined: pulse
action and local character of action. Both these features form the grounds of the
kinetic model of mechanical activation. The kinetic model proposed by Boldyrev
was experimentally verified.
1.1.2.7 Impulse Model
The model is based on the idea that the kinetics of the reaction is determined by the
time in which substance is liable to be in contact with balls owing to the impulse ef-
fect of milling balls on solid substance [Lyachov 1984]. This time is different from
the overall time of milling and is connected to the temperature rise during the im-
pulse. The author succeeded in determining the equivalent temperatures correspond-
ing to the contact of milling balls with solids and verified this idea [Boldyrev 1972,
1986].
In mills, the formation of stress field and its relaxation occur at regular intervals
by subjecting a solid to a sequence of mechanical pulses following one after the
Fig. 1.7 Impulse character of mechanical action. The left side of the impulse – stress field forma-
tion, the right side – stress relaxation [Boldyrev 1986]
other. A schematic representation of these pulses is shown in Fig. 1.7. Every pulse
characterizes the occurrence of stress field in the region being treated (the left-hand
side of the pulse) and its relaxation leading to various physical and physico-chemical
consequences (the right-hand side of the pulse) [Boldyrev 1986].
1.1.2.8 Theory of the Energy Balance
In this theory it was shown that the individual mill parameters as well as the different
mill types lead to characteristic changes of the crystal lattice of solids [Heegn 1989,
1990].
1.1.2.9 Analogy Model
This model has been based on similarity of energy transfer in mill with the energy
transfer in an electric circuit [Tkáčová et al. 1988]. The concept was experimentally
verified with a great deal of minerals and has enabled a description of the mechanical
action for variable specific energies of structural disordering of solids.
1.1.3 Mechanical Activation
The term mechanical activation was introduced by Smékal who regarded it as a pro-
cess involving an increase in reaction ability of a substance which remains chem-
ically unchanged [Smékal 1942]. Provided the activation brings about a change in
composition or structure, it is a mechanochemical reaction. In this case, the me-
chanical activation procedes the reaction and has no effect during the course of this
reaction. The definitions of mechanical activation published later were always de-
pendent on the observed effect.
It was Butyagin who contributed to a certain unification. He considered the be-
haviour of the solids exposed to the effect of mechanical energy from the view-point
of three main aspects: structural disordering, structure relaxation and structural mo-
bility. Under real conditions, three factors simultaneously affect the reactivity of a
Fig. 1.8 A generalised relaxation curve of mechanically activated state [Lyachov 1993]
solid. The mechanical activation is defined as an increase in reaction ability due to

stable changes in solid structure [Butyagin 1984].
However, structural relaxation plays the important role in mechanical activa-
tion. The concept of slowly changing states after interrupting the action of me-
chanical forces by activation has been described [Lyachov 1993]. Lyachov pub-
lished a generalised relaxation curve for activated solids where individual parts of
the curve correspond to processes with different characteristic times of relaxation
(Fig. 1.8).
By this theory there is no possibility of influencing the reactivity of activated
solids via states whose relaxation time is less than characteristic time of reaction
itself. On the contrary, some long-lived states (e.g. surface area) may be regarded
as constant during the course of a reaction and their influence has to be a subject of
mechanical activation studies.
As for the kinds of relaxation processes various processes were described: heat-
ing, formation of a new surface, aggregation, recombination, adsorption, imperfec-
tions, chemical reaction between adjoing particles, etc. [Boldyrev 1986; Juhász and
Kolláth 1993]. The rate of these relaxation processes may be vastly different and the
processes can change from one way of relaxation to the other (Fig. 1.9).
Thus, mechanical activation can be regardered as a multi-step process with
changes in the energetic parameters and the amount of accumulated energy of
solids in each step. The four processes, namely, the accumulation of defects,
amorphization, the formation of metastable polymorphous forms, and chemical
reaction, are united by the term mechanical activation [Boldyrev and Tkáčová
2000].
Juhász proposed that processes under the influence of mechanical activation can
be subdivided into primary and secondary ones [Juhász 1974, 1985, 1998; Juhász
and Kolláth 1993]. The primary process (e.g. increase of internal and surface en-
ergy, increase of surface area, decrease of the coherence energy of solids) generally
increase the reactivity of the substance. The secondary processes (e.g. aggregation,
adsorption, recrystallization) take place spontaneously in activated systems and may
appear even during milling or after milling has been completed.
Fig. 1.9 Flowsheet of changes of relaxation processes [Boldyrev 1986]
1.1.4 Thermodynamics in Mechanochemistry
Chemical interactions between solids proceed through the consumptions of educts

and the formation of products. These processes occur in agreement with physico-
chemical laws and can be characterized using the fundamental thermodynamical
equations. According to the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation it holds
ΔG = ΔH − T ΔS (1.9)
where ΔH is enthalpy and ΔS is entropy. If entropy ΔS is small (crystal structure

is preserved and its disordering is slight), the term TΔS is small and the Gibbs
free energy ΔG is predominantly determined by change of enthalpy ΔH. For highly
disordered solids the entropy ΔS becomes significant and the term TΔS cannot be
omitted.
A principal possibility for one or another chemical reaction to occur is deter-
mined by the sign of ΔG. According to the laws of thermodynamics, the process
occurs spontaneously in the direction of decreasing the free Gibbs energy. A reac-
tion between the substances proceeds with the formation of products, if
ΔGreac = ∑ ΔGfinal products − ∑ ΔGinitial products, ΔG < 0 (1.10)

and takes the back direction if ΔG >0. In case when a system is in equilibrium
ΔG = 0. For example, in the reaction Asolid + Bsolid = ABsolid , Gibbs energy is esti-
mated as
ΔGreac = ΔG0reac + RT ln aAB /(aA aB ) (1.11)
where aA , aB , aAB are the activities of the initial and final products. However, since
the activity of solids is equal (or close) to unity at normal pressure and room tem-
perature, then
ΔGreac = ΔG0reac (1.12)
Thus, in order to determine the possibility for a reaction to proceed, it is suffi-
cient to know ΔG0reac in standard state (p = 0.1 Mpa, T = 298 K) which is calculated
as the difference between Gibbs energies of the formation of final and initial prod-
ucts in standard state. These values are listed in reference books, see for example
[Kubaschewski and Alcock 1979].
If a reaction in a mixture of solids is accompanied by the formation of gas or
fluid phases (melts, solutions), solid solutions, or by the generation of defects, then,
for a more strict thermodynamic forecast, it is necessary to take into account the
changes of entropy and specific heat capacity during phase transitions of the compo-
nents (melting, vaporization, dissolution), changes of volume and other parameters.
If these factors are not taken into account, one can come across the contradic-
tions between experimental data and thermodynamic calculations [Avvakumov et al.
2001].
The interpretation of the relation between the state of the solid before and after
mechanical activation requires data for describing this state to be available. In con-
trast to gases and liquids, these solid particles are not able to be characterized with
only a few thermodynamic factors related to these states. Even at the absolute zero
point temperature, activated solids possess a finite zero point entropy caused be the
disorder of lattice components. The inner thermodynamics equilibrium is first at-
tained above the melting temperature. The state of any lower temperature depends
considerably on the preliminary treatment, e.g. kind, intensity and duration of me-
chanical stress. The type and concentration of defects (Fig. 1.10) resulting from this
determine the thermodynamic state [Heegn 1989].
The new definition of activated solid state has been postulated [Hüttig 1943].
Hüttig defined this state as a thermodynamically and structurally unstable arrange-
ment at temperatures exceeding the melting point. He characterized the activated
state of solid by “residual” Gibbs energy ΔG
ΔG = G∗T − GT (1.13)
where GT *, GT and T are the free enthalpy of activated solid, free enthalpy of this
substance in non-activated state and temperature, respectively.
The Gibbs energy ΔG was analyzed by several authors and a simplified term was
derived
ΔG = ΔG∗1 + ΔG∗2 (1.14)
Fig. 1.10 Defects created by mechanical activation of solids [Hoffmann et al. 2005]
where ΔG1 * is the residual surface energy and ΔG2 * is the energy of lattice defects
formation [Zelikman et al. 1975].
It holds for the surface energy in thermodynamics
ΔG1 = σ ΔS (1.15)
where σ is specific surface energy and ΔS in the change of overall surface of a solid.
It was estimated for mechanical activation of ionic crystals that the surface energy
ΔG1 corresponds approximatelly to 10% of overall Gibbs energy ΔG [Schrader and
Hoffmann 1973].
Schrader estimated the dependence of calcite milling efficiency η on milling time
(Fig. 1.11). Based on presented plots one can obtain the maximum values η = 0.19%
(1) and 0.006% (2), respectively (1-total milling efficiency, 2-milling efficiency con-
sumed for increase of surface area). By comparison of these values, only 3% of total
energy is consumed for increase of surface area of CaCO3 .
However, it has been found that there are reactions, for which the equilibrium
thermodynamics does not afford favourable conditions and in spite of it they suc-
cessfully proceed. The oxidation of gold is governed by reaction
4Au + 3CO2 → 2Au2 O3 + 3C (1.16)
From the point of view the equilibrium thermodynamics the reaction (1.16) has
to be only hypothetic because of positive ΔG values (Table 1.4).
But the reaction proceeds by milling and from the mechanochemical point of
view gold is not so much noble as we know from its chemistry [Thiessen et al. 1970].
In such cases the relationships of irreversible thermodynamics seemed to be more
suitable [Heinicke and Sigrist 1971].
Fig. 1.11 Efficiency of calcite CaCO3 milling, η in dependence on milling time [Schrader and
Hoffmann 1973]
Table 1.4 The value of ΔG for reaction (1.16) [Heinicke 1984]

T (K) ΔG (kJ mol−1 )
298 377
1000 477
2000 615
1.1.5 Kinetics of Mechanochemical Reactions
1.1.5.1 Mechanochemical Pecularities
The general idea of a mechanochemical reaction course under effect of mechanical

energy on reacting system can be illustrated by Fig. 1.12.
The reaction occurring before the beginning of the mechanical treatment (phase 1)
is determined by the thermal excitation and is therefore a function of the reaction
Fig. 1.12 General diagram of a mechanochemical reaction course, v – reaction velocity, t – reac-
tion time, 1 – reaction on untreated solid, 2 – rising reaction, 3 – steady-state reaction, 4 – decaying
reaction [Heinicke 1984]
temperature. However, at room temperature most solid state reactions proceed im-
measurably slowly. The application of mechanical energy generally results in a sig-
nificant increase of the reaction velocity (phase 2). After having passed through the
rising phase a constant reaction velocity appears under external constant conditions
(phase 3). After the interuption of the treatment, the decay phase comes into the
existence (phase 4) [Heinicke 1984]. It was shown later that the mechanochemical
reaction course described by Fig. 1.12 had a general character. However, the course
of reaction is not only determined by the type of reaction but also by the kind and
the intensity of applied mechanical energy, since these factors also determine the
formation of the defects mainly responsible for the solid state reactions.
Probably, the first experimental observation of a change in reactivity caused by
the introduction of defects in crystalline solids was that of Faraday who noticed
that certain hydrated salts, dehydrated spontaneously when scratched with a pin
[Faraday 1834]. Since then numerous reports have appeared on the correlation of
dislocation generation and bulk and surface reactivity [Tompkins 1963]. As stated
later, much of this work suffers from the drawback that insufficient attention has
been paid to the research for a direct one to one correlation between change in
reactivity and dislocation density. For example it is usually not sufficient to observe
that a change in reactivity occurs when the solid is subjected to some treatment
which is assumed to change the concentration of defects, unless it can be shown
that no other accompanying change can explain the observed effect [Fox 1975].
However, even after more than 30 years the situation is sometimes the same.
Very often, the results obtained are interpreted in the very standard way, something
like “the mechanical activation gives rise to the accumulation of defects in reacting
crystals thus increasing their reactivity”, which is rather meaningless and worthless
[Boldyrev 2006].
1.1.5.2 Kinetic Description
In literature, several attempts have been described to apply principles of solid

state heterogeneous kinetics for the mechanochemical systems [see e.g. Avvakumov
1986]. However, only few common features with “classical” heterogeneous kinetics
can be found (e.g. solid state diffusion) and the special approaches accepting the
pecularities of mechanochemistry were needed.
Due to the impulse character, space non-uniformity and changes of the conditions
for chemical interactions during a mechanochemical process its kinetic description
is a complicated task. Therefore, there is no general approach possible and only
some particular models are feasible.
The changes in conditions for a solid state reaction can be illustrated by sur-
face area changes on Fig. 1.13 [Avvakumov 1986; Avvakumov and Kosova 1991].
The stage I of this interaction is connected with the progressive growth of surface
area during activation. Real solids are polycrystals or they contain the nuclei of mi-
crocracks. Therefore, their destruction occurs via separation into crystallites. The
reaction proceeds at the contact of particles. At stages II and III, the processes in-
volving plastic deformation of disordered particles are developed. Dispersion pro-
cess is overlapped by the formation of secondary particles, while the rate of the
latter process is comparable with dispersing rate; thus the surface area remains con-
stant (see also the effect of mechanochemical equilibrium described in Chap. 2).
Chemical reactions take place inside secondary aggregates at the contact between
particles. At the stage III, the crystallization of the products from the solid phase
may occur, as well as repeated amorphization, till some stationary state between
these two is achieved. The relations between the duration of stages depend on the
amount of mechanical energy loading. If it is low, the process can stop at the stage
II; at high energies, stages II and III occur [Avvakumov et al. 2001].
Since dispersing process and activation develop as statistically probable pro-
cesses, this allow to consider chemical interaction from the view point of collision
theory. In this case group collisions of surface atoms of two different particles in
the zone of mechanical action are considered. The limiting stage of this process
Fig. 1.13 The change of specific surface area, S in the course of a mechanochemical reaction
[Avvakumov 1986]
is the probability of formation of contacting regions between solid particles of the

components and a collision with a milling body [Avvakumov et al. 2001].
According to the mentioned statements, the rate of reaction in a mill can be esti-
mated as
v = Km xSn (1.17)
where Km is a constant characterizing the probability of reaction to occur at a given
mechanical action pre unit contact (energy constant determining thermodynamic re-
action parameters T and p), x is a probability of contacting particles to come across
a collision with milling body, Sn is an area of contacting regions of A and B compo-
nents during mechanical action [Avvakumov 1986].
Dispersion brings to an increase of Sn , since the surface of interacting com-
ponents increase. The process of new surface area formation can be described by
equation
S = Sm (1 − e−kt ) (1.18)
where S is specific surface after milling time t and Sm is maximum specific surface
[Chodakov 1972]. Constant k implies the significance of rate constant of new sur-
face formation. It is assumed that the initial specific surface value is small and can
be neglected (see also Sect. 2.5.4 in this book). Equation (1.18) describes the pro-
cesses in which the formation of new surface is limited by milling equilibrium after
a certain time of milling.
Since, as it follows from simple geometric considerations, Sn is proportional to
the total surface of particles, a similar equation can be also written for the contact
surface
Sn = Snm (1 − e−kt ) (1.19)
On the other hand, as the reaction proceeds, the amount of initial reagents de-
creases; the probability for reagent particles to meet each other decreases. Similar
to the law of mass action, we assume that the interaction rate can be written as
dα
= Km xSn (1 − α ) (1 − εα ) (1.20)
dt
where α and εα are the transformation degrees for substances A and B, respectively,
(1 − α ) and (1 − εα ) are the amounts of non-reacted substances A and B, ε = n/m
is a coefficient of a mixture composition, where n is a stoichiometric coefficient
representing the ratio of A and B moles in the product, and m is a real molar ratio
of A and B in the initial mixture [Avvakumov and Strugova 1974; Avvakumov and
Kosova 1991; Avvakumov et al. 2001].
Integration of the Eq. (1.20) taking into account the Eq. (1.19) brings to the
equation
1 1−α 1
−kt
= ln =K t− 1−e (1.21)
ε −1 1 − εα k
where
K = Km xSnm (1.22)
At stoichiometric components ratio n = m, ε = 1, the integration gives the fol-

lowing equation
α 1
=K t− 1 − e−kt (1.23)
1−α k
In the case when specific surface area is linearly dependent on milling time (i.e.,
St = kt), the Eq. (1.20) transforms into
α
= Kt 2 (1.24)
1−α
In the case when specific surface area of the mixture is not changed during the
milling, i.e., St = const (it occurs when the initial substances are taken in highly
disperse state or when a stationary state is achieved at which the substances are
not milled but only are subjected to plastic flow), the integration of (1.20) gives an
equation similar to that describing by bimolecular reaction
α
= Kt (1.25)
1−α
However, the physical meaning of the constant K is quite different from that in
molecular kinetic theory of chemical reactions [Avvakumov et al. 2001].
A large number of papers on the kinetics of mechanochemical reactions report
S-shaped experimental curves. The equations given in this paragraph provide a good
description of this S-like shape (see e.g. Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 in this book).
Two types of mechanochemical reactions were described by Eq. (1.23)
FeS2 → FeS + S (1.26)
and
FeS2 + Fe → 2FeS (1.27)
In these investigations was shown that the course of reaction is not only deter-
mined by the type of reaction but also by the nature and intensity of the applied
mechanical energy, since these factors also determine the formation of centers re-
sponsible for the reaction [Avvakumov et al. 1972].
Kinetics of the massicot→litharge (massicot-orthorombic PbO, litharge-tetra-
gonal PbO) polymorphous transformation in a rotation ball mill has been studied
[Lin and Niedzwiedz 1973; Lin and Somasundaran 1972]
α − PbO → β − PbO (1.28)
In the case of PbO transformations the mechanochemical reaction proceeds in

two successive stages: (i) increase of the litharge volume fraction in accordance
with a modified logistic growth function, and (ii) establishment of “mechanochem-
ical equilibrium” at a high transformed volume fraction. A modified logistic growth
function of the form
1
C= (1.29)
1 + Θ−n
where C is the volume fraction of the transformed new phase at time t, n is the
time exponent and Θ = t/tC = 0.5, was found to fit the results of the first stage of
transformation, up to a certain high value of transformed volume fraction: at this
value the second stage result deviate from the linear plot of ln[C/(1 − C)] vs. lnΘ.
The rate dC/dt decreases and tends to dC/dt = 0, where the system stabilizes at a
certain mixture value of C. This value is specific to the milling regime. Justification
for the use of Eq. (1.29) for the PbO phase transformation is based on the claim
that the process is activated by displacement shear [Lin et al. 1975]. This point was
confirmed experimentally by high-pressure experiments [Dachille and Roy 1961].
The authors showed that although massicot is a high-temperature and high-pressure
polymorph with higher density than litharge, which is a low-temperature and low-
pressure polymorph, both phases may exist, in a metastable form, each in the field
of the other equilibrium state. Both will transform into the stable polymorph once
replacement shears are produced during milling which means that a small amount
of mechanical action triggers the nucleation of other polymorph.
In the second stage of transformation, the rate of the litharge volume-fraction
decreases rapidly to a “mechanochemical equilibrium” at which the phase transfor-
mation of the mixture remains constant under the given mechanical regime. It is
believed that the deviation from the modified logistic growth function at the end of
the first stage results in the initiation of the litharge→massicot back transformation
[Lin et al. 1975].
The mechanochemical solid-state reduction of hematite with magnesium has
been performed [Sherif El-Eskandarany et al. 2001]
2Fe2 O3 + 3Mg → 2Fe + 3MgO (1.30)
The kinetics of this reaction and the growth mechanism of new phases with nano-
dimension crystals have been studied assuming the nucleation and crystal growth
according to the Avrami equation [Avrami 1941; Erofeev 1946]
− ln (1 − x) = kt n (1.31)
where x is conversion degree, n is the order of the reaction and k is the reaction rate
constant.
The fraction x transformed at any time t can be calculated from the area under the
Mössbauer spectra of the produced α-Fe phase. Figure 1.14 illustrated the variation
of the fraction x as a function of milling time. The order of the reaction n was cal-
culated from the slope of the ln[-ln(1-x)] as a function of ln(t) (Fig. 1.15), the value
was found to be 0.902 while k was 0.0147 ks−1 . From the calculated value of n and
the behaviour of the experimental data (n = 1) it is clear that this reaction is a first
order reaction [Sherif El-Eskandarany et al. 2001]. Such behaviour indicates that
the reaction proceeds with one-dimensional growth and is diffusion controlled with
an agglomeration of the product on active centers [Kotkata and Mahmoud 1982].
The kinetics of nanophase iron carbide formation at composition Fe75 C25 was in-
vestigated making use of the high sensibility of 57 Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy to the
atomic environment of iron [Miani and Maurigh, 2004]. For kinetic data treatment
the modified Avrami equation has been applied in the forms
Fig. 1.14 The influence of

ball-milling time on the
fraction x for the reaction
(1.30) [Sherif
El-Eskandarany et al. 2001]
y = %Fe = K exp (−bt n ) (1.32)

y = %Fe = [1 − exp (−b/t n )] (1.33)
where t stands for the milling time in hours, b, K and n are constants represent well
the iron atomic presence in the milled powders. Some 90 samples were investigated
and the kinetics followed a sigmoid-type curves. A correlation was also established
between the time at which the maximum iron conversion rate is obtained and the
ball-to-powder weight ratio.
Mechanochemical solid-state reduction (see also Chap. 4) of sulphides with Fe as
reducing metal to prepare nanocrystalline products can be schematically expressed
by general equation
Me1 S + 2Fe → Me1 + 2FeS (1.34)
where Me1 is reduced metal (Cu, Pb and Sb).
Avrami-Erofeev equation
Fig. 1.15 ln[–ln(1–x)] versus

ln t plot showing the
application of Avrami
equation for the reaction
(1.30) [Sherif
El-Eskandarany et al. 2001]
− ln(1 − x) = kt n (1.35)
has been applied for processing of kinetic data. In Eq. (1.35) n is the order of reaction
and k is the reaction rate constant. The conversion parameter x can be taken from the
magnetometry data. Mathematical transformation of Eq. (1.36) leads to the equation
ln(− ln(1 − x)) = n ln k + n lnt (1.36)
and allows to calculate the order of the reaction n from the slope of the ln(−ln(1−x))
as a function of lnt.
SEM images of synthesized nanocomposites are seen in Fig. 1.16. According to
the observed surface morphology individual nanoparticles have tendency to form
nanoparticle agglomerates during milling process. The solid state recombination of
nanoparticles into agglomerates is a general phenomenon which reflects a tendency
of nanoparticulate systems to compensate unsaturated surface forces via surface
reconstruction.
The kinetics of the solid-state reactions (1.34) has been studied assuming the nu-
cleation and crystal growth take place at nanostructures formation. The
Avrami-Erofeev equation (1.35) has been applied for the kinetics description. The
same procedure has been applied in paper [Sherif El-Eskandarany et al. 2001] for
single-step displacement reduction of hematite with magnesium.
The kinetic data for calculation of parameters k and n of Eq. (1.35) have been
obtained from the magnetometry data presented for all three systems under study in
Fig. 1.17. The calculated parameters are given in Table 1.5.
The rate of the nanometals preparation is in the order Cu > Sb > Pb. Kinetic
equation (1.35) has been derived on assumption of three-dimensional growth of
nuclei and is well suited for description of our processes. The parameter k with
some approximation has meaning of the overall rate constant [Barret 1978]. The
parameter n is function of nuclei number and their shape, composition of initial
reactants and products as well as gives information about reaction mechanismus
[Christian 1965]. The value of this parameter enables to resolve kinetic (n ≥ 1) and
diffusion (n ∼ 0.5) regimes of solid-state reactions [Boldyrev 1983]. According to
this statement, our experimental data in Table 1.5 show that the kinetic regime is the
rate-determining step for all the systems under study.
The concept is based on the quantitative difference among factors influencing the
course of mechanochemical solid state reactions (see also details in this chapter).
(A) (B) (C)
Fig. 1.16 SEM images Me/FeS systems: (A) Cu/FeS, (B) Pb/FeS, (C) Sb/FeS
Fig. 1.17 (A) Kinetics of the mechanochemical synthesis of Me/FeS nanoparticles, Me=1–Cu,
2-Pb, 3-Sb; (B) ln(–lnx) vs. lntplots showing the application of Avrami-Erofeev equation
These factors may be subdivided into two main classes: the first one may be char-
acterized as an “extensive” (specific surface area, particle size distribution, shape of
particles, etc.) while the other one may be assigned to the class of “dynamic” factors
(energy storage, stress relaxation, local temperature and pressure, etc.) The differ-
ence between these two groups is obvious: the life time of new states obtained as
a result of mechanical activation is not limited for “extensive” parameters whereas
Table 1.5 Calculated parameters of Avrami-Erofeev equation (1.35) for mechanochemically in-
duced solid-state reactions of metal sulphides with iron
Reaction Parameter
K [s−1 ] n
Cu2 S + Fe → 2Cu + FeS 0.0014 1.1885
PbS + Fe → Pb + FeS 0.0002 1.5787
Sb2 S3 + 3Fe → 2Sb + 3FeS 0.0004 1.3650
for “dynamic” ones it is usually comparable with the reaction time. To illustrate this
idea, in Fig. 1.18 a general relaxation cure for activated solid is shown where differ-
ent parts are selected corresponding to processes with different characteristic times
of relaxation. There is no chance to influence reactivity of activated solids for those
states which have relaxation time less than characteristic time of reaction itself, ex-
pressed as τch =1/k (short-lived states). On the contrary, some long-lived states with
τi >> τch may be considered as constant in the course of reaction and their influence
has to be a subject of mechanical activation studies [Lyakhov 1993].
The concept of “two kinetics” elaborated by Lyakhov is based on idea that the
effect of mechanical activation on the rate of heterogeneous reactions depends on
the relation between characteristic relaxation times of the processes under study.
It is reasonable to suppose that in some cases chemical reaction may promote or
inhibit physical relaxation but solids never react in all points of their bulk at the
same time. For this reason the concept of “two kinetics” is more or less adequate to
real situation in mechanically activated systems [Lyakhov 1993].
Fig. 1.18 Arrhenius plots for chemical reaction (1) and for relaxation processes: (2) – surface,
(3) – internal stress, (4) – point defect concentration [Lyakhov 1993]
1.2 Introduction to Nanoscience 29
With the separation of relaxation times in two classes the kinetic equation in its
general form may be written as
dn
= k (T1 , p1 . . . , pn ) ∗ f (α ) (1.37)
dt
where p1 . . .pn are parameters of activation (*) depending on time and temperature
pi = pi (0) ∗ exp (−t/ti )∗ (1.38)

∗
ti = ti0 exp (+Ei /RT ) (1.39)
It is to be noted that for mechanochemical reactions all pi . . .pn are maintained

on some average steady-state level during the reaction until it is finished whereas
for mechanical activation some of pi with ti << tch may be taken as equilibrium and
some others with ti >> tch may be assumed to be constant. The Eq. (1.37) written
in this case in the form
dα
= k (T, pei . . ., pek , pk+1 , . . ., pn ) ∗ f (α ) (1.40)
dt
where pei , . . ., pek are equilibrium values of corresponding parameters and all
pk+1 , . . ., pn are constant. It is of importance to underline that relaxation of any phys-
ical property to its “normal” state may always occur without any chemical reaction:
only time and temperature are necessary for that [Lyakhov 1993].
Taking into account this separation of two relatively independent kinetics one can
estimate all the complexity of reacting of mechanically activated compounds. As an
example some of possible combinations are represented in Fig. 1.18, where the dif-
ferent temperature dependence of physical and chemical processes may result in dif-
ferent consequences of mechanical activation. Even this imaginary and very simple
example shows the effect of mechanical activation on chemical reactions can not be
observable if the temperature range is chosen with no relation to the relaxation pro-
cess. Real processes are much more complex because mechanical activation modi-
fies many properties at a time and any of them have its own kinetics of relaxation.
It is evident from the above mentioned analysis that much more effective should
be activation of reaction instead of reaction precursors. Mechanochemistry allows
us to use at some conditions also short-lived states whereas mechanical activation
deals only with long-lived slowly relaxing states [Lyakhov 1993].
Recently, the new models for description of kinetics in mechanochemical sys-
tems have been published [Smolyakov et al. 2007, 2008].
1.2 Introduction to Nanoscience
The prefix nano means a billionth (1 × 10−9 ) of a meter or 1/75,000th the size of
a human hair. The world “nano” means dwarf in Greek language. It has been said
that a nanometer is “a magical point on the length scale, for this is the point where
the smallest man-made devices meet the atoms and molecules of the natural world”
[Wong 1999].
Nanoscale is usually accepted in 1–100 nm range and this range is depicted in
Fig. 1.19 in comparison with the dimensional scale of the earth sciences. Arrows
depicted along this dimensions include: STM image of Pb and S atoms on a galena
surface (10−10 m); crystallization nucleus of calcite (10−9 –10−8 m); bacterial cells
(10−6 m); a single crystal of quartz (10−2 m); a typical open pit mine, Nevada, USA
(102 –103 m); Mt.Fuji, Japan (104 m); the Red Sea from space (105 m wide and 106 m
long); Earth (107 m); the Earth-Moon system as seen from Apollo 11 (4 × 108 m)
[Hochella, Jr. 2002].
NASA recently suggested the following definition for nanotechnology: “The cre-
ation of functional materials, devices and systems through control of matter on the
nanometer length scale (1–100 nm) and exploitation of novel phenomena and prop-
erties (physical, chemical, biological) at that length scale [http://www.ipt.arc.nasa.
gov/nanotechnology.html].
Fig. 1.19 Nanoscale among the dimensional scale of earth sciences [Hochella, Jr. 2002]
1.2.1 Historical Outline
For a long time the properties of small particles have been exploited in various
fields. Especially, fabrication of colour glasses in antic times is connected with us-
ing of nanoparticles. It is known that in fourth-century A.D. Roman glassmakers
were fabricating glasses containing nanosized metals. An artifact from this time
called the Lycurgus cup resides in the British Museum in London. The cup is made
from soda lime glass containing silver and gold nanoparticles. The colour of the cup
changes from green to a deep red when a light source is placed inside it [Poole and
Owens 2003].
The preparation of the individual metal particles has a very long history. It began
with the popular experiments of Faraday on gold nanoparticle aqueous dispersions
(hydrosols) in the 19th century [Faraday 1857]. Faraday discovered that nanometer-
sized particles create the colour variations of metal-particle colloids through surface
charge effects. He found that colloids of 6 nm gold particles are red and those of
12 nm are blue [Klabunde 2001]. One of his main interest at that time was to explain
how metal particles affect the colour of church windows.
Mie was the first to provide an explanation of the dependance of the colour of
glasses on metal size and kind [Mie 1908]. Mie’s theory may be used to calculate
the absorption coefficient versus the wavelength of the light. The Mie theory is
still valid and the scattering behaviour of small spherical particles with light can be
described.
In nanoworld, the legendary vision lecture of Feynman (Fig. 1.20) entiled “There
is Plenty of Room at the Bottom” is frequently cited. The speech was given in 1959
at the Annual American Physical Society Meeting and Feynman speculated on the
possibility and potential of nanosized materials. He proposed manipulating individ-
ual atoms to make new small structures having very different properties. Like many
of present day nanotechnology researchers, he recognized the existence of nanos-
tructures in biological systems. He also predicted such sci-fi accomplishments as
writing 24 volumes of Encyclopedia Brittanica on the head of a pin, and even more
amazingly, the complete reproduction of every book ever produced to fit within a
small handheld pamphlet of less than 40 pages [Fahlman 2007].
The other American visionary, Smalley (Fig. 1.20) quoted: “Just wait-the next
century is going to be incredible. We are about to be able to build things that work
on the smallest possible length scales, atom by atom. These little nanothings will
revolutionize our industries and our lives” [Smalley 1999].
There are further milestones in history of nanoscience and nanotechnology, e.g.
• The first observation of quantum confinement (Ekimov and Onuschenko, 1981)
• The discovery of the third form of carbon, known as buckminsterfullerene
(Smalley, Curl and Kroto, Nobel Prize 1985)
• The design of scanning tunneling microscope (STM) (Binnig and Rohrer, Nobel
Prize 1986)
• The synthesis of carbon nanotubes (Iijima, 1991)
• The developing of “electrochemical paint brush” circuit that uses an STM probe
to manipulate Cu atoms on a Si surface (Cohen, 1998)
Fig. 1.20 Richard Feynman (1918–1988, Nobel Prize 1965) – left, Richard Smalley (1943–2005,
Nobel Prize 1996) – right
1.2.2 Classification of Nanostructures
In spite of tremendeous effort in nanoscience and technology there are several ap-
proaches how to classify nanostructures.
Zero-dimensional nanostructures are usually denoted as OD structures. Here
belong nanoparticles, nanoclusters and nanocrystals. These particles have usually
diameter less than 100 nm and these three names are used synonymously. Nanopar-
ticles are sometimes defined in a wider range, e.g. 1–1000 nm and can be single crys-
tallites, aggregates of crystallites or amorphous. The range 1–1000 nm corresponds
to colloidal particles. Nanoclusters are collection of units (atoms or molecules) of
up to about 50 units. A special case of nanocrystal that is comprised of a semicon-
ductors is known as quantum dot. Typically, the dimensions of quantum dots lie in
the range 1–30 nm [Fahlman 2007].
One-dimensional nanostructures are referred as 1D structures and are charac-
teristic for those materials that are equivalent in all but one direction. Here belong
nanotubes, nanofibres, naowires and nanorods. The common feature among all these
structure is that their diameters must be within the 1–100 nm range. Typically their
lengths are within the micron (or layer). A nanotube is a 1D structure that contains
a hollow core, whereas the other three forms are solid throughout (Fig. 1.21)
The term nanofiber is reserved for 1D nanostructures that are amorphous and
usually nonconductive. By contrast, a nanowire designates a structure that is crys-
talline, with either metallic or semiconducting properties. A nanorod is typically
a crystalline 1D nanostructure, with an overall length comparable to its width (i.e.
both dimensions are < 100 nm). Nanorods are sometimes called “rod-like nanocrys-
tals” [Fahlman 2007].
Nanocrystalline materials can be classified into four groups according to their di-
mensionality: zero-dimensional atom clusters, one-dimensional modulated
multilayers, two-dimensional ultrafine-grained overlayers, and three-dimensional
nanocrystalline structures (Fig. 1.22).
Fig. 1.21 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (length 10–50 μm, outer diameter 8–15 nm) [www.
cheaptubesinc.com]
Fig. 1.22 Classification of nanostructures according to the dimensionality [Siegel and

Fougere 1994]
Fig. 1.23 Classification of nanoclustures according to their chemical composition and the dimen-
sionality [Gleiter 1995]
Classification of nanostructures in twelve groups according to their chemical

composition and the dimensionality is given in Fig. 1.23.
According to the shape of the crystallites, three categories of nanostructured ma-
terials (NSM) may be distinguished: Layer-shaped, rod-shaped and NSM composed
of equiaxed nanometer sized crystallites. Depending on the chemical composition
of the crystallites, the three categories of NSM may be grouped in for families.
In the simplest case all crystallites and interfacial regions have the same chemical
composition (e.g. semicrystalline polymers). NSM belonging to the second family
consist of crystallites with different chemical compositions (indicated) in Fig. 1.23
by different hatchings (e.g. multiplayer structures). If the compositional variation
occurs primarily between crystallites and the interfacial regions, the third family of
NSM is obtained (e.g. nanometer Cu crystals with Bi atoms segregated to the grain
boundaries). The fourth family is formed by nanometer sized crystallites (layers,
rods, equiaxial crystallites) dispersed in a matrix of different chemical composition
(e.g. precipitation hardened alloys) [Gleiter 1995].
1.2.3 Theoretical Fundamentals
One of the special feature of nanoparticles is the surface/bulk ratio of atoms. For
bulk materials, the surface atoms form a negligible part of the total number of atoms.
Fig. 1.24 TEM of iron particles (left) and calculated surface to bulk atoms ratios for these particles
[Klabunde et al. 1996]
The smaller a particle becomes, the more proportion of surface atoms increases.
A spherical iron particle of 30 nm in diameter has only 6% of surface atoms. How-
ever, the same particle of 4 nm has more than 40% of surface atoms (see Fig. 1.24).
The majority of metals form hexagonal or cubic close-packed structures (hcp
or fcc) with coordination number of 12, except of surface atoms where it is 9 or
smaller, depending on whether faces, and which kind of faces, edges, or corners are
considered [Klabunde 2001].
Collection of atoms of up to about 50 units is called cluster. It has been shown
that the growth of nanoclusters proceeds through formation of “magic number” (or
closed shell) clusters that exhibit unusual electronic stability. For fcc or hcp transi-
tion metals, stable clusters contain 13, 55, 147, 309, 561 . . . metal atoms, where the
number of surface atoms in the nth shell is given by (10n2 + 2) where n = 1, 2, 3, 4. . .
[Teo and Sloane 1985]. The high yield of magic number nanoclusters is a conse-
quence of kinetically controlled surface growth.
Metal nanoparticles consist of several tens or hundreds of metal atoms in each
one. Thanks to this limitation of particle size and number of metal atoms, nanopar-
ticles show their own properties, which can be classified by the terms quantum size
effect or nanosize effect. This size limitation introduces the high population of atoms
located on the surface area.
For example, 1.5 nm sized noble metal nanoparticles have 55 metal atoms in each
particle (Fig. 1.25).
In this case, 42 atoms (76% of the total atoms) are located on the surface area but
only 13 atoms (24% of the total atoms) are located in the inner core. When metal
nanoparticle is formed from 309 atoms, then 52% of the total atoms are located on
the surface area and the rest (48%) are located in the inner core. Atoms located on
Fig. 1.25 Magic numbers of nanoparticles Mn obtained by surrounding a given atom by successive
shells of atoms [Yonezawa 2004]
the surface area are chemically unsaturated and they are dominant in nanoparticle
systems [Yonezawa 2004].
Generally, when the grain size of nanoparticles is below a critical value
(10–20 nm), more than 50 vol. % of atoms is associated with grain boundaries or in-
terfacial boundaries. Controlling the size, shape and structure of metal nanoparticles
is technologically important because of strong correlation between these parameters
and optical, electrical and catalytical properties [Tjong and Chen 2004].
A number of properties of materials composed of micrometer-sized grains, as
well as nanometer-sized particles depend strongly on the surface area. For example,
the electrical resistivity of a granular material is expected to scale with the total
area of the grain boundaries. The chemical activity of a conventional heterogeneous
catalyst is proportional to the overall specific area per unit volume, so the high areas
of nanoparticles provide them with the possibility of functioning as efficient catalyst
[Poole and Owens 2003].
The specific surface area is reported in the units of m2 g−1 and general expression
for theoretical calculation is
(area) A
S= = (1.41)
ρ (volume) ρ V
where ρ is the density (gcm−3 ). Assuming that all particles are spherical and dense,
a sphere of diameter d has the area A = πd 2 and the volume V = πd 3 /6, then we
obtain the relation for calculation of particle size
6
d= (1.42)
ρS
The special case for particle size-dependent properties can be identified for quan-
tum dots (with sizes below 30 nm). These particles have many potential applications
in the area of demonstration devices, such as light-emitting diodes, photocatalysts,
electrochemical cells and means for biomedical applications (e.g. biological in vivo
imaging and drug delivery). When an electron is promoted from the valence to con-
duction band, an electron-hole pair known as an exciton is created in the bulk lattice.
The physical separation between the electron and hole is referred to as the exciton
Bohr radius (rB ) that varies depending on the semiconductor composition. In a bulk
semiconductor crystal, rB is significantly smaller than the overall size of the crystal;
hence, the exciton is free to migrate throughout the lattice. However, in a quantum
dot, rB is of the same order of magnitude as the diameter (d) of the nanocrystal,
giving rise to quantum confinement of the exciton. Empirically, this translated to the
strongest exciton confinement when d ≤ 2rB [Fahlman 2007].
For a semiconductor crystal, electron excitation involves a loosely bound electron-
hole pair, usually delocalized over a length much longer than the lattice constant. As
the diameter of the semiconductor crystallite approaches this exciton Bohr diameter,
its electron properties start to change. This is so-called quantum size effect as named
earlier [Klabunde 2001].
Table 1.6 gives the rB values for selected semiconductors whose bandgap can be
easily fine-tuned by simply changing the diameter of the quantum dot, as long as
the dimensions are smaller than rB .
The restriction of the quazi-freely mobile electrons in a piece of bulk can
be reached not only by reduction of the volume to the minute size of a “zero-
dimensional” (OD) quantum dot but can also be gained by reducing the dimen-
sionality from 3 to 2 or 1. Figure 1.26 summarizes the relations between bulk,
2D, 1D and 0D situations with respect to the change of electronic characteristics
[Klabunde 2001].
In the 1980s, the size-dependent electronic properties of quantum dots based
on relations between the band gap En and 1/R2 (R is the radius of quantum dots)
were described [Efros and Efros 1982]. Due to confinement of both electrons and
holes, the lowest energy optical transition from the valence to conduction band will
increase in energy, effectively increasing the bandgap
h2 π 2
En = Eg + (1.43)
2μ R2
Table 1.6 Calculated exciton Bohr radii for various semiconductors [Fahlman 2007]
Semiconductor rB (nm)
Si 5.5
CdS 31.5
CdSe 6.1
CdTe 10
ZnO 1.8
ZnS 5.0
PbS 20.4
PbSe 46
Fig. 1.26 Formation of zero-dimensional quantum dot from bulk structure [Klabunde 2001]
where Eg is the bandgap of the bulk semiconductor, h is Planck’s constant, R is

the radius of the quantum dot and μ is the reduced mass of exciton given by
me mh /(me + mh ). Here me and mh are effective masses of the electron and hole,
respectively.
This model was expanded by Brus to include Coulombic interaction of excitons
and the correlation energy ER [Brus 1984]
h2 π 2 1.786e2
En = Eg + − + 0.284ER (1.44)
2μ R2 εR
where ER is the Rydberg (spatial correlation) energy of bulk semiconductor
μ e4 μ
ER = = 13.56 2 (1.45)
2ε ε0 h
2 2 2 ε me
where ε0 is the permitivity, ε is the dielectric constant of the bulk semiconductor

and me is the mass of electron. The Brus model relates particle size to the bandgap
energy of a semiconductor quantum dot.
Hence, the absorption energy of quantum dots will shift to higher frequency with
decreasing diameter of dots, with a dependance of 1/R2 . This is really observed from
the reflexed colors of quantum dots with varying diameters, shifting from red to blue
with decreasing size (blue shift) [Fahlman 2007].
Figure 1.27 displays the blue shift in the absorption spectra as a function of the
crystal size for nanocrystalline CdS (dispersed in a transparent dielectric matrix).
Being specific for this system, if a light quantum is absorbed in CdS, an electron
is transferred from the valence band into the conduction band, leaving behind a
positive hole. In small particles like nanoparticles the wave functions of the elec-
tron and the hole are confined to the particle volume. Hence, if the particle size
Fig. 1.27 Blue shift of CdS

nanoparticles as a function of
particle size [Gleiter 1995]
becomes enough small, the confinement increases the energy required for creating
an electron-hole pair. The increase shift the absorption spectrum towards shorter
wavelengths (blue shift) [Gleiter 1995]. For a semiconductor that has a bulk bandgap
in the near-IR, its visible color can be tuned from black (bulk) to red, to yellow, to
white, depending on nanoparticle size [Weller 1993].
1.2.4 Synthesis Routes (with the Exception of Mechanochemical

Approach)
The synthesis of nanoparticles has received considerable attention in view of the

potential for new materials and unique properties. The novel properties have en-
couraged many researchers to invent and explore the methods, both chemical and
physical, by which such materials can be prepared [Klabunde 2001].
Various processing routes have been developed for the synthesis and commercial
production of nanoparticles including vapour, liquid, solid state processing routes,
and combined methods (Table 1.7).
Table 1.7 Classification of the techniques to synthesize nanoparticles [Tjong and Chen 2004]
Route Processing
Vapor Physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor

deposition (CVD), aerosol processing
Liquid Sol-gel process, wet chemical synthesis
Solid Mechanical alloying, mechanochemical processing
Combined Vapour-liquid-solid approach
Fig. 1.28 The top down and

the bottom up techniques for
synthesis of nanoparticles
[Dutta and Hoffmann 2003]
In literature, the top down and the bottom up approaches are used to synthesize
nanoparticles i.e. either to break or dissociate solids into finer pieces or assemble
atoms together (Fig. 1.28).
The synthesis is interdisciplinary work which needs chemists, physicists and ma-
terials scientists to work together in order to obtain sophisticated nanostructure.
Several approaches are illustrated in further text [Gleiter 1989; Klabunde 2001].
1.2.4.1 Physical Vapor Deposition
Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is a versatile synthesis method and capable of

preparing thin film materials with structural control at the atomic or nanometer
scale by careful monitoring the processing conditions. PVD involves the generation
of vapor phase species either via thermal evaporation, sputtering, laser ablation or
spray pyrolysis [Tjong and Chen 2004].
1.2.4.2 Thermal Evaporation
Thermal evaporation, using different types of heat sources was the earliest method
for achieving supersaturated vapor. Preparation of nanoparticles from supersaturated
vapor produced by thermal evaporation was first established in 1930 to prepare
nanoparticles of elements [Pfund 1930]. In principle also electron evaporation is
possible where atoms are removed from the source by electron means.
1.2.4.3 Sputtering
Sputtering is a more convenient method of evaporation and has advantages over

thermal evaporation techniques. When ions of a suitable substance (for example,
those of Ar or Kr), accelerated to high energies, are directed towards a surface,
atoms and clusters are ejected. As an example, nanocrystalline ZrO2 powder was
synthesized using a sputter source that has a zirconium target of 75 nm diameter
positioned 100 nm from the cold surface [Hahn and Averback 2001].
1.2.4.4 Laser Ablation
This technique uses high-power pulsed lasers to ablate a sample target located in an
inert gas chamber. The resulting plum of metal, believed to be mostly neutral atoms,
is entrained and cooled by the carrier gas, resulting in the required supersaturation
and cluster growth. The wavelength of the laser light has to be adjusted to the ma-
terial. The temperature at the focusing spot can exceed 10,000 K and vaporize any
substance. Virtually any material that can be fabricated into an appropriate target
may be used. As an example, nanoparticles, of SiC and different titanium carbides
were prepared by laser ablation of Si and Ti in a mixture of helium and isobutene
[El-Shall et al. 1994; Baraton and El-Shall 1995].
1.2.4.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a process where one ore more gaseous adsorp-
tion species react or decompose on a hot surface to form stable solid products. CVD
is a more complex method of forming thin films and coating than PVD. CVD is
widely used for the deposition of metallic, ceramic and semiconducting thin films
[Tjong and Chen 2004].
1.2.4.6 Spray Processing
The starting materials in this process are chemical precursors, usually appropriate
salts, in solution, sol or suspensions. The process involves the generation of aerosol
droplets by nebulization or “atomization” of the starting precursors. Aqueous solu-
tions are usually used because of their low cost, safety and the availability of a wide
range of water soluble salts. A wide variety of the nanoparticles have been prepared
using this technique, including MgO, Al2 O3 , ZrO2 , SiO2 , TiO2 , Bi2 O3 , etc. The
transformation of the aerosol droplets into particles involves various processes in-
cluding solvent evaporation, precipitation of dissolved precursor and thermolysis of
precipitated particles.
1.2.4.7 Sol-Gel Process
The sol-gel process (solution-gelation) process is a versatile solution-based process

for making nanomaterials. In general, the sol-gel process involves the formation of a
sol (colloidal suspension of ca. ≥ 200 nm solid particles) and subsequent crosslink-
ing to form a viscous gel. The most common starting materials (precursors) used
in the preparation of the sol are water-sensitive metal alkoxide complexes M(OR)x
(where R-alkyl group). The process is typically carried out in the presence of polar
solvents which facilitate the two primary reactions of hydrolysis and condensation
[Fahlman 2007]
M − OR + H2 O → M − OH + ROH (1.46)
M − OR + M − OH → [M − O − M]n + ROH (1.47)
Subsequent condensation eliminates either water or alcohol to produce metal ox-

ide or hydroxide linkages. Under acidic conditions, three-dimensional solid phase
networks consisting of extended linear M-O-M chain polymers are developed.
When all hydroxide species are linked in one networklike structure, gelation is
achieved and a dense porous gel is obtained. The gel is a polymer of a three-
dimensional skeleton surrounding interconnected pores [Klabunde 2001].
Sol-gel process has been useful for synthesizing of nanometer-sized metal oxides
and ceramic structures. A significant advantage in comparison to methods involv-
ing high temperatures (e.g. calcinations, evaporation) is the low temperature of the
method. The disadvantage is the high cost of the alkoxide precursors. Depending
on the post treatment for the sol, a wide variety of materials may be synthesized:
ultra-fine powders, thin film coatings, ceramic fibres, microporous inorganic mem-
branes, ceramics and glasses, or extremely porous materials (Fig. 1.29). Thin films
are easily generated on a substrate through simple spin-coating or dip-coating of the
gel, followed by slow evaporation to prevent extensive cracking. Alternatively, the
gel may be retained in a mold and heat treated to convert the material into a dense
ceramic or glass [Fahlman 2007].
Fig. 1.29 Sol-gel method for preparation of small particles [Fahlman 2007]
1.2.4.8 Micelles Method
The micelle approach is one of the recent promising routes to nanocrystalline ma-
terials. Surfactants dissolved in organic solvents form spheroidal aggregates called
reverse micelles. In the presence of water, the polar head groups of the surfactant
molecules organize themselves around small “water pools”. Water pool is charac-
terized by the water/surfactant molar ratio, w = [H2 O]/[S]. For reverse micelles a
low amount of water is characteristic, w < 15. Reverse micelles methods is used for
synthesis of nanocrystalline semiconductors [Pileni 1993, 1997]. There are several
advantages to using this method, including the preparation of very small particles
and the ability to control the particle size. Disadvantages include low production
yields and the need to use large amount of liquid [Khaleel and Richards 2001].
1.2.4.9 Precipitation
One of the conventional methods for preparing nanoparticles is the precipitation

method [Gao et al. 1999]. This process involves dissolving a salt precursor, usually
a chloride, oxychloride or nitrate; for example AlCl3 to make Al2 O3 , Y(NO3 )3 to
make Y2 O3 , and ZrCl4 to make ZrO2 . The corresponding metal hydroxides usually
form an precipitate in water on addition of a base solution such as NaOH or NH4 OH.
Sometimes hydrolysis approach is applied as in the case of nanocrystalline TiO2
powders [Hoffmann et al. 2001]
TiCl4 + 2H2 O → TiO2 + 4HCl (1.48)
The resulting chloride salts – NaCl or NH4 Cl – are then washed away and the
hydroxide is calcined after filtration and washing to obtain the final oxide powder.
One disadvantage of this method is the difficulty in controlling the particle size
and size distribution. Fast (uncontrolled) precipitation often takes place, resulting in
large particles [Khaleel and Richards 2001].
1.2.5 Mechanochemical Approach
Various methods used to synthesize nanostructured materials have been described in

previous paragraph. Unlike many of the above mentioned methods, mechanochemi-
cal approach produces its nanostructures not by cluster assembly but by the structural
decomposition of coarser-grained structures as the result of severe plastic deforma-
tion. This has become a popular method to make nanocrystalline materials because
of its simplicity, the relative inexpensive equipment (at least on the laboratory scale,
see mills in Chap. 2) needed, and the applicability to essentially all classes of ma-
terials. The major advantage often quoted is the possibility for easily scaling up to
tonnage quantities of material for various applications [Koch 1997].
The phenomenology of the development of nanocrystalline microstructure by
high-energy milling has been summarized into three stages, namely
• stage 1 – deformation localization in shear bands containing a high dislocation
density,
• stage 2 – dislocation annihilation/subgrain structure with nanoscale dimensions –
further milling extends this structure throughout the sample,
• stage 3 – orientation of the grains becomes random, i.e. low angle grain bound-
aries → high angle grain boundaries – grain boundary sliding, rotation is likely
[Fecht 1995].
1.2.5.1 Metals
Much of the systematic research on the evolution of nanocrystalline single phase

materials by high-energy milling has been carried out at California Institute of Tech-
nology. The crystal size as a function of milling time is given for Ru and AlRu in
Fig. 1.30.
The decrease in average crystal size with milling time as observed in this case is
common to all the studies which follow the microstructural evolution of grain size
with milling time. The lattice strain measured from the X-ray diffraction line broad-
ening also increased with milling time but reached a maximum and then decreased
at the longest milling times as illustrated in Fig. 1.31.
The authors suggested that the strain was mainly due to the diclocation density
in the grains which decreased as the grains become very small. The development of
the nanocrystalline structure by high-energy milling is due to the plastic deformation
induced. The grain size decreases and the lattice strain increases (or goes through
the maximum) with milling time. Once the grain size reaches a given constant size,
further refinement ceases for a given set of milling conditions. For the fcc metal
studied this minimum grain size scales inversely with the melting temperature of
the metal [Eckert et al. 1992].
The lattice strain values available from the literature were plotted against recip-
rocal grain size, 1/d in Fig. 1.32.
Fig. 1.30 Crystallite size vs. milling time [Hellstern et al. 1989]
Fig. 1.31 Average strain in AlRu vs. milling time [Hellstern et al. 1989]
Fig. 1.32 Lattice strain vs. reciprocal grain size for various metals [Enzo et al. 1989; Hellstern
et al. 1989; Eckert et al. 1992; Oleszak and Shingu 1996]
With the exception of Ru, the data for increasing lattice strain with 1/d appear to
fall on a common relative narrow band before decreasing from the maximum strain
values. However, these data are from several groups using mills with various energy
levels and possible differences in milling temperatures [Koch 1997].
Additional information to help explain the mechanism of nanocrystalline forma-
tion comes from measurements of stored enthalpy. Maxima in stored enthalpy vs.
1/d plots are typically observed [Hellstern et al. 1989; Eckert et al. 1992; Oleszak
and Shingu 1996]. However, the maximum in stored enthalpy is usually found at
smaller grain size than the strain maximum, as illustrated for W in Fig. 1.33.
Here the maximum in strain occurs at d = 8.3 nm while the maximum in stored
enthalpy is at d = 5.5 nm. It is stated that the stored enthalpy comes mainly from X
grain boundaries [Eckert et al. 1992; Oleszak and Shingu 1996] and grain bound-
ary strains. Stress relaxation may be responsible for the maxima [Oleszak and
Shingu 1996] but, as above, the strain and stored enthalpy maxima do not neces-
sarily coincide [Koch 1997].
The silver powder was synthesized in a mechanochemical process by inducing a
solid state reduction reaction between AgCl and Na metal. The reduction was
AgCl + Na → Ag + NaCl (1.49)
The enthalpy change in this reaction is −284 kJ mol−1 at room temperature

and this high exothermal reaction makes it possible to achieve combustion during
milling. In X-ray diffraction pattern the peaks characteristic of Ag and NaCl can be
seen directly. In addition, The pattern shows traces of an intermetallic Ag2 Na phase.
Fig. 1.33 Stored enthalpy vs. reciprocal grain size 1/d for W [Oleszak and Shingu 1996]
The smallest particles that can be found by TEM were below 50 nm. In the main,
the size of the particles falls in the range 100–500 nm [Keskinen et al. 2001].
Mechanochemical approach has been successfully applied to the synthesis of
other ultrafine metals [Gaffet and LeCaër 2004].
The formation of Fe is due to the reduction of FeCl3 by Na via the reaction [Ding
et al. 1995]
FeCl3 + 3Na → Fe + 3NaCl (1.50)
In the case of ultrafine Cu particles prepared by the mechanochemical process
[Ding et al. 1996], the milling induced solid state reaction is
CuCl2 + 2Na → Cu + 2NaCl (1.51)
Depending on the reaction modes (continuous or combustion ones), two district

morphologies of Cu particles have been observed; Cu particles with sizes uniformly
distributed in the range 20–50 nm are formed by a steady state reaction during
milling, whereas larger particles were observed in the combustion reaction case
[Gaffet and LeCaër 2004].
1.2.5.2 Semiconductors
Crystalline inorganic solids can be divided electronically into three well-known

classes: metals, semiconductors, and insulators. In these extended solids, atomic
orbitals overlap to give nearly continuous electronic energy levels known as bands
[Hannay 1959]. Metals are electronically characterized by having a partially filled
band. Semiconductors have a filled band (the valence band) separated from the
(mostly) empty conduction band by a bandgap Eg corresponding to the familiar
HOMO-LUMO energy gap for small molecules. Insulators are conceptually the
same as semiconductors in their electronic structure, except that the bandgap is
larger in insulators (Fig. 1.34). Here the shaded boxes represent the filled valence
Fig. 1.34 A simplified

energy level diagram for
metals, semiconductors and
insulators [Murphy and
Coffer 2002]
bands. The empty boxes represent the empty (at temperature 0 K) conduction bands.
The arrows represent the band energy Eg .
If the particle size of a bulk inorganic crystalline solid is on the order of nanome-
ters, it is now well-known that interesting optical and electronic effects may result.
Semiconductors with all three dimensions in the ∼1–10 nm (or up to 30 nm) size
range are referred to as quantum dots (see also Sect. 1.2.3). In this size range elec-
trons exhibit quantum mechanical effects [Steigerwald and Brus 1990]. In the liter-
ature, semiconductor quantum dots are also known as semiconductor nanocrystals
or nanoparticles. In Fig. 1.35 energy level diagram comparing a bulk semiconductor
to its molecular analog and a quantum dot is given.
Here, the semiconductor’s electron are in bands. The molecule’s electrons are
in molecular orbitals (bonds). The vertical arrow denotes the bandgap Eg for the
bulk semiconductor, and the highest occupied molecular orbital-lowest unoccupied
molecular orbital (HOMO-LUMO) energy gap in the molecule. On the nanometer
scale, the electronic structure of a semiconductor quantum dot is in the intermediate
regime between bands and bonds [Murphy and Coffer 2002].
The driving force for the increased interest in semiconductor nanoparticle re-
search is both new physics as well as novel technological applications. Growth of
nanoparticles of variety of semiconductor materials of well controlled dimensions
and compositions is the important first-step towards the realization of these objec-
tives [Balamurugan et al. 1999].
II-VI semiconductors (ZnO, ZnS, CdS, CdSe and CdTe and others) can be pre-
pared by various methods such as solution growth techniques, electrodeposition,
spray pyrolysis, chemisorption, sputtering, successive ionic layer deposition, in-
ert gas condensation, hydrothermal route, chemical capping, vacuum evaporation,
etc. Mechanochemical synthesis belongs among the synthesis routes which can
effectively control and regulate the course of solid state reactions [Baláž 2000;
Suryanarayana 2001].
ZnS, CdS and Znx Cd1−x S are II-VI direct bandgap semiconductors widely in-
vestigated as bulk or thin film semiconductors due to their wide applications in
Fig. 1.35 A simplified

energy level diagram for bulk
semiconductor, quantum dot
and molecule [Murphy and
Coffer 2002]
optoelectronics. These systems have unique size-dependent properties which in-

clude optical properties such as absorption. The size dependence of the band levels
of semiconductor particles results in a change of optical properties [Lin et al. 2005].
1.2.5.3 Zinc Sulphide ZnS
Zinc sulphide as a very important direct wide-bandgap semiconductor with the high-
est Eg value (3.66 eV) among all II-VI semiconductors, has been attracting extensive
interest in material science due to its special electronic and optical properties for a
variety of applications including optical coatings, solid-state solar cell windows,
electrooptic modulators, photoconductors, field effect transistors, sensors, transduc-
tors, and light-emitting applications [Lan et al. 2003]. Therefore, much research
on ZnS particles and their physicochemical properties has been carried out and
many methods have been used for the preparation of these nanoparticles [Baláž
et al. 1997; Chen and Liu 1999; Dhas et al. 1999; Wang and Hong 2000; Pawaskar
et al. 2002; Chen et al. 2004] even as one-dimensional nanostructures [Velumani
and Ascencio 2004].
ZnS nanoparticles were prepared by high–energy milling of zinc acetate and
sodium sulphide according to the reaction
(CH3 COO)2 Zn.2H2 O + Na2 S.9H2 O → ZnS + 2CH3 COONa + 11H2 O (1.52)
The reaction is thermodynamically feasible at ambient temperature, as the en-

thalpy change is negative. The value ΔH298 ◦ = −171 kJmol−1 was calculated from
thermodynamic data [Wagman et al. 1982]. After the completion of reaction (1.52)
the synthesized ZnS nanoparticles have been washed, decantated and dried accord-
ing to the procedure described in [Baláž et al. 2003]. The properties of
mechanochemically synthesized ZnS(M) were compared with the chemically pre-
cipitated ZnS(C).
The XRD patterns of the chemically precipitated ZnS(C) and mechanochemi-
cally synthesized ZnS(M) are shown in Figs. 1.36 and 1.37, respectively.
The XRD analysis of the ZnS(C) confirmed the presence of hexagonal wurtzite,
α − ZnS (JCPDS 36-1450) and cubic sphalerite, β − ZnS (JCPDS 5-566). Clearly,
the occurrence of a weak reflection peak (200) at 33.4◦ and a very small peak at
69.9◦ indicates the cubic phase (sphalerite). In addition, the investigation of the rel-
ative intensity and comparison with those in JCPDS database revealed the relatively
higher intensities of reflections associated with both phases. However, it should be
noted that the wurtzite is the main phase in the sample and only a small amount of
sphalerite is present in the ZnS(C).
In contrast, the XRD pattern of the ZnS(M) show mainly the reflections of cubic
phase, which is also supported by relative intensity. No reflection peaks were found
at 39.6◦ and 69.9◦ , which shows only the hexagonal form of ZnS. The (200) reflec-
tion of the cubic phases at about 33.4◦ is probably masked due to a large broadening
of the reflection (111). The peaks associated with hexagonal phase disappear with
milling and only the cubic structure is evident in the diffraction pattern of the milled
sample. The mechanochemical transformation of wurtzite to sphalerite can be
Fig. 1.36 XRD pattern of chemically precipitated ZnS(C)
attributed to the motion of dislocations in the activated solid state. The results agree
with the previous observations [Imamura and Senna 1984]. The higher background
on the XRD pattern of ZnS(M) implies the formation of some amorphous material.
The amorphization is in fact a highly distorted periodicity of lattice elements, and it
Fig. 1.37 XRD pattern of mechanochemically synthesized ZnS(M)

Table 1.8 The volume weighted crystallite sizes for chemically synthesized ZnS(C)
Reflections Scherrer (nm) Warren-Averbach (nm)
(100) 42.0 46
(002) 33.2 39.8
(101) 18.1 18.5
(110) 47.5 11.9
(103) 11.2 12.5
(200) 35.4 36.9
(112) 35.2 38.5
(201) 21.6 24.2
Average 30.5 28.5
(102) 3.7 11.5
is often characterized as a short range order in contrast to the long order of a fully
crystalline structure.
The Warren-Averbach analysis provides detailed information regarding to crys-
tallite size, lattice strain and their distributions [Warren and Averbach 1950]. The
results for ZnS(C) using the Warren-Averbach and Scherrer methods are given in
Table 1.8. Since the ZnS(C) is free of strain, the Scherrer equation can be ap-
plied successfully for calculation of the weighted crystallite size. From the Warren-
Averbach method, the average surface weighted crystallite size was estimated as
29 nm, corresponding to the volume weighted crystallite size of 31 nm obtained us-
ing Scherrer equation. The results of the Scherrer equation shows directly good
agreement with the results of the Williamson-Hall plots because both the methods
measure the volume weighted crystallite size. Hence the obtained results from the
Warren-Averbach method and Williamson-Hall plots are comparable.
Regarding the ZnS(M), the presence of non zero slope and intercept reveals that
both size and strain components exist in the sample (Fig. 1.38). The plot shows
high correlation coefficient (r = 0.96) and negligible scatter in the β f∗2 , suggesting
uniform crystallites. The ZnS(M) yields larger broadening compared to the ZnS(C).
The volume weighted crystallite size and maximum lattice strain calculated are 4 nm
and 7.5 × 10−2 , respectively.
For the ZnS(M) (cubic phase), the Warren-Averbach method was applied to cal-
culate both strain and crystallite size components. The three intensive reflections
were used for calculation. The average surface weighted crystallite size obtained
was 1.8 nm and the root mean square strain (RMSS) at L = 1 nm,< εL=1nm 2 >1/2 ,
−2
accounted for 2.6 × 10 . As discussed earlier the results of the Williamson–Hall
plots and Warren-Averbach methods with regard to their relationships are in a good
agreement [Pourghahramani and Forssberg 2006a, b]. The specific surface area of
ZnS(C) (7 m2 g−1 ) is lower in comparison with ZnS(M) where this value attains
97–128 m2 g−1 with an increase with milling time, which is a further advantage of
the mechanochemically synthesized ZnS nanoparticles.
Surface morphology of the ZnS(M) with estimated size from 10–20 nm is de-
picted in Fig. 1.39a forming irregular particles. From the surface analysis using
Fig. 1.38 Williamson-Hall plot of mechanochemically synthesized ZnS(M)
SEM it is revealed that there is a homogeneous distribution of the particles and

the surface is smooth. Individual nanoparticles have tendency to form nanoparticle
agglomerates during milling process and both entities can be clearly seen.
In order to analyze the surface characteristics in more detail, sampling methods
of AFM in contact mode was used. Figure 1.39b shows a three-dimensional repre-
sentation of the image obtained from the surface of the ZnS(M) nanoparticles. A
homogeneous distribution of crystalline domains can be observed from the image.
The deflection image of the ZnS(M) nanoparticles surface is shown in Fig. 1.39c,
from which the crystalline distribution was observed to be uniform and regular.
From the comparison of the deflection image (Fig. 1.39c) and the altitude topogra-
phy (Fig. 1.39b) it is observed that the crystallites were of the same size.
HRTEM technique allows the determination of size of the nanoparticles [José-
Yacamán et al. 2001], the type of structures produced [Ascencio et al. 1998] and
also the possible induced morphologies [Ascencio et al. 2006]. In Fig. 1.40 four
different micrographs of ZnS are shown. In Fig. 1.40a an area of 16 nm × 16 nm
is observed, where several clusters are clearly identified, and particularly three of
them are measured with sizes of 2.6, 3.7 and 3.4 nm. In fact the corresponding fast
Fourier transformation (FFT) technique denotes a polycrystalline material, which
must be composed by the nanocrystals. Higher magnification allows determining
the lattice distance of the material as in case of Fig. 1.40b, where it is found a
square contrast in the center of the micrograph with interplanar distances of 0.27
and 0.28 nm that implies a region with an axis zone near to the (001). Figure 1.40c
shows a well defined cluster of ∼4 nm with an hexagonal profile and rhombic
Fig. 1.39 SEM (a) and AFM

analysis (b, c) of
mechanochemically
synthesized ZnS(M)
[Dutková et al. 2008a]
internal contrast that are characteristic of a truncated octahedron particle observed

in the (011) zone axis. The HRTEM images allow finding defects in the nanocrys-
talline material as marked with an arrow in Fig. 1.40d, which have been reported
for the mechanosyntesized nanostructures, and these can be representatives of the
processes that induce the reduction of the nanocrystal size and the corresponding
properties.
A chloride route has been applied for mechanochemical synthesis of metal and
sulphide nanoparticles [McCormick 1995].
Fig. 1.40 HRTEM micrographs of mechanochemically synthesized ZnS(M): (a) identification of

nanoparticle with size around 3 nm, (b) determination of structure with help of the interplanar
distance measurement, (c) hexagonal profiles for fcc-like nanoparticles, (d) example of fracture
induced in the nanoparticles [Dutková et al. 2008a]
The reaction
ZnCl2 + CaS → ZnS + CaCl2 (1.53)
was studied to prepare nano-sized ZnS particles. Milling was performed with a Spex
8000 mixer/mill till 36 h. The CaS peaks decreased in intensity and broadened some-
what with increasing milling time, and disappeared after milling for 36 h. Broad
peaks corresponding to the cubic ZnS phase first appeared after milling for 6 h, and
increased in intensity with increasing milling time. The average crystallite size of
ZnS calculated from the width of the diffraction peaks is plotted in Fig. 1.41 as
function of milling time. The crystallite size increased steadily with milling time,
reaching about 12 nm in samples milled for 36 h. Figure 1.42 shows a TEM micro-
graph of the sample milled for 77 h and subsequently washed. The ZnS particles of
10–30 nm in size appear separable from each other [Tsuzuki et al. 1997].
1.2.5.4 Cadmium Sulphide CdS
Cadmium sulphide is an important semiconductor for a variety of applications

including solid-state solar cell windows, laser communications, photoconductors,
Fig. 1.41 Average crystallite

size of ZnS as a function of
milling according to
Eq. (1.53) [Tsuzuki
et al. 1997]
field effect transistors, sensors, and high-emitting applications. Therefore, much

extensive studies on CdS particles and their physicochemical properties has been
carried out and many methods have been used for the preparation of this material
[Shao et al. 2003; Hao et al. 2003; He et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2003; Xu et al. 2004;
Yan et al. 2004]. Some CdS nanoparticles were already synthesized by high-energy
milling from chloride precursors [Tsuzuki and McCormick 1997, 1999, 2004].
CdS nanoparticles were prepared by high-energy milling of cadmium acetate and
sodium sulphide precursors according to the reaction
(CH3 COO)2 Cd.2H2 O + Na2 S.9H2 O → CdS + 2CH3 COONa + 11H2 O (1.54)
Fig. 1.42 TEM of sample milled for 77 h and subsequently washed [Tsuzuki and
McCormick 1997]
The reaction is thermodynamically feasible at ambient temperature, as the en-

thalpy change is negative. The value ΔH298 ◦ = −253 kJmol−1 was calculated from
thermodynamic data [Wagman et al. 1982].

