Texas Fossils - An Amateur Collector's Handbook

DEDICATION
This, the eleventh printing of Texas Fossils: An Amateur Collector's

Handbook, is dedicated to its author, William H. Matthews 111, who
died February 14, 1991, in Beaumont.
Texas Fossils, since its original publication 30 years ago, has been a
consistent best seller with more than 52,000 copies printed and sold. In
many ways, the guidebook epitomizes Bill Matthews—it is straight-
forward, unpretentious, and popular, all attributes thatfit Bill well.
I had the honor and good fortune of knowing Professor Matthews
for some 30 years and of working with him on several committees and
projects. His dedication, energy, and enthusiasm were absolutely
contagious. He was a true teacher who had a genuine love for students,
whether they were in his classroom or in the lay audience for whom he
commonly wrote. Bill Matthews was a pioneerin earth science education,
and his contribution was deep and lasting throughout the United States
and the world.
So it is especially fitting that this edition of TexasFossils and all those
to follow be dedicated to Dr. William H. Matthews 111, a lucid writer,
an exemplary teacher, and a great Texan.
William L. Fisher
Director, 1992
BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas 78712
John T. Lonsdale, Director
Guidebook 2
Texas Fossils:
An Amateur Collector's Handbook
By
William H. Matthews 111
November 1960
Second Printing, July 1963
ThirdPrinting, August 1967
Fourth Printing, June 1971
Fifth Printing, November 1973
Sixth Printing, April 1976
Seventh Printing, November 1978
Eighth Printing, September 1981
Ninth Printing, August 1984
Tenth Printing, December 1987
Eleventh Printing, January 1992
Contents
Page
Introduction \
What are fossils? 3
The study of fossils 4
Paleobotany 4,
Invertebrate paleontology 4
Vertebrate paleontology 4
Micropaleontology 4
Preservation of fossils 5
Requirements of fossilization 5
Missing pages in the record 5
Different kinds of fossil preservation 7
Original soft parts of organisms 7
Original hard parts of organisms 7
Calcareous remains jq
Phosphatic remains jq
Siliceous remains 20
Chitinous remains jq
Altered hard parts of organisms 20
Carbonization jq
Petrifaction or permineralization 20
Replacement or mineralization 20
Replacement by calcareous material 21
Replacement by siliceous material 21
Replacement by iron compounds \\
Traces of organisms 21
Molds and casts 21
Tracks, trails, and burrows 24
Coprolites 24
Gastroliths 24
Pseudofossils 24
Dendrites 24
Slickensides 26
Concretions 26
Where and how to collect fossils 27
Collecting equipment 27
Where to look 2Q
How to collect 20
Cleaning and preparation of fossils 21
How fossils are named 21
The science of classification 21
The units of classification 22
Identification of fossils 23
Use of identification keys 23
Identification key to main types of invertebratefossils 26
List of Texas colleges offering geology courses 27
Cataloging the collection 32
How fossils are used 32
Geologic history 33
Geologic column and time scale 33
The geology of Texas 34
Physiography 35
Trans-Pecos region 35
Texas Plains 35
iv
Bureau of Economic Geology—Guidebook 2
Page
High Plains 35
North-central Plains 37
Edwards Plateau 37
Grand Prairie 37
Llano uplift 37
Gulf Coastal Plain 37
Geology 37
Precambrianrocks 40
Paleozoic rocks 40
Cambrian 40
Ordovician 40
Silurian 40
Devonian 4q
Mississippian 4j
Pennsylvanian 41
Permian 4j
Mesozoic rocks 42
Triassic 42
Jurassic 42
Cretaceous , 42
Cenozoic rocks 43
Tertiary 43
Quaternary 43
Main types of fossils 44
Plant fossils 44
Classification of the plant kingdom 44
Division Thallophyta 44
Division Bryophyta 44
Division Tracheophyta 44
Animal fossils 48
Phylum Protozoa 48
Class Sarcodina 48
Order Foraminifera
Order Radiolaria _ 48
48
Phylum Porifera : 49
Phylum Coelenterata 49
Class Anthozoa 49
Subclass Zoantharia 50
Order Rugosa 50
Order Scleractinia 50
Order Tabulata 50
Phylum Bryozoa 50
Phylum Brachiopoda 54
Class Inarticulata 54
Class Articulata 56
Phylum Mollusca 56
Class Gastropoda 59
Class Pelecypoda 59
Class Cephalopoda 66
Subclass Nautiloidea 66
Subclass Ammonoidea 75
Subclass Coleoidea 78
Order Belemnoidea 78
Phylum Annelida 78
Phylum Arthropoda 78
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha 78
Class Trilobita 78
Texas Fossils v
Subphylum Crustacea 30
Class Ostracoda 80
Phylum Echinodermata 30
Subphylum Pelmatozoa 31
Class Cystoidea 3j
Class Blastoidea 31
Class Crinoidea 31
Subphylum Eleutherozoa 32
Class Asterozoa 32
Subclass Asteroidea 32
Subclass Ophiuroidea 32
Class Echinozoa 32
Subclass Echinoidea 32
Subclass Holothuroidea 85
Phylum Chordata 35
Subphylum Hemichordata 35
Class Graptolithina 35
Subphylum Vertebrata 35
Superclass Pisces 37
Class Agnatha 37
Class Placodermi 37
Class Chondrichthyes 37
Class Osteichthyes 37
Superclass Tetrapoda 39
Class Amphibia 89
Class Reptilia 89
Cotylosaurs 89
Turtles 39
Pelycosaurs 89
Therapsids 89
Ichthyosaurs 95
Mosasaurs 95
Plesiosaurs 95
Phytosaurs 95
Crocodiles and alligators 95
Pterosaurs 95
Dinosaurs 95
Order Saurischia 97
Suborder Theropoda 97
Suborder Sauropoda 97
Order Ornithischia 97
Suborder Ornithopoda 97
Suborder Stegosauria 97
Suborder Ankylosauria 97
Suborder Ceratopsia 100
Class Ayes 100
Class Mammalia 100
Subclass Allotheria 100
Subclass Theria 100
Order Edentata 100
Order Carnivora 102
Order Pantodonta 102
Order Dinocerata 102
Order Proboscidea 102
Order Perissodactyla 104
Horses 104
Titanotheres 104
Chalicotheres 106
vi Bureau of Economic Geology—Guidebook 2
Rhinoceroses 106
Order Artiodactyla 106
Entelodonts 106
Camels 106
Books about fossils 108
General works 108
Nontechnical and juvenile 108
Collecting helps 108
Reference works 109
Selected references on Texas fossils 109
Glossary 11l
Index 115
Illustrations
Figures— Page
1. Sketch of a coprolite—fossilized animal excrement 14
2. Sketch of a gastrolith—the gizzard stone of an ancient reptile 14
3. Dendrites—a typical pseudofossil 14
4. Types of symmetry in a fossil coral 24
5. Bilateral symmetry in fossil brachiopod 24
6. A brachiopod showing specimen number and accompanying label 31
7. Two types of micropaleontological slides 32
8. Typical Pennsylvanian crinoidal limestone 41
9. Typical Texas Foraminifera 49
10. Typical radiolarians 49
11. Morphology and principal parts of corals 50
12. Two types of bryozoans 50
13. Morphology and principal parts of articulate brachiopods 54
14. Lingula, a typical inarticulate brachiopod 56
15. Kingena wacoensis, a common Cretaceous brachiopod 56
16. Morphology and principal parts of gastropod shells 60
17. Morphology and principal parts of a typical pelecypod shell 65
18. Morphology and principal parts of the pearly nautilus 75
19. Characteristic features of the various types of cephalopod sutures 75
20. Types of typical fossil annelid worms - 78
21. Morphology and principal parts of trilobites 80
22. Two extinct attached echinoderms, Pentremites and Caryocrinites 81
23. Typical modern crinoid, or "sea lily," showing principal parts 81
24. Graptolites 86
25. Sketches of mastodon and mammoth teeth 104
26. Two views of a typical fossil horse tooth 104
Plates— Page
1. Geologic time scale - Frontispiece
2. Types of fossil preservation - 8
3. Silicified brachiopods dissolved from Permian limestones of the Glass Mountains,
Brewster County, Texas 12
4. Dinosaur tracks in limestone in bed of Paluxy Creek near Glen Rose, Somervell County,
Texas 15
5. Fossil collecting equipment - 28-30
18
6-8. Fossil identification charts
9. Physiographic map of Texas 36
10. Geologic map of Texas 38-39
11. Geologic range of the major groups of plants and animals 45
Texas Fossils vii
12. Fossil plants—thallophytes and tracheophytes 46

