Chapter 1

Introduction to Heat Transfer

Chapter 1 Chee 318 1

 Introduction
Thermodynamics:
• Energy can be transferred between a system and its surroundings.
• A system interacts with its surroundings by exchanging work and heat
• Deals with equilibrium states
• Does not give information about:
– Rates at which energy is transferred
– Mechanisms through with energy is transferred

In this chapter we will learn

¾ What is heat transfer
¾ How is heat transferred
¾ Relevance and importance

Chapter 1 Chee 318 2

 Definitions
• Heat transfer is thermal energy transfer that is induced by
a temperature difference (or gradient)

Modes of heat transfer

• Conduction heat transfer: Occurs when a temperature gradient exists
through a solid or a stationary fluid (liquid or gas).

• Convection heat transfer: Occurs within a moving fluid, or between a

solid surface and a moving fluid, when they are at different
temperatures

• Thermal radiation: Heat transfer between two surfaces (that are not in
contact), often in the absence of an intervening medium.

Chapter 1 Chee 318 3

 1. Conduction
Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic particles
of a substance by collisions between atoms and/or molecules.
¾ Atomic and molecular activity – random molecular motion (diffusion)

T1
T1>T2

xo qx”

T2 T2
x

Chapter 1 Chee 318 4

 1. Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat from a hotter area to a cooler area .
The substance does not move as a whole.

The particles vibrate more vigorously when they are

heated and the heat energy is then transferred from
one particle to the next.

Chapter 1 Chee 318 5

 1. Conduction
In a metal, in addition to the atoms being very close to
each other, there are also electrons which are free to
move about.
These electrons can carry heat energy along a metal
much faster than vibrations can transfer it. So this makes
metals better conductors than most other solids.

Chapter 1 Chee 318 6

 1. Conduction

Solids are generally better conductors than

liquids or gases. Suggest a reason for this.

Conduction involves heat

energy being transferred
through vibrations.
Since the particles of a solid are
tightly packed, vibrations can be
passed to neighbouring
particles quickly and easily.
Chapter 1 Chee 318 7
 1. Conduction

In a liquid, the particles

are a little further away.
It is difficult for vibrations
to be passed along
continuously.
Conduction is slowed
down.

Chapter 1 Chee 318 8

 1. Conduction

In a gas, the particles

are very far apart.

Conduction is virtually
impossible!
Chapter 1 Chee 318 9
 1. Conduction
Consider a brick wall, of thickness L=0.3 m which in a cold winter day
is exposed to a constant inside temperature, T1=20°C and a constant
outside temperature, T2=-20°C.
¾ Under steady-state conditions
the temperature varies linearly
Wall Area, A as a function of x.
T1=20°C qx ¾ The rate of conductive heat
transfer in the x-direction
depends on
T T2= -20°C

x L=0.3 m
dT
qx = −kA
dx
Chapter 1 Chee 318 10
 1. Conduction
• The proportionality constant is a transport property, known as thermal
conductivity k (units W/m.K)
T1 − T2 ∆T
q =k
"
x =k
L L
• For the brick wall, k=0.72 W/m.K (assumed constant), therefore
qx”= … W/m2
? How would this value change if instead of the brick wall we had a
piece of polyurethane insulating foam of the same dimensions?
? (k=0.026 W/m.K)
¾ qx” is the heat flux (units W/m2 or (J/s)/m2), which is the heat transfer
rate in the x-direction per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
transfer.
¾ The heat rate, qx (units W=J/s) through a plane wall of area A is the
product of the flux and the area: qx= qx”. A
Chapter 1 Chee 318 11
 The Conduction Rate Equation

• Heat rate in the dT

q x = − kA
x-direction dx
q dT
• Heat flux in the
q"x = = −k
x-direction A dx

We assumed that T varies only

T1(high) qx” A in the x-direction, T=T(x)

Direction of heat flux is normal

to cross sectional area A, where
T2 (low) A is isothermal surface (plane
x1 x2 normal to x-direction)
x
Chapter 1 Chee 318 12
 Thermal Conductivity, k

• The numerical value of the thermal conductivity indicates how fast

heat will flow in a given material.
• Thermal conductivity of various materials at 0 C give in Table 1-1(P. 6)
• k vs. T for some typical gases given in Fig. 1-4 (P. 7) for gases: as T
• k is independent of pressure up to the order of the critical pressure of
the gas.
• k vs. T for some typical liquids given in Fig. 1-5 (P. 8)
• k vs. T for some typical solids given in Fig. 1-6 (P. 9)
• more k data in Appendix A.