The XRD pattern of the chemically synthesized sample (Fig. 1.43) appears to
be composed of the hexagonal α- CdS (greenockite, JCPDS 041-1049) and cubic
β-CdS (hawleyite, JCPDS 010-0454) phases. The peaks at 26.5, 43.7 and 51.9◦ are
associated with both phases. The presence of the small peak at 31.5◦ also gives ev-
idence for the existence of cubic phases. In addition, the comparison of the relative
intensities of the XRD pattern of the sample with JCPDS data files (Table 1.9) re-
veals that the peaks associated with both phases of CdS have relatively higher inten-
sity, suggesting once more the presence of both phases in the chemically synthesized
sample. However, the hexagonal phase is dominant phase in the sample with regard
to low intensity of the (200) reflection and only traces of cubic phase exist in the
sample. The small peaks at around 23◦ are most likely due to the chemical reaction
residuals.
XRD pattern of CdS nanoparticles synthesized by high-energy milling in a lab-
oratory mill is displayed in Fig. 1.44. XRD pattern shows mainly the reflections of
cubic phase. It is also supported by relative intensity as well. No reflection peaks
was found at 2θ = 36.6◦ and 47.8◦ , which are present only in the hexagonal form
of CdS. The (022) reflection of the cubic phase at about 31◦ is probably masked
Fig. 1.43 XRD pattern of the chemically synthesized CdS

Table 1.9 Comparison of the JCPDS diffraction data and experimentally measured data for CdS
Greenockite Hawleyite
hkl Relative intensity hkl Relative intensity
JCPDS measured JCPDS measured
100 62 70.9 111 100 100

002 91.9 100 200 39.8 –
101 100 66.8 220 80.5 40.4
102 29.2 10.2 311 60.2 34.3
110 48.3 66.2 222 10.2 –
103 50.2 19.2 400 20 –
200 8.1 10.4 311 30 –
112 31 49.0 420 10 –
201 15 12.8 422 30 –
due to a large broadening of the (111) reflection. The peaks associated with hexag-
onal phase disappear with milling and only the cubic structure is evident in the
diffraction pattern of the milled sample. This is in a good agreement with obser-
vations in paper where CdS was synthesized from chloride precursor [Tsuzuki and
McCormick 1997]. The higher background on the XRD pattern of mechanochem-
ically synthesized CdS implies the formation of some amorphous material. The
amorphization is in fact a highly distorted periodicity of lattice elements, and it
is often characterized as a short range order in contrast to the long order of a fully
crystalline structure.
Fig. 1.44 XRD pattern of mechanochemically synthesized CdS (H-hawleyite)

Fig. 1.45 Williamson-Hall plot of mechanochemically synthesized CdS (1), chemically synthe-
sized CdS (2) and chemically synthesized CdS (10l), l ≥ 1 (3)
Figure 1.45 shows the Williamson-Hall plots for mechanochemically (1) and
chemically (2–3) synthesized samples. The scatter of the β f∗2 values for the chemi-
cally synthesized sample with low correlation coefficient indicates that the crystal-
lite shape differs from a spherical one. In addition, the (10l), l ≥ 1 reflections show
higher deviation than other reflections. The Williamson–Hall plots for the chemi-
cally synthesized sample yields very small slopes close to zero which implies the
sample is free of strain. Two main crystallite groups are expected in the chemi-
cally synthesized sample. For chemically synthesized samples 2 and 3 (10l), l ≥ 1
the average volume weighted crystallite size are calculated using the intercept of
the corresponding lines, being 14.4 nm and 2.6 nm respectively. The crystallite with
14.4 nm is dominant group in the sample. The corresponding plots yield low corre-
lation coefficient (r <0.5).
Regarding the mechanochemically synthesized sample (1), the presence of non
zero slope and intercept reveals that both size and strain components exist in the
sample. The plot shows high correlation coefficient (r = 0.991) and negligible scat-
ter in the β f∗2 , suggesting uniform crystallites. The mechanochemically synthesized
sample yields larger broadening compared to the chemically synthesized sample.
The volume weighted crystallite and maximum lattice strain are calculated 1.92 nm
and 3.1 × 10−2 respectively.
The Warren-Averbach analysis based on Fourier analysis provides detail infor-

mation regarding to crystallite size, lattice strain and their distributions. For the
mechanochemically synthesized CdS (cubic phase), the Warren–Averbach method
was applied as the second method to calculate both strain and crystallite size com-
ponents. The three intensive reflections were used for calculation. The analysis once
more revealed a narrow fraction of crystallites in the sample. The average surface
weighted crystallite size was obtained 1.55 nm and the root mean square strain
(RMSS) at L = 1 nm,< εL=1nm2 >1/2 , accounted for 1.7 × 10−2 . As discussed in
recent paper [Pourghahramani and Forssberg 2006a], the results of the Williamson–
Hall plots and Warren–Averbach methods with regard to their relationships are in a
good agreement.
Surface morphology of the synthesized CdS nanoparticles with estimated size
from 20–30 nm is depicted in Fig. 1.46. Individual nanoparticles have tendency
to form nanoparticle agglomerates during milling process and both entities can be
clearly seen.
The particle morphology of CdS nanoparticles was also observed using TEM.
Image of the mechanochemically synthesized CdS is presented in Fig. 1.47. Be-
cause of the extremely small dimensions and high surface energy of the as-prepared
CdS nanoparticles, it is easy for them to aggregate. So, it was difficult to determine
precisely the size of CdS nanoparticles by simple viewing the TEM image.
We suppose that each particle is composed of fine nanocrystallites, whose sizes
were determined by XRD technique. Thus, each particle observed in the TEM mi-
crographs was of polycrystalline nature. Selected area electron diffraction (SAED)
pattern corresponding to random orientation of CdS particles is also shown in
Fig. 1.47. The presence of (111), (220) and (311) planes clearly suggests presence
of hawleyite phase.
Fig. 1.46 SEM of mechanochemically synthesized CdS

Fig. 1.47 Transmission electron micrographs (left) and SAED (right) of mechanochemically syn-
thesized CdS
The optical properties of CdS nanoparticles can be elucidated from the UV-VIS
spectrum of the as-synthesized product. UV-VIS optical absorption spectrum of the
mechanochemically (1) and chemically (2) synthesized CdS are shown in Fig. 1.48.
The spectrum of mechanochemically synthesized nanoparticles (1) showed that the
Fig. 1.48 UV-VIS spectra of mechanochemically synthesized CdS nanoparticles (1) and chemi-
cally synthesized CdS (2)
onset of the optical absorption 464 nm was blue-shifted compared with that for bulk
CdS which is 512 nm. This blue shift was caused by strong quantum confinement ef-
fect, due to the decrease in particle size [Brus 1984]. The band gap of CdS nanopar-
ticles was calculated to be about 2.67 eV, greater than that of 2.42 eV estimated for
the bulk CdS [Lippens and Lanoo 1989]. The typical UV-VIS spectrum of the chem-
ically synthesized CdS particles is shown in the same Figure, where the curve (2)
has an onset at 500 nm with calculated band gap (2.48 eV).
The specific surface area of chemically synthesized CdS particles (13 m2 g−1 )
is 5-times lower in comparison with mechanochemically synthesized CdS parti-
cles. The specific surface area of mechanochemically synthesized CdS nanoparticles
(54–60 m2 g−1 ) increased with the increasing milling time. It is further advantage of
mechanochemical synthesis of CdS nanoparticles.
The synthesis of ultrafine CdS nanoparticles according to reaction
CdCl2 + Na2 S → CdS + 2NaCl (1.55)
has been studied. The solid state reaction resulted in the formation of CdS particles
with an average diameter of < 8 nm. The average particle size was controlled within
the range of 4–8 nm by varying the size of milling media (Fig. 1.49). As shown
in this Figure, the CdS particle size decreased with decreasing ball size, reaching
4.3 nm in samples milled with 4.8 nm balls. The effect of ball size on the CdS parti-
cle size appear to be due to the decrease in the energy of ball-powder collisions with
decreasing ball size [Tsuzuki and McCormick 1997].
The same strategy of synthesis as presented by Eq. (1.55) has been applied in
the presence of a nonionic surfactant, C18 H37 O(CH2 CH2 O)10 H [Wang et al. 2003].
Spherical cubic-phase CdS nanoparticles with an average diameter of ca 5 nm were
prepared. The surfactant solves in the free water to form a “shell” surrounding CdS
particles preventing them from aggregating to larger particles.
Fig. 1.49 Effect of ball size

on the average CdS particle
size determined from X-ray
diffraction peak widths
[Tsuzuki and
McCormick 1997]
1.2.5.5 Zinc Cadmium Sulphides Znx Cd1−x S
The properties of Znx Cd1−x S nanoparticles synthesized by the mechanochemical

route from the corresponding metal acetates and sodium sulphide by high-energy
milling according to the simplified equation
x (CH3 COO)2 Zn.2H2 O + (1 − x) (CH3 COO)2 Cd.2H2 O + Na2 S .9H2 O

(1.56)
→ Znx Cd1−x S + 2CH3 COONa + 13H2 O
where x = 0.8, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4 and 0.2 were studied.

After the completion of reaction (1.56) produced Znx Cd1−x S nanoparticles have
been washed, decantated and dryied according to the flowchart shown in Fig. 1.50.
Figure 1.51 gives the XRD patterns of the synthesized Znx Cd1−x S nanopar-
ticles, which are marked as samples 1–5, respectively. All XRD patterns show
obvious size and strain broadenings, indicating of the finite size of these nanopar-
ticles and strained nanoparticles. The broad spectra may be due to the presence
of particles of various sizes as well as the various defects introduced during the
high-energy milling. The XRD patterns have three peaks which can be indexed to
the diffraction from (111), (220) and (311) lattice planes of cubic-blended struc-
ture. The mechanochemical treatment causes the complete transformation of the
hexagonal phase to the cubic phase. This can be attributed to the motion of dislo-
cation in activated solid state [Imamura and Senna 1984]. However, owing to the
increasing mismatch of ZnS and CdS lattice, the crystal quality of Znx Cd1−x S de-
creases with increasing zinc content, which is consistent with the published results
[Nie et al. 2004]. As for Znx Cd1−x S nanoparticles the diffraction peaks in the XRD
patterns systematically shift to higher 2 theta values and a phase transition from
hawleyite to sphalerite occurs with an increase of Zn content. This continuous peak
shifting of nanoparticles also indicates that there is no phase separation or separated
nucleation of ZnS or CdS in the Znx Cd1−x S nanoparticles. The higher background
on the XRD pattern of mechanochemically synthesized sample implies the forma-
tion of some amorphous material.
Fig. 1.50 Flowchart of the Znx Cd1−x S nanoparticles synthesis in an industrial mill
Fig. 1.51 XRD patterns of mechanochemically synthesized Znx Cd1−x S. (1 – Zn0.8 Cd0.2 S, 2 –
Zn0.6 Cd0.4 S, 3 – Zn0.5 Cd0.5 S, 4 – Zn0.4 Cd0.6 S and 5 – Zn0.2 Cd0.8 S) [Dutková et al. 2008b]
The optical properties of Znx Cd1−x S nanoparticles can be elucidated from the
UV-VIS spectrum of the as-synthesized products. The UV-VIS spectra of the sam-
ples are illustrated in Fig. 1.52. The as-prepared Znx Cd1−x S nanocrystals allow sys-
tematic variation of their band gap from 3.7 eV to 2.4 eV which are the border values
for ZnS and CdS bulk crystals, respectively.
The samples 1–5 have absorption peak at 328 nm (3.76 eV), 369 nm (3.34 eV),
413 nm (2.98 eV), 440 nm (2.80 eV) and 467 nm (2.64 eV), respectively. As for the
Znx Cd1−x S nanocrystals, their absorption edges gradually shift from 328 to 467 nm
as the Zn content (x value) in the particles decreases from 0.80 to 0.20. From sam-
ples 1–5, a blue shift of 139 nm occurs as the composition alteration. Obviously,
such a large shift in the absorption edge cannot be only attributed to quantum-size
effects, but could be due to a continuous shift of the energy bandgap of the nanopar-
ticles with a change in their composition [Zhong et al. 2003]. The profile of the UV-
VIS curves of mechanochemically synthesized Znx Cd1−x S can not be simulated by
a superposition of the corresponding ZnS and CdS UV-VIS spectra, indicating that
the Znx Cd1−x S products are complex compounds rather than a simple mixture of
ZnS and CdS. Absorption spectra are red shifted on increasing the particle size. At
fixed size, the red shift in the absorption spectrum with increasing representation of
Fig. 1.52 UV-VIS patterns of mechanochemically synthesized Znx Cd1−x S. (1 – Zn0.8 Cd0.2 S, 2 –
Zn0.6 Cd0.4 S, 3 – Zn0.5 Cd0.5 S, 4 – Zn0.4 Cd0.6 S and 5 – Zn0.2 Cd0.8 S) [Dutková et al. 2008b]
Cd is observed. This is due to changes in the solid phase composition. The energy
bandgap determined from the excitonic peak, smoothly increases with increasing
composition from CdS to ZnS. Similar behaviour was observed for the bandgap
variation of bulk Znx Cd1−x S.
1.2.5.6 Nickel Sulphides Nix S
The feasibility and kinetics of synthesizing various nickel sulphides by milling of

elemental mixtures of Ni and S have been investigated [Kosmac and Courtney 1992;
Kosmac et al. 1993]. According to the Ni-S phase diagram [Metals Handbook 1973],
five compounds exist in this system: Ni3 S2 , Ni7 S6 , NiS, Ni3 S4 and NiS2 . The phases
Ni3 S2 and high-temperature polymorph of NiS are formed readily via such process-
ing. In distinction, it requires prolonged milling to obtain Ni7 S6 . NiS2 can only be
obtained as a minor reaction product and Ni3 S4 cannot be formed by milling for the
conditions of this study.
The kinetics of NiS formation is illustrated in Fig. 1.53. Sulphur coats the Ni
particles and sulphide formation takes place at the interface of the elements after a
certain degree of microstructural refinement due to the plastic deformation accom-
panying milling. Ni3 S2 forms rapidly from elements at this stage. However, a stasis
in the reaction is then observed. This is associated with NiS formation and a slight
decrease in the amount of Ni3 S2 according to the equation
Fig. 1.53 Kinetics of NiS

formation on milling an
equimolar powder mixture of
S and Ni3 S2 [Kosmac
et al. 1993]
Ni3 S2 + S → 3NiS (1.57)
NiS phase is transforming into Ni3 S2 at prolonged milling.
1.2.5.7 Tin Sulphides Snx S
Tin sulphides represent a complex system with a wide compositional range. They
frequently show the features of low dimensional chalcogenides: polytypism, poly-
morphism, nonstoichiometry and the possibility of exfoliation [Imamura and Senna
1982; Jellinek 1988; Rouxel et al. 1995]. Some of them, e.g. SnS2 consists of two
layers of closely packed sulphur anions with sandwiched tin cations in octahedral
coordination. The sulphides of this type have a large number of empty sites in
their structure and hence they are interesting host lattices for investigation [Morales
et al. 1992; Müller-Warmuth and Schöllhorn 1994].
For the mechanochemical synthesis of various tin sulphides three starting mix-
tures were prepared, see Table 1.10 [Baláž et al. 1999; Baláž et al. 2002].
The results of the XRD analysis show that the main products of mechanosyn-
thesis are SnS, Sn3 S4 (or SnS+Sn2 S3 ), and Sn2 S3 . In case of sample Sn-S/1 the
Table 1.10 Physico-chemical characteristics of mechanochemically synthesized tin sulphides

Sample Weight ratio XRD products Crystallite Specific surface
S:Sn size (nm) area (m2 g−1 )
Sn-S/1 1:3.70 SnS 11 3.3

Sn-S/2 1:2.78 Sn3 S4 (SnS+Sn2 S3 ) 13 5.4
Sn-S/3 1:2.47 Sn2 S3 27 7.3
X-ray diffraction pattern (Fig. 1.54C) is similar to that of the SnS of JCPDS card
39-0354. Almost all the peaks were indexed on the basis of an orthorhombic struc-
ture with the spacegroup Pbnm. The calculated lattice parameters (a = 0.4318 nm,
b = 1.1200 nm, c = 0.3984 nm) were consistent with the data of JCPDS card. The
X-ray diffraction pattern of sample Sn-S/2 (Fig. 1.54B) is similar to that of Sn3 S4
of JCPDS card 27-0900. Still the JCPDS card is questionable because there is no
report about the existence of the Sn3 S4 phase in the binary phase diagram of tin-
sulphur system [Sharma and Chang 1986]. The X-ray pattern seems to corresponds
to a mixed SnS and Sn2 S3 phase.
The X-ray pattern of sample Sn-S/3 (Fig. 1.54A) was consistent with that of
JCPDS card 14-0619. The calculated lattice parameters (a = 0.8889 nm,
b = 1.4020 nm, c = 0.3744 nm) were also in accordance with the data for Sn2 S3 .
In Table 1.10 the data on the crystal size and specific surface area of the
mechanochemically synthesized sulphides are given. Their size varies from 11 to
27 nm and increasing with the increasing proportion of sulphur. A similar situa-
tion prevails also in case of specific surface. The specific surface of sulphides is by
Fig. 1.54 XRD patterns in mechanochemically synthesized tin sulphides: (A) Sn-S/1, (B) Sn-S/2,
(C) Sn-S/3 [Baláž et al. 1999]
one order of magnitude greater than in case of the precursors of the synthesis, i.e.
metallic tin and elementary sulphur. The specific surface value is in the range that is
achieved by intensive milling of sulphides [Baláž 2000].
The samples of mechanochemically synthesized sulphides were subjected to dis-
solution reaction in the alkaline environment of Na2 S. For the reaction temperature
T = 30◦ C, Fig. 1.55 shows the ralationship between the degree of conversion εSn
and dissolution time tL . The process of dissolution is characterized by great initial
speed. After 5 min of reaction, more than 50% of the tin bound to a sulphidic form
was dissolved.
The temperature sensitivity (T = 30–60◦ C) of the mechanochemically synthe-
sized SnS is given in Fig. 1.56. Its assessment in Arrhenius coordinates shows that
the apparent activation energy is E = 27 kJmol−1 . This value suggests that the factor
determining the speed of the dissolution is probably the chemical reaction on phase
boundaries [Habashi 1974].
Widespread use and search for technological applications of nanomaterials re-
quires the availability of large (tonnage) quantities of well-characterized material
Fig. 1.55 Influence of dissolution time, tL on the recovery of tin, εSn , from the mechanochem-
ically synthesized product in the tin-sulphur samples: (1) Sn-S/1; (2) Sn-S/2; (3) Sn-S/3 [Baláž
et al. 1999]
Fig. 1.56 Arrhenius plot of the specific rate constant, kS (kS = k/S; k = rate, S = specific surface
area) of tin dissolution in the Sn-S/1 sample [Baláž et al. 1999]
with reproducible properties [Suryanarayana 1994]. The mechanochemical ap-

proach has the potential to fulfill such efforts.
1.2.6 Properties
Because of the extremely small size of the grains, a large fraction of the atoms
in nanocrystallites is located in the grain boundaries (Fig. 1.57) and thus the
Fig. 1.57 Schematic representation of equiaxed nanocrystalline metal distinguishing between

atoms associated with the individual grains (•) and those constituting grain boundary network
(◦) [Gleiter 1989]
nanocrystalline state exhibits enhanced combination of properties in comparison

with the course-grained material.
1.2.6.1 Diffusion
Since nanocrystalline materials contain a very large fraction of atoms at the grain
boundaries, the numerous interfaces provide a highly density of short-cut diffusion
paths. Consequently, they are expected to exhibit an enhanced diffusivity in com-
parison to single crystals or conventional coarse-grained polycrystalline materials
with the same chemical composition [Suryanarayana 1994].
Table 1.11 summarizes the measured diffusivities in nanocrystalline Cu 8 nm in
size (A) in comparison to lattice diffusivity (B) and to diffusivity in grain boundaries
(C). The large differences can be clearly seen.
1.2.6.2 Mechanical Properties
A rather considerable number and variety of experimental investigations of the

mechanical properties of nanophase materials have been performed. They have
included measurements of hardness, fracture toughness, stress-strain behaviour
in compression and tension, strain-rate sensitivity and creep. The investigations
were performed on pure metals, alloys, intermetallic compounds and ceramics
[Siegel 1997].
The elastic constants of nanocrystalline materials have been found to be reduced
by 30% or less. These results were interpreted as due to the large free volume of
the interfacial component resulting from the increased interatomic spacing in the
boundary regions [Gleiter 1989]. The most significant change resulting from a re-
duction in the grain size to the nanometer level is a 4–5 times increase in the strength
and hardness over the coarse grained material.
Conventional polycrystalline metals and alloys show an increase in yield strength
σy with decreasing grain size d according to the well-known Hall-Petch (H-P)
equation
σy = σ0 + kd −1/2 (1.58)
Table 1.11 Self-diffusivity in nanocrystalline Cu (A), lattice self-diffusion in Cu (B) and in Cu

grain boundaries [Gleiter 1989]
Temperature (K) Self diffusivity (m2 s−1 )
A B C
293 2.6.10−20 4.10−40 4.8.10−24

353 2.0.10−18 2.10−34 6.2.10−21
393 1.7.10−17 2.10−31 2.2.10−19
where σ0 is friction stress resisting the motion of gliding dislocation, and k is the
Hall-Petch slope, which is associated with a measure of the resistance of the grain
boundary to slip transfer [Hall 1951; Petch 1953].
In analogy, hardness Hv can be related to the grain size by
Hv = H0 + kH d −1/2 (1.59)
where H0 and kH are constants.

The H-P effect in conventional coarse-grained materials is attributed to the grain
boundaries acting as efficient obstacles to dislocations.
By decreasing the grain size of metals down to the order of a few tens of nanome-
ters, the H-P slope remains positive but with smaller value. At ultra-fine grained
sizes below ca 20 nm, a reverse softening effect or negative H-P relation is observed
for some metals. Many investigators now accept that there exists a critical grain
size in nanocrystalline materials above which the Hall-Petch slope is positive and
below which it is negative; different reasons have been put forward for its pres-
ence. Several factors such as grain-boundary sliding, creep diffusion, triple junc-
tions, pores and impurities could contribute to inverse H-P relation in metals and
alloys [Gleiter 1989; Tjong and Chen 2004].
At room temperature, metal and alloys undergo a nonrecoverable plastic defor-
mation after the elastic domain, with a gradual increase of the applied stress as a
function of strain (so called work-hardening) [Ashly and Jones 1980]. It was shown
that pure nanocrystalline Cu behaved differently. This form of copper displays near
perfect elastoplastic behaviour characterized by Newton flow and the absence of
both work-hardening and neck formation [Champion et al. 2003].
Metals are usually soft, ductile and tough while ceramics are strong, hard and
brittle. However, through nanostructure processing, it appears to be possible to make
metals hard and strong like ceramics and ceramics can be made ductile like metals
[Suryanarayana 1994]. This behaviour can be illustrated by the qualitative frame-
work shown in Fig. 1.58 which indicates that with decreasing grain size into the
Fig. 1.58 Grain size dependance of dislocation activity and grain boundary sliding contribution
for various nanophase materials [Siegel and Fougere 1995]
nanophase regime, the frequency of dislocation activity decreases and that of grain
boundary sliding increases. Which of these effects dominates depends upon the
grain size regime, the specific type of material, and most importantly on the nature
of its interatomic bonding.
1.2.6.3 Thermal Properties
Specific heat and melting temperature are considered as the most fundamental ther-
mal properties of any solid. Generally, nanoparticles exhibit enhanced specific heat
and lowering of the melting point [Koper and Winecki 2001].
The experimentally obtained specific heats Cp /T of bulk (polycrystalline) iron
and nanocrystalline iron are shown in Fig. 1.59. The specific heat for nanocrys-
talline Fe is larger compared to bulk iron for temperatures above approximately
10 K. The specific heat of a material is closely related to its vibrational and config-
urational entropy, which is significantly affected by the nearest-neighbour config-
urations. Thus, the increase in specific heat of nanocrystalline materials has been
attributed to the small crystal size (and consequent large interfacial component)
[Suryanarayana 1994]. If this is so, grain growth should reduce the specific heat
of the nanocrystalline material which was indeed observed [Rupp and Birringer
1987].
Fig. 1.59 Plot of Cp /T vs. T2 for nanocrystalline and polycrystalline Fe [Bai et al. 1996]
The melting point, TM is another fundamental thermal property of a nanocrystalline

solid. It is the temperature above which the crystalline structure of solid disappear and
is replaced by disordered atomic arrangement in the liquid [Koper and Winecki 2001].
It was recognized as early in 50s that nanosized particles melt below their cor-
responding bulk melting temperatures [Takagi 1954]. Theoretical model that de-
scribed the lowering of melting points of nanoparticles was developed [Shi 1994].
In this model the mean-square atom displacement averaged over the entire volume
of the particle, including its surface, was evaluated. As the particle decreases, the
increased number of surface atoms enhances the average values of atomic displace-
ment. According to the Lindemann criterion (a crystal will melt when the root-
mean-square displacement of its atoms exceeds a certain fraction of the interatomic
distance), this causes a decrease in the melting temperature [Lindemann 1910]. On
the basis of these arguments Shi derived the equation
r −1
Tm (r)
= exp − (α − 1) −1 (1.60)
Tm (∞) 3h
where Tm (r) is the melting temperature of a nanocrystal, Tm (∞) is the melting tem-
perature of the bulk material, h corresponds to the height of a monolayer of atoms in
its crystal structure, α is the ratio of mean-square atom displacement on the surface
and inside of the particle (in practise parameter α is adjusted to fit experimental data).
Figure 1.60 shows melting temperatures for Au and CdS nanoparticles as a func-
tion of the particle size. The solid lines represent predictions from Eq. (1.60). There
is excellent agreement between the theory and experimental data for gold and fair
agreement for CdS nanoparticles [Koper and Winecki 2001].
1.2.6.4 Electrical Properties
Because of the increased volume fraction of atoms lying at the grain boundaries, the
electric resistivity of nanocrystalline materials is expected to be higher than that in
the corresponding coarse-grained polycrystalline materials [Suryanarayana 1994].
The observed temperature and grain size dependance of the electric resistivity as
well as the temperature coefficient may be understood in terms of electron scattering
inside the crystallites as well as scattering of the electron by the boundaries by
analogy to the treatment of the electric dc-resistivity of thin metallic films. If the
crystal size is smaller than the electron mean free path, grain scattering dominates
and hence the conductivity as well as the temperature coefficient is expected to
decrease [Gleiter 1989].
1.2.6.5 Magnetic Properties
For a long time it is known, that the first great advantage of magnetic nanoparticles
is that they are single-domain and therefore have large coercivities, allowing them to
Fig. 1.60 Melting temperature Tm vs. size for Au (a) and CdS (b) nanocrystals. Solid line = equa-
tion (1.60) [Shi 1994]
individually retain their magnetization directions [Stoner and Wohlfarth 1948]. With
single-domain particles, the magnetic and crystallographic domains are defined by
the particle itself, although particles can also be polycrystalline. A typical size of a
magnetic domain is of the order of 1 μm and particles much smaller than that will
be single-domain. Typically critical sizes for monodomain particles are in the range
20–2000 nm and depend on the ferromagnetic material under consideration. Small
magnetic particles have been of industrial importance since 50s primarily stimulated
by the recording industry’ desire for ever denser and more reliable recording media.
The quest for smaller particles which can be used for recording purposes [Spelio-
tis 1999; Mee 1994] continues since smaller particles implies higher data storage
densities [Bertran and Zhu 1992; Lambeth et al. 1996]. There are of course material
limits to how small a magnetic particle can be and still be useful. For example, not
only should the particle be ferromagnetic, it shoud retain its magnetic orientation in
ordinary conditions for many years [de Heer 2000].
For magnetic properties it is largely the surface/interface effects, which cause
significant differences compared to the bulk. In a nanoscale particle the surface
atoms/bulk atoms ratio is sufficiently large (∼ 50% for diameter ≈ 3 nm) that
surface/interface effects can dominate the magnetic properties. One useful point
of view is that small particles represent surface matter in macroscopic quantities.
For instance, 10 mg of 3 nm cobalt particle would contain 5 mg of surface cobalt
[Sorensen 2001]. At the surface, the coordination number of each surface atom is
smaller than within the bulk, hence the α-band of a collection of transition metal
atoms at the surface is narrower than in the bulk, leading to a huge density of states
and hence enhanced magnetism [Blugel 1992].
The surface magnetic moments are enhanced by 10–30% over their bulk val-
ues in ferromagnetic Fe, Ni, and body centered cubic Co (100) and (110) surfaces
[Freeman et al. 1987].
Measurement of the saturation magnetization (MS ) of nanocrystalline iron (6 nm
crystallite size) revealed a reduction of MS by about 40% relative to the saturation
of bulk α-Fe. For comparison, in metallic Fe glasses (extrapolated to pure Fe), MS
is only reduced by about 2% relative to α-Fe [Birringer et al. 1986].
A reduction of the Curie temperature (TC ) of Ni by about 40◦ C has been reported
if the crystal size was reduced to about 70 nm [Valiev et al. 1989]. This reduction
was attributed to a reduction of TC of the grain boundary regions. The interior of the
crystals was assumed to have the same TC as a single crystal of Ni.
Another useful magnetic property is called the magnetocaloric effect. When a
material containing extremely small magnetic particulates in a non-magnetic or
weakly magnetic matrix is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic spins of the
particulates tend to align with the field. The increase in magnetic order lowers
the magnetic entropy of the spin system. If this process is performed adiabati-
cally (i.e. no heat is exchanged with the surroundings), the reduction in spin en-
tropy is offset by an increase in lattice entropy, and the specimen’s temperature will
rise. This temperature rise is reversible (the specimen cools down on removal of
the magnetic field) and is known as the magnetocaloric effect. It has been shown
that the magnetocaloric effect may be enhanced at low fields and high temperatures
[Suryanarayana 1994].
Giant magnetoresistance is another magnetic property where nanodimension
plays an important role. Magnetoresistance is a phenomenon where the applica-
tion of a direct current magnetic field changes the resistance of a material. The
magnetoresistance effect occurs in metals only at very high magnetic fields and
low temperatures. For example, in pure copper at 4 K a field of 10 T produces a
factor of 10 change in the resistance. Because of the large fields and low temper-
atures, magnetoresistance in metals originally had few potential application possi-
bilities. However, that changed in 1988 with the discovery of what is now called
giant magnetoresistance (GMR) in materials synthetically fabricated by depositing
on a substrate alternate layers of nanometer thickness of a ferromagnetic material
and a nonferromagnetic metal. In 2007, Nobel Prize was given to Albert Fert and
Peter Gründberg for discovery of GMR. A schematic of the layered structure and
the alternating orientation of the magnetization in the ferromagnetic layer is shown
in Fig. 1.61. The effect was first observed in films made of alternating layers of Fe
and Cr, but since then other layered materials composed of alternating layers of Co
and Cu and AgCo and NiFe nanoparticles have been made that display much higher
Fig. 1.61 Three

arrangements for producing
giant magnetoresistance
[Poole and Owens 2003]
magnetoresistive effects [Poole and Owens 2003]. The giant magnetoresistance ef-
fect is utilized in reading heads that read magnetically encoded information.
1.3 Nanogeoscience
In analogy with title of the famous Feynman speech (see Sect. 1.2.1), the paper en-
tited: “There‘s plenty of room at the bottom: Nanoscience in geochemistry” has been
published in 2002 [Hochella, Jr. 2002]. In the same year the Nanoscience Workshop
1.3 Nanogeoscience 77
was organized in Berkeley, California [Anonymous 2002]. Three years later the
nanogeoscience session was implemented into the agenda of 15th Annual Gold-
smith Conference which was held at the University of Idaho, Moscow. These three
events together with the book “Nanoparticles and Environment” published under
umbrella of Mineralogical Society of America [Banfield and Navrotsky 2001] can
be marked as the milestones in nanogeoscience.
As stated in literature, nanogeoscience is broadly defined to include the study
of materials and processes at the nanoscale in their role in geological processes on
the Earth and other planets. Because processes are intrinsically molecular at the
nanoscale, there is an immediate symmetry and a diffuse boundary between nano-
geoscience and the field of chemistry, physics, and materials science. Furthermore,
geoscientists increasily recognize the major role played by microorganisms in ge-
ological phenomena. There is an equally fuzzy boundary between nanogeoscience
and the life sciences in this realm because microbial processes often proceed by
manipulating surface forces at the nanoscale. Though nanoparticles represent only
a small fraction of the mass of material in the Earth, they represent a large number
fraction of the particles in atmospheric and aqueous environments, and nanoparti-
cles are responsible for most of the surface area (at solid-water, solid-air, and solid-
liquid interfaces) of Earth materials. Their large surface-to-volume ratio ensures
that surface forces exert considerable influence over the chemistry and structure of
nanoparticles [Anonymous 2002].
1.3.1 Mineral Nanoparticle Surfaces
As a mineral nanoparticle shrinks to between tens of nanometer and about a

nanometer, a significant and increasing fraction of the atoms are exposed on sur-
faces (Fig. 1.62 and previous text) rather than contained in the bulk.
Ions with non-optimal coordination geometries on surfaces give rise to excess
energy. Consequently, the total energy of the system increases as size decreases be-
cause of the enhanced contribution from the energy associated with surface sites.
The energy penalty caused by creation of a surface can be minimized by hydration,
protonation, surface reconstruction, change in surface site coordination, displace-
ment of atoms, and changes in bond lengths and angles [Banfield and Zhang 2001].
The impact of the surface atomic layer on adjacent layers within the solid
probably decreases smoothly to zero as distance from the surface (into the par-
ticle) increases. However, in order to facilitate consideration of size-dependent
characteristics and behaviour of nanoparticles, it is convenient to subdivide them
into three atomic structural regions (Fig. 1.62). First, we define a surface atomic
layer (A) that consists of ions with modified coordination geometries. Second spec-
ified as a near-surface region (B), this being a zone of atomic layer(s) near, but
not at the surface. These layers are identified by a distribution due to proximity to
the surface atomic layer. Third, a bulk material (C) can be specified with structure
equivalent to that within macroscopic crystals [Banfield and Zhang 2001].
Fig. 1.62 Molecular dynamics simulation of anatase TiO2 particle [Banfield and Navrotsky 2001]
1.3.2 Nano- Versus Mechano-Approach: Analogy
As stated in paper of Hochella [Hochella, Jr. 2002] the work of Stöber and Arnold
represents one of the early study of the importance of nanogeoscience [Stöber and
Arnold 1961]. The authors observed the enhanced solubility of quartz SiO2 frag-
ments (in fact in the nanodomain) adhering to micron-sized grains of the dry-milled
mineral. This is a relative early experimental mineral dissolution study that rec-
ognized the importance of enhanced solubility of extremely fine grains relative to
coarse particles. This phenomenon has been described in a modified version of the
Kelvin equation which relates the solubility of a material to its surface free energy
and grain size [Adamson 1982]
S/S0 = exp (2γ V /rRT ) (1.61)
where S is the solubility of grains with inscribed radius r, S0 is the solubility of bulk
material, γ is the surface free energy, V is the molar volume, R is the gas constant and
T is the temperature. The equation says that as the grain dimension decreases, the
solubility of that grain will go up exponentially relative to the measured solubility of
a very large grain (S0 , where the grain size has no appreciable effect on solubility).
It is important to remember that the solubility of nanosized particles is greatly
influenced by Eq. (1.61), so that thermodynamically calculated solubilities of bulk
materials may be off by orders of magnitude relative to nanoscale equivalents
[Hochella, Jr. 2002].
Non-homogeneity in macroscopic crystals in direction from surface to the bulk
has been observed by mechanically treated solids. Structure of quartz is changing
continuously by mechanical activation (Fig. 1.63).
Fig. 1.63 Quartz SiO2 particle: (a) non-activated, (b) mechanically activated [Heinicke 1984]
In non-activated mineral, primary crystallite size > 100 nm (a) can be observed.
After activation, two regions can be identified (b). In the bulk (I) exists a relatively
little disturbed center with regions scattering coherently and primary crystallite size
∼ 90 nm. At the surface (II) and in the near-surface a partial crystalline region of
thickness ∼ 20 nm and primary crystallite size ∼ 1–10 nm can be seen. This model
has been verified and proved for several oxide systems [Heinicke 1984]. Numerous
investigations have shown a correlation between solubility and amorphous portion
(or crystallinity degree X) for mechanically activated quartz (Fig. 1.64).
In this way, nanoparticles with the special surface properties can be produced
by mechanochemical treatment. Moreover, such particles are “enriched” by defect
chemistry which can further contribute to properties of nanomaterials.
Fig. 1.64 Solubility, C vs. dissolution time, t for quartz SiO2 mechanically activated in a vibration
mill [Steinicke et al. 1978; Steinicke and Linke 1982]
1.3.3 Clusters and Aggregates Formation
Nanoscale materials can be produced in many ways and several of them including
mechanochemical approach have been described in this chapter.
Formulation of multinuclear clusters from aqueous ions defines the initial step
in growth of any crystal from solution. It was reported that Zn3 S3 (H2 O)6 rings
condense to form a neutral Zn6 S6 (H2 O)9 cluster with a structure analogous to
wurtzite ZnS (W). Interestingly, condensation of Zn3 S3 (H2 O)6 rings in the pres-
ence of excess bisulphide results in the formation of Zn4 S6 (H2 O)4− 4 clusters with
structure found in sphalerite ZnS(S) (Fig. 1.65) [Luther III et al. 1999; Banfield and
Zhang 2001]. Luther postulated that natural solutions can contain relative stable
4 clusters ∼ 1–2 nm in diameter that have structural simi-
tetrameric Zn4 S6 (H2 O)4−
larity to sphalerite.
There is another way in which crystals can be assembled. This involves the
solid state combination of large clusters of atoms or nanoparticles to larger crys-
tals. The pieces are assembled in crystallographically specific ways so that the
interface elimination leads to formation of a larger single crystal. The crystallo-
graphic control distinguishes this pathway from simple aggregation. Oriented as-
sembly of nanoparticles is an effective form of crystal growth because removal of
the interface eliminates the energetic contribution of two surfaces. An example of
oriented aggregation in Fig. 1.66 for anatase TiO2 nanoparticles consists of smaller
anatase crystals that were oriented with respect to each other. Most particle-particle
boundaries have been eliminated, but a few remain. This growth mechanism is a
form of self-organization [Penn and Banfield 1999; Banfield and Zhang 2001].
Fig. 1.65 Cluster formation in ZnS-H2 O system [Luther III et al. 1999]
Fig. 1.66 Oriented aggregation in anatase TiO2 nanoparticles [Banfield and Zhang 2001]
Manganese oxide MnO2 occurs in nature as hollandite but the mineral form
coexists with other phases like SiO2 , Fe2 O3 , Al2 O3 and P2 O5 . Nanofibres of
synthetic MnO2 has been synthesized by chemical route. Originally the synthe-
sized nanoparticles (Fig. 1.67) are in the form of spherical agglomerates, approx-
imately (100–500 nm) in diameter, with relatively smooth surfaces (a). During ag-
ing in solution the size of the original nanoparticle agglomerates start to increase
(500–3000 nm). In addition, the surface of some of the agglomerates begin to
show the first signs of nanofibrous surface structure (b). With prolonging the time
of aging, the size of the agglomerated particles grows to 1000–5000 nm. Further
aging leads to a well-defined nanofibrous structure (c, d), so-called “bird-nest”
morphology, which consists of a three-dimensional random weave of nanofibres
(e). No visible remnants of the original nanoparticle agglomerates are visible.
At this stage the size of nest structure is about 3000–10000 nm in size [Xiao
et al. 1998].
Fig. 1.67 Development of “bird’s nest” morphology of synthetic MnO2 [Xiao et al. 1998]
1.4 Nanoparticles in Medicine
Application of nanoparticles in the field of medicine is especially promising. Areas

such as disease diagnosis, drug delivery and molecular imaging are being intensively
researched. Nanotechnology already afford the possibility of intracellular imaging
through attachment of nanocrystalline semiconductors to selected molecules, for
example proteins.
In Table 1.12 several examples of nanoparticles used in biomedical applications
are given.
For example gold nanoparticles are used for thermal therapy. Au nanoshells of
about 150 nm are injected into the bloodstream. This size nanoshell penetrates tu-
mor but not healthy tissue. The nanoshells are also specificially designed to ab-
sorb infrared light that passes harmlessly through body tissue. The nanoshells heat
up when they absorb the near-infrared light, thereby killing the nearly tumor cells.
Some examples showed that 100 tumor cells could be captured and destroyed from
50 million blood cells in less than one hour.
Table 1.12 Examples of nanosized components in biomedical applications [Kim et al. 2006]
Composition Size (nm) Applications
Au 2–150 Drug and gene delivery

Ag 1–80 Antimicrobial properties
Pt 1–20 Sensors and electrodes
Co 1–50 Drug targeting
CdX (X=S, Se, Te) 1–20 Fluorescence labelling
ZnX (X=S, Se, Te) 1–20 Fluorescence labelling
PbS 2–18 Photoluminescence
TiO2 3–50 Nerve tissue monitoring
ZnO 1–30 Photoluminescence
Fe-O 6–40 Drug delivery
Fe-Pt 2–10 Drug delivery
1.4.1 Size of Biological Objects
Comparison of size of nanoparticles with objects playing important role in medicine

is given in Fig. 1.68.
Note that bacteria are huge in comparison and it is helpful to realize that the
volume of one Bacillus cereus bacterium could hold a million 5 nm nanoparticles
[Klabunde 2001].
Table 1.13 lists the length parameters d for various biological substances and in
Fig. 1.69 model of the DNA double helix is presented. Here, the indivi diameter
of 2 nm, and the repeat unit containing 10 nucleotide pairs is 3.4 nm long. To ac-
complish the coupling of two nanostrands of DNA in an efficient manner, a small
1.4 Nanoparticles in Medicine 83
Fig. 1.68 Size comparisons of nanocrystals with bacteria, viruses, and molecules [Klabunde 2001]
Table 1.13 Typical sizes of various biological substances, adapted after [Poole and Owens 2003]
Class Material d (nm) Class Material d (nm)
Aminoacids Glycine 0.42 Organelles Mitochondrion 3000
Tryptophane 0.67 Lysosome 700
Proteins Insulin 2.2 Cells Bacterium (E.coli) 8000
Hemoglobin 7.0 Human blood platelet 3000
Albumin 9.0 Leucocytes 15000
Lipoprotein 20 Erytrocytes 8000
Viruses Influenza 60 Others Chlorophyll 1.1
Bacteriophage 140 Human chromosome 9000
single-ring pyrimidine base always pairs off with a larger two-always pairs off with
a larger two-ring purine base, namely, cytosine (C) with guanine (G), and thymine
(T) with adenine (A) [Poole and Owens 2003].
1.4.2 Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis
Cancer was once considered an incurable disease, but today most patients diag-
nosed with early stage disease will survive their illness. Advances in cancer diag-
nostics and therapeutics over the last few decades are largely responsible for this
improvement [Gu et al. 2007]. Despite these advances, cancer continues to torment
humanity as the second leading cause of death with 10.9 million newly diagnosed
cases world-wide in the year 2005 alone. Therefore, there is still a strong need for a
paradigm shift in the approach to cancer diagnosis and therapy. Since the biological
Fig. 1.69 Model of the DNA double helix, nucleotides: A – adenine, C – cytosine, G – guanine,
T – thymine [Mader 2001]
processes in general are those that lead to cancer particular occur at the nanoscale,
there is a great opportunity for nanotechnologies to treat cancer at an as early stage
as possible [Kumar 2006].
Cancer is sa group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread
of abnormal cells. If the growth and spread of cancer cells is not controlled, the
desease is fatal.
1.4.2.1 Cancer Development
In Fig. 1.70 tumor development to a steady diffusion-limited maximal size (I) and
beyond diffusion-limited maximal size (II) is illustrated. Once a small tumor mass
Fig. 1.70 Tumor development from initial carcinogenesis to a steady diffusion-limited maximal
size (I) and to a fatal metastase formation (II) [Brannon-Peppas and Blanchette 2004]
has formed (I), the healthy tissue will not be able to compete with the cancer cells
for the inadequate supply of nutrients from the blood stream. Tumor cells will
displace healthy cells until the tumor reaches a diffusion-limited maximal size.
This diffusion-limited maximal size of most tumors is around 2 mm3 [Jones and
Harris 1998].
The growth beyond this size, the tumor must recruit the formation of blood ves-
sels to provide the nutrients necessary to fuel its continued expansion. It is thought
that there could be numerous tumors at this diffusion-limited maximal size through-
out the body. Until the tumor can gain that access to the circulation it will remain
at this size and the process can take years. The continuous development of a tu-
mor beyond the diffusion-limited maximal size is shown in section (II) of Fig. 1.70.
Tumor cells in steady state (A) are capable of secreting molecules that initiate the
angiogenic process (angiogenesis-a process vital to the continued development of
a tumor mass). It is supported that this process called “the angiogenic switch” is
result from a local imbalance between positive and negative regulators of angio-
genesis (B). This imbalance causes endothelial cell proliferation and migration – a
vessel is formed which extends towards the tumor and provides nutrients to sustain
cell proliferation (C). A fully vascularized tumor (D) is capable of continued growth
with metastatic potential due to the proximity to the blood stream [Brannon-Peppas
and Blanchette 2004].
There are some special features of tumor cells which is important to take into
account by application of nanoparticles for cancer treatment:
• leaky tumor vasculature presenting increased permeability and gaps, with pores
between 350 and 800 nm and cut off between 400 and 600 nm; in comparison
with normal tissue this vasculature is highly permeable to macromolecules
• a dysfunctional lymphatic drainage system, which results in enhanced fluid re-
tention in the tumor interstitial space
• the tumor environment is oxidative and acidic, and thus oxidation destroy their
anticancer properties.
It is generally accepted that nanoparticles with diameter less than 200 nm are the
most effective for extravasating tumor microvasculature [Juillerat-Jeanneret 2006;
Gu et al. 2007].
Cancer is treated by surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, hormones and immunother-
apy. Each of these cancer treatments has advantages and disadvantages, thus the
combination with other treatments is recommended to achieve the optimum out-
come [Kim et al. 2006].
1.4.2.2 Nanoparticles for Cancer Therapy
Chemotherapy is a major therapeutic approach for the treatment of localized and

metastasized cancer. The selective increase in tumor tissue uptake of anticancer
agents would be of great interest in cancer chemotherapy since anticancer drugs are
not specific to cancer cells. Routes of administration, biodistribution and elimina-
tion of available chemotherapeutic agents can be modified by drug delivery systems
to optimize drug therapy [Serpe 2006].
Delivering of therapeutic agents precisely where and when they are needed in
the human body is becoming realistic due to rapid tremendous progress in phys-
iology, nanoparticle and nanobiology. Nanoparticles can improve the targeting of
cytotoxic drugs to cancer only if they can be directed to cancer areas and maintain
there for long time periods with their drug cargo for selective and local release of
drugs [Juillerat-Jeanneret 2006]. A strategy could be to associate anticancer agents
with colloidal nanoparticles, with the aim to overcome the mechanisms of resistance
and to increase selectivity of drugs towards cancer cells while reducing their toxicity
towards normal tissues [Brigger et al. 2002].
First generation of nanoparticles have been available for several years. Colloids
are representatives of nanoparticles stabilized in solution to prevent uncontrolled
growth, aggregation, and flocculation of the nanoparticles. Utilization of colloidal
processing leads to attractive new concepts for the fabrication of advanced nanos-
tructured materials [Kim et al. 2006].
According to the process used for the preparation of nanoparticles, nanospheres
or nanocapsules can be obtained. Unlike nanospheres (matrix system in which the
drug is dispersed throughout the particles), nanocapsules are vesicular systems in
which the drug is confined to an aqueous or oily cavity surrounded by a single
polymeric membrane. Nanocapsule may, thus be considered as a “reservoir” system,
Fig. 1.71 Nanosphere and nanocapsule particles for drug delivery [Brigger et al. 2002]
Fig. 1.71 [Couvreur et al. 1996; Brigger et al. 2002]. Nanocapsules are composed
of a polymeric wall containing a liquid inner core, while nanospheres are made of a
polymeric matrix in which the drug can be dispersed [Zeisser-Labouébe et al. 2006].
In second generation of nanoparticles a key aspect is the need for multifunction-
ality of these materials in which several properties are combined to achieve a specific
function. For second generation nanoparticles, the surface layer (a few or several
monolayers) is distinctly different from that of the core material. Such particles are
categorized as core-shell structures. Figure 1.72 shows a schematic representation
of different types of second generation nanoparticles with surface modification and
nanoparticles with a core-shell structures (a-nanoparticle coated with surfactant to
form a stable suspension, b-nanoparticle coated with a thin metallic layer (Au), c-
small nanoparticle coated with a porous ceramic layer, d-dispersion of core-shell
combination of (a) and (c) for stable suspension [Kim et al. 2006].
Several polymers have been tested to combine with anticancer drugs. Pacli-
taxel (Taxol) is a microtube-stabilizing agent that causes polymerization of tubu-
lin and cell death. Taxol incorpolated in polyvinylpyrrolidone nanospheres with
Fig. 1.72 Second generation of nanoparticles [Kim et al. 2006]

a diameter of 50–60 nm were applied to treat melanoma. Mice treated with re-
peated intravenous injections of taxol-loaded nanospheres showed a significant tu-
mor regression and higher surrival rates than mice treated with free taxol [Sharma
et al. 1996]. Doxorubicin is used to treat several types of cancers by inhibit-
ing the synthesis of nucleic acids in cancer cells, but at the price of cardiotox-
icity and myelosuppresion and a very narrow therapeutic index. The advantage
of doxorubicin combination with polymers can be illustrated by Fig. 1.73 where
(DOX-doxorubicin in saline; (DOX+Ps)-doxorubicin in saline plus polysorbate 80;
(DOX+NP)-doxorubicin bound to poly (butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles; DOX-
NP+Ps doxorubicin bound to poly (butyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles coated with
polysorbate 80 [Juillerat-Jeanneret 2006].
Rats treated with doxorubicin bounds to polysorbate-coated nanoparticles had
significantly higher surrival times than with free doxorubicin, over 20% of the ani-
mals showed a long-term remission. All animals treated with polysorbate-containing
drug also had a slight inflammatory reaction to the tumor. There was no indica-
tion of neurotoxicity [Steiniger et al. 2004]. When administered in vivo, polymeric
nanoparticles are rapidly taken up by the macrophages due to the adsorption of
proteins at their surface. Thus, the biodistribution of particles is mainly directed to-
wards liver and spleen where they are captured and made unavailable to other target
issues. This property has been related to the hydrophobicity of the particle surface.
Recently, a great deal of work has been devoted to developing so-called stealthTM
particles, which are “invisible” to macrophages. The principle is based on “hy-
drophilization” of the surface. These stealthTM nanoparticles have been shown to be
characterized by a prolonged half-life in the blood compartment. This allows them
to selectively extravasate in pathological sites, like tumors or inflamed regions with
Fig. 1.73 Percentage of survival of the rats with glioblastoma tumor using various drug formula-
tions [Serpe 2006]
Fig. 1.74 Extravasation of long-circulating (StealthTM ) nanoparticles in the tumor cells [Brigger
et al. 2002]
a leaky vasculature, Fig. 1.74 [Moghimi et al. 2001; Brigger et al. 2002; Zeisser-
Labouébe et al. 2006].
In conclusion, an ideal nanovector in cancer therapy and imaging can be defined
as an effective drug consisting of
• core consistuent material,
• therapeutic and/or imaging payload and
• biological surface modifiers [Ferrari 2005].
An ideal nanovector should look as shown in Fig. 1.75. Here SPION is a re-
porter system, T is a targeting agent linked to the polymer; a drug is linked to
the polymer via a releasing linker. Challenges include the control of drug release
and bioavailability at the tumor site, enhancing selective targeting, and achieving
controlled and efficient intracellular delivery, together with acceptable toxicological
hazards [Juillerat-Jeanneret 2006].
Fig. 1.75 Ideal drug delivery nanovector [Juillerat-Jeanneret 2006]

1.5 Opportunities and Other Challenges
Nanotechnology is entering many industry sections including medicine, plastics,

energy, electronics, and aerospace [Klabunde 2001; Anonymous 2004; Lines 2008].
Few examples of interesting nano-applications can be mentioned for illustrations:
• Batteries – the ability to prepare metallic nanocrystals that can be consolidated
into high surface area battery electrodes has certain inherent advances. Nanos-
tructural materials in lithium ion batteries have proven to be very advantageous.
Nickel-metal hydride batteries made of nanocrystalline Ni and metal hydrides are
good candidates for lighweight, high-energy density batteries. Recently, cathode
materials with three-dimensional framework structures like LiFeO4 for environ-
mentally benign, high-energy density batteries have been developed.
• Catalysts – in nanoform can improved activity and selectivity in processes of
heterogeneous catalysis (see more in Sect. 6.4.2). The use of nanomaterials based
on rare earth metal oxides allows for the preparation of thinner active layers,
which can mean less precious metal usage, e.g. Pt.
• Coatings – long-term antimicrobial activity can be improved in many coating for-
mulations through the incorporation of nanomaterials. It has been demonstrated,
that when paints are doped with light-absorbing nanoparticles, such as TiO2 , the
paints are self-cleaning.
• Composites – carbon fibres and bundles of multi-wall carbon nanotubes are used
in polymers to control or enhance conductivity, with applications such as anti-
static packaging.
• Cutting tools – cutting tools made of nanocrystalline materials such as WC and
TiC are more wear and erosion-resistent. The surface hardness of such nanoma-
terials is as high as five times higher than the normal microcrystalline materials.
• Destructive adsorbents – nanocrystalline metal oxides exhibit high surface areas
and strongly chemisorb acidic gases and polar organics. These nanomaterials
are finding use in anti-chemical/biological warfare, in air purification and as an
alternative to incineration of toxic substances.
• Displays – the color of emission is completely dependent on the semiconductor
bandgap (see more in Sect. 1.2.3). Bandgap tailoring can be achieved through
the size effects of nanoparticles. Through the use of successive layers of tailored
particles, a palette of colour can be generated (flat-panel displays). Nanocrys-
talline ZnS, ZnSe, CdS, CdSe and PbTe are candidates for the next generation of
light-emitting phosphors.
• Fuel cells – it has been reported that the use of rare earth metal oxides has utility
in various aspects of fuel cell design.
• Magnetic materials – magnets made of nanocrystalline alloys (e.g. Y-Sm-Co)
have unusual magnetic properties. Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) revealed in
nanocrystalline materials enables construction of high capacity disk heads.
• Paints – incorporating nanoparticles in paints could improve their performance.
Pigments with average particle size in the 10–20 nm range display a greatly im-
proved printed colour that is superior to that of commercially available dye-based
inks.
1.6 Conclusion 91
• Sensors – porous aggregates of semiconductor nanocrystals maintain high

surface areas and when they undergo adsorption of various gases, their electric
conductivity changes. Since more of the gas to be detected (such as SO2 ) is ad-
sorbed per unit mass compared with normal compressed powders, the electrical
changes are more pronounced. Thus the use of nanoparticles yield a considerable
advantage in sensor technology. Sensors for toxic waterborne materials are also
possible.
• Textile fibres – nanoparticles have been incorporated into products such as nylon,
polypropylene and other polymers to provide long-term antimicrobial character
even in harsh environments and after extensive thermal cycling.
1.6 Conclusion
There is an increasing demand for nanoparticles by many companies. The research

results illustrated in this chapter are a driving force in this tendency. Products pro-
duced from nanoparticles exhibit unique properties and have a wide range of high
commercial applications in rapidly expanding markets. Nanoparticles are the core of
these technologies. The strongest interest in nanotechnology stems from the concept
Table 1.14 Review papers combining mechano- and nano-aspects of solids

Title Author(s)
Nanocrystalline Materials Gleiter 1989

The Synthesis and Structure of Nanocrystalline Materials Koch 1993
Produced by Mechanical Attrition: Review
Mössbauer Effect Studies of Nanostructured Materials Campbell and Gleiter 1993
Nanocrystalline Materials Suryanarayana 1995
Novel Materials Synthesis by Mechanical Alloying/Milling Murty and Ranganathan 1998
Colloid-Chemical Aspects of Mechanical Activation Juhász 1998
Some Recent Developments in Mechanical Activation and Gaffet et al. 1999
Mechanosynthesis
Recent Development of Materials Design Through a Senna 2001
Mechanochemical Route
Mechanical Alloying and Mixing Suryanarayana 2001
Self-sustaining Reactions Induced by Ball Milling Takacs 2002
Mechanical Activation of Precursors for Nanocrystalline Heegn et al. 2003
Materials
Mechanosynthesis of Nanophase Powders Miani and Maurigh 2004
Mechanical Processing for Nanomaterials Gaffet and LeCaër 2004
Nanocrystalline Materials and Coatings Tjong and Chen 2004
Mechanochemistry: The Mechanical Activation of Covalent Beyer and Clausen-Schaumann
Bonds 2005
Mechanochemistry and Mechanical Activation of Solids Boldyrev 2006
Mechanochemistry of Sulphides: From Minerals to Baláž et al. 2008
Nanocrystalline Semiconductors
that structures may be designed and built that exhibit novel, superior or significantly
enhanced properties [Lines 2008].
Mechanochemistry plays an important role in nanoscience and several review
papers illustrate this fact (Table 1.14). Mechanochemical processing of solids as a
relatively novel and simple solid-state process for the manufacture of nanoparticles
is on the way to be incorporated into the world of nanoscience and nanotechnology.
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Chapter 2
High-Energy Milling
2.1 Introduction
Particle size reduction, or comminution is an important step in many technological

operations. The process itself is defined as the mechanical breakdown of solids
into smaller particles without changing their state of aggregation [Bernotat and
Schönert 1998]. It may be used to create particles of a certain size and shape (in-
cluding nanosize), to increase the surface area and induce defects in solids which is
needed for subsequent operations such as chemical reactions, sorption, etc. Milling
not only increases the surface area of solids. It is likely to increase the proportion
of regions of high activity in the surface. This increase is really dramatic: if a cubic
solid is broken down into smaller cubes, each of side 1/n of the side of the origi-
nal cube, the specific surface area is increased n-times, but the broken down mass
contains n2 -times the original length of edge and n3 -times the number of corners
[Welch 1953].
The size reduction of solids is an energy intensive and highly inefficient process:
5% of all electricity generated is used in size reduction [Rhodes 1998].
Conventionally, the term fine milling is used for size range below 100 μm and the
ultrafine (or very fine) milling for particles size less than 10 μm. In mechanochem-
istry, the term high-energy milling is frequently used in order to stress the character
of applied milling equipments (mills) [Boldyrev 1983; Baláž 2000].
The chapter is intended as an introduction to the topic of high-energy milling and
milling equipments used for preparation of micro- and nanosized solids.
2.2 Basic Phenomena
Consider a crystal of sodium chloride NaCl as a simple and convenient model of

a brittle material. Such a crystal is composed of a lattice of positively charged
sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions arranged such that each ion is
surrounded by six ions of the opposite sign. Between the oppositely charged ions
there is an attractive force whose magnitude is inversely proportional to the square

104 2 High-Energy Milling
of the separation of the ions. There is also a repulsive force between the negatively
charged electron clouds of these ions which becomes important at very small inter-
atomic distances. Therefore two oppositely charged ions have an equilibrium sep-
aration such that the attractive and repulsive forces between them are equal and
opposite. Figure 2.1 shows how the sum of the attractive and repulsive forces varies
with changing separation of the ions. It can be appreciated that if the separation of
the ions is increased or decreased by a small amount from the equilibrium separa-
tion, there will be a resultant net force restoring the ions to the equilibrium position.
The ions in the sodium chloride crystal lattice are held in equilibrium positions gov-
erned by the balance between attractive and repulsive forces. Over a small range
of interatomic distances the relationship between applied tensile or compressive
force and resulting change in ion separation is linear. That is, in this region (AB
in Fig. 2.1) Hooke’s law applies: strain is directly proportional to applied stress.
The Young’s modulus of the material (stress/strain) describes this proportionality.
In this Hooke’s law range the deformation of the crystal is elastic; i.e. the original
shape of the crystal is recovered upon removal of the stress [Rhodes 1998].
In order to break the crystal it is necessary to separate adjacent layers of ions in
the crystal and this involves increasing the separation of the adjacent ions beyond the
region where Hooke’s law applies – i.e. beyond point B in Fig. 2.1 into the plastic
deformation range. The applied stress required to induce this plastic behaviour is
known as the elastic limit or yield stress, and is sometimes defined as the material’s
strength [Rhodes 1998].
A body under stress stores energy-strain energy. This strain energy is not uni-
formly distributed throughout the solid but is concentrated around holes, corners
and cracks.
The theory of crack formation and propagation has been well demonstrated in
literature [Griffith 1920; Smekal 1922, 1936; Rumpf 1962, 1966; Schönert and
Weichert 1969; Schönert and Steier 1971; Schönert 1974]. It was postulated that for
Fig. 2.1 Forces versus distance on an atomic scale [Rhodes 1998]

2.3 Energy Requirement 105
Fig. 2.2 Formation of a crack

along the intersection of glide
planes [Cottrell 1958]
fracture to occur the propagation of cracks has to be promoted, and the condition
that should lead to a fracture is that a certain minimum length of the microcracks
(defect sites) should be formed [Griffith 1920].
This concept was later modified in works of Cottrell who stated that such cracks
can also be created by the coalescence of dislocations in solids (Fig. 2.2). According
to this model microcracks can develop and dislocations can coalesce at the inter-
faces of crystals, or at the intersection of two dislocations, or in the case of mosaic
structure, at the boundaries of the blocks [Cottrell 1958].
Fracture is a problem of energetics. The propagation of the initially-formed
cracks requires that the energy of elastic deformation should be at least as high
as the interfacial energy of the system [Griffith 1920]. It was pointed out that frac-
ture energy was much higher than surface free energy [Rumpf 1961, 1966; Schönert
and Weichert 1969; Schönert and Steier 1971; Schönert 1974]. Thus, the specific
surface energy of solids is about 0.05–0.5 Jm−2 , whereas the specific fracture en-
ergy for brittle solids is 5 Jm−2 , for plastic solids it is 10 Jm−2 , and for metals is
approximately 500 Jm−2 .
2.3 Energy Requirement
In milling practice the quantitative measures of energetics attracted attention for

a long time. The literature on the problem is quite extensive and the theories of
Rittinger, Kick-Kirpičev and Bond deserve to be mentioned.
Rittiger proposed that the energy required for particle size reduction was directly
proportional to the area of new surface created

1 1
E = CR − (2.1)
x2 x1
where CR is constant and x1 is the starting and x2 the final particle size [Rittinger
1867].
However, this law ignores the energy absorbed by elastic deformation which is
several times greater than that required for creation of new surfaces.
On the basis of stress analysis theory for plastic deformation Kirpičev and inde-
pendently Kick proposed the energy required for particle size reduction was directly
proportional to the ratio of the volume of the feed particle to the product particle
[Kirpičev 1874; Kick 1883]

x1
E = CK ln (2.2)
x2
The main drawback of this theory is that the same energy is required to re-
duce 10 μm particle to 1 μm as is required to reduce 1 m boulders to 10 cm blocks
[Rhodes 1998]. This is a simplification which cannot be accepted especially in the
fine and ultrafine milling.
Bond suggested a more useful formula where the total energy that is specific to
any size is inversely proportional to the square root of the particle size [Bond 1952]

1 1
E = CB √ −√ (2.3)
x2 x1
In milling practice the formula (2.3) is applied in the modified form which en-
ables determination of the Bond work index Wi . Wi is defined as the energy required
to reduce the size of unit mass of material from infinity to 100 μm in size.
It is common fault of all three theories that they do not take account of par-
ticle size distribution of the feed and the product, nor do they take account of
particle interactions and the energy consumed by plastic deformation [Juhász and
Opoczky 1990].
Attempts have been made [Holmes 1957; Charles 1957; Hukki 1961] to find
the general formula for which proposals of Rittinger, Kick-Kirpičev and Bond are
special cases. These attempts concluded that these three proposals can be considered
as being the integrals of the same differential equation
dE 1
= −C N (2.4)
dx x
with
N = 2, C = CR for Rittinger
N = 1, C = CK for Kick-Kirpičev
N = 1.5, C = CB for Bond
2.4 Milling Equipments 107
2.4 Milling Equipments
Besides of energy considerations, especially for the energy consumed by plastic

deformation, the form of mechanical activation in high-energy milling is important.
The main stress types applied are compression, shear (attrition), impact (stroke) and
impact (collision), Fig. 2.3.
The multi-stage character of mechanical activation requires the application of
high-energy mills with different working regimes.
The principles of most frequently mills applied in high-energy milling are shown
in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.3 Main stress types in mills, R1 – compression, R2 – shear (attrition), R3 – impact (stroke),
R4 – impact (collision), circle – mass of milling media, square – mass of material charge,
rectangle – mass of mill wall [Heinicke 1984]
When using mills with application of balls as milling media, different motion of
the balls can be observed (Fig. 2.5). The motion can be described as cascading (A),
falling or cataracting (B) or centrifugal (C).
2.4.1 Vibration Mills
A vibration mill is an reservoir or tank-like type of mill containing material and

milling media, either wet or dry. The milling chamber is set in motion along a cir-
cular or elliptic trajectory by the rotation of out-of-balance weights. The three di-
mensional motion involves four factors: the speed of the vibration, the horizontal
amplitude, the vertical amplitude and the phase angle [Klimpel 1997]. The acceler-
ation of the vibration motion is specified by its frequency and amplitude.
The performance of a laboratory mill (Fig. 2.6) is characterized by high frequen-
cies (usually up to 25 rev s−1 ) but low amplitudes (2–4 mm).
Fig. 2.4 Types of mills for high-energy milling (the stress type is given in parenthesis): (A) ball
mill (R1–R4), (B) planetary mill (R1–R4), (C) vibration mill (R1–R4), (D) attritor – stirring ball
mill (R1–R4), (E) pin mill (R4), (F) rolling mill (R1–R2) [Boldyrev 1986]
Industrial mills operate at frequencies 16–19 rev s−1 and amplitudes below 6 mm.
The acceleration scarcely exceeds 10-times the gravitational acceleration (10 g).
There is a tendency in the design of vibration mills in an increase the amplitude
to 7–10 mm at frequencies sufficient to transport the charge. This will allow accel-
eration of the vibration motion to the values 12–20 g [Tkáčová 1989].
Milling media are usually balls, cylpebs or rods with degree of filling 70–80%.
The application of balls predominates, rods are preferred for coarse milling, cylpebs
are preferred for pulverizing [Schubert 1989].
The theory of vibration mills was elaborated [Bachmann 1940]. According
to Rose high frequency vibration is to be preferred and it is essential that the
Fig. 2.5 Types of motion in a ball mill: (A) cascading, (B) falling or cataracting, (C) centrifugal
[Bernotat and Schönert 1998]
Fig. 2.6 Laboratory vibration mill
dimensions of the milling bodies should be adjusted to the strength and particle
size of the feed [Rose and Sullivan 1961; Rose 1962]. In the opinion of Bernhardt
and Heegn the amplitude of the vibration mill and the quantity of the feed is
prime importance in mechanical and mechanochemical activation [Bernhardt and
Heegn 1976a, b; Heegn 1989].
Vibration mills are frequently applied for the preparation of very fine products
and in case of induced mechanical activation the nanosized particles have been pre-
pared [Baláž 1981]. Mechanical activation of solid, if performed in this type of
mill, usually requires long milling times and is often carried out as a batch process.
However, the residence time can be reduced to less than 30 minutes and mechani-
cal activation is in principle possible also in continuously operation vibration mills
[Husemann et al. 1976; Tkáčová et al. 1993].
An important disadvantage of vibration mills is their low output. Because of the
high-input of energy and the low throughput of material, the high temperatures are
developing in the mill. The high temperature is caused by the fact that the mill is
almost completely filled and by the complex trajectory of the grinding bodies within
the mill [Schubert 1989].
The new concept of vibration mills working in “eccentric” mode has been in-
troduced by Gock et al. [Beenken et al. 1996; Gock and Kurrer 1996, 1998, 1999;
Kurrer and Gock 1997] and applied in milling practice (Fig. 2.8).
Unlike conventional vibratory mills with circular vibrations, this machine per-
forms elliptical, circular and linear vibrations (Fig. 2.7). As a result of dismissing
the homogeneous circular vibrations, the motion process drastically changes: the
amplitude of the vibrations of the individual milling media increases, the rotation
speed of the grinding media filling increases and the direction of motion is irre-
versibly set. Apart from the surface area enlargement, eccentric vibratory milling
with 30 mm diameter balls have led to a mechanical activation of the material.
Fig. 2.7 Diagrammatic view of the eccentric vibration mill [Gock and Kurrer 1999]
Fig. 2.8 Industrial eccentric vibration mill ESM 656 (Siebtechnik, Germany) [http://www.
siebtechnik.com]
Fig. 2.9 XRD patterns of PbS nanoparticles mechanochemically synthesized in a laboratory