13. Fossil plants—tracheophytes 47
14. Paleozoic sponges and sponge spicules 51
15. Pennsylvanian corals 52
16. Cretaceous and Tertiary corals 53
17. Pennsylvanian bryozoans and Cambrian and Mississippian brachiopods 55
18,19. Pennsylvanian brachiopods 57, 58
20. Pennsylvanian gastropods 61
21. Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous gastropods 62
22,23. Tertiary gastropods 63, 64
24. Pennsylvanian pelecypods 67
25-28. Cretaceous pelecypods 68-71
29-31. Tertiary pelecypods 72-74
32. Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous cephalopods 76
33. Cretaceous cephalopods 77
34. Fossil arthropods 79
35. Fossil starfishes,crinoids, and holothurian sclerites 83
36. Cretaceous echinoids 84
37. Primitive armored fish,shark teeth, and conodonts 88
38. Comparison of the dinosaurs 90
39. Comparison of Mesozoic flying and swimming reptiles 91
40. Pelycosaur, cotylosaur, and a primitive amphibian 92
41. Swimming reptiles 93
42. Phytosaur and flying dinosaurs 94
43. Skull of Phobosuchus, from Cretaceous of Trans-Pecos Texas 96
44. Saurischian dinosaurs 98
45. Ornithischian dinosaurs 99
46,47. Cenozoic mammals 101 103
48. Tertiary mammals 105
49. Cenozoic mammals 107
Texas Fossils Plate 1
Texas Fossils
An Amateur Collector's Handbook
William H. Matthews III 1
Introduction
Almost everyone has seen the fossilized unusual fossils, and, for general interest,
remains of prehistoric plants or animals. there are illustrations and descriptions of
These might have been the skeleton of a many of the extinct reptiles and mammals
gigantic dinosaur, the petrified trunk of an that once inhabited this State.
ancient tree, or the shells of snails or In addition, a group of selected refer-
oysters that lived in the great seas that ences has been included for the reader who
covered Texas millions of years ago. wishes to know more about earth history
Each year more and more people are and paleontology. Many of these publica-
learning that these fossils are more than tions provide references of a more technical
mere curiosities. Instead, they are realizing nature for the more advanced or serious
that a good collection of fossils provides collector, and some of them list excellent
much information about the early history collecting localities.
of our earth, and that fossil collecting can A minimum of technical terminology has
be a most enjoyable, fascinating, and re- been used, but terms not commonly found
warding hobby. It is for these people that in dictionaries, or which have not been ex-
Texas Fossils was written. plained in the text, are defined in the glos-
This publication is primarily an amateur sary (pp. 111-114).
collector's handbook and as such offers Many people have helped in the plan-
many suggestions and aids to those who ning, preparation, and completion of Texas
would pursue the hobby of fossil collect- Fossils, and their help is gratefully ac-
ing. It tells, for example, what fossils are, knowledged: Dr. Keith Young, The Uni-
where and how to collect them, and how versity of Texas; Dr. Harold Beaver,
they are used. Suggestions are made as to Baylor University; and Professor Jack
how the specimens may be identified and Boon, Arlington State College, offered
catalogued, and there are discussions and helpful suggestions and information on
illustrations of the main types of plant and Cretaceousfossils; Professors Richmond L.
animal fossils. Included also is a simplified Bronaugh, Baylor University, and Jack T.
geologic map of Texas and a brief review Hughes, West Texas State College, pro-
of the geology of the State. vided information on vertebrate collecting
Texas Fossils is not a comprehensive localities; Professor Fred Smith, Texas
study of the paleontology of Texas. Rather, A&M College, supplied data on Tertiary
it deals primarily with the more common collecting localities and fossils which were
species that the average collector is likely used in illustrations; Dr. Saul Aronow and
to find. These fossils are illustrated in the Professor Darrell Davis, Lamar State Col-
plates and figures, and these illustrations lege of Technology; Dr. Jules Dußar, Uni-
should be of some help in identifying the versity of Houston; and Dr. Samuel P.
specimens in one's collection. Included for Ellison, The University of Texas, made
completeness, however, are sketches and valuable suggestions which have been in-
descriptions of some of the more rare and corporated into the manuscript.
1 Associate Professoro{ Geology, Lamar State College of Special thanks are due Drs. John T.
Technology, Beaumont, Texas. Lonsdale, L. F. Brown, Jr., and Peter U.
2 Bureau of Economic Geology—Guidebook 2
Rodda, Bureau of Economic Geology, who tion, and to R. T. Bird and the American
critically read the manuscript and con- Museum of Natural History for photo-
tributed greatly to the presentation of the graphs used in Plates 4 and 43. Plates 38
material; Dr. John A. Wilson, The Uni- and 39 were provided through the courtesy
versity of Texas, who read the section on of Dr. J. W. Dixon, Jr., and the Geology
vertebrate fossils and made invaluable Department of Baylor University. The
suggestions and criticisms; Miss Josephine other photographs were prepared by the
Casey, who edited the manuscript; and Mr. writer. To Sarah Louise Wilson, Lamar
J. W. Macon, who prepared the maps and State College of Technology, the writer
charts. gratefully acknowledges her tireless and
Thanks are due also to Dr. G. A. Cooper, painstaking efforts in preparing the many
United States National Museum, who pre- fine drawings which make up the balance
pared Plate 3 especially for this publica- of the illustrations.
What Are Fossils?
Fossils are the remains or evidence of Strabo (about 63 B.C. to A.D. 20) was
ancient plants or animals that have been another important Greek scholar who at-
preserved in the rocks of the earth's crust. tempted to explain the presence of fossils.
Most fossils represent the preservable hard He noted the occurrence of marine fossils
parts of some prehistoric organism that well above sea level and correctly inferred
once lived in the area in which theremains that the rocks containing them had been
were collected. subjected to considerable elevation.
The word fossil is derived from the Latin During the "Dark Ages" fossils were
word fossilis, meaning "dug up," and for alternately explained as freaks of nature,
many years any unusual object dug out of the remains of attempts at special creation,
the ground was considered to be a "fossil." and devices of the devil which had been
For this reason some of the earlier books placed in the rocks to lead men astray.
dealing with fossils include discussions These superstitious beliefs and the opposi-
of rocks, minerals, and other inorganic tion from religious authorities hindered the
objects. study of fossils for hundreds of years.
There is much evidence to indicate that In approximately the middle of the
man has been interested in fossils since fifteenth century the true origin of fossils
the very earliest times, and fossil shells, was generally accepted, and they were con-
bones, and teeth have been found associ- sidered to be the remains of prehistoric
ated with the remains of primitive and organisms which had been preserved in
prehistoric men. It is quite possible that the earth's crust. With the definite recog-
the owners of these objects believed that nition of fossils as organic remains, many
they possessed supernatural powers, such of the more primitive theories were dis-
as healing properties or the ability to re- carded for one just as impractical—these
move curses. remains were considered remnants of the
During the earliest periods of recorded Great Flood as recorded in the Scriptures.
history, certain Greek scholars found the The resulting controversy between scien-
remains of fish and sea shells in desert and tists and theologians lasted for about 300
mountainous regions. These men were years.
greatly puzzled by the occurrence of these During the Renaissance several of the
objects at such great distancesfrom the sea, early natural scientists concerned them-
and some of them devoted considerable selves with investigations of fossils.
time to an explanation of their presence.
Note-
In 450 8.C., Herodotus noticed fossils in worthy among these was Leonardo da
the Egyptian desert and correctly con- Vinci, the famous Italian artist, naturalist,
cluded that the Mediterranean Sea had and engineer. Leonardo insisted that the
once been in that area. Flood could not be responsible for all
Aristotle in 400 B.C. stated that fossils fossils nor for their occurrence in the high-
were organic in origin but that they were est mountains. He reaffirmed the belief
embedded in the rocks as a result of mys- that fossils were indisputable evidence of
terious plastic forces at work within the ancient life, and that the sea had once
earth. One of his students, Theophrastus covered northern Italy. Leonardo ex-
(about 350 8.C.), also believed that fossils plained that the remains of the animals
represented some form of life but thought that had inhabited this ancient body of
that they had developedfrom seeds or eggs water were buried in the sediments of the
that had been planted in the rocks. sea floor, and that at some later date in
earth history this ocean bottom was ele- teenth centuries the study of fossils became
vated well above sea level to form the firmly established as a science, and since
Italian peninsula. that time fossils have become increasingly
In the late eighteenth and early nine- important to the geologist.
The Study of Fossils

The study of fossils is called paleon- Because invertebrate remains are the
tology (Greek palaios, ancient; ontos, a most common fossils in Texas, this book is
being; logos, word or discourse). Informa- devoted largely to the discussion of inverte-
tion gathered with the help of paleontology brate fossils and their method of collection.
has greatly increased the knowledge of
ancient plants and animals and of the world Vertebrate Paleontology
in which they lived. The vertebrate paleontologist studies the
Fossils represent the remains of such fossils of animals which possessed a back-
great numbers and various types of organ- bone or spinal column. The remains of fish,
isms that paleontologists have found it amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
helpful to establish four main divisions are typical vertebratefossils.
within their science.
Micropaleontology
Paleobotany Micropaleontology is the study of fossils
Paleobotany deals with the study of that are so small that they are best studied
fossil plants and the record of the changes under a microscope. These tiny remains
which they have undergone. are called microfossils and usually repre-
sent the shells or fragments of minute
Invertebrate Paleontology plants or animals. Because of their small
This is the study of fossil animals with- size, microfossils can be brought out of
out a backbone or spinal column. These wells without being damaged by the me-
include such forms as fossil protozoans chanics of drilling or coring. For this
(tiny one-celled animals), snails, clams, reason microfossils are particularly valu-
starfish, and worms, and usually represent able to the petroleum geologist who uses
the remains of animals that lived in pre- them to identifyrock formations thousands
historic seas. of feet below the surface.
Preservation of Fossils
The majority of fossils are found in limestones of later geologic periods. The
marine sedimentary rocks. These are rocks finer sediments are less likely to damage
that were formed when salt-water sedi- the remains, and certain fine-grained
ments, such as limy muds, sands, or shell Jurassic limestones in Germany have faith-
beds, were compressed and cemented to- fully preserved such delicate specimens as
gether to form rocks. Only rarely do fossils birds, insects, and jellyfishes.
occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Ash falling from nearby volcanoes has
The igneous rocks were once hot and been known to cover entire forests, and
molten and had no life in them, and meta- some of these fossil forests have been found
morphic rocks have been so greatly with the trees still standing and in an excel-
changed or distorted that any fossils that lent state of preservation.
were present in the original rock have Quicksand and tar are also commonly
usually been destroyed or so altered as to responsible for the rapid burial of animals.
be of little use to the paleontologist. The tar acts as a trap to capture the beasts
But even in the sedimentary rocks only and as an antiseptic to retard the decom-
a minute fraction of prehistoric plants and position of their hard parts. The Rancho
animals have left any record of their ex- La Brea tar pit at Los Angeles, California,
istence. This is not difficult to understand is famous for the large number of fossil
in view of the rather rigorous requirements bones that have been recovered from it.
of fossilization. These include such forms as the sabre-tooth
cat, giant ground sloths, and other crea-
Requirements of Fossilization tures that are now extinct. The remains of
certain animals that lived during the Ice
Although a large number of factors Ages have been incorporated into the ice
ultimately determine whether an organism or frozen ground, and some of thesefrozen
will be fossilized, the three basic require- remains are famous for their remarkable
ments are:
degreeof preservation.
1. The organism should possess hard
parts. These might be shell, bone, teeth, or Missing Pages in the Record
the woody tissue of plants. However, under
very favorable conditions of preservation Although untold numbers of organisms
it is possiblefor even such fragile material have lived on the earth in past ages, only a
as an insect or a jellyfish to become minute fraction of these have left any
fossilized. record of their existence. Even if the basic
2. The organic remains must escape im- requirements of fossilization have been ful-
mediate destruction after death. If the body filled, there are still other reasons why
parts of an organism are crushed, decayed, some fossils may never be found.
or badly weathered, this may result in the For example, large numbers of fossils
alteration or complete destruction of the have been destroyed by erosion or their
fossil record of that particular organism. hard parts have been dissolved by under-
3. Rapid burial in a material capable of ground waters. Others were entombed in
retarding decomposition. The type of ma- rocks that were later subjected to great
terial burying the remains usually depends physical change, and fossils enclosed in
upon where the organism lived. The re- theserocks are usually so damaged as to be
mains of marine animals are common as unrecognizable.
fossils because they fall to the sea floor Then, too, many fossiliferous rocks can-
after death, and here they are covered by not be studied because they are covered by
soft muds which will be the shales and water or great thicknesses of sediments,
and still others are situated in places that become more obvious and more numerous
are geographically inaccessible. These and in the older rocks of the earth's crust. This
many other problems confront the paleon- is because the more ancient rocks have had
tologist as he attempts to catalog the plants more time to be subjected to physical and
and animals of the past. chemical change or to be removed by
The missing pages in the fossil record erosion.
Different Kinds of Fossil Preservation
There are many different ways in which preserved nose-horn, a foreleg, and part of
plants and animals may become fossilized. the skin of an extinctrhinoceros.
The method of preservation is usually de- The natural mummies of ground sloths
pendent upon (1) the original composition have been found in caves and volcanic
of the organism, (2) where it lived, and craters in New Mexico and Arizona. The
(3) the forces that affected it after death. extremely dry desert atmosphere permitted
Most paleontologists recognize four ma- thorough dehydration of the soft parts
jor types of preservation, each being based before decay set in, and specimens with
upon the composition of the remains or the portions of the original skin, hair, tendons,
changes which they have undergone. and claws have been discovered.
One of the more interesting and unusual
types of fossilization is preservation in
Original Soft Parts of Organisms amber. This type of preservation was made
possible when ancient insects were trapped
This type of fossil is formed only under in the sticky gum that exuded from certain
very special conditions of preservation. To coniferous trees. With the passing of time
be preserved in this manner, the organism this resin hardened, leaving the insect en-
must be buried in a medium capable of cased in a tomb of amber, and some insects
retarding decomposition of the soft parts. and spiders have been so well preserved
Materials that have beenknown to produce that even fine hairs and muscle tissues may
this type of fossilization are frozen soil or be studied under the microscope.
ice, oil-saturated soils, and amber (fossil Although the preservation of original
resin). It is also possible for organic re- soft parts has produced some interesting
mains to become so desiccated that a and spectacular fossils, this type of fossil-
natural mummy is formed. This usually ization is relatively rare, and the paleon-
occurs only in arid or desert regions and tologist must usually work with remains
when the remains have been protected that have been preserved in stone.
from predators and scavengers.
Probably the best-known examples of
preserved soft parts of fossil animals have Original Hard Parts of Organisms
been discovered in Alaska and Siberia. The
frozen tundra of these areas has yielded Almost all plants and animals possess
the remains of large numbers of frozen some type of hard parts which are capable
mammoths —a type of extinct elephant (PI. of becoming fossilized. Such hard parts
49). Many of these huge beasts have been may consist of the shell material of clams,
buried for as long as 25,000 years, and oysters, or snails, the teeth or bones of
their bodies are exposed as the frozen earth vertebrates, the exoskeletons of crabs, or
begins to thaw. Some of these giant car- the woody tissue of plants. These hard
casses have been so well preserved that parts are composed of various minerals
their flesh has been eaten by dogs and their which are capable of resisting weathering
tusks sold by ivory traders. Many museums and chemical action, and fossils of this sort
display the original hair and skin of these are relatively common.
elephants, and some have parts of the flesh Many of the fossil mollusks found in the
and muscle preserved in alcohol. Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks of Texas
Original soft parts have also been re- have been preserved in this manner. In
covered from oil-saturated soils in eastern some of the specimens the original shell
Poland. These deposits yielded the well- material is so well preserved that the iri-
8 Bureau of Economic Geology— Guidebook 2
PLATE 2
Types of Fossil Preservation
Figures—
1. Internal mold of a Texas Cretaceousammonite (x 1/^).
2. Internal and externalmolds of gastropods and pelecypods in Cedar Park limestone member of
the Walnut clay of Comanchean age (x 1/^)- Specimen from quarry near Cedar Park, William-
son County, Texas.
3. Internal mold of a Texas Cretaceous pelecypod (x%).
4. Fossil worm tubes on mold of a Cretaceous ammonite (x 1/^).
5. Petrified or permineralized mammalboneof Tertiary age (x1/^).
6. Internal mold (steinkern) of a typical Texas Cretaceous gastropod (xVs).
7. Carbon residue of a Tertiary fish (x*4) "
descent mother-of-pearl layer of the shell