Chapter 1 Chee 318 13

 2. Convection
Energy transfer by random molecular motion (as in conduction) plus
bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid.
– Convection: transport by random motion of molecules and by bulk motion
of fluid.
– Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion.

¾ Forced convection: Caused by external means

¾ Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces, arising
from density differences arising from temperature variations in the fluid

Chapter 1 Chee 318 14

 2. Convection
• Hot fluids rise and cool fluids sink,
creating a current

• Transfer heat through a fluid

Chapter 1 Chee 318 15

 2. Convection

Chapter 1 Chee 318 16

 2. Convection
Air near
ground is more dense than
air higher up

Natural
Convection

Chapter 1 Chee 318 17

 2. Convection
Air at 20°C blows over a hot plate, which is maintained at a
temperature Ts=300°C and has dimensions 20x40 cm.

T∞ = 20o C
Air
q”
TS = 300o C

The convective heat flux is proportional to

q"x ∝ TS − T∞

Chapter 1 Chee 318 18

 2. Convection
• The proportionality constant is the convection heat transfer coefficient,
h (W/m2.K)

q"x = h(TS − T∞ ) Newton’s law of Cooling

• For air h=25 W/m2.K, therefore the heat flux is qx”= 7,000 W/m2
? How would this value change if instead of blowing air we had flowing
water (h=50 W/m2.K)
• The heat rate, is qx= qx”. A = qx”. (0.2 x 0.4) = 560 W.
• The heat transfer coefficient depends on surface geometry, nature of
the fluid motion, as well as fluid properties. For typical ranges of
values, see Table 1.3 textbook.
• In this solution we assumed that heat flux is positive when heat is
transferred from the surface to the fluid

Chapter 1 Chee 318 19

 3. Radiation
• Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter
• Energy is transported by electromagnetic waves (or photons).
• Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases.
• Dos not require presence of a medium

Surroundings at Tsur
¾ Emissive power E is the
radiation emitted by the
surface
"
qincident = G qemitted
"
=E ¾ Irradiation G is the rate of
incident radiation per unit
area of the surface,
originating from its
surroundings

Surface at Ts
Chapter 1 Chee 318 20
 3. Radiation
• For an ideal radiator, or blackbody:

′′
qemitted = Eb = σTs4 Stefan-Boltzmann law
where Ts is the absolute temperature of the surface (K) and σ is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, (σ = 5.67x10-8 W/m2.K4)
• For a real surface:
"
qemitted = E = εσTs4 ε is the emissivity 0 ≤ ε ≤1
• The irradiation G, originating from the surroundings is:

"
qincident = G = ασTsur
4
α is the absorptivity 0 ≤ a ≤1
For a “grey” surface, α=ε

Chapter 1 Chee 318 21

 3. Radiation
• The net radiation heat transfer from the surface, per unit area is

"
qrad = εσ(Ts4 − Tsur
4
)
• The net radiation heat exchange can be also expressed in the form:

qrad = hr A(Ts − Tsur ) where hr = εσ(Ts + Tsur )(Ts2 + Tsur

2
)

Chapter 1 Chee 318 22

 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Quantity SI Unit System English Unit System
Mass Kg lbm
Time S S
Length M Ft
o o
F or oK
( )
Temperature C or K 2
N = kg.m / s
ma
Force (= ) lbf
gc Newton

Energy J ( joule = N.m Btu (or ft.lbf)

Power (Energy Rate) w(watt = J Btu
s
h
w o
Thermal Conductivity, k m. c Btu
h. ft.o F
w 2o
Heat Transfer Coefficient, h m.c Btu
h. ft 2 .o F
J o
Specific Heat, cp kg. c Btu
lbm.o F
w 2
Heat Flux, q A m Btu
h. ft 2
(heat transfer rate per unit
area)

Chapter 1 Chee 318 23

 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Note:
T ( o F ) = 1 − 8T ( o c) + 32 ∆o F = ∆o R
T ( o R) = T ( o F ) + 459.69 & ∆o C = ∆K
T ( K ) = T ( o c) + 273.16 ∆o C = 1 − 8∆o F
T ( o R) = 1 − 8T ( K ) ∆K = 1 − 8∆o R

Chapter 1 Chee 318 24

 Example 1.1

• One face of a copper plate 3 cm thick is maintained at 400 C and the

other face is maintained at 100 C. How much heat is transferred
through the plate?