(A) and in an industrial mill (B) [Baláž et al. 2004]
Recently, various mechanochemical synthesis of the new nanosized materials

have been performed with this type of mill [Baláž et al. 2004, 2005; Godočı́ková
et al. 2006]. XRD patterns of synthesized PbS semiconductor particles are given in
Fig. 2.9. The values of 18 nm and 13 nm were estimated for PbS nanocrystallites
prepared in laboratory mill and industrial mill, respectively.
The grain size of the ball-milled solids are found to decrease with milling time
down to a constant value. An advantage of the use of high-energy milling is the
possibility to introduce large strains and produce nanocrystalline structures. The
product of milling is powder, typically a few micrometers in diameter, with the
internal nanocrystalline structure [Koch 1993].
2.4.2 Planetary Mills
The planetary ball mill (Fig. 2.10) owes its name to the planet-like movement of
its vial (s) (Fig. 2.4). Since the vials and the supporting disc rotate in opposite di-
rections, the centrifugal forces alternatively act in like and opposite directions. This
causes the milling balls to run down the inside wall of the vial – the friction effect,
followed by the material being milled and milling balls lifting by of and travelling
freely through the inner chamber of the vial and colliding against the opposite inside
wall [Suryanarayana 2001].
Planetary mills exploit the principle of centrifugal acceleration instead of gravi-
tational acceleration. The enhancement of the forces acting on the balls in relation
to the conventional ball mill is achieved by the combined action of two centrifugal
fields [Golosov 1971; Molčanov et al. 1988].
The charge inside vials performs two relative motions: a rotary motion around
the mill axis and a planetary motion around the vial axis (Fig. 2.11).
The application of laboratory-scale planetary mills for mechanical activation has
been studied intensively by Russian scientists [Golosov 1971; Molčanov et al. 1988;
Fig. 2.10 Laboratory

planetary mill Pulverisette 6
(Fritsch, Germany)
[http://www.fritsch.com]
Molčanov and Jusupov 1981; Avvakumov 1986]. Their general conclusion was
that, by observing certain conditions, these mills produce high mechanical activa-
tion after a relatively short milling time. In principle, it is possible to obtain the
gravitational accelerations in values 50–100 g. The energy density in these mills is
100–1000 higher than the energy density used earlier in conventional milling equip-
ments [Fokina et al. 2004].
However, it was noted that manufacturing of high throughput rate encounters
design difficulties. During the past decades the problem of continuous feeding of
Fig. 2.11 Movements of working parts and balls in a planetary mill

a material into a planetary mill has been successfully solved and novel planetary
mills of the industrial scale operating in a continuous mode are now manufactured
[Kochnev 1992; Kochnev and Simakin 1994]. In this mode the initial material is
continuously fed into the mill, with coarser powder returned for another cycle of
milling and the final fine or nanoscale powder product continuously provided as a
result of the milling process. The productivity per unit volume of the working cham-
ber for these mills is significantly higher (at least ten times) than that of conventional
ball mills. Industrial planetary mills of continuous action, characterized up to 20 g
acceleration and by productivity up to 3–5 tons of powder (of minus 10 micrometers
fraction) per hour, are now-commercially available [http://www.ttd.spb.ru].
2.4.3 Mixer Mills
Special mills have been developed in the USA under the trade name Spex mills
(Fig. 2.12). The common variety of the mill has one vial containing the sample and
milling balls, secured in the clump and swung energetically back and forth several
thousand times a minute. The back- and- fourth shaking motion is combined with
lateral movements of the end of the vial, so that the vial appears to be describing
a figure eight or infinity sign as it moves. The vial is vibrated with an amplitude
50 mm and a frequency of 20 Hz. These mills can be considered as high-energy
variety [Koch 1993].
Fig. 2.12 Laboratory mixer mill Spex 8000 (CertiPrep, USA) [http://www.utk.edu]
2.4.4 Attritors (Stirred Ball Mills)
The attritor was invented in 1922 by Szegvari in the USA for a quick dispersion of
fine sulphur particles needed to complete the vulcanization of rubber. After patent-
ing the principle of attritor in the fifties in the USA, in 1956 the license for their
manufacturing was transferred to Germany. This type of mill originally used for ap-
plications in chemical and pharmaceutical industry was later applied for powder and
extractive metallurgy. An attritor was the first high-energy mill used for preparation
of materials by mechanical alloying [Benjamin 1970].
Attritors (attrition mills, stirred ball mills) consist of a cylindrical grinding cham-
ber with a drive shaft having multiple impellers sticking out from the rotating shafts
(Fig. 2.13). There is a wide variety of impeller types including flat discs, discs with
various geometric openings, and concentric rings. This rotating shaft puts the fine
media, particles and, possibly a liquid into a stirring motion. The impellers energize
the balls charge, causing powder size reduction because of impact between balls,
between balls and container wall, and between balls, agitator shaft, and impellers
[Baláž 2000]. Common media materials are glass, sand, alumina, zirconia, silicon
carbide, steel, rubber, polyurethane and various plastics. Typical media sizes can
range from 0.5 to 4 mm in diameter. The density of the media used is important be-
cause the media need to move through the mix of particles, media and fluids. Cover
seals can be provided for processing under an atmosphere [Klimpel 1997].
Attritors use the comminution intensity between the contact surfaces of moving
balls, similar to the operation of conventional ball mills, but without the disadvan-
tages of the latter [Klimpel 1997; Püpke 1971; Netzsch 1974]. The most important
Fig. 2.13 Diagrammatic view

of the attritor [Klimpel 1997]
Fig. 2.14 Laboratory attritor

PC 2043 of batch mode of
operation (Union Process,
USA) [http://
www.unionprocess.com]
concept in the attritor is that the power input is used directly to agitating media to
achieve milling. It is not used for rotating or vibrating a heavy grinding chamber in
addition to the media.
Attritors can be operated wet or dry, in batch, circulation a continuous mode.
Batch attritors (Fig. 2.14) are used to process hard-to-mill materials, such as tung-
sten carbide, silicon carbide and various metals. The circulation attritor is a combi-
nation of an attritor and a holding tank.
The high circulation rate is achieved in this system. One advantage of the cir-
culation is that large quantities of material can be handled. Continuous attritors are
best suited for the continuous production of large quantities of material (Fig. 2.15).
Fig. 2.15 Industrial attritor LMZ 25 of continuous mode of operation (Netzsch, Germany)
[http://www.netzsch.com]
It was demonstrated that this type of mill may, in some instances, offer certain
advantages in comparison to other mills, e.g. vibration mills [Heegn et al. 1974,
1980]. If strontium ferrate is activated in a vibration mill then extensive amorphisa-
tion takes place even after brief milling. This result was detrimental to the later use
of this material because of deterioration of it magnetic properties. In contrast, when
milling was carried out in an attritor, the specific surface increased monotonously
while crystallinity was either preserved or it decreased much less than on milling in
a vibration mill.
Baláž documented the differences in vibratory and attrition milling on changes of
chalcopyrite milling (Fig. 2.16). From this Figure it is evident, that the products of
milling in an attritor and vibration mill differ in specific structural disordering. Ac-
cording to the published data, these differences are due to the differences in milling
environment and ball dimensions [Boldyrev 1983]. It is known that milling in aque-
ous environment and/or the use of small balls is more favourable for new surface
formation whereas dry milling and/or the use of larger balls favour amorphization.
Fig. 2.16 The relative intensity of the selected diffraction line, I/Io vs. specific surface, SA of chal-
copyrite CuFeS2 mechanically activated in a vibration mill (1) and in an attritor (2) [Baláž 2000]
2.4.5 New Mill Design
The brief review presented obviously could not cover all features of high-energy
mills. Special new designs of mills have been developed in recent years for
specialised purposes. The selected examples are given bellow and this list is, of
course, not complete.
Nishin Giken (Tokyo, Japan) has developed the mill with the ability to control the
temperature of milling from very low temperatures by spraying liquid nitrogen up
to a high temperature of 300◦ C by electrical heating [http://www.nishineng.com]. In
Australia concepts of magnetic mechanical milling and electric-discharge-assisted
mechanical milling have been developed [Calka and Wexler 2002]. This concept
of milling enhancement can result in both faster reactions and new synthesis and
processing routes. In Italy a new high-energy mill for the synthesis of nanophase
materials in large quantities has been designed and developed as described in [Miani
and Maurigh 2004]. ZOZ company designed several new concepts of attrition mill
scalable for production of nanosized materials [http://www.zoz.com].
2.4.6 Process Variables
There are several variables which influence the milling process (see e.g. Fig. 2.17).
Fig. 2.17 An overview of the main factors to be considered in the milling process [Campbell and
Kaczmarek 1996]
2.4.6.1 Type of the Mill
Usually specially designed mills are applied for special purposes. Sometimes the
stress mechanism is decisive for particle size reduction in the mill, sometimes it
is the size of the feed and the product size distribution which are most important
[Rhodes 1998].
2.4.6.2 Material of Milling Media
The material used for the milling media (milling chamber, vial, balls) is important
due to impact of the milling balls on the inner walls of the milling chamber. Some
specific materials are used for specialized purposes [Suryanarayana 2001]. Com-
monly materials include various steels (stainless, tool, hardened chromium, tem-
pered, bearing steel and tungsten carbide lined), tungsten carbide, zirconia, agate,
alumina and silicon nitride. The specific gravity plays an important role. In general,
high-density and larger balls give better results because of high impact forces on the
powders. The balls should be more dense than the material to be milled.
Even though most of the investigators generally use only one size of the milling
medium, there have been instances where different size balls have been used in the
same investigation. It has been predicted that the highest collision energy can be
obtained if balls with different diameters are used [Suryanarayana 2001].
Use of milling balls of the same size has been shown to produce tracks. Con-
sequently, the balls roll along a well-defined trajectory instead of hitting the end
surfaces randomly. Therefore, it is necessary to use several balls, generally a
combination of smaller and larger balls to “randomize” the motion of the balls
[Rhodes 1998; Suryanarayana 2001; Takacs and Pardavi-Horvath 1994].
The properties of materials used as milling media are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Milling media in high-energy milling [http://www.fritsch.com]

Material Main composition Density (g cm−3 ) Abrasion resistance
Agate SiO2 2.65 Good

Corundum Al2 O3 > 3.8 Fairly good
Zirconium oxide ZrO2 5.7 Very good
Stainless steel Fe, Cr, Ni 7.8 Fairly good
Tempered steel Fe, Cr 7.9 Good
Tungsten carbide WC, Co 14.7–14.9 Very good
2.4.6.3 Ball-to-Powder Ratio
The ball to powder ratio (BPR) or charge ratio is another milling parameter and
represents the weight ratio of the milling balls to the powder charge. A wide range
of BPR have been used in a variety of investigations from values as low 1:1 to as
high 220:1 [Suryanarayana 2001].
2.4.6.4 Extent of Filling of the Milling Chamber
It is necessary that there is enough space for the balls and the powder particles
to move around freely in the milling chamber. The filling depends on type of mill.
Generally about 50% of the space is left empty [Suryanarayana 2001] but in attritors
this value is 20–30%.
2.5 Accompanying Phenomena 119
2.4.6.5 Milling Atmosphere
The milling atmosphere can contaminate the powder and as a results milling is
frequently carried out in evacuated, argon, or helium charged milling chambers
[Suryanarayana 2001]. Other atmospheres can be used if particular effects are de-
sired. Nitrogen and ammonia have been used to produce nitrides and hydrogen at-
mospheres to produce hydrides [Calka 1991; Calka and Wexler 2002; Calka and
Radlinski 1991; Ogino et al. 1993; Chen et al. 1990, 1995; Schulz et al. 1995;
Murty and Ranganathan 1998]. The intention application of hydrogen in milling
chamber was a real breakthrough in hydrogen storage technology for synthesis of
nanocrystalline hydrides. The presence of air in the milling chamber can result in the
formation of oxides, oxisulphates or sulphates [Baláž 2000]. Contamination can be
avoided by milling the powders with a milling media made up of the same material
as that of the powders being milled.
2.4.6.6 Milling Speed
The milling speed can have an important influence but this varies with the type
of mill. Above a certain critical speed, the balls will be pinned to the walls of the
milling chamber and not exert any impact force on the powder. Below this critical
speed, however, the higher the milling speed, the higher the milling intensity will
be. For the higher speeds the temperature of the milling chamber may reach a high
value [Suryanarayana 2001].
2.4.6.7 Milling Time
According to many researchers the milling time is the most important milling pa-
rameter. However, the level of contamination will increase with milling time and
some undesirable phases may form if a powder is milled too long. Substantial re-
duction in particle size usually occurs with milling time and typically takes the form
of exponential decay.
2.5 Accompanying Phenomena
2.5.1 Temperature Effects
Since diffusion processes are involved in the formation of a nanostructure, it is ex-

pected that the temperature of milling will have a significant effect. Two kinds of
temperature effects during milling are usually taken into account: local temperature
pulses due to ball collisions and the overall temperature in a vial. During the milling
process part of the milled powder is attached to the vial walls and, other part is at-
tached to the balls. The remaining part is in a free state moving in the volume of the
milling chamber. All these parts have different temperatures [Suryanarayana 2001].
The temperature of the powder influences the diffusivity and defect concentration
in the powder thus influencing the phase transformations induced by milling. The
results of measurement and calculation of the milling temperatures show that there is
only a moderate temperature rise during milling and that local melting can be ruled
out [Murty and Ranganathan 1998]. Bi powder was milled and the temperature of
miling was calculated. The value was below its melting point 271◦ C [Koch 1997].
The temperature increase of the milling balls in two laboratory mills was studied
recently [Takacs and McHenry 2006]. The ball temperature remains below 100◦ C
in a SPEX mixer mill and it is cooler when flat-ended rather than round-ended vial
is used. Temperatures over 200◦ C are typical in a planetary mill operating at similar
milling intensities. The results presented in Fig. 2.18 were obtained using a Fritsch
P-5 mill with two vial sizes and rotational speeds. The final temperatures are indeed
much higher than the temperatures obtained with the SPEX 800 mill. The temper-
ature could be increased further via increasing the speed of the mill. In fact, the
highest temperature obtained with the smaller bowl was 327◦ C at 318 rpm. A de-
crease of the temperature is expected at very high speeds, as the balls stay attached
to the container wall for too long, reducing both heating and efficiency of milling
[Abdellaoui and Gaffet 1996]. It is suggested that the higher ball temperatures result
from more oblique collisions and friction, while the lower temperature but higher
intensity of the mixer mill with flat-ended vial is due to the larger portion of frontal
impacts.
Fig. 2.18 Ball temperature-milling time curves obtained using a Fritsch P-5 planetary mill. The
(+) and (x) symbols represent data with a 10-cm diameter milling bowl and 100 balls and 280 rpm
(+) and 200 rpm (x) speeds and the (Δ) and (◦) symbols correspond to a 7.5-cm bowl, 50 balls and
280 rpm (Δ) and 200 rpm (◦) speeds [Takacs and McHenry 2006]
2.5.2 Contamination
The serious problem which is usually cited in mechanochemical research is contam-

ination. The small size of milled particles, availability of large surface area, and for-
mation of new surfaces during milling all contribute the contamination of the pow-
der [Suryanarayana et al. 2001]. As mentioned above, the milling atmosphere can be
one source. However, if steel balls and milling chambers are used iron contamination
can contribute as a further factor. It is most serious for the high-energy mills. Low-
energy mills result in much less, often negligible Fe contamination. Other milling
media, such as tungsten carbide or ceramics, can be used but contamination from
such media is also possible. Surfactants (process control agents) may also be used to
minimize contamination. Using a “seasoned” milling chamber – i.e. media coated
with the product powder-resulted in very low values for Fe contamination [Davis
and Koch 1987; Koch 1997]. Application of shortest milling times and self-coating
of the balls with milled material can be also helpful [Suryanarayana et al. 2001].
2.5.3 Amorphization
During high-energy milling, the size of crystals decreases to some critical values.
Further energy supply to these crystals of limiting size causes further deformation
of crystals, energy accumulation in the volume or at the surface of crystals, and
subsequently amorphization [Boldyrev and Tkáčová 2001].
The occurrence of an amorphous phase is generally interferred by observing the
presence of broad peaks in the X-ray diffraction patterns. It is not possible to dis-
tinguish among solids which are truly amorphous, extremely fine grained or a solid
in which very small crystals are embedded in an amorphous matrix. Hence, it has
been the practice to recognize such observations as “X-ray amorphous”, suggesting
that the identification was done only by X-ray diffraction methods. It is desirable
that the X-ray diffraction observations are confirmed by other techniques as well
[Suryanarayana 2001].
2.5.4 Mechanochemical Equilibrium
The objective of high-energy milling is the preparation of a milled material having

the finess suitable for further application. However, this particle size reduction is,
in many cases, complicated by particle size enlargement where smaller particles
are put together to form larger entities in which the original particles can still be
identified. Experience shows that after achievement of a certain degree of dispersion
further comminution is reduced, or there may even be an increase of particle size,
due to the interaction of particles [Juhász and Opoczky 1990].
In a typical experiment, copper was milled in a mill loaded with steel balls for
110 hours followed by separation of milled material in a 60 μm sieve [Hüttig 1943].
Both the coarse and the fine fractions were milled for another 48 hours and a product
of approximately the same sieve analysis was obtained because of the comminution
of the coarse fraction and aggregation of the fines. Hüttig called the particle size
distribution and he demonstrated the same phenomenon with other brittle materials.
On the basis of these experiments Hüttig postulated the existence of an “equilibrium
state of comminution”.
Tanaka suggested the following equation for characterizing the kinetics of milling

S∞ = S∞ 1 − e−kWz (2.5)
where Wz is the energy input, S∞ the specific surface at equilibrium and k a constant
[Tanaka 1958].
Later the process of new surface area formation was described by equation

S = Sm 1 − e−k2 t (2.6)
where S is specific surface after time t and Sm is maximum specific surface

[Chodakov 1972]. Constant k2 implies the significance of rate constant of new sur-
face formation. Equation (2.6) describes also processes in which the formation of
new surface is limited by milling equilibrium after a certain time of milling.
Jimbo described the phenomenon characterized by the increase of the size, the
decrease of the specific surface area and the specific total pore volume with the
increase of milling time as “the negative grinding phenomenon” [Jimbo et al. 1990].
This phenomenon is in a very close relation to the aggregation and agglomeration
effects discussed in the next paragraph.
2.5.5 Agglomeration and Aggregation
In the course of the milling process a gradual deterioration of effectivity is to be

observed. The energy input proportional surface increase gets impossible to obtain.
A first explanation in mechanochemistry was given in the year 1937: with decrease
of particle size, the number of defect locations runs out hence the increase of milling
resistance, at extreme dispersity is approached [Smekal 1936]. Equations (2.5) and
(2.6) can be applied for the mathematical description of such process. As it is well
known in mechanochemistry, attaining a certain value, the surface area begins to
diminish. In Fig. 2.19 the characteristic plots are given for several sulphides after
application of high-energy milling.
Thorough investigation of this process on several solids has shown [Opoczky
1977; Beke 1984; Juhász and Opoczky 1990] that three stages can be clearly
distinguished:
Fig. 2.19 Specific surface area, S–S0 vs. time of mechanical activation, t: 1 – FeS2 , 2 – ZnS, 3 –
FeS, 4 – PbS, A – milling in air, B – milling in H2 O, S0 – specific surface area of non-activated
solid [Avvakumov 1986]
• the Rittinger stage, in which the interaction of particles can be neglected and
the energy input is approximately proportional to the new surface area formation
(Fig. 2.20a);
• the aggregation stage in which the new surface area produced is not proportional
to the energy input because of particle interaction (aggregation). However, the
degree of dispersion is still increasing significantly (Fig. 2.20b). The particles
adhere on each other. This adherence takes place without structural changes in
consequence of van der Waals forces of the magnitude 0.04–4 kJmol−1 . These
aggregates can be dissolved by slight mechanical intervention;
• the agglomeration stage in which the increase in dispersion first drops to a neg-
ligible value then stops altogether; it may even give way to a decrease of surface
area because of particle interaction (agglomeration). Here particles are grown
Fig. 2.20 Three stages during high-energy milling [Opoczky 1977]

together by chemical bonds of the magnitude 40–400 kJmol−1 and separation be-
comes impossible (Fig. 2.20c). Mechanochemical reactions and changes in the
crystal structures mainly occur at this stage.
To obtain agglomerates, binding forces must act between the particles. The pos-
sible mechanism can be divided into the following major groups: solid bridges (1),
interfacial forces and capillary pressure at freely movable liquid surfaces (2), adhe-
sion and cohesion forces at not freely movable binder bridges (3), attraction forces
between solid particles (4) and form-closed bonds (5) [Rumpf 1962]. Another classi-
fication into only two groups distinguishes between the presence of material bridges
between the primary particles in the agglomerate and attraction forces [Pietsch 1972,
1984].
The most important characteristic of all forms of agglomerates is their strength.
Rumpf defined the tensile strength as the tensile force at failure divided by the cross
section of the agglomerate. Because with high probability failure occurs as the result
of the highest tensile strength in all stressing situations, this proposal is justified.
Figure 2.21 illustrates the relative magnitude of the different bonds discussed
above as a function of particle size. We see that van der Waals forces become impor-
tant only for particles below 1 μm in size, adsorbed vapour forces are relevant below
80 μm and liquid bridge forces are active below about 500 μm [Rhodes 1998].
Van der Waals forces act between atoms and molecules without the transfer of
electrons from one partner to the other. Adhesion forces between solid particles can
be classified as long-distance forces (Coulombian-electrostatic and van der Waals
forces) or a short-distance attractive forces (chemical and intermediate bonds, e.g.
hydrogen bonds). Experiments and calculations support the view that the major role
in adhesion of solids is played by attractive electrostatic and van der Waals forces
[Juhász and Opoczky 1990].
Fig. 2.21 Theoretical tensile strength of agglomerates with different bonding mechanism
[Rumpf 1962]
According to many authors, the formation, rupture and severance of surface

bonds that are characteristic for particle interactions in high-energy milling can be
summarized as follows. After a relatively short period of milling and at relatively
low fineness the adherence of particles sets in as a consequence of van der Waals
adhesion forces. The distance between particles and the number of contacts plays an
important role in the appearance of adhesion. In real polydisperse systems the pres-
ence of very fine particles along with relative coarse particles will greatly promote
the formation of aggregates, and this accounts for the marked tendency for aggrega-
tion in milled products that have a broad range of particle sizes. Plastic deformation
at contact points greatly increases both the area of the adhesion forces and, thereby
increases the strength, compactness, and resistance to mechanical effects of par-
ticle agglomerates [Rumpf 1962, 1966, 1972–1974; Rumpf and Herrmann 1970;
Krupp 1967; Juhász and Opoczky 1990].
In the course of adhesion of particles in mechanochemically activated systems
the chemical interactions may also proceed at the contacting surfaces. These inter-
actions result in a very compact, irreversible adhesion of the particles and forming of
agglomerates. Agglomerates can be formed by various processes, e.g. by welding,
coalescence of crystals, by direct initiation at the contacting surfaces, or by means
of “melt-bridges” [Juhász and Opoczky 1990]. A typical agglomerate formed by
mechanical activation is given in Fig. 2.22.
In nanoparticles, van der Waals forces are extremely important. Particles in the
nanometer size range have a strong tendency to agglomerate owing to their relatively
large specific surface area and other properties, which in turn accentuates their van
der Waals interactions. Nanoclusters are only kinetically stable. They must be sta-
bilized against aggregation into larger particles. This is frequently performed by
adding further substances into the system (see next paragraph).
Fig. 2.22 A typical agglomerate of chalcopyrite CuFeS2 particles formed by mechanical activation
2.6 Surfactants
There are several expressions used in literature for substances which preferentially
adsorb onto the interfaces, prevent aggregation and stabilize the separated nanopar-
ticles. The terms such as surfactants, surface active agents, process control agents
and lubricants are most frequently applied.
In principle, stabilization can be accomplished by electrostatic (charge, or “inor-
ganic”) stabilization or steric (“organic”) stabilization [Overbeeck 1981].
Steric stabilization is achieved by surrounding particles with a layer of sub-
stances which are sterically bulky such as polymers. These large adsorbates provide
a steric barrier that prevents close contact of the fine particles (Fig. 2.23). The coil
dimensions of surfactants are usually larger than the range over which the attraction
forces between nanoparticles are active [Dutta and Hofmann 2004].
The water molecule plays here a special role. If a surfactant is added to water, its
hydrocarbon chain tend to self-associate to minimize contact with water molecules.
If the water is able to solubilize the polar head and the alkyl chains equally, no
aggregates are formed.
The shape of the surfactant (Fig. 2.24) plays an important role in forming the
assembly [Pileni 2003]. If the surfactant molecules have a very large polar head and
a small chain forming a cone shape (Fig. 2.24a), the chains tend to self-associate
to form a spherical aggregate called a normal micelle (Fig. 2.24b). If the surfactant
has a shape of a champagne cork (Fig. 2.24c) spherical reverse micelles are formed
(Fig. 2.24d). This is termed a water-in-oil droplet. In surfactant systems containing
large amounts of both oil and water, the shape and dimension of the aggregates
changes (Fig. 2.24e). Adding more water induces a new phase transition, with the
surfactant molecules reorganizing as a planar or lamellar film (Fig. 2.24f). The other
types of surfactant shapes are also possible as an onion shape on Fig. 2.24g.
Fig. 2.23 Steric stabilization of nanoparticles by polymeric surfactants [Klimpel 1997]

2.6 Surfactants 127
Fig. 2.24 Surfactant shapes and various self-assemblies in colloidal solution [Pileni 2003]
Electrostatic stabilization (Fig. 2.25) occurs by the adsorption of ions to the elec-
trophilic surface [Hunter 1987]. Electrostatic stabilization involves the creation of
an electrical double layer arising from ions adsorbed on the surface and associated
counterious which surrounds the particle [Dutta and Hofmann 2004].
Surfactant chemicals as a group have some unusual chemical and physical prop-
erties. In addition to the tendency for their adsorption at phase interfaces, they
Fig. 2.25 Electrostatic stabilization of nanoparticles by polymers [Aiken III et al. 1996]
also demonstrate several other important properties. One of these properties is self-
association between surfactant molecules of exactly the same structure leading to
the formation of micelles [Klimpel 1997].
In high-energy milling, surfactants have been used at a level of about 1–5 wt.% of
the total powder charge into the mill [Suryanarayana 2001]. The nature and quantity
of surfactants used and the type of powder milled would determine the final size,
shape, and purity of the powder particles. Use of a larger quantity of surfactants
normally reduces the particle size by 2–3 orders by magnitude. For example, it was
reported that milling aluminium for 5 hours produced a particle size of about 500 μm
when 1% stearic acid was used as a surfactant. However, when 3% of stearic acid
was used, the particle size was only 10 μm [Lai and Lu 1998]. Several surfactants
are given in Table 2.2.
The choice of polymer surfactants varies from case to case. They must be mobile
enough to provide access for the addition of monomer units, while stabile enough to
prevent the aggregation of nanocrystals [Mana et al. 2002]. By using surfactants (or
mixtures of surfactants) that bind differently to the different crystallographic faces,
we can control the shape of the nanocrystals [Puntes et al. 2001]. However, it should
be realized that there is no universal surfactant.
There have been several reports in literature that milling can be influenced by the
addition of surfactants into the mill [El Shall and Somasundaram 1984]. The most
of the results have been interpreted in terms of two major mechanisms.
The first mechanism is called Rebinder effect. According to this concept, the
adsorption of surfactants results in a decrease of the surface energy of solids
where by their strength and resistance to mechanical effects decrease [Rebinder
and Kalinovskaja 1932]. The classical explanation of the chemomechanical effect
is based on the Griffith’s theory of fracture of solids weakened by a priori cracks.
Molecules and ions of the surfactant intrude into the microcracks. The concept of
Rebinder effect comprises the whole complex of phenomena promoting deforma-
tion and fracture. The essential feature is that, because of the reversible interaction
of the solid with the surfactant, less work is required for the generation of new
surface. After Juhász and Opoczky, Rebinder concept about the reduction of sur-
face energy and the consequent decrease of fracture energy is untenable, since it
is known that fracture energy is primarily determined by plastic deformation at the
crack front and that stresses arising on fracture surfaces can only marginally, if at
all, influence the propagation of cracks [Juhász and Opoczky 1990].
Table 2.2 Surfactants and the quantity used (adapted after Suryanarayana 2001)
Benzene – Octane 1%
Ethanol 4% Polyethyleneglycol –
Methanol – Sodium chloride 2%
Graphite 0.5% Stearic acid 1%
Heptane 0.5% Toluene 5 ml
References 129
The second mechanism states that adsorption of surfactants influences the prop-
erties of fragments created by milling. This mechanism is based on the empirical
observation that surfactants alter the conditions of energy and mass transport by
high-energy milling.
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http://www.unionprocess.com
http://www.utk.edu
http://www.zoz.com
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Chapter 3
Selected Identification Methods
3.1 Introduction
During the history of mechanochemistry development the number of applied identi-

fication methods gradually increased. At the beginning, these methods were directed
to at obtaining the characteristics of mechanically activated solids, mostly in in-
tegral form. At present, the number of methods applied in the investigation of
mechanochemical phenomena comprises a few tens [Baláž 2000]. Moreover, with
the intergrowth of mechanochemistry into nanoscience, special techniques such as
TEM, HRTEM, AFM, etc. have been applied in different fields. This chapter is con-
cerned with principle of several representative identification methods which are cur-
rently used for characterization of nanosized solids prepared by mechanochemical
processes.
3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy
If a molecule is placed in an electromagnetic field (IR light), a transfer of energy

from the field to the molecule will occur only when Bohr’s frequency condition is
satisfied
ΔE = hν (3.1)
where ΔE is the difference in the energy between two energy levels, h is Planck’s
constant (6.6262.10−34 Js) and ν is the frequency of light. If ΔE = E1 − E2 , where
E1 is a vibrational state of higher energy than E2 , the molecule absorbs radiation
when it is promoted from E2 to E1 and emits radiation when it reverts from E1 to E2
[Berčı́k 1977].
According to its wave nature, electromagnetic radiation is characterized by two
quantities: the wavelength λ and the frequency ν . In the IR spectral region the wave-
length is usually given in units of [μm], the frequency is given in units of [s−1 ].
The product of λ and ν is the velocity of light (c = λ ν ). An additional parameter
which is commonly used in vibrational spectroscopy instead of the frequency is the
−
wavenumber ν , defined as the reciprocal of the wavelength in cm [cm−1 ]. The fol-
lowing relation exists between the wavelength λ , the frequency ν , the wavenumber

134 3 Selected Identification Methods
− −
ν and the velocity of light c: ν [cm−1 ] = 104 /λ [μ m] = ν [s−1 ]/c [cm s−1 ]. Then the
relation
− hc
ΔE = hν = hc ν = (3.2)
λ
can be written.
The method of infrared spectroscopy is based on absorption of IR light by
molecules of gaseous, liquid or solid substances. The ability of molecules to absorb
radiation is due to changes in the energetic state of electrons, vibrational motion of
atoms and rotation of whole molecules. The difference in the energy ΔE is equal to
the sum of energy differences between individual states
ΔE = ΔEν + ΔEe + ΔEr (3.3)
where ν denotes vibration state, e electron state and r rotation state.

In diatomic molecules, the vibration of point masses occurs only along the line
connencting two atoms. In polyatomic groups (e.g. CO3 , SiO4 , PO4 groups), the sit-
uation is much more complicated because all the atoms perform their own harmonic
oscillations.
The normal modes of vibration are usually classified by type and symmetry. Two
main types can be distinguished: (1) valence or stretching vibrations (symbol ν),
characterised by changing bond lengths, and (2) planar bending vibrations (symbol
δ), where one or more bond angles change, while bond lengths remain constant.
Additionally, in out-of-plane bending vibrations (symbol γ), one atom oscillates
through a plane defined by at least three neighbouring atoms (e.g. CO3 group).
Stretching frequencies are usually higher than bending frequencies. There are also
two symmetry modes: (1) symmetric vibrations (index s), where the symmetry of
the atomic group is retained, and (2) asymmetric vibrations (index as), where the
symmetry changes during the vibrations. In highly symmetric atomic groups de-
generate vibrations occur. In this case two or more vibrations, depending on the
degree of degeneracy, have different coordinates but the same energy, giving cause
for absorptions at the same wavenumber [Beran et al. 2004].
The comparison of normal vibrations of water and carbon dioxide illustrates the
various vibrations of a non-linear and a linear molecule (Fig. 3.1). Both molecules
have two stretching vibrations, one symmetric νs (ν1 ), where both bonds are
stretched simultaneously, and one asymmetric νas (ν3 ), where one bond is com-
pressed, while the other is elongated. The H2 O molecule has one bending vibra-
tion δ(ν2 ). The CO2 molecule, as a consequence of its linearity, has two bending
vibrations which are perpendicular to each other (ν2a and ν2b ). Both bending vibra-
tions of CO2 have the same energy, they are doubly degenerate [Beran et al. 2004;
Nakamoto 1978].
Changes in the number or position of IR absorption bands are mostly analysed in
terms of structural changes. Characteristics “group frequencies” can be observed in
the spectra of all compounds that contain the respective functional groups and can
be used for their identification. Frequencies of atomic groups relevant for inorganic
compounds are compiled in Table 3.1.
3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 135
Fig. 3.1 Normal vibrations of the H2 O and CO2 molecules. ν1 – symetric stretching, ν2 – asymet-
ric stretching, ν3 – bending, ν2a , ν2b – doubly degenerated bending vibrations of CO2
Table 3.1 Characteristic group frequencies in cm−1 of functional atomic groups relevant for com-
mon minerals [Nakamoto 1978; Liese 1974]
Group Stretching Bending Group Stretching Bending
vibrations vibrations vibrations vibrations
MOH 3700–2900 1300–400 PO3−4 1100–950 600–550

H2 O 3700–2900 1650–1600 SiO4−4 1000–800 550–400
CO2−
3 1600–1300 950–650 Six O2−y 1200–900 800–400
NO−
3 1500–1250 900–700 AsO3−
4 900–750 400
BO3−
3 1300–1200 800–600 VO3−
4 900–750 400
SO2−
4 1200–1050 700–600 WO2−
4 850–750 350–300
In an infrared spectrometer the sample is gradually exposed to radiation of dif-

ferent frequencies and it is determined at which frequencies the absorption occurs
(Fig. 3.2). The radiation of source Z goes through sample S and impinges on prism
P where it is resolved in monochromatic components.
Fig. 3.2 The scheme of IR spectrometer. Z – source of radiation, S – sample, P – prism,

D – detector, R – registration
The gradual rotation of the prism results in radiation of different frequencies

falling on the detector D where both the frequency and radiant flux is registered. The
obtained spectrum expresses the dependence of absorption on radiation frequency.
As to a double-beam instrument, absorbance A = − log Φ/Φ0 is recorded instead of
radiant flux Φ.
The classical way to carry out infrared spectroscopy is to scan the frequency of
the incoming light to enable the detector to record changes in the light intensity
for those frequencies at which the sample absorbs energy. A major disadvantage
of this method is that the detector records meaningful information only while the
scan is passing through absorption lines, while most of the time is spent scanning
between lines when the detector has nothing to record. To overcome this deficiency,
modern infrared spectrometers irradiate the sample with a broad band of frequencies
simultaneously, and then carry out a mathematical analysis of the resulting signal,
called a Fourier transformation, to convert the detected signal back into the classical
form of the spectrum. The resulting signal is called a Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) spectrum.
Figure 3.3 shows the IR spectrum of nanocrystalline ZnS prepared by high-
energy milling of zinc and sulfur in a planetary mill in a presence of air and scanned
by classical IR. The spectrum consists of a series of bands with frequencies cor-
responding to sulphates (Table 3.1). In comparison with the standard spectrum of
ZnSO4 .7H2 O it was concluded the formation of zinc sulphate as the product of zinc
sulphide mechanochemical surface oxidation.
The application of infrared spectroscopy in examining sulphides is associated
with problems caused by the general application of solids and, in particular, with
the structure of sulphides. These problems are reflected both in data collection and
interpretation and include the special properties of nanophase sulphides.
Sulphides are typically characterised by the low strength of interatomic bonds
and these are excited in the low wavenumber range υ < 1000–400 cm−1 where IR
Fig. 3.3 IR spectrum of ZnSO4 .7H2 O [Baláž et al. 1997]

3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 137
spectroscopy is least efficient. These solids have the main absorption bands in the
region υ < 400 cm−1 , and only pyrite FeS2 and arsenopyrite FeAsS have high peaks
at υ ∼ 400 cm−1 [Liese 1974; Kössler 1970; Abramov et al. 1982; Farmer 1974;
Boldyrev 1976]. The spectra of sulphides are characterized by broadened peaks due
to the specific features of the crystalline structure and the nature of Me-S bonds. The
form of the spectrum is greatly affected by the proportion of the metallic bond. The
scatter and absorption of infrared radiation by free electrons causes smoothing and
partial “broadening” of the peaks which overlap and the spectra becomes indistinc
and complex to interpret.
The majority of currently available IR spectrometers work in the regions above
400 cm−1 with a few operating above 200 cm−1 . Due to this restriction the IR
method in solids is limited by the method of preparing samples for actual mea-
surements. Satisfactory results have been obtained with the method of preparing
tablets in a mixture with potassium bromide which uses the effect of plasticity of
halides of alkali metals at elevated pressure [Kössler 1970]. The KBr method solves
the problems associated with low transmission of sulphide powders but it is essen-
tial to overcome other procedural problems such as, for example, purity of KBr,
evacuation of tablets, application of optimum pressure in tablet pressing, possible
interaction of KBr with sulphides, etc.
Despite these restrictions, the IR spectroscopy method has been used in ex-
amining the effects resulting from mechanical activation of solids [Juhász 1978;
Vlasov and Kakazej 1979; Boldyrev 1983; Heinicke 1984; Molčanov et al. 1988;
Chodakov 1972; Boldyrev and Meyer 1973; Molčanov and Jusupov 1981; Juhász
and Opoczky 1990; Kulebakin 1983; Avvakumov 1986]. The application possibili-
ties of the method are utilised mainly for
• evaluating the particle size and disordering of their structure and
• identifying new compounds formed on the surface of solids.
The first case is concerned with the solids of the oxide and silicate type
[Duyckaerts 1959; Hlavay 1978; Hlavay and Inczédy 1979] and is based on
Rayleigh’s equation which links the scatter of light S with the particle diameter d
S = kd 3 λ −4 (3.4)
where λ is the wavelength of incident light. The effect of the particle size is then
reflected in the situation in which the absorption band does not change frequently
but becomes more intense and narrower with the reduction in particle size. Since the
shape of the absorption band also depends on the orientation of the crystal lattice,
polymorphism etc., is also possible to evaluate the disordering of the structure of
the solids which takes place during their mechanical activation [Hlavay 1978]. The
methods of infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis have been com-
pared in evaluating the degree of disordering of a series of oxide-type solids. Cer-
tain correlations have been found between the particle size and the quantitative data
obtained by means of these methods [Hlavay and Inczédy 1979].
Since the low strength of bonds of sulphides may, during mechanical activation,
cause their disordering or even fracture, it may be expected that the dry high-energy
Fig. 3.4 IR spectrum of PbS, mechanical activation: 1–0 min, 2–2 min, 3–15 min [Godočı́ková
et al. 2002]
milling (in air) will be accompanied by the formation of oxide compounds on their
surfaces. Sulphates, oxysulphates, carbonates and other species can be formed. For
such species the IR spectroscopy is a suitable identification tool because of their
typical wavelengths (see Table 3.1). The typical example can be seen in Figs. 3.3
and 3.4.
The IR spectrum of non-activated lead sulphide PbS contains weak bands at 1130
and 1073 cm−1 which are characteristic for the sulphate group. The spectra of me-
chanically activated samples are more rich for the occurence of the bands. The bands
at 1160, 1077 and 610 cm−1 belong to PbSO4 , the band at 457 cm−1 corresponds to
the sulphate group and bands at 793–797, 778–777 and 417 cm−1 is due to admixed
SiO2 .
3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a surface analytical technique based on

the photoelectric effect which was described by Einstein in 1905. Each atom in the
surface has core electron with the characteristic binding energy is approximately
equal to the ionization of that electron. If monochromatic X-rays of hυ energy im-
pinge the sample surface, the energy of the photon is adsorbed completely by the
core electron of an surface atom. If the photon energy is large enough, the core
electron will then escape from the atom and emit out of the surface. In XPS, these
3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 139
photoelectrons are collected and their kinetic energy Ek is determined resulting in a

recorded spectrum of electron intensity as a function of the measured energy. Using
Einstein’s equation for photoelectric effect
Ekin = hυ − EB (3.5)
where EB – the binding energy and hυ – the X-ray photon energy, it is possible
to calculate the binding energy EB for a certain intensity peak since the incoming
X-rays have a known frequency. This binding energy is material dependent. By com-
paring the XPS spectrum with tables of known elements and bindings, the chemical
composition on the surface is determined. The variation of binding energy results in
the shift of the corresponding XPS peaks ranging from 0.1 eV to 10 eV. This effect
is termed chemical shift which can be used for studying the chemical status of el-
ement in the surface. Therefore, XPS was sometimes called Electron Spectroscopy
for Chemical Analysis (ESCA).
Since the number of photoelectrons of an element is dependent upon the atomic
concentration of that element in the sample, XPS is used not only to identify the
elements but also to quantify the chemical composition. After the value of peak
intensity (the peak area after background removal) is obtained, the atomic concen-
tration of an element, ci can be expressed as

Ii Si
ci = (3.6)
∑ Ii Si
where Ii is the peak intensity for element i, and Si is the sensitivity factor for the
peak i [O’Connor et al. 1992]. Quantitative accuracy is 5%.
The theoretical elaboration of XPS method was developed in Sweeden by a group
of Siegbahn, who in 1981 won the Nobel Prize for his work in developing the tech-
nique [Siegbahn et al. 1969].
The scheme of spectrometer is represented in Fig. 3.5. A sample is irradiated with
monochromatic X-rays AlKα where hν = 1486.6 eV and the energy of the emit-
ted electrons is measured. The energy analyzer is, in principle, a monochromator
Fig. 3.5 The scheme of XPS spectrometer. Z – X-ray source, V – vacuum, S – sample, A – energy
analyzer, D – detector, E – electronic control
of electrons which transmits only electrons of a certain kinetic energy. The beam
is monochromatized using Bragg reflection on a crystal and is then directed to-
wards the sample. This whole part of the instrument is kept in an ultra-high vacuum
environment to avoid sample and instrument contamination due to adsorption of
molecules.
Equation (3.5) adapted for measurement on a spectrometer assumes
Ekin = hυ − (Ek − φs ) (3.7)
where φs is the work function of spectrometer which is constant for a given spec-
trometer. For practical purposes, the values of hυ and ϕs are combined within the
spectrometer constant and the value of EB can be immediately calculated from the
measured value of Ekin .
The result of measurement is a XPS spectrum which gives the dependence of
intensity of the detected signal on the kinetic energy of electron (Fig. 3.6). The
spectral peaks correspond to different bonding states of electrons. The penetration
depth of the exciting X-rays amounts to micrometers by decimal order. However,
the escape pathlength of the emitted electrons and thus the thickness of the analyzed
surface layer is substantially smaller due to interactions between the electrons and
the components of the layer. The escape pathlength depends on kinetic energy of
the electrons and is equal to 0.5–8 nm making XPS highly surface selective. Thus
for studying the bulk characteristics of samples, identical chemical composition in
surface and bulk is a necessary (but not sufficient) postulate [Nefedov 1984].
Fig. 3.6 XPS survey spectrum of HgS

3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 141
Every line of a photoelectron spectrum is characterized by its binding energy,

shape, width and, as the case may be, splitting. These data are a source of infor-
mation about electron structure (e.g. oxidation state of the present elements) and
chemical composition of the surface layer of the investigated sample. Thus, quanti-
tative analysis is feasible, but owing to the microscopically heterogeneous structure
of powdered sample it cannot be recommended as a method of estimating the bulk
composition [Boiteux 1986]. The typical depth resolution is 5–30 nm.
If the values of binding energy are to be more precisely measured in the regime of
high resolution, the spectrometer is usually calibrated for two main lines: Au 4f7/2
(EB = 84.0 eV) and Cu 2p3/2 (EB = 932.7 eV). Other than hydrogen and helium, all
elements can be determined, most of them to the level of 0.1 atomic percentage. The
amount of sample necessary for analysis is usually equal to a few milligrammes.
A potential complication in measuring the values of binding energy consists in
accumulation of positive charge on the surface of sample. This cause the shift of the
whole spectrum by the value of this charge towards higher values of binding ener-
gies. In this case, the binding energy has to be calibrated with an internal calibrating
peak. The C 1s peak from the adventitious carbon-based contaminant with binding
energy of 284.8 eV, is commonly used as the reference for calibration. This effect is
most problematical in electrically non-conductive samples. In order to ascertain the
value of charging or to eliminate this phenomenon, a great number of methods have
been put forward [Briggs and Seah 1983]. However, none of them is of universal
use and corrections need to be made for each sample.
In the case of unknown samples, the first spectrum is usually taken over a wide
energy interval (EB = 0–1000 eV) as a survey spectrum (Fig. 3.6) which serves for
identification of the elements present. Then special spectra are taken over the close
energy interval to identify special species (Fig. 3.7).
The finding that non-equivalent atoms of a certain element give spectra with mea-
surable difference between binding energies is of outstanding analytical importance.
This difference is called chemical shift ΔEch by analogy with a similar effect ap-
pearing in Mössbauer spectroscopy [Briggs and Seah 1983]. The non-equivalence
of atoms may be due to the differences in their chemical environment or to different
location of atoms in the lattice.
The structure of individual lines is examined at high resolution over a narrow
energy interval. Besides the fundamental electron lines we may observe [Briggs and
Seah 1983]
• spin-orbital splitting which results in a doublet for all levels except s-electrons,
• multiplet splitting which may appear if there are unpaired electrons on valence
levels of the system,
• satellite lines and bands of different origin and some peaks of low intensity which
are due to non-monochromaticity and
• impurity of X-ray sources.
These structures frequently help us to interpret the measured results and in the
case of multiplet splitting and satellites they are also a valuable source of additional
information about the state of nanocrystalline solids.
Fig. 3.7 XPS S 2p spectrum

of PbS. 1 – PbS mineral, 2 –
PbS synthetic [Pugh and
Bergström 1986]
Fig. 3.8 XPS survey

spectrum of PbS, mechanical
activation: 1 – 0 min, 2 –
15 min [Godočı́ková
et al. 2002]
3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy 143
Fig. 3.9 XPS S2p spectrum

of PbS, mechanical
activation: 1 – 0 min, 2 –
15 min [Godočı́ková
et al. 2002]
The typical example for nanocrystalline lead sulfide PbS prepared by mechanical
activation is given in Figs. 3.8 and 3.9. Pb, S and contaminating C and O are seen
in the survey XPS spectrum. The sulphate sulphur enrichment on the surface is
illustrated by Fig. 3.9, where spectra of S 2p electrons for both are given. While
about 42% of hexavalent sulfur is present in the surface layer of the non-activated
PbS, it increased to 70% in the nanocrystalline PbS after milling.
3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope capable

of producing high resolution image of a sample surface. The first electron micro-
scope was built in 1931 by Ruska and Knoll in Berlin. Ruska won in 1986 the Nobel
Prize for his works in scanning electron microscopy. The technique was greatly de-
veloped through the 50s and has allowed great advances in different fields of science
and technology.
The advantage of SEM in comparison with the optical microscope which utilizes
light is its depth of focus and resolving capability. For the optical microscope, the
depth of focus is the distance above and below the image plane over which the image
appears in focus. As the magnification increases in the optical microscope, the depth
of focus decreases. The three-dimensional appearance of the specimen image is a
direct result of the large depth of field of the SEM. It is this large depth of fields that
is the most attractive feature of the scanning electron microscope. The steep surface
and edges (cliffs) tend to be brighter than flat surfaces resulting in images with good
three-dimensional contrast (Fig. 3.10).
The other feature of SEM is resolving power, which is orders of magnitude bet-
ter than that of an optical microscope because the wavelength of the probing beam
is orders of magnitude smaller. The limit on what size can be resolved is set by
the wavelength. The wavelength of the visible light used in optical microscopes is
Fig. 3.10 SEM micrographs of CuFeS2 , mechanical activation: 1 – 0 min, 2 – 60 min [Baláž 2000]
between 400 and 700 nanometers. The resolving powers of high-quality light mi-
croscopes are limited by the wavelength of imaging light to about 200 nanometers.
Scanning electron microscopy uses electrons with energies of a few thousand elec-
tron volts, energies a thousand times greater than that of visible light (2–3 eV). How-
ever, even electron microscopes with higher resolution are used. Thus the method
provides valuable information regarding the structure arrangement, density and ge-
ometrical features of nanomaterials.
Fig. 3.11 The scheme of scanning electron microscope

3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy 145
The scheme of scanning electron microscope is given in Fig. 3.11. A beam of

electrons is generated in the electron gun by heating a filament in a vacuum tube.
This beam is accelerated and focused by magnetic lenses on the specimen. The
electrons are collected by detectors, converted to a voltage, and amplified. This am-
plification generates a point of brightness on a cathode ray tube (or TV screen). An
image is built up simply by scanning the electron beam across the specimen in exact
synchromy with the scan of the electron beam in the cathode ray tube.
Accelerated voltage in microscope range from 10 to 40 kV, and this means that
the incident electrons have sufficient energy to eject core electrons from atoms in
the targeted specimen. Some of the electrons do not cause electrons to be ejected but
are instead backscattered in the direction of the incident beam. In addition, a finite
number of secondary electrons are emitted from the specimen via the photoelectron
and Auger processes. Thus, three types of signals can be monitored. Backscattered
electrons will have an energy and probability of backscater that is directly propor-
tional to the average atomic number (Z) of the sample target. Thus, by rastering the
beam over the sample surface and using a position sensitive detector set to energies
just below the incident electron energy, SEM can produce a backscattered image of
the sample where bright areas correspond to high – Z regions and dark areas cor-
respond to low Z – regions. In contrast, the secondary electrons have an extremely
short mean free path within the solid and are thus only detected if they are produced
within the upper nanometric layer of the sample surface. The third type of signal is
Fig. 3.12 SEM micrograph of Cu/FeS nanocomposite [Baláž et al. 2002a]

characteristic X-ray emission. If rastering of the incident beam is switched off and
an EDS detector is used to collect a spectrum of the characteristic X-rays emitted
from the sample, a spatially resolved chemical analysis can be acquired [Wogelius
and Vaughan 2000].
The combination of SEM 2nd EDS techniques for analysis of nanocrystalline
composite particles is illustrated by Figs. 3.12A and 3.13B.
Fig. 3.13 EDS of Cu/FeS nanocomposite from Fig. 3.12 [Baláž et al. 2002a]
3.5 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy
The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is the most powerful type of microscope
ever built. It was invented in 1981 by Binning and Rohrer, who went to collect the
Nobel Prize in 1986.
In the STM method, which is a non-optical one, a sharp metallic tip is brought
to within a few nanometers of a conducting surface and a small potential difference
3.5 Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy 147
(usually in the mV range) is applied between the tip and the sample. If the tip is bi-
ased positively relative to the sample, electrons will flow from the sample to the tip
in a process known as electron tunneling which produces a small, yet measurable,
current. The magnitude of this current is exponentially dependent on tip – surface
separation, the larger the distance between the tip and the surface, the smaller the
current. Thus, by measuring the magnitude of the tunnelling current as the tip is
moved across the surface, a topographic image of the surface can be obtained. In
practice, this can be achieved by mounting a tip on a piezoelectric tube scanner.
Because the piezoelectric material employed has the useful property of expanding
or contracting when a voltage is applied across it, the tip can be manoeuvred with
ultra-high precision (to within 0.01 nm). The experimental system, as illustrated in
Fig. 3.14, gives the possibility of such high precision movement in x, y and z di-
rections and hence producing a 3-dimensional image of the surface at nanometer
resolution [Wogelius and Vaughan 2000].
Using STM it is possible to image surfaces of conducting and semiconducting
materials such as metals, most metal sulfides and many metal oxide minerals, down
to the atomic level. STM is particularly useful in nanoscale chemistry labs, where
the study of defects and physical structure of synthetic chemical compounds is of
vital importance.
STM images are sensitive to chemisorptive bonding at the surface. Several stud-
ies have used this effect to great advantage in the study of sorbed and defective
overlayers of semiconductors. In semiconductors, electronic wavefunctions (states)
are localized on particular atoms and we should be able to distinguish between dif-
ferent atomic sites.
Fig. 3.14 The scheme of scanning tunneling microscope [Wogelius and Vaughan 2000]
Fig. 3.15 STM image of PbS [Eggleston and Hochella, Jr. 1990]
Figure 3.15 shows STM image of lead sulphide PbS. The symmetry of a surface
unit cell is slightly distorted due to drift but two different sites are distinguishable.
The sites in the row labeled “A” are narrower than those in the row labeled “B”. The
surface cell is drawn so that wider (B) sites occur at the cell corners and narrower
(A) sites occur at cell edge midpoints. Based on the interpretation of this and other
images, we suggest that the B sites correspond to sulphur and the A sites correspond
to lead.
In nanotechnology scanning tunneling microscope can be used to alter the ob-
served material by manipulating individual atoms, creating ions by removing in-
dividual electrons from atoms and then reverting them to atoms by replacing the
electrons.
3.6 Atomic Force Microscopy
The atomic force microscope (AFM) was invented by Binning, Quate and Gerber
in 1986. The principles involved in this technique as illustrated in Fig. 3.16a, in-
volve using a piezoelectric scanner to move a tip across the surface of the sample.
The tip is mounted on a cantilever of force constant between approximately 0.001
and 0.2 Nm−1 . When this tip is brought just into contact with the surface, it expe-
riences a very small force (of the order of nanonewtons) as a result of interaction
with the surface atoms. In this kind of operation in AFM, the tip is scanned across
the surface at the tip-sample separation corresponding to a chemical bond length
of the tip-sample combination. As it is scanned across the surface, the tip will be
subject to varying attractive and repulsive forces of the kind associated with van
der Waals bonds, and the movements of the tip will be registered by deflection of
cantilever.
3.6 Atomic Force Microscopy 149
Fig. 3.16 The scheme of atomic force microscope [Wogelius and Vaughan 2000]
In a typical AFM instrument, as illustrated in Fig. 3.16b, deflection of the can-

tilever is monitored by reflecting a laser beam from the back of the cantilever on to
a segmented photodetector [Wogelius and Vaughan 2000].
The AFM has several advantages over the electron microscope. Unlike the elec-
tron microscope which provides a two – dimensional image of sample, the AFM
provides a true three – dimensional surface profile (Fig. 3.17). While an electron
microscope needs an expensive vacuum – environment for proper operation, the
AFM can work perfectly well in an ambient or even liquid environment.
Fig. 3.17 AFM image of nanosized ZnS prepared by mechanochemical synthesis

While STM method is suitable for studying of conducting and semiconducting

materials, the AFM offers the same atomic resolution capabilities but also for insu-
lating materials. Besides imaging, it is also one of the foremost tools for the manip-
ulation of matter at the nanoscale.
3.7 Transmission Electron Microscopy
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an imaging technique whereby a beam

of electrons is focused onto a specimen causing an enlarged version to appear on a
fluorescent screen or layer of photographic film, or can be detected by a charge cou-
ple device (CCD) camera. TEM is a powerful technique for direct imaging the pro-
jected shapes of nanoparticles particularly when the particle size is small (Fig. 3.18).
A modern transmission electron microscope can be schematically shown in
Fig. 3.19. The whole measuring system is composed of a illumination system, a
specimen stage, an objective lens system, a magnification system, data recording
system(s) and a chemical analysis system. The electron gun is the heart of the illu-
mination system, which typically uses LaB6 thermionic emission source or a field
emission source. The LaB6 gun gives a high illumination current but the current den-
sity and the beam coherence are not as high as those of a field emission source. Field
emission source is unique for performing high coherence lattice imaging, electron
holography and high spatial resolution microanalysis. The illumination system also
includes the condenser lenses that are vitally important for forming a fine electron
Fig. 3.18 TEM image of Ag-nanoparticles in the channels of zeolite [http://www.rz-berlin.mpg.de]

3.7 Transmission Electron Microscopy 151
Fig. 3.19 The scheme of transmission electron microscope [Wang 2000]
probe. Specimen stage is a key for carrying out structure analysis, because it can
be used to perform in-situ observations of phenomena induced by annealing, elec-
tric field, or mechanical stress, giving the possibility to characterize the physical
properties of individual nanostructures. The objective lens is the heart of a TEM,
which determines the limit of image resolution. The magnification system consists
of intermediate lenses and projection lenses and it gives a magnification up to 1.5
million. The data recording system tends to be digital with the use of a CCD, allow-
ing quantitative data processing and quantification. Finally, the chemical analysis
system is the energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and electron energy-loss
spectroscopy (EELS); both can be used complimentary to quantify the chemical
composition of the specimen. EELS can also provide information about the elec-
tronic structure of the specimen [Wang 2000].
In the most powerful diffraction contrast TEM instruments it is possible to pro-
duce a diffraction pattern image which is directly analogous to the planes of atoms
in crystal. TEM is certainly the most direct method, providing real images of the
particles. However, lack of contrast or overlap of particles frequently complicates

the analysis of TEM images, because the particle boundaries cannot always be seen
preciously. The degree of agglomeration is critical when bulk nanostructures or
nanometer dispersions are desired. If crystallites are weekly agglomerated, form-
ing small necks between the crystallites, and the crystallites are equiaxed, nearly
spherical in shape, then TEM and BET average particle sizes should be nearly iden-
tical. The average TEM crystallite size, and the average BET particle size should
be within 30% of each other in order to have weak enough agglomeration to form a
nanostructured material.
High – resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) is a technique to
obtain interference patterns from very thin specimen (thickness smaller than 15 nm).
To interpret the images in terms of atomic coordinates simulations are usually nec-
essary. HRTEM is used on magnifications above 400 000 and is the common tool to
image grain boundaries, interfaces, nanocrystals, and lattice defects in atomic scale
(Fig. 3.20).
Fig. 3.20 HRTEM image of GeSi nanocrystal in 4H-SiC [http://www.physik.uni-jena.de]
3.8 X-Ray Diffraction
The X-ray beams are electromagnetic radiation of wavelength about 10−10 m. They
occur in that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum between γ-rays and the ul-
traviolet. The discovery of X-rays in 1895 enabled to probe crystallite structure of
3.8 X-Ray Diffraction 153
solids at the atomic level. The inner atomic distances in solids are in the same area
as the wavelength of X-rays. This is the reason why beams are reflected from the
planes of atoms within the crystal. The reflection occurs according to Bragg law
nλ = 2d sin Θ (3.8)
where n is the order of reflection, λ is the wavelength, d is the spacing between

crystal planes and Θ is the angle between transmitted beam and sample (Bragg
angle). The wave character of X-rays was revealed by Max von Laue in 1912. Owing
to the small wavelength they show high penetrating power.
The X-ray diffraction experiments requires an X-ray source, the sample under in-
vestigation and a detector to register the diffracted X-rays. The scheme of a powder
X-ray diffractometer is given in Fig. 3.21.
The result of measurement is the X-ray diffraction pattern which represents a
set of diffraction lines (or peaks) of different intensities. The position of a diffrac-
tion line is fixed and the overall pattern is characteristics for a given substance
(Fig. 3.22).
The ideal powder diffraction pattern consists of narrow, symmetrical, delta-
function like peaks, positioned according to a well-defined unit cell. The aberrations
from the ideal powder pattern can be conceived as [Ungar 2004]
• peak shift
• peak broadening
• peak asymmetries
• anisotropic peak broadening and
• peak shape.
In principle, the most common changes manifest themselves by peak shift and/or
peak broadening (Fig. 3.23).
Fig. 3.21 The scheme of powder X-ray diffractometer

Fig. 3.22 X-ray diffraction pattern of nanocrystalline PbS [Baláž et al. 2004b]
The shift in a diffraction line is the result of uniform strain or macrostrain while
the broadening of a diffraction line is due to non-uniform strain or microstrain. The
most common sources of strain can be given as: dislocations, stacking faults, twin-
ning, microstresses, grain boundaries, internal stresses, coherency strains, chemical
heterogeneities, point defects or precipitates and inclusions. If a crystal is broken
into smaller incoherently diffracting domains by dislocation arrays (small-angle
boundaries), stacking faults, twins, or other extended imperfections, then crystal-
lite size broadening occurs. A particle may consist of one or more crystals (primary
grains). The different crystals may be separated by large angle boundaries as well
as amorpous or crystalline interfaces. It is worth mentioning that the particle size
itself can not be detected and measured by the XRD diffraction method. Similarly,
the size of crystal is not accessible by XRD diffraction. The size of a crystal is, in
general, equal to or less than the particle size. Each crystal may consist of one or
more crystallites and the size of a crystallite is in general equal to or less than the
crystal size. The crystallite size can be determined by means of powder diffraction,
but not directly. Each crystallite may consist of one or more coherently reflecting
domains.
X-ray diffraction lines broaden when the crystal lattice becomes imperfect. Ac-
cording the theory of kinematical scattering, X-ray diffraction peaks broaden either
when crystallite become smaller than about a micrometer or if lattice defects are
present in large enough abundance [Ungar 2004]. The whole picture is illustrated in
Fig. 3.24.
Fig. 3.23 Peak shift and broadening of a diffraction line [Maeder 1986]
Several theoretical models have been developed to obtain structural informa-

tion through mathematical analysis of the XRD profile [Scherrer 1918; Warren and
Averbach 1950; Williamson and Hall 1953]. The leading idea is to find a way how
to substract the effect of instrumental broadening of X-ray diffraction profile and
how to approximate peak shape by proper mathematical model. In Williamson Hall
method it is assumed that the size and strain profile components have Cauchy shape
and a method for deconvolution of size and strain broadening by looking at peak
widths as a function of 2Θ is applied. The corresponding integral breadths are lin-
early combined and the integral breadth of the total physical broadening βf can be
written as (known also as Cauchy-Cauchy or Williamson-Hall plot)
β f cos Θ 1 2 sin Θ 1
β f∗ = = + 2ε d ∗ ; = = d∗ (3.9)
λ Dv λ d
To make a Williamson Hall plot, a plot of β f∗2 should result in a straight line,
and the values for size and strain can then be obtained from the intercept, equal to
Dv , and the slope of strain line respectively. Others variants of the Williamson-Hall
Fig. 3.24 The peak broadening of a diffraction line [Pourgahramani and Baláž 2008]
method exist, adapting Gaussian shaped functions. The Cauchy-Cauchy (or often
called the Williamson-Gaussian) and Gaussian-Gaussian peak shape functions are
used most frequently.
In practice, various methods of determination of diffraction line broadening are
used for investigating the microstrain in mechanically activated solids (Fig. 3.25).
The HWB (diffraction line broadening) can be found out by measuring the width
of diffraction line at half of its maximum intensity (Imax ) whereas ILB (integral
width) has to be calculated from
Fig. 3.25 Diffraction line broadening (HWB) and integral width (ILB) of X-ray line
[Ludwig 1978]
F
ILB = (3.10)
Imax
where F stands for the area under the diffraction line whose maximum intensity is
Imax .
The diffraction line broadening depends on the experimental conditions used in
the measurement of the diffraction peak (instrumental line broadening) and on the
properties of the measured solid phase (physical line broadening). For obtaining
further information from physical line broadening it is necessary to eliminate instru-
mental line broadening. The correction can be achieved by comparing the obtained
result with the resulting diffraction of the sample that has not been disordered by
mechanical activation [Klugg and Alexander 1974] or by eliminating instrumental
effects by means of correction coefficients [Köchendorfer 1944].
The physical line broadening is dependent on two principal factors
• crystallite size (called coherently diffracting domains) and
• lattice strain which is created by microstrain.
In mechanical activation these factors can be effective either jointly or separately.
A serious problem that faces us is to distinguish the size effect from the strain effect.
The possibility of determining the both coincident effects has been described by
[Köchendorfer 1944] and is represented in Fig. 3.25. According to this procedure
the quantities b cos θ and b/ tan θ are plotted against Bragg angle θ. The change in
b cos θ characterises the lattice strain while the crystallite size is responsible for the
change in b/ tan θ.
Provided b cos θ is independent of θ, then the physical line broadening b depends
only on crystallite size D. Provided b/ tan θ is independent of θ, then the physical
line broadening b is due only to lattice strain and the relative lattice strain Δε /ε can
be calculated from formula
Δε b
= 1000 (3.11)
ε 4r tan θ
Fig. 3.26 Effect of crystallite size and lattice strain on diffraction line broadening: 1 – crystallite
size, 2 – lattice strain and crystallite size [Ludwig 1978]
If the crystallite size and the lattice strain are simultaneously present in mechan-
ically activated solids, both values can be assessed on the basis of physical broad-
ening of two selected diffraction lines by using the equations
Krλ (b2 cos θ2 sin θ2 − b1 cos θ1 sin θ1 )

D= (3.12)
b2 cos θ2 b1 cos θ1 (sin θ2 − sin θ1 )
Δε λ (b2 cos θ2 − b1 cos θ1 )

= (3.13)
ε D (b2 cos θ2 sin θ2 − b1 cos θ1 sin θ2 )
where the symbol K, r, and λ stands for the shape factor, the radius of goniometer
and the wavelength of the X-radiation used, respectively. Subscripts 1 and 2 corre-
spond to two diffraction lines for which θ2 > θ1 .
An advantage of XRD method under discussion in nanoscience is that this
method provides a very simple possibility for estimating the particle size from
broadening of the XRD lines by using the Scherrer formula
Kλ
D= (3.14)
b cos θ
where D is the particle size, λ is the wavelength of the X-ray radiation used, b is the
line width at half of the maximum peak intensity on a 2θ scale (HWB), θ is the angle
of the considered Bragg reflection and K is a constant close to unity [Scherrer 1918].
Values for the coefficient K depend on such factors such as the geometry of crys-
tallites and are unfortunately, not always consistently used in the literature. More-
over, XRD is sensitive to the size of coherent scattering domains which significantly
differ from the particle size in the case present lattice defects or amorphous surface
layers which is frequent case in mechanochemistry.
Frequently the formula (3.14) is simply used with K = 1 to give a rough estima-
tion of particle size. For more precise calculations, the formula should reflect the
geometrical properties of the sample; that is, one should take into account factors
such as the shape of crystallites and the size distribution because the number of
parallel lattice planes responsible for the line broadening may locally vary in the
sample. Initially, Scherrer developed his formula for cubic crystallites and gave a
value K = 0.94. In nanoscience a nearly spherical particles are present and value for
K = 1.2 was derived and used for such type of particles including semiconductor
nanocrystals [Borchert et al. 2005; Nanda et al. 1999, 2000].
In Fig. 3.27 a powder X-ray diffractogram for nanocrystalline CuPt3 sample is
given with values of d calculated after formula (3.13) with K = 1.2.
In Table 3.2 comparison of particle diameter estimation by XRD and TEM meth-
ods for the sample is given.
Several methods have been compared for calculation of the crystallite size and
strain values for mechanically activated hematite α-Fe2 O3 [Pourgahramani and
Forssberg, 2006; Pourgahramani and Baláž 2008]. The values obtained by ap-
plication of Scherrer, Williamson-Hall and Warren-Averbach methods are given
in Fig. 3.28 as a function of specific energy input by high-energy milling. The
crystallite sizes decrease and strain values increase drastically as the specific energy
Fig. 3.27 Powder X-ray

diffraction patterns of CuPt3 .
The four available reflections
have been fitted with
Gaussian profiles [Borchert
et al. 2005]
input grows. Among all of methods, the Scherrer equation gives the smallest crys-
tallites and the highest values of strain.
In literature there are also other relationships which estimate the change in real
structure of mechanically activated crystalline substances [Ludwig 1978].
The degree of structure disorder F by formula has been defined
(ILB)x
F= (3.15)
(ILB)0
where (ILB)x is integral width corresponding to the mechanically activated sam-

ple and (ILB)0 is integral width corresponding to non-activated (reference) sample
Table 3.2 Nanosized particle size estimation by XRD and TEM methods [Borchert et al. 2005]
Method Diameter (nm) and standard deviation
XRD (111) 5.09

XRD (200) 4.92
XRD (220) 5.33
XRD (311) 4.98
XRD average 5.1±0.2
TEM average 4.86±0.45
Fig. 3.28 Variation of crystallite size and strain obtained using different methods with specific
energy input by mechanical activation of α-Fe2 O3 [Pourgahramani and Forssberg, 2006]
[Patzak 1966]. Parameter F is a summary quantity for all factors which bring about
a broadening of diffraction line (after elimination of instrumental line broadening).
Thus we can obtain relative values in which the effect of activation on a given sub-
stance is reflected.
Another relative method serving for estimation of the degree of crystallinity (con-
tent of crystalline phase) X is the method put forward by Ohlberg and Strickler.
The effect of mechanical activation can be evaluated by a mass fraction of the crys-
talline phase in the activated sample, X compared with the reference substance (non-
activated substance) which is assumed to correspond to 100% crystallinity. Thus it
holds that
U0 Ix
X= 100 (3.16)
I0 Ux
where U0 and Ux denote the backgrounds of non-activated (reference) sample and
activated sample while I0 and Ix are integral intensities of diffraction lines of
non-activated (reference) sample and activated sample, respectively [Ohlberg and
Strickler 1962].
Equation (3.16) is based on the assumption that the mechanical activation is not
accompanied by a texture error (e.g. due to preferential orientation where there was
none in the non-activated sample). Sometimes, the complementary value of amor-
phization A (also called degree of amorphization or content of X-ray amorphous
phase) is used. It is defined by equation
A = 100 − X (3.17)
The precision of determination of individual X-ray – quantities varies and is de-

pendent on a great number of factors. An important factor is elimination of the effect
of primary extinction by removing the particles exceeding 40 μm [Johan et al. 1970].
The primary particle size can be determined with precision of 5–10% up to the up-
per limit of 200 nm size of nanoparticles and in the case of lattice strain up to any
small value. The precision of determination of the content of crystalline phase also
varies within the range of a few percent.
The problem of precise size determination is multiplied in diffraction patterns of
nanometer-sized particles. Single crystal nanoparticles exhibit features in diffrac-
tion that are size-dependent, including slight shifts in the position of Bragg peaks,
anomalous peak heights and widths. In fact, the familiar concept of a diffraction
peak begins to loose meaning when considering diffraction from such small par-
ticles. There are some important consequences, which have been known for some
time [Grigson and Barton 1967]
• not all peaks associated with a particular structure are resolved in small crys-
talline particles
• those peaks that are resolved may have maxima that do not align with expected
bulk peak positions
• peak shapes, peak intensities and peak widths may differ from extrapolated bulk
estimates
• few minima in intensity between peaks actually reach zero and
• small, size-related features appear in the diffraction pattern.
The very small grain size of clusters in nanometer-sized particles gives their
diffraction pattern the appearance of an amorphous material. Of-course they are not
amorphous. In short, the common assumption that there exist some kind of under-
lying long-range order in the system under study does not apply to nanometer-sized
particles [Gleiter 1989]. It must also be remembered that the entire diffraction pat-
tern contains structural information about the nanoparticles and therefore that good
quality data should be collected for the whole profile, not just in the more intense
regions (peaks) of the diffraction pattern [Zanchet et al. 2000].
In this case techniques applying the concept of short-range order can be applied.
The most proper is the technique of X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) which
explores variations in the absorption coefficient of matter with phonon energy. When
a monochromatic X-ray beam passes through a material, its intensity is reduced by
various interaction processes (scattering, absorption, etc.) For hard X-rays (more
than 1000 eV), the photoelectric effect dominates [Koningsberger and Prins 1988].
Based on the energy of ejected electrons it is possible to roughly divide the absorp-
tion spectrum in two regions, according to different interaction regimes with the
surrounding atoms
• XANES (X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure): ≈ 0–40 eV above E0 (E0 – the
threshold photon energy for core electron excitation), yielding information about
symmetries and chemical state
• EXAFS (Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure): ≈ 40–1000 eV above E0 ,

yielding information about coordination numbers and inter-atomic distances.
A large number of EXAFS studies have been done on nanocrystalline semi-
conductors. For example, Rockenberger et al. examined nanocrystals of CdS in
the range 1.3–12 nm in diameter with different types of surface stabilizing agents
[Rockenberger et al. 1997].
For diffraction, it would be desirable to include a variety of techniques in future
studies of nanometer sized particles in order to obtain a coherent picture of their
structure.
3.9 Mössbauer Spectroscopy
Mössbauer spectroscopy is a versatile technique that can be used to provide informa-

tion in many areas of mechanochemistry and nanoscience. It can give very precise
information about chemical, structural, magnetic and time-dependent properties of
a solid.
In 1957 Mössbauer showed that nuclear radiation can be emitted or absorbed
recoilless if the atoms a placed in a solid state. This new phenomena originally
called recoil-free nuclear resonance fluorescence later become commonly known as
the “Mössbauer effect” and author received the Nobel Prize in 1961 for his work
[Mössbauer 1958].
A schematic illustration of the principle of the Mössbauer effect is given in
Fig. 3.29. The γ-photons emitted from a special radioactive source are resonantly
absorbed by the corresponding nuclei of a suitable absorber and registered by a
detector.
The Mössbauer effect occurs when atoms are in a solid lattice or matrix. The
chemical binding energies in solids (1–10 eV) are much greater than free atom recoil
energies, ER . For entire crystal, which can be order of 1015 greater than a single atom
Fig. 3.29 Principle of the Mössbauer effect

3.9 Mössbauer Spectroscopy 163
ER is negligible. However, although the nucleus is bound within the lattice it is still
free to vibrate. The recoil energy can still be transferred to the lattice as a quantised
lattice vibration, or phonon. If the recoil energy is less than the lowest quantised
vibration mode, then a recoil free event occur.
Suitable Mössbauer isotopes are those with a relatively low energy of the γ-
radiation and therefore a high recoil free fraction as well as a comparatively long
mean lifetime. The most appropriate isotope is 57 Fe which has been used in more ex-
periments than all the other 40–50 possible isotopes. 57 Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy
uses 57 Co source. The half-life of 57 Co is 271.7 days and this isotope decays by
electron capture to the I = 5/2 excited state of 57 Fe. After several steps the excited
iron isotope release and energy quantum of 14.41 keV with suitable properties for
Mössbauer effect. Usually 57 Co atoms are applied in a Rh foil matrix which pro-
vides a solid environment for the 57 Co atoms with a high recoil-free fraction and a
cubic, non-magnetic site environment to produce a high recoil-free fraction and a
cubic, non-magnetic site environment to produce mono-energetic γ-rays.
Figure 3.30 shows a scheme of a Mössbauer spectrometer. The source veloc-
ity is controlled by a transducer which is oscillated with constant acceleration. A
waveform generator sends a reference waveform to the drive amplifier. This signal
is then sent to the vibrator where it is converted to a mechanical oscillation of the
drive shaft and source. The detector is a proportional counter. The pulse magnitude
from the detector is processed and amplified. The Mössbauer spectrum is then ob-
tained on a recorder after accumulating the count-rates by means of a multichannel
analyzer which gives the dependence of the measured number of impulses on the
velocity of moving source.
Experiments are usually performed with stationary absorber whereas the moving
source is kept at ambient conditions.
The interaction between a nucleus and its surrounding environment is known
as a hyperfine interaction. In practice, only three kinds of hyperfine interactions
Fig. 3.30 The scheme of Mössbauer spectrometer [Bland 2002]