is found virtually intact. This type of pres- Altered Hard Parts of Organisms
ervation is less common, however, in the The original hard parts of an organism
olderrocks of the State. normally undergo great change after
At certain localities in north and central burial. These changes take place in many
Texas the Woodbine sands of Upper Cre- ways, but the type of alteration is usually
taceous age (geologic time scale and geo- determined by the composition of the hard
logic map, Pis. 1, 10) contain large num- parts and where the organism lived. Some
bers of shark and fish teeth (PL 37), fish of the more common processes of alteration
scales and vertebrae. The remains of these are discussed below.
vertebrates are unusually well preserved
and are prized by both amateur and pro- Carbonization
fessional collectors. This process, known also as distillation,
Calcareous Remains takes place as organic matter slowly decays
after burial. During the process of decom-
Hard parts composed of calcite (calcium position, the organic matter gradually loses
carbonate) are very common among the its gases and liquids leaving only a thin
invertebrates. This is particularly true of film of carbonaceous material (PI. 2, fig.
the shells of clams, snails, and corals. Many 7). This is the same process by which coal
of these shells have been preserved with is formed, and largenumbers ofcarbonized
little or no evidence of physical change plant fossils have been found in many coal
(PL 2). deposits.
In Texas the carbonized remains of
Phosphatic Remains
plants, fish, and certain invertebrates have
The bones and teeth of vertebrates and been preserved in this manner, and some
the exoskeletons of many invertebrates of these carbon residues have accurately
contain large amounts of calcium phos- recorded even the most minute structures
phate. Because this compound is particu- of these organisms.
larly weather resistant, many phosphatic
remains (such as the fish teeth in the Petrifaction or Permineralization
Woodbine sands) are found in an excellent Many fossils have been permineralized
state of preservation. or petrified—literally turned to stone. This
type of preservation occurs when mineral-
Siliceous Remains bearing ground waters infiltrate porous
Many organisms having skeletal ele- bone, shell, or plant material. These under-
ments composed of silica (silicon dioxide) ground waters deposit their mineral con-
have been preserved with little observable tent in the empty spaces of the hard parts
change. The siliceous hard parts of many making them heavier and more resistant to
microfossils and certain types of sponges weathering. Some of the more common
have become fossilized in this manner (PI. minerals deposited in this manner are cal-
14). cite, silica, and various compounds of iron.
Chitinous Remains Replacement or Mineralization
Some organisms have an exoskeleton This type of preservation takes place
(outer body covering) composed of chitin, when the original hard parts of organisms
a material that is similar to finger nails. are removed after being dissolved by
The fossilized chitinous exoskeletons of underground water. This is accompanied
arthropods and other organisms are com- by almost simultaneous deposition of other
monly preserved as thin films of carbon substances in the resulting voids. Some re-
because of their chemical composition and placed fossils will have the original struc-
method of burial. ture destroyed by the replacing minerals.
Texas Fossils 11
Others, as in the case of certain silicified contain large amounts of glauconite which
tree trunks, may be preserved in minute commonly replaced organic material.
detail. In some areas entire faunas have been
Although more than 50 minerals have replaced by iron compounds. Such is the
been known to replace original organic case in the famous "Pyrite Fossil Zone" of
structures, the most frequentreplacing sub- the Pawpaw formation (Lower Creta-
stances are calcite, dolomite (a calcium ceous) in Tarrant County. The fossils in
magnesium carbonate), silica, and certain this part of the formation are very small or
iron compounds. "dwarfed" and have been replaced by
limonite, hematite, or pyrite. Ammonites,
Replacement by calcareous material clams, snails, and corals are particularly
Calcareous replacement occurs when the abundant at this locality.
hard parts of an organism are replaced by
calcite, dolomite, or aragonite (a mineral Traces of Organisms
which is composed of calcium carbonate
but which is less stable than calcite). The Fossils consist not only of plant and ani-
exoskeletons of many corals, echinoderms, mal remains but of any evidence of their
brachiopods, and mollusks have been re- existence. In this type of fossilization there
placed in this manner. is no direct evidence of the original organ-
ism, rather there is some definite indication
Replacement by siliceous material of the former presence of some ancient
When the original organic hard parts plant or animal. Objects of this sort nor-
have been replaced by silica the fossil is mally furnish considerable information as
said to have undergone silicification, and to the identity or characteristics of the
this type of replacement often produces a organism responsible for them.
very high degree of preservation. This is
particularly true of the silicified Permian Molds and Casts
(geologic time scale, PI. 1) fossils from the Many shells, bones, leaves, and other
Glass Mountains in Brewster County. These forms of organic matter are preserved as
fossils are embedded in limestone which molds and casts. If a shell had been pressed
must be dissolved in vats of acid, and after down into the oceanbottom before the sedi-
the enclosing rock has been dissolved the ment had hardened into rock, it may have
residue yields an amazing variety of per- left the impression of the exterior of the
fectly preserved invertebrate fossils (PI. shell. This impression is known as a mold
3). (PI. 2). If at some later time this mold was
Silicified Cretaceous fossils have been filled with another material, this produced
recovered from the Edwards limestone of a cast. This cast will show the original ex-
central Texas. The silicified fauna is re- ternal characteristics of the shell. Such
stricted to a few scattered localities, each objects are called external molds if they
of which may yield many unusually well- show the external features of the hard
preservedfossils. parts (PL 2, fig. 2) and internal molds (PI.
2, fig. 3) if the nature of the inner parts is
Replacement by iron compounds shown.
Several different iron compounds have Molds and casts are to be found in al-
been known to replace organic matter. most all of the fossil-bearing rocks of
Many Texas limestones containfossil snails Texas, and they make up a large part of
and clams which have had their original most fossil collections. It is particularly
shell material replaced by iron compounds common to find fossil clams and snails pre-
such as limonite, hematite, marcasite, or served by this method. This is primarily
pyrite. Certain of the fossiliferous Tertiary because their shells are composed of min-
sandstones of the Texas Gulf Coast area erals that are relatively easy to dissolve,
PLATE 3
Silicified Brachiopods
All specimens from Permian limestones of the Glass Mountains,
Brewster County, Texas
Figures
1,2. Avonia sp., x2. Ventral and side view of two pedicle valves showing long slender spines.
3. Avonia sp., x6. Young specimen showing attachment ring at apex.
4-6. Muirwoodia multistriatus Meek, xl. Respectively, side and ventral view of pedicle valve and
dorsal view of brachial valve.
7-9. "Marginifera" opima Girty. Respectively, ventral and side view of pedicle valve showing
long stout spines (xl) and interior of brachial valve showing muscle scars and brachial
ridges (x2).
10-13. Aulosteges tuberculatus R. E. King, xl. Respectively, side and interior view of brachial
valve showing muscle scars; ventral view of pedicle valve showing brush of attachment
spines on ears; and ventral view of a young pedicle valve.
14. Avonia sp., xl. Ventral view of a specimen with long spines.
15,16. Avonia subhorrida (Meek), x2. Ventral view of a pedicle valve and dorsal view of a brachial
valve showing spines on both.
17. Avonia signata (Girty), x2. Dorsal view of a large specimen showing hairlike spines on
brachial valve.
18-20. Prorichthofenia permiana (Shumard). Respectively, side and posterior view of pedicle
valve (xl) and interior of dorsal valve (x2) showing anchor spines and interior spines of
thebrachial valve.
21. Heteralosia hystricula (Girty), x2. Cluster of individuals attached to a large Marginifera.
Photograph courtesy of Dr. G. A. Cooper, U. S. National Museum.
and the original shell material is often

destroyed.
Tracks, Trails, and Burrows

Many animals have left records of their
movements over dry land or the sea bottom.
Some of these, such as footprints (PI. 4), Fig. 1. Sketch of a coprolite—fossilized animal
excrement.
indicate not only the type of animal that
left them but often provide valuable infor- Gastroliths
mation about the animal's environment.
Thus, the study of a series of dinosaur These highly polished well-rounded
stones (fig. 2) are believed to have been
tracks would not only indicate the size and
shape of the foot but also provide some in-
formation as to the weight and length of
the animal. In addition, the type of rock
containing the track would help determine
the conditions under which the dinosaur
lived.
Some of the world's most famous dino-
saur tracks are to be found in the Lower
Cretaceous limestones in Somervell County? Fig. 2. Sketch of a gastrolith—the gizzard stone
of an ancient reptile.
Texas. These footprints, which are about
110,000,000 years old (PI. 4), were dis- used in the stomachs of reptiles for grind-
covered in the bed of Paluxy Creek near ing the food into smaller pieces. Large
the town of Glen Rose. Large segments of numbers of these "stomach stones" have
the rock containing these tracks were col- been found with the remains of certain
lected by paleontologists of the American types of dinosaurs.
Museum of Natural History in New York
City and the Texas Memorial Museum at Pseudofossils
Austin. Greatslabs of limestone were trans- Among the many inorganic objects
ported to the museums, replaced in their formed by nature there are some that bear
original position, and are now on display superficial resemblance to plants or ani-
as mute evidence of the gigantic size of
mals. Because they are often mistaken for
these tremendousreptiles. organic remains, these objects have been
Invertebrates also leave tracks and trails called pseudofossils, or "false fossils."
of their activities, and these markings may
be seen on the surfaces of many sandstone Dendrites
and limestone deposits. These may be Although these closely resemble the re-
simple tracks, left as the animal moved mains of ferns or other plant material
over the surface, or the burrows of crabs or (fig. 3), dendrites are actually thin in
other burrowing animals. Markings of this
sort provide some evidence of the manner
of locomotion of these organisms and of the
type of environment that they inhabited.
Coprolites
Coprolites are fossil dung or body waste Fig. 3. Dendrites. These thin branching min-
(fig. 1). These objects can provide valu- eral deposits bear a marked resemblance to plants,
hence they are called pseudofossils.
able information as to the food habits or
anatomical structure of the animal that crustations of manganese dioxide. They are
made them. often found along the bedding planes of
Dinosaur tracks in limestone in bed of Paluxy Creek near Glen Rose, Somervell County, Texas.
Photograph courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.
Permission to reproduce by R. T. Bird.
Cretaceous and Paleozoic (geologic time Concretions