q dT
= −k
A dx

given that k = 370 W/m.C

q − (370)(100 + 400)
= = 3.7 MW / m 2
A 0.03
Chapter 1 Chee 318 25
 Example 1.2
• Air @ 20 C blows over a hot metal plate (50 X 75 cm) maintained @
250 C. given that convection HT coefficient is 25 w/m^2 and k for the
plate is 0.01 w/m. C Calculate the heat transfer rate?

q
= h(Tw − T∞ )
A
q = (25)(0.5)(0.75)(250 − 20)
q = 2.156kw

Chapter 1 Chee 318 26

 Example 1.3
• Air @ 20 C blows over a hot metal plate (50 X 75 cm) maintained @
250 C. given that convection HT coefficient is 25 w/m^2 and k for the
plate is 0.01 w/m. C Calculate the heat transfer rate?

q
= h (T w − T ∞ )
A
q = ( 25 )( 0 . 5 )( 0 . 75 )( 250 − 20 )
q = 2 . 156 kw

• Assuming that the plate is made of carbon steel (k = 43) with 2 cm

thick and that 300 W is lost from the plate by radiation. Calculate the
inside plate T.?

Chapter 1 Chee 318 27

 Heat Conduction Equation
& & & dE st
Energy Conservation Equation Ein + E g − Eout = = E& st (2.1)
dt
z
E& in = q x + q y + q z
E& out = q x + dx + q y + dy + qz + dz

where from Fourier’s law

∂T ∂T
x q x = −kAx = − k ( dydz )
∂x ∂x
∂T ∂T
y q y = − kAy = −k ( dxdz )
z ∂y ∂y
y ∂T ∂T
qz = − kAz = −k ( dxdy )
x ∂z ∂z
Chapter 1 Chee 318 28
 Heat Conduction Equation
• Thermal energy generation due to an energy source: E& g = q& dV
– Manifestation of energy conversion process (between
thermal energy and chemical/electrical/nuclear energy) = q& ( dx dy dz )
¾ Positive (source) if thermal energy is generated
¾ Negative (sink) if thermal energy is consumed

q& is the rate at which energy is generated

per unit volume of the medium (W/m3)

⎡ ∂T ⎤
• Energy storage term E& st = ⎢ρc p ⎥ ( dx dy dz )
– Represents the rate of change of thermal energy ⎣ ∂t ⎦
stored in the matter in the absence of phase change.

is the time rate of change of the sensible

ρc p ∂T / ∂t (thermal) energy of the medium per unit
volume (W/m3)

Chapter 1 Chee 318 29

 Heat Conduction Equation

Heat
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ & ∂T Equation
⎜k ⎟ + ⎜⎜ k ⎟⎟ + ⎜ k ⎟ + q = ρc p
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t (2.2)

rate of time rate of

Net conduction of heat into the CV energy change of
generation thermal
per unit energy per
volume unit volume

™At any point in the medium the rate of energy transfer by conduction into
a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal energy generation must
equal the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the volume

Chapter 1 Chee 318 30

 Heat Conduction Equation- Other forms
• If k=constant

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q& 1 ∂T k
+ 2 + 2 + = α=
ρc p
is the thermal diffusivity
∂x 2
∂y ∂z k α ∂t (2.3)
• For steady state conditions

∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ &
⎜k ⎟ + ⎜⎜ k ⎟⎟ + ⎜ k ⎟+q =0 (2.4)
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂z ⎠
• For steady state conditions, one-dimensional transfer in x-direction
and no energy generation

d ⎛ dT ⎞ dq"x ¾ Heat flux is constant in

⎜k ⎟ = 0 or =0 the direction of transfer
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx
Chapter 1 Chee 318 31
 Heat Conduction Equation

• In cylindrical coordinates:

1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ & ∂T
⎜ kr ⎟+ 2 ⎜⎜ k ⎟⎟ + ⎜ k ⎟ + q = ρ c p
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r ∂φ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t

• In spherical coordinates:

1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜ kr +
⎟ 2 2 ⎜
⎜ k ⎟
⎟ + ⎜ k sin θ ⎟ + &
q = ρ c p
r 2
∂r ⎝ ∂r ∂φ
⎠ r sin θ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠ r 2
sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ ∂t

Chapter 1 Chee 318 32

 1. Conduction
• In the general case the rate of heat transfer in the x-direction is
expressed in terms of the Fourier law:

dT T1(high)
q"x = −k qx”
dx

• Minus sign because heat flows from T2 (low)

high to low T
¾ For a linear profile x1 x2
x
dT (T2 − T1 )
= <0
dx ( x2 − x1 )

Chapter 1 Chee 318 33