Fig. 3.31 Hyperfine interactions in Mössbauer spectroscopy: a – isomer shift (δ or IS), b –

quadrupole splitting ΔE0 (or QS), c – magnetic splitting (Hef )
are considered in Mössbauer spectroscopy: isomer shift, quadrupole splitting and

magnetic splitting (Fig. 3.31a). The values of these parameters are dependent on
kind and magnitude of the hyperfine interactions between charge distribution and
magnetic moment of 57 Fe and electric and magnetic field acting on nucleus.
Isomer shift (δ or IS) arises due to the non-zero volume of the nucleus and the
electron charge density due to s-electrons within it, leading to an electric monopole
(Coulomb) interaction which alters the nuclear energy levels. The isomer shift (IS)
provides information about the local chemical bonding. For this reason, it is fre-
quently called chemical shift (δ). The magnitude of isomer shift increases with the
decreasing density of the s-electrons surrounding the nucleus and with increasing
density of the d-electrons (note: 3d-electrons screen 4s-electrons and thus reduce
their density on nucleus).
The isomer shift is a measure of the deviation of Mössbauer spectrum from the
zero point on the scale of velocity v of the source (Fig. 3.29), the zero point is
referred to a standard (usually elemental Fe). On the basis of the values of the isomer
shift we can estimate the type of chemical bond, oxidation state and coordination
number of iron. For example, Fe2+ and Fe3+ have configurations of (3d)6 and (3d)5
respectively. The ferrous ions have less s-electron density at the nucleus due to the
greater screening of the d-electrons. This produces a positive IS greater in Fe2+ ion
than in Fe3+ ion (Table 3.3).
As the shift cannot be measured directly is it quoted relatively to a known ab-
sorber. For example 57 Fe Mössbauer spectra will be often quoted relative to α-Fe at
room temperature.
Quadrupole splitting ΔE0 (or QS) is a consequence of interaction between the nu-
clear quadrupole moment and the gradient of the electric field at the site of nucleus.
3.9 Mössbauer Spectroscopy 165
Table 3.3 Values of isomer shift IS for bivalent and trivalent iron in sulfides [Marfunin and
Mkrtčjan 1967]
Oxidation state of Fe +2 +3
IS (mm s−1 ) 0.38–1.20 0.34–0.47
The value of the quadrupole splitting is proportional to the deviation of nuclear

surroundings from cubic symmetry (note: if the symmetry of surroundings of the
nucleus is cubic, then QS = 0). The neighbouring ions affect the wave functions
around the nucleus and thus QS gives information about the size and symmetry of
the surrounding crystal field. In the case of an isotope with I = 3/2 excited state,
such as 57 Fe or 119 Sn, the excited state is split into two substances mI = ±1/2 and
mI = ±3/2. This is shown in Fig. 3.31b, giving a two line spectrum or “doublet”.
The distance between the centroid of both lines and the zero point of the veloc-
ity scale corresponds to the isomer shift. Both lines should have equal intensities
except for the occurrence of an anisotropic recoil-free fraction in a polycrystalline
sample or in the presence of texture or relaxation. The quadrupole splitting ΔE0
is another important parameter for the application of Mössbauer spectroscopy in
mechanochemistry and nanoscience, because ΔE0 provides a wealth of information
on the electronic and crystallographic structure.
Magnetic splitting (Hef ) is a consequence of the interaction between the nu-
clear magnetic dipole moment and internal magnetic field at the nucleus. Owing
to splitting of the ground level of 57 Fe into two sublevels and of the excited first
level into four sublevels and taking the selection rules into account, six possible γ-
energies arise. The allowed transitions between these produce a six-line spectrum
(Fig. 3.31c). The distance between the first and sixth line of spectrum characterize
the effective magnetic field of nucleus Hef with QS = 0. The magnetic hyperfine
splitting gives information about magnetic moments and their magnetic arrange-
ment relative to the electric field gradient and is also important for qualitative
analysis.
In mineralogy the application of Mössbauer spectroscopy is conditioned mainly
by the presence of iron though there are records of the spectra of minerals with tin
and tungsten as Mössbauer isotopes [Greenwood and Gibb 1971; Bancroft 1973;
Malševa 1975; Vaughan and Craig 1978]. The outstanding sensitivity of Mössbauer
spectroscopy enables the resolution of Fe2+ from Fe3+ with a relative precision of
±1% which is a great advantage for determining the oxidation state of iron. The
method is more sensitive when compared with chemical analysis and the results
of measurements are not affected by the presence of accessory ions of transition
metals which coincide, e.g. in the course of dissolution preceeding a chemical anal-
ysis. The methods of XRD analysis as well as other methods, such as EDS anal-
ysis or electron microprobe analysis, however, are not able to distinguish between
the above-mentioned oxidative states. For iron it is also possible to determine elec-
tronic configurations (low or high spin), coordination symmetry (tetra-or octahedral
positions) and the pertinent deviations.
166
Table 3.4 Mössbauer data for selected sulfides

Mineral Temperature (◦ C) IS∗ (mm s−1 ) QS (mm s−1 ) Hef (kgauss) Reference
Sphalerite 27 0.66 0.80 – Marfunin and Mkrtčjan 1967

−193 0.86 2.04 Scott 1971
27 0.64–0.67 0.62–0.67
Wurtzite 27 0.69 0.80 Marfunin and Mkrtčjan 1967
−193 0.91 2.05
Pyrite 27 0.30 0.60 Imbert et al. 1963
−196 0.31 0.61 Temperley and Lefevre 1966
27 0.31 0.61
−192 0.40 0.62
Marcasite 27 0.27 0.51 Temperley and Lefevre 1966
−192 0.37 0.50
Arsenopyrite 27 0.25 1.05 Imbert et al. 1963
−196 0.26 1.07
Chalcopyrite 27 0.20 0 350 Vaughan and Burns 1972
−193 0.27 0 365 Marfunin and Mkrtčjan 1967
27 0.20 0 246 Cabri and Goodman 1970
−196 0.37 0.17 206 Greenwood and Whitfield 1968
Bornite 27 0.38 0 Marfunin and Mkrtčjan 1967
−193 0.48 0.20
27 0.39 0.16 Vaughan and Burns 1972
−196 0.52 0.25 Greenwood and Whitfield 1968
∗ relative to metallic iron
3 Selected Identification Methods
3.10 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance 167
The Mössbauer spectrum characteristic of a certain mineral can be used for the
identification of individual minerals in a mixture (the so-called “fingerprint” tech-
nique). The spectra of sulphides, oxides, hydroxides, jarosites, silicates etc. are
currently identified and quantitatively evaluated. The sensitivity of the hyperfine
structure to deviations caused by surroundings of the Mössbauer atom enables the
study of changes in the stoichiometry of minerals. In Table 3.4 the Mössbauer pa-
rameters for different sulfides are summarized.
However, Mössbauer spectroscopy alone rarely provides sufficient insight into a
nanosized solid for a full and proper understanding of its properties [Campbell and
Kaczmarek 1969]. The information obtained by other techniques such as mentioned
in previous paragraphs is also needed. In Fig. 3.32 such approach is illustrated.
Fig. 3.32 Mössbauer spectra (left) and XRD patterns (right) for mechanochemical synthesis of
nanosized troilite FeS according to reaction FeS2 + Fe → 2FeS, T-troilite FeS, P-pyrite FeS2 ,
Q-quartz SiO2 [Baláž et al. 2004a]
3.10 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) also known as electron spin resonance

(ESR) and electron magnetic resonance (EMR) deals with paramagnetic compounds
to study the magnetic properties of solids. The method was discovered by Zavoisky
in 1944 in USSR who published the first EPR spectrum of CuCl2 .2H2 O.
The electron paramagnetism is a result of the existence of unpaired electrons
which have magnetic moments. If a substance containing unpaired electrons is put
into strong magnetic field two energy levels arise. These levels correspond to con-
formable and nonconformable orientation of the electron magnetic moment to the
external magnetic field. The difference between energies of both levels satisfies the
so-called resonance condition of EPR and is equal to
−
→
ΔE = gμB Bo (3.18)
−
→
where g, μB and Bo stand for g-factor of spin-orbital interaction, magnetic mo-
ment of electron (Bohr magneton) and induction of magnetic field, respectively. The
Eq. (3.18) is the fundamental equation in EPR theory. Knowledge of g-parameter
gives us information about paramagnetic center electron structure. Due to several
reasons g parameter of EPR signal for many paramagnetic atoms in solid state has
different value. In the case of free ion, the g parameter has isotropic properties and
its value being equal to 2.0023. In practice single paramagnetic probe never occurs
but only population of probes with many paramagnetic centers. If this configuration
of probes is in thermal equilibrium, statistical placing is described by Boltzmann
distribution. In general, the g parameter is an anisotropic quantity with deviation
from the mentioned value of g arising as a consequence of orbital contributions to
the total magnetic moment of electron [Hedvig and Zentai 1969].
The magnetic moment of electron (Bohr magneton) is coupled with the nuclei
that it is associated with. Most nuclei and their isotopes have a magnetic moments
characteristic of them. The magnetic moment of electron interacts with the nuclear
magnetic moment. This results in multiple lines in EPR spectrum. When the system
has more than one unpaired electron, the energy levels are split even in the absence
of applied magnetic field due to the interaction between the electrons. It is known
as the zero-field splitting. The splitting of the energy levels can be given by (2S+1),
where S is the total spin the electron. The nuclear hyperfine splitting is given by
(2I+1), where I is the nuclear quantum number.
The experimental equipment for taking EPR spectra is represented in Fig. 3.33.
The source of microwave radiation is a clystron K. The radiation is passed through a
metallic waveguide T into the resonance hole R containing the sample V and subse-
quently to the detector D. This detector transforms the microwave radiation in direct
Fig. 3.33 The scheme of

EPR spectrometer. K –
klystron, T – waveguide, R –
resonance hole, D – detector,
SJ – magnet, V – sample, A –
amplifier, Z – registration
3.10 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance 169
current. The splitting of magnetic energy is achieved in the field of strong electro-
magnet SJ. After reaching the condition of resonance, i.e. when the microwave ra-
diation is absorbed by the sample, the energy in the resonance hole decreases. The
obtained signal is amplified in an amplifier A and recorded. The record of signal Z
expresses the dependence of absorption of radiation on variable magnetic field and
for better resolution it is given in the form of the first derivative of absorption signal
(Fig. 3.34).
The most commonly used EPR spectrometers are in the range of 9–10 GHz.
However, advances in electronics have facilitated the development of spectrome-
ters working at frequencies ranging from several hundred MHz to several hundred
GHz.
Useful information about the structure and magnetic properties of the solids like
hyperfine couplings, intermolecular interactions, exchange coupling, etc. can be ob-
tained by EPR method [Wertz and Bolton 1972; Pilbrow 1990].
The technique is very sensitive and it is possible to detect sub-micrometer quan-
tities of paramagnetic species. The most frequent paramagnetic ions are ions of tran-
sition metals of the 3d-group, ions of rare earth metals of the 4f-group and donor
admixtures. These ions have unpaired electrons in incomplete orbitals. Natural sub-
stances often contain these ions which are either within their crystal structure, or are
present in the form of admixtures.
However, the paramagnetic centres present are not always of genetic origin and
can also originate from the breakage of chemical bonds giving rise to free rad-
icals or from the trapping of electrons in defects of solids (colour centres). The
colour centres were originally attributed to halides of alkali metals but were subse-
quently also identified in other solids. We distinguish centres F, V, N, Z1 and others
[Henderson 1972]. F-centre and a V-centre are represented in Fig. 3.35. In principle,
the electrons in F-centres are not bound and migrate between the cations surround-
ing the hole (vacancy) due to removal of an anion from the crystal lattice site. For
instance, the formation of V-centre can be interpreted by the idea that the electrons
are bound to a neutral atom formed by tearing an electron away from an anion. The
neutral atoms fall into holes and thus form the V-centres [Rákoš 1988].
Fig. 3.34 EPR spectrum: 1 – normal spectrum, 2 – 1st-derivative

Fig. 3.35 F-centre and V-centre in the structure of a crystalline solid
In the field of study of mechanical activation the EPR method has proved to be very
useful [Vlasov and Kakazej 1979; Boldyrev 1983; Avvakumov 1986; Tkáčová 1989;
Baláž 2000]. In the course of high-energy milling the surface area of solids is disor-
dered, the bonds between atoms are interrupted and radicals, atoms or molecules
come into existence. These structures often cannot react rapidly with other and
are therefore detectable by the EPR method. The point, linear and volume defects
generated in the process of milling represent a notable source of paramagnetism.
For instance, the vacancies which are due to breakage of chemical bonds belong
among point defects. As a matter of fact, the F-centre represented in Fig. 3.35 is a
new defect due to an electron trapped in an anion vacancy. The admixture centres
which bring about considerable distortion of interatomic bonds also belong among
point defects. They are frequently used as paramagnetic markers which are either
introduced in the form of admixtures into the investigated object or are formed in
this object in the process of technological operation. The addition of manganese is
frequently employed for this purpose. The disturbances produced in this element are
relatively small which brings about long times of relaxation and a good detectabil-
ity [Ljudvig and Vudberi 1964]. The EPR spectrum is fairly distinguishable and
its identification is facilitated by the fact that manganese exhibits a characteristic
spectrum of hyperfine interaction comprising 6 lines. Each line of hyperfine struc-
ture contains 5 components of fine structure owing to which the total number of
lines in the spectrum is equal to 30. In crystals, subject to strain and in polycrys-
talline materials only one resonance line of manganese can usually be observed. In
literature, we can find information about the correlation of parameters of the EPR
spectrum of bivalent manganese with particle size of mechanically activated peri-
clase [Kakazej 1974] or with concentration of defects in crystalline lattice of this
solid [Koloskova 1962; Hennig et al. 1984].
EPR has been applied in nanoscience to study conduction electrons in metal
nanoparticles, and to detect the presence of conduction electrons in nanotubes to
determine where in the tubes are metals or very narrowband semiconductors [Poole
and Owens 2003]. (ZnS:Mn) semiconductor nanoparticles have been prepared and
EPR method was applied for characterization of Mn2+ ions distribution in ZnS ma-
trix (Fig. 3.36).
3.11 Conclusion 171
Fig. 3.36 EPR spectra of (ZnS: Mn) nanocrystals, A – classical precipitation, B – precipitation
with addition of metacrylic acid [Baláž et al. 2002b]
3.11 Conclusion
The advanced methods of nanocrystalline solids identification described in previous

paragraphs do not cover the whole spectrum of the possible methods related to the
fine particles behaviour. Characterization of degree of dispersion, particle size dis-
tribution and specific surface area are not covered here. There is a great number of
publications which cover this field [Chodakov 1972; Juhász 1978; Boldyrev 1983;
Heinicke 1984; Avvakumov 1986; Molčanov et al. 1988; Tkáčová 1989; Juhász and
Opoczky 1990]. Examples of the application of the advanced identification methods
will be presented in further chapters of this monograph.
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Chapter 4
From Minerals to Nanoparticles
4.1 Introduction
In a typical technological process, the minerals are transformed by liquid and/or

gas phase reactions at high temperatures and pressures. The final products are then
separated from the by-products, from the remaining starting materials and/or from
the solvent. Very often, the final product is solid again [Boldyrev 1998; Boldyrev
and Tkáčová 2000].
Mechanochemical processing may offer the possibility to simplify the entire
technological flowchart by avoiding operations in the gaseous and liquid states and
to design the process according to the scheme [Boldyrev 1996a, b]:
Mineral → Solid state reaction → Desired product.
4.2 Solid–Gas Reactions Stimulated by Mechanical Activation
Reactivity of solids in heterogeneous reactions can be affected by different prepar-

ative treatments prior to the reactions. The possibilities for forming different solid
state defects by various pretreatment techniques are presented in Table 4.1. Me-
chanical activation belongs among the effective processes enabling to control and
regulate the course of solid-gas reactions via formation of different defects.
It has been shown the mechanical treatment influences the sorption processes by
solid-gas reactions as well as the following reactions of adsorbed gases with solids.
In several cases the strengthening of sorption processes by mechanical activation
depends on the penetration depth of gas into disordered solids [Thiessen et al. 1970].
Butyagin illustrated the process by studying the oxidation of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen on mechanically activated quartz mineral SiO2 [Butyagin 1971, 1984].
As for gas phase selection in solid-gas reactions, methane, carbon monoxide and
lately hydrogen have been used. Hydrogen has special position among gas reactants.
In contrast to oxidizing processing where SO2 is envolved and has to be utilized in
the form of problematically soleble H2 SO4 , the utilization of H2 S as gaseous reduc-
tion product of hydrogen application is more hopeful. H2 S can be further utilized in

178 4 From Minerals to Nanoparticles
Table 4.1 Relationship between different types of defects and preparative treatment of the solid
phase [Boldyrev 1979]
Preparative treatment Crystal defects Lattice defects
Surface Habit Heterophase Dislocations Doping Point defects
inclusions ions
Control of crystal + + + + +
growth
Doping + +
Physical aging +
Chemical aging + +
Chemical pretreatment +
Radiative pretreatment + + + +
Mechanical + + + +
pretreatment
the form of elemental sulphur and hydrogen which is more prospective and ecologi-
cally less objectionable route. The arisen hydrogen can be recycled into the primary
process [Prasad and Mankhand 1983].
However, hydrogen alone is mostly useless as a reducing agent from thermody-
namical point of view (Table 4.2) but some reactions were studied and mechanical
activation has been applied as an intensification step [Baláž 2000].
For the reaction
MeS + H2 ↔ Me + H2 S (4.1)

the equilibrium constant K = PH2 S PH2 at 1073 K is typically 2.10 to 6.10−3
−1
for Cu, Ni, Co and Fe sulphides. Dynamic regime is important where hydrogen is
Table 4.2 Heats of reaction, ΔH◦ for the direct and lime-enhanced reduction by H2 , CO of selected
MeS at 1200 K [Prasad and Mankhand 1983]
MeS + H2 → Me + H2 S (A)
MeS + H2 +CaO → Me + CaS + H2 O (B)
MeS + CO → Me + COS (C)
MeS + CO + CaO → Me + CaS + CO2 (D)
MeS ΔH◦ , kJ per g-atom of sulfur
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Sb2 S3 −5.9 70.7 70.7 −105.9

Ag2 S −15.9 −81.6 −81.6 −114.6
Bi2 S3 26.8 −37.7 −37.7 −72.8
Cu2 S 39.9 −31.8 −31.8 −64.9
Ni3 S2 51.0 −13.8 −13.8 −49.0
PbS 70.7 4.6 4.6 −28.5
Co9 S8 77.4 12.6 12.6 −22.2
MoS2 105.4 39.3 39.3 6.3
CdS 215.9 150.2 150.2 117.2
ZnS 297.1 231.4 231.4 198.3
4.2 Solid–Gas Reactions Stimulated by Mechanical Activation 179
continously added and H2 S is continously removed from the reaction system as soon
as it is formed.
The enhancement of solid-gas reactions by mechanical activation has been
studied for reduction of antimony, mercury, lead and zinc sulphides [Baláž and
Godočı́ková 2001; Baláž and Briančin 2001].
4.2.1 Stibnite Sb2 S3
The direct reduction of Sb2 S3 by hydrogen is represented by the equation

Sb2 S3 + 3H2 → 2Sb + 3H2 S (4.2)
The reaction (4.2) has been investigated at atmospheric pressure and at tempera-
tures of 473–873 K [Torma and Inal 1979]. The activation energy of this process has
been found to be 72 kJ mol−1 . The H2 S liberated can be converted into elemental
sulphur or H2 S. Consequently this method will not pollute the environment since all
by-products are recovered and are saleable. On the basis of the experimental data
a flow-sheet has been developed for the production of metallic antimony from high
grade sulphide-bearing concentrates. However, only 60% of Sb2 S3 was converted to
metallic antimony.
The results of mechanically activated Sb2 S3 reduction by hydrogen under dy-
namic conditions where hydrogen sulfide is carried out from the product are illus-
trated by the kinetic relationships in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1 The influence of the

reaction time, tT on the
conversion degree, α of
mechanically activated Sb2 S3
for 15 min. Reaction
temperatures: 1–954 K,
2–929 K, 3–903 K, 4–877 K,
5–851 K, 6–825 K, 7–800 K
[Baláž and Godočı́ková 2001]
These plots show that the conversion reaches the value 100% and the tempo-
ral course of kinetic curves is dependent on temperature. X-ray phase analysis in-
dicated the presence of metallic antimony (JCPDS 05-0562) together with small
amount of monoclinic sulphur (JCPDS 13-0141). Mechanical activation brought
about a decrease in activation energy from 130 kJ mol−1 for non-activated sample to
58 kJ mol−1 for a sample activated for 15 min. Both values indicate that the surface
chemical reaction of the Sb2 S3 particles is the rate determining step of reduction.
The value 121 kJ mol−1 was found for both reactions performed under dynamic con-
ditions [Chunpeng et al. 1988].
4.2.2 Cinnabar HgS
At temperatures exceeding 613 K the reaction between HgS and hydrogen takes
place according to the equation [Mills 1974]
HgS + H2 → Hg + H2 S (4.3)
The dependence of the degree of conversion α on the time of thermal decompo-

sition tT for mechanically activated HgS is given in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.2 The influence of reaction time, tT on the conversion degree, α of mechanically activated
HgS for 15 min. Reaction temperatures: 1–636 K, 2–679 K, 3–743 K, 4–722 K, 5–835 K [Baláž and
Godočı́ková 2001]

mechanical activation of HgS
on Arrhenius plot,
T = 722–765 K. Time of
mechanical activation:
1–0 min, 2–5 min, 3–15 min
[Baláž and Godočı́ková 2001]
The Arrhenius plots in Fig. 4.3 give evidence of a change in reaction mechanism
at T = 744 K (1/T = 1.35.10−3 K) which is manifested by the change slope for the
non-activated samples and mechanically activated samples for 5 and 15 minutes.
The change in mechanism can be related with the process of dissociative sub-
limation which begin just at this temperature [Baláž et al. 1992]. At temperatures
above 744 K, a process involving simultaneous dissociative sublimation and reduc-
tive decomposition of cinnabar proceeds. The elemental sulphur formed in the first
process immediately reacts with hydrogen under dynamic conditions to give H2 S,
owing to which the reaction surface is set free and the overall process is accelerated.
For the activated samples the values of apparent activation energy in the temper-
ature region 744–751 K are equal to 155–162 kJ mol−1 , which points out that the
chemical reaction is the rate determining step of the whole process.
4.2.3 Galena PbS
In the eighties several papers dealing with the kinetics of reduction of galena with
hydrogen appeared [Onajev and Spitčenko 1988; Zviadadze et al. 1985, 1986;
Jovanovic et al. 1986a, b]. It was found by thermogravimetric investigations that
mass loss from galena heated in flowing hydrogen occurs at temperatures over
771 K. At temperature over 1023 K the reduced lead vaporizes. The stoichiometry
of the process can be expressed by the equation
PbS + H2 → Pb + H2 S (4.4)
The Arrhenius plots for the reduction of mechanically activated as well as for
non-activated PbS by hydrogen are represented in Fig. 4.4.
Their character indicates that no change in mechanism due to temperature or
structure disordering of mechanically activated sample takes place in the investigated

mechanical activation of PbS
on Arrhenius plot,
T = 980–1048 K. Time of
1–0 min, 2–5 min, 3–15 min
[Baláž and Briančin 2001]
Table 4.3 Arrhenius data for PbS reduction by hydrogen [Baláž and Briančin 2001]
Mechanical activation (min) Activation energy (kJ mol−1 )
– 42 (r = 0.999)
15 38 (r = 0.979)
temperature interval. The values of activation energy for both samples (Table 4.3)
indicate that chemical reaction is the rate determining step of PbS reduction.
4.2.4 Sphalerite ZnS
In comparison with galena the reducibility of ZnS is worse [Onajev and Spitčenko
1988]. The degree of reduction reaches only 35% for the temperature of 1070 K
[Jovanovic et al. 1986]. This process is complicated by the fact that zinc is evapo-
rated in the hydrogen flow at high temperatures. At the same time H2 S, originating
in the reaction of hydrogen with the sulphur atoms of sphalerite leaves the surface.
At the temperatures between 1173 and 1223 K hydrogen sulfide can react with Zn
vapour to form secondary ZnS [Onajev and Spitčenko 1988; Čižikov 1976]. In tem-
perature range 673–1023 K the reduction can be described by the equation
ZnS + H2 → Zn + H2 S (4.5)
Elemental zinc (JCPDS 04-0831) and sulphur (JCPDS 08-0247) were detected
by X-ray phase analysis of the sample mechanically activated for 15 min and

mechanical activation of ZnS
on Arrhenius plot,
T = 851–1023 K. Time of
1–0 min, 2–5 min, 3–10 min,
4–30 min [Baláž and
Briančin 2001]
subsequently reduced by hydrogen for 20 min at 937 and 1023 K. The presence of
elemental sulphur in reaction products may be a result of H2 S decomposition.
The values of activation energy calculated from plots in Fig. 4.5 are 49, 12, 7
and 4 kJ mol−1 for non-activated sample and samples mechanically activated for 5,
10 and 30 min, respectively. The disordering of sphalerite by milling brings about
a reduction in the values of activation energy. These values show that the diffu-
sion regime, probably involving the secondary ZnS originating from the above-
mentioned recombination of Zn and H2 S determines the rate of reaction (4.5).
Generally, the direct reduction of metal sulphides by gaseous hydrogen is ther-
modynamically unfavorable (with exception of Sb2 S3 and Ag2 S, see Table 4.2)
and a shift of reaction regime into dynamic one and/or disordering of solids by
mechanical activation is needed to improve the kinetics of the process [Baláž and
Godočı́ková 2001]. A good way of driving such reactions forward is to decrease the
in-situ partial pressure of gas products (H2 S in case of hydrogen reactant) and this
may readily achieved by the incorporation of a powerful sulphur receptor [Prasad
and Mankhand 1983].
Calcium oxide CaO is known to be one of the most potent absorbents for sulfur
bearing gases and the reduction of metal sulphides by H2 or CO in its presence may
be represented by the overall reactions
MeS + H2 + CaO → Me + CaS + H2 O (4.6)

MeS + CO + CaO → Me + CaS + CO2 (4.7)
Except of MoS2 , CdS and ZnS, all other reduction reactions in CaO presence are
highly feasible thermodynamically as it is evident from Table 4.2.
A major objective of the lime-enhanced reduction of metal sulphides is to exploit
the sulphur fixation ability of lime (as solid CaS) to reduce atmospheric pollution.
From a kinetic point of view, lime can be used effectively as a scavenger for sulphur
bearing gases like H2 S only above 773 K [Prasad and Mankhand 1983]. In 1969,
the lime-enhanced reduction of metal sulphides as means of preparing filamentary
products of Cu, Ni and Co under suitable conditions was studied [Cech and Tiemann
1969].
The outstanding capacity of lime to enhance the reduction rates of copper sul-
phide Cu2 S by hydrogen is clearly demonstrated in Fig. 4.6 and in Table 4.4.
It is clear that the addition of even theoretical amount of lime enhances the re-
duction rate of the sulphide by a factor 24, which can be increased still further to 49
by employing 200% excess CaO in the reduction charge [Mankhand et al. 1978].
Fig. 4.6 Effect of CaO addition on the reduction of Cu2 S by hydrogen [Mankhand et al. 1978]
Table 4.4 Effect of CaO on the reduction of Cu2 S [Prasad and Mankhand 1983]
Reducing agent CaO/Cu2 S (mole Temperature (◦ C) Fraction Cu2 S
ratio) reacted
H2 0 800 0.38
H2 1 800 0.73
H2 3 800 0.93
C 0 900 *
C 0.5 900 0.58
C 1 900 0.73
C 2 900 0.88
*not significant
An interesting observation from Table 4.4 is that whereas no significant reduction

of Cu2 S was observed by carbon alone, the presence of CaO was found to drastically
enhance the percent Cu2 S reduced.
It has been reported by different investigators that the time for lime-enhanced
reduction may be shortened by the use of fine sized reactant sulphides. This can
be a new challenge for application of mechanical activation. This beneficial effect,
however, had to be viewed from the point of achieving separation of the reduced
metal from the only dry slag (CaS+unused CaO).
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 reduction in the presence of CaO for sulphur elimination
increases with the increasing temperatures and increasing amounts of CaO and is
practically complete at 900◦ C at high CaO addition [Habashi 1986]. Depending on
the amount of CaO added, the reduction follows equations
2CuFeS2 + H2 + CaO → Cu2 S + 2FeS + CaS + H2 O (4.8)

2CuFeS2 + 3H2 + 3CaO → Cu2 S + 2Fe + 3CaS + 3H2 O (4.9)
2CuFeS2 + 4H2 + 4CaO → Cu2 S + 2Fe + 4CaS + 4H2 O (4.10)
Due to the presence of metallic Fe the product after reduction is magnetic and
can be separated by a magnet. Iron can be leached away by HCl leaving behind
Cu powder, a typical analysis of which is shown in Table 4.5. In this process, ZnS
initially present in the ore is also reduced and is alloyed with copper.
CaS can be best disposed of by heating in air at 500◦ C so that it is oxidized to
CaSO4
CaS + 2O2 → CaSO4 (4.11)
while FeCl2 solution obtained by leaching the metallic iron can be decomposed
according to the reaction
1
2FeCl2 + 2H2 O + O2 → Fe2 O3 + 4HCl (4.12)
2
Hydrogen chloride generated is recycled for leaching [Habashi 1986].
Table 4.5 Analysis of two chalcopyrite concentrates and copper prepared therefrom by reduction
followed by leaching [Habashi 1986]
Noranda Crude Cu (%) Gaspe Crude Cu (%)
concentrate (%) concentrate (%)
Cu 25.4 78.6 25.0 81.7
Fe 24.2 2.1 31.3 0.9
Zn 6.6 12.3 0.7 1.0
S 29.9 6.1 27.2 2.8
Gangue (by difference) 13.9 0.9 15.8 13.6
4.3 Mechanochemical Reduction via Solid–Solid Reactions
During the early history of the chemistry of solid state reactions, the question
whether solid substances could react with each other without the aid of liquids or
gases was strongly debated. The original view was that reactions could not occur di-
rectly between solids. The works of Tamman and Hedvall established in the 1930s
that such reactions do occur in the solid state. By the end of the 1960s, it was gen-
erally accepted that the rate of a reaction between two solids could be substantial if
the compounds were intimately mixed and heated. The reaction is initiated as lattice
vibrations with increasing amplitude result in more frequent exchange of atomic po-
sitions in the crystal lattice, leading to faster macroscopic diffusion. The exchange
of atomic positions is especially easy in disordered structures [Habashi 1969].
When intimate mixing of the solid reactants was carried out by using high-energy
milling, the potential for initiating mechanochemical reactions was established. Un-
til very recently, it was universally assumed that chemical reactions took place dur-
ing the mechanical treatment of solids due to the evolution of heat. The increase of
the reactivity was attributed to the increase of the specific surface of the solid upon
treatment [Boldyrev 1993]. The importance of structural disorder, already well es-
tablished in solid state chemistry [Hedvall 1938; Tamman 1932], was recognized by
mechanochemists as the reason for enhanced reactivity. In early suggestions, it was
accepted that the reactivity of solids is determined by the total content of defects.
Later it was concluded that only those defects should be taken into account which di-
rectly or indirectly take part in the chemical reaction [Schrader and Hoffman 1973].
The preparation of metals and alloys by reduction of their salts with metals has
been described in pyrometallurgy [Habashi 1969]. The method is characterized by
the fact that the reducing metal is converted by high temperature to a solid or a liquid
product and not to a gas in other reducing processes, e.g. by carbon and hydrogen
where CO+CO2 and H2 O are formed, respectively. In general, such processes are
called metallothermic. In special case, when Al is used as a reducing agent the pro-
cess is called aluminothermic reduction, when Ca is used it is called calciothermic
reduction [Habashi 1969]. General scheme of metallothermic processes is given in
Fig. 4.7.
As described by Habashi the different substances like fluxes, thermal boosters
and alloying metals are added to improve the process of metallothermic reduction.
Fluxes form a fluid slag so that separation from the metal can be easily achieved.
For example, in the production of metal Mg by ferosilicon process CaO·MgO is
preferred to MgO as a raw material because CaO reacts with SiO2 liberated to form
a low-melting slag
2MgO.CaO + FeSi → 2Mg + Ca2 SiO4 + Fe (4.13)
Thermal boosters are used to improve the thermal balance of reduction. These
react with an excess reducing agent liberating appreciable amount of heat. For
example, sulphur is added during the reduction of V2 O5 by Ca; the formation of
CaS is highly exothermic and raises the temperature of reduction.
4.3 Mechanochemical Reduction via Solid–Solid Reactions 187
Fig. 4.7 General scheme of metallothermic reduction [Habashi 1969]
Alloying metals lower the melting point of the metal to be recovered. These met-
als can be removed from the alloy by vacuum distillation, e.g. Zn.
Solid-state reactions usually start at the contact points of reacting particles [Bud-
nikov and Ginstling 1971]. It follows the number of contact points and their area has
influence on solid-solid reactions. By applying mechanical activation these param-
eters can be increased. It has been shown that the coefficient of diffusivity of solids
can be also enhanced: in case of Cr, diffusion into Fe is 10−12 cm2 s−1 , at 1400–
1600 K is equal to 2.10−8 cm2 s−1 but by mechanical activation of the system, the
values 10−5 –10−7 cm2 s−1 have been obtained [Butyagin and Yuščenko 1987].
4.3.1 Redox Reactions
These reactions can be expressed in general by equation
Me1 X + Me2 → Me1 + Me2 X (4.14)
where Me1 -reduced metal, Me2 -reducing metal, X-oxide, chloride, fluoride, sul-
phide, etc. Redox reactions involve simultaneous oxidation and reduction processes.
According to present views a redox reaction is a reaction in which there is a trans-

fer of electrons from reducing metal to reduced metal. Sometimes they are called
exchange or metathesis reactions [Treece et al. 1995; Gillan and Kaner 1996].
Many well-known industrial solid-state reactions are driven by these reactions.
The most commonly used reducing metals are Al, Ca, Mg, Na and Si (as FeSi).
The other metals such as Cu, Mn and Fe are also applied. The selected examples of
application are given in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Commonly used reducing metals and their application [Habashi 1986]
Reducing metal Metal produced
Large scale Small scale
Al V, Nb, Ca Sr, Ba, Ta

Ca V, U rare earths, Ti, Cr
Mg Be, Ti, Zn Sc, Y, V, Nb, Ta
Na Ta, Ti Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Th
FeSi Mg
In choosing a metal for reduction, the following points should be observed

[Habashi 1986]:
• the metal should have a strong affinity, based on thermodynamic consideration
• to ensure complete reduction, the reducing metal is usually added in slight excess
• the metal can be easily obtained in high purity and at low-cost
• the metal does not form intermetallic compounds and
• the metal should be easily handled, i.e. does not need inert atmosphere in a post-
reduction operation.
Separation of reaction products play the important role in the process of reduc-
tion. The method of separation varies from one reduction process to the other. Some-
times small amounts of salts adhering to the metal have to be removed. The method
of heating of the product under high vacuum is applied in this case. In mechanically
activated solid–solid state reactions the problem of the reaction products separation
is more underlined. Mechanical activation increases significantly kinetics in such
reactions by the dynamic maintenance of high reaction volumes and rapid diffusion
rates related to short diffusion paths, enhanced defect density and high reaction in-
terface areas. In such cases where various nanostructures are formed the formation
of nanocomposites is very probable.
4.3.2 Nanocomposites
In nanocomposites constituents are mixed on a nanometer-length scale. They have

been generally classified based on the matrix (such as metal-matrix composites
Fig. 4.8 Classification of nanocomposites: (a) intergranular, (b) intragranular, (c) hybrid, (d)
nano/nano [Niihara 1991]
(MMC), ceramic-matrix composites (CMC) or polymer-matrix composites (PMC).

Nanocomposites can be divided into four categories: intragranular, intergranular,
hybrid and nano/nano composites (Fig. 4.8).
In the first three types, the reinforcement phase is in the nanometer level whereas
the matrix is not. In the last cathegory, however, both the matrix and reinforce-
ment are of nanometer division and these two components are randomly distributed.
They often have properties that are superior to conventional microscale composites
and can be synthesized using surprisingly simple and inexpensive techniques such
as a mechanochemical method described above. Nanocomposites as systems with
high density of interface boundaries provide the large surface of initial components.
Moreover, concentration of atoms near boundaries reaches 15–30% of their total
number. The mixing of components is performed at the nanometer level when the
contact between the components is performed by atomically pure planes and the
effect of the surrounding atmosphere is reduced to a minimum [Niihara 1991].
Nanocomposites are either prepared in a host matrix of inorganic materials or by
using conventional polymer as one component of the nanocomposites. The second
type of nanocomposites which are a special class of hybrid materials are termed
polymeric nanocomposites. These materials are intimate combination (up to almost
the molecular level) of one or more inorganic material (nanoparticles, e.g.) with a
polymer so that unique properties of the former can be mixed with the existing qual-
ities of the polymer to result in a totally new material suitable for novel applications
[Dutta and Hofman). Resulting nanocomposites have found successful applications
in various fields of material application such as baterry cathodes [Nazar et al. 1992],
microelectronics [Vassilion et al. 1990], nonlinear optics [Beecroft and Ober 1997],
sensors [Cao et al. 1992], etc.
Ceramic nanocomposites bring new light into properties of brittle ceramics
which play crucial role in technology. Brittle ceramic can be strengthened and
toughened by the incorporation of various reinforcements. Ductile metallic rein-
forcement appear to be one of the most promising toughening mechanism. It has
already been investigated and the enhancement is mainly contributed by plastic in-
clusions which bridge the advancing crack. They are stretched as the cracks opens
until they fracture or separate from the matrix [Gaffet and Bernard 2002].
High-energy milling is a very effective process for synthesizing metal-ceramic
nanocomposites as it allows incorporation of the metal and the ceramic phases into
each powder particle, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.9.
In the initial stage, the microstructure of the composite powder particles is at the
micrometer level. With further milling, the metal phase is deformed and fractured,
while the ceramic phase is mainly fractured. If it is a metal matrix composite, the
ceramic particles are continually fractured into small particles, so the ceramic parti-
cle size will keep decreasing until such a point that the fracture strength of the small
particles will be equal to or grater than the stress caused by collision. Often this bal-
ance point corresponds to a ceramic particle size in the range of a few nanometers
to 100 nm [Zhang 2004].
Fig. 4.9 Schematic diagram showing the formation of composite powder after high-energy milling
[Zhang 2004]
4.3.3 Oxides
Mechanochemical solid-state reduction of oxides can be schematically expressed by

general equation
Me1 O + Me2 → Me1 + Me2 O (4.15)
where Me1 -reduced metal, Me2 -reducing metal. A large variety of Me1 and Me2
combinations has been used, e.g. Me1 = Fe, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Ti, Sn, Pb, Cu, Zn,
Nb, Mo, W, Si and Me2 = Al,C, Ti, B, Cr, Si, Mg, Zr, Ca, Zn, Ni and Mn (see
Table 4.7).
One of the primary driving forces behind the design of successful solid-state reac-
tions is a careful consideration of thermodynamics. The contribution of product for-
mation on the overal heat of reaction (ΔH) varies greatly depending on such factors
as product structure, type of bonding and lattice energy [Gillan and Kaner 1996].
Several mechanically induced systems will be studied in this Chapter where ΔH
values summarized from literature are given in Table 4.7.
Mechanochemical reduction of oxides is an extention of the mechanical alloy-
ing process developed by Benjamin [Benjamin 1970]. At the laboratories of INCO
Alloys International he applied this process as a means to overcome traditional prob-
lems associated with producing an oxide dispersion and γ’-strengthened nickel base
superalloy. The scope and application of mechanical alloying have been consid-
erably widened since the process was first announced. As with rapid solidification,
with which it is often compared, mechanical alloying finds application in those high-
value added materials which cannot be produced by alternative means [Schaffer and
McCormick 1992a].
Mechanical alloying is a high-energy ball milling process where powder parti-
cles undergo repeated fracturing and cold welding during ball-powder-ball and ball-
powder container collisions. Both processes can occur during a simple collision.
When particles being impacted overlap, atomically clean interfaces are brought into
contact. Cold weld form and layered composite powder particles are built up. Con-
currently, work-hardened particles fracture, decreasing the particle size and creat-
ing new surfaces. This interplay between welding and fracture effectively kneads
the internal structure so that the powders are continually refined [Schaffer and
McCormick 1989a].
In these highly exothermic reactions, it has been shown that mechanical alloying
can cause an unstable reaction which proceeds by the propagation of a combustion
wave through the partly reacted powders. The combustion conditions is reached af-
ter a critical ignition time, tig , which has been shown to be the milling time required
for the ignition temperature of the powder mixture, Tig , to be reduced to a level equal
to that achieved locally during collision event [Schaffer and McCormick 1989b,
1991].
The examination of powders immediately after combustion has revealed a rich
variety of structures which reflect the high temperatures reached during the com-
bustion event [McCormick 1995]. In general the as-combustioned mixtures of var-
ious size from nodules as large as 1–5 mm down to particles 10 nm in diameter are
formed. A sudden conversion of reagents into products is observed in such pro-
cesses, which is characteristic of systems displaying a high and negative reaction
enthalpy.
The process also called mechanically induced self-sustaining reactions (MSR)
was broadly studied [Tschakarov et al. 1982; Schaffer and McCormick 1992b;
Yang and McCormick 1993, 1994; Takacs 1993, 1996a, b, c; Ye et al. 1995;
Table 4.7 Mechanically induced redox reactions of oxides

Reaction ΔH◦ ΔG◦ Reference
(kJ mol−1 ) (kJ mol−1 )
2CuO + Ti → 2Cu + TiO2 −620 Mulas et al. 2001
2CuO + Zr → 2Cu + ZrO2 −736 Mulas et al. 2001
2CuO + Hf → 2Cu + HfO2 −796 Mulas et al. 2001
3CuO + 2Al → 3Cu + Al2 O3 −273 Schaffer 1990; Matteazzi and
LeCaër 1992a
CuO + Ca → Cu + CaO −475 Schaffer 1989b; McCormick 1995
2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2 −138 Tschakarov 1982
4CuO + 3Fe → 4Cu + Fe3 O4 −488 McCormick 1995; Schaffer 1990
CuO + Mg → Cu + MgO −445 McCormick 1995; Schaffer 1990
CuO + Mn → Cu + MnO −231 McCormick 1995; Schaffer 1990
CuO + Ni → Cu + NiO −382 Schaffer 1990
2CuO + Si → 2Cu + SiO2 −596 Xi 1996
2Cu2 O + Ti → 4Cu + TiO2 −598 Mulas et al. 2001
2Cu2 O + Zr → 4Cu + ZrO2 −754 Mulas et al. 2001
2Cu2 O + Hf → 4Cu + HfO2 −771 Mulas et al. 2001
Cu2 O + Mg → 2Cu + MgO −434 Banza and Gock 2003
Cu2 O + Zn → 2CuO + ZnO −183 Banza and Gock 2003
3Ag2 O + 2Al → 6Ag + Al2 O3 −532 Takacs 1993
CdO + Ca → Cd + CaO −377 McCormick 1995
Cr2 O3 + 2Al → 2Cr + Al2 O3 −273 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a;
Takacs 1993
Cr2 O3 + 3Zn → 2Cr + 3ZnO +49 Takacs 1993
3V2 O5 + 10Al → 6V + 5Al2 O3 −3727 Yang 1994
V2 O5 + 5Mg → 2V + 5MgO −1457 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a;
Yang 1994
2V2 O5 + 5Ti → 4V + 5TiO2 −1623 Yang 1994
WO3 + 3Mg → W + 3MgO Mukopadhyay et al. 1996
WO3 + 2Al → W + Al2 O3 −833 Torosyan and Takacs 2004
ZnO + Ca → Zn + CaO −285 Schaffer 1989a; McCormick 1995
ZnO + Mg → Zn + MgO −253 Suryanarayana 2001
2ZnO + Ti → 2Zn + TiO2 −249 McCormick 1995
2ZnO + 2Al → 3Zn + Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
3CoO + 2Al → 3Co + Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
3MnO2 + 2Al → 3Mn + 2Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
MoO3 + 2Al → Mo + Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
6Nb2 O5 + 10Al → 12Nb + 5Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
3NiO + 2Al → 3Ni + Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
2NiO + Si → 2Ni + SiO2 Suryanarayana 2001
Table 4.7 (continued)

Reaction ΔH◦ ΔG◦ Reference
(kJ mol−1 ) (kJ mol−1 )
3SiO2 + 2Al → 3Si + 2Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a

WO3 + 2Al → W + Al2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
2WO3 + 3Ti → 2W + 3TiO2 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
3SnO2 + 2W → 3Sn + 2WO3 +25 Boldyrev and Avvakumov 1971;
Avvakumov et al. 1974; Varnek
et al. 1974; Avvakumov and
Strugova 1974; Butyagin
et al. 1974
SnO2 + Si → Sn + SiO2 −276 Boldyrev and Avvakumov 1971;
et al. 1974
3SnO2 + 4Al → 3Sn + 2Al2 O3 −535 Boldyrev and Avvakumov 1971;
et al. 1974
2SnO + Si → 2Sn + SiO2 −954 Patel et al. 2004
2Sb2 O3 + 3Si → 4Sb + 3SiO2 −2823 Patel et al. 2004
4CdO + 4S + 3Fe → Fe3 O4 + 4CdS −673 Zhang et al. 2001; Saito et al. 2004
4PbO + 4S + 3Fe → Fe3 O4 + 4PbS −649 Zhang et al. 2001; Saito et al. 2004
4ZnO + 4S + 3Fe → Fe3 O4 + 4ZnS −535 Zhang et al. 2001; Saito et al. 2004
2Fe2 O3 + Al → 2Fe + Al2 O3 Nasu et al. 1999; Basset et al.
1994; Matteazzi and
LeCaër 1992a; Matteazzi and
LeCaër 1991
Fe2 O3 + 2B → 2Fe + B2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1991
Fe2 O3 + 2Cr → 2Fe + Cr2 O3 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1991
2Fe2 O3 + 3Si → 4Fe + 3SiO2 Matteazzi and LeCaër 1991
Fe2 O3 + Ca → 2Fe + 3CaO −1080 McCormick 1995
Fe2 O3 + 3Mg → 2Fe + 3MgO El-Eskandarany et al. 2001
Fe2 O3 + 2Al + Cr2 O3 → FeCr + Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
2Al2 O3
Fe2 O3 + 3Al + Cr2 O3 + 3NiO → Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992a
FeCrNi + 3Al2 O3
3Fe3 O4 + 8Al → 9Fe + 4Al2 O3 −1716 Pardavi-Horvath and Takacs 1992;
Takacs and
Pardavi-Horvath 1994
Fe3 O4 + 2Ti → 3Fe + 2TiO2 −395 Takacs 1993
Fe3 O4 + 2Zr → 3Fe + 2ZrO2 Takacs 2002
Fe3 O4 + 4Zn → 3Fe + 4ZnO −143 McCormick 1995; Takacs 1993;
Takacs and
Pardavi-Horvath 1994
Ma et al. 1993; Mulas et al. 2001]. MSR process has been recently reviewed
[Takacs 2002]. High-energy milling induces self-sustaining reactions in many suffi-
ciently exothermic powder mixtures. The process begins with an activation period,
during which size reduction, mixing and defect formation take place. The MSR is
ignited when the powder reaches a well defined critical state. Once started, the re-
action propagates through the powder charge as a combustion process.
The first self-propagating solid state reaction was the so-called thermite reac-
tion, in which a metal oxide is reduced with aluminium (this process is also called
aluminothermic reduction, see Sect. 4.3). The process takes place in a mixture of
the powders, initiated by either a high-temperature reaction or an electrically heated
wire. A combustion front develops and propagates across the sample.
The first systematic investigations on ball milling induced self-propagating
reactions-explosive mechanochemical reactions, according to the terminology of the
authors-were performed in Bulgaria [Tschakarov et al. 1982]. The authors studied
the formation of metal chalcogenides from mixtures of the elemental powders. The
ignition of a self-sustaining reaction was detected by measuring an abrupt tempera-
ture increase inside the mill.
4.3.3.1 Copper Oxides
To test whether the mechanical alloying technique can be used as a vehicle for the
chemical reduction of oxides, the powders of copper oxide and calcium metal were
milled [Schaffer and McCormick 1989a, b, 1991]. The historically first mechano-
chemical reduction of oxides was reaction
CuO + Ca → Cu + CaO. (4.16)
The reaction (4.16) is associated with the high negative enthalpy (ΔH = −475 kJ).
Figure 4.10 shows X-ray diffraction patterns of samples milled for various times.
Reducing metal such as Ca results in the reduction of the cupric oxide to form Cu
metal.
The presented process effectively combines conventional mechanical alloying
with the reduction-diffusion process [Schaffer and McCormick 1990].
The thermal reduction of copper oxide with the other solid reducing agent carbon
2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2 (4.17)
is a widely used process for the production of copper. This reaction is thermody-
namically favoured at room temperature (ΔH = −138 kJ), but will not occur for
kinetic reasons. However, it has been shown that CuO can be mechanochemically re-
duced with graphite [Cech 1974]. The reduction was found to occur via a two-stage,
CuO→Cu2 O→Cu, process. The efect of milling on the phase present as determined
from quantitative analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns is shown in Fig. 4.11.
Examination of the powder using TEM method showed the as-milled particles
contained copper crystallites of 15–30 nm in size.
Fig. 4.10 X-ray diffraction

patterns of the mixture of
CuO+Ca as a function of
milling time, (a) 7.5 min, (b)
60 min, (c) 1440 min
[Schaffer and McCormick
1989a]
Italian researchers dealt with redox reactions in the Cu2 O+Me, and CuO+Me sys-
tems under self propagating regimes [Mulas et al. 2001]. Possible reaction schemes
for the oxygen displacement in the studied systems are reported by equations
2Cu2 O + Me → 4Cu + MeO2 (4.18)

2CuO + Me → 2Cu + MeO2 (4.19)
where Me = Ti, Zr, Hf.
Fig. 4.11 Efect of milling

time on the two stage
reduction of CuO by carbon
[Schaffer and McCormick
1989b]

patterns of copper oxides
reacted systems [Mulas
et al. 2001]
All these reactions are strongly exothermic and the values of reaction enthalpy
ΔH are given in Table 4.7.
The almost complete transformation into products was definitely confirmed by
XRD analysis of the combusted powders presented in Fig. 4.12. Almost in all cases,
pure Cu and relative oxides are formed, while neither signals due to reaction precur-
sors, nor intermediate phases are present.
In Fig. 4.13 ignition time, tig is plotted versus As. Value As is the work necessary
to open a new surface area unit [Streleckij et al. 1996]. This correlation suggests that
an active role is played by the metal partner in reaching a critical state of reactants
dispersion before the ignition. Furthermore, a greater extention of fresh interface
area is required to ignite the reaction in passing from Zr to Ti and to Hf, and there-
fore a proper amount of mechanical work, typical of the mechanical and elastic
characteristic of each metal, must be done on the system to this end. Only when
these conditions are met, the reaction spreads spontaneously, and the propagation
can involve all the powder dispersed in the vial [Mulas et al. 2001].
Fig. 4.13 Ignition time, tig as a function of the energy required to open a fresh interfacial surface,
As [Mulas et al. 2001]
4.3.3.2 Iron Oxides
The reduction of hematite α-Fe2 O3 by Al and Mg powder has been studied [Nasu
et al. 1999]
Fe2 O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2 O3 (4.20)

Fe2 O3 + 3Mg → 2Fe + 3MgO (4.21)
The XRD patterns of hematite and Al powder are shown in Fig. 4.14 as a function
of milling time.
The peak of α-Fe appeared suddenly at 1.8 ks of milling and, simultaneously, the
peaks of starting materials disappeared. The same picture can be seen at Fig. 4.15
Fig. 4.14 X-ray diffraction patterns of the mixture Fe2 O3 +Al as a function of milling time in ks
[Nasu et al. 1999]
Fig. 4.15 X-ray diffraction patterns of the mixture Fe2 O3 +Mg as a function of milling time in ks
[Nasu et al. 1999]
where, together with the appearing of α-Fe the peaks for MgO can be seen. By the
Mössbauer spectroscopy wustite-like phase, Fe1−x Mgx O was also proved among
the reaction products.
On the contrary in other paper more products in reaction (4.20) have been identi-
fied [Basset et al. 1994]. After the authors, the reduction of Fe2 O3 with Al proceeds
gradually with milling time and the reduction of hematite is accompanied by the
formation of magnetite Fe3 O4 . The formation of Fe3 O4 accompanies the reduction
of hematite. The milling products are hercynite, FeAl2 O4 , an Fe-Al alloy (2–3%
Al), α-Al2 O3 and small iron clusters in alumina. The crystalline sizes of α-Al2 O3
and of the Fe-Al alloy are below 15 nm after 6 h milling.
The mechanism and kinetics of reaction (4.21) has been studied [El-Eskandarany
et al. 2001]. During the early stage of milling the Fe2 O3 particles are embedded into
soft matrix of Mg (reducing agent) particles to form coarse composite powders of
the reactant materials. Increasing the milling time leads to the formation of fresh
active surfaces of Mg which have high reducing potential and reacts with Fe2 O3 .
After 120 hours the Mg powders are completely oxidized to MgO, whereas the
Fe2 O3 is reduced successfully to metallic Fe.
The XRD patterns of the ball-milled hematite and magnesium powders are dis-
played in Figs. 4.16 and 4.17.
The kinetics of reaction (4.21) have been studied assuming the nucleation and
crystal growth according to the Avrami equation

n
− ln(1 − x) = kt (4.22)
where n is the order of the reaction and k is the reaction rate constant. From the
calculated value of n and the behaviour of the experimental data is clear that reaction
(4.21) is a first-order reaction. The reaction proceeds with one-dimensional growth
and is diffusion controlled.
[El-Eskandarany et al. 2001]
The interest for new methods of preparation and properties of iron oxides stems
from the fact that high-energy milling can lead to the preparation of new materials
in magnetic materials technology.
A schematic representation of the iron oxides transformation is presented in
Fig. 4.18 [Burkin 1966; Campbell et al. 1995]. Of concern here are the phases
[El-Eskandarany et al. 2001]
Fig. 4.18 A schematic

diagram of the iron oxides
transformations
magnetite Fe3 O4 , maghemite γ-Fe2 O3 and hematite α-Fe2 O3 that are “central” in
this diagram. Phase transformations and reactions of Fe2 O3 during milling were
extensively studied [Lin et al. 1975; Senna and Kuno 1973; Nakatani et al. 1983;
Kosmac and Courtney 1992; Matteazzi et al. 1993].
In the comprehensive investigation of the effects of a variety of dry and wet
environments was concluded that the total phase transformation of α-Fe2 O3 to
Fe3 O4 was best obtained by wet milling α-Fe2 O3 in vacuum [Kaczmarek and
Ninham 1994]. The mechanochemical reduction can be described by the equation
6Fe2 O3 → 4Fe3 O4 + O2 (4.23)
Wet milling in low vacuum (∼10−3 Pa) and by room temperature can be char-
acterized as the fastest and total transformation hematite into magnetite. No other
phases or contamination can be detected. It was suggested that oxygen bonds on
the cleaved α-Fe2 O3 oxide surface were broken during the milling and oxygen is
released to the dispersing water and/or to the vial. It was also found that the oxy-
gen pressure during the process as well the polar dispersing liquid or milling energy
have a major influence on successful and fast phase transformation. All preparations
performed in air, dry conditions or with hydrocarbons (benzene, anthracene) show
the process of hematite reduction is non existent, or at last very slow. Normal air
pressure and/or use of hydrocarbons suppress the oxygen release.
Mössbauer effect measurements have confirmed the transformation of α-Fe2 O3
to Fe3 O4 on milling with no interdissolution of the phases. The milled products, of
crystal block size ∼30 nm, exhibit hyperfine interaction parameters characteristic of
the tetrahedral and octahedral sites of bulk Fe3 O4 .
The process of hematite-magnetite transformation has been verified with me-
chanically activated steelmaking dust where hematite was the main component
(Fig. 4.19) [Baláž et al. 2001c].
Magnetite Fe3 O4 shows mechanically induced self-sustaining reactions (MSR)
[Takacs 2002]. The reaction of Fe3 O4 with zirconium
Fig. 4.19 The increase of magnetite Fe3 O4 (M) in comparison with hematite α-Fe2 O3 (H) in X-ray
diffraction patterns for mechanically activated steelmaking dust, (A) sample milled in a planetary
mill, (B) as received sample [Baláž et al. 2001c]
Fe3 O4 + 2Zr → 3Fe + 2ZrO2 (4.24)
has a typical temperature jump (Fig. 4.20) with three reaction steps
• the first 110 sec in the activation period, during which size reduction and mixing
take place, chemically active sites are created, but very little product is formed.
By the end of the activation period, the powder reaches a critical state
• ingnition occurs between two colliding balls or a ball and the wall of the vial and
a combustion front propagates through the powder charge. Compared to the rest
of the process, this step is almost instantaneous. The release of the reaction heat
results in an abrupt increase of the temperature and
Fig. 4.20 Temperature of the

milling vial during the
mechanochemical reduction
of Fe3 O4 with Zr
[Takacs 2002]
• the reaction is often incomplete immediately after the self-sustaining process.

Continued milling is needed to obtain fully reacted product with uniform struc-
ture and properties [Takacs 2002].
4.3.3.3 Non-Ferrous Oxides
There is considerable interest in the synthesis of composites of non-ferrous metals

for various applications such as conductive coatings, catalysis and energy sources
(batteries).
One of the major components in alkaline batteries is γ-MnO2 . This phase is also
present in Li-batteries as the intercalation host. The major commercial route to γ-
MnO2 is by electro-oxidation of purified MnSO4 solution on Ti anodes. The crude
solution is commercially prepared from natural Mn ores via thermal reduction to
soluble MnO using carbon as reductant. In general, carbon reduction has been ex-
amined at >1100◦ C with resultant formation of carbide phases. Lower temperatures
have been examined, but these have used hydrogen, carbon monoxide or methane
as reductant [Welham 2002].
It has been shown previously [Welham 1996, 1997, 1998a, 2000] that the rate
of carbothermic reduction reactions can be greatly increased by premilling the min-
eral and carbon together when compared with powders milled separately and then
mixed. This rate increase leads to a larger amount of material reduced per unit time
and therefore increases the throughput of the thermal reduction stage by the simple
addition of a mill prior to the kiln.
Premilling of manganese ore, comprised of cryptomelane KMn8 O16 , braunite
Mn7 SiO12 and an unidentified Mn-phase with graphite led to enhanced reduction at
decreased temperatures. The longer premilled powder showed complete reduction
to MnO within 30 min at 600◦ C, the unmilled powder showed Mn3 O4 as the major
phase after 30 min at 800◦ C [Welham 2002].
Tin and antimony compounds are attractive candidates for advanced materials
because of their unique electrical and electrochemical properties. For example, anti-
mony compounds have been investigated as possible superconducting materials due
to their semiconductor nature. Likewise, in an experiment on tin oxide anodes, it was
discovered that, during lithium alloying, the oxide is chemically reduced resulting
in the formation of Li2 O clusters surrounding nanosized clusters of tin [Courtney
and Dahn 1997; Parson et al. 2000; Patel et al. 2004].
The mechanochemical reduction of tin and antimony oxides by silicon proceeds
according to equations
2SnO2 + Si → 2Sn + SiO2 (4.25)

2Sb2 O3 + 3Si → 4Sb + 3SiO2 (4.26)
After 170 min of milling tin oxide, and 230 min of milling antimony oxide, the
above reactions progressed to completion. The non-ferrous metal/insulator compos-
ites were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (Fig. 4.21).
The X-ray patterns of the fully reduced metal oxides indicate only peaks cor-
responding to tin or antimony metals. The results indicate the metal oxides are
chemically reduced. However, the formation of silica (SiO2 ) is not obvious from
XRD results, although it is possible that the silica is amorphous. FTIR analysis
clearly indicates that the silicon fully consumes the oxygen with typical asymmet-
ric stretching of the silicon-oxygen bond occuring at 1060–1080 cm−1 . The particle
size 156 nm and 173 nm have been estimated using Scherrer equation for tin and
antimony metal, respectively. Based on SEM analysis it was shown that the homo-
geneous metal/insulator composite was formed and the composite particles were
less than a micron [Patel et al. 2004].
The mechanochemical reduction of tin oxide has also been studied [Boldyrev and
Avvakumov 1971; Avvakumov et al. 1974; Avvakumov and Strugova 1974; Varnek
et al. 1974; Butyagin et al. 1974; Avvakumov et al. 1975]. Tungsten, silicium and
aluminium have been applied as reducing metals
2SnO2 + 2W → 3Sn + 2WO3 (4.27)

SnO2 + Si → Sn + SiO2 (4.28)
3SnO2 + 4Al → 3Sn + 2Al2 O3 (4.29)
Tin in form of β-Sn has been registered as reduced metal in products of reactions
(4.27–4.29). The kinetics of reactions is shown in Fig. 4.22.
A new geometry was proposed and explored for the investigation of mechan-
ochemical reduction of lead, copper and tungsten oxides with Al as the reducing
metal [Torosyan and Takacs 2004]. Instead of starting with a mixture of two powder
reactants, aluminium is introduced in the form of plate attached to the inside wall of
the milling vial and only the oxide is milled in a powder form.
The suggested “powder-plate” geometry was applied to oxi-reduction reactions
between a 1-mm thick aluminium plate and the oxide powders PbO, CuO and WO3 .
The reactions are
Fig. 4.21 X-ray diffraction patterns of: (a) the as-milled powder obtained after milling Sb2 O3 and
Si for 230 min and (b) the as-milled powder obtained after milling SnO and Si for 170 min [Patel
et al. 2004]
3PbO + 2Al → 3Pb + Al2 O3 (4.30)

3CuO + 2Al → 3Cu + Al2 O3 (4.31)
WO3 + 2Al → W + Al2 O3 (4.32)
XRD patterns reflect the deposition of the oxide powder onto the Al plate as well
as its chemical interaction with the plate. The products of reactions (4.30–4.32) are
clearly visible [Torosyan and Takacs 2004].
Fig. 4.22 Kinetics of

of SnO2 by various reducing
elements: 1 – without
reducing element, 2 – carbon,
3 – W, 4 – Si, 5 – Al
[Avvakumov et al. 1975]
The above method can be extended from the investigation of metal oxide mechan-
ochemical redox reactions to other systems such as the formation of a carbide layer
when milling graphite in the presence of a metal plate. This arrangement may
also lead to useful technologies for the mechanochemical preparation of coatings
[Takacs 1996a; Torosyan et al. 2002].
A different approach has been applied by Urakajev et al. who used for performing
the mechanochemical reactions a reactive wear from milling balls instead of static
reducing metal plate [Urakajev et al. 2001, 2003, 2004].
Precursors of redox reaction (4.33) have been mechanically activated and then
the onset temperature has been studied
3TiO2 + 13Al → 3TiAl3 + 2Al2 O3 (4.33)
This temperature was observed to decrease from 1050 to 660◦ C after 5 hours
of milling. Increasing the milling time to 100 h decreased the onset to 560◦ C
[Welham 1998b, c].
The XRD traces are shown in Fig. 4.23.
Clearly, after 100 hours of milling, there is no evidence of reaction with only
peaks for Al and rutil TiO2 present. The longer milling times caused a broadening
of all the peaks indicating that a decrease in the crystallite size and an increase in the
lattice strain was occuring. The crystallite size for Al decreased more rapidly than
for rutile, as it has been stated in literature [Koch 1991; Gaffet and Harmelin 1990;
Weeber and Bakker 1998] that in two phase milling systems the softer material
amorphises more rapidly. Elemental mapping of the powders showed that milling for
5 hours caused significant intermixing between the original phases which was not
evident at shorter milling times. The reaction became net exothermic after 5 hours

patterns of 3:13 molar ratio
TiO2 +Al, milling time 1 h (a)
and 100 h (b) respectively; (c)
and (d) 1 h milled powder
heated to 900◦ C and 1200◦ C,
respectively; (e) 100 h milled
powder heated to 1200◦ C.
Al, Al2 O3 , • TiAl3 , Ti,
❖ TiO, Δ Ti2 O
[Welham 1998a]
of milling turning from an endothermic process into a potentially self-propagating

reaction once the initial thermal reaction has started.
Overview of mechanically induced redox reactions performed with oxides is
given in Table 4.7.
The new method has been developed for preparation of nanocrystalline com-
pounds by redox reaction of corresponding oxides with elements [Zhang et al. 2001;
Saito et al. 2004]. The method is based on co-milling of corresponding oxide with
sulphur and iron and stimulation of solid-state reaction to form nonferrous metal
sulfides and iron oxides
4MeO + 4S + 3Fe → 4MeS + Fe3 O4 (4.34)
where Me = Zn, Pb, Cd.