scale, PI. 1) limestones in many parts of Many shales and sandstones contain
Texas.
hardened masses of minerals and rock that
Slickensides are often mistaken for fossils. These
These are striations that are produced masses, called concretions, are usually
when rock surfaces move past each other found weathered out of the surrounding
while being fractured. Slickensides may rock and may assume the shape of bones,
superficially resemble certain of the Penn- flowers, vegetables, turtles, etc. Although
sylvanian coal plants of Texas. these concretions do not represent organic
Since slickensides are commonly at an remains, it is sometimes possible to find
angle to the bedding plane and plant re- true fossils inside them.
mains lie parallel to the bedding plane, the
two are usually easily distinguished.
Where and How to Collect Fossils
In fossil collecting, as in most "collect- Wrapping Materials
ing" hobbies, the key to success lies in Some specimens are more fragile than
knowing where to look, what equipment to others, and these should be handled with
use, and the most effective methods of col- special care. Several sheets of newspaper
lecting. should always be kept in the collecting bag,
and each specimen should be wrapped indi-
Collecting Equipment vidually as it is collected. Such precautions
taken in the field will usually prevent
Fossil collecting is a relatively inex- prized specimens from being broken or
pensive hobby because it requires a mini- otherwise damaged. In addition to news-
mum of supplies and equipment. However, paper, it is wise to carry a supply of tissue
as in almost any hobby, there are certain paper in which to wrap more fragile speci-
basic items of equipment that must be ac- mens.
quired.
Map, Notebook, and Pencil
Hammer It is most important to have some method
The hammer is the basic tool in the col- of recording where the fossils were found.
lector's kit. Almost any type of hammer is It is very easy to forget where the material
was collected, and one should neverrely on
satisfactory, but as collecting experience is memory. A small pocket-sized notebook is
gained it may be desirable to get a geolo- inexpensive and just the right size to carry
gist's hammer. These hammers, also called in the field.
mineralogist's or prospector's picks, are of A highway or county map should be
two types. One type has a square head on
used to find the geographic location of each
one end and a pick on the other (PI. 5) ;
collecting locality. Maps of Texas counties
the other type is similar to a stonemason's can be obtained from the Texas Highway
or bricklayer's hammer and has a chisel
Department, File D-10, Austin 14, Texas.
end instead of the pointed pick end. The These maps come in three different sizes,
square head of the hammer is useful in
but for most purposes the 18x25-inch
breaking or chipping harder rocks, and the sheets, with a scale of % inch = 1 mile,
chisel or pick end is good for digging, pry- will be satisfactory. These are available for
ing, and splitting soft rocks.
all counties and may be purchased at a
nominal price.
Collecting Bag
It will be necessary to have some type of Magnifying Glass
bag in which to carry equipment, fossils, A magnifying glass or hand lens (PI. 5)
and other supplies. A Boy Scout knapsack, is useful for looking at small specimens
musette bag (PL 5), hunting bag, or simi- and will also prove helpful in examining
lar canvas or leather bag is suitable. the finer details of larger fossils. A 10-
-power magnification is satisfactory for
Chisels most purposes, and several inexpensive
A pair of chisels is useful when fossils models are available.
must be chipped out of the surrounding
rock. Two sizes, preferably % and 1 inch, Paper or Cloth Bags
will usually suffice. A small sharp punch Small bags are useful in separating
or awl is effective in removing smaller specimens from different localities. Heavy-
specimens from the softer rocks. duty hardware bags for large rough ma-
Texas Fossils
Plate 5
Fossil Collecting Equipment

Texas Fossils 19
terial and medium-weight grocery bags Where to Look

for smaller specimens may be used. Lo- Knowing where to look for fossils is a
cality data may be written directly on the
bag or on a label placed inside with the very important part of fossil collecting. It
fossils. As an added precaution some col- has already been pointed out that igneous
lectors do both. The more serious collector and metamorphic rocks are not likely to be
fossiliferous, but that most fossils are found
may want to use a cloth geological sample
in marine sedimentary rocks. These sedi-
bag (PI. 5).
ments were deposited under conditions that
were favorable for organisms during life
Other Useful Items
and which facilitated preservation after
The items described above are those that death. Limestones, limy shales, and certain
are most needed and constitute the basic types of sandstones are typically deposited
equipment of the fossil hunter. The serious under such conditions.
amateur may wish to include certain ad- One should look particularly for areas
ditional items which will place his collect- whererocks formed from marine sediments
ing on a more professional basis. Some of lie relatively flat and have not been greatly
these accessory items are: disturbed by' heat, pressure, and other
1. A topographic map of the collecting physical or chemical changes. If the rocks
area. These are available for many parts of appear to have undergone considerable
the State and are published and distributed folding and fracturing, there is great likeli-
at nominal cost by the United States Geo- hood that any fossils that were present have
logical Survey, Washington, D. C, and/or been destroyed or damaged by this action.
Denver, Colorado. The Survey can supply Quarries are good places to look but one
an index sheet showing all such maps avail- should be sure to obtain permission before
able for Texas. entering. Rock exposures in quarries are
2. A geologic map of the collecting area rather fresh but have undergone some
if one is available. The list of publications weathering. Quarries have been opened in
of the Bureau of Economic Geology should many of the limestone formations of Texas,
be consulted to see if a geologic report or and large numbers of fine specimens have
map of the area has been published. This been collected in some of these excavations.
list may be obtained without charge from Certain Lower Cretaceous limestones are
the Bureau of Economic Geology, The Uni- useful for road metal, building stone, or in
versity of Texas, Austin 12, Texas. the manufacture of portland cement, and
3. The geologic map of Texas. Although extensive quarrying has been undertaken
a geologic map of Texas is included in this
in the Edwards Plateau region of Texas
(PI. 9). Bones and petrified wood are fre-
publication (PI. 10), the scale is so small quently found in sand and gravel quarries
that its use is somewhat limited. More in many parts of the State.
detailed maps may be ordered from the Particular attention should be given to
Bureau of Economic Geology. all railroad and highway cuts as rocks ex-
posed in this way are usually still in their
original position and are fairly well
4. A compass for more accurate location weathered. Cuts made by recent construc-
of collecting localities. tion are usually more productive after they
5. Adhesive or masking tape. The lo- have undergone a period of weathering as
cality information can be written on the this helps to separate the fossils from their
tape and applied directly to the specimen. enclosing rocks.
6. Paper labels (about 3x5 inches). A Gullies, canyons, and stream beds are
properly completed label should be placed also good places to examine. These areas
inside each bag of material. are continually subjected to the processes
of erosion or stream action, and new ma- fossil should be carefully wrapped and
terial is uncovered year after year. placed in the collecting bag.
If there are abandoned coal mines near- Before leaving a collecting locality, one
by, the dumps of waste rock around the should be sure to record its geographic
mine shafts could be checked. A careful location and the geologic age of the rock
examination of such waste may reveal fine in which the fossils were found. The place
specimens of well-preserved plant fossils. should be located on the map and the lo-
Coal has been mined in several parts of cality entered in the notebook in such a
Texas, and abandoned shafts or dumps are manner that it could easily be located again
still present in some counties. The bitu- for additional collecting. If a county or
minous coals of Texas are predominantly topographic map is available, it is wise to
Pennsylvanian in age, and mining hasbeen mark the locality on the map. The geo-
carried on in the following counties: East- graphic and geologic data should be writ-
land, Erath, Jack, Palo Pinto, Parker, ten on a label placed in the bag of fossils
Wise, Young. collected at that particular locality. In ad-
dition, many collectors find it helpful to
How to Collect write the locality on the outside of each
bag of fossils.
When a likely collecting spot has been Material from separate localities should
located, the ground should be examined be kept in individual cloth or paper bags,
very carefully to see if there are any rock and the collector should take every pre-
fragments which contain pieces of shell or caution to keep the labels with their re-
the imprints of leaves or other organisms. spective fossils. Remember that a fossil
If the fossils have been freed by weather- without a locality is hardly worth the paper
ing, they can be easily picked up and placed it is wrapped in.
in the bag. Many times, however, it will be The collector should always ask the land-
necessary to take the hammer and very owner's permission before entering or col-
carefully remove the surrounding rock. lecting on private property. One should
Smaller specimens may be more safely respect all property, especially livestock
freed with the careful use of the proper size and fences, and leave the area cleaner than
chisel by gently tapping the chisel and when entered. If these precautions are
gradually chipping away the matrix—the observed, future collectors will probably
rock that is holding the specimen. After be welcome to return for additional collect-
most of the matrix has been removed, the ing.
Cleaning and Preparation of Fossils
It is usually necessary to do the final plastic household cement, and specimens
cleaning and preparation of fossils at home that are crumbling may be coated with
or in the laboratory, for most fossils pure white shellac, thinned collodion, or
brought in from the field require consider- clear nail polish. The latter is preferred as
able preparation before they are ready for it is not as likely to crack. Fragments of
display. bone are particularly apt to crumble upon
Excess matrix should be carefully re- exposure to the air. This type of fossil is
moved with hammer and chisel; blows normally quite fragile and should be exca-
should always be directed away from the vated with greatcare and shellaced as soon
fossil. Smaller tools (needles, tweezers, and as dry.
awls) should be used in the final prepara- Dilute hydrochloric acid may be used in
tion stage, and one should work carefully removing silicified fossils from a calcare-
to avoid damaging the specimen. Before ous matrix. The material to be etched
starting the final cleaning, it will be help- should be placed in a pottery or glass con-
ful to place the fossils in water and let them tainer and covered with water. Acid should
soak overnight. This will loosen much of then be added to the water very slowly and
the excess rock, and most of the softer ma- until large numbers of bubbles are given
terial can then be removed with a small off. Each time the bubbling ceases, more
scrub brush or tooth brush. Mounted acid should be added and this process
needles can be used to clean more delicate should be repeated until the fossil is free of
specimens or around the smaller structures matrix. This procedure should be carried
of larger fossils. It may be advisable to use on in a well-ventilated place, and the acid
the magnifying glass when working with should be handled with extreme caution.
small fossils or with delicate surface struc- Hydrochloric acid can cause damage or
tures of larger specimens. serious injury and the fumes are extremely
Broken fossils can be repaired with clear corrosive.
How Fossils are Named

In order to get the maximum pleasure system, known as the system of binomial
out of fossil collecting, most amateur pale- nomenclature, was first used consistently in
ontologists want to identify and classify the 1758 by Linne (or Linnaeus), an early
fossils that they have collected. This re- Swedish naturalist.
quires some knowledge of how fossils are Scientific names established in accord-
classified and how they receive their sci- ance with the principles of binomial
entific names. nomenclature consist of two parts: the
generic (or genus) name and the trivial
name. These names are commonly derived
The Science of Classification from Greek or Latin words which are usu-
ally descriptive of the organism or fossil
The number of organisms, both living being named. They may, however, be de-
and extinct, is so great that some system rived from the names of people or places,
of classification is needed to link them all and in such instances the names are always
together. Many fossils bear distinct simi- Latinized. Greek or Latin is used because
larities to plants and animals that are they are "dead" languages and not subject
living today, and for this reason paleon- to change. They are also "international"
tological classification is similar to that languages in that scientists all over the
used to classify modern organisms. This world can use the same names regardless
of what language they write in. The system The generic name and the trivial name
of binomial nomenclature has led to the de- constitute the scientific name of a species,
velopment of the science of taxonomy, the and according to this system of classifica-
systematic classification and naming of tion the scientific name of all living men
plants and animals according to their re- is Homo sapiens. It is obvious that there
lationships, are many variations among individual
men, but all men have certain general
The Units of Classification characteristics in common and are there-
The world of organic life has been di- fore placed in the same species.
In a scientific name, the generic name
vided into the plant and animal kingdoms. is always started with a capital letter and
These kingdoms have been further divided the trivial name with a small letter. Both
into larger divisions called phyla (from
names must be italicized or underlined.
the Greek word phylon, a race). Each phy-
The name of the author (the person who
lum is composed of organisms with certain first described the fossil) usually appears
characteristics in common. For example,
following the scientific name. The date of
all animals with a spinal cord (or noto- the scientific publication containing the
chord) are assigned to the phylum
Chordata.
original description of the fossil is often
placed after the author. For example:
The phylum is reduced to smaller divi-
sions called classes, classes are divided into Turrilites worthensis Adkins and Winton 1920
orders, orders into families, families into With the large numbers of plants and
genera, and each genus is divided into still animals that are living today, plus those
smaller units called species. A species may of the past, random naming would result in
be further reduced to subspecies, varieties, much confusion. For this reason scientists
or other subspecific categories, but these have established strict rules that must be
need not concern us in a publication of this followed when a specimen is named. The
nature. strict application of these rules enables
The following table illustrates the use scientists in all parts of the world to as-
of binomial nomenclature in the classifi- sign scientific names without fear of
cation of man, a clam, and a dog. duplication.
Unit Man Dog Clam