Comparison of ΔG0 changes for reactions of type (4.34) and possible iron sulfide
formation is summarized in Table 4.7. The thermodynamic data indicate not only
the negative changes in ΔG0 values but also higher thermodynamical probability for
metal sulfidization in comparison with the iron sulfide formation.
4.3.3.4 Mechanism of Redox Reactions in Oxides
In most solid-state reactions, the reaction volume continually diminishes as the re-
actants become spatially separated by products. The chemical kinetics of these re-
actions are therefore determined by the diffusion rates of the reactants through the
product phases, and the activation energy for the reaction is that for the diffusion
of the reactant through the products [Carter 1991]. The reaction is therefore gen-
erally controlled by factors which influence diffusion rates. These include defect
structures, defect densities and local temperatures.
Apart from diffusion, reaction rates are influenced by initial contact areas. How-
ever, for most solid-state process, the initial contact area is fixed and diffusion is the
rate-limiting step. It is for this reason that solid-state reactions are so temperature
dependent and that the reactions are thermally induced. The reaction interfacial area
is not only dependent on initial contact areas but increases during milling [Schaffer
and McCormick 1992b]. Furthermore, this increased reaction interface area is dy-
namically maintained during milling as the precursors are continuously broken up
during fracture events. Moreover, diffusion rates are substantially increased in me-
chanically treated substances. This arises from the large number of crystal defects
introduced through plastic deformation, which allows significant diffusion to occur
at room temperature [Schaffer and McCormick 1991]. Diffusivities in nanocrys-
talline particles can be many orders of magnitude higher than both lattice and grain
boundary diffusion in conventional polycrystalline materials [Karch et al. 1987).
The redox mechanochemical reactions are typical example of ductile (metal)/
brittle (metal oxide) systems. In these systems the brittle constituent becomes evenly
distributed through the ductile metal reductant powders at the beginning of redox re-
action. However, the reaction will produce two new phases, one brittle and one duc-
tile. Both reactants and products are evenly dispersed through the reaction volume
at later stage of redox reaction. Particles are reduced to nanometer-sized crystallites
and brought into intimate contact, thus greatly increasing reacting areas. The high
defect densities induced in the powder further increase reaction rates by providing
short circuit diffusion path [Schaffer and McCormick 1990].
In special cases, the combination of small particle size, high defect densities,
and the effective of product from between the reactants caused the material to be
brought to a critical precombustion condition when ignition can occur. This is the
case of several redox reactions covered in this Chapter.
4.3.3.5 Ferrite-Type Complex Oxides
Spinel ferrites MeFe2 O4 (Me is divalent cation) posess great potential for many
applications. Owing to the flexibility of their spinel structure, these compounds
provide a wide range of physical and chemical behaviour which can be tuned by
mechanical activation [Pavlyuchin et al. 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1988; Jermakov
et al. 1982]. The spinel structure provides interstices of tetrahedral and octahedral
coordination, part of which is occupied by Me2+ and Fe3+ cations. In general,
cations can reside on both types of sites, thus giving rise to a characteristic cation
distribution [O’Neill and Navrotsky 1983, 1984]. The crystal structure of spinel fer-
rites can be formulated in greater detail as (Me1−λ Feλ ) [Meλ Fe2−λ ]O4 , where round
and square bracket enclose ions on sites of tetrahedral and octahedral coordination,
respectively, and where γ denotes the so-called degree of inversion. The most im-
portant changes occur during mechanical activation in the cation sublattice, which
are manifested in the redistribution of bi- and trivalent cations over the tetrahedral
and octahedral cavities. An annealing of spinel ferrites at 500–600◦ C results in the
return of the cations to their typical positions so that the normal properties of these
substances are restored [Boldyrev 2006].
The results on several mechanically treated spinel ferrites like ZnFe2 O4 ,
MgFe2 O4 , CuFe2 O4 , MnFe2 O4 , NiFe2 O4 and CoFe2 O4 have been recently sum-
marized [Šepelák et al. 2005]. Several interesting properties were determined, e.g.
superparamagnetism, an enhanced chemical reactivity, an irreversible magnetic be-
haviour and an altered saturation magnetization in comparison with the correspond-
ing bulk materials. As for reactivity, the hot-gas desulphurization tests have revealed
that mechanochemically synthesized ZnFe2 O4 posesses the highest sulfur absorp-
tion capacity when compared with the reactivity of the unmilled ZnO/Fe2 O3 mixture
as well as with the reactivity of milled ZnFe2 O4 that was prepared by the conven-
tional thermal method [Šepelák et al. 1997].
The application of high-energy milling to the chemical reduction of spinel ferrites
has been reported in several papers [Takacs 1993; Takacs and Pardavi-Horvath 1994;
Sorescu 1988; Botta et al. 2000; Šepelák and Becker 2000; Menzel et al. 2001; Shi
and Ding 2001; Goya et al. 1998].
The high-energy milling of NiFe2 O4 in a steel vial using steel balls was found
to induce a mechanochemical reduction process of the material leading in a redox
process to the formation of a disordered solid solution of FeO and NiO with wüstite
structure [Menzel et al. 2001; Shi and Ding 2001]. To determine the phase evolution
of NiFe2 O4 during high-energy milling the mechanochemical reduction was fol-
lowed by X-ray powder diffraction. The XRD-pattern of the non-activated sample
(Fig. 4.24) is characterized by the sharp crystalline peaks corresponding to NiFe2 O4
(JCPDS 10-0325). During the early stage of milling, XRD reveals only a decrease
of the intensity and an associated broadening of the Bragg peaks of the spinel. This
reflects the formation of the disordered state with a small crystallite size and with
internal strain introduced during the mechanical treatment. With increasing milling
time, changes in diffraction intensities are observed. This can be attributed to the for-
mation of a solid solution of Ni1−x Fex O and of crystalline iron (JCPDS 06-0696)
which are formed in addition to the formation of nanoscale ferrite particles. The
fraction of the reduced phases increases with increasing milling time.
Mechanochemical reduction of magnesium ferrite MgFe2 O4 has been studied
[Šepelák et al. 2002]. The XRD pattern of the non-activated sample is characterized
by the sharp peaks corresponding to MgFe2 O4 (Fig. 4.25).
During the early stage of milling, XRD merely reveals a decrease of intensity
and an associated broadening of the Bragg peaks of the ferrite. This reflects the for-
mation of the disordered state with a small crystallite size and with internal strain
Fig. 4.24 X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) non-activated NiFe2 O4 and of (b) NiFe2 O4 activated
for 20 min. Asterisk indicates a diffraction peak of the sample holder [Menzel et al. 2001]
introduced during the mechanical treatment. With increasing milling time, quali-
tative changes are observed in diffraction patterns of the samples. This can be at-
tributed to the formation of a solid solution of Mg1−x Fex O which possesses the
wüstite structure and of crystalline iron. It was concluded that both the solid so-
lution of Mg1−x Fex O and the ferromagnetic Fe are predominantly obtained as the
result of the mechanochemical reduction of MgFe2 O4 .
In the contact of a mechanistic analysis, it was concluded that the metallic nature
of the vial and of the balls plays an essential role in the mechanochemical reduction
process of MgFe2 O4 . It appears that also in case of ferrite-type complex oxides the
event of mechanically induced redox reactions present novel opportunities for the
nonthermal manipulation of such type of materials [Šepelák et al. 2002].
4.3.4 Wolframates
Tungsten carbide WC is probably the most common hard material in use today
for cutting edges and other high strength applications [Welham 1999]. It is usually
Fig. 4.25 X-ray diffraction patterns of non-activated MgFe2 O4 (a) and of material mechanically
treated for 20 min (b). [Šepelák et al. 2002]
made by a somewhat complicated route from either wolframite FeWO4 or from

scheelite CaWO4 minerals. Previous attempts to produce WC directly have shown
that the reduction is possible using excess carbon at temperatures >1200◦ C [Terry
et al. 1994].
Scheelite reduction has been tested by milling in a laboratory stainless steel
ball mill. The XRD trace of the as-milled carbon bearing powder is presented in
Fig. 4.26b.
Clearly, there has been a significant change from the original CaWO4 , shown
in Fig. 4.26a. The peaks present seemed to be for MgO and W2 C. No calcium-
bearing phase was apparently present, presumably due to a small crystallite size.
After annealing for 1 h at 1000◦ C, trace (c) was obtained. There has been significant
crystallite grows with narrower, more intense peaks now evident for both W2 C and
MgO. After milling in nitrogen the XRD trace is much clearer. Figure 4.26d shows
that the as-milled powder contains elemental W and MgO. The crystallite size of
the tungsten was estimated to be 9.5 nm. Only the two main MgO peaks are evident.
Fig. 4.26 X-ray diffraction patterns of CaWO4 treatment: (a) milled for 1 h in vacuum, (b) milled
for 100 h with carbon, (c) powder (b) heated for 1 h at 100◦ C in argon, (d) milled for 100 h under
nitrogen and (e) powder (d) heated for 1 h at 1000◦ C in argon, W, MgO, ♦ Fe3 W3 C, WC, •
W2 C, [Welham 1999]
These peaks are broad and comparatively weak, which is typical of phases that have
a small crysatllite size. On heating this powder for 1 h at 1000◦ C in argon, the MgO
peaks had narrowed considerably. The tungsten crystallite size increased to 21 nm. A
simple acid leach of the powder removed all of the MgO, leaving behind either W2 C
and Fe3 W3 C or W. The elemental tungsten formed was ∼99% W [Welham 1999].
4.3.5 Titanates
The mineral ilmenite FeTiO3 is a huge resource of rutile TiO2 for the production
of titanium dioxide, which can be used directly as a pigment or in the manufacture
of titanium. A number of methods have been proposed for extraction rutile from
ilmenite [Chen et al. 1996]. However, most of them involve either a hot chemical
process or a high temperature reduction process (Becher process). These processes
are both expensive and complicated, and have many associated environmental impli-
cations. Therefore, the search for a simple and economic extraction method remains
of high interest to industry [Henn and Barclay 1995].
Mechanochemical reduction of ilmenite FeTiO3 by silicon Si has been described
[Welham 1998d]. XRD traces for 2:1 FeTiO3 :Si powder milled under low and high
intensity for up to 200 h are shown in Fig. 4.27.
After 100 h milling under low intensity trace (a) was obtained. The only peaks
present are for FeTiO3 and Si, although the peaks are somewhat wider and less
intense than the feed powder due to crystallite size refinement. After a further 100 h
of milling the trace (b) showed major changes, both FeTiO3 and Si were absent with
the only peak present due to elemental iron. The apparent absence of phases for both
Ti and Si is probably due to an extremely small crystallite size and the presence of
many phases each of low abundance.
Annealing of the 200 h milled powder for 1 h at 800◦ C under argon gave trace
(c), clearly, peaks for TiO2 have emerged along with a small peak for Si. There may
be a small peak for SiO2 at 305◦ C but it is overlapped by that of rutile and, in the
absence of other SiO2 peaks, no positive confirmation of quartz can be made. Thus,
it would seem that the reaction had occurred after 200 h with the annealing stage
causing recrystallization of nanocrystalline phases.
Under high intensity milling there was clearly Fe present after 50 h, trace (d),
implying that the reduction of FeTiO3 had started within 50 h. However, the pres-
ence of peaks for FeTiO3 and Si show that the reaction was of relatively low extent.
After 100 h of milling (e) shows that the reaction was apparently complete, neither
FeTiO3 nor Si peaks were present, only those for Fe and TiO2 . Further milling to
200 h showed no significant changes in the XRD trace (f), other than a widening
and weakening of the TiO2 peaks as the crystallite size decreased [Welham 1998c].
The chemistry of the whole process of ilmenite reduction by silicon can be de-
scribed [Chen et al. 1996].
2FeTiO3 + Si → 2Fe + 2TiO2 + SiO2 (4.35)

Fe + xSi → FeSix , x = 1 or 2 (4.36)
2nTiO2 + Si → 2Tin O2n−1 + SiO2 (4.37)
The final stage is the reduction of the remaining Ti-O compounds to a titanium
silicide
Tin O2n−1 + (16n − 5)Si → 2nTi5 Si3 + (10n − 5)SiO2 (4.38)
Fig. 4.27 X-ray diffraction patterns of 2:1 molar ratio FeTiO3 +Si milled for (a) 100 h, and (b)
200 h under low intensity, (c) sample b annealed for 1 h at 800◦ C under argon, (d) 50 h, (e) 100 h
and (f) 200 h under high intensity; Si, TiO2 , • FeTiO3 , ◦ Fe, Δ SiO2 [Welham 1998c]
Mechanochemical reduction of ilmenite FeTiO3 by sulphur has been studied by

two groups in Australia [Henn and Barclay 1995; Welham 1998d]. The reaction
has been suggested as a route to the formation of rutile and pyrrhotite in geological
systems [Frost 1991]. Iron is known to have a very high affinity for sulphur, and
a range of iron sulfides has been formed by milling elemental iron and sulphur
together at room temperature [Baláž et al. 1995].
Thermodynamical calculation performed in work of Frost (1991) showed two
ilmenite-to-sulphur molar ratios were worth investigating. A 3:2 ratio shows
3FeTiO3 + 2S → F2 O3 + FeS2 + 3TiO2 (4.39)

−1
(ΔG298 = −96.5 kJ mol )
The 4:7 ratio show
4FeTiO3 + 7S → FeSO4 + 3FeS2 + 4TiO2 (4.40)

−1
(ΔG298 = −231 kJ mol )
For 2:4 ratio the following reaction was suggested
2FeTiO3 + 4S → 2FeS2 + O2 + 2TiO2 (4.41)
The X-ray diffraction traces of the as-milled products (Fig. 4.28) show FeTiO3
was still a major phase, present in all samples immediately after milling, although
the peaks were somewhat less intense and broader then those of the original ma-
terial. Elemental sulphur was present only in the products of the 4:7 ratio run and
its absence in the other products may be due to either amorphization of reaction.
TiO2 was found to be present in all of the samples, but the level was similar to that
previously observed as an impurity in the ilmenite starting powder and could not be
confirmed as a reaction product [Welham 1998d].
The reaction between S and FeTiO3 during ambient temperature milling was
only evident in samples which were milled dry in an inert atmosphere, preferably
under pressure. The reaction found to be incomplete, with the formation of FeS2 and
rutile TiO2 and from industrial viewpoint is not viable. However, ilmenite milled
Fig. 4.28 X-ray diffraction patterns of as-milled powders, milling time 100 h. (a) 3:2 FeTiO3 +S
ratio, 100 kPa He; (b) 3:2 FeTiO3 +S ratio, 5.0 ml H2 O, open to air; (c) 3:2 FeTiO3 +S ratio, dry
vacuum; (d) 4:7 FeTiO3 +S ratio, dry, vacuum. FeTiO3 , TiO2 , α-S, • FeS2 [Welham 1998d]
alone may prove to be a viable feedstock for a thermal reactor in which sulphur is
maintained at a high partial pressure.
The observations show that the milling can be alternative to traditional processes.
Obviously, further investigation is needed [Welham 1998d].
An ilmenite mineral and Al powder have been mechanically milled together for
100 h in a laboratory ball mill. The reaction
FeTiO3 + 7Al → FeAl2 + TiAl3 + Al2 O3 (4.42)
has been considered as a guide. The as-milled powder and an unmilled powder
of identical composition were annealed at up to 1200◦ C and examined by X-ray
diffraction and DTA methods. The unmilled sample showed Al melted prior to
an exothermic reaction starting at ∼ 850◦ C. In the milled powder the aluminium
had been completely consumed below its melting point. The milled powder showed
no thermal activity, other than a reversible phase transition at 1067 ±4◦ C, indicat-
ing that reaction occured within the mill. The products of both powders were the
same, TiAl3 , Fe3 Al13 and Al2 O3 , although in the milled powder these phases were
nanocrystalline until annealing caused crystallite growth [Welham 1998e].
The mechanochemical reduction of FeTiO3 and TiO2 by Mg metal has been stud-
ied [Welham 1998f] for reactions
FeTiO3 + Mg → MgTiO3 + Fe (4.43)

MgTiO3 + Mg → 2MgO + TiO (4.44)
TiO + Mg → MgO + Ti (4.45)
Rutil was predicted to be reduced to TiO, and then to titanium metal by reaction
TiO2 + Mg → TiO + MgO. (4.46)
The phases present in the as-milled powder changed with the ratio FeTiO2 : Mg
(Fig. 4.29a). The 1:1 ratio showed that the ilmenite and MgTiO3 could both be
present (the peak positions for these phases overlap considerably), the small peaks at
2θ = 50 and 52◦ indicate MgO and Fe respectively. As the ratio increased (Fig. 4.29b
and 4.29c), FeTiO3 peaks weakened and peaks for Fe and MgO become more in-
tensive, this is due to the increasing reduction of FeTiO3 to Fe and an unidenti-
fied titanium product. After milling, neither mixture of TiO2 and Mg showed many
XRD peaks (Fig. 4.29d and 4.29e). There was only the main TiO2 peak and the two
main peaks for MgO indicating that reduction had occured. The MgO peaks were
much more intense than any other peak, implying the main phase present was MgO
[Welham 1998f].
In a high temperature process ilmenite is purified by reduction to TiO2 and el-
emental iron which is then leached to form an inpure TiO2 . The 88–92% TiO2 is
then chlorinated. To produce metallic titanium the chloride is reacted with molten
Mg under an inert atmosphere. The further processes are needed to obtain metallic
Ti [Welham 1998f].
Fig. 4.29 X-ray diffraction patterns of as-milled powders, milling time 100 h. (a) 1:1, (b) 1:2, (c)
1:3 FeTiO3 +Mg ratio, (d) 1:1 and (e) 1:2 TiO2 +Mg ratio. FeTiO3 , ♦ MgTiO3 , • Fe, MgO,
TiO2 [Welham 1998f]
4.3.6 Sulphides
Sulphides exhibit a great variety of chemical and physical properties. They dis-
play similar structural defects as oxides with cation vacancies, intersticial cations or
anionic defects all possible. However, the concentration, structure and mobility of
these defects are much more varied in the case of sulphides [Mrowec 1988].
The cationic vacancies change their properties according to conditions. For in-
stance, their influence on electric properties and character of the chemical bond of
sulphides is dependent on temperature [Vanjukov et al. 1978]. The formation of in-
teresticial defects, in which metal ions are displaced from a normal lattice position
to an intermediate position, depends on strength of the metal-sulphur bond. The
Me-S and S-S bond in sulphides are similar to each other and the difference be-
tween them decreases with increasing temperature. However, if sulphur is released,
the metal present in the normal crystallografic position remains without a partner
and the defectiveness of sulphide increases. The influence of defects on solid state
reactions is frequently more significant than the influence of the sulphide structure
[Tkáčová 1989].
Sulphides play an important role in traditional technological applications as well
as advanced materials (Table 4.8).
Solid state reactions of sulphides to prepare the elemental nanometals or their
oxides proceed via two routes
Me1 S + Me2 → Me1 + Me2 S (4.47)

Me1 S + CaO → Me1 O + CaS (4.48)
Table 4.8 Sulphides in traditional technology and as advanced materials

Traditional applications Advanced materials
Chemical engineering High-energy TiS2
batteries
Hydrodenitrogenation Co9 S8 Solar cells CuInS2 , FeS2 , CuS
Hydrodesulfurisation MoS2 , WS2 Diagnostic materials Ag2 S
Dehydratation MnS, CuS, ZnS Luminiscence ZnS, CdS: Mn, Cu
materials
Superconductors La2 S3 , CuS
Mechanical engineering Intercalates TiS2 , TaS2 , NbS2
Lubricants MoS2 Ion-selective sensors PbS, CdS, CuS
Optical coatings ZnS
Extractive metallurgy Photoconductors ZnS, Ag2 S
Pyrometallurgy Cu3 AsS4 , PbS Lasers CdS
Hydrometallurgy CuFeS2 , ZnS, Photolithographic As2 S3
Cu12 Sb4 S13 materials
Biohydrometallurgy FeAsS, FeS2 , Holographic SnS
ZnS recordings
Optical fibres As2 S3
Mineral processing Infra-red detectors PbS
Sulfidizers Na2 S High-temperature Cu2 S
termistors
Quantum dots Cd1−y Zny S
In reaction (4.47) the reduction of the metal sulphide Me1 S is performed with
a reducing element Me2 (usually Fe, Mg, Al, Si) and is called redox reaction (see
Chapter 4.3.1). The reaction (4.48) represents a displacement reaction. Sometimes
combined effect of redox and displacement reaction is applied.
4.3.6.1 Thermal Treatment
It has to be mentioned that in modern technology reducing of sulphides by met-

als is practicized to a limited extent. The most frequently applied reducing agent is
iron [Szczygiel et al. 1998]. The process is inefficient because the metal sulphide
dissolves in the FeS formed. Nowadays it is used for the reduction of rich anti-
monite Sb2 S3 ores or concentrates and to some extent for reduction galena PbS
[Habashi 1986].
During the Industrial Revolution in Germany (1750–1850), antimony was some-
times obtained by heating the sulphide with scrap iron, which combined with sul-
phur and an alkali carbonate. The Sb was purified by fusion with a little antimony
sulphide Sb2 S3 and sodium carbonate Na2 CO3 [Habashi 1993].
In principle non-metal reducing element can be applied. Reduction of PbS and

CuFeS2 by carbon in the presence of calcium oxide has been studied [Kharitidi
et al. 1981, 1983].
Reduction of galena by solid carbon in the presence of CaO occured through
stages of sulphide sublimation and reaction between the gaseous sulphide and CaO.
Carbon did not participate in direct reduction but intensify PbS sublimation and
reducing sulphur dioxide to S2 , CaS and CS2
3PbS (g) + CaO → 3Pb + 2CaS + SO2 (4.49)
Heating in helium to 1200◦ C at 10◦ /min were used for reaction (4.49).
Reduction of chalcopyrite CuFeS2 with carbon in the presence of CaO was stud-
ied at 1100◦ C. The overall reaction is governed by the equation
CuFeS2 + 2CaO + 2C → Cu + Fe + 2CaS + 2CO (4.50)
4.3.6.2 Mechanochemical Treatment
The concept of direct reduction of sulphides to metals by mechanochemical treat-

ment was introduced by Soviet Scientists [Molčanov and Jusupov 1981]. The au-
thors named the process mechanometallurgy. By dry milling of cinnabar HgS in a
planetary mill equipped with copper vials and balls it was possible to obtain ele-
mentary mercury according to the following reaction
HgS + 2Cu → Cu2 S + Hg (4.51)
By the authors the reduction also proceeds in the course of milling of HgS in
water using iron vials and balls
2HgS + 7H2 O → 2Hg + H2 SO3 + H2 SO4 + 5H2 (4.52)
The transformations of selected sulphides by milling with the different metals

have been studied. The solid state reduction of the sulphides have been performed by
room temperature ball milling of powder mixtures [Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992b].
4.3.6.3 Reduction with Aluminium
The most results were obtained with aluminium as reducing element. The reaction
of iron sulphide with Al
3FeS + 2Al → 3Fe + Al2 S3 (4.53)
shows the predominant presence of patterns belonging to bcc α-Fe (Fig. 4.30) with
some Al in it, since the lattice parameter a = 0.2876 nm is greater than that for pure
Fig. 4.30 X-ray diffraction patterns of as-milled powders, milling time 24 h. (A) 3:2 molar ra-
tio FeS+Al; (B) 1:1 molar ratio FeS+Mn; (C) 2:1 molar ratio FeS+Si. Symbols: (A) α-Fe, Δ
FeAl2 O4 , Al2 O3 ; (B) α-Fe, Δβ-Mn, γ-Mn, MnS, • MnS2 ; (C) α-Fe, ♦ FeS, Fe1−x S,
SiS2 , Δ WC, ◦ FeSi, • α-FeSi2 [Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992b]
α-Fe (a = 0.2866 according to JCPDS 6-694) to an Fe-Al alloy with about 7 at %

Al. Further weak components are present in the pattern, corresponding to tetragonal
Al2 S3 (JCPDS 24-14) and cubic hercynite FeAl2 O4 .
The reaction of copper sulphide
3Cu2 S + 2Al → 6Cu + Al2 S3 (4.54)
shows clearly the presence of the following products: fcc Cu with a lattice parameter
a = 0.3617 nm very close to that of pure Cu (a = 0.3615 nm according to JCPDS 34-
348) and crystallite size d = 23 ± 3 nm, γ-Al2 S3 (JCPDS 34-348).
The reactions of cobalt, lead and zinc sulfides
3CoS + 2Al → 3Co + Al2 S3 (4.55)

3PbS + 2Al → 3Pb + Al2 S3 (4.56)
3ZnS + 2Al → 3Zn + Al2 S3 (4.57)
shows common X-ray diffraction patterns (Fig. 4.31). The patterns reveal, that
cobalt sulphides and Al are no longer present and cobalt metasl is present in hexag-
onal as well as cubic form. Among products Al2 S3 and cobalt aluminide Co2 Al5
were identified. For reaction (4.56) Al lines are no longer present and cubic Pb,
mixture of hexagonal Al2 S3 and cubic Al2 S3 have been formed. For reaction (4.57)
the starting ZnS powder was constituted mainly by cubic β-ZnS (sphalerite) and a
small amount of hexagonal ZnS (wurtzite). There remains some β-ZnS, while both
Fig. 4.31 X-ray diffraction patterns of as-milled powders, milling time 24 h. (A) 3:2 molar ratio
CoS+Al; (B) 3:2 molar ratio PbS+Al; (C) 3:2 molar ratio ZnS+Al. Symbols: (A) • Co (cub); (B) •
Pb; (C) – Zn; ◦ Co (hex), Al2 S3 (hex), Al2 S3 (tetr), Al2 S3 (cub); (A) −Δ Co2 Al5 , (B) −Δ
PbS, (C) −Δβ-ZnS [Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992b]
the reaction products according to reaction (4.57) are present: hexagonal Zn (most
intense pattern) of d = 32 ± 5 nm crystallite size and hexagonal Al2 S3 . As for the
two previous cases, a Zn-Al2 S3 nanocomposite has been obtained.
It was concluded by the authors the reduction of metal sulphides by room temper-
ature ball milling with a suitable reducing agent has been shown to be feasible. The
feasibility of a particular reaction by mechanical activation appears not to be limited
to negative free energy or enthalpy as shown for FeS reduction by silicium. Metal-
(alloys)-(intermetallic compounds)-sulphide nanocomposites are obtained in this
way with crystallite sizes in the range 10–30 nm. The ball milling-induced reduction
of molybdenite MoS2 by Al has been investigated in paper [Takacs et al. 2006]. The
reduction takes place according to the equation
3MoS2 + 4Al → 3Mo + 2Al2 S3 (4.58)
The kinetics of reaction (4.58) is given in Fig. 4.32.

The graph clearly shows that most of the reaction takes place between 20 min and
60 min and it is practically complete after 120 min of milling. Although the reduc-
tion of MoS2 with Al is a highly exothermic reaction that was expected to progress in
the form of a self-sustaining process, ignition could not be achieved by ball milling.
It is suggested that the reason is in the lubricant property of MoS2 . It prevents the
formation of large composite agglomerates where the conditions for the initiation
and propagation of the reaction would support MSR. The existing agglomerates are
porous and they start breaking up before the reaction could accelerate.
Fig. 4.32 The kinetics of

MoS2 consumption as a
function of milling time
[Takacs et al. 2006]
4.3.6.4 Reduction with Iron
Several papers have been published using iron metal as reducing element for me-
chanically induced solid state reduction by sulfides [Baláž et al. 2002a, b, 2004a,
b, c, 2005a, 2007; Godočı́ková et al. 2004a, b].
The mechanochemical reduction of iron disulphide FeS2 (pyrite) by elemental
iron can be described by the simplified equation
FeS2 + Fe → 2FeS (4.59)
The reaction is thermodynamically possible at ambient temperature, as the en-

thalpy change is negative. The value ΔH298 ◦ = −13.3 kJ mol−1 was calculated from
the thermodynamic data.

Its progress with milling time is illustrated by selected XRD patterns in Fig. 4.33.
The process of product formation is clearly seen for samples milled for 25 and
45 min. Hexagonal troilite FeS (JCPDS 75-0602) has been indicated as the only
reaction product. Figure 4.34 shows the room temperature magnetization data for
investigated samples as a function of external magnetic field. It is evident that the
resulting magnetization curves are well saturated after application of magnetic field
higher than 2 T. The difference in the saturation magnetization of the samples milled
for different times, as displayed in the inset of this Figure is mainly caused by a var-
ious amount of the ferromagnetic component in these samples. The inset shows that
the amount of metallic iron decreases continuously for milling time up to 45 min.
For longer milling time the saturation magnetization is negligible indicating that the
constituent phases are almost entirely paramagnetic i.e. the reaction (4.59) tends to
be finished.
The increasing paramagnetism can well be seen in Mössbauer spectra on
Fig. 4.35a. Spectrum for sample milled for 5 min is a superposition of a doublet
corresponding to FeS2 and a sextet corresponding to Fe. The spectra during milling
are changed and their analysis is given in Fig. 4.35b in the form of Mössbauer pa-
rameters dependence on the milling time. There are two characteristics sextets and
Fig. 4.33 X-ray diffraction patterns at different stages of reaction (4.59) as a function of milling
time. T – troilite FeS, P – pyrite FeS2 , Q – quartz SiO2 [Baláž et al. 2004a]
Fig. 4.34 Magnetization as a function of external magnetic field and/or of milling time for reaction
(4.59) [Baláž et al. 2004a]
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.35 (a) Mössbauer spectra for reaction (4.59); (b) Mössbauer parameters for reaction (4.59),
A – total area of component, tM – milling time; 1 – pyrite FeS2 (doublet: IS = 0.31 mm s−1 ,
QS = 0.63 mm s−1 ), 2 – Fe (sextet A: MF = 32.90 T), 3 – troilite FeS (sextet B: MF = 28.40 T),
[Baláž et al. 2004a]
one doublet. The doublet with IS = 0.31 mm s−1 and QS = 0.63 mm s−1 corresponds
to FeS2 which is consumed during milling.
Elemental Fe which is also consumed, as can be seen from kinetics for sextet A
with MF = 32.90 T. Beginning with tM = 15 min, the new sextet B (MF = 28.40 T)
has been identified with an increase in the total area component A. In accordance
with XRD patterns in Fig. 4.33 and literature data [Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992b;
Baláž et al. 2002b] this sextet can be described as troilite FeS. Stoichiometric FeS is
antiferromagnetic with alternate layers of Fe atoms magnetized in opposite direction
[Shuey 1975].
In the Mössbauer spectrum taken at 25 min, the traces of elemental Fe are still
visible. However it is clear that antiferromagnetic troilite FeS is the dominant phase
in the milled powders. From Fig. 4.34, it can be seen that this phase contributes only
very little to the overall magnetization of our system.
The conventional high-energy temperature lead recovery process from lead sul-
phide PbS is based on reduction with iron scrap [Habashi 1986]. Recently, 92–
94% lead recovery has been obtained by the direct reduction of lead sulphide with
elemental iron in the temperature interval 1000–1150◦ C for 180 min [Szczygiel
et al. 1998].
The mechanochemical reduction of lead sulphide with elemental iron under am-
bient temperature has been studied [Baláž et al. 2004b; Godočı́ková et al. 2004a,b].
The reaction can be described by the equation
PbS + Fe → Pb + FeS (4.60)

Fig. 4.36 X-ray diffraction patterns at different stages of reaction (4.60) as a function of milling
time, A: PbS, B–E: PbS + Fe milled for 20–60 min (1 – lead sulfide, 2 – iron, 3 – lead, 4 – FeS
(cubic)) [Godočı́ková et al. 2004b]
The reaction is thermodynamically possible at ambient temperature, as the en-

thalphy change is negative (ΔH◦298 = −1.3 kJ mol−1 ). The process is illustrated by
the XRD patterns in Fig. 4.36.
The primary process – the reduction of lead sulfide by iron while lead metal and
iron sulfide are formed – is clearly seen. After 20 min of milling, the relative amount
of lead sulfide decreased and the lead is formed as indicated by the diffraction peak
at 39.9◦ (JCPDS 04-0686). The process kinetics as described by the conversion
degree, β is shown in Fig. 4.37.
Only 19% conversion to lead metal was achieved during the initial 20 min of
milling. The intensity of the iron (JCPDS 06-0696) and lead sulphide (JCPDS 78-
1897) reflections decreases upon continued milling, but these phases are detectable
even after 60 min of milling. After 60 min, the reflections from lead metal and cubic
FeS (JCPDS 23-1123) can be observed and 75% conversion to lead was achieved.
The reaction products are present in the form of nanocrystalline particles. Par-
ticle size of 13–21 nm for lead have been obtained. Figure 4.38 shows a typical
TEM image of the polydisperse Pb/FeS nanoparticles formed by mechanochemical
reduction of lead sulphide with iron during 60 min.
Fig. 4.37 Conversion degree, β for reaction (4.60) as a function of milling time, tM [Godočı́ková
et al. 2004b]
Examination of TEM shows that the as-milled powder is composed of spheri-

cal and rod-like particles. Dimensions of spherical particles are close to nanolead
particle size determined by XRD.
It is evident from magnetic measurements (Fig. 4.39) that the magnetization
curves are well saturated after the application of a magnetic field higher than 2 T.
Fig. 4.38 TEM image of

Pb/FeS nanoparticles formed
by reaction (4.60) after
60 min milling [Godočı́ková
et al. 2004b]
Fig. 4.39 Magnetization as a function of external magnetic field and/or of milling for reaction
(4.60) [Godočı́ková et al. 2004b]
The difference in the saturation magnetization of the samples, as displayed in the

inset of this Figure, is mainly caused by the different amount of the ferromagnetic
component (bcc-Fe) in the milled samples. For longer milling times, the saturation
magnetization is negligible indicating that the constituent phases are almost entirely
paramagnetic and the mechanochemical reduction is completed.
The changes in the magnetic nature of the samples can be well seen in Mössbauer
spectra in Fig. 4.40a. There is a small doublet in pattern of PbS which belongs to
admixtured pyrite FeS2 . With the increasing milling time, the original sextet of iron
hyperfine splitting is changing as well. The changes of Mössbauer parameters are
given in Fig. 4.40b. Sextet A, with hyperfine magnetic field MF = 32.84 T originat-
ing from elemental Fe, is diminishing with milling time. For tM ≤20 min, iron is
preferentially consumed by reaction with the present pyrite FeS2 in sample and this
reaction is thermodynamically more viable in comparison with the reaction (4.60).
Doublet with IS = 0.31 mm s−1 and quadrupole splitting QS = 0.59 mm s−1 cor-
respond in accordance with literature, to FeS2 [Marfunin and Mkrtčjan 1967].
At tM >20 min the formation of pyrrhotite Fe1−x S characterized by a sextet C
(MF = 25.37 T) is evident and supported by the XRD patterns in Fig. 4.36. Pyrrhotite
Fe1−x S sample rarely consist of only one structural type because at temperatures be-
low 350◦ C the iron vacancies in the Fe-S system start to order producing a series of
superstructures, which could exhibit antiferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic or paramag-
netic behaviour. As an example, in our system at tM >30 min the formation of a fur-
ther doublet have been observed. In accordance with literature this belongs to cubic
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.40 a) Mössbauer spectra for reaction (4.60); b) Mössbauer parameters for reaction
(4.60), A – total area of component, tM – milling time; 1 – pyrite FeS2 (doublet: IS =
0.31 mm s−1 , QS = 0.63 mm s−1 ), 2 – Fe (sextet A: MF = 32.845 T), 3 – pyrrhotite Fe1−x S (sex-
tet C: MF = 25.37 T), 4 – cubic Fe1+x S (doublet: IS = 0.85 mm s−1 , QS = 1.69 mm s−1 ), [Baláž
et al. 2004a]
Fe1+x S which is known only from synthetic studies. The magnetic characterization
of the pyrrhotites thus presents a complex problem [Vaughan and Lennie 1991].
Conventionally, antimony sulphide Sb2 S3 is reduced via high-energy tempera-
ture annealing in the presence of reducing agents such as hydrogen or iron. The
reduction of antimony sulphide with hydrogen at atmospheric pressure and at tem-
perature 473–873 K has been studied [Torma and Inal 1979]. Only 60% of Sb2 S3
was converted to metallic antimony. The reduction with elemental iron is possible
at temperatures 773–823 K but the process is inefficient because the metal sulphide
dissolves in the already formed iron sulphide [Habashi 1986]. The yield of both pro-
cesses is low, they need high temperatures and the products have large grain size.
The direct reduction of antimony sulphide has been studied [Baláž et al. 2007].
The reaction with elemental iron during milling proceeds at ambient temperature,
according to the equation
Sb2 S3 + 3Fe → 2Sb + 3FeS (4.61)
The reaction is thermodynamically feasible, as the enthalphy change for reaction

under study is negative (ΔH◦298 = −116.7 kJ mol−1 ).
The progress of the mechanochemical reaction (4.61) is illustrated by the selected
XRD patterns in Fig. 4.41. The process is rather straightforward with elemental
antimony Sb (JCPDS 05-0562) and FeS (pyrrhotite-4H, JCPDS 22-1120) being the
Fig. 4.41 X-ray diffraction patterns at different stage of reaction (4.61) as function of milling time.
1–0 min, 2–20 min, 3–60 min, 4–120 min [Baláž et al. 2007]
only solid state products. The intensity of the metal iron reflexion (110) decreases
upon continued milling and only a very small amount of iron is detectable at 60 min
(pattern 4). In the starting material (pattern 1) more small peaks are seen which
belong to stibnite Sb2 S3 (JCPDS 42-1393).
The conversion degree for precursors (Sb2 S3 , Fe) and product (Sb) of reaction
(4.61) as obtained by normalization of the XRD intensities is shown in Fig. 4.42.
It is clear that most of the reduction is complete after 60 min with the intensity of
Sb2 S3 decreasing faster than Fe. There is no reason to expect different phase ratios
here as the content of Fe and Sb2 S3 should change parallel according to Eq. (4.61).
A possible explanation is the partial amorphization of stibnite which is indeed man-
ifested in an increased background of the XRD patterns.
Figure 4.43 shows the room temperature magnetization data for investigated sam-
ples as a function of external magnetic field. It is evident that the resulting magne-
tization curves are well saturated after an application of magnetic field higher than
2 T. The variation of the saturation magnetization as a function of milling time, as
displayed in the inset of Fig. 4.43, reflects the amount of metallic iron, the only
ferromagnetic component in the samples. In good agreement with the XRD re-
sults shown in Fig. 4.42, the Fe fraction decreases continuously for milling times
up to 180 min, with more than 80% being transformed during the first 60 min. Af-
ter 180 min of milling the saturation magnetization is negligible indicating that the
constituent phases are almost entirely paramagnetic and/or antiferromagnetic, i.e.
reaction (4.61) is practically complete.
The XRD line width of the sample milled for 180 min have been analyzed in or-
der to confirm the presence of nanosize particles. The grain size of Sb was found
Fig. 4.42 Conversion degree for reaction (4.61) as a function of milling time [Baláž et al. 2007]
Fig. 4.43 Magnetization as a function of external magnetic field for several milling times. The
inset shows the saturation magnetization as a function of milling time [Baláž et al. 2007]
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.44 (A) Dark field TEM image and (B) SAED pattern of nanoparticles formed by reaction
(4.61), milling time 180 min [Baláž et al. 2007]
to be 19 nm with 0.35% residual strain and the particle size of FeS is about 10 nm.
Figure 4.44A shows a typical dark field TEM image obtained using beams from
the diffraction rings of the irregular shaped nanoparticles formed during 180 min of
milling. Figure 4.44B shows the SAED pattern of an area containing some nanopar-
ticles. The SAED pattern shows a set of rings instead of spots due to the random
orientation of the nanoparticles. The TEM image is consistent with the XRD grain
size but also shows the strongly agglomerated nature of the powder. The agglom-
eration of nanoparticles is a general phenomenon originating from the tendency to
reduce the surface area.
The reaction (4.61) was also studied with mineral sample from Romania (deposit
Baiut) [Baláž et al. 2005a]. XRD revealed that next to main phase stibnite Sb2 S3
also quartz SiO2 was present (Fig. 4.45A). The starting material was milled with
elemental Fe in a ratio corresponding to Eq. (4.61) in a planetary mill and the XRD
patterns were taken to identify the main components (Fig. 4.45B). Both product
phases predicted by Eq. (4.61) were identified: elemental Sb (JCPDS 35-0732) and
pyrrhotite–1T (JCPDS 29-0726). In addition, a substantial amount of non-reacted
Fe is present. This is explained by the approximately 10% SiO2 contained in the
starting material.
The mechanochemical reaction between arsenic sulphide As2 S3 and elemental
iron can be described by the equation
As2 S3 + 3Fe → 2As + 3FeS (4.62)

Fig. 4.45 X-ray diffraction patterns for reaction (4.61), A: starting stibnite Sb2 S3 (Baiut, Roma-
nia), B: Sb2 S3 with Fe milled for 10 min. St – stibnite, Sb2 S3 , Q – quartz, SiO2 , Sb – antimony,
Py – pyrrhotite 1T, Fe – iron [Baláž et al. 2005a]
The reaction is thermodynamically feasible, as the enthalpy change is negative,

ΔH◦298 = −160.7 kJ mol−1 .
The starting material was mineral obtained from Manhattan, Nevada (USA). Its
XRD analysis (Fig. 4.46) revealed that the main phase was auripigment As2 S3 with
a small amount of realgar As4 S4 . The mineral was milled with elemental Fe in
stoichiometric molar ratio in a planetary mill and XRD patterns were measured to
identify the main components of the reaction (4.62). Surprisingly, the only reaction
product was iron sulphide, identified as pyrrhotite-4M Fe7 S8 (JCPDS card 24-0079.)
Only partial conversion to reaction products was achieved as can be seen from the
presence of non-reacted Fe in this figure. Neither elemental arsenic nor any arsenic
sulphide is detected among the products of mechanochemical reaction (4.62). This
fact can be interpreted by the low thermal stability of arsenic sulphides [Vaughan
and Craig 1978] and the possible volatization of the arsenic species during milling.
The mechanochemical reaction between copper sulphide and elemental iron has
been studied very carefully [Matteazzi and LeCaër 1992b; Baláž et al. 2002b, 2004a,
c, 2005a]. The reaction can be described by equation
Cu2 S + Fe → 2Cu + FeS (4.63)
The reaction (4.63) is thermodynamically possible, as the enthalpy change is

negative, (ΔH◦298 = −21.0 kJ mol−1 ).
Fig. 4.46 X-ray diffraction patterns for reaction (4.62), A: starting mineral auripigment As2 S3 (A)
with small amount of realgar As4 S4 (R), B: As2 S3 with Fe milled for 10 min. Py – pyrrhotite 4M,
Fe7 S8 , Fe – iron [Baláž et al. 2005a]
The progress of the mechanochemical reaction is illustrated by the selected XRD

patterns in Fig. 4.47.
The primary process – the reduction of copper sulphide by iron while copper
metal and iron sulphides are formed – is clearly seen, particularly by inspecting the
relative intensities of the diffraction lines of Cu and Fe metal.
The conversion degree, β, can be defined as β = ICu /(ICu + IFe ), where ICu and IFe
are the intensities of the Cu(111) and Fe(110) diffraction lines. The process kinetics
as described by this parameter is shown in Fig. 4.48.
The process is significantly complicated by the existence of several copper sul-
phide and iron sulphide phases. Any external influence, such as high temperature
treatment and ball milling [Baláž et al. 2003], can cause phase transformations in
sulfides. Already 1 min of milling decreased the relative amount of djurleite Cu1.94 S
and increased the fraction of chalcocite Cu2 S. In addition, a new tetragonal phase
Cu1.81 S (JCPDS 41-0959) formed as indicated by the diffraction peaks at 32.5◦ and
39◦ . Another tetragonal phase Cu2 S (JCPDS 72-1071) may also be present.
Most of the copper sulfide is consumed during the first minutes of milling. Af-
ter 10 min, only the reflections from Cu, cubic FeS (JCPDS 23-1123) and Fe can
be observed. The presence of iron without residual copper sulphides requires either
significant off-stoichiometry of the iron sulphide or the presence of free sulphur.
Unfortunately, free sulphur may remain undetected by XRD due to the low scatter-
ing amplitude of sulphur and its tendency toward amorphization. The intensity of
Fig. 4.47 X-ray diffraction patterns for reaction (4.63) as a function of milling time, 1 – djurleite
Cu1.94 S, 2 – chalcocite Cu2 S, 3 – tetragonal Cu1.81 S, a – cubic FeS, b – hexagonal FeS [Baláž
et al. 2002b]
the iron reflections decreases upon continued milling and no iron is detectable after
60 min. Simultaneously, FeS changes to its hexagonal modification troilite (JCPDS
75-0602). This phase is considered the stable modification of stoichiometric FeS
[Shuey 1975].
Fig. 4.48 Conversion degree for reaction (4.63) as a function of milling time [Baláž et al. 2002b]
Fig. 4.49 Conversion of cubic FeS (c) to hexagonal FeS (h) as a function of milling time [Baláž
et al. 2005a]
The kinetics of the cubic iron sulphide transformation to hexagonal iron sul-
phide is shown in Fig. 4.49 based on the intensity ration of XRD peaks. Iron
sulphides (pyrrhotites) belong to a group of complicated compounds containing
ordered iron vacancies. The distribution of vacancies distinguishes the individual
pyrrhotite types. At temperatures below 350◦ C, the vacancies start to order pro-
ducing a series of superstructures based on the Ni-As type structure [Shuey 1975;
Vaughan and Craig 1978; Vaughan and Lennie 1991]. Cubic FeS is a metastable
phase that can be synthesized in the laboratory, but it is not found naturally.
The Mössbauer spectra presented in Fig. 4.50 support the interpretation given for
the XRD results above. The spectra are dominated by two overlapping sextets with
a paramagnetic doublet appearing in the center, especially at milling times between
4 and 10 min. The relative intensities of both sextets as well as the observed doublet
are given in Fig. 4.51 as a function of milling time.
The parameters of the high-field sextet (hyperfine field 32.9 ± 0.3 T, isomer
shift 0.01 ± 0.01 mm/s and quadrupole shift 0.01 ± 0.01 mm/s) indicate that it origi-
nates from elemental Fe. Its relative fraction is diminishing with the milling time
(Fig. 4.51) consistent with XRD results. The sextet, which dominates the pat-
terns after longer milling times, is characterized by the hyperfine field between
30.0 T and 30.9 T, isomer shift of 0.75 ± 0.01 mm/s and quadrupole splitting of
0.07 ± 0.01 mm/s.
These parameters are typical of iron monosulphides. The small magnetization
observed after prolonged milling is probably due to the ferrimagnetic contribution
of Fe-deficient Fe1−x S [Vaughan and Lennie 1991; Jiang et al. 1998]. The isomer
shift of the doublet varies from 0.44 mm s−1 to 0.50 mm s−1 and the quadrupole
splitting increases from 0.96 mm s−1 to 1.11 mm s−1 with increasing milling time.
This component probably originates from an increasingly disordered intermediate
state. Avvakumov observed a transition from sextet to doublet as the consequence of
Fig. 4.50 Mössbauer spectra for reaction (4.63) mixtures as a function of milling time [Baláž
et al. 2005b]
Fig. 4.51 The relative

intensities of the Mössbauer
sub-spectra as a function of
milling time [Baláž
et al. 2005b]
Fig. 4.52 SEM study of the mechanochemical reduction of copper sulphide by iron: (A) elemental
Fe, (B) copper sulphide, (C) Cu/FeS nanocomposite [Baláž et al. 2004d]
mechanical disordering of the iron sublattice when milling a single-phase pyrrhotite

sample [Avvakumov 1986].
Micrometer aggregates of nanoparticles are formed during milling of copper sul-
phide with iron (Fig. 4.52). Usually each micrometer-sized powder particle is com-
prised of a mixture of nanosized grains of the product phases as can be observed in
our case [Gaffet et al. 1999; Koch 1991; McCormick et al. 2001]. The dimension of
the grains is changing with milling time (Fig. 4.53).
The very similar results have been obtained with chalcocite Cu2 S mineral from
deposit Khan (South-western Africa) [Baláž et al. 2004c].
4.3.6.5 Scaling-Up the Process
Several processes have been designed for production of pure metals from com-
pounds including minerals with iron as reducing metal (Fig. 4.54) [Habashi 1986].
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.53 Crystallite size, D, of product copper in reaction (4.63) as a function of milling time
The selection of a solid–solid reduction process depends on numerous factors

and usually a compromise is made between the advantages and the disadvantages.
Suitable additives are used to improve the process [Habashi 1986]. However, the
conventional metallothermic reduction is not capable of making nano-size metals
and or Me/FeS nanocomposites due to the high temperature.
Fig. 4.54 General scheme of metallothermic reduction [Habashi 1986]

Fig. 4.55 General scheme of

Mechanochemical reduction as outlined in Fig. 4.55 is a very straightforward,

one-step, ambient temperature process without many operations. The key step is
the high-energy milling which requires a suitable industrial mill for scaling up the
process. In mechanochemical processing of sulfides with elemental iron as reduc-
ing agent, the product is in the form of Me/FeS (Me = Pb, Sb, Cu) nanocomposite
particles. They can be applied in technology as produced, e.g. as supported metal
catalysts in chemical engineering [Weisser and Landa 1972] or have to be sepa-
rated into components in order to prepare nanometals with unique properties [Baláž
et al. 2004d]. The reduction of sulphides in a ball mill is an example of a so-called
“dry” technology, as reactions in gas and liquid phases are excluded.
In case of copper sulphide mechanochemical reduction the simplified flowchart
can be outlined as in Fig. 4.56. The very straightforward one-step solid state process
is characterized by the formation of Cu/FeS nanocomposite. If we need nanocopper,
Fig. 4.56 Scheme of copper

nanopowder production
[Baláž et al. 2004c]
Fig. 4.57 Metal recovery vs. leaching time for Cu/FeS nanocomposite
the product of reaction (4.63) has to be separated into its components. Selective
leaching of the iron sulphide can be an appropriate method of producing copper
nanopowder. Several acids (H2 SO4 , HNO3 , HCl) have been tested for the selective
leaching of iron sulphide from the nanocomposite with the aim to preserve nanocop-
per in solid form. The best results have been obtained with HCl: more than 86% Fe
was dissolved together with the marginal amount of copper (0.2%), Fig. 4.57.
4.3.6.6 Reduction with Magnesium
Ultrafine Mo particles can be produced as a result of the slow burning transition into
detonation in reaction of molybdenite MoS2 with Mg reducing metal according to
the reaction
MoS2 + Mg → Mo + 2MgS (4.64)
The mechanical treatment of the reactant mixture results in a considerable de-
crease of the ignition temperature and in a strong increase of the burning speed
[Gaffet and LeCaër 2004].
The same reducing element has been applied for decomposition of stibnite Sb2 S3
[Godočiková et al. 2007] following the reaction
Sb2 S3 + 3Mg → 2Sb + 3MgS (4.65)
The reaction is thermodynamically possible, as the enthalpy change for reaction

(4.65) is negative, (ΔH◦298 = −872.4 kJ mol−1 ).
The progress of the mechanochemical reduction is illustrated by XRD patterns
(Fig. 4.58) of the starting powder (A) and taken after 20 (B), 30 (C), and 120 (D)
Fig. 4.58 X-ray diffraction patterns as a function of the milling time. A-stoichiometric mixture of
Sb2 S3 and Mg before milling. The milling times for patterns B-D are 20 min, 30 min and 120 min,
respectively [Godočiková et al. 2008]
min of milling. Pattern A is dominated by stibnite, Sb2 S3 (JCPDS 75-1310); all the
unmarked lines correspond to this phase. The (101) peak of magnesium (JCPDS
35-0821) and an unidentified peak at about 14.3◦ are also visible. This latter line
probably originates from an inert impurity that does not participate in the reaction.
There is very little chemical change during the first 20 min of milling, although the
presence of some rombohedral Sb metal (JCPDS 35-0732) is indicated by the (012)
peak at 28.7◦ and the (110) peak at about 42◦ . The most obvious change is the
broadening of the diffraction peaks.
There is a qualitative difference between patterns B and C, indicating a fast chem-
ical change between 20 and 30 min. It seems that most of the reaction takes place as
a self-sustaining reaction some time between 20 and 30 min; the transformation is
practically complete at 30 min. This is not surprising. The ratio of the reaction heat
to the room temperature heat capacity is about 4660 K and values above 2000 K
indicate the possibility of a self-sustaining reaction [Takacs 2002]. Elemental anti-
mony and niningerite MgS (JCPDS 35-0730) are the only solid state reaction prod-
ucts. The lines are relatively narrow after 30 min of millling, suggesting that a high
temperature process resulted in larger particles. Only the line broadening changes
between 30 min and 120 min.
The reaction proceeds according to Eq. (4.65) without intermediate phases and
it is complete by 30 min. Just as there is little transformation before 20 min, little
Sb2 S3 remains after at least 30 min of milling. A small shoulder at 43.2◦ is the only
sign that a minor amount of Sb2 S3 is present after 30 min. The reason can be that a
small fraction of the Mg was oxidized and therefore not available as reducing agent.
The X-ray patterns were measured to 120◦ , but we opted to show a narrower range
of angles with better resolution.
The detailed analysis of XRD patterns has been performed in order to deter-
mine grain sizes and strains using the Williamson-Hall method [Williamson and
Hall 1953]. During the first 20 min the particle size of stibnite decreases: it is 65 nm
after 10 min and 35 nm after 20 min. The random strain is less than 0.1% as expected
for a brittle substance. Right after the reaction at 30 min, the particle size is 130 nm
with 0.3% strain. The strain remains the same until 90 min, the particle size drops
to 25 nm and remains about the same from 40 min to 90 min. There is a little extra
broadening after 120 min of milling, providing 18 nm particle size and 0.35% strain.
The dependence of the specific surface area on milling time is shown in Fig. 4.59.
Two phases of the formation of new specific surface area can be identified. In the
first period up to 30 min, the specific surface area increases; the effect of the reaction
is not obvious. After 40 min the surface area is approximately constant, suggesting
a dynamic equilibrium between particle fracturing and agglomeration [Baláž 2000].
In a polydisperse systems like the current one, the presence of very fine particles
along with relatively coarse particles greatly promotes the formation of aggregates,
due to the enhanced role of the van der Waals forces. Particles in the nanometer size
range have a strong tendency to agglomerate due to their relatively large specific
surface area.
The surface morphology of the mechanochemically synthesized Sb/MgS nanopar-
ticles is depicted in Fig. 4.60 where the agglomeration of nanoparticles can be
clearly seen. The agglomeration increases with the increasing milling time. The
Fig. 4.59 Specific surface area as a function of the milling time [Godočiková et al. 2007]
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.60 SEM image of Sb/MgS nanocomposite; milling time 30 min (A) and 120 min (B)
[Godočiková et al. 2008]
solid state combination of nanoparticles into agglomerates is a general phenomenon

which is one of the ways a nanocrystal system is able to compensate for its unsatu-
rated surface forces via surface reconstruction.
4.3.6.7 Reduction with Silicon
The mechanochemical reduction of copper sulphides with silicon as reducing ele-

ment has been studied in [Baláž et al. 2005b]. XRD analysis of the starting materials
(Fig. 4.61A) revealed that the main present phases were chalcocite Cu2 S, djurleite
Cu1.94 S and elemental silicon. The behaviour of sulphides and silicon at separate
milling is different. There are no new phases at silicon milling on XRD pattern ex-
cept of tungsten carbide (5) which is a consequence of wear from milling vial and
balls. The shape of diffraction peaks and their positions illustrate the effect of parti-
cle size diminution as a consequence of milling. However, the phase transformations
are unambiguosly observed: anilite Cu7 S4 and digenites Cu9−x S5 have been identi-
fied among the products of milling. It has been described recently [Baláž et al. 2003]
that digenite, which is in fact a group of copper sulphides [Gaines et al. 1997] is one
of the main phase during copper sulphide milling. Anilite has been observed as an
intermediate product and this phase is transformed into low digenite modification
due to milling [Morimoto et al. 1969]. The presence of anilite (Fig. 4.61B) can not
be excluded also in our case.
The set of starting copper sulphide and silicon mixtures has been milled in differ-
ent time and the products have been identified by X-ray diffractometry (Fig. 4.62).
Djurleite Cu1.94 S and chalcocite Cu2 S together with unreacted silicon have been
identified in powders milled till 3 min (Fig. 4.62A and B). Cu1.96 S phase formed
at milling time 6 min (Fig. 4.62C) seemed to be the most stable phase even in
case when ternary sulphide is formed during prolonged milling. In higher time of
milling (Fig. 4.62D–F) elemental copper (1) and the ternary copper silicon sulphide
Cu8 SiS6 are the main reaction products together with the described Cu1.96 S phase.
Fig. 4.61 XRD patterns of starting copper sulphides (A) and silicon (C) and products of their
separate milling for 20 minutes (B and D): – Cu2 S (chalcocite) (JCPDS 23-962); ∗ – Cu1.9375 S
(djurleite) (JCPDS 23-0960); • – Si (silicon, syn) (JCPDS 27-1402); 3 – Cu9−x S5 ; Cu1.765 S (digen-
ite) (JCPDS 47-1748); 4 – Cu7 S4 (anilite) (JCPDS 34-0489); 5 – WC (tungsten carbide) (JCPDS
25-1047) [Baláž et al. 2005b]
The dependance of specific surface area on milling time for starting copper sul-
phides (A), starting silicon (B) and reaction mixture of copper sulphides with silicon
(C) is given in Fig. 4.63. There are small changes in values of SA for copper sulphide
milling in contrast to silicon which seemed to be strong agglomerated after 10 min
of milling. Anomalous behaviour of surface area increase for starting mixture milled
for 6–20 min (SA = 0.4–4.9 m2 g−1 ) can be related to the formation of ternary cop-
per silicon sulphide Cu8 SiS6 because the specific surface area of any milled copper
sulphide is not higher than 0.2 m2 g−1 .
The overall process of mechanochemical transformations in copper sulphide-
silicon system proceeds via complicated mechanism with several overlapping steps.
Phase transformations in copper sulphide phases, the formation of elemetal nanocop-
per with X-ray determined particle size of 23 nm and creation of ternary sulphide
Cu8 SiS6 with anomalous surface area values are the main products of the hypothet-
ical reaction
6Cu2 S + Si → 4Cu + Cu8 SiS6 (4.66)
Fig. 4.62 XRD patterns of mixture of starting copper sulphides with silicon milled for different
times: A – 1 min; B – 3 min; C – 6 min; D – 10 min; E – 15 min; F – 20 min (silicon has been
pre-milled for 10 min for all samples): – Cu2 S (chalcocite) (JCPDS 46-1195, JCPDS 84-1770,
JCPDS 72-1071); ∗ – Cu1.9375 S (djurleite) (JCPDS 34-0660); – Cu1.96 S – (JCPDS 12-0174);
• – Si (silicon, syn) (JCPDS 27-1402); 1 – Cu (copper, syn) (JCPDS 04-0836); 2 – Cu8 SiS6
(copper silicon sulphide) (JCPDS 21-0305); 5 – WC (tungsten carbide) (JCPDS 25-1047) [Baláž
et al. 2005b]
Fig. 4.63 Specific surface area, SA vs. milling time, tM : A – copper sulphides; B – silicon; C –
mixture of copper sulphides with silicon [Baláž et al. 2005b]
4.3.6.8 Thermodynamics of Sulphide Reduction
The heats of formation of sulphides are much smaller than the corresponding values
for oxides (Table 4.9). Consequently, the redox reactions between a sulphide and
a more reactive metal is less exothermic than the analogous reaction between the
corresponding oxide and the same metal. Nevertheless, in several cases the reac-
tion heats are high enough to permit mechanically induced self-sustaining reactions
[Takacs 2002].
Table 4.9 Mechanically induced redox reactions of sulphides

Reaction ΔH◦ (kJ mol−1 ) Reference
3Cu2 S + 2Al → 6Cu + Al2 S3 −485 Matteazzi and LeCaër (1992b)

Cu2 S + Fe → 2Cu + FeS −21 Matteazzi and LeCaër (1992b)
3PbS + 2Al → 3Pb + Al2 S3 −267 Matteazzi and LeCaër (1992b)
PbS + Fe → Pb + FeS −1 Baláž et al. (2004b); Godočı́ková
et al. (2004a, b)
Sb2 S3 + 3Fe → 2Sb + 3FeS −117 Baláž et al. (2007)
Sb2 S3 + 3Mg → 2Sb + 3MgS −872 Godočiková et al. (2007)
As2 S3 + 3Fe → 2As + 3FeS −161 Baláž et al. (2005a)
MoS2 + 2Mg → Mo + 2MgS −70 Danielian et al. (1991)
3ZnS + 2Al → 3Zn + Al2 S3 −107 Danielian et al. (1991)
FeS2 + Fe → 2FeS −13 Baláž et al. (2004a)
3FeS + 2Al → 3Fe(Al) + Al2 S3 −271 Baláž et al. (2004a)
2FeS + Si → 2Fe(Si) + SiS2 +88 Baláž et al. (2004a)
FeS + Mn → Fe + MnS −117 Baláž et al. (2004a)
3CoS + 2Al → 3Co + Al2 S3 −405 Baláž et al. (2004a)
HgS + Cu → Hg + CuS Molčanov and Jusupov (1981)
4.3.7 Other Minerals
Thermodynamically, chrysocolla CuSiO3 ·2H2 O could react with sodium sulfide to

form nanocrystalline covellite CuS and water soluble sodium silicate according to
the exchange reaction
CuSiO3 · 2H2 O + Na2 S → CuS + Na2 SiO3 + 2H2 O (4.67)
It was shown that the solid state pretreatment using a vibration mill increases
the conversion rate of chrysocolla [Banza and Gock 2003]. This procedure can be
efficiently used for the recovery of copper in the form of nanocrystalline copper
sulphide as an alternative to pre-heating or direct leaching.
Mineral malachite CuCO3 ·Cu(OH)2 has been also treated with the same sulphur
precursor
CuCO3 · Cu(OH)2 + 2Na2 S → 2CuS + Na2 CO3 + 2NaOH (4.68)
and the overall transformation of malachite into the nanocrystalline covellite CuS
was achieved.
Copper sulphate mineral chalcantite CuSO4 ·5H2 O transformation have been

studied by Indian authors using Fe, Mg, Sn, Mn, Co and Pb reducing elements to
obtain nanocrystalline copper [Varghese et al. 2001; Varghese et al. 2004].
In (CuSO4 ·5H2 O+Fe) system the overall chemical reaction during milling can be
written as follows
CuSO4 · 5H2 O + Fe → Cu + FeSO4 · 5H2 O

→ Cu + FeSO4 · 5H2 O (4.69)
As milling proceeds (Fig. 4.64), the intensity of CuSO4 ·5H2 O and Fe peaks
gradually diminishes while that of FeSO4 ·5H2 O and Cu peaks increases. On latter
milling times FeSO4 ·5H2 O is completely converted into FeSO4 ·4H2 O [Varghese
et al. 2001].
In (CuSO4 ·5H2 O+Mg) system MgSO4 ·4H2 O and Cu2 O are formed as final prod-
ucts. An intermediate phase and hydrogen were observed before completion of
mechanochemical reduction.
In CuSO4 ·5H2 O + Sn system the reaction can be represented
CuSO4 · 5H2 O + Sn → Cu + β − brass + SnSO4 + 5H2 O

→ Cu + SnSO4 + 5H2 O (4.70)
Fig. 4.64 X-ray diffraction patterns of mixture of starting CuSO4 ·5H2 O with iron milled for dif-
ferent times: CuSO4 ·5H2 O, [ ] Fe, ♦ Cu, # FeSO4 ·5H2 O, ∗ FeSO4 ·4H2 O [Varghese et al. 2001]
Table 4.10 Grain size, D for various substances in systems (metal sulphate+metal) [Varghese
et al. 2001]
Reaction system D (nm)
CuSO4 · 5H2 O + Fe 27 (Cu)
CuSO4 · 5H2 O + Mg 19 (Cu2 O)
CuSO4 · 5H2 O + Sn 54 (Sn)
There is no water of hydration associated with the product sulfate SnSO4 .

The grain size analysis of the products formed during reduction are given in
Table 4.10.
In (CuSO4 ·5H2 O+Pb) system the reaction (4.71) is extremely rapid
CuSO4 · 5H2 O + Pb → Cu + PbSO4 + 5H2 O (4.71)
and practically complete withing 20 min of planetary milling (Fig. 4.65). The re-
duction of bivalent copper by lead as reducing metal is extremely slow in solution
Fig. 4.65 X-ray diffraction patterns of mixture of starting CuSO4 ·5H2 O with lead milled for differ-
ent times: (a) 5 min; (b) 30 min; (c) 50 h: ∗ CuSO4 ·5H2 O, Pb, •Cu, PbSO4 , WC [Varghese
et al. 2004]
due to the presence of electric double layer at the interface between lead metal and
solution where the redox system has to occur. Since a similar electric double layer
is absent in solid state, the resistance due to double layer does not play a part in the
kinetics while milling (CuSO4 ·5H2 O+Pb) system. Thus, while the reaction (4.71) is
slow in solution, it is much faster in solid [Varghese et al. 2004]. For the given pro-
cess conditions, the kinetics and mechanism of the mechanochemical reduction can
vary with the variation in the chemical nature of the reactants as well as products.
A careful selection of systems becomes important in the process control [Varghese
et al. 2001, 2004].
Bastnaesite ReCO3 F (Re-rare earths) is one of the most important mineral re-
sources containing rare earth elements especially La and Ce. A novel process for
extracting rare earths contained in this mineral has been developed in Japan [Zhang
and Saito 1998]. This process is composed of three steps combining milling, wash-
ing and leaching operations. Milling of bastnaesite and NaOH powders in the first
step plays a significant role in achieving a high yield of rare earths elements in the
leaching of the washed sample (Fig. 4.66). The leaching is governed by the reaction
LaCO3 F + 3NaOH → La(OH)3 + Na2 CO3 + NaF (4.72)
and extraction of the rare earth elements such as La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm included in
bastnaesite was attempted with NaOH powder using planetary mill.
Fig. 4.66 Yield of the rare earth elements extracted from the washed samples by 10 N H2 SO4
solution as a function of milling time [Zhang and Saito 1998]
References 249
Fig. 4.67 Yield of the rare earth elements extracted from the washed samples by 0.05 N H2 SO4
solution as a function of milling time [Zhang and Saito 1998]
The change in selectivity of the rare earth elements extraction can be achieved
by the change of leaching conditions (Figs. 4.66 and 4.67).
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Chapter 5
Mechanochemistry in Minerals Engineering
5.1 Introduction
The traditional scheme of metals extraction from minerals involves some processes
of mechanical character ameliorating the accesibility of the valuable component by
the leaching agent. Leaching represents the key stage in the extraction scheme and
its course may be affected by selection and choice of the method leaching and/or by
convenient pretreatment of the solid phase. Thermal and mechanical activation be-
longs among the most important pretreatment methods which influence solid phase
leachability [Baláž 2000].
The hydrometallurgical methods for liberating valuable metals from refractory
minerals involve processing of the minerals at high temperatures and/or pressures
to facilitate metal recovery. These methods, such as roasting and pressure leaching,
are capital intensive and, in the case of roasting, produce environmentally damaging
effluent streams.
The thermal activation of sulphidic ores aims at transforming the poorly soluble
minerals into more soluble forms. That enables better selectivity in transfer of us-
able metal into solution, nevertheless it appears that some new problems concerning
exploitation of the sulphur emissions arise. In the past three decades enhanced pub-
lic awareness and governmental pressure have focussed on the problem of sulphur
oxide pollution. Sulphidic minerals account for a large fraction of the sulphur ox-
ides. The special problem of the minerals is the presence of small amounts of As,
Hg, Te, Se which may be emitted together with sulphur in form of oxides by the
thermal activation.
The mechanical activation of minerals makes it possible to reduce their decom-
position temperature or causes such a degree of disordering that the thermal activa-
tion may be omitted entirely. In this process, the complex influence of surface and
bulk properties occurs. The mineral activation leads to a positive influence on the
leaching reaction kinetics, to an increase in the measured surface area and to further
phenomena, especially the potential mitigation of environmental pollutants which is
becoming increasingly important with time [Baláž 2000].
At present, it is not known whether the kinetics of heterogeneous reactions are
determined by the contact area, the structure of the mineral, or both. The required

258 5 Mechanochemistry in Minerals Engineering
modification of the structure can be achieved by mechanical activation of the min-

eral, typically by high-energy milling. The breaking of bonds in the crystalline
lattice of the mineral brings about a decrease (ΔE*) in activation energy and an
increase in the rate of leaching [Zelikman et al. 1975].
ΔE ∗ = E − E ∗ (5.1)
where E is the apparent activation energy of the non-disordered mineral and E* is

the apparent activation energy of the disordered mineral.
The relationship between the rate of leaching and temperature is usually de-
scribed by the Arrhenius equation
k = Z exp(−E/RT ) (5.2)
where k, Z, R and T stand for the rate constant of leaching for the non-disordered
mineral, pre-exponential factor, gas constant and reaction temperature, respectively.
For the disordered mineral we can write
k = Z exp(−E ∗ /RT ) (5.3)
and after substituting for E* from (6.1) we obtain
k∗ = k exp(ΔE ∗ /RT ) (5.4)
From (5.1) it is clear that exp (ΔE*/RT) > 1 and thus it follows from Eq. (5.4) that
k* > k, i.e., the rate of leaching of a disordered mineral is greater than that of an
ordered mineral.
It was Senna who analysed the effect of surface area and the structural disorder-
ing on the leachability of mechanically activated minerals [Senna 1989]. In order to
solve the problem – whether surface area or structural parameters are predominant
for the reactivity, the rate constant is divided by the proper surface area and plot
against the applied energy by activation (Fig. 5.1).
If the rate constant of leaching divided by the surface area remains constant with
respect to the applied energy, as shown in Fig. 5.1a, then the measured surface area
Fig. 5.1 The schematic

diagrams representing the
mutual dependence of
physico-chemical
characteristics and reactivity
of mechanically activated
solids: k – the rate constant of
leaching, Si – surface area,
X – structural imperfections,
E – applied energy
[Senna 1989]
5.2 Mechanochemical Solid–Solid Processing 259
may be the effective surface area and at the same time, the reaction rate is insensitive
to structural changes.
If, on the other hand, the value k/Si decreases with applied energy, as shown in
Fig. 5.1b, then the surface area is probably not the effective surface area.
In the third case where k/Si increases with increasing applied energy, as shown in
Fig. 5.1c, the surface area Si , may be again the effective surface area, with an over-
lapping effect of the structural imperfection, as a result of mechanical activation.
Alternatively, when k/Si and X vary parallel to each other with E, as shown in
Fig. 5.1d, or the value k/Si is proportional to X, as shown in Fig. 5.1e, it seems more
appropriate to accept the chosen Si as an effective surface area.
5.2 Mechanochemical Solid–Solid Processing
Mechanochemical processing by high-energy milling is an innovative procedure,

that improves the efficiency of mineral processing via several factors, most im-
portantly due to the formation of new surfaces and the creation of lattice defects
[Tkáčová 1989; Baláž 2000]. The process is also called mechanochemical process-
ing or mechanical activation and its pecularities are described in Chap. 1. Its benefits
include lower reaction temperatures, increased rate and amount of solubility and the
formation of water soluble compounds. As a consequence, further processing can
be performed in simpler and less expensive reactors during shorter reaction times
[Welham 1997, 2001; Aylmore and Lincoln 2000a, b, 2001].
The preparation of tungsten from scheelite and the carbothermic reduction of
ilmenite which were described recently are promising examples of direct solid state
processing aided by mechanochemical activation [Welham 1996, 1999].
5.2.1 Mechanochemical Reduction
5.2.1.1 Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
According to the XRD pattern obtained from the as received CuFeS2 mineral (de-
posit Slovinky, Slovakia) its main phase is chalcopyrite with small peaks corre-
sponding to quartz SiO2 (Fig. 5.2A).
The mechanochemical reduction proceeds according to the equation
2CuFeS2 + Fe → Cu2 S + 3FeS (5.5)
and practically total conversion is observed (Fig. 5.2B). Only some trace of chal-
copyrite may be present in the sample together with geerite Cu8 S5 and two forms of
pyrrhotite FeS. The lines of the sulphide phases are strongly broadened due to the
small grain size [Baláž et al. 2004].
Fig. 5.2 X-ray diffractograms of CuFeS2 . A – as received, B – milled with Fe for 20 min [Baláž
et al. 2004]
5.2.1.2 Chalcosine Cu2 S
The mechanochemical reduction of chalcosine Cu2 S (mineral (deposit Khan, South

Africa) according to the equation
5.2 Mechanochemical Solid–Solid Processing 261
Fig. 5.3 X-ray diffractograms of Cu2 S milled with Fe powder for 10 min at speeds: A – 300 min−1 ,
B – 400 min−1 , C – 550 min−1 [Baláž et al. 2004]
Cu2 S + Fe → 2Cu + FeS (5.6)
has been attempted at several speeds (and energy inputs) of the mill. The results are
illustrated by the selected XRD patterns in Fig. 5.3.
The primary process – the reduction of copper sulphide by iron, while cop-
per metal and iron sulphides are formed – is clearly seen, particularly by inspect-
ing the relative intensities of the diffraction lines of Cu and Fe metal. However,
the exact mechanism of the process is quite complex: the formation of bornite
Cu5 FeS4 , the alloy Fe1−x Cu and wüstite Fe1−x O was observed in the preliminary
milling tests published earlier [Matteazzi and Le Caër 1992]. In our previous study
we observed that the reduction process is accompanied by the transformations of
copper and iron sulphide phases as a result of milling [Baláž et al. 2002]. In ac-
cord with these results the formation of copper nanoparticles (10–25 nm in size)
was accompanied by the cubic modification of FeS (Fig. 5.3A). The cubic FeS
transformed to the stable hexagonal form during the later stages of the process
(Fig. 5.3B–C).
The chalcosine conversion degree β can be defined as β = ICu /(ICu +IFe ), where
ICu and IFe are the intensities of the Cu(111) and Fe(110) X-ray diffraction lines. The
process kinetics is shown in Fig. 5.4 in terms of this parameter. The dependence of
the chalcosine conversion on the milling time is well documented.
The process of chalcosine conversion by the mechanochemical processing can be
outlined by the simplified flowchart given in Fig. 5.6. The very straightforward one-
step solid state process is characterized by the formation of Cu/FeS nanocomposite
(Fig. 5.5). This product has to be separated into its components. Selective leach-
ing [McCormick et al. 2001] of the iron sulphide can be an appropriate method
of producing elemental copper. However, the treatment of a liquid phase is nec-
essary in this case. The concept follows a so called “dry” technology strategy in
which the steps involving liquids and gases are partially or completely excluded
[Boldyrev 1996].
Fig. 5.4 Conversion degree of mechanochemical reduction of Cu2 S, β as a function of milling

time [Baláž et al. 2004]
5.3 Mechanochemical Solid–Liquid Processing 263
Fig. 5.5 Scanning electron micrographs of products of Cu2 S mechanochemical reduction and cor-
responding EDAX spectrum imaged on the grain No. 7
Fig. 5.6 Cu2 S reduction by Fe: mechanochemical solid–solid processing [Baláž et al. 2004]
5.3 Mechanochemical Solid–Liquid Processing
5.3.1 Milling and Leaching as Separated Processes
Leaching belongs to fundamental steps in hydrometallurgy (see also Sect. 6.4.).

Leaching should always carried out in conditions that ensure maximum recovery of
valuable components at the required selectivity of the process. From the economical
point of view, valuable metals should be transferred into the solution within the
shortest possible time [Tkáčová 1989].
Mechanical activation seems to be a favourable process for the treatment of min-

erals prior to leaching with significantly enhanced metal recoveries reported. This
increase in leachability may well be due to a combination of mechanically induced
structural defects and chemical reactions involving the mineral and the local envi-
ronment. The differencies in reactivity of the mineral components of ore, as well as
the differences in solubility of the reaction products, can be used to selectively leach
metals [Welham 1997; Welham and Llewellyn 1998; Hu et al. 2004].
5.3.2 Oxidative Leaching
5.3.2.1 Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9 S8
Pentlandite concentrate composed mainly of pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9 S8 and small

amounts of chalcopyrite CuFeS2 and pyrite FeS2 has been selected to illustrate the
effect of mechanical activation on enhancement of leaching [Baláž et al. 2001].
Some special regimes of milling cause not only physico-chemical transforma-
tions but also changes in the chemical composition of activated minerals. For sul-
phides, wet milling can result in so-called mechanochemical oxidation where the
formation of water soluble sulphates accompanying the production of insoluble sul-
phides can contribute to the selectivity of the subsequent leaching process.
Pentlandite and chalcopyrite as economic sources of Cu, Ni and Co are examples
of sulphides that are difficult to treat and the considerable effort has been devoted
to extraction of these metals [Küzeci et al. 1989; Warner et al. 1992; Mulak 1992].
Owing to the refractory character of the sulphides occurring in pentlandite concen-
trates, various approaches to influencing the extraction of copper, nickel and cobalt
have been attempted by oxidative leaching in combining with mechanical activation
[Baláž et al. 1998a, 2000a; Maurice and Hawk 1999a, b].
The oxidative leaching of nickel from pentlandite can be described by the equa-
tion [Dutrizac and MacDonald 1974].
0.5(Ni, Fe)9 S8 + 18Fe3+ → 4.5Ni2+ + 22.5Fe2+ + 4S (5.7)
and the leaching of copper from chalcopyrite by the equation [Tkáčová and Baláž
1988].
CuFeS2 + 4Fe3+ → Cu2+ + 5Fe2+ + 2S (5.8)
The process of oxidative leaching of the pentlandite concentrate was proceeded
by mechanical activation in H2 O (I) in order to dissolve the water-soluble sulphates
produced during milling. Then the direct sample was leached out with Fe2 (SO4 )3
solution (II). The obtained Ni, Cu and Co recoveries are given in Table 5.1.
The results indicate the possibility of selective extraction of Ni in principle.
Mechanochemical dissolution in water enables us to recover as much as 46% Ni
in contrast to 29% Cu and Co under given experimental conditions.
Table 5.1 Metal solubilization from (Fe,Ni)9 S8 after mechanical activation for 60 min [Baláž
et al. 2000a]
Metal Recovery (%)
I II Total
Ni 45.72 27.28 73
Cu 29.41 70.59 100
Co 29.35 60.65 90
The recovery of Ni, Cu and Co by leaching from the pentlandite concentrate

is sensitive to temperature. The kinetics and temperature sensitivity for Co, as an
example is given in Fig. 5.7. The recoveries at both applied temperatures reach after
120 min leaching 31% for the non-activated concentrate and 90% for the concentrate
subjected to 60 min of mechanical activation.
Fig. 5.7 Cobalt recovery, εCo vs. time of Fe2 (SO4 )3 leaching, tL for (Fe,Ni)9 S8 mechanically ac-
tivated for 60 min, 1–45◦ C, 4–90◦ C [Baláž et al. 2000a]
5.3.3 Acidic Leaching
5.3.3.1 Arsenopyrite FeAsS
Arsenopyrite is the most common arsenic containing mineral of many ore deposit
but it is of limited economic importance and generally is discarded as solid waste
during mining operation. When arsenopyrite present in an ore is not associated with
gold values, it is viewed as a troublesome impurity. Smelters at present prefer to re-
ceive concentrates which are essentially free of arsenic [Nesbitt et al. 1995; Beattie
and Poling 1987]. In some sulphide concentrates, arsenopyrite contains “invisible”
gold that can be released only by some type of pretreatment, e.g. by chemical oxida-
tion in acidic medium [Robins and Jayaweera 1992; Cruz et al. 1997; Baláž 2000].
The investigation of the influence of mechanical activation of arsenopyrite Fe-
AsS on kinetics and leaching selectivity of As and Fe in H2 SO4 medium has been
performed [Achimovičová and Baláž 2005]. Arsenopyrite of Slovak origin (deposit
Pezinok) with small amounts of ankerite (Fe,Ca)CO3 , calcite CaCO3 and quartz
SiO2 was used. Non-activated arsenopyrite is very resistant against the influence of
H2 SO4 . Figure 5.8A shows that probably only the solubilization of Fe present in
ankerite occurred following the equation
2(Fe, Ca)CaCO3 + H2 SO4 → FeSO4 + CaSO4 + 2H2 O + 2CO2 (5.9)
Arsenic and iron in FeAsS are not leached out from non-activated sample.
Fig. 5.8 Recovery of metals into the solution εMe , vs. time of leaching, tL for FeAsS: A – as
received, B – mechanically activated 30 min [Achimovičová and Baláž 2005]
In case of mechanically activated sample, As and Fe from arsenopyrite are trans-

ferred into the leachate. The maximum yield is 29% for As and 31% for Fe, provided
the sample was mechanically activated for 30 min (Fig. 5.8B). The chemical pro-
cesses of FeAsS leaching are very complicated as all the three elements present in
the mineral usually form a number of insoluble and soluble compounds. Thus, e.g.
Fe enters the leachate as Fe2+ or Fe3+ , As can be present as As3+ or As5+ , sulphur
in sulphides can be present in the form of S2− or according to the level of oxidation
up to S6+ .
Mechanical activation as a method of sulphide mineral pretreatment results in
the increase of reactive surface and deformation of crystalline structure of minerals.
This-in general-leads to accelerating the leaching process [Baláž 2000]. At the end,
the increased reactivity of mechanically activated sulphides leads to the decrease
of activation energy and the acceleration of leaching of the metals presented in the
mineral. This in turn affects also the selectivity of leaching.
Figure 5.9 shows initial reaction rate constant values, kMe of Fe and As leaching
from arsenopyrite in relation to the duration of mechanical activation. It can be seen
that with the increase of activation time, the reaction rate for both metal increase.
The maximum values are achieved after 20 min of activation. It follows that leaching
after mechanical activation for 20 min is the most rapid and effective.
The selective leaching of FeAsS as defined by the As/Fe ratio in relation to spe-
cific surface is shown in Fig. 5.10. The decreasing trend indicates that with the
increase of specific surface, the As/Fe yield rate decreases. It means that in contrast
to the As yield, the Fe yield is increasing with the duration of mechanical activation.
Fig. 5.9 Dependance of leaching rate constants of metals kMe (Me = Fe,As) vs. time, tG of me-
chanical activation of FeAsS [Achimovičová and Baláž 2005]
Fig. 5.10 Selectivity of

leaching, As/Fe from
mechanically activated
FeAsS vs. specific surface
area, SA (time of leaching,
tL = 20 min) [Achimovičová
and Baláž 2005]
Mechanical activation makes the crystalline structure of FeAsS instable and in this
process, in all probability the bonds between As and Fe are broken. This in turn
makes their transfer to the leachate easier. The mutual ratio of both the discussed
elements is also probably linked to the complicated leaching chemistry.
5.3.4 Alkaline Leaching
Complex sulphides tetrahedrite Cu12 Sb4 S13 , jamesonite FePb4 Sb6 S14 and enargite
Cu3 AsS4 are categorized as sulfosalts with enargite and tetrahedrite being econom-
ically attractive because of the content of copper for extracting. However, the con-
tent of antimony and arsenic in these minerals is undesirable as pyrometallurgical
smelter feed because they effect the conductivity and ductility of refined copper
and also form a scum on electrolytic cells allowing impurities to carry over to the
cathodes [Dayton 1982; Habashi 1996, 2002, 2003].
In this regard, alkaline leaching of the minerals in sodium sulphide medium of-
fers a hydrometallurgical approach to solving this problem because it provides se-
lective transfer of antimony and arsenic into leach solutions [Anderson et al. 1994;
Javorka and Fröhlich 1996; Robins and Jayaweera 1992]. Chalcocite (Cu2 S), which
is formed as a solid residue from these sulphides, is then a more suitable material
for pyrometallurgical production of copper. Likewise, jamesonite decomposes dur-
ing alkaline leaching into galena and pyrrhotite because the antimony is selectively
transferred into solution. The alkaline chemistry of these minerals with Na2 S can be
described by the following reactions:
Cu14 Sb4 S13 + 2Na2 S → 7Cu2 S + 4NaSbS2 (5.10)

FePb4 Sb6 S14 + 3Na2 S → FeS + 4PbS + 6NaSbS2 (5.11)
2Cuš AsS13 + 3Na2 S → 3Cu2 S + 2Na3 AsS4 (5.12)
There are several methods to enhance leachability of minerals including me-

chanical activation. The primary effect of mechanical activation is the comminution
of solids into ultrafine dimensions. Nanosized particles lead to changes in a great
number of physico-chemical properties of particular systems [Baláž 2000]. In our

previous work, we found that mechanical activation of sulphides in high-energy
mills enhanced the rate of arsenic and antimony extraction from different sulphidic
concentrates and the recovery of metals into solution reached maximum values
[Baláž et al. 1994, 1995, 1999, 2000a].
Figure 5.11 presents dependencies of specific surface area of the minerals under
study as a function of mechanical activation time.
It is evident that the rate of formation of new surface is limited by both time
of mechanical activation and type of sulphide. For enargite and tetrahedrite, the
specific surface area increases quickly in the first 5–10 min and reaches a constant
afterwards. For jamesonite, this phenomenon occurs at a lower time and at lower
specific surface area.
The kinetics of new surface area formation is a very complex phenomenon-
especially if milling is accompanied by physico-chemical changes which also effect
the mechanism of particle interaction. Generally, in mechanically activated systems,
the first stage of milling occurs with rapid increase of new surface and the second
step commences with aggregation [Juhász and Opoczky 1990].
Here, the new surface area produced is not proportional to the milling time
because particle interaction causes aggregation. SEM photographs in Figs. 5.12B
Fig. 5.11 The specific surface area, SA of enargite Cu3 AsS4 , tetrahedrite Cu12 Sb4 S13 and
jamesonite FePb4 Sb6 S14 vs. time of mechanical activation, tM [Baláž and Achimovičová 2006a]
Fig. 5.12 Scanning electron micrographs of Cu12 Sb4 S13 . (A) Non-activated (< 170 μm) and (B)
mechanically activated (milling time 5 min) [Baláž and Achimovičová 2006a]
Fig. 5.13 Scanning electron micrographs of Cu3 AsS4 . (A) Non-activated (< 170 μm) and (B) me-
chanically activated (milling time 5 min) [Baláž and Achimovičová 2006a]
and 5.13B show aggregates formation for tetrahedrite and enargite. The sizes of
these aggreagtes even exceed the size of original particles.
The kinetics of tetrahedrite, enargite and jamesonite alkaline leaching in sodium
sulphide medium according to Eqs. (5.10–5.12) was followed as a function of
milling time.
5.3.4.1 Tetrahedrite Cu12 Sb4 S13
From Fig. 5.14, it is evident that the influence of mechanical activation of tetra-
hedrite on the recovery of antimony is unambiguous. While the highest recovery
after 10 min of leaching at 313 K was 7% for non-activated sample, it was 43%
for sample 40 min of mechanical activation. There is a straightforward increase in
the rate and recovery of antimony until approximately 15 min of milling time. This
correlates with increase of surface area as shown in Fig. 5.11, however, at higher de-
grees of activation, this statement cannot be applied. Thus, at higher milling times,
mechanical activation of the mineral surface must be taking place, which makes
leaching better.
Fig. 5.14 Cu12 Sb4 S13 leaching: recovery of antimony into leach, εSb , vs. time of leaching,
tL . Temperature of leaching-313 K (milling time is given next to the leaching curves) [Baláž
and Achimovičová 2006a]
5.3.4.2 Jamesonite FePb4 S6 S14
This mineral behaves similar as tetrahedrite. For non-activated sample, the recovery
of Sb is only 8%; however, for mechanically activated sample, 40 min yields Sb
recovery of 63% after 10 min of leaching (Fig. 5.15). Again, the leaching data on
Fig. 5.15 are compatible with dependence of surface area on milling time as shown
in Fig. 5.11.
In principle, ores rich in jamesonite can be treated hydrometallurgically.
Figure 5.16 shows a simplified flowsheet of this process that consists of the
following operations: mechanical activation, alkaline leaching in Na2 S solution
at moderate temperature and atmospheric pressure and solid/liquid separation of
antimony-free lead sulphide and iron leach residue. After purification of the leach
solution, the pressure oxidation and precipitation of Na[Sb(OH)6 ] or recovery of
antimony cathodically by electrowinning are possible alternative routes. The leach
residue after washing is suitable for further pyrometallurgical treatment.
5.3.4.3 Enargite Cu3 AsS4
Considerable effect of mechanical activation on the recovery of arsenic from enar-

gite is illustrated in Fig. 5.17 but only for shorter times of mechanical activation. The
highest recovery of 87% As was achieved for sample mechanically activated 20 min
Fig. 5.15 FePb4 Sb6 S14 leaching: recovery of antimony into leach, εSb , vs. time of leaching,
tL . Temperature of leaching-313 K (milling time is given next to the leaching curves) [Baláž
and Achimovičová 2006a]
Fig. 5.16 Simplified hydrometallurgical process flowsheet of FePb4 Sb6 S14 using alkaline sulphide
[Baláž and Achimovičová 2006b]
Fig. 5.17 Cu3 AsS4 leaching: recovery of arsenic into leach, εAs , vs. time of leaching, tL .
Temperature of leaching-328 K (milling time is given next to the leaching curves) [Baláž and
Achimovičová 2006b]
in comparison to the non-activated sample which yielded 5% As after 10 min of

leaching. However, in this case, no correlation with the dependence of surface area
on milling time as documented by Fig. 5.11 has been found. On the other hand,
the differences in values of arsenic recovery are not dramatic and all slopes at the
beginning of leaching for samples milled for 8 min and longer are practically the
same.
On the basis of the laboratory tests, a simplified flowsheet has been proposed
(Fig. 5.18) involving: alkaline leaching in Na2 S solutions at moderate temperature
and atmospheric pressure; solid–liquid separation of the arsenic-free copper sul-
phide leach residue; and pressure oxidation and precipitation of calcium or iron
arsenates after purification of the leach solution. The leach residue after washing is
suitable for further pyrometallurgical treatment [Baláž et al. 2003a].
5.3.5 Selective Leaching of Bismuth
Bismuth, widely used in chemicals, pigments and catalyst, is only recovered as a by-
product. World output is about 6500 t/y principally from China (as a by-product in
tungsten concentrates). Modest quantities are produced in Peru by pyrometallurgical
way [Ellis 2004].
Fig. 5.18 Simplified hydrometallurgical process flowsheet of Cu3 AsS4 concentrate using alkaline
sulphide [Baláž et al. 2003a]
Bismuth presence is very frequently associated with the occurence of lead sul-
phide. However, when lead is pyrometallurgically recovered from sulphide concen-
trates, bismuth is a harmful element. That is why selective leaching of bismuth
makes sence. The key stage for Bi leaching from the concentrate is the way of
its pretreatment and selection of leaching agent. HCl and (H2 SO4 +NaCl) belong
among the fundamental leaching agents for Bi dissolution [Jansen and Taylor 1995;
Medkov et al. 1999].
The possibility of Bi leaching from lead sulphide concentrate (1.32% Bi, 51.3%
Pb, 1.54% Cu, 8.42% Zn, 3.91% Fe, 2210 g−1 Ag and 18.75% S) was examined.
Different leaching agents and mills have been tested in order to obtain selective
extraction of bismuth with its high recovery into leach. The results are summarized
in Table 5.2.
The results show that selectivity of Bi extraction was low at applying HCl
and (H2 SO4 +NaCl) leaching agents despite of sufficient Bi recovery in several
cases. However, with sodium thiosulphate Na2 S2 O3 solution applied at 25◦ C and
mechanochemical pretreatment made in an attritor it was possible to achieve 99%
recovery of Bi even in 3 min of leaching time (Fig. 5.19). With the exception of
copper where the recovery was 22%, the recoveries for all the other metals were
5% Pb, 1% Zn, 0.5% Fe and 1% Ag. It illustrates very good selectivity of sodium
thiosulphate application for Bi recovery.
Table 5.2 Specific surface area, SA , leaching conditions (leaching time 60 min, solid/liquid ratio
1:400; 0.2 M HCl; H2 SO4 = 15 gL−1 , NaCl = 200 gL−1 , Na2 S2 O3 ·5H2 O=124 gL−1 ; T=25◦ C)
and recovery of metals into leach, εMe for lead sulphide concentrate mechanically activated in
different mills (leaching time 60 min) [Baláž et al. 2005a]
Mill/milling time SA [m2 g−1 ] Leaching reagents εMe [%]
Bi Pb Cu Zn Fe Ag
– 0.7 HCl 1.8 3.7 0.2 1.2 7.6 0.6
H2 SO4 +NaCl 60 7.5 24 2 17 1.6
Na2 S2 O3 .5H2 O 38 3.5 5 2 1 0.6
Eccentric 1.5 HCl 1.8 11 0.1 3.5 19 0.6

vibration H2 SO4 +NaCl 92 50 4 10 32 2
mill/15 min Na2 S2 O3 .5H2 O 47 2 6.5 0.5 1.6 2
Planetary 2.9 HCl 1.8 11 0.1 4.1 13 0.6

mill/15 min H2 SO4 +NaCl 63 42 7.3 9.2 25 2
Na2 S2 O3 .5H2 O 57 3.6 12 1 3 1.6
Attritor 12 HCl 98 33 3 4 71 0.6

mill/30 min H2 SO4 +NaCl 99 57 4 7 87 1.5
Na2 S2 O3 .5H2 O 99 5 22 1 0.5 1
The plot in Fig. 5.20 describes the effect of new surface area formation on re-
covery of Bi as a consequence of mechanical activation in different mills. The plot
appears to be linear for all activated as well as non-activated samples of the concen-
trate. It probably suggest that Bi recovery is simply due to the increase of surface
Fig. 5.19 Recovery of Bi, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe and Ag, εMe vs. leaching time, tL for lead sulphide
concentrate mechanically activated in an attritor for 30 min, leaching temperature 25◦ C [Ficeriová
et al. 2005a]
Fig. 5.20 Recovery of bismuth after 60 min leaching, εBi in sodium thiosulphate solution at 25◦ C
vs. specific surface area, SA in various types of mills: “As-eceived” sample (A); Eccentric vibratory
mill (B); planetary mill (C) and attritor-stirring ball mill (D) [Baláž et al. 2005a]
area. The highest value of Bi recovery was obtained for the sample with the highest
surface area using milling in an attritor. It was shown [Beckstead et al. 1976] by
milling of the chalcopyrite concentrate that the limit for ball milling was 4 m2 g−1 ,
whereas the specific surface area of attritor-milled products continues to increase to
at least 12 m2 g−1 .
These values are very close to the obtained results. It is known that milling in
aqueous environment and/or the use of small mill balls (attritor) is more favourable
for new surface formation whereas dry milling and/or the use of larger mill balls
(vibration mill and/or planetary mill) favour bulk disorder of minerals [Baláž 2000;
Tkáčová 1989; Chodakov 1972].
5.3.6 Non-Cyanide Leaching of Precious Metals
5.3.6.1 Gold
Gold occurs in sulphides in a wide range of forms. It may be physically included

in intercrystalline spaces of sulphides that result from defects in their structure, or
it can be chemically bonded in solid solutions and compounds. There are a lot
of sulphides in which gold is present as an admixture. Leaching, as a key step in
the hydrometallurgy of gold, belongs to the heterogeneous reactions of the solid–
liquid type, and its course can be influenced through the solid, as well as liquid
phase.
Chemical, biological and physical pretreatments are applied as intervention steps

directed to the solid phase, the goal of which is to change the composition and
the particle size of the gold-bearing sulphides and thus, to facilitate subsequent
leaching [Marsden and House 1992; La Brooy et al. 1994]. Simultaneously, with
examination of chemical, biological and physical pretreatment, new processes of
mechanochemical pretreatment (Fig. 5.21) are being successfully applied to fun-
damental research, as well as to plant operations. In this process the minerals
are subjected to high-energy milling. The milling results in particle disintegra-
tion and chemical or physicochemical transformations, which significantly affect
the subsequent mineral processing operations [Tkáčová 1989; Baláž et al. 1995,
1996; Welham 1996; Linge and Welham 1997; Baláž et al. 1998a; Welham 1998;
Baláž 2000].
Alkaline cyanidation continues to be dominant method in hydrometallurgy for
gold dissolution [Ubaldini et al. 1996; Habashi 2008]. Cyanide leaching has dom-
inated gold processing for over 100 yeras and will probably continue to do so in
the future, despite the fact that the cyanide is coming under the close scrutiny of
environmental legislators [Potter and Salisbury 1974].
The use of thiosulphate as a gold leachant represents an alternative method
[Marsden and House 1992; La Brooy et al. 1994; Hiskey and Atluri 1988;
Abbruzzese et al. 1995; Breuer and Jeffrey 2000]. Economic and technical eval-
uation of plant tests of the Patera and Newmont processes showed great promise
for thiosulphate leaching [Block-Bolten and Torma 1986; Wan and Brierley 1997].
Leaching of gold in thiosulphate solution results in the formation of a stable com-
plex and is described by the equation
−
3 → Au(S2 O3 )2 + e
Au + 5S2 O2− 3−
(5.13)
The dissolution step in ammoniacal thiosulphate solution is an electrochemical

reaction and is promoted by the presence of copper ions [Aylmore and Muir 2001;
Fig. 5.21 Different ways of pretreating precious metal-bearing ores (concentrates) [Baláž 2000]
Aylmore 2001]. The role of copper (II) ions in the oxidation of metallic gold is
shown in the following reaction
3 + Cu(NH3 )4 → Au(S2 O3 )2 + 4NH3 Cu(S2 O3 )3 .

Au + 5S2 O2− 2+ 3− 5−
(5.14)
A gold-bearing CuPbZn complex sulphide concentrate from Banská Hodruša

(the Svetozár vein, Slovakia) was selected as a model material for testing the effect
of mechanochemical pretreatment on the subsequent thiosulphate leaching of gold.
The chemical composition of the concentrate was as follows: 353 gt−1 Au, 170 gt−1
Ag, 0.93% Cu, 4.08% Pb, 3.57% Zn, 20.06% Fe, 44.15% S, 0.2% Sb, 0.17% Hg,
0.02% Bi, 0.12% As, 0.03% Mn, 0.02% Co, 0.07% Mg and 5.5% SiO2 .
Mineralogical analysis (Fig. 5.22) showed the presence of chalcopyrite CuFeS2 ,
galena PbS, sphalerite ZnS, tetrahedrite Cu12 Sb4 S13 , pyrite FeS2 and quartz SiO2
in the concentrate. Gold occurs primarily free in the form of wiry, flat and flaky
aggregates filling up the intergrain space in sulphides, carbonates and quartz. Some
small gold inclusions are also present in the sulphides, predominantly sphalerite and
galena [Jágerský 1999]. A small amount of gold is associated with chalcopyrite,
while pyrite is regarded as barren in this respect. The investigation of the presence
of invisible gold was beyond the scope of this chapter.
Figure 5.23 shows the effect of leaching time on gold recovery for various
energy inputs during mechanical activation experiments. In the as-received con-
centrate, only 54% of the gold were recovered after 120 min leaching (curve 1).
The results for the mechanically activated samples (curve 2–4) indicated that the
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.22 Gold associations with sulphide minerals [Ficeriová et al. 2002]
Fig. 5.23 Recovery of gold, εAu versus leaching time, tL for mechanically activated concentrates.
Energy input, EM : (1) 0 kWht−1 (as-received sample), (2) 202 kWht−1 , (3) 335 kWht−1 and (4)
403 kWht−1 [Ficeriová et al. 2002]
physico-chemical changes of gold bearing minerals brought about an acceleration

of the process of thiosulphate leaching. It was possible to achieve a gold recovery
of 99% within 1 h for activated samples (curve 3 and 4).
Figure 5.24 shows the relationship between the rate constant of leaching and
the energy input of milling of the mechanically activated samples investigated. The
Fig. 5.24 Rate constant of gold leaching (k) versus energy input (EM ) [Ficeriová et al. 2002]
results show that the extraction of gold from CuPbZn concentrate strongly depends
on energy consumption by milling. It is important to note that the values of en-
ergy input were calculated for the batch attritor whereas the actual energy input for
continuous operating attritors are usually 10 times lower [Baláž 2000].
The physicochemical changes of CuPbZn concentrate due to mechanical activa-
tion have an influence on both the rate of extraction and the recovery of gold from
this gold-bearing concentrate when leached with ammonium thiosulphate. It was
possible to obtain 99% gold recovery after 45 min leaching of an activated sample,
which compares very favourably with 54% recovery from the as-received concen-
trate in 120 min.
5.3.6.2 Silver
There are at least 200 minerals bearing silver in major, minor and trace amounts.
However, of these, only 10–12 minerals are of practical importance. In order of
leachability, these are elemental silver, silver halides and silver sulphides
[Marsden and House 1992]. The sulphides occurring in the form of sulfosalts
(proustite, pyrargyrite, tennantite, tetrahedrite, etc.) cause considerable problems in
the leaching of silver. Classical cyanide leaching of these minerals results in 5–10%
Ag extraction (Lodejščikov and Ignateva 1973).
Several silver-bearing complex sulphide concentrates were used to test the effect
of mechanical activation and mechanochemical leaching on the subsequent leaching
of silver (Table 5.3).
The leaching of silver in thiourea CS(NH2 )2 , thiosulphate Na2 S2 O3 and cyanide
NaCN solutions can be described by equations [Murthy and Prasad 1996].
Ag + Fe3+ + 3CS(NH2 )2 = Ag [CS (NH2 )2 ]+

3 + Fe
2+
(5.15)
−
2Ag + 4S2 O2− 3−
3 + H2 O + 1 2O2 = 2Ag(S2 O3 )2 + 2OH (5.16)

2Ag + 4CN− + H2 O + 1 2O2 = 2Ag(CN)− 2 + 2OH
−
(5.17)
Figure 5.25 shows the effect of the leaching time on silver recovery for various
leaching medium for as-received sample. The leaching for 180 min in an cyanide
solution resulted in 3.5% Ag dissolution. In solution of thiourea and ammonium
thiosulphate, 5 and 5.7% Ag was dissolved.
Table 5.3 Chemical composition of the concentrates under study [Ficeriová et al. 2005b]
Concentrates Components (%)
Ag (gt−1 ) Au (gt−1 ) Bi Cu Pb Zn Fe Sb As S SiO2
Casapalca (Peru) 15500 0.9 – 19.5 16.5 8.8 3.4 8.3 3.2 29 0.7
B.Hodruša (Slovakia) 353 170 0.02 0.9 4.1 3.6 20 0.2 0.12 44 5.5
Atacocha (Peru) 2210 – 1.3 1.5 51.3 8.4 3.9 – – 19 –
Fig. 5.25 Recovery of silver into leach, εAg vs. leaching time, tL for the as-received sample.
Medium: 1 – NaCN, 2 – CS(NH2 )2 , 3 – (NH4 )2 S2 O3 [Ficeriová et al. 2004]
Figure 5.26 indicates that the mechanically induced physicochemical changes of

silver-bearing minerals brought about an acceleration of the process of the subse-
quent leaching. By application of thiosulphate and thiourea leaching, 99% recov-
ery of Ag was reached already after 3–5 min of leaching (curves 2, 3). In cyanide
medium, recovery of Ag was only 40% during 180 min of leaching (curve 1).
Fig. 5.26 Recovery of silver into leach, εAg vs. leaching time, tL for mechanochemically pretreated
(60 min) sample. Medium: 1 – NaCN, 2 – CS(NH2 )2 , 3 – (NH4 )2 S2 O3 [Ficeriová et al. 2004]
Fig. 5.27 Recovery of silver into leach, εAg vs. leaching time, tL for the mechanochemically acti-
vated samples using milling energies of: 0 kWh ton−1 as-received sample (1); 562 kWh ton−1 (2);
1123 kWh ton−1 (3); 2246 kWh ton−1 (4) [Baláž et al. 2003b]
The dependence of silver recovery in thiosulphate solutions on milling time is

shown in Fig. 5.27 from where it can be seen that only 5% Ag was dissolved from
the “as-received”concentrate. However, over 90% of the silver could be solubilised
within 10 min from the mechanochemically treated concentrates. A maximum re-
covery of 99% was achieved with the most energetically treated sample.
The degree of tetrahedrite decomposition D can be defined by the equation

Sbx
D = 1− .100[%] (5.18)
Sb0
where Sbx and Sb0 are the contents of antimony in mechanochemically treated tetra-
hedrite and in as-received sample, respectively.
The silver leaching curves were fitted and the rate constants were calculated
[Baláž et al. 2003b]. Figure 5.28 shows the dependence of the rate constant of silver
leaching (kAg ) on parameter D calculated by Eq. (5.18). It follows from this plot that
there is certainly some structural sensitivity for silver leaching from tetrahedrite by
thiourea solution. If the rate constant of leaching remains constant with respect to
the mineral decomposition as shown in the left part of Fig. 5.28 (D < 30%), the reac-
tion rate is insensitive to structural changes. However, it follows from the right part
of Fig. 5.28 (D > 30%) that the tetrahedrite decomposition contributes to the silver
leachabality and the reaction is structural sensitive. Similar results were obtained
Fig. 5.28 Rate constant, kAg for silver leaching vs. degree of mechanochemical destruction D of
Cu12 Sb4 S13 [Baláž et al. 2003b]
for thiosulphate leaching of mechanically activated tetrahedrite where the structural

sensitivity has been evident for D > 60% [Ficeriová et al. 1998].
5.3.7 Simultaneous Milling and Leaching (Mechanochemical

Leaching)
During mechanical activation the crystal structure of a minerals usually disordered

and generation of defects or other metastable forms can be found. These effects are
not stable and have different relaxation times (Fig. 5.29). If the process of mechan-
ical activation is separated from leaching in time, then a number of highly excited
states may form and decay before leaching. This is in accordance with the concept of
slowly changing states after interrupting mechanical activation [Lyakhov 1993]. Ac-
cording to this concept, mechanical activation deals only with the long lived slowly
relaxing states (Fig. 5.30). All the short-lived states are not at disposal for subse-
quent chemical leaching.
On the other hand, if the mechanical activation and chemical leaching are inte-
grated into a common step all the excitation states can be utilized. In addition to
the improvement of milling performance the leaching agent serves also as milling
additive. Thus there is a possibility that a common mechanical activation and leach-
ing step-called mechanochemical leaching-contributes to operational benefits and
economics of the overall process.
Fig. 5.29 The period and duration of excitation states (effects) after termination of mechanical
activation [adapted after Heinicke 1984]
Fig. 5.30 A generalized relaxation curve for mechanically activated solid [Lyakhov 1993]
5.3.7.1 Tetrahedrite Cu12 Sb3 S13
The principle of mechanochemical leaching of tetrahedrite has been verified in an

attritor working in a batch mode [Baláž et al. 1994, 1998b]. The experiments with
alkaline leaching of tetrahedrite concentrate under conditions close to hydrometal-
lurgical practice also showed good results. The data presented in Fig. 5.31 illustrate
that nearly 80% Sb extraction can be achieved by mechano-chemical leaching for
70 min, compared with 40% Sb extraction for chemical leaching for 120 min.
This high extraction of antimony means that only a small fraction of tetrahedrite
remains in the solid residue, which corresponds with the XRD data in Fig. 5.32,
Fig. 5.31 Recovery of Sb from Cu12 Sb4 S13 concentrate leach, εSb vs. time, t [Baláž and
where only small peaks of tetrahedrite (T) were detected. Copper sulphide has not
been detected by XRD but its occurrence is possible in an amorphous state.
The concept of mechanochemical leaching of tetrahedrite concentrates (named
Melt process) was developed and verified in a laboratory attritor [Baláž et al. 1994]
and in semi-industrial attritor [Baláž et al. 1995, 1997; Baláž 2000]. It was further
tested in a pilot plant hydrometallurgical unit in Rudňany (Slovakia). For more de-
tails in this technology see Sect. 6.3.3.
5.3.7.2 Celestite SrSO4
Celestite (SrSO4 ) and strontianite (SrCO3 ) are the two naturally occurring strontium
minerals but only the former is commercially mined and is mainly used for the
production of strontium carbonate, from which other strontium chemicals (strontium
nitrate, chloride, hydroxide, etc.) are obtained (Hong 1993).
Strontium carbonate can be synthesized according to the equation
SrSO4 + Na2 CO3 → SrCO3 + Na2 SO4 (5.19)
Mechanochemical leaching has been performed according to the flowsheet in

Fig. 5.33.
Figure 5.34 shows the XRD patterns of the original celestite concentrate and the
residues obtained after 10, 20 and 40 min of wet milling at constant SrSO4 :Na2 CO3
mole ratio of 1:1.2. The as-received sample immediately starts to be converted into
Fig. 5.32 XRD of Cu12 Sb4 S13 concentrate: A – non-activated, B – after mechano-chemical
leaching: Q – quartz, T – tetrahedrite, CH – chalcopyrite, P – pyrite, S – siderite [Baláž and
Fig. 5.33 Simplified

hydrometallurgical flowsheet
of SrSO4 concentrate
treatment [Obut et al. 2006]
SrCO3 with the initiation of high-energy milling and after 20 min of wet milling
most of the conversion is practically completed.
The arrows in Fig. 5.34 show the main celestite peaks used to follow the conver-
sion reaction. The peak intensities, especially the peak near 2Θ = 27.15◦ , decrease
with milling time and after 40 min of milling the peaks of celestite disappear, which
is in good agreement with the results of dissolution tests.
Fig. 5.34 XRD of celestite concentrate [Obut et al. 2006]

5.4 Sorption
The sorption of heavy metals in the environment can cause serious environmental
pollution problems. Many methods have been proposed for heavy metal removal,
e.g. precipitation, membrane filtration, ion exchange and adsorption [Habashi 1993].
Removal of heavy metal based on sorption on mineral surfaces has been sug-
gested as an alternative approach [Zoubolis and Kydros 1993a, b; Mellah and
Chegrouche 1997; Garcia-Sanchez et al. 1999; Vengris et al. 2001; Prieto et al. 2003].
The adsorption process is used especially in the water treatment field and the inves-
tigation has been made to determine inexpensive and good adsorbents. Sorption is
defined as a surface process irrespective of mechanism, adsorption or precipitation.
Both mechanism involve characteristic reactions of some metals with solid surfaces.
The properties of fine particles with a high surface area has led to their utilization
as sorbents for heavy metals [Baláž 2000]. While many physical properties of these
particles are now well understood, the influence on the chemical properties such as
adsorption and chemical reactivity remain poorly understood [Zhang et al. 1999].
5.4.1 Zinc Sorption on Calcite
The modification of calcite solid-state properties by high-energy milling and their

influence on the process of zinc adsorption has been studied [Baláž et al. 2005b].
The dependence of the zinc uptake E on milling time for planetary and vibra-
tory mill and corresponding surface and bulk changes of calcite during mechanical
activation are given in Table 5.4.
More drastic changes in surface and bulk of calcite samples induced in mineral by
planetary milling cause the higher zinc uptake in comparison with less pronounced
effect of vibratory milling. Generally, there is a strong evidence of positive influ-
ence of the overall disordering of calcite by milling on zinc uptake during sorption
experiments as manifested in Fig. 5.35.
Table 5.4 Zinc uptake, E specific surface area, SA crystallinity, X and SA /X ratio for calcite milled
in a planetary and vibratory mill, respectively, tM -milling time [Baláž et al. 2005b]
Mill tM (min) E (%) SA (m2 g−1 ) X (%) SA /X (m2 g−1 )
Planetary 0 35 0.9 100 0.9
0.6 59 4.3 71 6.1
3 65 6.0 62 9.7
15 69 5.7
30 85 4.9 40 12.4
Vibratory 0 30 0.1 100 0.1
10 40 3.3 59 5.6
15 49 4.0 55 7.3
30 52 4.9 46 10.7
5.4 Sorption 289
Fig. 5.35 Zinc uptake, E vs. sorption time, tS for calcite milled in a planetary mill, temperature
25◦ C, milling time: (1) 0 min, (2) 0.6 min, (3) 3 min, (4) 15 min and (5) 60 min [Baláž et al. 2005b]
The Freundlich model is frequently used to describe the adsorption of gas

molecules onto metal surfaces [Freundlich 1906]. However, the model has found
successful application in many other sorption processes, including sorption from
liquid media. The Freundlich isotherm robustly fits most experimental adsorption-
desorption isotherm curves, and is especially good for fitting data from highly het-
erogeneous sorbent systems, including minerals. In a “batch” aqueous adsorption
experiments, the data may be fitted to the Freundlich adsoprtion isotherm.
The shape of this isotherm strongly suggest that a description of the adsorption
is in a form
a = kc1/n (5.20)
where a is the amount of metal ion adsorbed per unit weight, k and n the Freundlich
constants and c is the equilibrium concentration of Zn2+ . Equation (5.20) can be
linearized to the form
1
log a = log k + log c (5.21)
n
The slope of line expressed by Eq. (5.21) gives the value 1/n and intercept of
the line gives the value log k. The Freundlich constants for zinc ions sorption and
correlation coefficient were calculated.
The Freundlich isotherm is an empiric formula with two parameters k and n,
respectively. The main drawback for the isotherm is that the parameters have not
exact meaning and have to be determined experimentally. However, recently a fun-
damental analysis of the isotherm for the adsorption of phenolic compounds on ther-
mally activated carbon and correlation of its parameters with molecular properties
of adsorbate and adsorbent have been performed [Otake et al. 2001]. The modified
Fig. 5.36 Linear correlation between constant 1/n of Freundlich equation and logarithm of specific
surface area and crystallinity ratio, SA /X, calcite milled in a planetary mill [Baláž et al. 2005b]
Freundlich parameter (1/n) was found to have an inverse linear relationships with
the electron density of phenolics calculated from molecular orbital theory [Furuya
et al. 1997].
In this chapter, the different approach has been applied. We have modified the
solid-state properties of calcite by mechanochemical activation and characterized it
by the structure sensitivity parameters SA /X (see Sect. 3.1.3). One solute (Zn2+ ions)
was then applied for a series of mechanically activated calcites of different origin.
The Freundlich parameter, 1/n was calculated from the linearization of adsorption
isotherms and plotted against structure sensitivity parameter, log(SA /X). The good
linear correlation between 1/n versus log(SA /X) values has been found (Fig. 5.36).
In the paper by Fyruya et al. Freundlich parameter (1/n) was related to the affinity
between the adsorbate and the adsorbent [Furuya et al. 1997]. In our work, there is
an evidence of relation of this parameter with the solid-state properties of adsorbent.
5.4.2 Sulphides
The special properties of fine particles with a high surface area and their significant
occurence as the by-product waste from mixed sulphides processing plants has led
to the suggestion that they may be utilized as sorbents for toxic metals [Zoubolis
et al. 1993a]. The pyrite fines which are usually stockpiled in the mine area for
copper ion separation and arsenic removal from solutions were studied [Zoubolis
et al. 1992, 1993b].
5.4 Sorption 291
Exchange Reactions of the Type
MeI S + MeII SO4 → MeI SO4 + MeII S (5.22)
(Me = Fe, Ni, Cu, Co, Ni, platinum metals, etc.) usually take place with sulphides
MeI S in the presence of excess free acid at increased temperature and pressure.
Pentlandite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite and galena were tested as
active sorbents of type MeI S [Kulebakin 1988].
The estimation of sorption properties has shown that mechanically activated
pyrrhotite is an exceedingly efficient sorbent and for the sorption of platinum met-
als a high activity and selectivity can be achieved. According to [Kulebakin 1988]
the capacity of mechanically activated pyrrhotine for platinum metals is as follows
(mgg−1 ): Os – 3000; Pd – 2300; Pt – 23.2; Rh – 14.0; Ru – 5.0; Ir – 2.2. A pyrrhotite
concentrate was effectively used for copper sorption from solutions using the unique
sorption properties of activated pyrrhotite in the two stage counter-current flowsheet
shown in Fig. 5.37.
When nickel powder is in contact with the copper ions the cementation reaction
proceeds by the equation
Cu2+ + Ni → Cu + Ni2+ (5.23)
Fig. 5.37 The counter-current flowsheet of copper sorption by mechanically activated pyrrhotite
concentrate [Kulebakin 1988]

mechanical activation and
temperature on relative
consumption of nickel
concentrate: 1 – as received
concentrate; 2,3 – concentrate
mechanically activated in a
planetary mill for 2 and
7 min, respectively; 4 –
theoretical calculation based
on the equation:
Cu2+ + NiS ⇔ Ni2+ + CuS
[Kulebakin 1988]
The application of nickel concentrate instead of nickel powder has been devel-
oped. The as received concentrate is composed mainly of Ni3 S2 and NiO. After
mechanical activation the new phase NiS is formed. The observed changes in sur-
face area and amorphization depend on regime of the mechanical activation. The
activated concentrate has a positive effect on copper sorption (Fig. 5.38).
Mechanical activation for 2 min has reduced the consumption of nickel concen-
trate from 34 to 4.7 gg−1 Cu at 90◦ C and from 57 to 7.1 gg−1 Cu at 70◦ C. The
activity of as received concentrate at low temperatures is low, whereas the activated
concentrate has considerable activity even at 30◦ C. The mechanical activation of
nickel concentrate brings about the changes of surface microstructure. XRD anal-
ysis of copper sorption products has shown the occurence of new sulphidic phases
Cu7.2 S4 , Cu9 S5 and NiS [Kulebakin 1988].
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Chapter 6
Applied Mechanochemistry
6.1 Introduction
Mechanical activation is an innovative procedure where the improvement in techno-

logical processes governed by its application can be attained via a combination of
several effects which influence the properties of applied solids.
This chapter is devoted to the application of broad possibilities of mechanochem-
istry in mineral processing, extractive metallurgy, chemical engineering, building
industry, coal industry, materials engineering, agriculture, pharmacy and waste treat-
ment. Nanoparticles are often formed by this technological approach which add
value to the processed solids. The environmental aspects of these processes are par-
ticularly attractive [Lomovskij 1994; Lomovskij and Boldyrev 2006].
The main advantages in comparison with the traditional technological proce-
dures are
• decrease in the number of technological stages
• excluding the operations that involve the use of solvents and gases and
• the possibility of obtaining a product in the metastabile state which is difficult (or
impossible) to obtain using traditional technological methods [Boldyrev 2006].
Simplification of the processes, ecological safety and the product extraordinari-
ness characterize the mechanochemical approach in technology.
6.2 Mineral Processing
The efficiency of mineral processing depends on the separation of individual mineral

components and on exposure of their surface. The production of flotation concen-
trates, with particle sizes of tens of micrometers, is not sufficient for many following
processes to operate at their optimum.
It is well known that the degree of dispersion and other physico-chemical prop-
erties of minerals are changed by mechanical stress in milling maschines. These
effects not only have significance in enhancing dispersion, but also affect particle

298 6 Applied Mechanochemistry
sizes typically encountered in flotation since the structural defects may be concen-
trated within this surface layers [Jusupov and Heegn 1997].
6.2.1 Sulphides
The sulphidic concentrates are milled to flotation fineness in industrial plants, as a

rule, in balls mills where the milling effect is achieved by rubbing and crushing.
As vibratory mills are often used for mechanical activation work using a similar
regime, their application to modification of the surface properties of minerals was
investigated [Molchanov and Jusupov 1981].
It was stated as early as in 1960s [Ray and Formanek 1960] that galena PbS
milled in an iron mill was much less floatable than galena milled in a ceramic mill.
This fact was elucidated recently [Peng et al. 2002].
It has been found that the adsorption capacity of galena for the flotation collector
potassium butylxanthate decreasing with decreasing size of particles [Plaksin and
Šafejev 1962]. This may be due to a change in electron concentration in the surface
layer of PbS. The higher electron concentration in the case of finer particles makes
the electron transitions between the xanthate anions and the surface of galena en-
ergetically unfavourable owing to which the formation of a solid particle-xanthate
bond is hindered. However, the relationship between size of the particles and their
adsorption properties is not unambiguous [Glembockij 1972]. In addition to the con-
ditions of milling, a number of other factors play a role and many of these factors
are antagonistic.
The influence of mechanical activation on flotability of PbS and sfalerite ZnS
was investigated [Ocepek and Milosavljkevic 1977). Experiments performed in a
flotation cell showed that there is an optimum degree of mechanical activation that
increases the flotability of sulfides compared with non-activated sulfides. The con-
tent of amorphous phase increases with the time of mechanical activation and results
in a decrease of flotability. For PbS, the decrease in flotability can be explained by
mechanochemical formation of anglesite PbSO4 .
Mechanical activation of galena concentrate involving a closed cycle with classi-
fier has been described [Auerbach et al. 1987] which showed that greater selectivity
and increased lead recovery could be achieved. Moreover, it was possible to reduce
the consumption of electric energy by 17%, the abrasion of mill lining to 68% and
the milling flowsheet to a single stage. The increase in recovery and selectivity may
be due to a considerable decrease in iron content in the pulp due to abrasion reduc-
tion and the shorter contact of particles with aqueous phase.
The contact phenomena of galena with milling media has been studied [Kostovic
and Pavlica 1995]. The galena flotation response after contact with stainless or mild
steel depends on contact time and conditions of the system in which contact oc-
curred. In this system, stainless and especially mild steels are effective in galena de-
pression. Oxidative products are sulphate or oxide or hydroxide species coating the
surface of galena that had contacted stainless or mild steel. These products provoke a
6.2 Mineral Processing 299
depression of galena and decrease the adsorption of xanthate from aqueous solution
on galena surface.
A specialized mill to control the milling environment has been applied [Peng
et al. 2002]. The degree of the galena oxidation during milling was modified by
different milling media and different purging gases [nitrogen, air or oxygen). A
correlation was developed between hydroxide consumption and the extent of galena
oxidation on flotation recovery. This correlation may be used to predict oxidation
during milling as well as galena recovery over a range of experimental conditions.
Electrochemical aspects play important role in milling applied before flotation
[Čanturija and Vigdergauz 1994]. The wet milling is usually applied for concentra-
tion of sulphide ores by milling in steel rod and ball mills. The wet milling and appli-
cation of iron balls bring about not only structural transformation of sulphides due to
close contact between sulphide and milling balls but also other effects [Baláž 2000].
The wet milling bring about a loss in weight of the balls as a consequence of
corrosion and abrasion [Adam et al. 1986a]. However, it is difficult to estimate the
relevance of this effect. Moreover, it is known that the sulphidic minerals are nobler
than most steels used for making the milling balls and must therefore accelerate the
anodic dissolution of metals [Adam et al. 1986b]. The authors studied the electro-
chemical aspects of milling media and observed the galvanic coupling of mild steel
medium with magnetite Fe3 O4 or pyrrhotite Fe1−x S resulted in the formation of iron
hydroxide Fe(OH)3 species on the mineral surface [Natarajan and Iwasaki 1984].
Oxygen accelerated the corrosion of the milling media, thus more iron hydroxide
species were found on the mineral surface [Peng et al. 2002]. The results of investi-
gation of the wet milling of pyrrhotite Fe1−x S were used for designing the model of
corrosion of milling balls which is represented in Fig. 6.1. This model assumes the
corrosion on the surface itself of milling ball (A) and the corrosion in the course of
interaction between milling ball and sulphide [Natarajan and Iwasaki 1984]. These
effects are likely still more significant in the case of mechanical activation in wet
medium.
It has been indicated the possibility to influence the flotation properties of sul-
phidic ores by control of the electrochemical potential in the pulp during the
milling process [Čanturija and Vigdergauz 1994; Čanturija and Lunin 1983; Elisejev
Fig. 6.1 Corrosion model for interaction of milling balls with pyrrhotite Fe1−x S, A – the differen-
tial abrasion cell, B – the ball mineral cell [Adam et al. 1986a]
et al. 1980]. The pilot plant experiments demonstrated the possibility of raising the
concentration of defects and weakening the bonds at the interface of mineral grains
and was shown to work on several sulphidic concentrates.
6.2.2 Other Minerals
The flotability of quartz SiO2 , cassiterite SnO2 and feldspar KalSi3 O8 in confronta-
tion with mechanical activation of the minerals has been studied [Jusupov and
Heegn 1997]. Solubility in HF and NaOH has been selected as a method for charac-
terization of solid surface structure. Table 6.1 shows the data for the rate constant of
dissolution k for SiO2 activated in different mills. The calculated span is determined
between 0.22 μm h−1 for dry ball milling and 0.37 μm h−1 for planetary milling.
The data in Table 6.1 represent the solubility of bulk SiO2 .
For characterization of surface layers the initial solubility is more adequate
method. Figure 6.2 shows the thickness of surface layer calculated from the solubility
Table 6.1 The solubility data for quartz SiO2 mechanically activated in different mills [Jusupov
and Heegn 1997]
Milling mode k [μm h−1 ]
Ball milling 0.22

Vibratory milling 0.33
Jet milling 0.33
Disintegrator 0.26
Planetary milling (small balls) 0.30
Planetary milling (big balls) 0.37
Fig. 6.2 Thickness of surface layer of mechanically activated quartz SiO2 in relation to its surface
area [Jusupov and Heegn 1997]
6.2 Mineral Processing 301
Table 6.2 Flotation of quartz SiO2 after mechanical activation [Jusupov and Heegn 1997]
Mechanical activation Recovery of SiO2 [%]
pH 3.5 pH 6.5 pH 8.5
– 60.3 76.2 50.7

Dry milling 13.3 21.3 0.2
Wet milling 1.4 23.0 37.0
data of SiO2 in 0.1 N NaOH after 20 min of action. Various modes of mechanical ac-
tivation have been applied. For comparison the thickness 0.32 nm of a monomolec-
ular layer of SiO4 -tetraheders is given in Fig. 6.2.
Mechanical activation of quartz leads to decrease of flotability. This is shown
by data of mineral flotation by cationic flotation agent ANP-14 (Table 6.2). The
quantity of flotation agent was not optimal in this case.
The flotation strategy which applies the combination of different pretreatments
has led to improvement in flotability [Jusupov et al. 1977, 1987; Cases et al. 1985].
Example is illustrated by Fig. 6.3.
It is accepted that decreasing of quartz flotability is not only the result of crystal
structure breakage but also the iron hydroxide layer formation on SiO2 as a con-
sequence of mechanical activation. Thus mechanical activation plays an important
role in manipulation of flotation processes.
Fig. 6.3 Effect of various models of mechanical activation on the quartz SiO2 flotability [Jusupov
and Heegn 1997]
6.3 Extractive Metallurgy
According to classical view extractive metallurgy is the art and science of extract-
ing metals from their ores by chemical methods [Habashi 1993]. It is actually di-
vided into three sectors: hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy and electrometallurgy.
Hydrometallurgy is the technology of extracting metals from ores by aqueous meth-
ods, pyrometallurgy by dry thermal methods, and electrometallurgy by electrolytic
methods.
In general, hydrometallurgy involves two distinct steps (Fig. 6.4)
• selective dissolution of the metal values from an ore – process known as leaching
and
• selective recovery of the metal values from the solution, an operation that in-
volves a precipitation method.
Sometimes a purification/concentration operation is conducted prior to precip-
itation. These processes are aimed at obtaining a pure and a concentrated solu-
tion from which the metals values can be precipitated effectively. The methods
used are: adsorption on activated charcoal, sorption on ion exchange resins, extrac-
tion by organic solvents as well as other advanced processes of metals extraction
[Havlı́k 2005].
Fig. 6.4 General outline of

hydrometallurgical process
[Habashi 1993]
6.3 Extractive Metallurgy 303
6.3.1 Mechanical Activation as Pretreatment Step for Leaching
6.3.1.1 Ore Minerals
The pilot-plant and plant application of mechanical activation as a method of

ore concentrates was intensively investigated by German scientists [Gerlach and
Gock 1973; Gerlach et al. 1973; Pawlek 1976a, b, 1977, 1978; Gock 1977, 1978;
Gerlach 1982; Pawlek et al. 1989; Kammel et al. 1987a; Gärtner et al. 1991].
Wet milling of chalcopyrite concentrate in an attritor reduces the particle size
to 0.1–1 μm in a short time with the efficiency of activation increased by addition
of NaOH. During subsequent acid leaching in an autoclave (0.1 MPa and 110◦ C)
full extraction of copper into solution was achieved in 30 min. Pawlek published the
flowsheet (Fig. 6.5) and considers the wet milling to be convenient for the step of
mechanical activation.
The technological parameters of the combined process of mechanical activation
in a vibration mill and subsequent oxidative leaching of sulfidic concentrates of
chalcopyrite, sphalerite and molybdenite are summarized in Table 6.3.
Fig. 6.5 Flowsheet for treatment of chalcopyrite concentrate mechanically activated in attritor
followed by high temperature oxidative pressure leaching and low temperature acid pressure leach-
ing [Pawlek 1976a]
Table 6.3 Technological parameters of mechanical activation in a vibration mill followed by

oxidative leaching of flotation concentrates of CuFeS2 , ZnS and MoS2 [Gock 1977]
Flotation concentrate CuFeS2 ZnS MoS2
Mechanical activation Vibration mill
Amplitude (mm) 6 6 6
Revolutions (s−1 ) 1,000 1,000 1,000
Ball charge (%) 85 85 85
Mass of balls to mass of 47 47 47
milled material ratio
Energy input of mill 224 75 224
(kWht−1 )
Relative acceleration 6.8 2.73 –
Oxidative leaching Cylinder autoclave
Content of solid phase 150 100 50
(gl−1 )
Initial concentration of 65 185 –
H2 SO4 (gl−1 )
Temperature (◦ C) 120 120 180
Partial pressure of 2 1 1
oxygen (MPa)
Time of leaching (min) 120 120 120
Results of leaching
Solution CuSO4 Fe2 (SO4 )3 ZnSO4 Fe2 (SO4 )3 H2 SO4
Residue Fe(OH)SO4 ,S S MoO3 or MoO3 .2H2 O
Recovery (%) 100 100 97.2
Metal output Reductive electrolysis Reduction with carbon
or hydrogen
Complex Cu-Pb-Zn sulfide ores represent an important source of non-ferrous

metals and typically consist of fine grains of chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite
dispersed in a matrix of pyrite, phyllites and quartz [Wills 1984].
Flotation of such ores may cause some complications. Liberation of the individ-
ual minerals occurs during energy intensive fine milling, typically to bellow 75 μm.
The finely milled ore has large surface area leading to a high reagent consumption
during flotation. Selective flotation is multistage and produces low grade concen-
trates with low metal recoveries making a single sulfide flotation stage a far more
convenient way of ore dressing prior to metal extraction.
Due to the complex nature of these ores, hydrometallurgical techniques seem to
be the most convenient way of extracting metals [Hiskey 1986]. In comparison with
pyrometallurgical techniques the hydrometallurgical way offers greater flexibility
and, more importantly, can process low-grade ores, will extract major metals and
trace elements and is amenable to automatic control.
Mechanical activation seems to be a favourable process for the treatment of
minerals prior to leaching with significantly enhanced metal recoveries reported.
This increase in leachability may well be due to a combination of mechanically in-
duced structural defects and chemical reactions involving the mineral and the local
environment. The differences in reactivity of the mineral components of ore, as well

as the differences in solubility of the reaction products, can be used to selectively
leach metals [Welham 1997; Welham and Llewellyn 1998].
The possibility of applying both these principles to selective extraction of zinc
from a complex Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate was investigated [Tkáčová et al. 1993; Baláž
et al. 1989] using hydrogen peroxide as a model strong oxidative lixiviant. In accor-
dance with data from the literature the overall reactions of sulphide MeS with H2 O2
can be described by the following two equations
MeS → Me2+ + S0 + 2e (6.1)

MeS + 4H2 O → Me2+ + SO2− +
4 + 8H + 8e (6.2)
Reaction (6.2) manifests itself to a lesser extent. The Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate reacts
with hydrogen peroxide to give soluble copper and zinc sulphates, insoluble PbSO4
and partially soluble iron hydroxide.
Figure 6.6 depicts the recoveries of zinc and copper from as-received complex
Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate plotted versus duration of leaching in 4 and 30% hydrogen
peroxide. After 5 h of leaching 61% Zn and 40% Cu enter the solution. The metal
recoveries are relatively low and the reagent consumption high.
Figure 6.7 shows the results of peroxide leaching the same concentrate after me-
chanical activation in a vibration mill. With 30% H2 O2 as a leaching agent, 96% Zn
and 90% Cu entered the solution.
The tests represented in Fig. 6.7 by full curves seem to be very promising as
they suggest that the more dilute leaching agent (4% H2 O2 ) can extract metals with
high recoveries. Furthermore, the curves depicted in Fig. 6.7 also suggest that the
weaker leaching agent has a favourable effect on selectivity of leaching, particularly
during the initial stages of leaching. For instance, after 60 min of leaching by 30%
Fig. 6.6 Zinc and copper recovery, εMe vs. leaching time, tL for as-received Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate
[Baláž et al. 1989]
Fig. 6.7 Zinc and copper recovery, εMe vs. leaching time, tL for mechanically activated Cu-Pb-Zn
concentrate [Baláž et al. 1989]
H2 O2 the ratio Zn/Cu equals 1.1 whereas when leaching in 4% H2 O2 it amounts to

24.5. The beneficial effect of mechanical activation of the concentrate at randomly
selected conditions of activation is documented in Fig. 6.7.
A systematic study on the effect of the milling conditions on the recoveries of
copper and zinc into the solution by leaching concentrate in 4% H2 O2 was carried
out following the 22 plan of experiments (Table 6.4).
The effect of mechanical activation was studied at four levels of the energy input
to the mill which were adjusted by selecting the amplitude and the speed of rotation
of the mill. Table 6.5 summarizes the results for milling times of 0.125–8 h. High
metal recoveries suggest that leaching is feasible even in the strong diluted lixiviant
(4% H2 O2 ).
Figure 6.8 shows the dependence of the dissolution of copper, zinc and iron with
time for the most intensively activated sample i.e. Test No. 4 milled for 480 min.
The temperature of the solution measured during this tests showed two maxima (at
t = 10 and t = 240 min) which corresponded with the highest rates of recovery of
zinc and copper respectively.
Leaching of sphalerite or chalcopyrite from the concentrate by H2 O2 solution
is an exothermic process hence the temperature of the solution rises. Of great
Table 6.4 Plan of experiments 22 (vibration mill, milling time 60 min)

Test No. Parameters of the mill
Amplitude (mm) Frequency (min−1 )
1 3.9 590
2 5.8 590
3 3.9 1100
4 5.8 1100
Table 6.5 Copper and zinc recovery vs. milling time, tM for Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate mechanically
activated in accordance with conditions in Table 6.4 (leaching time 300 min)
tM Copper (%) Zinc (%)
(min) No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
0 0.92 18.61
7.5 2.30 17.02 4.15 44.10 24.99 63.37 45.16 83.50
15 3.12 19.87 44.27 56.40 40.81 71.28 79.12 85.00
30 13.56 39.82 44.29 68.40 64.46 82.15 86.62 86.70
60 33.70 54.63 54.12 67.00 71.70 81.83 86.05 89.90
120 42.90 61.21 57.39 58.50 79.45 87.50 88.39 89.20
240 66.46 63.00 65.87 57.34 86.31 90.78 97.11 91.79
480 65.44 75.44 70.14 69.00 89.09 98.03 88.80 83.00
importance is the fact that zinc is selectively leached out at tL < 180 min and the
solubilization of iron is minimal (2% after 6 h of leaching).
Mechanical activation of the sample brings about a reduction of the particle size
of the concentrate. Table 6.6 summarizing the fraction passing 40 μm in the milled
samples. For all milling times and conditions the fraction of concentrate below
40 μm was 2–3 times greater than in the as-received sample.
The reaction of Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate with H2 O2 solutions represents a conve-
nient model system to study the conditions of selective dissolution of a particular
metal from mechanically activated complex concentrates. Hydrogen peroxide reacts
with galena and iron to give insoluble or poorly soluble products which can be sepa-
rated from soluble sulfates in a single leaching stage. The selective separation of sol-
uble zinc and copper sulfates can be accomplished by multi-step leaching process,
Fig. 6.8 Zinc, copper and iron recoveries, εMe and temperature of leach solution, T vs. leach-
ing time, tL for mechanically activated Cu-Pb-Zn concentrate (Test No. 4, tM = 480 min) [Baláž
et al. 1989]
Table 6.6 Percent of occurrence of fines passing 40 μm for mechanically activated Cu-Pb-Zn
concentrate
Test No. Milling time (min)
7.5 15 30 60 120 240 480
– 31
1 76 92 90 84 84 81 80
2 77 78 74 69 69 69 65
3 85 79 63 56 67 55 64
4 73 73 62 62 61 61 64
provided the differences in reactivity of sphalerite and chalcopyrite are conveniently

regulated by mechanical activation [Tkáčová et al. 1993].
Cu-Ni complex concentrates also serve as a suitable model for selectivity study.
The mechanical activation of pentlandite concentrate results in increased specific
surface area and amorphization of individual mineral components. The similar be-
haviour of pentlandite (Fe, Ni)9 S8 and chalcopyrite CuFeS2 after mechanochemical
treatment towards ferric sulfate leaching may be used to selectively leach of nickel
and copper [Baláž et al. 1998a]. The differences between cobalt and iron during
oxidative sulphuric leaching of mechanically activated complex Cu-Ni concentrate
from Akarema (Egypt) were described [Amer 1995].
The method for treating molybdenite MoS2 concentrates containing rhenium has
been developed with including the step of mechanical activation [Kähler et al. 1996].
The core of the process lies in the replacement of ore roasting by pressure leaching
with oxygen. In this way, it is possible to process rhenium and molybdenum simulta-
neously. Solvent extraction is used in conjunction with a modified secondary amine
to separate Mo and Re. A complete precipitation of ammoniumoctamolybdate is
obtained using sulphuric acid. The ammonia can then be recovered, and the process
water recycled. In contrast to the ore-roasting process, no hazardous residues are
generated by ammoniacal leaching. This results in minimal environmental impact.
A flowsheet of the process is in Fig. 6.9. Molybdenite concentrate with 91.5%
MoS2 and 0.007% ReS2 has been applied.
6.3.1.2 Gold and Silver Containing Ore Minerals
The technologies hitherto used encounter a problem in processing complex sulphide

ores containing gold and silver in an economic way providing sufficient recovery.
One of the problems of gold and silver extraction from sulphidic minerals is associ-
ated with the form in which the precious metals occur.
Gold and silver are frequently physically-locked within sulphides, may form de-
fects in their structure or can be chemically bonded in the form of solid solutions or
compounds [Hiskey and Atluri 1988; Lorentzen and van Deventer 1992; Marsden
and House 1992]. Different types of associations of gold with sulphidic minerals are
given in Fig. 6.10.
Fig. 6.9 Flowsheet for the treatment of molybdenite concentrate with Re content by vibratory
milling [Kähler et al. 1996]
Sulphides are also a considerable natural resource of silver. Around 200 miner-
als bearing silver in major, minor and variable amounts were detected [Gasparrini
1995]. However, of these, only 10–12 minerals are of practical importance. These
are, in order of leachability: elemental silver, silver halides and silver sulphides
[Wyslouzil and Salter 1990].
The contact of gold and silver (in form of metals or compounds) with leaching
reagent plays a fundamental role in the hydrometallurgical extraction of the pre-
cious metals. An improvement of the contact can be achieved by pretreatment. The
choice of pretreatment method significantly depends on locality and mineralogy
Fig. 6.10 Gold associations with sulphide minerals: 1 – readily liberatable gold, 2 – gold along
crystal grain boundaries, 3 – gold grain enclosed in pyrite/sulphide (random position), 4 – gold
occurrence at the boundary between sulphide grains, 5 – gold in concretionary pyrite (or other
sulphide) along fractures and/or crystal defects, 6 – gold as colloidal particles or in solid solution
in sulphide [Marsden and House 1992]
of the ore deposit. The oxidizing pretreatment, which can, in principle, proceed in
the pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical way, belongs among classical methods
[Marsden and House 1992]. Pyrometallurgical pretreatment is the oldest application
and consists of an oxidizing roast to convert sulphides to oxides. However, because
of environmental demands roasting is becoming more and more suppressed, irre-
spective of technical innovations [La Brooy et al. 1994].
Chemical and biological pretreatments are applied in hydrometallurgical pro-
cesses, the goal of these processes is to disintegrate the sulphide and thus to facilitate
the subsequent extraction of gold and silver. Pressure oxidation can be used for
this but has high capital and operating costs. At present, one of the increasingly
used processes is biological oxidation; this is considered acceptable from the view-
point of environmental considerations and lower economic demands (see Table 6.7).
Table 6.7 Relative costs of pretreatment processes [Wall and Pattison 1997]
Pretreatment Costs
Capital Operating
Roasting 1.0–1.5 0.75–0.80

Pressure oxidation 1.20–1.25 0.90–0.95
Biological oxidation 1.0 1.0
However, long reaction times and appropriate design of bioreactors can create
difficulties.
The process of fine and ultra-fine milling for pretreating gold and silver con-
tentrates has been used very often in recent years. This process requires finer milling
than that attained in the ball mills typically used in comminution for flotation.
Particle size of 1–20 μm can be produced in intensive milling where size reduc-
tion is accompanied by mechanical activation of mineral components [Mullov and
Lodejščikov 1979]. The economics of milling is dependent on the metal content
of ore, energy and reagent consumptions and amortization of the process plant.
Vibration, planetary, jet impact mills and attritors have all been used in ultrafine
milling.
The mechanical activation of arsenopyrite concentrate containing 21 gt−1 of
gold by a jet impact mill has been studied [Minejev et al. 1976]. The subsequent
processing with protein hydrolyzate in mixture with 0.15% solution of cyanide made
it possible to solubilize 85% of gold.
Jet mill treatment of Au-Ag-As concentrate containing 40% of sulphides gave a
size range of 8–30 μm after activation [Minejev 1985]. After arsenopyrite decom-
position, cyanidation of the residue resulted in the 96–97% recovery of gold.
The possibilities of intensification of the cyanide leaching of refractory pyrite-
arsenopyrite concentrates was studied [Syrtlanova et al. 1979]. In this case, gold
was associated in the form of fine dispersion and direct cyanidation was ineffective
with only 8–10% gold recovery. A combination of mechanical activation, alkaline
leaching and cyanide leaching resulted in 81% decomposition of the arsenopyrite
during the alkaline leaching and in significant improvement in gold extraction in the
second stage of leaching. The results obtained by different methods of activation are
summarized in Table 6.8.
It is clear that the jet impact mill proved to be the most effective. These mills
are widely used in industry, they have high capacity (25 th−1 and more), simple
construction and are not expensive. It seems that planetary milling is less effective
because of surface passivation of gold particles as has been shown to occur during
mechanical activation of arsenopyrite [Jusupov et al. 1998].
Gold extraction from a pyrite-arsenopyrite concentrate has been studied
[Kušnierová et al. 1993]. Mechanical activation in a vibration mill showed relatively
little improvement in the recovery of gold, despite considerable amorphization of
FeS2 and FeAsS. Mechanical activation brought about an increase in gold recovery
Table 6.8 Influence of different methods of mechanical activation on FeAsS destruction and
subsequent gold extraction [Syrtlanova et al. 1979]
Mechanical activation FeAsS decomposition (%) Au cyanidation (%)
– 12.5 8–10
Ball mill 15.0 –
Vibration mill 21.2 –
Planetary mill 81.2 48–50
Jet impact mill – 62–80
from 4 to 29%. A similar experiment carried out with biologically pretreated con-
centrate resulted in a recovery increase from about 66 to 93% Au after activation.
The influence of particle size of an arsenopyrite-pyrite concentrate activated in
the centrifugal-planetary mill and subsequently classified on gold extraction has
been studied [Jusupov et al. 1998]. The results are summarized in Table 6.9.
The optimal range of particle size for gold extraction is clearly different for
cyanide and thiourea leaching. For cyanide leaching particles of 5–10 μm appeared
to be the most efficient. When employing thiocarbamide as the lixiviant, the de-
crease in gold extraction can be explained by the presence of a surface layer of
elementary sulphur formed during dissolution of arsenopyrite and pyrite in acid
medium. The particle size range 40–50 μm appeared to be the most favourable size
for leaching of the concentrate.
The effect of combination of fine milling in ball mill, classification and mechani-
cal activation in attritor on gold and silver recovery from a chalcopyrite concentrate
has been studied [Pawlek 1976a]. The proposed flowsheet is in Fig. 6.11.
Mechanical activation was used to examine whether intensification of gold and
silver leaching from arsenopyrite concentrates with high carbon content could be
achieved [Gock and Asiam 1986]. It was found that, after activation, the concentrate
can effectively be leached at 100–120◦ C and an oxygen pressure of 0.5–1.0 MPa.
Arsenic and iron quantitatively pass into the leaching solution and the residue
is enriched with gold and silver. After decarbonization of the residue by roast-
ing, the precious metals can be completely extracted by cyanidation. The applied
activation-leaching process bypasses the drawbacks of traditional pyrometallur-
gical pretreatment of arsenopyrite concentrates such as emissions of SO2 and
As2 O3 and gold losses. According to authors the roasting of arsenopyrite at 802◦ C
leads to the loss of 33.7% of gold with fly ashes. The proposed flowsheet is
in Fig. 6.12.
The processing of sulphidic concentrate (5–6% CuFeS2 , 53–55% FeS2 , 8–10%
FeAsS) has been studied by the following strategy: two-step cyanidation-mechanical
activation-air conditioning-cyanidation [Kulebakin et al. 1999]. The proposed flow-
sheet is in Fig. 6.13, condition are given in Table 6.10.
Table 6.9 Gold extraction from mechanically activated and classified arsenopyrite-pyrite
concentrate
Grain size Leaching agent
(μm) Cyanide Thiocarbamide
Au (%)
Non activated concentrate 72.5 –
−50 + 40 80.1 98.0
−40 + 20 83.6 95.8
−20 + 10 92.3 95.2
−10 + 5 100 89.7
−5 100 58.5
Non-classified activated concentrate 93.6 87.6
Fig. 6.11 Flowsheet for the treatment of chalcopyrite concentrate by attrition and acid pressure
leaching with catalyst (AgNO3 ) including recovery of Ag and Au [Pawlek 1976a]
The different behaviour of pyrite FeS2 and arsenopyrite FeAsS during milling
was pointed out [Welham 1997; Welham and Llewellyn 1998]. Study of the minerals
has shown that selective dissolution was possible by a simple leaching process di-
rectly after milling. The separation of both minerals is possible by milling in oxygen,
the arsenopyrite decomposing and the pyrite remained essentially unreacted. This
has a great potential for processing gold bearing pyrite/arsenopyrite ores whete se-
lective oxidation of the gold bearing arsenopyrite would liberate the gold for cyanide
leaching.
Mechanical activation as pretreatment step for leaching is an effective procedure
for treatment of various types of concentrates. It will be shown later (Sects. 6.3.3
Fig. 6.12 Flowsheet for the treatment of arsenopyrite concentrate by vibration milling for recovery
of Au and Ag [Gock and Asiam 1988]
and 6.3.4) that several commercially operating processes utilize a mechanical acti-
vation step in their technological flowsheets.
6.3.1.3 Chromites
Chromite FeCr2 O4 is the source mineral for the production of chromium metal, fer-
rochromium, special alloys and Cr chemicals. The annual worldwide production of
chromium chemicals is estimated to be approx. 1 million tons, as sodium dichromate
Na2 Cr2 O7 [Münster 1997]. The only relevant process for production of chromates
is the oxidative digestion of chromites using Na2 CO3 at 1000–1100◦ C. In order to
prevent the melt from stick, a leaning agent such as CaCO3 is added to the diges-
tion mixture, to give the melt a loose structure and to facilitate the diffusion of the
oxygen to the chromite. The process is governed by reactions
Fig. 6.13 Flowsheet for the treatment of sulphidic concentrate by vibration milling for gold recov-
ery [Kulebakin et al. 1999]
Table 6.10 Results of gold extraction from cyanidation of sulphidic concentrate [Kulebakin
et al. 1999]
Parameter Mechanical Mechanical
activation in NaCl activation with
solution (60 gl−1 ) MnO2 addition (1%)
Revolutions of the planetary 800 800 600

mill (min−1 )
Au in solid rest after 1st 9.8 9.4 9.4
cyanidation (gt−1 )
Cyanidation after 1st activation
and pulp aeration
NaCN (gl−1 ) 0.7 0.4 0.3
Leaching time (h) 19 18 16
Au in solid rest (gt−1 ) 4.4–6.0 3.6–5.0 4.6–5.0
Cyanidation after 2nd
activation and pulp aeration
NaCN (gl−1 ) 0.3 0.5 0.5
Leaching time (h) 22 18 26
Au in solid rest (gt−1 ) 3.4–3.8 3.0–4.0 3.2–4.0
Au recovery (%) 93.5 93.7 93.5
FeCr2 O4 + 4Na2 CO3 + 4CaO + 7O2