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Mollusca
Class Mammalia Mammalia Pelecypoda
Order Primates Carnivora Eulamellibranchia
Family Hominidae Canidae Veneridae
Genus Homo Canis Venus
Species sapiens familiaris mercenaria
Identification of Fossils
The beginning collector is usually con- tion. Many times these collectors can pass
tent to know if his specimen is a clam or along good ideas and tell exactly which
a snail or a fern or a palm leaf. But as books to consult.
the collection grows, it becomes increas- After books or journals describing the
ingly desirable to know the scientific name fossils of the area have been located, the
of each fossil. collected specimens should be closely com-
When he starts to identify fossils it may pared with any illustrations that are
be helpful to show them to a geology shown. Each fossil should be examined
teacher if a college or university is nearby. carefully, its more characteristic features
Most teachers are glad to be of help and noted, and it should again be compared
will probably have similar specimens in with the illustrations and descriptions in
their own collections. As all colleges do the book. The phylum or class to which
not have geology departments, a list of the specimen belongs should be de-
institutions with geologists on their fac- termined first. For example, the genus and
ulties is included at the end of this section species of a certain fossil may not be
of the handbook (p. 27). In addition, known, but it looks like a snail and ac-
many of the science teachers in the public cordingly it is named a gastropod (for
schools are familiar with fossils and can class Gastropoda, the snail class), and
give helpful suggestions as to how to clas- this is, at least, a start in determining the
sify material. scientific name of that particular fossil.
Museums are also good places from The descriptive material in the text of
which to get help. If the museum has a each reference will usually point out the
geological collection, it will be most help- more detailed features which will be diag-
ful to compare specimens with the fossils nostic of the genus or species.
in their collections and to ask the museum The illustrations and descriptive ma-
personnel for advice. In addition to the terial in this publication will also be of
above sources of information, local pro- considerable help in identification. Many
fessional geologists are usually familiar illustrations of the more common in-
with the geology of the local area and the vertebrate fossils have been included, but
paleontological literature of the region. the publication was not designedprimarily
Possibly local librarians can recom- for use in fossil identification. Rather, it
mend books, encyclopedias, or other pub- is intended to guide the amateur or student
lications that will be of help. Members of who is interested in fossil collecting, and
a local rock and mineral club, if one is to furnish suggestions as to how collecting
available, are another source of informa- may be more effectively pursued.
Use of Identification Keys
Fossil identification keys may be useful primarily on symmetry—the orderly ar-

in helping the beginning collector identify rangement of the parts of an object with
specimens. The collector compares a fossil reference to lines, planes, or points. The
with the key description and eliminates shape of the shell or body, presence or
those characters that do not fit the absence of coiling, and presence or ab-
specimen. sence of body partitions are also useful
The key used in this handbook is based criteria in identifying fossils. To use the
key the beginner should know something

about symmetry. Two major types of sym-
metry are used in this key.
1. Radial symmetry—the symmetrical repeti-

tion of parts around an axis. This is the sym-
metry of a wheel, and any vertical section
through the center of the object divides it
into symmetrical halves (fig. 4a).
2. Bilateral symmetry—the symmetrical dupli-
cation of parts on each side of a plane (fig.
5). The plane divides the object into two
halves that are mirror images of each other.
This is the symmetry of a plank.
It should be noted that many objects

may have both kinds of symmetry. For
example: A cone when viewed from the
Fig. 5. Bilateral symmetry as displayed by
top has radial symmetry
and when viewed typical fossil brachiopod.
from the side shows bilateral symmetry
(% 4a, b).
means that it belongs under Part I on the
key. If the fossil has a tapering, cylindri-
cal, cone-shaped shell ("A" on the key),
the subheadings under the "A" part of the
key are examined. Should the specimen
have a shell which is round, tapering at one
end, with transverse septa or sutures
(number 2 under "A"), it is probably a
cephalopod. This is indicated on the right
hand side of the page. Number 1 under
"A" is eliminated because the fossil did
not have longitudinal radial partitions
within the shell.
Some fossils display no apparent sym-
metry and such a fossil would be referred
to Part 111 of the key. If this fossil had
internal transverse partitions "A" would
be eliminated. If the fossil was not a coiled
fossil "B" would also be eliminated and we
would proceed directly to "C"—uncoiled
fossils. If the specimen is a branching twig-
like fossil, numbers 1, 2, and 3 would be
eliminated and the specimen referred to
number 4 (Branching twig-like fossils).
Should the specimen have evenly dis-
tributed relatively large openings with
Fig. 4. Types of symmetry in a fossil coral, (a) radial longitudinal partitions or septa, the
Radial symmetry, (b) Bilateral symmetry. specimen is probably a colonial coral ("b"
under number 4on the key). The "a" part
An illustration of the use of the key on of number 4 would be eliminated because
pages 26-27 follows. Assuming that a the coral had large openings and radial
specimen displays radial symmetry, this longitudinal septa.
Texas Fossils 25
Once a tentative identification has been should be remembered that keys are not
made from the key, pictures and descrip- perfect, and the collector should not expect
tions of this fossil group are examined to to be able to identify every specimen with
establish a more precise identification. It thiskey.
Identification Key to Main Types of Invertebrate Fossils
(Instructions on pages 23-25 for use of key)
I. Fossils displaying radial symmetry —symmetrical repetition of parts around a central axis
A. Fossil tapering, cylindrical, cone-shaped:
1. Fossil with longitudinal radial partitions or septa; cone-shaped Coral
2. Shell with transverse septa or sutures; tapering at one end Cephalopod
3. Shell without internal septa or partitions:
a. Shell large, heavy; usually with external longitudinal ribs. Occur only
in Cretaceous rocks Rudistid
b. Shell small (usually less than 2 inches long), tusk-shaped,open at both
ends. Rare in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks Scaphopod
B. Fossil disk-shaped or flattened dome-shaped:
1. Fossil with radiating star pattern on top Echinoid
2. Fossil subconical to hemispherical, dome-shaped; base concave or flat;
minute pits or pores covering surface;typically small (less than 3 inches
across) Bryozoa
3. Fossil small (less than Vz inch) ; generally disk-shaped Foraminifera (orbitoidid)
4. Fossil disk-shaped or button-like; with longitudinal, radial partitions or septa Coral
C. Fossil composed of segments or plates:
1. Fossil composed of circular segments, disks, or chambers; when united
form cylinder:
a. Tapered shell Cephalopod
b. Non-tapered, segments small and of relatively uniform thickness with
hole in center; individual columnals disk-shaped Crinoid stem
2. Fossil composed of many-sided plates:
a. Bud-shaped fossil of 13 wedge-shaped plates Blastoid
b. Cup-shaped fossil of many curved plates surrounded by branching arms Crinoid
11. Fossils displaying bilateral symmetry—symmetrical duplication of parts on each
side of a plane
A. Fossil coiled in a single plane:
1. Shell divided by internal transverse partitions or sutures Cephalopod
2. Shell without internal partitions or sutures Gastropod
3. Shell small; spindle-shaped; resembles wheat grain. Common in Pennsyl-
vanian and Permianrocks Foraminifera (fusulinids)
B. Fossil not coiled:
1. Shells or valves similar to clams:
a. Plane of symmetry parallel to hinge; equivalved Pelecypod
b. Plane of symmetry (almost bilaterally symmetrical) at right angles to
hinge line; mostly inequivalved; strongly ribbed. "Scallop-like" with
"ears." Rare in Palezoicrocks Pelecypod
c. Plane of symmetry at right angles to hinge line; inequivalved; not
"scallop-like" and without "ears." Larger valve commonly has an open-
ing in beak. Common in Paleozoic rocks Brachiopod
2. Fossil tapering, cylindrical, cone-shaped:
a. Fossil with internal longitudinal, radial septa or partitions; cone-
shaped Coral
b. Shell with internal transverse partitions or sutures; tapering at one end Cephalopod
c. Shell without internal septa or partitions.
only in Cretaceous rocks

_
(1) Shell large, heavy; usually with external longitudinal ribs. Occur
(2) Shell small (usually less than 2 inches), tusk-shaped, open at both
Rudistid
ends. Rare in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks Scaphopod
3. Fossil heart-shaped, domed or flattened;radial star pattern on top Echinoid
4. Fossil segmented:
a. Fossil divided into 3 lobes; may be curled up. Not found in Mesozoic
or Cenozoic rocks Trilobite
b. Fossil flattened or elongate; resembles shrimp, crab, or crayfish Crustacean
111. Fossils displaying no apparent symmetry
A. Shell without transverse internal partitions or sutures:
1. Shell coiled like ram's horn, low spired, opening of shell very large;
surface has concentric ridges. Shell has two valves; smaller, flattened
valve not often found. In Texas found only in Cretaceous rocks Pelecypod
(Note: Some Paleozoic gastropods, "2," closely resemble larger valve
of these pelecypods)
Texas Fossils 27
2. Shell tightly coiled; most have higher spire than "1." Opening of shell
smaller than "1"; shell not as rough as "1" and has only one valve Gastropod
B. Coiled fossils;coiling not in one plane:
1. Shell with transverse internal partitions or sutures:
a. Partitions always smooth; thick shelled; loosely and irregularly coiled,
usually in large compact masses of many individual shells. Occur only
in Cretaceous rocks Caprinid
b. Partitions (sutures) usually wrinkled; relatively thin shelled; mostly
regularly and tightly coiled; occur as separate individual specimens Cephalopod
2. Shell without transverse internal partitions or sutures Gastropod
3. Solid spiral ridge around central axis; resembles a corkscrew Bryozoa
C. Uncoiled fossils:
1. Fossil resembles a narrow saw blade; typically found as thin film of
carbon. Not found in Mesozoic or Cenozoic rocks Graptolite
2. Fossil irregularly cone-shaped; longitudinal radial partitions or septa Coral
3. Shell resembles a clam or oyster shell but valve or shell not symmetrical
„ Pelecypod (mostly oysters)
4. Branching twig-like fossils:
a. Fossils covered with minute pores or openings Bryozoa
b. Fossils with evenly distributed, relatively large openings with longi-
tudinal radial partitions or septa Colonial coral
5. Lace-like fossils; occur as thin sheets or films Bryozoa
6. Fossils composed of radiating masses of polygonal or circular tubes con-
taining radial septa Colonial coral
7. Irregular fossils;typically cylindrical with rough surface:
a. Fossil has large axial opening and thick wall; usually has external
longitudinal ribs. Occurs only in Cretaceous rocks. Rudistid
b. Fossil solid with no large axial opening; surface with small pits or
pores (fewer than in Bryozoa). In Texas, occurs most commonly in
Pennsylvanian and Permian rocks Sponge
List of Texas Colleges Offering Geology Courses

A.&M. College of Texas, College Station Rice University, Houston
Amarillo College, Amarillo St. Mary's University, San Antonio
Arlington State College, Arlington San Angelo College, San Angelo
Austin College, Sherman San Antonio College, San Antonio
Baylor University, Waco Southern Methodist University, Dallas
Blinn College, Brenham South Texas College, Houston
Corpus Christi, University of, Corpus Southwestern University, Georgetown
Christi Stephen F. Austin State College,
Del Mar College, Corpus Christi Nacogdoches
East Texas State College, Commerce Sul Ross State College, Alpine
Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Tarleton State College, Stephenville
Henderson County Junior College, Athens Texarkana College, Texarkana
Houston, University of, Houston Texas Christian University, Fort Worth
Howard County Junior College, Big Spring Texas College, Tyler
Kilgore College, Kilgore Texas College of Arts and Industries,
Lamar State College of Technology, Kingsville
Beaumont Texas Technological College, Lubbock
Lee College, Baytown Texas Western College, El Paso
McMurry College, Abilene The University of Texas, Austin
Midwestern University, Wichita Falls Trinity University, San Antonio
North Texas State College, Denton Tyler Junior College, Tyler
Odessa College, Odessa West Texas State College, Canyon
Pan American College, Edinburg
Fosil IdentfcaChr
FosilIdentfcaChr
FosilIdentfcaChr
Cataloging the Collection
After the fossils have been cleaned and log number of the specimen. The latter is
tentatively identified, they should be cata- usually placed in the upper right hand
loged. This is necessary to enable the corner of the label (fig. 6) and corresponds
collector to have a record of his collection with a like number in the record book.
and to furnish as much information as The entries in the catalog should be
possible about each individual fossil. numbered consecutively, and all specimens
The collecting data can be takenfrom the from the same locality should bear the
Fig. 6. A brachiopod showing the catalog number on it, and the accompanying label that pertains
to the specimen.
labels that were placed in each bag of same number. This number should be writ-
fossils as they were collected, or from the ten on the fossil with India ink, preferably
field notebook. Actually, it is wise to check on any remaining matrix or on some incon-
one against the other. This information spicuous part of the specimen (fig. 6). If
should then be entered in some type of the surface of the fossil is too coarse or
record book arid also placed on a more porous for ink, the catalog number can be
permanent label which is put in the tray or written on a small patch of white enamel
box with the fossil. The catalog and label or clear nail polish painted on the speci-
should contain such pertinent data as (1) men. After the ink has dried it should be
the scientific name of the fossil, (2) the coated with a dab of clear shellac or clear
geologic formation from which the speci- nail polish to help preserve the number. If
men was collected, (3) the exact geograph- each specimen is numbered, it can easily
ic location of the collecting locality, (4) be identified even if it should become sepa-
the name of the collector, (5) the date rated from its label.
the fossil was collected, and (6) the cata-
How Fossils Are Used