→ 4Na2 CrO4 + 4CaCrO4 + 2Fe2 O3 + 4CO2 (6.3)
2Na2 CrO4 + 4CO2 + H2 O ⇔ Na2 Cr2 O7 + 2NaHCO3 (6.4)
Calcium chromate CaCr2 O4 , as opposed to sodium chromate Na2 CrO4 is poorly

soluble, so that the recovery of chromate may be impaired during the leaching of
the digestion cake. Na2 Cr2 O7 is won as a crystallizate and is the source material for
the production of most chromium compounds.
The disadvantage of the above-described process is that it is impossible to
achieve a complete digestion of the chromite ores. Mechanical activation as pre-
treatment step to improve the digestion step has been applied [Dincer et al. 2000].
Fig. 6.14 Relative X-ray intensities I/I0 and F/F0 for lattice plane (311) of chromite FeCr2 O4 for
BM and ESM milling (left) and chromium recovery after digestion of chromite vs. F/F0 ratio (right)
[Dincer et al. 2000]
Two types of mills were used for comparison, a laboratory scale ball mill (BM)
and an industrial eccentric vibratory mill (ESM). Figure 6.14 (left) shows the
relative X-ray intensities I/I0 ratio and the peak area F/F0 ratio for lattice plane (311)
of chromite FeCr2 O4 in dependence on the milling time. The more intensive effect
in ESM mill has been achieved. The samples were subsequently applied for diges-
tion tests. Figure 6.14 (right) shows the correlation between the X-ray peak area
ratio F/F0 and chromium recovery for the performed investigations. It follows from
the results that the ratio F/F0 must be at least 0.35 in order to achieve a chromium
recovery of more than 95%.
In Fig. 6.15, the modified flowsheet for the production of sodium dichromate is
given. The introduction of mechanical activation step enabled the reduction of the
mass flows due to complete digestion and the improved landfill-suitability of the
tailings.
Fig. 6.15 Flowsheet for sodium dichromate Na2 Cr2 O7 production with introduction of mechanical
activation step [Dincer et al. 2000]
6.3.1.4 Hydroxides
Investigations were performed in Germany in order to elucidate possibilities for im-

proving processing steps of the hydrometallurgical treatment of bauxite ores by the
Bayer process with mechanochemical method [Szanto and Schultes 1969; Pawlek
et al. 1992].
Bauxite Al(OH)3 is usually a composition of three minerals: hydrargillit
α-Al(OH)3 , böhmit γ-AlO(OH) and diaspor α-AlO(OH) with varying leachibility.
The use of NaOH to leach bauxite was invented by Bayer in 1892 as a process for
obtaining pure aluminium hydroxide which can be calcinated to pure Al2 O3 suitable
for processing to metal [Habashi 1993]. Approximately 2 tons bauxite yield 1 ton
Al2 O3 from which 0.5 ton aluminium is produced.
The reaction in NaOH leaching are following
Al(OH)3 + OH− → [AlO(OH)2 ]− + H2 O (6.5)

AlO(OH) + OH− + H2 O → [AlO(OH)2 ]− (6.6)
Tests in an attritor revealed that the pressure leaching extraction of the aluminium
hydroxides in the bauxite by sodium hydroxide solutions could already be achieved
with high extraction rates at 90◦ C after relatively short treatment times. Additional
favourable results indicate that CaO additions to the bauxite are effective to avoid
undesirable sodium silicate formation in the sodium aluminate solution and that
the black residual sludge contains up to 70% hematite Fe2 O3 and nearly negligible
aluminium and sodium amounts which might allow to consider further applications
which could avoid the disposal problems encountered with the conventional red mud
precipitates [Pawlek et al. 1992; Kumar et al. 2004, 2005].
The comparison of the Bayer process and the mechanochemical process is given
in Table 6.11.
6.3.2 Attritors in Hydrometallurgy
Attritors were patented in the fifties in the USA and in 1956 the license for
their manufacturing was transferred to Netzsch Company in Germany. This mill
type was originally used for applications in the chemical and pharmacy industry
[Netzsch 1994a] and later for powder metallurgy [Zoz 1995a, b; Zoz et al. 1997,
1998; Kaup et al. 2002b] and mineral processing [Svedala 1996; Ani-Metprotech
1998; Liddell and Dunne 1988].
Attritors use the comminution intensity between the contact surfaces of mov-
ing balls, similar to the operation of conventional ball mills, but without the dis-
advantages of the latter [Püpke 1971; Netzsch 1994a; Klimpel 1997]. An increase
in contact points and therefore of contact surfaces is achieved by the use of small
milling balls (2–4 mm diameter). Unlike the ball motion in the rotating drum body
of conventional ball mills, the balls in the attritor are brought to a higher degree of
Table 6.11 Comparison of the Bayer and mechanochemical processes [Pawlek et al. 1992]
Parameters Bayer process Mechanochemical process
Wet milling to (−200 μm) + +
SiO2 removal + −
Chemical decomposition 250◦ C, 100 bar 90◦ C, 1 bar
Na2 O content in leaching medium (gL−1 ) 140 250
Maximum content of Al2 O3 in leaching 185 300
solution (gL−1 )
Residence time (min) 3 15
Thickener + +
Filtration + +
Rest 2 t red mud/t Al2 O3 0.75 t black mud/t Al2 O3
Cooling to 50◦ C + +
Colour of leaching solution Brown colourless
Addition of inoculation substance 300 gL−1 −
Conditioning (h) 50 4
Filtration + +
Filtrate to disposal + +
acceleration by a rotating stirring device in a stationary mill container surrounded

by a cylindrical cooling chamber Fig. 6.16.
A new series of attritors (Fig. 6.17) were developed by Netzsch Company for
continuous mode of operation. The main features of these are: completely enclosed
design, newly developed separating elements, horizontally mounted milling cham-
ber, mechanical seal and improved cooling system [Netzsch 1994b].
Fig. 6.16 Schematic

arrangement of the Union
Process attritor-batch mode
of operation [Klimpel 1997]
Fig. 6.17 Schematic arrangement of the Netzsch attritor-continuous mode of operation [Netzsch
1994a]
It is possible to vary the kinetic energy of attritor by varying the rotation rate of
the stirring mechanism and the media mass by changing the density and diameter
of the milling balls. The parameters allow the mill may to be used so that parti-
cle size, surface area and size distribution may be optimised, but can also mod-
ify the structure of solids during milling. Through special construction of the mill
fitted with an eccentric annular discs, it is possible to imparts both centrifugal
and a centripetal accelerative forces to the milling elements, thereby resulting in
highly intensive mechanical activation of the solids throughout the entire milling
chamber.
Attritors are suitable for fine milling in the size range from 45 microns down to
5 microns or less. These types of mills currently working in Australia and New
Zealand have installed power up to 3 MW and milling chamber volumes up to
6,000 l.
Improvements in particle liberation and the generation of high surface area pro-
vide for enhanced metal recovery by low-pressure, low-temperature autoclave oxi-
dation, or by alternative processes such as bacterial oxidation or cyanidation.
The application of an industrial attritors has been effectively applied by hy-
drometallurgical processes. The works [Enderle et al. 1997; Johnson et al. 1998]
were aimed to obtain concentrates from Australian orebodies suitable for subsequent
metallurgical process. Many investigation failed to produce either separate lead and
zinc concentrates or a single mixed Zn-Pb concentrate. The principal reason was
the extremely small average grain size for galena (1 μm) and for non sulfide gangue
(9 μm) in conjuction with the relatively small grain size of sfalerite (26–38 μm) and
pyrite (27–45 μm) depending on the orebody deposit.
A new type of a horizontal attritor mills (IsaMill) of 3000 l (1.1 MW) and 10000 l
(2.6 MW) have been developed (Fig. 6.18) and tested for the Australian ores [Peace
et al. 2005, 2006]. Operating conditions and the efficient energy utilization are listed
in Table 6.12.
Fig. 6.18 The horizontal stirred mill-IsaMill [http://www.isamill.com]
Table 6.12 Operating conditions and specific energy consumption for IsaMill [Enderle et al. 1997]
Site Mill pressure % Solid (by Temperature of Size Specific
(kPa) weight) exciting pulp reduction energy3
(◦ C) ratio (kWht−1 )
Mount Isa 225 40 40–432 1.67 7.6

McArthurRiver
-open circuit 3001 20 40–502 3.75 28
-close circuit 425 20 40–502 4.30 36
1 Approximate value
2 Depending on ambient temperature
3 Based on net power draw (gross power-no load power)
6.3.3 Mechanochemical Processes for Ore Treatment
A growing list of hydrometallurgical processes are lining up to seize the ulti-

mate prize in the treatment of primary sulphide concentrates, out of hands of the
smelters.
During the International Conference Copper Cobre 2003 in Chile the current
status of copper hydrometallurgy and the most commercially attractive potential
applications were reviewed [Peacey et al. 2003]. The main processes applying
sulphate leaching are listed in Table 6.13. Among them Activox and Nenatech
processes (see in detail later) apply fine milling. The particle size of concentrate
into leaching is usually less than 20 microns. The features of these processes
include
• leaching temperature in these process is lower than sulphur melting temperature
(119◦ C)
• element sulphur formed in the processes remains in the leaching residue which
leads to the difficulty to recover precious metals from leaching residue
• some sulphate is produced that is precipitated as gypsum
• iron precipitation is as goethite and jarosite
Table 6.13 New sulfate processes for chalcopyrite concentrate leaching [Peace et al. 2003]
Process Leach Sulphur Proposed Level of Note
pressure product mechanism development
Activox Low S0 , SO2−

4 Direct Laboratory Fine milling
Nenatech Atmospheric S0 , SO2−
4 Direct Laboratory Fine milling
Dynatec Pressure S0 Direct Laboratory With coal
(medium)
AAC/UBC Pressure S0 Direct Pilot plant With surfactant
(medium) (planed)
Placer Dome Pressure (high) SO2−
4 Direct Demo plant High
(started temperature
2003)
Biocop Atmospheric SO2−
4 Indirect Commercial Bacterial
(underway)
Bactech/Mintek Atmospheric S0 , SO2−
4 Indirect Demo plant Bacterial
Geocoat Atmospheric SO2−
4 Indirect Pilot plant Bacterial
6.3.3.1 Lurgi-Mitterberg
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 is among the most refractory minerals with respect to leach-
ing agents and even under high pressures and temperatures the recovery of copper
is only to about 20% [Habashi 1978]. The leaching of chalcopyrite flotation con-
centrate was tested for the first time on an industrial scale in the Lurgi-Mitterberg
process (Fig. 6.19) [Biangardi and Pietsch 1975, 1976; Tü and Fischerrke 1978].
According to proposers of the process, the leachability of copper can be improved
by mechanical activation of the concentrate in a vibration mill. If the performance
of the mill is sufficient, a complete extraction of copper can be achieved in single
step at temperatures below the melting point of sulphur.
The flowsheet of the process is represented in Fig. 6.20. The chalcopyrite flota-
tion concentrate from the Mitterberg deposit was dried to ∼1% moisture and acti-
vated in a vibration mill. The energy necessary for copper extraction was dependent
upon the mineralogical composition of the concentrate. For the Mitterberg concen-
trate, an energy input of about 300 kWht−1 was needed for the recovery of 96% of
copper. If a predominantly chalcocite Cu2 S concentrate was tested, the energy input
necessary for obtaining at minimum 95% of copper decreased to 100 kWht−1 .
The product obtained after milling the chalcopyrite concentrate is mixed with
the reversible electrolyte from the extraction of copper. The electrolysis proceeds at
pressures of 1–2 MPa and residence time of 2 h, the efficiency being 0.6 tm−3 for
24 h. The partially dissolved iron is precipitated in the autoclave together with ar-
senic, antimony, bismuth and other contaminants and remains in the solid residue.
The solution obtained by pressure leaching is pure enough to be electrolysed fol-
lowing the solid-liquid separation. The cathode copper is produced using a current
density of 200 Am−2 .
Fig. 6.19 Pilot plant of the Lurgi-Mitterberg process at Mühlbach (Austria): the main building (up)
the vibration mill (down) [Biangardi and Pietsch 1976]
The Lurgi-Mitterberg process was in operation in 1974–76, the capacity was 1 t

of cathode copper daily. The plant was closed because of high operational costs with
the concentrate transport and high power consumption.
6.3.3.2 Irigetmet
Extensive studies of the influence of mechanical activation on the efficiency of

subsequent cyanide leaching of some sulphidic concentrates containing gold were
made in Irigetmet in the former Soviet Union [Mullov and Lodejščikov 1979].
It was found that the time of cyanization can be decreased several fold after
optimum mechanical activation. Optimising the regime of milling was essential
because the consumption of NaCN increased with the extent of activation owing to
mechanochemical destruction of sulphidic minerals. The optimum regime of milling
Fig. 6.20 Flowsheet of the Lurgi-Mitterberg process [Biangardi and Pietsch 1976]
consisted of attaining 95% 20–40 μm. A continuous planetary mill working at rela-
tive acceleration b/g = 50–70 using a revolution rate of 1500 min−1 and rate of pulp
feed of 2 dm3 h−1 proved to be satisfactory. The recovery of gold increased by 11%
while the time of cyanidation shortened threefold. It is interesting that a significant
increase in NaCN consumption did not appear.
Irigetmet subsequently developed an amalgam-free technology for gold extrac-
tion from sulphidic gravity concentrates. The technology comprises thermal decom-
position of sulphides followed by milling and gravity separation of free gold. A
planetary mill proved to be the best for the selective milling. In the course of testing
an arsenopyrite concentrate, a gold recovery of 97.9% was achieved with practically
all gold particles larger than 20 μm recovered. By cyanidation of the finely ground
residue the total gold recovery was >99.9%. This technology offers the possibility
that besides an increase in gold extraction the highly toxic process of amalgamation
can be eliminated from the technological cycle.
6.3.3.3 Activox
The Activox process was developed in Australia as an alternative to the pretreat-

ments of sulphidic concentrates by roasting and bacterial oxidation [Corrans and
Angove 1991, 1993a; Angove 1993; Corrans et al. 1993b, 1995; Johnson et al. 2000;
Palmer and Johnson 2005]. The process has been applied to the recovery of non-
ferrous and precious metals from concentrates and calcines. A principle idea of
Activox is shown in Fig. 6.21.
Activox is a hydrometallurgical process combining ultra fine milling to a P80 of
∼10 μm with a low temperature (100◦ C), low pressure (1000 kPa) oxidative leach
Fig. 6.21 A principle idea of Activox process [Corrans et al. 1995]
to liberate metals from a sulphide matrix. Base metals, (i.e. copper, zinc, nickel and
cobalt) are extracted into the leach liquor, while gold and silver remain in the leach
residue in a form suitable for further processing. The Activox conditions favour the
formation of elemental sulphur over sulphate, thereby using less oxygen (usually
less than 1.5 kg of O2 per kg of S) than required for complete oxidation to sulphate
(typically 2.2 kg O2 per kg S). Other features include rapid oxidation times (1–2 h),
clean pregnant liquors and the possibility to treat environmentally hazardous species
such as arsenopyrite to produce stable ferric arsenate residues [Evans and Johnson
1999].
As mentioned above it is not necessary totally oxidise all the reduced species to
achieve satisfactory results. Elemental sulphur in the leach residues can be recovered
as a valuable by-product. The second advantage is the reduction in oxygen demand
by the mild conditions of oxidation. Oxygen is one of the major operational costs in
oxygen-leaching and typical data for oxygen consumption are given in Table 6.14.
The Activox process offers a number of potential advantages [http://www.wmt.
com.au; Palmer and Johnson 2005]. Some of them are
• oxygen consumption is often much less than the requirements for total sulphide
oxidation
• most of the iron precipitates selectively as hematite or goethite, which can be
readily stabilized
• slurries, post oxidation, settle and filter well
• recoveries of metals such as Ni, Co and Cu into solution exceeded 95%
Table 6.14 Oxygen consumption during pressure oxidation of nickel concentrate [Corrans
et al. 1993]
Conventional pressure ActivoxR pressure
oxidation oxidation
Sulphide sulphur (%) 22.5 22.5

O2 /sulphide sulphur (mass ratio) 2.2:1 1.3:1
Reduction ratio of O2 usage 1 0.6
• Au recoveries from residue by cyanidation after oxidation are usually 90–95%

and cyanide consumptions are moderate
• mild conditions of oxidations allows the use of comparatively low cost materials
for construction
• studies have indicated substantial reduction in capital and operating costs for
Activox, compared to other technologies. Downstream processes can be tailored
to suit the Activox products
• Activox can operate with highly saline process water, and water contaminants
that are detrimental to bacteria can be tolerated.
One of the first examples of the Activox application was to improve Ni recovery
from pentlandite concentrate from Western Australia. The concentrate was milled
to various sizes in an attritor and subsequently oxidised in an autoclave for one hour
at oxygen pressures of below 1000 kPa and temperatures below 100◦ C [Corrans
et al. 1993]. After milling to 80% – 5 microns and mild oxidation for 40–60 min the
recovery was 97% Ni. The recovery of nickel under the same leaching conditions
but without milling was no more than 50%Ni.
Later a much wider range of applications which include Cu, Ni, Co, Zn and Au
concentrates were tested. As for activation equipments, three different mills includ-
ing Bradkeen-Metprotech, Netzsch-IsaMill and Metso-Mineral were tested [Adams
and Johnson 2001; Palmer and Johnson 2005].
The Activox based flowsheet for the production of Ni, Co and Cu from sulphide
concentrates is shown in Fig. 6.22. The flowsheet is based on proven unit operations
Fig. 6.22 Flowsheet of the Activox process for production of Ni, Co and Cu [http://www.wmt.
com.au]
and only uses readily available commercial reagents. The flowsheet can handle a
wide range of feed materials and is not sensitive to short or long term variations in
feed grades [http://www.wmt.com.au].
The Activox process is also able to achieve the liberation of encapsulated gold
from milled sulphide minerals. A typical flowsheet is shown in Fig. 6.23.
An arsenopyrite-pyrite concentrate was fine milled and treated by the cyanidation
process (Table 6.15).
It can be seen from the data in Table 6.15 that fine milling on its own does not sub-
stantially improve the gold extraction over the as-received concentrate, whereas fine
milling and relatively mild conditions of pressure (P < 1000 kPa O2 , T < 100◦ C)
improved the gold recovery to 91% during the subsequent cyanidation. Generally
60–90 min retention time (in milling or leaching) is required to effect liberation of
the gold by oxidation of the sulphides.
Many other Au bearing concentrates have been treated by this method. Cyanide
leaching of gold usually exceeds 90% and is often above 95%.
The Activox process has been already successfully demonstrated in several major
pilot plant campaigns, the first in 1995 for the Yakabindie Nickel Project, followed
Fig. 6.23 Flowsheet of the Activox process for production of Au [http://www.wmt.com.au]
Table 6.15 Cyanidation of arsenopyrite-pyrite concentrate [Corrans et al. 1993]

Process Grind size P80 (μm) NaCN (kgt−1 ) Au recovery (%)
– 75 16.1 60
Fine milling 17.6 19.2 66
Fine milling 3.7 19.2 68
Activox 5 14 91
by campaigns in 1998, 1999 and 2000 on mixed Ni, Co and Cu bearing concentrates
from an operating mines in Africa [http://www.wmt.com.au].
The recent extention of the Activox process is the Tati Hydrometallurgical
Demonstration Plant (HDP) [http://www.wmt.com.au; Kloiber et al. 2005]. HDP
is located 40 km from Francistown in north-eastern Botswana and treats 310 kg/h
dry nickel concentrate of composition: 4.22% Ni, 0.127% Co, 2.53% Cu, 33.6% Fe
and 21.7% S2− . The leaching results are given in Table 6.15a.
After leaching, the HDP then follows conventional hydrometallurgical steps
of solid/liquid separation, iron removal, solvent extraction and electrowinning to
recover metal values. The simplified flowsheet is presented in Fig. 6.24.
In the ultra-fine milling step, the technology applies all three types of vertically
and horizontally stirred mills mentioned above. Each mill conforms to common
design basis: 500 kg/t concentrate, 50% solids, P80 = 10 μm and power consumption
45 kWh/t.
An economic evaluation of refractory gold processes based on fine milling pre-
treatment has been performed [Johnson et al. 1995]. From the evaluation it follows
Table 6.15a Activox leaching results at HDP [Kloiber et al. 2005]

Base metal recovery 96% Ni, 91% Co, 78% Cu
Operating pressure 1000 kPa
Operating temperature 100–110◦ C
Residence time 2.6 h
Chloride addition target 4 g/L in autoclave discharge
Acid addition rate 44 kg/t to autoclave feed
Oxygen addition rate 83 kg/h
Fig. 6.24 Tati HDP Activox flowsheet [Kloiber et al. 2005; Palmer and Johnson 2005]
• less oxygen is required by the Activox process than by pressure oxidation, bio-
logical oxidation or roasting (when coupled with an acid plant for sulfure cap-
ture),
• lower reagent consumptions are required for the neutralization step as the extent
of oxidation is less,
• the power for fine milling is not excessive, and accounts for only 15% of the
total power consumed by the process. Considerably more energy is saved by not
having to generate the oxygen required to achieve full sulphur oxidation.
Energy consumption is relatively insensitive to the type of media being used
(Fig. 6.25), but is affected by pulp density and hardness of the activated material.
Capital and operating costs for ultrafine milling have been estimated [Corrans
et al. 1993]. It must be emphasized that the costs are very specific to both size and
mineralogy, so that the data in Table 6.15b should be viewed as a guide only.
In applying stirred mills the three main operational costs are [Corrans et al. 1993]
• energy – minimised by choice of media size, optimization of classification,
optimisation of mill design
Fig. 6.25 Energy consumption during ultrafine milling [Corrans and Angove 1991]
Table 6.15b Relative economics of different pretreatment processes for FeS2 /FeAsS concentrate
[Corrans et al. 1993]
Costs Ultrafine milling Pressure Roasting (%) Bacterial
(Activox) (%) oxidation (%) oxidation (%)
Capital 60–80 100 90 60
Operating 60–80 100 75 90
• media – minimised by selection of media to provide maximum wear resistance

at the lowest initial price, and
• wear parts – minimised by selecting the materials that have the best wear char-
acteristics for their particular location in the mill.
A typical operating cost determined for ultrafine milling of 13 th−1 copper con-
centrate from a feed 80% of 60 microns to a product 80% of 6 microns in closed
circuit classification is given in Table 6.16.
Table 6.16 Operating cost for ultrafine milling of chalcopyrite/pyrite concentrate to 6 μm [Liddell
1997]
Operation Operating costs (A$)
Energy consumption 2.00

Media consumption 1.43
Wear parts 1.06
Miscellaneous 0.22
Total operating cost (excluding 4.71
labour and capital cost)
To put the operating cost in context with the other unit operations, the ultrafine
milling direct operating cost is 1.02 Australian cents per pound of cathode copper
produced. This is approximately only 2.5% of the total combined crushing, milling,
flotation, ultrafine milling, oxidation, solvent extraction and electrowinning operat-
ing cost [Liddell 1997].
Engineering studies have indicated that the hydrometallurgical Activox process
is practical and cost effective to build and will be considerably cheaper to operate
than the more traditional pyrometallurgical approach thus becoming an attractive
alternative for processing sulphide mineral concentrates.
6.3.3.4 Albion (Nenatech)
The process was developed in 1993 in Australia and it is known by two names-
Albion and Nenatech (http://www.albionprocess.com; Hourn et al. 1999]. Origi-
nally the technology was developed to treat the Nena deposit in Papua New Guinea.
Technology owner calls it the Albion process-after the suburb in Brisbane.
The key to the Albion process is the ultrafine milling stage. The process of
ultrafine milling results in a high degree of strain being introduced into the min-
eral lattice. As a result, the number of grain boundary fractures and lattice defects in
the minerals increase by several orders of magnitude, relative to unmilled minerals.
The increase in the number of defects within the mineral lattice activates the min-
eral, facilitating leaching. The rate of leaching is also enhanced, due to the dramatic
increase in the mineral surface area.
Passivation of the mineral surface by sulphur based leaching products is also min-
imised by ultrafine milling. Typically, milling precipitates that form on the surface
of a leaching mineral will slowly passivate the mineral, by preventing the access of
chemicals to the mineral surface. Passivation is normally complete once this pre-
cipitated layer is 2–3 microns thick. Ultrafine milling of a mineral to a particle size
of 80% pasing 8–12 microns will eliminate passivation, as the leached mineral will
disintegrate prior to the precipitate layer becoming thick enough to passivate it.
The oxidative leaching stage is carried out in non-pressurised agitated tanks.
Oxygen is introduced to the leach slurry to assist oxidation. Leaching is carried
out autothermally, in that the temperature of the leach slurry is set by the amount
of heat released in the leaching reaction. Heat is not added to leaching vessel from
external sources. Temperature is controlled by the rate of addition of oxygen, and
by the leach slurry density.
The Albion based flowsheet for the production of copper from sulphide concen-
trates is shown in Fig. 6.26.
The Albion process can apply the same activation equipments as in Activox pro-
cess: Metso-Mineral mill, Bradken-Metprotech mill and Netzsch-Isa mill (Fig. 6.18)
to produce an activated, finely milled concentrate at relatively low specific energy
inputs. The specific energy input is 20–50 kWh/t to produce a concentrate milled to
P80 of 15 microns. The exact value depends on type of the concentrate.
Fig. 6.26 Flowsheet of the Albion process [http://www.albionprocess.com]

Table 6.17 Performance of the Albion process on the sulphide concentrates [Hourn and Halbe
1999]
Sulphide concentrate Sulfur oxidation (%) Metal recovery (%)
Chalcopyrite 98 98
Bornite 95 97
Chalcocite 98 98
Enargite 88 92
Pentlandite 90 95
Pyrite 85–90 95
Cobaltite 90 85
Base metal recoveries are typically 95–99%. Gold and silver recoveries are typ-
ically 90–95% with reagent consumption typically a half to one quarter of bacteri-
ally leached residues. Typical metals recoveries for selected refractory minerals are
listed in Table 6.17.
Capital costs for Albion process are specific to each project’s location, through-
output and concentrate grade. As for milling, several installations of 1 MW Isa Mill
have been performed. A single mill would process approximatelly 200–250000
tonnes per annum of bulk concentrate, which of grading 15% Cu is equivalent
50–65 US$ of capital pre annual tonne of Cu produced. This illustrates the rela-
tively low capital cost associated with attritors as an enabling technology for the
hydrometallurgical treatment of refractory sulphides [Hourn and Halbe 1999].
Capital costs for an Albion process plant are less than 50% of a comparative pres-
sure leach, bacterial or roasting plant. A comparison of capitals costs for a 50000 t/a
Cu leach plant between the Albion process and the other oxidative leach technolo-
gies is shown in Fig. 6.27.
Some principal components of the operating costs for a 15% Cu concentrate are
summarized in Table 6.18.
Typical operating costs for a 15% copper concentrate treated by Albion process in
schema milling-leaching-solvent extraction-electrowinning is equivalent 308 US$.
6.3.3.5 Sunshine
In 1984 the Sunshine Mining and Refining Company introduced a new concept to
the hydrometallurgical treatment of complex sulphidic concentrates with antimony,
copper and silver content. Later the concept was modified for the sulphuric acid
oxygen pressure leaching with the application of nitric acid [Anderson et al. 1993].
This treatment allows the recovery of silver and copper from the solid residue after
alkaline leaching of tetrahedrite.
It was shown that the milling had an important role by the introduction of a re-
grind circuit before the pressure leach improving the overall recovery of silver. The
milling in tube mill led to size reduction from original P80 of 25 microns to P80 of
10 microns. The installation of the regrind circuit and application of sodium nitrite
Fig. 6.27 Comparative capital costs for the Albion process and other oxidative leach processes
[Hourn and Halbe 1999]
Table 6.18 Typical operating costs for Cu production in Albion process

Operation US$/tonne of Cu
Milling including pumps and media feeders 11

Milling media 6–8
Electrowinning 125
Leaching and neutralization 15
Limestone 20–40
Oxygen/air 35/15
Labour, maintenance, minor consumables 100
in the plant allowed the silver recovery to increase from the historically recorded
value of 87.5–92.1%. At full production, these enhancements allow recovery of an
extra 230,000 troy ounces of silver per year [Anderson et al. 1993; Nordwick and
Anderson 1993; Allen 1998].
Sunshine Mine in Idaho which was the richest silver mine in USA history was
shut down in 2001 because of financial problems and rapid decrease of silver prize
on world market. However, in October 2005 Sterling Mining Company announced
a three-stage plan to restore activity at the Sunshine Mine. Production, on a prelim-
inary scale, is planned to start late 2007 or early 2008.
6.3.3.6 Melt
Melt process has been developed in Slovakia for hydrometallurgical treatment

of tetrahedrite sulfidic concentrates [Baláž et al. 1994c; Baláž 2000; Baláž and
Achimovičová 2006]. The process name Melt is an abbreviation: Mechanochem-

ical Leaching of Tetrahedrites.
Tetrahedrite, in simplified formula Cu12 Sb4 S13 is one of the most common sul-
fominerals. The general formula representing the naturally occurring tetrahedrite-
tennantite series is (Cu,Ag)10 (Cu,Zn,Fe,Cd,Hg,Cu)2 (Sb,Bi,As)4 S13 denoted
M+ 2+ 3+
10 M2 M4 S13 . In most natural tetrahedrites, the two Cu
2+ atoms are replaced
2+
by a divalent element such as Zn which usually occupies a tetrahedral site in
sulphides [Pattrick and Hall 1983].
Tetrahedrites represent the most important source of copper and antimony and
are also of economical interest due to their content of silver and mercury.
The tetrahedrite concentrates from the Rožvnava deposit are produced by non-
selective sulphide flotation and have a high content of copper (∼27%), antimony
(∼16%) and silver (∼4000 gt−1 ) [Fábry 1992].
With the aim to developing a processing route which allows extraction of most
of the metal values from these tetrahedrite concentrates various hydrometallurgical
methods have been considered too. The variable presence and proportions of metals
in the tetrahedrite and the accompanying sulphides complicate the leaching and sub-
sequent metal recovery steps. The devise a method for solving this problem requires
a multistep hydrometallurgical process which exhibits high selectivity in individual
stages.
Hydrometallurgical treatment of tetrahedrite is possible in acid oxidative
[Dutrizac and Morrison 1984; Havlı́k et al. 1991, 1994, 1998] or in alkaline solution
[Baláž et al. 1994a; Holmes 1944; Melnikov 1977; Pawlek 1983]. By acid oxida-
tive leaching, e.g. in acidified ferric chloride solutions, copper and iron enter into
solution, while antimony is partially precipitated as a compound with the compo-
sition similar to the mineral tripuhyite FeSbO4 . The overall leaching reaction pro-
ceeds very slowly and the kinetics is complicated [Havlı́k et al. 1998; Havlı́k and
Škrobian 2000].
Alkaline leaching in sodium sulfide medium dissolves selectively antimony leav-
ing copper and iron in the solid residues. Arsenic and mercury are also solubilized
as complex anions. This process has a high selectivity with copper and precious
metals remaining in the solid residue which is suitable for smelter treatment.
The chemistry of the reaction between tetrahedrite (on simplified formula
Cu3 SbS3 ) and Na2 S can be described by equations [Anderson and Nordwick 1996]
2Cu3 SbS3 + Na2 S → 3Cu2 S + 2NaSbS2 (6.7)

NaSbS2 + Na2 S → Na3 SbS3 (6.8)
The soluble Na3 SbS3 containing trivalent antimony is oxidized to a product con-
taining pentavalent antimony by the polysulfide ions present in the leaching liquor
(x − 1)Na3 SbS3 + Na2 Sx → (x − 1)Na3 SbS4 + Na2 S (6.9)
The behaviour of arsenic leaching from tennantite Cu3 AsS3 by Na2 S may be
described by equation
2Cu3 AsS3 + 3S2− → 3 Cu2 S + 2AsS3−

3 (6.10)
or in the presence of polysulphide anions by equation [Hiskey and Atluri 1988]
Cu3 AsS3 + 5/(2n − 2) S2−

n + (3n − 8)/(2n − 2)S
2−
→ 3CuS + AsS3−
4 (6.11)
However in addition to tennantite, arsenic derived from tetrahedrite, orpiment

and realgar is also solubilised in the alkaline solution – arsenopyrite is resistant to
leaching in this medium.
The leaching of mercury sulfide with sodium sulfide gives a soluble complex too,
according to the equation [Melnikov 1977]
HgS + Na2 S → Na2 HgS2 (6.12)
This salt is prone to hydrolysis and its solution stability necessitates the presence
of a base, usually NaOH.
The refractoriness of tetrahedrite requires the application of concentrated leach-
ing agents, high temperatures and long leaching times for efficient dissolution of the
valuable antimony content. In preliminary experiments, the recovery of antimony
into alkaline leach was not higher than 40% after two hours of leaching (Fig. 6.28).
Alkaline leaching of tetrahedrite with a solution of Na2 S has been applied by
the Sunshine Mining and Refining Company [Ackerman et al. 1993; Nordwick
and Anderson 1993]. Leaching was carried out using a 280–300 gl−1 sodium sul-
phide solution at boiling point (104◦ C) and atmospheric pressure. The process is
run in batch mode with a 12 h residence time solubilising 90–95% Sb and 60% As
[Gould 1955].
In 1992, the Institute of Metallurgy of Technical University in Berlin and the
Institute of Geotechnics, Slovak Academy of Sciences in Košice started to test a new
method which combined milling and leaching in a batch process within a stirred ball
mill (attritor). The results, summarized in Table 6.19, reveal 52–99% recoveries of
Fig. 6.28 Recovery of antimony (1) and mercury (2) into leach, εMe vs. time of leaching, tL for as
received tetrahedrite concentrate, temperature 90◦ C [Baláž 2000]
Table 6.19 Experimental conditions (temperature, T, Na2 S concentration, c) and recoveries of

metals by mechanochemical leaching of tetrahedrite concentrate [Baláž et al. 1994a]
T C Metal in leach (%)
(◦ C) (gl−1 ) Sb Cu Fe Hg Ag
60 100 52.09 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.60
60 150 83.90 <0.1 <0.1 0.16 0.46
60 200 82.64 <0.1 <0.1 0.33 0.45
80 100 99.64 <0.1 <0.1 0.62 0.40
80 150 99.78 <0.1 <0.1 0.11 0.47
80 200 92.76 <0.1 <0.1 0.11 0.38
95 100 84.31 <0.1 <0.1 0.12 0.45
95 150 95.02 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.49
95 200 92.96 <0.1 <0.1 0.14 0.74
antimony after 60 min of mechanochemical action [Baláž et al. 1994a, b]. Antimony
is selectively leached while the other valuable metals remain almost entirely in the
solid residue.
This new process was further developed and tested in semi-industrial and indus-
trial scale attritors using a continuous mode of operation [Baláž et al. 1994a, b, c,
1995, 1997a, b, 2003; Baláž and Sekula 1996; Sekula et al. 1998; Baláž 2000;
Baláž and Achimovičová 2006]. The principal flowsheet of operation, in which
mechanochemical (I) leaching is followed by chemical (II) leaching, is shown in
Fig. 6.29.
The mechanochemical leaching of the concentrate is characterized by the typical
leaching plots for antimony, arsenic and mercury in Fig. 6.30, as well as by the
data in Table 6.19. The process was performed in a combined regime of milling
and leaching. The initial stage of mechanochemical leaching (I) for 18 min was
succeeded by the combined mechanochemical and chemical leaching (I+II). The
presented results show that almost total extraction of antimony can be achieved by
leaching for 40 min, leaving 0.25% Sb in the solid residue (Table 6.20).
The behaviour of mercury is not consistent with its expected solubility in the al-
kaline leaching solution. The effect of a hindered mercury extraction was thought to
be due to electrochemical effects, e.g. mercury cementation with iron balls or iron
Fig. 6.29 Flowsheet of the leaching unit: 1 – heating, 2 – chemical reactor, 3 – pump, 4 – valve,
5 – attritor, 6 – cooling. The working regimes: I-mechanochemical leaching, II chemical leaching
[Baláž et al. 1995]
Fig. 6.30 Recovery of Sb, As

and Hg, εMe vs. time of
leaching, t. I –
mechanochemical leaching,
II – chemical leaching.
Leaching conditions: 300gl−1
Na2 S+50gl−1 NaOH,
T= 88◦ C, liquid/solid ratio
3:3, power input 245 kWht−1
[Baláž et al. 1997b]
Table 6.20 Chemical composition of tetrahedrite concentrate [Baláž et al. 1997b]

Element Me (%)
As received Mechanochemically treated
Cu 27.36 26.00
Sb 15.93 0.25
Fe 14.58 16.46
Bi 0.33 0.33
As 1.02 0.27
Hg 0.74 0.11
wear [Baláž et al. 1994a]. This effect was confirmed by experiments with separate
mechanochemical and chemical leaching stages. After interruption of the attritor op-
eration at 70 min (see Fig. 6.31), mercury starts to dissolve with higher rates com-
pared to its rate in the mechanochemical regime. At t>200 min nearly total mer-
cury extraction is attained and its amount in solid residue after leaching is below
0.01%.
The behaviour of arsenic in the alkaline leaching process depends on arsenic ori-
gin. The recovery of this metal is always lower than 70% as indicated in Fig. 6.32
and it can be assumed that probably only the arsenic present in tetrahedrite or
tennantite is extracted, the remaining arsenic (∼30%) occurs in other minerals
which are insoluble in alkaline sulfide solution (e.g. arsenopyrite) [Anderson and
Nordwick 1996; Dayton 1982].
The concept of mechanochemical leaching of tetrahedrite concentrates was de-
veloped and verified in a laboratory attritor [Baláž et al. 1994a) and in semi-
industrial attritor [Baláž et al. 1995, 1997b; Baláž 2000]. It was further tested in a
pilot plant hydrometallurgical unit in Rudvnany [Slovakia) (Fig. 6.33). Figure 6.34
summarizes the flowsheet of this process. Tests have shown that alkaline Na2 S
leaching for 30 min at 86◦ C and atmospheric pressure is required for achieving
Fig. 6.31 Recovery of Sb, As and Hg, εMe vs. time of leaching, t. I – mechanochemical leaching,
II – chemical leaching. Leaching conditions: 300 gl−1 Na2 S+50 gl−1 NaOH, T= 95◦ C, liquid/solid
ratio 3:8, power input 120 kWht−1 [Baláž et al. 1997b]
Fig. 6.32 Recovery of arsenic, εAs vs. recovery of antimony, εSb in experiments of chemical
leaching. Leaching conditions: 300 gl−1 Na2 S+50 gl−1 NaOH, T= 95◦ C, liquid/solid ratio 3:3–
6:0 [Baláž et al. 1997b]
total extraction of antimony. The other valuable metals (Cu, Ag, Au) form the main
economic components of solid residue. The liquid/solid ratio (2:5–4:8) and power
inputs (150–250 kWh/t concentrate) that was applied in optimised mechanochemi-
cal experiments are acceptable for plant operation [Baláž 2000].
Fig. 6.33 Pilot plant unit at Rudňany (Slovakia): vision of unit and LME Netzsch attritor in com-
bination with chemical reactor [Baláž et al. 1997b)
A similar leaching process Sunshine has been applied by Sunshine Mining and
Refining Company in the USA [Anderson et al. 1993; Anderson and Nordwick
1996]. This process applied a slightly modified alkaline Na2 S leaching system
where Na2 CO3 was added to improve the performance, but without intervention
of mechanochemical treatment. Table 6.21 compares the leaching conditions for the
Melt and Sunshine processes.
Fig. 6.34 Flowsheet of the Melt process [Sekula et al. 1998; Baláž and Achimovičová 2006]
After inspection of Table 6.21 it is possible to conclude that a much shorter leach-
ing time is needed for the Melt process in comparison with the Sunshine process
with relatively small differences in leach conditions. This can bring important eco-
nomical benefits for the whole technology.
6.4 Chemical Engineering 341
Table 6.21 Comparison of leaching conditions for Melt and Sunshine processes [Baláž and
Achimovičová 2006]
Parameter Melt Sunshine
Mineralogical Tetrahedrite, pyrite, Tetrahedrite, pyrite, galena,
composition chalcopyrite, siderite, bournonite
quartz
Leach conditions:
Initial particle size 70%–200 mesh 60%–200 mesh
Leach time [min] 60 720
Temperature [◦ C] 88–105 105
Na2 S [g/L] 300 100
NaOH [g/L] 50 15
Na2 CO3 [g/L] – 25
Solid/liquid ratio [g/L] 300 200
6.4 Chemical Engineering
6.4.1 Crystal Engineering
Mechanochemical solid-state reaction of molecular crystals is a rather new but

promising direction. The potential importance of this field relates not solely to the
traditional fields of applications of molecular crystals, such as pharmaceutics (see
Sect. 6.9) but also to the newly discovered possibilities of their utilization as func-
tional materials for molecular electronics, molecular magnets, etc. [Boldyrev 2006].
In comparison with inorganic solid-state reactions, the interactions in organic
molecular crystals are mainly of the non-covalent type, e.g. van der Waals, hydrogen
bonds and π-stackings [Braga and Grepioni 2004, 2005; Braga et al. 2006]. No
significant activation energies have to be introduced in the exoenergetic reactions
of molecular crystals [Kaupp et al. 2002a). Importantly, products formed by co-
milling of crystals in the absence of liquid can be different from those obtained
from solutions or melts [Braga et al. 2006].
Among the earliest pioneering investigations of solid-state organic reactions were
reactions between naphthalene, phenanthrene, anthracene, naphtols, and other sub-
stituted hydrocarbons and picric acid [Rastogi et al. 1963; Rastogi and Singh 1966,
1968; Paul and Curtin 1975]. The kinetics studies showed that these reactions were
diffusion controlled and that diffusion takes place by surface migration which favors
small molecules of regular shape [Braga et al. 1999].
Useful contributions into recent literature of organic solid-state reactions, in-
cluded those activated mechanochemically have been published [Toda 2002; Tanaka
2003; Kaupp 2005]. Various mills were tested for activation, especially those pro-
viding the high energy input such as vibratory mills, planetary mills and attritors.
It was established that many types of organic reactions can be realized with these
devices. Furthermore, in some cases, the mechanochemical method has proven to
be not only simpler and faster than the traditional synthesis, but more selective as
well [Boldyrev 2006].
More than 1000 stoichiometric organic solid-state reactions proceeded with
100% yield and do not require purifying workup, i.e. they are solvent-free and
waste-free [Kaupp 2005]. Some of these reactions have been successfully scaled-
up with application of industrial mills.
Figure 6.35 shows a pilot set-up for performance of solid-state reactions. The
collection of the milling product occurs in a cyclone with an internal gas cycle
if continuous or semi-continuous operation is desired for large scale production.
This equipment allows for complete recovery of the product without charging it
with impurities as will be important for synthesis and industrial production. The
large mill can presently be upscaled to 400 l volume of the milling chamber [Kaupp
et al. 2002b; Kaupp 2006].
Several examples of organic solid-state reactions performed by milling are given
bellow [Kaupp 2003a, b, 2005].
Fig. 6.35 Pilot set-up of a high-energy mill (SimoloyerR , ZOZ, Germany) with carrier gas cycle
and separation/classification system. 1 – side channel turbine, 2 – powder charging, 3 – feeder, 4 –
high-energy mill, 5 – cyclon, 6 – powder discharging [Kaupp et al. 2002b; Kaupp 2006]
Glucose and urea formed the stoichiometric crystalline 1:1 complex (reaction
6.13) within minutes. Without milling, only small amounts of products have been
obtained by tedious crystallization that took six months.
(6.13)
Sodium tartrate dihydrate can be obtained in the form of powder by milling of

stoichiometric mixtures of L-(+)-tartaric acid with Na2 CO3 .
(6.14)
Sodium tartrate is a well known food additive (E 335). The crystals are in use
for the preparation of powders or tablets for refreshing drinks. Energy consuming
evaporations are avoided that burden the common techniques in water. No excessive
heating was observed in reaction (6.14). The liberated CO2 was released by a safety-
valve in a mill.
Imines (Schiff‘s bases) are versatile building blocks that have been quantita-
tively synthesized by milling. The scaling-up of p-hydroxybenzaldehyde conden-
sation with p-aminobenzoic acid yielded substituted solid imine hydrate that could
be dried in a vacuum at 80◦ C temperature if desired [Kaupp et al. 2002a]. The water
of reaction from the condensation reaction (6.15) does not disturb the procedure by a
liquid phase both in the small or large scale runs, as it is incorporated in the product
lattice. The reaction proceeds smoothly and efficiently at near ambient condictions
without an intervening liquid phase and further up-scaling in larger mills appears
possible. This favourable waste-free technical procedure is remarkable, as the pre-
vious synthesis of the product of reaction (6.15) required 12 h boiling in ethanol and
no yield was reported [Cevasco and Thea 1999].
(6.15)
Reaction (6.16) represents an example of solvent-free technique for the het-
erocyclic ring formation. Phenylacylbromide and thiourea were milled at room
temperature. The aminothiazole hydrobromide salt was quantitatively obtained in a
complicated cascade reaction sequence (substitution, cyclization, dehydration, iso-
merization) and represents a versatile building block for organic synthesis with the
acid catalyst already attached to it.
(6.16)
Reaction (6.17) is an example of mechanochemical synthesis of organometal-

lic compound zinc bismethionate in an industrial mill (Fig. 6.36) [Kaufmann et al.
2006]. This compound is prepared by solid-state synthesis at ambient conditions
without intervening liquid phase and connected operations like heating, washing,
destilation, etc.
(6.17)
High energy milling represents in organic solid-state synthesis an environmen-
tally benign versatile technique that can be performed at the kg scale. The size of
mills with carrier-gas operations may be increased to more than 400 l. The solid-
state techniques supercede all other techniques in terms of sustainability, avoid-
ing wastes, energy, time and work savings, easiness of conduction, safety and
unmatched performance in the synthesis of highly sensitive products. Furthermore,
Fig. 6.36 Mechanochemical synthesis of zinc bismethionate hydrate in an industrial eccentric

vibration mill ESM (Siebtechnik, Germany)
solid-state synthetic procedures are often viable alternative routes to the bottom-
up construction of molecular materials from molecular or ionic-building blocks,
which is the core of molecular crystal engineering [http://www.zoz.de; Kaupp
et al. 2002a, b; Braga and Grepioni 2004; Kaupp 2005, 2006].
6.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis
Heterogeneous catalysis comprises the phenomena of the enhancement of the rates

of chemical conversions in fluids by the presence of solid surfaces, which are called
catalysts [Madey et al. 1976].
The research in heterogeneous catalysis became the basis of modern catalyti-
cal large-scale production techniques like, for example, the synthesis of ammonia,
sulphuric acid and of a number of other products of the organo-chemical and fuel
industries. In history, hydrogenation of carbon monoxide over Ru, Ni, Co, Fe and
Th oxide catalysts became one of the most important sources of gasoline, methane
and other chemicals. The development of efficient catalysts for the most important
catalytical processes, however, is related to the problems of deactivation and cata-
lysts to poisoning (contamination) their regeneration and reactivation [Weisser and
Landa 1972]. Contamination of metal catalyst by small amounts of carbon can com-
pletely change the nature of the reaction intermediates and the product distribution
during the decomposition of organic compounds [Bond 1962].
The categories of elementary processes customarily used to govern heteroge-
neous catalysis have been listed as follows [Boudart and Burwell 1974]
• diffusion of reactants to the surface
• chemisorption of at least one of the reactants on the surface
• surface diffusion of chemisorbed reactants and subsequent surface reaction
• desorption of products from the surface
• diffusion of products from the surface
The kinetic data (preexponential factors and activation energies) permit to iden-
tify the rate-determining process.
In principle all steps mentioned above can be influenced by mechanical activation
of solid catalysts. It has been established already in earlier studies [Heinicke 1984;
Heinicke et al. 1967], that mechanical activation affects both the sorption of gases
(step 2) upon their interaction with various catalysts and subsequent chemical reac-
tions (step 3).
In catalytic chemical reactions the increase of reaction rate together with decrease
of activation energy has been frequently observed [Schrader and Hoffmann 1973].
Strong reduction of the activation energy and, accordingly a strong increase in
activity for SO2 oxidation on mechanically activated V2 O5 catalyst is documented
in Table 6.22.
It is important to stress that not only the reaction rate but also the mechanism of
the catalytic reaction changes due to the mechanical activation. This fact makes it
possible to increase the selectivity of catalysts with the mechanical activation.
Table 6.22 Activation energy, Ea of the SO2 oxidation at a mechanically activated V2 O5 catalyst
[Paudert 1965]
Mechanical Treatment Ea (kJ mol−1 )
activation (min)
– – 144
5 After interruption of milling 139
5 During milling 21
The enhancement of adsorption of gases on solid surfaces upon mechanical

activation is accompanied is some cases by penetration of gas molecules into the
mechanically deformed lattice. The sorption time vs. duration of mechanical acti-
vation is characterized for many gases by the existence of an optimum value due to
the competition of the mechanically activated adsorption and desorption processes
as the active surface centers are gradually filled with gas molecules [Boldyrev 2006;
Lomovskij and Boldyrev 2006].
6.4.2.1 Catalysts by Means of Mechanochemical Reactions
The influence of mechanochemical treatment on the catalytic activity of a solid may

consist in the fact that new chemical compounds or changed phases are formed
due to the treatment having an increased catalytical activity as compared with the
initial substances. The formation of metallic carbonyls belongs to this group of
mechanochemical reactions.
The mechanism of iron carbonyl Fe(CO)5 formation by milling may be repre-
sented by the following sequence of reactions [Heinicke et al. 1970]
Fe + S → FeS (6.18)
FeS + CO → Fe3 S2 (CO)9 (6.19)
Fe3 S2 (CO)9 → FeS + Fe(CO)5 (6.20)
As Fig. 6.37 shows, the sulfphr induced reaction velocity being by the factor of
about 100. Since 6–8% of sulphur in the input material is sufficient for the accel-
erated reaction of the used Fe, the sulphur has catalytic effect on the formation of
carbonyl. FeS represents an intermediate product which is regenerated during the
disproportionation reaction (6.20).
Carbonyls of various metals (Ni, Fe, W and Mo) have been synthesized by this
route. In case of nickel carbonyl Ni(CO)4 a mechanochemical technology (Fig. 6.38)
was proposed and tested [Heinicke 1984].
The heart of the plant is a vibration mill designed as a reactor. Here nickel is
transformed into Ni(CO)4 by continuous milling of Ni powder in CO atmosphere.
Fig. 6.37 The velocity, v of the Fe(CO)5 formation during the mechanochemical treatment
(t – milling time, 1 – pure Fe, 2 – FeS formed by reaction (6.18) [Heinicke et al. 1970]
6.4.2.2 Surface Size Changes of Catalysts by Mechanical Activation
The value of the specific surface area, and consequently the catalytic activity may be
increased up during mechanical activation of catalysts. If there is a relatively large
specific surface area at the beginning of the mechanical stress, as is the case for
the majority of the applied supported catalysts having values of some 100 m2 g−1 ,
than a reduction of the specific surface area and consequently of the catalytic
activity will appear under the influence of mechanical activation. In many cases
this reduction will not be compensated by the activity-increasing effect of the lat-
tice defects (see later). For instance, the initial surface area of an α-Al2 O3 catalyst
which is in the range of about 200 m2 g−1 decreases to a value 20–30 m2 g−1 after
milling 10 h.
However, in some cases this phenomena does not influence the catalytical activ-
ity. The hydrodesulphurization (HDS) and hydrogenation (HYD) activities of Mo-
containing catalysts are higher for mechanochemically treated sample in spite of
lowering its surface area (Fig. 6.39).
A short-time milling causes an increase in the surface area in spite of the rela-
tively large area of about 100 m2 g−1 for V2 O5 catalyst in reaction
V O
2SO2 + O2 −→
2 5
2SO3 (6.21)
As is shown in Fig. 6.40, the regeneration of the catalyst used up or lowered in

their activity is possible in this way.
Fig. 6.38 Mechanochemical technology of nickel carbonyl Ni(CO)4 synthesis, 1 – drying,

2 – comminution, 3 – reducing, 4 – bunkering, 5 – dosing, 6 – mechanochemical reactions,
7 – residue, 8 – dust removal, 9 – cooling, 10 – storing. [Heinicke et al. 1975]
6.4.2.3 Perovskite and Zeolite Catalysts
Highly active and stable in hostile environments, monolith perovskite catalysts were
elaborated. Pilot tests and bench-scale experiments have demonstrated these cat-
alysts can efficiently operate in the temperature range up to 900–1300◦ C and at
space velocities in the range of 10000/h in the processes of flameless fuels combus-
tion, environmental control as well as in the industrial chemical processes. Appli-
cations include fuel combustion, toxic waste incineration, hydrocarbons reforming
and sulphur dioxide reduction [Pauli et al. 1992].
Fig. 6.39 HDS and HYD activities of Mo-containing catalysts synthesized by mechanochemical
approach (SA = 254 m2 g−1 ) and by impregnation (SA = 270 m2 g−1 ) [Kostova et al. 2007]
Fig. 6.40 SO2 oxidation at V2 O5 catalyst milled in a jet mill, G – degree of conversion, 1 –
unmilled, 2 – milled for 2-times, 3 – milled for 5-times [Heinicke 1984]
To elaborate the technology of perovskite monolith honeycomb catalysts produc-

tion, the methods of preparation of highly dispersed, chemically active powders with
uniform phase composition and narrow particle size distribution should be invented.
Technique of mechanical activation of solid starting compounds in high-intensity
ball mills with a subsequent thermal treatment matches these requirements. Mono-
lith perovskite catalysts were found to have high activity and good stability in a
number of industrial catalytic processes such as methane reforming and sulphur
dioxide reduction (Fig. 6.41).
Zeolites with their well developed internal surface are good candidates for cat-
alytic applications. The typical question that arises when the activity of zeolite cat-
alysts is studied is whether the reaction proceeds on the relatively small but easily
accessible external surface of crystals, or on the very developed “internal” surface
formed by a system of intercrystalline micropores, whose size is close to molecular
dimensions [Parton et al. 1989].
Fig. 6.41 Catalytic activity

of the catalysts in methane
reforming (left) and reduction
of methane (right) [Isupova
et al. 1996]
Dispersion of the zeolite by milling could either increase its external surface area,
or decrease its crystallinity (and therefore, intercrystalline microporous space) due
to amorphization. The comparison of catalytic activity with the evolution of these
factors was supported to help in the location of active sites.
The catalytic properties of Fe ZSM-5 zeolite in benzene oxidation to phenol by
N2 O has been studied. The milling of catalyst resulted in a practically complete
amorphization and disappearance of its catalytical activity. While catalytical activity
for non-activated catalyst was 25% for benzene conversion, this value went down
to 1.5% for milled sample. In spite of such a large changes of reaction rate, the
selectivity toward phenol remains nearly constant [Kharitonov et al. 1995].
6.4.2.4 Metal Catalysts
Several papers have been devoted to the elucidation of the influence of mechani-
cal activation on catalytic activity of metals by German scientists [Schrader 1966;
Schrader and Tetzner 1961; Schrader et al. 1966; Heinicke 1984). The model re-
action of benzene hydrogenation was tested for catalytical activity of mechanically
activated Ni and Co powders
Ni,Co
C6 H6 + 3H2 −−−−−→ C6 H12 (6.22)
The dependence of benzene conversion on reaction temperature is shown in

Fig. 6.42.
There is no conversion to hexan for non-activated Ni-catalyst (O ) below 160◦ C.
At 220◦ C the conversion is only 10%. The activity of the catalyst above this temper-
ature goes down. However, all the activated Ni-catalysts (milling time 10–140 min)
show much higher conversion for reaction (6.22) which proceeds by much lower
temperatures in this case. Moreover, the working interval is broader in comparison
with non-activated Ni.
However, the decrease in catalytical activity of mechanically activated metal
catalysts have been also observed. The question of activity is connected not only
with total surface area of catalysts but is closely related to their active centers. Ni
catalyst treated in the presence of air is no longer effective, so that no catalytic
effect will be found without mechanochemical treatment in a subsequent steps.
As Fig. 6.43 shows, the steady-state level measured before the catalyst was poi-
soned will be reached again after the revival of the treatment process [Heinicke
1984].
It was shown that mechanical activation is efficient in creating waste-free energy-
saving methods for the preparation of heterogeneous catalysts. Not only the reaction
rate but also the mechanism of the catalytic reaction changes due to the mechani-
cal activation. This fact makes it possible to increase the selectivity of catalysts
with the mechanical activation [Molchanov and Buyanov 2000, 2001; Boldyrev
2006].
Fig. 6.42 Benzene C6 H6 conversion, α as a function of reaction temperature T, parameter: milling

time (min) [Schrader 1966]
Fig. 6.43 The conversion of C6 H6 at a mechanically activated Ni catalyst during an intermediate

treatment in air: α – catalytical activity, t – reaction time, A – reaction at mechanical treatment,
B – treatment in air, C – leaving in H2 /C6 H6 mixture [Heinicke 1984]
6.5 Materials Engineering
Non-equilibrium processing of materials has attracted the attention of a number of

scientists and engineers due to the possibility of producing better and improved
materials than is possible by conventional methods [Suryanarayana 1999]. One
of the processing methods cited in literature under the term mechanical alloying
(MA) is very frequently used for the preparation of advanced materials in mate-
rials engineering (see also Sect. 4.3.3). MA started as an industrial necessity in
1966 to produce oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) nickel- and iron-based su-
peralloys for applications in the aerospace industry. The technique of MA was
used for industrial applications from the beginning and the basic understanding
and mechanism of the process is only now beginning to be understood. One of
the greatest advances of MA is in the synthesis of novel alloys, e.g. alloying of
normally inmiscible elements, which is not possible by any other technique. The
MA products find applications in various industries and these are summarized in
Fig. 6.44.
Mechanical alloying for commercial production is carried out in the mills of up to
more than 1000 kg capacity. The ball mills to produce oxide dispersion strengthened
nickel- and iron-based alloys, is carried at facilities in the USA and Great Britain
(Fig. 6.45).
The major advantages of mechanically alloyed powders include achievement of
a homogeneous and fine distribution of metallic and ceramic components to an eco-
nomical and cost-effective manner. Several application are given below.
6.5 Materials Engineering 353
Fig. 6.44 Typical current and potential applications of MA products [Suryanarayana et al. 2001]
Fig. 6.45 Commercial

production-size ball mills
used for mechanical alloys
[Suryanarayana et al. 2001]
6.5.1 Thermoelectric Power Generator Materials
A thermoelectric power generator is a reliable source of electric power. Several

materials have been investigated for use in the thermoelectric power generation.
β-FeSi2 is one of the most promising materials for energy conversion in the temper-
ature range of 200–900◦ C. Its biggest disadvantage is the way of its preparation by
melting method. The obtained product is porous and brittle and not homogeneous
because of segregation problems. Mechanically alloyed powder will not have the
segregation problem because no liquid phase is involved during processing. In addi-
tion, the number of processing steps is also minimized. For example, Fe, Si and the
dopant powder (to make the material either p-type or n-type semiconductor) can be
mechanically alloyed and then subjected to sintering followed by β-form annealing
to produce the desired material. Figure 6.46 illustrates two different ways of making
β-FeSi2 thermoelectric generator material [Suryanarayana 2004].
Fig. 6.46 The traditional (melting) and advanced (mechanical alloying) methods to prepare β-
FeSi2 [Suryanarayana 2004]
6.5.2 Room Temperature Solders
Reactions between Ga metal or liquid Ga-based eutectics with metal powder such as
Cu, Ag, Au, Ni and Sn have been investigated for possible use as low-temperature
solders or as dental filling materials. However, it was reported that neither pure
metal powders nor equilibrium commercial Cu-Sn alloyes mixed with Ga-based
liquids are suitable for practical use due to the long solidification times and poor
6.6 Coal Industry 355
mechanical properties [Ivanov et al. 1996]. It has been shown that the application of
mechanical alloying to such systems significantly improved processing and solding
properties of such materials [Suryanarayana 2004].
6.5.3 Bearings
In the USA the slide bearings are used based on Stellite (Stellite is a trademark reg-
istered in the USA and owned by Deloro Stellite Company). Stellite is 50–60 wt.%
Co-matrix alloy containing Cr and W carbides and other composites. Stellite is used
as the bearing material although its properties are not satisfactory. MA was applied
to improve the properties and the properties were improved [Suryanarayana 2004].
6.6 Coal Industry
Mechanical activation of coal induces the various changes in its structure which is
possible to utilize in application of coal as advanced material.
Initially, it considered that increase of chemical activity of mechanically activated
coal is result of its milling, formation of the new and accessing of inaccessible pores
and increase of external and internal surface. Howver, it turned out that reaches
to other physico-chemical changes: disruption of chemical bonds of organic com-
pounds present in the coal, change in its distribution, formation of soluble products
and volatile substances, creation of intensive electric fields, emision of electron and
formation of free radicals, etc. [Lomovskij and Boldyrev 2006; Chrenkova 1993].
High-energy milling also causes liberation of gases such as O2 , CO2 , CO, H2
and formation of hydrocarbons (CH4 , C2 H6 , C3 H8 , C4 H10 , Cn Hn+2 , Cn H2n ). Their
distribution depends on coal composition and condition of mechanical activation.
In the case, that after mechanical activation of coal in technological cycle fol-
lows thermal processing, the velocity of thermal reaction increases and its temper-
ature decreases. Change of coal reactivity is conditioned by amorphization and by
decreasing of molecular weight in process of destruction and formation of new func-
tion groups.
Technologically interesting possibility for utilization of mechanical activation of
coal are advanced applications in preparation of compounds with potential thera-
peutic effect (humic acids and their derivates).
6.6.1 Humic Acids
The process of formation of humic acids in coal in alkaline media was studied in-
tensively in the USA. Its basic principle resides in the oxidation of coal mass, while
the efficiency of the process depends on the type of coal, conditions of oxidation
(even in the presence of catalysts), and technological equipment (e.g. fluid system)
(Bailey et al. 1954]. In the USA, alkaline coal oxidation in water solutions, in the
presence of O2 and increased temperatures 200–300◦ C, has been developed into
a pilot operating test [Franke et al. 1952]. It is currently known that the effective
industrial production of sodium salt of humic acid or humic acids from coal is lim-
ited by the content of humic acids in coal batch at the level of 70% [Friedman and
Kinney 1950].
Mechanical activation has significantly stimulated advances in coal processing
for special processes. However, a cleaning process is important mainly for sulfur
removal.
The desulphurization of coal by chemical methods is accomplished by various
acid or alkaline reagents. The study of the processes applying hot alkaline solutions
for the purification of coal is not a recent development. As early as in the 1940s,
this process was used in Germany to prepare a low-ash product from coal suited
for the production of electrode carbon. It has been stated [Crawford 1951; Reggel
et al. 1992] that the content of ash in coal can be reduced from the original 98
to 0.7% by using 10% NaOH at increased pressure and temperature of 225◦ C. The
application of NaOH solutions at increased temperatures (150–250◦ C) and pressures
(0.6–2.5 MPa) was investigated in several laboratories.
Another possibility of using alkaline medium for cleaning of coal involves atmo-
spheric pressure. The higher temperatures are applied in this case. Molten NaOH
(or its mixture with KOH) is used and the effective temperature is about 400◦ C. The
ability of molten NaOH to desulphurize coal has been known for more than three
decades [Masciantonio 1965]. The liberation of the pyritic sulphur starts at temper-
atures above 150◦ C while the organic sulphur is released from the coal matrix at
temperatures above 200◦ C. The process known as molten caustic leaching (MCL)
was tested in the USA [Chiotti and Markuszewski 1985; Shan et al. 1989; Chriswell
et al. 1994]. The objective was to remove mineral components, pyritic and organic
sulphur by the reaction of coal with a mixture of molten sodium and potassium
hydroxides. For leaching time of 60–180 min and temperatures of 370–400◦ C, the
effectiveness of MCL process for removal of individual components was as follows:
90–95% of pyritic sulphur, 70–90% of organic sulphur and 90–99% of ash.
Due to the presence of sulphidic admixtures in coal and the fact that organic
sulphur is firmly built in its matrix, the coal itself represents the refractory material
from the viewpoint of chemical cleaning.
The concept of utilization of the synergistic effect of milling and leaching op-
erations was published [Baláž 2000]. This concept utilizes all the excitation states,
which are formed in a solid during intensive milling. In addition to the improvement
of milling performance (the leaching agent works also as milling additive), there is
the possibility that a common milling and leaching step contributes to operational
benefits and to the economy of the overall process.
The principle of simultaneous grinding alkaline chemical leaching (GACL) pro-
cess was successufully applied for coal cleaning: the reduction 41% of total sul-
phur, 95% of arsenic and the ash content by 43% in the brown coal from Nováky
(Slovakia) was achieved. The GACL process is carried out at atmospheric pres-
sure and at a temperature of 90◦ C. The consumption of NaOH used as an alkaline
6.6 Coal Industry 357
Table 6.23 Chemical analysis of coal samples after GACL treatment [Baláž et al. 2001]
Coal GACL treatment Chemical analysis
Milling Milling Ashd Sd Asd Fed Nad Humic acids (%)
time (min) medium (%) (%) (ppm) (%) (%)
Free Total
Nováky (Slovakia) Untreated – 28.2 3.0 264 1.4 0.1 14.3 29.3
30 Glass 27.4 2.3 46 1.2 0.3 20.5 26.9
60 Glass 21.5 1.8 45 0.9 0.1 23.9 32.4
90 Glass 40.6 1.8 13 1.6 0.5 25.7 40.3
120 Glass 35.3 1.5 11 2.5 0.2
Pittsburgh No. 8 Untreated – 7.0 2.0 4 1.0 0
(USA)
60 Glass 23.0 0.9 2 1.2 0.1
leaching medium was six times lower compared with the MCL process [Baláž
et al. 1998; Turčániová et al. 2000].
The GACL process was later tested also for American coal (Pittsburgh No.8).
The results are summarized in Table 6.23.
Different milling times were chosen. The process of dearsenification of minerals
arsenopyrite FeAsS, realgar As4 S4 and auripigment As2 S3 contained in Nováky coal
seemed be more sensitive to the GACL treatment than sulphur removal
[Verbich 1998].
The GACL treatment led to an increase of humic acids content, which is the
consequence of the destruction of coal matrix and new bond formation in the treated
material. The total humic acids content increased from 29.3% in an untreated sample
to 40.3% for Nováky coal treated by GACL process for 120 min [Turčániová and
Baláž 2000].
Two samples of Pittsburgh coal No.8 were also analyzed: sample after milling
and caustic leaching treatment and an untreated sample for comparison. A reduc-
tion of total sulphur content from 2.0 to 0.9% after GACL treatment was determined
(Table 6.23). However, an increase in the ash content was also detected, which can
be related to the alkaline content in the sample as well as wearing of the glass milling
balls.
The GACL process proceeds under technically and economically friendly con-
ditions: atmospheric pressure, temperature of 90◦ C and dilute solution (5% NaOH)
are needed. In comparison with the MCL process, the consumption of NaOH is six
times lower. However, the drawback of the up-to-date application of the GACL treat-
ment is the wear of milling media, which contributes to ash-forming compounds in
treated coal. Thorough washing of the treated coal is also a critical point.
An attempt has been made to improve economical feasibility of the GACL as for
NaOH consumption [Turčániová et al. 2001]. An industrially scalable attritor mill
(see Chap. 2) has been applied. The results are summarized in Table 6.24.
The reduction of leaching agent concentration (application of extremely diluted
NaOH solutions) will favourably effect the material costs of leaching process. From
the data published about GRAVIMELT process (which is a high-temperature coal
Table 6.24 Mechanical activation of brown coal Novaky (Slovakia) using GACL process
Milling conditions Increase in humic acid
content compared to
Time (min) Temperature (◦ C) NaOH (%) non-treated coal
60 75 1 4.4x
60 75 0.2 3.9x
60 75 0.5 4.3x
60 60 0.2 4.8x
60 60 0.05 3.5x
treatment process applying coal+solid NaOH) it is known, that the concentration of

NaOH limits the economy, the price of treated coal and practical implementation of
the process [Nowak et al. 1994; Chriswell et al. 1994].
As shown recently, the mechanically activated brown coal can be used for prepa-
ration of special diterpene compounds (kaurane derivates) with cytostatic activity
for pharmaceutical effectors [Turčániová et al. 2004].
The mechanochemical treatment of coal is a perspective non-traditional method
applied in order to utilize coal substances in chemistry, pharmaceutical industry, etc.
The combined effect of milling and alkaline treatment favourably influence the max-
imum destruction of carbonaceous and sulphur organic compounds in coal matrix.
As for brown coal in addition to environmental effect of desulphurization, dearseni-
fication and reduction of content of ash matters, an increase in humic acid content
and special pharmaceutical compounds has been obtained. Coal mechanochemistry
gives invokes to development in the field of clean coal technologies, nanotechnol-
ogy, materials science, etc.
6.7 Building Industry
Development in the field of building materials is focused on a more effective

consumption of energy, on utilization of secondary raw materials and, last but
not least, on improvement of the technical and service parameters of the product
[Tkáčová 1989].
The first applications of mechanochemistry in building industry are related to the
benefit of silicate concrete (Silicalcite) production [Hint 1962]. The main advantage
is in the mechanical activation of quartz which has positive influence on calcium
hydrosilicates (CHS phase) formation [Juhász and Opoczky 1982, 1990].
Application of concrete with content of waste components is interesting from en-
vironmental point of view. Partial or total substitution of cement leads to suppression
or elimination of problematic thermal processes. Application of slags and power sta-
tion ashes as addition to cement clinker is a typical example. The quality of binders
prepared from these materials depends on the correct selection of mixture composi-
tion (it should correspond to the composition of the cement) and on proper mixing
providing the components to give hydrated compounds when coming in contact with
6.7 Building Industry 359
water [Avvakumov et al. 2001]. It was shown that mechanical activation of mixtures
of various industrial wastes with composition close to that of cement, allows sub-
stantially increase in their binding properties [Sulimenko et al. 1994].
Mechanochemical procedures significantly accelerate the solid state synthesis
and high temperature compacting processes of building materials. They reduce the
temperature of these processes simultaneously with enhancement of product quality
[Tkáčová 1989].
6.7.1 Mechanical Activation of Quartz SiO2
Lime and sand are among the building materials which have been used by man
for thousands of years. As archeological investigations have shown, a lime-sand
mixture having the ratio 1:3 to 1:5 was used already in ancient times as mortar for
the body of wall stones. Noteworthy is the great strength which these binders have
maintained in the course the thousands of years. However, the compressive strength
of this material is not enough for the manufacture of large size or self-supporting
structural units. The compressive strength of 3–4.10−7 Pa required for this could
so far only be reached for cement concrete. The main reason for this is that the
chemical reactions between lime, SiO2 and water leading to solidification run too
slowly or in too small extent if quartz sand is used [Heinicke 1984].
A significant step forward in the production of high-strength lime-sand building
materials was made when the SiO2 component began to be mechanically activated.
This leads to the increased formation of CHS phases and, consequently, to an in-
creased solidification of the building material structure. As an example, the com-
pressive strength of lime-sand building materials depending upon on the treatment
time using a vibration mill, and on the hardening time at a temperature of 373 K is
represented in Fig. 6.47.
Whereas the compressive strength of non-activated samples does not exceed the
value of 2.107 Pa even after a longer hardening time (10 h), a short-term mechanical
treatment of a few minutes is already sufficient to obtain a concrete strength of
3.107 Pa at hardening times of 0.5 days [Heinicke 1984].
It has been described in mechanochemical literature that the reactivity of quartz,
is, in the first instance, not determined by its dispersity and surface size, but deci-
sevely by the degree of amorphization. Comparative investigations of the surface
sizes occuring in the building material industry have demonstrated that a linear cor-
relation between the specific surface area and the degree of amorphization of quartz
similarly exists. Figure 6.48 shows that the compressive strength increases almost
proportionally with the amorphous part of mechanically activated SiO2 .
The results clearly show the addition of fine milled quartz has a profound effect
on concrete properties. The fine quartz fillers influence the hydration. The wet milled
quartz in a slurry form acts differently from dry milled or dried formely wet milled
quartz. Presumably, the fresh wet milled quartz is more reactive than the dry quartz
fillers. The higher heat development at least during the first 25 h means that the
cement is used better or that the energy built into the mechanically activated quartz
Fig. 6.47 Compressive strength, P at silicate concrete hardened for differently long times, d (in
days) in dependence on SiO2 component milling, t in a vibration mill [Schlegel 1976]
Fig. 6.48 Compressive strength, P in dependence on the amorphous part A of mechanically acti-
vated SiO2 [Koch and Schrader 1970]
is released. In any case, the physical properties of the cement paste are improved
[Lagerblad and Vogt 2004; Lagerblad et al. 2004].
6.7.2 Mechanical Activation of Cement
Experiments of mechanical activation were performed in several mills using Portland

cement from regular production. Generally, mechanical properties of milled cement
were improved. The hughest compressive and bending strengths were achieved for
the cement mechanically activated in a vibration mill (55 MPa and 9 MPa in com-
parison with the initial values 43 MPa and 7.5 MPa) as registered after 28 day solid-
ification period [Sekulic et al. 1988].
The effect of short-term milling of Portland cement in a vibration mill on the so-
lidification is shown in Fig. 6.49. The initial compressive strength determined after
one day of solidification increased from 3.9 to 16.7 MPa, the late strength deter-
mined after 28 days solidification period increased from 39.2 to 58.8 MPa. These
results have found industrial application [Greenberg 1961]. The reason for this are
mechanically released changes in surface and structure which for their part, accel-
erate of the hydration velocity of the cement during solidification.
The decisive factors in obtaining a high compressive strength are, however, the
chemical processes running during the solidification.
It is interesting to compare the results with up-to day research in this field. High
energy milling applied for the milling of cement leads to substantial refinement
(<2 μm) and mechanical activation of the powder particles (Fig. 6.50).
The non-refined cement appears as a very heterogeneous material with a huge
number of large sized particles with the prevailing particle size 30–60 μm. On the
contrary the milled cement shows a much more homogeneous microstructure at
very small particle size with prevailing particles less than 2 μm. The BET-surface
area was found to be 15 m2 g−1 [Zoz et al. 2004].
In order to compare the strength of both cements, samples were tested using a
universal testing machine at a compressive rate of 900 Ns−1 . Tests were applied
after 1, 3, 7 and 28 days (Fig. 6.51).
Fig. 6.49 Compressive

strength, σ of concretes made
from non-activated (1) and
mechanically activated
(2) Portland cement 400, as a
function of solidification
time, tH [Meyer 1977]
Fig. 6.50 Optical micrographs of the as received (left) and of the processed cement (right) [Zoz
et al. 2004]
Fig. 6.51 Compressive strength of concretes made from non-activated (OPC) and mechanically
activated (HPPC) Portland cement as a function of setting (solidification) time [Zoz et al. 2004]
The compressive strength results for the non-activated material from around
9.4 MPa after the first day to 32 MPa after 28 days curring. The mechanically ac-
tivated material achieves a compressive strength of 55 MPa after the first day and
of 102 MPa after 28 days. The obtained results can answer positively the key ques-
tion of high-energy milling availability and scaling for the large amount of material
produced in cement industry [Zoz et al. 2004].
6.7.3 Solidification of Silicate Concretes with Mechanically

Activated Precursors
Solidification of concrete prepared from cement proceeds through several (at least
three) steps:
• the hydrolysis of an anhydrous phase (constituents of cement clinker)
• nucleation and growth of nuclei of hydrosilicate (CHS phase) and
• diffusion of water through the film of hydrated products.
In cases where the first step determines the rate of setting, the hydraulic proper-
ties of alite (tricalcium silicate) and belite (dicalcium silicate) are of great impor-
tance [Boldyrev 1986; Tkáčová 1989].
6.7.4 Modification of Concrete Properties by Application

of Waste Materials After Milling
In certain cases cement can be diluted with substances that have latent hydraulic
properties, such as various industrial waste materials. They are present is ash formed
by coal combustion, in the wastes of casting and abrasive production, etc. The qual-
ity of binders prepared from these materials depends upon the correct selection of
the mixture composition (it should correspond to the composition of the cement)
and on proper mixing providing the components to give hydrated compounds when
coming in contact with water [Pavlenko et al. 2000]. It was shown that mechani-
cal activation of mixtures of different industrial wastes with composition close to
that cement allows a substantial increase in their binding properties [Sulimenko
et al. 1994]. Moreover, the other properties of cement can be improved by mechan-
ical activation such as behaviour, bending strength, etc.
However, keeping in mind that addition of waste materials can degrade the ce-
ment quality, particularly its mechanical characteristics, the amount of additive is
usually restricted to only several percentages [Avvakumov et al. 2001].
There have been some interesting recent studies concerning mechanical acti-
vation of ashes from coal-fired plants and their use in clinker production of ce-
ment industry and concrete production [Johansson et al. 1999; Paya et al. 2000;
Mezencevová and Števulová 2002; Števulová et al. 2005; Števulová and Sverák
2005].
Mechanical activation of cement with addition of fly ash (20% wt.) for only 3 min
improved mechanical properties of obtained product. After 28-day solidification the
compressive strength was higher for 57.9% in comparison with inactivated mixture
composed of Portland cement and fly ash. Mechanical activation in this case signif-
icantly improved the quality of Portland cement with addition of fly ash. This result
indicates that controlled mechanical activation would enable substitution of cement
with other (waste) materials, while retaining the quality of obtained product to the
desired level [Sekulic et al. 1999; Kumar et al. 2004, 2007].
Mechanical activation of fluidised coal fly ash with addition of various surfac-
tants and an influence on its pozzolanic activity was studied [Števulová et al. 2005;
Števulová and Sverák 2005]. The highest compressive strength values of hardened
fly ash based concrete (25 wt.%) after 28- and 90-days curing time were obtained
for the cement/fly ash composite containing the finest fly ash prepared by mechan-
ical activation of coal fly ash for 1.5 h with 0.2% triethanolamine in a vibratory
mill. This result is in accordance with data from literature [Berdov et al. 1983; Shi
and Day 2003] according to the particle size, specific surface area and activity of
surface of fly ash particles play a significant role at the hardening of cement/fly
ash pastes. A number of fly ash based geopolymer products (60–90% fly ash) with
unique properties have been developed, for example high strength (up to 120 MPa)
geopolymer cements, self-glazed geopolymer tiles, and geopolymer pavement tiles
based on synergistic utilization of waste from different sources. Mechanical acti-
vation can be used to add flexibility in processing and tailoring the properties of
geopolymer products [Kumar et al. 2007].
Recently, it the role of water addition during milling for binder preparation has
been estimated [Avvakumov et al. 2000]. An initial mixture for binder preparation
included high-calcium ash (the product of coal combustion at heat plant), worked-
out mixture of casting industry containing silica as a main component, and high-
alumina waste of the abrasive industry, i.e. all cement-forming compounds, as well
as the products of their interaction. This mixture was mechanically activated in pres-
ence of small amounts of water (∼2–5 wt.%) [Avvakumov et al. 2001]. This method
provides a decrease in the amount of non-bound CaO that causes worsening of long-
time strength characteristics of product in water. The properties of the binder thus
prepared were similar to those of standard. The results are shown in Table 6.25.
Table 6.25 Changes in CaO content, compression strength and water proof resistance for mechan-
ically activated industrial waste Avvakumov et al. 2001
Mechanical CaO content (%) Compression Water proof
activation (min) strength (MPa) resistance
– 12.6 27.8 Low

1 6.33 35.6 Low
3 4.82 41.4 Low
6 3.92 52.5 High
10 2.80 56.8 High
15 2.02 43.5 High
6.7.5 Manufacture of Exterior Wall Panels with Intervention

of Mechanical Activation
In previous Soviet Union, hydrothermally solidificated lime-sand materials termed

Silicalcite has been developed [Hint 1962]. As an example a Silicalcite-wall section
is shown in Fig. 6.52.
6.8 Agriculture 365
Fig. 6.52 Production of a Silicalcite exterior wall panel in building industry [Heinicke 1972]
The initial mixture consisted of 88% SiO2 and 12% CaO, was mechanically ac-
tivated in a high-speed disintegrator. Material with strength 3.103 MPa and den-
sity 1.9.103 kg/m3 was prepared by solidification in an autoclave. Due to its high
strength, the material was aimed for the manufacture of large construction units in
the building industry [Hint 1962].
In summary, the results discussed in Sect. 6.7 show that the most different build-
ing materials may be varied by through mechanical activation. Pecularities of a me-
chanical approach open new possibilities to incorporate in cement pre-determined
amounts of waste materials like slags and ashes and contribute to the development of
waste-free technologies. Utilization of waste is not only beneficial from the point of
view of resource conservation, energy saving and CO2 emisions decrease, but also
solves the problems associated with disposal of wastes [Števulová and Sverák 2005].
6.8 Agriculture
Phosphates that occur in volcanic rocks as apatites or in sedimentary rocks as phos-

porites are used in agriculture for production of phosphate fertilizers. Natural phos-
phates have first to be converted to the water-soluble form by their decomposition
in acids. Superphosphate is a classical phosphorus fertilizer, produced by decom-
position of phosphates in sulphuric acid. A higher grade of superphosphate with
2–3 times higher content of water-soluble phosphatic component can be prepared
by decomposition of phosphates in a mixture of sulphuric and phosphoric acids
[Tkáčová 1989]. Traditionally, the following reactions are used:
Ca3 F(PO4 )3 + 5H2 SO4 + 2.5H2 O → 5(CaSO4 .0.5H2 O) + 3HPO4 + HF (6.23)

Ca3 F(PO4 )3 + 7H3 PO4 + 5H2 O → 5[Ca(H2 PO4 ).H2 O) + HF (6.24)
Acid soils may fertilized by natural phosphates in the as-milled state. In view of
their low immediate effect, they are used as long-term fertilizers. In an attempt to
enhance the efficiency extensive research was carried out [see references in mono-
graphs Heinicke 1984; Tkáčová 1989]. Several apatites have been studied as Kola-
apatite which is relatively undisturbed fluoroapatite, or Morocco apatite which is a
carbonate-fluoroapatite having a relatively strongly disturbed structure and an in-
creased reactivity in comparison to Kola apatite.
Under the influence of mechanical activation, the reactivity of apatites is strongly
increased. The reactivity is usually characterized by their solubility in citric acid.
Figure 6.53 shows a strong increase of solubility for several natural phosphate after
mechanical activation.
The best solubilities have been obtained for soft-earth sedimentary African phos-
phorites. However, under appropriate milling and dissolution conditions, complete
solubilities of magmatic Kola apatite may be achieved [Paudert et al. 1979].
Fig. 6.53 Solubility of

phosphates in citric acid, LC
vs. time of vibratory milling,
τ. 1 – Anaphos, 2 – Tunisian
phosphorite, 3 – Egyptian
phosphorite, 4 – Morocco
phosphorite, 5 – Kola apatite
[Heinicke et al. 1977]
6.8 Agriculture 367
Fig. 6.54 HRTEM of apatite

mechanically activated by
wet milling [Chaikina 1996]
It was determined that the surface area increase during milling only contributed
to the increase in solubility at the beginning of the treatment. Generally, the defects
(lattice strain and reduction of crystallite size) and nanostructures (Fig. 6.54) gener-
ated in mechanically activated samples are the fundamental reason for increases in
reactivity.
The increased degree of apatite disordering has to be attributed to the formation
of X-ray amorphous regions. Activation in a planetary mill results in the formation
of highly active X-ray amorphous regions that are completely soluble in ammonium
citrate solution [Paudert et al. 1979]. The decisive effect of amorphization was con-
firmed by experiments in which defects in activated solid were gradually annealed
at various temperatures. Figure 6.55 shows that the solubility decreases with the
increasing extent of recrystallization at increasing temperature of annealing.
Based on the results of investigation of the structure reactivity correlation, com-
mercial phosphate fertilizers have been developed. In Fig. 6.56 practical application
of mechanically activated Morocco phosphorite is shown. The positive influence of
high-energy milling on plant growth is unambigous.
The low solubility can be increased by co-milling with abrasive mineral. Apatite
milled after adding a small amount of SiO2 changed, so that more than 85% of its
phosphate content became soluble in the citric acid solution. This occured because
the apatite structure of the phosphate rock was mechanochemically decomposed
during milling by reacting with SiO2 and volatilizing fluor as SiF6 , which are both
contained in the rock [Arai et al. 1976; Arai 1976]. Since then, this process has
been applied to the magmatic Kola apatite which is hardly decomposed by H2 SO4
[Kolosov et al. 1979].
The different approach has been applied in order to modify the properties of
phosphates fertilizers [Jusupov et al. 2000; Jusupov and Shumskaya 2002]. Zeo-
lites have been used in a common milling with phosphates. In Fig. 6.57 the effect
of mechanical activation of clinoptilolite-superphosphate mixtures on solubility of
Fig. 6.55 Solubility, LAC (1) vs. crystalline portion, AK (2) at annealing by temperature T for
Marocco phosphorite [Paudert et al. 1979]
phosphate in citric acid and water is illustrated. In particular, the water solubility
decreases from 40 to 5%.
The Al-bearing active centers of zeolite interact with phosphate, preserving its
ability to practically complete solubility in the 2% solution of citric acid, which may
serve as a test of agrochemical activity. About 50% of phosporus from fertilizers is
known to be transformed into forms inaccessible for plants. The obtained zeolite-
superphosphate may be considered as a new form of phosphate fertilizer capable of
correlating mobile phosphorus supply for soil with agrochemical demands.
Based on the laboratory studies, commercial phosphate fertilizers have been de-
veloped from Kolaapatite under the trade name Tribophos. A plant physiology study
showed that the mechanically activated Tribophos has the same fertilizing effect as
superphosphate in acid soils. The necessary degree of its activation increases with
decreasing pH of the soil. The maximum milling energy is required for neutral and
weakly alkaline soils [Heinicke et al. 1977; Paudert et al. 1979].
Optimal parameters of mechanical activation have been determined for the phos-
phate ores of different mineral composition [Yaneva et al. 2005]. Mills of continuous
6.8 Agriculture 369
Fig. 6.56 Influence of mechanical activation of Morocco phosphorite (deposit Youssoufia) on a

plantgrowth. From left to right: without phosphorite, non-activated phosphorite (−125 μm), phos-
phorite milled at milling energy 50 and 150 kWh/t, respectively [Gock 1987]
Fig. 6.57 Solubility of phosphate vs. milling time (in min) [Jusupov et al. 2000]
operation with low energy consumption have been designed, their productive ca-
pacity being, at the beginning, 3 t/h. Long-term agrochemical tests (for 15 years) of
mechanically activated phosphate ores of different composition have been carried
out at wide range of soils and with various crops. These tests demonstrated high fer-
tilizing effect [Chaikina 1986; Boldyrev et al. 1996]. The technology was installed
at the Burenkhan deposit of phosphorite ores in Mongolia. It was proven that the
Table 6.26 Comparison of traditional and mechanochemical methods for production of phosphate
fertilizers [Suryanarayana 2004]
Process characteristics Traditional method Mechanochemical method
Pittrman’s probe in % citric acid S 80–85 55–60
Ammonium citrate 60 40–50
Increase of harvest related to 1.00 0.95
superphosphate
Duration of production process 20 d (periodical) 20–24 h (continuous)
Consumption of energy per ton 450 kWh/t 500 kWh/t
Consumption of reagents per ton 0.7 t H2 SO4 (60%) –
Duration of agrochemical action of the 1–2 years 5–7 years
fertilizer
Release of fluorine into atmosphere Yes No
Increase of acidity of soils Yes No
Possibility to use in small deposits (<1 No Yes
million tons) of phosphorus rocks
mechanochemicaly pretreated phosporite fertilizers have a prolonged action and are

comparable with fertilizer based on superphosphate [Amgalan et al. 1998].
The technological advantages of mechanochemical methods over traditional
methods are summarized in Table 6.26.
Different machines consume different amounts of power for production of the
fertilizers, and the capacity of the mills is also different. It was reported that the
vibrocentrifuge mill was the best suited for this purpose and it could also be used
continuously. As mentioned above, the first factory to produce the phosphate fertil-
izer was built in Mongolia. Since then more than 1.5 million tons of the fertilizer
has been produced.
6.9 Pharmacy
6.9.1 Solubility of Drugs
Dissolution testing of drug compounds is of fundamental importance in the design

and development of pharmaceutical products [Bisrat and Nyström 1988]. Dissolu-
tion rate is normally described by Noyes-Whitney equation
dW D
= SA (Cs −Ct ) (6.25)
dt hD
where the dissolution rate (dW /dt) at time is a function of three types of material and
experimental parameters, namely specific surface area SA , concentration gradient
(Cs –Ct ) and diffusional transport D/hD (D – diffusion coefficient, hD – the distance
over which diffusion is the dominant transport mechanism).
6.9 Pharmacy 371
The rate of absorption of slightly soluble drugs from the gastrointestinal tract
and other sites is often limited by the rate of dissolution of the drug substance. For
dissolution of poorly soluble drugs some general remarks can be given
• the drug should be as fine as possible
• the drug should be deagglomerated form already in the dosage form, and
• the carrier should be highly soluble in water and thereby rapidly delivering indi-
vidual drug particles to the dissolution liquid [Nyström 1998].
At present about 40% of the drugs being in the development pipelines are poorly
soluble, even up to 60% of compounds coming directly from synthesis are poorly
soluble [Merisko-Liversidge 2002]. Poor solubility is in most cases associated with
poor bioavailability. Bioavailability is how well a drug will reach an effective thera-
peutical level in the body, and may be influenced by various factors. A drug may be
safe and effective, but never reach the therapeutic level in the body if the bioavail-
ability is poor. Bioavailability essentially depends on three factors: solubility, per-
meability and dose [Lipinski et al. 1997], and the question of the minimum accept-
able solubility can only be answered if the other two factors are known. According
to biopharmaceutics classification system, a drug substance is considered highly sol-
uble when the highest strength dosage is soluble in 250 mL of aqueous media over
the range pH=1.0–7.5 [Yu et al. 2002].
There are two basic approaches to overcome the bioavailability problems of the
drugs
• increase of equilibrium solubility (e.g. by complex formation), and
• increase of dissolution velocity
The first approach was a limited success as clearly demonstrated by the low num-
ber of products on the market based on such technologies. A much more straight
forward way is increasing the dissolution velocity by increasing the surface area
of the drug powder, i.e. micronisation leading to mean particle sizes approximately
3–5 μm. However, many of the new compounds show such a low solubility that
micronisation does not lead to a sufficient increase in bioavailability after oral ad-
ministration. Therefore the next step taken was nanonization. The drug powder is
transferred to drug nanocrystals, typically sizes are around 200–600 nm [Bushrab
and Müller 2003].
Drug nanocrystals can be produced by various methods principally the top down
and bottom up techniques (Fig. 6.58).
The bottom up technique is the classical precipitation approach, the drug is dis-
solved in a solvent which is subsequently added to a nonosolvent to precipitate the
crystals. A priori this technique is difficult to handle, the crystal growth needs to
be stopped to avoid formation of microcrystals. In addition this technology can-
not be applied to the increasing number of drugs being poorly soluble in all media
[Bushrab and Müller 2003]. On the other hand the top down technique (milling)
is the method of choice for industrial production in pharmacy. In addition to size
reduction, milling may alter the crystalline structure and cause chemical changes in
some drugs [Parrott 1974, 1990].
Fig. 6.58 Schematic

representation of the top
down and bottom up
techniques for nanomaterials
preparation [Dutta and
Hoffmann 2003]
Micronisation and nanonisation by milling can increase the equilibrium solubil-

ity level of drugs. Such a thermodynamically metastable elevation is probably due to
the creation of a thin surface layer of disordered material around a more crystalline
core [Nyström 1998]. In general, drugs in solid dosage forms are used in their crys-
talline state. The amorphous state, however, has also become of interest in preparing
solid dosage forms because it improve the dissolution behaviour of drug.
Fine milling have been used to micronize the pharmaceutical powder of or-
sodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) which is bad soluble and shows a pronounced effi-
cacy for gallstone dissolution [Choi et al. 2004]. The particle size was reduced in
the order of vibration mill < planetary mill < jet mill. The UDCA crystals were
changed into amorphous state with increasing milling time. The in vivo tests per-
formed with mice showed more significantly hepato-protective effect compared with
intact UDCA.
6.9 Pharmacy 373
Fine milling has been also used for obtaining respirable size fraction of drugs
(typically 2–10 μm) [Patton and Platz 1992]. Drugs administered by inhalation have
become increasingly popular, and dry powders inhalers are now commonly in use
[Hilfiker 2006]. The influence of crystal habit on disorder produced by milling
was investigated using β-succimid acid, in plate like and needle like morphologies
[Chikhalia et al. 2006]. A layer decrease of crystallinity were seen in the plate-like
morphology compared to the needle-like morphology.
Sodium chloride NaCl is used to reduce the particle size of drugs. This ingre-
dient is frequently applied as a tonicity adjusting agent. A typical formulation may
contain hydrophobic drug, surfactant, NaCl, and other ingredients. Steroid drug dex-
amethasone milling in the presence of NaCl was tested. Inclusion of the chloride in
the milling slurry containing dexamethasone and surfactant polysorbate 20 signif-
icantly decreases volume mean diameter of milled dexamethasone. A reduction in
particle size could potentially translate into a more robust manufacturing process,
as well as improved bioavailability of the suspended solid [Apte et al. 2003].
6.9.2 Polymorphism and Amorphization
Polymorphism, which is very common in connection with drug substances, is the

ability to crystallize as more than one distinct crystal species. Since different inter-
and intramolecular interactions, such as van der Waals interactions and hydrogen
bonds will be present in different crystal structures, different polymorphs will have
different free energies and therefore different physical properties such as solubility,
chemical stability, melting point, density, etc. [Hilfiker 2006].
Polymorphism is very common in connection with drug substances as small or-
ganic molecules. Literature values concerning the prevalence of true polymorphs
range up to 51% [Storey et al. 2004]. In the absence of solvents and humidity, the
thermodynamically stable polymorph is the only one that is guaranteed not to con-
vert into another polymorphic form. This is why this form is most often chosen for
the drug product. The disadvantage of the thermodynamically stable form is that
is always the least soluble polymorph and therefore has the lowest bioavailability
[Hilfiker 2006]. The difference in the solubility of various polymorphs are typically
lower than a factor of 2 [Pudipeddi and Serajuddin 2005], but sometimes as much
as 5-fold difference can be observed [Chemburkar et al. 2000].
If the solubility of the most stable polymorph is critically low and no salt is
feasible liquid-like formulations (emulsions, microemulsions, liposomal formula-
tions) of soft gelatine capsules filled with solutions of the drug in a non-aqueous
solvent may be used. Alternatively, a metastable solid form, a solvate or a co-crystal
might be selected for development. Sometimes it is better to use amorphous form
rather than a metastable polymorph [Hilfiker 2006]. Different polymorphs will
also have different mechanical properties, such as hardness, powder flow prop-
erties, compressibility and bonding strength. A well-known example is paraceta-
mol, where the thermodynamically stable form (monoclinic form I) cannot be
compressed into stable states while the metastable form II (orthorombic) can as it
shows more favourable properties with respect to plastic deformation [Nichols and
Frampton 1998]. Generally, the thermodynamically most stable polymorph is also
the most stable chemically [Singhal and Curatolo 2004]. This has been attributed to
the fact that its density is typically higher, but it could also be explained by lower
free energy.
The influence of mechanical activation on polymorphism of sulphathiazole has
been studied [Shakhtshneider 1997]. According to the literature data sulphathiazole
exists at least in three crystalline modifications and an amorphous form [Lagas and
Lerk 1981]. In the initial stage of mechanical treatment of polymorph III, a broad-
ening of X-ray diffraction peaks and a decrease in their intensity was observed.
It was suggested that part of the substance had converted into an amorphous state
and later into a high temperature form I. The quantitative estimates showed that the
amorphous part of the substance might achieve up to 50 wt.% and after prolonged
treatment, recrystallization of the drug was observed. Modification I is the most
suitable form for pharmaceutical use owing to its higher dissolution rate but strict
conditions have to be applied to preserve this form. It appears that the following
scheme (Fig. 6.59) was realized.
The problem of polymorphism and amorphization in drugs has been thoroughly
reviewed from the point of view of mechanical activation [Shakhtshneider and
Boldyrev 1999]. Activation can occur throughout the bulk of the particle (as in
the mechanical treatment of ionic crystals) or only in the surface layer (as in the
shear deformation of quartz) [Steinike and Linke 1982]. During milling of griseo-
fulvin drug, the thickness of amorphous surface layer did not exceed 5.8 wt.% of
the substance [Elamin et al. 1994]. Whether an amorphous state is formed during
mechanical treatment or not depends to a large extent on the conditions under
which the mechanical treatment is performed. As a result of mechanical activa-
tion of cephalexin [Otsuka and Kaneniwa 1988] and cephalothin sodium [Otsuka
et al. 1994], the originally crystalline solids became amorphous. However, the ef-
fect of the subsequent prolonged mechanical treatment on the already formed amor-
phous cephalothin sodium was opposite: partial crystallization was observed.
In some cases an increase in milling time causes not only amorphization but
also chemical transformation. For example, the mechanical activation of ampicillin
trihydrate [Takahashi et al. 1984], lactose monohydrate, and citric acid monohydrate
Fig. 6.59 The pathway of crystalline form of sulphathiazole during mechanical activation
[Shakhtshneider 1997]
6.9 Pharmacy 375
[Hüttenrauch and Fricke 1981] results in partial dehydratation accompanied by dis-

ordering of the structure.
The mechanical activation of molecular crystals can serve as a method to pro-
duce amorphous, metastable states. This affects the solubilization of solids and
is an important factor if molecular solids are used as drugs [Shakhtshneider and
Boldyrev 1999].
Mechanical activation can lead to changes not only in the crystal structure, but
also in molecular structure of drugs. In this case a special type of polymorphism
is observed. Results on the influence of mechanical treatment on physico-chemical
properties of piroxicam are a typical example [Shakhtshneider 1997]. Piroxicam is
an efficient nonsteroidal antinflammatory agent which exist in several polymorphs
and in a monohydrate form [Vrečer et al. 1991]. Piroxicam is practically insoluble
in water, and as a result its bioavailability is low. After mechanical activation not
only the structure of piroxicam but also its reactivity is changed. The solubility of
mechanically activated piroxicam was 4-times higher than that of the non-activated
sample (Fig. 6.60).
Fig. 6.60 Dissolution curves of piroxicam, 1 – non activated, 2 – mechanically activated alone,
3 – mechanically activated in the presence of surfactant polyvinylpyrrolidone [Shakhtshneider
1997]
However, in some cases the changes induced by mechanical activation are not
always favourable and less solubility is observed.
6.9.3 Biological Activity of Drugs
It has been already established that a method of mechanical activation can be applied
to modify drugs so as to increase their therapeutic efficiency.
Fig. 6.61 Urinary excretion of 6-dimethylgriseofulvin after oral administration: (•) milled griseo-
fulving with polymer, (◦) micronized griseofulvin [Yamamoto et al. 1974]
For example, mechanical activation of griseofulvin, a drug widely used to cure

fungus diseases, causes along with solubilization an increase in its biological avail-
ability in comparison with non-activated sample by 75% due to an increase in
the rate of absorption into blood plasma [Yamamoto et al. 1974]. At the same
time, the rate of excretion of the products of griseofulvin metabolism (principally
6-dimethylgriseofulvin) from organism increases (Fig. 6.61).
As a result of milling sulfamonomethoxin, a pronounced effect on the chemother-
apeutic activity has been observed. Experiments, using streptococcal septicemia in
white mice, demonstrated the advantages of milled drug (Table 6.27).
The solubility of mechanically activated sulphamonomethoxin was 1.53 times
higher than that of non milled sample. When mice were given the mechanically
activated sample, the number of mice who recovered 10 days after administra-
tion was almost two times higher than for the reference group that received non
milled sample. The average life duration increased by 13% [Shakhtshneider and
Boldyrev 1999].
Table 6.27 Chemotheraupetic efficiency of sulfamonomethoxin, commercially available and

milled in a jet mill, for the model of streptococcal septicemia in mice [Savitskaya et al. 1990]
Preparation Animals in Revived animals Overall
group (10th day) (%) lifetime (%)
Non milled SMM 20 30 69

Milled SMM 20 55 82
Reference (without curing) 20 0 17
6.9 Pharmacy 377
Mechanical activation of phenytoin with cellulose or chitin also leads to an in-

crease in the rate of excretion of metabolism products from organism and to an
increase in the rate of phenytoin transfer into the blood plasma nearly by a factor of
three [Sawaynagi et al. 1983].
6.9.4 Mechanochemical Synthesis of Drugs
The advantages of mechanochemical approach for synthesis of drugs can be illus-

trated for sodium benzoate, sodium salicylate and acetylsalicylic acid production.
Sodium benzoate is one of the most important products in the pharmaceutical in-
dustry. It is usually obtained by the neutralization of benzoic acid by soda in an aque-
ous solution. The technological process consists of includes six stages. To obtain
500 kg of the benzoate, 3000 l of water is required and the process takes 60 h. An-
other example is the synthesis of sodium salicylate. Six technological stages are also
required and the entire process takes 70 h. To obtain 500 kg of sodium salicylate,
a mixture of water (500 L) and ethyl alcohol (100 L) is required [Boldyrev 1996;
Shakhtshneider and Boldyrev 1999, Boldyrev 2004].
The application of mechanochemical methods has enabled the neutralization of
various organic acids (benzoic, salicylic, citric, sebacic, indolacetic, ascorbic) in one
stage without any solvents [Dushkin et al. 1974; Dushkin 2004] using NaOH, KOH,
Na2 CO3 , K2 CO3 or CaCO3 as the neutralizing agents.
The traditional and mechanochemical processes are compared in Table 6.28. An
important advantage of mechanochemical technology is that enormous amounts of
water and its subsequent discharge as effluent are no longer needed. Also the tech-
nological rate of the process is higher.
Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is non-steroidal drug often used as an analgesic, an-
tipyretic and as an anti-inflammatory. The most popular and used brand name is
Aspirin. It has also antiplatelet effect and is used in long-term, low doses to prevent
Table 6.28 Synthesis of sodium benzoate and sodium salicylate by traditional and mechanochem-
ical technology [Boldyrev 1996]
Traditional technology Mechanochemical technology
1. Dissolution of the acid in water 1. Mixing of the acid with neutralization

agent
2. Neutralization 2. Mechanochemical treatment
3. Filtration 3. Packing
4. Drying
5. Milling
6. Packing
The process is carried out in a batch mode. The The process is carried out in a continous
duration is 50–70 h. The yield: mode at a rate up to 100 kg/h.
450–500 kg/cycle.
heart attach and cancer. Its solubility in water is 1 mg/mL at 20◦ C. The low solubil-
ity of ASA in water decreases its pharmacological efficiency and causes undesirable
side effects when the substance is used in drugs. The salts of ASA posses increased
solubility. However, with all advantages of ASA salts, these are expensive drugs
manufactured on a small scale. During the production, ASA undergoes partial de-
composition into salicylic and acetic acid as a result of hydrolysis. The existing re-
quirements to the purity of the product make the production process more complex
and the product more expensive [Dushkin 2004].
Alternative forms are so called effervescent pharmaceuticals. The salt formation
effect is achieved during the dissolution of tablets or granules containing the ASA
substance and a relatively large amounts of neutralizing fillers-sodium bicarbonate
or carbonate. In addition to the indicated components, these compositions should
always include a solid-water-soluble organic acid (citric, malic, or ascorbic) to ac-
celerate the destruction of a tablet or granule due to the evolution of CO2 during
the interaction with carbonates and bicarbonates. However, the presence of an acid
of this kind requires that the composition should incorporate neutralizing agents in
substantial excess over the amount necessary to neutralize pure ASA. A typical dis-
advantage of the preparations is low mass fraction of ASA: 10–16% for the above
samples, the total mass of the tablet being 3–3.5 g [Dushkin 2004].
There is an innovative approach to apply mechanochemistry for obtaining soluble
materials based on ASA for their subsequent use as drugs. The effervescent tablets
“Aspirin+C” (Bayer, Germany) were chosen as a reference drug of soluble aspirin
with identical characteristics. Several pharmacokinetic characteristics have been fol-
lowed, e.g. the maximal concentration in blood, bioavailability and rate of absorp-
tion by application of laboratory animals (rabbits). Pharmacological tests showed
that the developed drugs and the reference drug are similar in pharmacological ac-
tivity. However, the advantage of the mechanochemical approach is for example the
decreasing of the total mass of the tablet (by a factor of 5), number of auxiliary sub-
stances, gas evolution during dissolution and the overall cost of the preparation. The
disadvantages include the lower rate of dissolution in cold water (10–25◦ C). The
preparation has successfully passed preclinical and clinical pharmacological tests
and was registered for medical application. The obtained fast-dissolving substances
can be used in compositions with other pharmaceutical or biologically active sub-
stances [Dushkin 2004].
For mechanochemical technology, special vibrocentrifugal mills with productiv-
ity 10 g/h–1 t/h have been designed. In the most intense mode, centrifugal acceler-
ation acting on the milling bodies reached 40 g. In order to obtain especially pure
products (for example, for pharmaceutical purposes), the inner surface of the drum
and the surface of milling bodies can be coated with an inert material. The schematic
diagram and a pilot plant unit is given in Fig. 6.62.
The design allows smooth variations of the feeder productivity and mill rate. The
technological regulations for production of fast-dissolved substance (brand names
Aspinat and later Askopirin) have been developed and coordinated with the Ministry
of Health in Russia [Dushkin 2004].
6.9 Pharmacy 379
Fig. 6.62 Schematic diagram (down) and a mechanochemical pilot plant unit (above) for the pro-
duction of fast-dissolving substances of ASA, 1 – turbo mixer, 2,3 – accumulating tank with feed-
ing screen, 4 – continuous vibrocentrifugal mill, 5 – product collector [Dushkin 2005]
6.10 Waste Treatment
6.10.1 Mineral Waste
6.10.1.1 Asbestos
Based on its properties, asbestos has been applied in many industrial branches. The
mechanical strength, chemical and thermal stability, good isolation properties and
fibreforming play the main role in its application in building, textile and maschine
industry. The world production reached 4.8 bilion tons/years in 1980s of the last
century. However, because of its toxic properties (see later) the production of as-
bestos was later on strongly reduced. In European Union, some of asbestos forms
(blue and brown) asbestos has even been forbidden.
Asbestos is in principle a group of serpentine and amphibole minerals
(Table 6.30).
The most important industrial minerals are chrysotile and crocydolite. The dan-
ger of some asbestos forms lies in the form of fine particles. From this point of view
the fiber forms are the most dangerous. A length (L) longer then 5 μm, the width (D)
lower then 3 μm, and the ratio L/D>3 of asbestos particles lead to asbestosis, lung
cancer and other lethal diseases connected with breast and abdomen malignancies.
In this connection crocydolite and, amosite, as representatives of fiber asbestos are
most dangerous. SEM of chrysotile (A) and crocydolite (B) are given in Fig. 6.63.
Combination of filaments with various lengths can be clearly seen. In case of crocy-
dolite, the fibers amount 70% of the total mass.
There are several approaches in industry how to minimize the dangerous charac-
ter of asbestos fibers. Chemical and thermal treatment has been applied with some
success [Adie 1993; Jovanovic 1994].
Asbestos, mainly crocydolite, is a very refractory mineral. Its structure can be
destroyed by an action of hydrogenfluoride acid (HF) which selective formation of
SiF4 and as a consequence, fiber structure of asbestos is destroyed. Ca(OH)2 , CaF2 ,
metal oxides and hydroxides as non-soluble compounds are formed after neutraliza-
tion step involving addition of Ca(OH)2 . The process is selective but economy is not
favourable and application of HF is environmentally non-friendly [Swidersky 1994;
Vogt et al. 1996].
Table 6.30 Asbestos minerals [Tröger 1969]

Group Mineral Formula
Serpentine Chrysotile (white asbestos) Mg3 [Si2 O5 ](OH)4

asbestos Authophyllite asbestos (Fe,Mg)7 Si8 O22 (OH)2
Aktinolite Ca2 (Fe,Mg)7 Si8 O22 (OH)2
Amphibole Amosite (brown asbestos) Fe7 Si8 O22 (OH)2
asbestos Tremolite Ca2 Mg5 Si8 O22 (OH,F)2
Crocydolite (blue asbestos) (Na,K)2 (Fe2+ ,Mg)3 (Fe3+ ,Al)2 Si8 O22 (OH)2
6.10 Waste Treatment 381
Fig. 6.63 SEM micrographs of chrysotile (A) and crocydolite (B), magnification-1000x
[Jordan-Gerkens 2004]
Thermal treatment of asbestos minerals (Table 6.30) is based on their trans-

formations to less dangerous forms. In a temperature interval 400–1050◦ C, hy-
droxide groups are loosing and hydrates of amorphous compounds are formed
[Ströbel 1993]. Forsterite Mg2 SiO4 and quartz SiO2 together with water has been
observed bei thermal treatment of chrysotile at 1100◦ C. The solid products are not
harmful and can be utilized in the building industry. As a product, well accepted
transformation of fibres into glassy granules can be obtained. However, there is very
great demand for electricity in this process as well as metalforming waste, salts and
products of gas cleaning have to be further treated.
The new technical concept has been developed and tested in a pilot plant unit
in Germany [Gock et al. 1994]. Laboratory testing has shown the possibility of
mechanical destruction of asbestos fibres by milling (Fig. 6.64).
Several processing variants have been tested, e.g. mechanical activation in a sep-
arate step or mechanical activation as pretreatment step in combination with ther-
mal treatment which was applied after milling. Various processing parameters were
tested, e.g. milling and roasting time and temperature. In both variants industrial
eccentric vibratory mill ESM (Siebtechnik, Germany) has been applied. Asbestos
cement and asbestos wool were used as typical representatives of harmful asbestos
waste.
An example of combined mechano-thermal treatment is given in Fig. 6.65. Waste
is mechanically activated in a vibratory mill and then thermally treated by tempera-
ture slower than theoretically needed for asbestos transformation. Throughoutput is
Fig. 6.64 SEM micrographs of asbestos: magnification 3000x. A – before milling, B – after milling
[Vogt et al. 1996]
Fig. 6.64 (continued)
Fig. 6.65 Combined mechano-thermal treatment of asbestos waste [Jordan-Gerkens 2004]

Fig. 6.66 Dirty zone in the combined mechano-thermal treatment of asbestos waste [Vogt
et al. 1996]
1.55 t/h and two ESM 765–2 ks mills are needed. Photograph of the dirty zone is in
Fig. 6.66 where a material tank on left side and vibratory mill on right side can be
seen.
Comparison of the process economy is given in Table 6.31. Data for the thermal
treatment were obtained from AsbestEx company for comparison [AsbestEx 1994].
The best cost data were calculated for mechano-thermal treatment where the total
cost for asbestos cement waste is only 75% of the cost calculated for AsbestEx
company.
After processing, the asbestos waste exhibited remarkable hydraulic properties.
The compressive strength of the test specimens is in the range of conventional
cements. Possible utilization of the milled asbestos fibres could be in the form of
an additive for cement, as material to be used in pressure grouting by the construc-
tion industry, or in the rehabilitation of soils and buildings.
Table 6.31 Comparison of total costs for several asbestos waste treatments [Jordan-Gerkens 2004]
Parameter Mechanical Mechano-thermal Thermal treatment
activation treatment
Milling time (min) 45 10 5 –

Roasting time (min) – 15 10 60
Roasting temperature (◦ C) – 900 700 1000
Total cost (euro/t) 239 172 146 194
6.10.1.2 Metallurgical Calcine
Oxidative roasting of the major gold-bearing refractory sulfides pyrite FeS2 and
arsenopyrite FeAsS results in the volatalisation of sulphur and arsenic oxides. The
liberated gold particles remain prevailingly with the calcine and the subsequent
cyanide leaching of gold is improved. Ideally hematite (γ-Fe2 O3 ) should be the
principal product of roasting [Haque 1987]. However, the generation of sulfur,
arsenic and other metals with volatile oxides gives rise to serious environmental
concerns. Mechanical activation can substantial improve the treatment of metallur-
gical calcines.
A calcine leach residue with the content of 28 gt−1 Au and having P90 (the size
at which 90% passes) of 82 microns was milled in the presence of cyanide and lime
[Liddell and Dunne 1988]. The P90 after milling was 4 microns, and 59% of the gold
was dissolved during milling procedure. A subsequent 24 h leaching of the milled
calcine resulted in the gold dissolution increasing to 60%, indicating that essentially
all of the leaching has occurred during milling.
Arsenopyrite and pyrite residues from the cyanide leaching of calcines were
treated mechanochemically [Corrans and Angove 1991]. These residues can often
contain appreciable quantities of gold encapsulated within the hematite matrix and
can only be liberated by milling the calcine to sizes below about 10 microns. The
results of pyritic and arsenopyritic calcines milling are shown in Fig. 6.67.
In the case of the arsenopyrite calcine the head grade can approach 100 gt−1 Au,
so that mechanochemical treatment to reduce the value of the cyanidation residue
can be economic. In the case of the pyrite calcine, the curve is flatter whilst the head
grade is also lower (50–70 gt−1 Au), so that this procedure is less attractive.
Tetrahedrite calcines after thermal treatment is economically interesting waste
because of content of Cu, Sb, Ag and Au metals.
The investigations were carried out on a tetrahedrite calcine from Rudňany
(Slovakia). This material is a rich source of copper and silver, but it is not suit-
able for pyrometallurgical processing because of the high content of antimony. The
chemical composition of as received calcine is given in Table 6.32.
The results of mechanochemical leaching of this tetrahedrite calcine are shown in
Fig. 6.68. The process proceeds in two regimes: mechanochemical (I) and chemical
(II). The mill temperature reached 84◦ C and during subsequent chemical leaching
rose to 96◦ C [Baláž et al. 1995].
The liquid/solid ratio in the described experiments was 4.8, 3.3 and 2.5 and re-
sulted in power input of 157, 108 and 82 kWh per tone of concentrate, respectively.
These examined liquid/solid ratios were acceptable for plant operation. The almost
complete extraction of Sb in 15–20 min and of As in 20–40 min can be achieved (see
also Table 6.32). The process is highly selective for Sb and As with only 0.03–0.12%
of the copper dissolving. The chemical analysis performed after mechanochemi-
cal treatment (Table 6.32) shows that the described process enables us to obtain a
Cu-Ag-Au concentrate of high quality. The decrease in antimony content to below
1% show that this material may be processed by pyrometallurgy.
Fig. 6.67 The gold recovery in cyanide leaching from mechanically activated calcines. 1 – pyrite
calcine, 2 – arsenopyrite calcine [Corrans and Angove 1991]
A study was undertaken to examine the effect of attrition milling on the leaching
properties of titanium slag waste composed of iron magnesium titanate and a silicate
phase. It was shown that attrition milling was a very effective method in accelerating
the rate of transformation of titanium slag into synthetic rutil or synthetic anatase
[Toromanoff and Habashi 1986].
Table 6.32 Chemical composition of tetrahedrite calcine [Baláž et al. 1995]

Element Me (%)
As received After mechanochemical
treatment
Cu 17.60 16.27
Sb 6.03 0.19
S 19.80 21.82
Fe 24.50 25.63
Na 0.44 2.85
Bi 0.28 0.13
As 0.93 0.14
Hg 0.66 < 0.01
Ag 1040 gt−1 1213 gt−1
Au 10.4 gt−1 11.5 gt−1
Fig. 6.68 Recovery of antimony into leach, εSb vs. time of leaching, t. I – mechanochemical leach-
ing, II – chemical leaching. Leaching conditions: 300 gl−1 Na2 S + 53 gl−1 NaOH, rate of pulp
feeding 95–105 l h−1 [Baláž et al. 1995]
6.10.1.3 Red Mud
Red mud is an industrial solid waste from Bayer process for alumina production
[Havlı́k 2005]. Red mud constitutes a highly complex system due to the large num-
ber of mineral phases. There is a tendency to evaluate the possibility for recycling
the red mud as a slimmer in the production of bricks, laterites and tile kilns, an also
as material for production of clay-based ceramics [Sglavo et al. 2000]. It has been
estimated that mechanical activation can selectively influence the solid state proper-
ties of the red mud waste [Budroni et al. 2000]. In the presence of suitable additional
phases, the activated red mud may become reactive to an industrially interesting
level. Some high-temperature reactions of the red mud occur earlier and at lower
temperature, as well as the magnetic properties being drastically changed. Hematite
γ-Fe2 O3 as the component can be effectively removed through magnetic separation.
6.10.2 Materials Waste
Industrial planetary mills working in continuous mode has been applied for treat-
ment of inorganic waste materials. The mill MP-4 works with installed power
200 kW at productivity 3 t/h for obtained size fraction-10 microns (Fig. 6.69).
The new planetary mill of this type has been installed with an energy consump-
tion rate 50 kW/ton. The new generation of the mill would increase the production
capacity to > 50 t/h [Akkerman 2006].
Fig. 6.69 The flowsheet of application of planetary milling in a continuous mode (above) and the
industrial planetary mill MP-4 (down) [http://www.ttd.spb.ru]
The mechanochemical technology of obtaining powders of tungsten carbide was

developed for processing of materials based on caked carbides. Cutting tools on a
base of caked carbides are produced using complicated, multi-step methods with
creation of a large amount of waste with a tungsten content. To this, waste cutting
tools after the end of their life, are added. The main component is tungsten car-
bide (WC), which usually forms 92% of the weight of the cutting material. The
binder is metallic cobalt, whose content determines the mechanical properties of the
cutting tool.
Mechanical processing of waste from cutting is problematic. Conventional milling
requires 10–100 h, and the iron wear can be tens of percents. Use of wet meth-
ods create a large amount of liquid waste with a content of heavy metal salts,
which worsen the economics of the process and has a negative influence upon the
environment.
Perspective method of processing waste cutting tools is the application of
mechanochemical technology whilst using high-intensive mills. Planetary mills,
working in a batch regime, were successfully tested as well as vibratory working
in a continuous mode. The latter reached a production of 50 kg of milled product
per hour. The advantage of mechanochemical processing of waste is, in this case,
that the product is a powder with a wide range of particle size distribution. These
particles are further classified in sieves as various applications require various grades
of granularity. For example, the particles with a size of 200–1500 micrometers are
suitable for induction melting of hard surfaces, the particles with a size smaller than
20 micrometers are suitable for electro-erosive materials, and particles smaller than
1 micrometer are used for dispersion hardening of metals and alloys [Lomovskij and
Boldyrev 2006].
Mechanochemical methods allow to obtain the rare metals present in used cata-
lysts which are used in the automobile industry [Mruck and Ameling 1988]. After
their solubilization, metals of the platinum group are obtained from their solu-
tions using mechanochemically synthesized sorbents on a CaO base [Klescev 1983;
Domarev 1985].
It has been shown that mechanochemical methods can also be applied for ob-
taining rare earth metals from waste such as used television and computer monitors,
displays, light bulbs, etc. Compounds of europium, lanthanum, cerium and terbium
pay an active role in this luminescence-using equipment. Even short term mechan-
ical activation provided, in the further stage of extraction, transfer of 70–80% of
yttrium and europium into a solution using an application of HCl at laboratory tem-
perature [Filio et al. 1994; Kano and Saito 1998].
6.10.3 Organic Waste
Disposal of organic chemicals like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics, polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs), chlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD)
and – furans (PCDF) has become a serious problem of present technology. Tradi-
tional oxidative degradation, such as incineration in waste combustors, represents a
significant environmental hazard. Alternative remedy technologies have not been as
effective as incineration and have met only limited success. Research therefore is
seeking for development of new disposal technologies [Monagheddu et al. 1999].
From organics, PVC has excellent properties such as corrosion and chemical re-
sistance, flexible hardness, high cost performance in comparison to other plastics,
that lead to production of commodities and industrial applications in the construc-

tion, agriculture and chemical fields. However, after the usage of such PVC prod-
ucts, much will end up as waste. Combustion of PVC waste produces hydrochloric
acid, chlorine gas and dioxins which causes severe environmental problems. Since
more than half of weight in PVC contains chlorine (56.7 wt.%), it causes a serious
problem when it is burned out, even if as fuel. It is therefore required that safe and
novel method for disposing the waste PVC to prevent air and soil pollution would
be developed [Tongamp et al. 2006; Tongamp et al. 2007].
Several mechanochemical approaches has been tested to treat organic waste
[Rowlands et al. 1994; Hall et al. 1996]. In the first paper published in 1994, the
importance of a low-temperature process involving milling of toxic material has
been stressed. Saito et al. have studied a process for dechlorination of PVC and
other chlorinated compounds [Zhang et al. 1999; Mio et al. 2002; Inoue et al. 2004;
Saeki et al. 2004; Kano et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2007; Tongamp et al. 2006, 2007].
Mechanochemical decomposition of these substances has attracted much atten-
tion because of the easy operation and evident merit for the disposal of vast amounts
of samples contaminated by chlorinated polymers. Inorganic compounds such as
CaO, CaCO3 , MgO, ZnO, Ca(OH)2 , KOH, NaOH, LiCoO2 and other have been
investigated. From the additive investigated, complete decomposition of PVC was
achieved with CaO within two hours of milling. Under similar condition, more than
95% of chlorine in PVC was removed by CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2 in 4 and 12 h, re-
spectively [Tongamp et al. 2006].
The mechanochemically induced reaction when PVC is milled with CaCO3 can
be represented by the following reactions [Tongamp et al. 2007].
[−CH2 − CHCl−] + CaCO3 → [−CH = CH−] + CO2 + H2 O + CaCl2 (6.26)

[−CH2 − CHCl−] + CaCO3 → [−CH2 − CHOH−] + CO2 + CaCl2 (6.27)
Organic compounds in the milled products after washing could be recovered

as energy source and CaCl2 could be recovered for further application [Tongamp
et al. 2006]. Recently small company has been established in Japan to apply this
mechanochemical technology. The company is applying mechanochemical reac-
tor (Fig. 6.70) for treatment of kilograms of PVC-CaO powder mixture [Zhang
et al. 2000].
The results of detoxication tests on dioxine-contaminated soil with help of
mechanochemistry are given in Fig. 6.71. The results indicate that it is possible
to reduce dioxine toxicity to zero (i.e., not detectable) [Zhang et al. 2001].
Besides PVC, the mechanochemical approach has been applied to treatment of
other organic waste such as hexabrombenzene, trichlorbenzene, dioxine, chloro-
biphenyl, polytetrafluoroethylene [Saito 2004].
The combination of milling with autopropagating high-temperature reactions for
hexachlorobenzene has been documented. No residual traces of the organohalide
compound were found in the reacted powders or in the gaseous phase sampled from
the headspace of the milling reactor. The solid products of the reaction were re-
stricted to CaHCl and CaCl2 salts and graphite. Similar results were obtained from a
Fig. 6.70 The mechanochemical reactor for PVC-CaO treatment [Zhang et al. 2000]
waste with content of traces of polychlorodibenzodioxins and polychlorodibenzofu-

rans. A transformation yield greater than 99.6% was obtained with a decrease of the
toxic equivalent concentration from 2492 to 0.788 μg/kg [Monagheddu et al. 1999].
There is a permanent interest in an application field for such activities. For ex-
ample DMCR technology (dehalogenation by mechanochemical reaction) has been
elaborated [Birke et al. 2004]. By applying mechanochemistry to contaminated ma-
terials, polyhalogenated pollutants like HCH, DDT, PCB, dioxine and PCP are
Fig. 6.71 Dioxin breakdown percentage according to milling time [Zhang et al. 2001]
reductively dehalogenated directly inside the contaminated matrix. A ball mill is

used, a highly effective mixing device and a mechanochemical reactor in one com-
mon operation step. The efficiency fot treatment of polychlorinated biphenyls in
natural soils, filter dusts and transformer oils in an industrial mill has been success-
fully proven [http://www.tribochem.com].
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Author Index
Arnold, M., 78 Gauss, 156

Arrhenius, 68–69, 181, 182, 183 Gerber, 148
Averbach, B.L., 52, 60, 158 Gibbs, 16
Avrami, M., 24, 25, 26, 28 Gock, E., 109
Griffith, A.A., 128
Bacon, F., 2 Gründberg, P., 75
Baláž, P., 116
Hall, W.H., 52, 59, 70–71, 155–156,
Bayer, 318–319
158–159, 241
Becher, 212
Hedvall, J.A., 6, 186
Bernhardt, C., 109 Heegn, H.P., 109
Binning, 31, 146, 148 Heinicke, G., 10
Boldyrev, V.V., 13 Helmholtz, 16
Bond, F.C., 105–106 Hooke, 104
Bowden, F., 6 Hüttig, G.F., 17, 122
Bragg, 140, 153, 157, 161, 208–209
Brus, L.E., 38 Iijima, 31
Butyagin, P.Yu, 14
Jimbo, G., 122
Cauchy, 155 Juhász, A.Z., 15, 128
Clark, G.L., 7
Cohen, 31 Kelvin, 78
Cottrell, A.M., 161 Kick, F., 105–106
Curie, 75 Kirpičev, V.L., 105–106
Knoll, 143
Curl, 31
Kroto, 31
Dachille, F., 7 Lea, 3

Lindemann, F.A., 73
Einstein, 138–139 Lyakhov, N.Z., 15, 28
Ekimov, 31 Lycurgus, 31
Erofeev, B.V., 25, 26, 28
Mie, G., 31
Mössbauer, R.L., 24, 162, 200
Faraday, M., 3, 20, 31
Fert, A., 75 Noyes, 370
Feynman, R., 31, 76
Fink, M., 6 Ohlberg, S.M., 160
Flavickij, F.M., 5 Onuschenko, 31
Freundlich, H., 289–290 Opoczky, L., 128
Furuya, E.G., 290 Ostwald, W., 1, 4
407
408 Author Index
Parker, L.H., 4 Smalley, R., 31

Petch, N.J., 70–71 Smékal, A., 14
Peters, K., 8 Strickler, D.W., 160
Szegvari, 114
Quate, 148
Tabor, D., 6
Rayleigh, 137 Tamman, G., 6, 186
Rebinder, P.A., 128 Tanaka, T., 122
Rittinger, P.R., 105–106, 123 Theophrastus of Eresus, 2
Rockenberger, J., 162 Thiessen, P.A., 9
Rohrer, 31, 146
Rose, H.E., 108
Urakajev, F.Ch., 205
Rowan, R., 7
Roy, H., 7
Rumpf, H., 124 Van der Waals, 124–125, 148, 373
Ruska, 134 Von Laue, 153
Saito, F., 390 Wanetig, P., 6

Scherrer, P., 52, 158–159 Warren, B.E., 52, 60, 158
Schrader, R., 18 Wenzel, C.F., 3
Shi, F.G., 73 Whitney, 370
Siegbahn, K., 139 Williamson, G.K., 52, 59, 155, 158, 241
Subject Index
AAC/UBC process, 322 Bastnaesite, 248

Activox process, 321–322, 324–330 Battery, 90
Adhesion, 124 Bauxite, 318
Adsorption, 126–129 Bearing, 355
Aerosol processing, 39 BET, 152
AFM (atomic force microscopy), 53, 133, Bioavailability, 371
148–150 Biocop process, 322
Agglomeration, 26, 60, 81, 122–125, 241–242 Bismuth, 273–276
Aggregation, 62, 80–81, 103, 122–125, 236, Blue shift, 38–39, 62
270 Böhmit, 318
Agriculture, 365–370 Bohr magneton, 168
Albion process, 330–332 Bohr radius, 37
Alloying metal, 186–187 Boltzmann distribution, 168
Aluminothermic process, 186 Bornite, 261–262, 332
Amorphization, 15, 121, 373–375 Bottom up technique, 40, 371
Ampicillin, 374–375 Building industry, 358–365
Analogy model, 14
Anatase, 80 Cadmium sulphide, 38–39, 55–62, 73, 90, 162
Anilite, 242–243 Calcite, 6, 9, 18, 266, 288–290
Ankerite, 266 Calcium oxide, 183–184
Antimone oxide, 203–204 Cancer, 83–89
Antimonite (stibnite), 217, 227–228, 240 Carbon dioxide, 134
Apatite, 365–367 Carbon nanotube, 33
Arsenic, 290 Cassiterite, 300
Arsenic sulphide, 230–231 Catalyst, 90, 389
Arsenopyrite, 137, 266–268, 311–314, 335, Celestite, 285–287
357, 385–386 Cellulose, 6
Asbestos, 380–384 Cement, 358–365
Aspirin, 377–378 Cephalexin, 374
Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 53, 133, Cerussite, 9
148–150 Chalcantite, 246–248
Attritor, 108, 114–116, 285, 303, 318–321 Chalcocite, 232, 236, 242–244, 260–263, 322,
Auripigment, 231–232, 357 332
Chalcopyrite, 116, 144, 185, 218, 259–260,
Bactech/Mintek process, 322 264, 278, 291, 303–308, 322, 330, 332
Bacterium, 82 Chemical capping, 49
Ball-to-powder ratio, 118 Chemical shift, 139, 141, 164–165
409
410 Subject Index
Chemical vapor deposition, 39, 41 Electrodeposition, 49

Chemisorption, 49 Electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS),
Chemotherapy, 86 151
Chromite, 314–317 Electron magnetic resonance (EMR), 167
Chromium, 75 Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR),
Chrysocolla, 245 167–171
Cinnabar, 2, 180–181, 218 Electrostatic stabilization, 127
Cluster, 32, 35, 80–81, 161 Enargite, 268–273, 332
Coal, 355–358 Endothermic reaction, 4
Coating, 90 Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS),
Cobalt, 75, 326–328 151
Cobalt aluminide, 219–220 Exchange reaction, 188
Cobaltite, 332 Excitation process, 10
Cobalt sulphide, 219–220 Exciton, 37
Coercivity, 73–74 Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
Colloidal mill, 1 (EXAFS), 162
Colloidal particles, 32 Extractive metallurgy, 302–341
Colour center, 169
Comminution, 3, 103 Feldspar, 300
Composite, 90 Ferrite, 207–209
Compression, 107 Ferromagnet, 74
Concrete, 358–365 Fertilizer, 365–370
Contamination, 121 Fine milling, 103
Copper, 48, 71, 75, 321–323 Flotation, 299–301
Copper oxide, 194–197, 203 Flux, 186
Copper sulphide, 184–185, 219, 231–236
Fly ash, 363–364
Crack formation, 104
FTIR, 136
Crack propagation, 104–105
Fuel cell, 90
Crystal engineering, 341–345
Crystal growth, 24
Crystallinity, 160 GACL (grinding alkaline chemical leaching)
Crystallite, 34 process, 356–358
size, 59, 79, 157 Galena, 181–182, 217–220, 278, 291, 298–299
Cutting tool, 90 Geerite, 259
Cyanide, 276–283, 323–324, 327 Geocoat process, 322
Giant magnetoresistance, 75–76
Destructive adsorbent, 90 Gibbs energy, 16–18
Diaspor, 318 Gold, 18, 31, 73, 82, 87, 276–280, 308–314,
Diffusion, 70, 187 327–329
Diffusivity, 70 Grain
Digenite, 242–243 boundary, 69–70
Dislocation, 11, 71–72, 105 size, 46, 70–71
Display, 90 GRAVIMELT process, 357–358
Dissolution, 68 Greenockite, 57–58
Djurleite, 232, 242–244 Griseofulvin, 374, 376
DNA, 82, 84
Drug, 82, 370–379 Halide, 3–4
Dynatec process, 322 Hardness, 70–71
Hawleyite, 57–58
Elastic constant, 70 Hematite, 24, 26, 158–159, 160, 197–198, 201,
Elastic deformation, 105–106 318
Electric discharge assisted mechanical milling, Hercynite FeAl2 O4 , 198, 219
117 Heterogeneous catalysis, 345–352
Electric resistivity, 73 Hierarchic model, 10, 11
Subject Index 411
High-energy milling, 44–45, 56–57, 103, 107, Materials waste, 387–389

111, 116, 121 Mechanical activation, 1, 14–16, 18, 28–29,
High-resolution transmission electron 109, 137, 257, 280, 283–284, 298
microscopy (HRTEM), 53–54, 133, 152 Mechanical alloying, 39, 352–355
Hollandite, 81 Mechanical energy, 1, 10
Hot spot theory, 6, 8–9 Mechanical stress, 4, 7
Humic acid, 355–358 Mechanochemical equilibrium, 121–122
Hydargillit, 318 Mechanochemical leaching, 280, 283–287
Hydrogen peroxide, 305–307 Mechanochemical processing, 39, 48, 92, 259
Hydrothermal route, 49 Mechanochemical reactor, 5
Hydroxide, 318 Mechanochemical reduction, 2, 15
Mechanochemical synthesis, 27, 49
Ilmenite, 212–216, 259 Mechanometallurgy, 218
Impact, 12, 107 Melting point, 73
Impulse model, 13–14 Melting temperature, 72
Inert gas condensation, 49 Melt process, 285, 333–341
Infrared spectroscopy, 133–138 Mercurous chloride, 4
Irigetmet process, 323–324 Mercury sulphide, 140
Iron, 72, 75 Metallothermic reaction, 186–187
Iron carbide, 24 Metallurgical calcine, 385–387
Iron oxide, 197–202 Metathesis reaction, 188
Iron sulphide, 218–219, 234–236 Micelle, 43–44, 126–128
Isomer shift, 164–165 Milling
atmosphere, 119
Jamesonite, 268–271 medium, 118
Jarosite, 167 speed, 119
Jet mill, 311 time, 119
Mineral processing, 297–301
Kinetic model, 13 Mixer mill, 113
Kinetics, 19–20, 23 Molybdenite, 220–221, 239, 308
Mössbauer spectroscopy, 162–167, 221, 223,
Laser ablation, 41 226–227, 234–235
Lattice strain, 45–47, 59, 157, 161
Lead oxide, 205 Nanocapsule, 86–87
Lead sulphide, 111, 138, 142–143, 148, 154, Nanocluster, 32, 35
223–227, 274–275 Nanocomposite, 26, 188–190
Litharge, 7, 23–24 Nanocrystal, 32, 371
Lurgi-Mitterberg process, 322–323, 324 Nanocrystalline semiconductor, 43–44
Nanofiber, 32
Maghemite, 200 Nanogeoscience, 76–81
Magic number, 36 Nanomaterial, 68–69
Magma-plasma model, 9–11 Nanoparticle, 26, 32, 36, 63, 72, 82–89, 90–91,
Magnesite, 9 161
Magnetic domain, 74 Nanorod, 32
Magnetic material, 90 Nanoscience, 3, 29–76, 92
Magnetic splitting, 164–165 Nanoshell, 82
Magnetite, 200, 299 Nanosize effect, 35
Magnetization, 221–222, 225–229 Nanosphere, 86–87
Magnetocaloric effect, 75 Nanostructure, 32–34
Magnetoresistance, 75–76 Nanotechnology, 30, 90–91
Malachite, 245 Nanotube, 31
Manganese oxide, 81, 202 Nanovector, 89
Massicot, 7, 23–24 Nanowire, 32
Materials engineering, 352–355 Nenatech process, 321–322, 330–332
412 Subject Index
Nickel, 75, 292, 325–328, 346, 352 Saturation magnetization, 75

Nickel sulphide, 65–66 Scaling-up the process, 236–239
Nucleation, 24 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
143–146, 236
Organic solid-state reaction, 341–345 Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM),
Organic waste, 389–392 146–148
Scheelite, 210, 259
Self-organization, 80
Paint, 90
Self-sustaining reaction, 3, 240
Particle size, 64–65, 103
Semiconductor, 37, 48–50
Pentlandite, 264–265, 291, 308, 332
nanocrystal, 49
Perovskite, 348–350
Sensor, 91
Pharmacy, 370–379
Shear, 107
Phenytoin, 377
Silicate, 167
Phonon theory, 11
Silicon, 242–244
Phosphate, 365–370
Silver, 280–283, 308–314, 354
Phosphorite, 366
Sodium carbonate, 5
Physical vapor deposition, 39, 40–41
Sodium chloride, 103–104, 373
Pin mill, 108
Sodium thiosulphate, 274
Piroxicam, 375
Sol-gel process, 39, 43
Placer Dome process, 322
Solid state reaction, 4–5
Planetary mill, 108, 111–113
Solubility, 78
Plastic deformation, 45, 71, 106, 125
Solution growth technique, 49
Polymer, 6
Sorption, 288–292
Polymorphism, 373–375
Specific heat, 72
Polyvinyl chloride, 389–390
Spex mill, 113
Precipitation, 44
Sphalerite, 50, 182–185, 219–220, 278, 291,
Proustite, 280
298
Pyrargyrite, 280
Spherical model, 11
Pyrite, 137, 214–215, 221–222, 226, 264, Spray processing, 42, 49
278, 290–291, 311–313, 330, 332,
Sputtering, 41, 49
385–386
StealthTM particles, 88–89
Pyrrhotite, 226–227, 230, 259, 291, 299
Stellite, 355
Steric stabilization, 126
Quadrupole splitting, 164–165 Stibnite, 179–180
Quantum Stirred ball mill, 114–116
confinement, 37 Stored energy, 47
dot, 32, 36–37, 38, 49 Strain energy, 104
size effect, 35, 37 Strength, 70
Quartz, 177, 222, 230, 259, 266, 278, 300–301, Strontianite, 285, 287
359–360, 365, 374, 382 Strontium ferrate, 116
Structural relaxation, 15
Rate of leaching, 258 Successive ion layer deposition, 49
Realgar, 231, 357 Sulphamonomethoxin, 376
Red mud, 387 Sulphathiazole, 374
Redox reaction, 187–188, 207 Sulphur, 114, 180–181, 183
Relaxation Sunshine process, 332–333, 335, 339–341
curve, 15 Surface area, 21, 36, 62, 67–68, 103
process, 15–16 Surfactant, 121, 126–129
time, 10, 15
Reverse micelle, 43–44 Temperature effect, 119–120
Rolling mill, 108 Tennantite, 334–335
Room temperature solder, 354–355 Tetrahedrite, 268–271, 278, 280, 282–286,
Rutile, 212 334–341, 385–386
Subject Index 413
Textile fibre, 91 Vacuum evaporation, 49

Theory of energy balance, 14 Vibration mill, 107–111, 116, 303–306, 315
Theory of short-live active cluters, 11–13
Thermal activation, 257
Water, 134
Thermal booster, 186
Wet chemical synthesis, 39
Thermal evaporation, 41
Thermodynamic equilibrium, 17 Wolframate, 209–211
Thermodynamics, 16–19 Wurtzite, 50, 219–220
Thermoelectric power generator, 354 Wüstite, 262
Thiosulphate, 277–283
Tin oxide, 203 X-ray absorption near edge structure
Tin sulphide, 66–69 (XANES), 161
Tip of a propagating crack, 8–9 X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), 161
Titanate, 212–216 X-ray amorphous phase, 121
Titanium carbide, 41 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 51–52, 63, 67,
Titanium oxides, 205–206 152–162
Top down technique, 40, 371 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS),
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 138–143
133, 150–152, 159, 225, 230
Triboplasma, 11
Troilite, 221–223, 233 Zeolite, 348–352, 368
Tumor, 85–86, 88–89 Zinc, 288–290
Tungsten carbide, 209–211, 388–389 Zinc cadmium sulphide, 63–65
Zinc sulphide, 50–55, 90, 136, 170–171,
Ultrafine milling, 103 219–220
UV-VIS, 61–62, 64–65 ZOZ, 117

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What are the three main topics covered in the book?

What are the three main topics covered in the book?

What chapter is devoted to energetically intensive treatment with which special structures in mechanochemistry and nanoscience are created?

What chapter is devoted to energetically intensive treatment with which special structures in mechanochemistry and nanoscience are created?

Mechanochemistry in Nanoscience and Minerals

ISBN: 978-3-540-74854-0 e-ISBN: 978-3-540-74855-7

Cover design: deblik, Berlin

Printed on acid-free paper

There are three keywords in title of this book. Mechanochemistry is a branch of

Košice, Slovakia Peter Baláž

1 Mechanochemistry and Nanoscience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 High-Energy Milling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

2.4.1 Vibration Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3 Selected Identification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

4 From Minerals to Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

5 Mechanochemistry in Minerals Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

6 Applied Mechanochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

6.8 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

1.1 Mechanochemistry of Solids

Mechanochemistry is a branch of chemistry which is concerned with chemical and

1.1.1 History of Mechanochemistry

The above mentioned definition is based on theoretical considerations of Ostwald

P. Baláž, Mechanochemistry in Nanoscience and Minerals Engineering, 1

1.1.1.1 Mechanochemistry in Antic Greece and Old Europe

The beginning of mechanochemistry of sulphides might be probably dated to antic

HgS + Cu → Hg + CuS (1.1)

1.1.1.2 Faraday’s Contribution to Mechanochemistry

2AgCl + Zn → 2Ag + ZnCl2 (1.2)

1.1.1.3 Carey Lea, the First Mechanochemist

2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl2 (1.3)

The reaction probably preceeds through silver subchloride formation.

Hg2 Cl2 → 2Hg + Cl2 (1.4)

2NaAuCl4 → 2Au + 2NaCl + 3Cl2 (1.5)

1.1.1.4 From Simple Decompositions to Solid State Reactions in a Mill

Fig. 1.2 The first

Na2 CO3 + BaSO4 → Na2 SO4 + BaCO3 (1.6)

1.1.1.5 Mechanochemistry in Europe: Traces in a Previous Century

In several review papers on mechanochemistry [Boldyrev and Tkáčová 2000;

Na2 CO3 + SiO2 → Na2 SiO3 + CO2 (1.7)

Theophrastus of Eresus Georgius Agricola Francis Bacon

Michael Faraday Matthew Carey Lea Fridrich Wilhelm Ostwald

Fig. 1.3 Photogalery of important players in history of mechanochemistry

Table 1.1 Review papers on history of mechanochemistry

After these fundamental works the investigations continued as is in the follow-

1.1.2 Theories and Models in Mechanochemistry

1.1.2.1 Hot-Spot Theory

The first trial in mechanochemistry to explain the reason of mechanical initiation

To study the chemical processes occurring at the tip of a propagating crack a

1.1.2.2 Magma-Plasma Model

Fig. 1.4 Magma-plasma

an important conclusion which is valid for mechanically activated reactions – these

Impact process > 10−6 s

1.1.2.3 Spherical Model

During one of the first conferences on mechanochemistry in Berlin 1983 Thiessen

1.1.2.4 Dislocation and Phonon Theory

1.1.2.5 Theory of Short-Live Active Centers

1.1.2.6 Kinetic Model

1.1.2.7 Impulse Model