Fossils are useful in a number of dif- but a study of similar specimens that lived
ferent ways, for each specimen provides in later geologic time shows that the fossils
some information about when it lived, become progressively more complex and
where it lived, and how it lived. more advanced in the younger rocks.
Fossils are very important, for example, Some fossils, for example, the reef-build-
in tracing the development of the plants ing corals, appear to have always lived
and animals of our earth. This is possible under much the same conditions as they
because the fossils in the older rocks are live today. Hence, it is reasonably certain
usually primitive and relatively simple; that the rocks containing fossil reef corals
found in place (that is, where they were

originally buried), were deposited in
warm, fairly shallow, salt water. By study-
ing the occurrence and distribution of such
marine fossils, it is possible to outline the
location and extent of prehistoric seas.
Moreover, the type of fossils present will
frequently give some indication as to the
bottom conditions, depth, temperature, and
salinity of these ancient bodies of water.
Probably the most important use of fos-
sils is for purposes of correlation—the
process of demonstrating that certain rock
layers are closely related to each other. By
Fig. 7. Sketches of two types of micropaleon-
correlating or "matching" the beds con- tological slides, (a) Multiple space faunal slide,
taining specific fossils, it is possible to de- (b) Single-hole slide.
termine the distribution of geologic units
of similar age. Some fossils have a very of the subsurface formation and the pos-
limited vertical or geologic range and a sibilities of oil production. Microfossils are
wide horizontal or geographic range. In particularly valuable in the oil fields of
other words, they lived but a relatively the Gulf Coast region of Texas. In fact,
short period in geologic time but were some of the oil-producing zones in this area
rather widely distributed during their rela- have even been named for certain key
tively short life. Such fossils are known as genera of microfossils. For example, the
index fossils or guide fossils and are especi- "het" zone of Oligocene age (geologic time
ally useful in correlation because they are scale, PI. 1) is named for the genus Hetero-
normally only associated with rocks of one stegina, which is a tiny one-celled animal.
certain age. Other microfossils, such as fusulinids,
Microfossils are often very valuable as ostracodes, spores, and pollens, are also
guide fossils for the petroleum geologist. used to identify subsurface formations in
The micropaleontologist washes the well many other parts of the State.
cuttings from the drill hole and separates Plant fossils are very useful as climatic
the tiny fossils from the surrounding rocks. indicators but are not too reliable for pur-
The specimens are then mounted on special poses of age determination. They do, how-
slides (fig. 7) and studied under the micro- ever, provide much information about the
scope. Information derived from these fos- development of plants throughout geologic
sils often provides valuable data on the age time.
Geologic History
The geologic history of our earth has he might expect to find in that particular
been recorded primarily in marine sedi- region.
mentary rocks, and this record indicates The geologic time scale is composed of
that our earth is very old and that life has units which represent intervals of geologic
been present for many millions of years. time, during which were deposited the
The earth is not only extremely old (more rocks represented in the geologic column.
than 31/2 billion years of age), but it has These timeunits are used by the geologist
also undergone many changes which have to date the events that have taken place in
taken place slowly but steadily and have the geologic past.
greatly affected both the earth and its in- The largest unit of geologic time is an
habitants. The earth's physical features era, and each era is divided into smaller
have not always been as they are seen time units called periods. A period of
today. Geologic research has shown that geologic time is divided into epochs,
mountains now occupy the sites of ancient which, in turn, may be subdivided into
seas, and that coal is being mined where still smaller units. The geologic time scale
swamps existed millions of years ago. might be roughly compared to the calen-
Furthermore, there is much evidence to dar in which the year is divided into
indicate that plants and animals have also months, months into weeks, and weeks
undergone great change. The trend of this into days. Unlike years, however, geologic
organic change is, in general, toward more time units are arbitrary and of.unequal
complex and advanced forms of life, but duration, and the geologist cannot be posi-
some forms have remained virtually un- tive about the exact length of time involved
changed and others have become extinct. in each unit. The time scale does, however,
In order to interpret geologic history, provide a standard by which he can dis-
the earth scientist must attempt to gather cuss the age of fossils and their surround-
evidence of the great changes in climate, ing rocks. By referring to the time scale
geography, and life that took place in the it may be possible, for instance, to state
geologic past. The record of these changes that a certain event occurred during the
can be found in the rocks, and here is Paleozoic era in the same sense that one
found the story of the various events in might say that something happened during
earth history. the American Revolution.
There are five eras of geologic time,
and each has been given a name that is
Geologic Column and Time Scale descriptive of the degree of life develop-
ment that characterizes that era. Hence,
In order to discuss fossils and the age Paleozoic means "ancient-life," and the
of the rocks containing them, it is neces- era was so named because of the rela-
sary to become familiar with the geologic tively simple and ancient stage of life
column and the geologic timescale (PI. 1). development.
The geologic column refers to the total The eras, a guide to their pronunciation,
succession of rocks, from the oldest to and the literal translation of each name is
most recent, that are found either locally
shown below.
or in the entire earth. Thus, the geologic Cenozoic (SEE-no-zo-ic) —"recent-life"
column of Texas includes all rock divisions Mesozoic
(MES-o-zo-ic) —"middle-life"
Paleozoic (PAY-lee-o-zo-ic) —"ancient-life"
known to be present in this State. By refer- Proterozoic (PRO-ter-o-zo-ic) —"primitive-life"
ring to the geologic column previously Archeozoic (AR-kee-o-zo-ic) —"beginning-life"
worked out for any given area, the Archeozoic and Proterozoic rocks are
geologist can determine what type of rocks commonly grouped together and referred
to as Precambrian in age. The Pre- geological publications and on many of

cambrian rocks have been greatly con- the earlier geologic maps.
torted and metamorphosed, and the record The periods of the Mesozoic era and the
of this portion of earth history is most source of their names are:
difficult to interpret. Precambrian time Cretaceous (cre-TAY-shus) —from the Latin
represents that portion of geologic time word creta, meaning chalky
from the beginning of earth history until Jurassic (joo-RAS-ik)—from the Jura Mountains
the deposition of the earliest fossiliferous Triassic of Europe
(try-ASS-ik)—from the Latin word
Cambrian strata. If the earth is as old as triad, meaning three
is believed, Precambrian time may repre-
sent as much as 85 percent of all geologic In Texas, the Cretaceous has two divi-
time. sions, known as either Lower Cretaceous
The oldest era is at the bottom of the and Upper Cretaceous or as Comanche
geologic series and Gulf series, respectively. These
list because this part of time
transpired first and was then followed by designations are for rocks of nearly equiv-
the successively younger eras which are alent age, and both sets of terms have been
placed above it. Therefore, the geologic used by geologists and in publications. In
time scale is always read from the bottom
this handbook, both sets of terms are used
interchangeably, that is, Lower Cretaceous
of the chart upward. This is, of course,
the order in which the various portions of and/or Comanche series and Upper Creta-
geologic time occurred and during which ceous and/or Gulf series.
the corresponding rocks were formed. The Cenozoic periods derived their
As mentioned above, each of the eras names from an old outdated system of
has been divided into periods, and most of classification which divided all of the
these periods derive their names from the earth's rocks into four groups. The two
divisions listed below are the only names
regions in which the rocks of each were
first studied. For example, the Pennsyl- of this system which are still in use:
vanian rocks of North America were first Quaternary (kwah-TUR-nuh-ri)
studied in the State of Pennsylvania. Tertiary (TUR-shi-ri)
The Paleozoic era has been divided into While the units discussed above are the
seven periods of geologic time. With the major divisions of geologic time, the geol-
oldest at the bottom of the list, these ogist usually works with smaller units of
periods and the source of their names are: rocks called formations. A geologic forma-
tion is identified and established on the
Permian (PUR-me-un) —from the Province of basis of definite physical and chemical
Perm in Russia
Pennsylvanian (pen-sil-VAIN-yun)—from the characteristics of the rocks. Formations
State of Pennsylvania are usually given geographic names which
Mississippian (miss-i-SIP-i-un) —from the Upper are combined with the type of rock that
Mississippi Valley
Devonian (de-VO-ni-un) —from Devonshire, makes up the bulk of the formation. For
England example, the Beaumont clay was named
Silurian (si-LOO-ri-un) —for the Silures,an an- from clay deposits that are found in and
cient tribe of Britain around Beaumont, Texas.
Ordovician (or-doe-VISH-un)—for the Ordovices,
an ancient tribe of Britain
Cambrian (KAM-bri-un) —from the Latin word The Geology of Texas
Cambria,meaning Wales
The geologic history of Texas, like the
The Carboniferous period in Europe in- geologic history of the rest of the earth, is
cludes the Mississippian and Pennsyl- recorded primarily in marine sedimentary
vanian periods of North America. Al- rocks. These rocks provide some knowl-
though this classification is no longer used edge of the early geography and the first
in the United States, the term Carbonifer- inhabitants of what is now the State of
ous will be found in many of the earlier Texas. Most of these rocks were formed
Texas Fossils 35
from sediments deposited in shallow seas and the Marathon uplift of northeast
which covered parts of the State at various Brewster County. Thisregion also includes
times in earth history. the Big Bend area of Texas, a part of
By studying these rocks and their rela- which has been set aside as a National
tions to each other, geologists have estab- Park where many interesting and impor-
lished a geologic column for Texas. tant geologicalfeatures maybe seen.
The Trans-Pecos region is one of rugged
Physiography topography with elevations as high as
8,700 feet, at Guadalupe Peak in the Guad-
In order to discuss the distribution and alupe Mountains of northern Culberson
exposures of the rocks of Texas, it is help-
County, and as low as 1,500 feet, in the
ful to be familiar with the physiography of Rio Grande valley.
the State. Physiography deals with the
study of the origin and description of land Numerous invertebrate fossils occur in
forms, such as mountains, valleys, and
the Cretaceous limestones and shales of the
Trans-Pecos region and in the Paleozoic
plains. Plate 9 is a map of Texas which rocks of the Marathon uplift. The Gaptank
shows the major physiographic provinces formation of Pennsylvanian age and the
within the State. Permian reef limestones of the Glass
The majority of the land forms in Texas
Mountains are especially fossiliferous. In
have been produced by the processes of addition, many vertebrate fossils have
erosion attacking the structural features of been collected in Trans-Pecos Texas, par-
an area. Certain other land forms may be
ticularly in and around Big Bend Na-
related to the effects of igneous activity tional Park.
which resulted in the accumulation of
large masses of igneous rocks. The Davis Texas Plains
Mountains are an example of surface fea-
tures produced in this manner.
The plains of Texas are broad expanses
In discussing the physiography of of country with very little surface relief.
Texas, three major physiographic prov- Most of the plains support grasses and
some have wooded areas, particularly
inces will be recognized. These are (1) the
Trans-Pecos region, (2) the Texas Plains, along stream valleys.
and (3) the Gulf Coastal Plain (PI. 9). The plains of the northwestern part of
the State have been subdivided as follows.
Trans-Pecos Region High Plains
The Trans-Pecos region, located in the This area (PI. 9), often called "the
westernmost part of the State, is an area of caprock," is an elevated plateau which
mountains and plateaus with broad basins rises above the rolling plains which sur-
between the major mountain ranges. Many round it. The High Plains are bounded by
different types of rocks are exposed in the Pecos River valley on the south, south-
Trans-Pecos Texas and these include east, and west and by the North-Central
marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial de- Plains on the east.
posits. In many areas igneousrocks flowed The surface of the High Plains is very
out on the surface and now overlie sedi- flat and characterized by a sparse cover
mentary rocks. There are also many places of grasses and few trees. The surface strata
where igneous rocks have been injected consist largely of unconsolidated deposits
into the surrounding rocks, and these of sands and gravels of Quaternary and
igneous rocks have been exposed by later Tertiary age, with remnants of Lower
erosion. Cretaceous limestones along the southern
Included within this area is the Van margin. The rocks of the High Plains are
Horn uplift of southern Hudspeth and mostly unfossiliferous, but mammalian re-
Culberson counties, the Solitario uplift of mains have been found at several
southern Presidio and Brewster counties, localities.
Physiographicmap of Texas.
Texas Fossils 37
North-Central Plains was at one time covered by Lower Creta-

Surface strata of the North-Central ceous rocks and perhaps also by Devonian,
Plains (PI. 9) are westward-dipping Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian strata.
Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Triassic These have since been removed by erosion.
rocks. Present also are extensive exposures The east, south, and west sides of the uplift
of Quaternary sands and gravels which are surrounded by Lower Cretaceous rocks,
trend north-south across the central por- and the northern margin is marked by the
tion of the region. The area is bounded on Mississippian and Pennsylvanian forma-
the west by the High Plains, on the east by tions of the North-Central Plains. The area
the Grand Prairie, and on the south by is, in general, composed of unfossiliferous
the Edwards Plateau and Llano uplift. rocks, but some invertebrate fossils (pri-
Many vertebratefossils have been collected marily trilobites and brachiopods) have
from the Permian and Triassic rocks of been collected.
this area. There are also many excellent
outcrops of fossiliferous Pennsylvanian Gulf Coastal Plain
formations in the North-Central Plains
region. The Gulf Coastal Plain (PI. 9) is com-
posed of Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quater-
Edwards Plateau nary rocks and includes the eastern, south-
The Edwards Plateau (PI. 9) is located eastern, and southern portions of the State.
sands,
in south-central Texas and is bounded on The rocks of the area consist of
the south by the Balcones fault zone and clays, shales, and limestones. The Texas
on the north by the North-Central Plains.
Gulf Coastal Plain is bounded on the north
The surface of the area is typically flat and west by the Balcones fault zone, on
with a gentle slope to the south. The rocks the south and southwest by the Gulf of
of the Edwards Plateau consist primarily Mexico, and extends eastward into Arkan-
of Lower Cretaceous limestones and shales, sas and Louisiana.
many of which are very fossiliferous. The region has broad river valleys and
uplands of low relief, but there is an in-
Grand Prairie crease in relief toward the interior of the
This area (PL 9) has a relatively flat State. The surface of the area slopes gradu-
surface but there are areas of gently rolling ally toward the Gulf and successively
hills. The eastern boundary of the Grand younger formations are encountered gulf-
Prairie is marked partly by the Balcones ward.
fault zone. North of McLennan County, The rocks of the Texas Gulf Coastal
however, the Balcones fault zone is not Plain are relatively unfossiliferous, but
expressed at the surface and in this area many of the Upper Cretaceous rocks con-
the eastern boundary is defined by th? tain fossils. In the central portion of the
western edge of the Woodbine exposures. region some marine formations of
Tertiary
Upper and Lower Cretaceous rocks occur age locally contain well-preserved inverte-
at the surface and dip to the southeast; brate fossils.
many of these rocks contain a large num-
ber of invertebratefossils. Geology
Geologic studies of the State of Texas
Llano Uplift have indicated the presence of rocks
The Llano uplift (PI. 9) is located in formed during every era and period of
the central part of the State where Pre- geologic time. These range from the Pre-
cambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks cambrian granites of the Llano uplift to
and sedimentary rocks of early Paleozoic the Quaternary gravels of the High Plains.
age occur on the surface. The area, which One of the best ways to become ac-
now appears as a basin-shaped depression, quainted with the geology of Texas is to
Texas Fossils
Plate 10
study the geologic map of the State (PL lifts, and the Franklin Mountains near El
10). A geologic map shows the distribution Paso. These are sedimentary rocks consist-
and age of surface rocks and may also ing of conglomerates, sandstones, shales,
indicate what kind of geologic structures limestones, and some dolomites.
are present. The types of rocks that crop Some of these formations are relatively
out at the surface may be shown by means fossiliferous, but the specimens are com-
of symbols, colors, or patterns, and these monly fragmental and very poorly pre-
are explained by a legend which accom- served. Fossils that are apt to be found in
panies the map. On Plate 10, colors are the Cambrian rocks of the Llano uplift in-
used to show the distribution and geologic clude brachiopods, gastropods, trilobites,
age of the surface rocks of Texas. Refer- and small rounded objects believed to have
ence to this map will give the collector been formed by algae (primitiveone-celled
some idea of the age of the fossils that plants). In other parts of the State, Cam-
might be found in a given area. Some spe- brian rocks are sparsely fossiliferous and
cial geologic maps may have the location the fossils consist primarily of fragmental
of geologic structures and formation con- brachiopods, trilobites, and algae.
tacts indicated by means of symbols, such
Ordovician
as dashed lines, arrows, and similar special
markings. However, the map included in Ordovician outcrops are present in the
this publication does not show any of theseLlano uplift of central Texas and in the
special markings. Marathon, Solitario, El Paso, and Van
Horn regions of Trans-Pecos Texas. These
are sedimentary rocks and consist largely
Precambrian Rocks
of sandstones, cherts, limestones, and dolo-
The Precambrian rocks of Texas are mites.
composed of igneous and metamorphic Although some of the Ordovician forma-
rocks and some sedimentary rocks. Most of tions are fossiliferous, they are seldom col-
the Precambrian outcrops are in the Llano lected by amateur paleontologists because
uplift and El Paso and Van Horn regions. they are exposed in relatively inaccessible
Alterations produced by vast amounts of places and the fossils are usually poorly
time, heat, and pressure have obliterated preserved. Ordovician fossils reported
any trace of fossils that may have been from Texas include sponges, corals, bra-
present in these rocks. With the exception chiopods, gastropods, cephalopods, and
of some questionable primitive plants col- trilobites. In addition, the Marathon forma-
lected in the Van Horn region, no Precam- tion of the Marathon uplift contains large
brian fossils have been reported from numbers of well-preserved graptolites (fig.
Texas. 24, p. 86).
Paleozoic Rocks Silurian

The Silurian of Texas is poorly repre-
Rocks of Paleozoic age are widespread sented in surface exposures, and only one
in Texas, androcks of each period are well formation, the Fusselman, has been de-
exposed. Outcrops are found in the Llano scribed. The Fusselman crops out in the
uplift, North-Central Plains, and Trans- El Paso and Van Horn regions where it
Pecos region. The most extensive exposures is a white dolomitic limestone. Fossils are
are of Pennsylvanian and Permian age,
not abundant in this formation, but bra-
and the former are highly fossiliferous in chiopods and corals have been collected at
parts of the North-Central Plains. a few localities.
Cambrian Devonian
Rocks of late Cambrian age are exposed Devonian rocks are best developed in
in the Llano, Marathon, and Solitario up- Trans-Pecos Texas, especially in the Mara-
Texas Fossils 41
thon, El Paso, and Van Horn regions. In brachiopods, gastropods, pelecypods, ceph-
addition to the Trans-Pecos exposures, alopods, and crinoids.
there are minor outcrops of Devonian rocks Probably the best Pennsylvanian collect-
in the Llano uplift of central Texas. ing areas are to be found in north-central
Fossils are rare and fragmental in the Texas. Here the thick marine limestones
Trans-Pecos exposures and consist pri- and shales contain large numbers of well-
marily of radiolarians and brachiopods. preserved invertebrate fossils, and the ter-
The Devonian rocks of central Texas are restrial or shallow marine strata have
predominantly calcareous and, although yielded an abundance of plant fossils. In-
the material is usually poorly preserved, vertebrate fossils are apt to be found along
many fossils have been collected from the banks of streams and gullies and in
them. These include bryozoans, corals, railroad and highway cuts. Many of the
brachiopods, gastropods, and trilobites. limestones bear large numbers of fusu-
Conodonts and fragments of primitive linids or crinoid stems, and the shales may
armored fishes (PI. 37) have also been contain many corals, brachiopods, and
reported. mollusks. The best collecting will, of
course, be found where the rocks have been
Mississippian sufficiently weathered.
Mississippian rocks are exposed in the Typical invertebrate fossils are foram-
Llano region and in the Hueco Mountains inifera (principally fusulinids), corals (es-
of the Trans-Pecos area. The Trans-Pecos pecially the solitary or "horn" corals),
rocks primarily contain brachiopods with brachiopods, bryozoans (the lacy and
some bryozoans and gastropods. branching types are most common),
The central Texas Mississippian rocks pelecypods, gastropods (exhibiting a va-
are much more fossiliferous and some of riety of coiling), cephalopods (nautiloids
the material is well preserved. Fossils re- and goniatites predominate), and crinoids,
ported from this area include brachiopods which in many areas are found in thick
(PI. 17), crinoids, gastropods, cephalo- crinoidal limestones (fig. 8). Some typical
pods, trilobites, and ostracodes.
Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks are well repre-
sented in Texas and are exposed in the
Llano uplift, north-central Texas, and
Trans-Pecos Texas.
In Trans-Pecos Texas fossiliferous rocks
crop out in the Hueco and Diablo Moun-
tains. Fossils found in this area are algae,
fusulinids, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, Fig.
gastropods, cephalopods, and crinoids. 8. Sketch of typical crinoidal limestone
from the Pennsylvanian of north Texas.
There is also a thick section of Pennsylva-
nian rocks in the Marathon uplift, but only Pennsylvanian fossils are illustrated in
one formation, the Gaptank, is very fos- Plates 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 32,
siliferous. It contains many fossils includ- and 35.
ing fusulinids, sponges, corals, bryozoans,
brachiopods, gastropods, pelecypods, Permian
cephalopods, and crinoids. Permian rocks are found in widely sepa-
Certain Pennsylvanian strata in the rated areas in Texas. The best exposed
Llano region are very fossiliferous, and the section of marine Permian rocks is found
material is well preserved. The more in the Glass Mountains of Brewester
abundant forms are fusulinids, corals, County, and many of these rocks are very
fossiliferous. The original shell material of tain in southwestern Hudspeth County. The
some of the Permian fossils of this area rocks there are limestones, shales, sand-
has been replaced by siliceous material stones, and conglomerates. Fossils reported
which is very well preserved. These silici- from that locality include marine and
fied fossils are removed from the limestone fresh-water pelecypods, fresh-water gastro-
by solution in acid, and some most remark- pods, and ammonites.
able specimens have been recovered in this
manner (PI. 3). Brachiopods are the most Cretaceous
common fossils, but corals, bryozoans, and
mollusks have also been recovered. Rocks of Cretaceous age are widely dis-
tributed in Texas and represent one of the
Extensive Permian exposures occur also more important rock systems of the State.
in the central part of the North-Central
Plains region. These rocks were formed Cretaceous outcrops occur in central Texas,
from sediments of both marine and con- north Texas, the Edwards Plateau, parts of
the High Plains, the Gulf Coastal Plain,
tinental origin and some of them are fos- and Trans-Pecos Texas.
siliferous. The marine rocks contain a va- As mentioned earlier, the Texas Creta-
riety of invertebrate fossils including bra- ceous has been divided into the Lower
chiopods, pelecypods, gastropods, and am-
monoids. Those rocks representing terres- Cretaceous (Comanche series) and Upper
trial deposits contain vertebrate remains at Cretaceous (Gulf series). These rocks con-
sist primarily of marls (a type of calcare-
many localities, and numerous amphibians
ous clay), shales, chalks, and limestones,
and primitive reptiles (PI. 40) have been but sands and conglomerates also occur.
collected from them.
Cretaceous rocks occur on the surface of
Mesozoic Rocks about 28 percent of Texas, and many of the
larger cities of the State are situated on
Mesozoic rocks occur over a wide area Cretaceous strata.
of Texas and include exposures of Trias- Many of the Gulf and Comanche forma-
sic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous age. Many of
tions contain fossils which are of interest
the Upper and Lower Cretaceous outcrops both to amateur and professional paleon-
are quite fossiliferous and easily accessible
tologists. Because of their wide distribution
and thus of considerable interest to many in and near large population centers, Cre-
amateur collectors.
taceous outcrops can be conveniently
Triassic visited by many amateur fossil collectors.
Triassic rocks crop out in parts of the The fossils are usually abundant and var-
High Plains, the Glass Mountains of Trans- ied, and some are well preserved. Although
Pecos Texas, and parts of Pecos, Crockett, numerous kinds of fossils may be collected,
Upton, Reagan, and Glasscock and other the more common forms are cephalopods,
west Texas counties. These are predomi- pelecypods, gastropods, and echinoids.
nantly nonmarine rocks consisting of con- Some of the more typical Cretaceous fos-
glomerates, sandstones, shales, and some sils are shown in Plates 16, 21, 25-28, 32,
gypsum beds. 33, 35, and 36.
Triassic fossils are almost exclusively Cretaceous fossils are more commonly
vertebrates, although some poorly pre- found in shales and chalky limestones.
served plant and invertebrate remains have Fossiliferous outcrops of these rocks can
been reported. Fossil vertebrates of the be found along many streams, roads, and
Texas Triassic include phytosaurs (PI. highways of central Texas, north Texas,
42), crocodiles, amphibians, and fish. and the Edwards Plateau. Outcrops which
have been weathered are more likely to
Jurassic provide good collecting. In general, collect-
In Texas, surface exposures of Jurassic ing is poor in areas covered with heavy
rocks are known only from Malone Moun- vegetation or recent stream deposits. Good
Texas Fossils 43
collecting localities are outcrops which Many of these sands and marls have a
have a fairly steep slope with a covering of green color which is due to the presence
weathered rock material and a minimum of glauconite (a green mineral containing
of vegetation. One should move slowly iron and closely related to the jtnicas). At
from the base of the slope upward while certain localities on the Gulf Coastal Plain
searching the ground for any evidence of the glauconite marls and sands of the
fossils, and particular attention should be Weches and Crockett formations contain
given to any small gullies since these often large numbers of well-preserved clams,
contain fossils that have been washed out snails, and corals. Fossiliferous exposures
of upper beds in the exposure. of Tertiary rocks are sometimes found in
road cuts, but better exposures may be
Cenozoic Rocks found along the banks of rivers and creeks.
Certain bluffs along the Brazos, Sabine,
Cenozoic rocks are widespread in Texas and Trinity rivers are well-known Terti-
but occur primarily in a broad belt along ary fossil collecting localities. Many of
the Gulf Coastal Plain. In addition, there
these better localities are listed in some of
are exposures of nonmarine Cenozoic strata
the Bureau of Economic Geology bulletins
in the High Plains, North-Central Plains, included in the bibliography of this publi-
and Trans-Pecos region. There are also cation (pp. 109-110).
many exposures of Cenozoic igneous rocks
in Trans-Pecos Texas.
Quaternary
Rocks of Cenozoic age occur in more
than one-third of Texas and consist of con- Quaternary deposits of Pleistocene age
glomerates, sands, clays, and some lime- (geologic time scale, PI. 1) are found in
stone and lignite beds. many parts of Texas and consist of sands,
clays, and gravels.
Tertiary These rocks are distributed along the
Extensive exposures of Tertiary rocks Gulf Coast in a belt from 50 to 100 miles
trend northeast-southwest in a broad band wide. They occur also as stream terraces in
across the Gulf Coastal Plain area. These the Edwards Plateau and North-Central
strata, consisting of sands, clays, and Plains regions. In addition, Quaternary
poorly consolidated limestones, are under- sands and gravels are widely distributed
lain by Cretaceousrocks. over the surface of much of Trans-Pecos
Invertebrate fossils are common in cer- Texas. There are also fossiliferous Pleisto-
tain Tertiary formations and pelecypods, cene strata in the High Plains region.
gastropods, and corals are the predominant Invertebrate fossils are rare in Pleisto-
forms. In general, however, fossiliferous cene rocks, but some fresh-water and ter-
exposures are of local occurrence and most restrial mollusks occur. Vertebrate re-
of the Tertiary formations are unfossil- mains, however, are abundant in many
iferous. Those Tertiary invertebrates that localities, and large numbers of horses,
are present, however, are often well pre- camels, mammoths, and other mammals
served and represent many interesting (Pis. 46-49) have been collected. Fossil
types (Pis. 16, 22, 23, 29, 30, 31). bones and teeth (figs. 25, 26, p. 104) are
Tertiary invertebrate fossils are com- commonly found in the gravels and sands
monly found in sands, clays, and marls. of many of the river terraces of the State.
Main Types of Fossils
The beginning fossil collector is usually of these problems, much is known of the
amazed by the many different plants and evolution of plants, and plant fossils pro-
animals that have left some trace of their vide much information about life of the
existence. In order to understand these past. In addition, certain plants are of
different types of prehistoric life, it is considerable value as indicators of ancient
necessary to know something about the climatic conditions, and their remains
organisms that are living today. have played a large part in the formation
This handbook discusses the more im- of vast coal deposits.
portant groups of plants and animals
which have left some sort of paleonto- Classification of the Plant Kingdom
logical record, and each major group be-
gins with a discussion of the more simple
In the following classification only the
organisms and continues through the larger taxonomic groups are discussed.
more advanced forms. Because scientific
Notice that the term division has been
workers do not always agree on exactly used in place of the term phylum as used
in the animal kingdom. This usage is now
the same classification, the system adopted
in this handbook contains the latest ideas
preferred by many botanists and
of several workers. It is simple enough to paleobotanists.
understand, yet complete enough to help
Division Thallophyta
one know and classify his fossils. It should
be noted that this classification may differ Thallophytes are simple plants without
in some respects from that of certain older roots, stems, or leaves. They include the
paleontological publications. Therefore, it fungi, algae, and diatoms (PL 12).
has seemed advisable to list other names Diatoms are microscopic fossils that are
for some of the groups that are discussed. found in many of the rocks of Texas, and
In some instances, the brief descriptions they are quite abundant in Recent sedi-
and illustrations of each group will enable ments as well. Certain of the Paleozoic
the collector to make a preliminary identi- limestones of central Texas contain banded
fication of his fossils. For more detailed spherical masses of algae called "algal
information about each group, the reader biscuits." Although not particularly useful
should refer to "Books About Fossils" fossils, thallophytes have a long geologic
(pp. 108-110). history and are known in rocks ranging
This part of the handbook begins with from Precambrian to Recent in age.
a brief summary of the major groups of the
plant kingdom, followed by a discussion of Division Bryophyta
the characteristics and relative paleonto-
logical importance of the various inverte- The bryophytes are simple rootless
brate animals. Emphasis is placed on the plants and include the mosses and liver-
invertebrates because this type of fossil is worts. Although more complex, the bryo-
most commonly collected by the amateur. phytes resemble the algae in some respects.
Finally, there is a general review of the They are uncommon fossils, but undoubted
vertebrates. bryophytes (liverworts) have been re-
ported from rocks as old as Mississippian.
Plant Fossils
Division Tracheophyta
Plant fossils are usually fragmental and
poorly preserved, and this tends to dis- This division has been divided into four
courage most amateurs from an active subdivisions, among which are many of
interest in paleobotany. However, in spite the more common living and fossil plants.
Fossil Plants
Fossil Plants
Such important plants as the ferns, ever- gested that these "in-betweens" be placed
greens, hardwood trees, and the flowering in a separate kingdom—the Protista. The
plants are all tracheophytes. Among the protistans are primarily unicellular organ-
more common and abundant fossil tracheo- isms and are represented by such forms
phytes are the ferns, cycads, and Gingko, as bacteria, algae, diatoms, and the proto-
in addition to such important "coal plants" zoans (see below). But in this publication,
as the scale trees, club mosses, and scour- only the plant and animal kingdoms are
ing rushes (Pis. 12, 13). The latter com- recognized.
monly occur in many of the world's great
coal deposits, and their remains make up Phylum Protozoa
a large part of the coal. Plant fossils of
this type may be collected in the dumps This phylum is composed of simple one-
around some of the abandoned coal mines celled animals many of which have no shell
in north-central Texas and from other or external body covering. Some, however,
Pennsylvanian rocks in north and Trans- have external hard parts that can become
Pecos Texas. fossilized, and these forms are quite useful
Fairly well-preserved plant remains may microfossils.
also be collected from the Woodbine group Class Sarcodina -This class con-
of the Upper Cretaceous in north Texas, tains a group of one-celled animals which
and fossil wood, most of it silicified, has may secrete an exoskeleton (external pro-
been reported from rocks of almost all tective covering) of chitin, silica, or cal-
ages and in almost every section of the cium carbonate. Included in this class are
State. In addition, some of the carbona- foraminiferans (commonly called forams)
ceous clays and shales of east Texas con- and radiolarians.
tain large assemblages of plant leaves, Order Foraminifera - Members
which in some places are well preserved. of this order secrete tiny chambered shells
It is also possible to find the fossilized which are very useful microfossils. The
remains of seeds, spores, and pollen. Be- forams are predominantly marine organ-
cause of their small size, these minute re- isms and have shells composed of chitin,
mains are not destroyed by the drill bit silica, or calcium carbonate. In addition,
and can be brought out of deep wells with- some forms construct a shell of sand grains
out being damaged, and for this reason or some other material which is cemented
they are a valuable tool for the micro- together by a sticky substance that is
paleontologist. secreted by the animal.
Forams are very abundant in the rocks
Animal Fossils of Texas and particularly so in rocks of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic age. The most
The fossilized remains of animals are numerous and easily observed Paleozoic
very common in many of the sedimentary foraminiferans are thefusulinids (fig. 9a),
rocks of Texas. These remains are of many and their small spindle-shaped remains are
different kinds and represent the fossils of very abundant in many of the Pennsyl-
such diverse organisms as the shell of a vanian limestones of north-central and
tiny one-celled animal or the bones or tusk Trans-Pecos Texas. Some typical Texas
of a huge elephant. The fossils most com-
monly found, however, are the remains of forams are illustrated in figure 9.
invertebrate animals such as clams, snails, Order Radiolaria - The radio-
and corals, and it is this type of fossil that larians (fig. 10) have delicate spine-
attracts the interest of most amateur covered shells composed of silica, and their
collectors. remains are very abundant in certain re-
It is not always easy to tell whether cer- cent marine sediments. They may also be
tain organisms are plants or animals, and found as fossils and have been reported
because of this some scientists have sug- from Devonian and Permian rocks in
Texas Fossils 49
Texas, and their spicules have been re-

ported from well cuttings.
Phylum Coelenterata
The coelenterates are multicelled ani-
mals which, though more complex than
the sponges, are rather primitive animals.
The living animal is characterized by a
sac-like body cavity, a definite mouth, and
tentacles which bear stinging cells. Some
forms, for example, the jellyfishes, have
an umbrella-shaped body and are single
free-moving organisms. Others, like the
colonial corals, are composed of many
Fig. 9. Typical Texas Foraminifera (all greatly individuals living together in a colony.
enlarged), (a) Fusulina (Pennsylvanian). (b) Most zoologists and paleontologists rec-
Robulus. (c) Globigerina. (d) Frondicularia.
(b-d, Cretaceous). ognize three classes of coelenterates:
(1) the Hydrozoa, containing the small
animals known as hydroids, (2) the
Scyphozoa, which includes the jellyfish,
and (3) the Anthozoa, which includes the
corals and sea anemones. Because of their
extreme fragility and lack of hard parts,
hydrozoans and scyphozoans are not com-
monly found as fossils. They do, however,
Fig. 10. Typical radiolarians (greatly en- have a long geologic history and may be
larged), (a) Actinomma (Recent), (b) Poro- preserved when unusual conditions of
discus (Eocene). fossilization occur. The anthozoans,
especially the corals, are by far the most
Trans-Pecos Texas, and probable radio- important class geologically, and these
larians have been reported from still forms have left a very good paleontological
younger beds. record.
Class Anthozoa —This class is
composed of a group of exclusively marine
Phylum Porifera organisms and includes the corals and sea
These are sponges and are the simplest anemones. The coral animal, or polyp,
of the many-celled animals. Living sponges secretes a cup-shaped calcareous (limy)
secrete a skeleton which may be composed exoskeleton. This skeleton, called a coral-
of chitin, silica, or calcium carbonate. lite, is usually divided by radial partitions
These substances are commonly found in called septa. The polyp lives in the calyx,
the form of spicules—tiny hard parts that which is the central bowl-shaped depres-
are used to help support the soft tissues of sion in the top of the corallite (fig. lla).
the animal. These spicules take on a variety Solitary corals form an individual coral-
of shapes (PI. 14) and are occasionally lite for each polyp, and because of their
found as microfossils in some marine shape these may be given such names as
sediments. "horn corals" (Lophophyllidium, PL 15)
Although sponges are not particularly or "button corals" {Micrabacia, PL 16).
common fossils, their remains occur in Colonial or compound corals (PL 15) live
some parts of the State. Sponges have together in colonies, which are formed of
been collected from Paleozoic and Meso- many individual skeletons attached to
zoic formations of north and Trans-Pecos each other (fig. lib), and the compound
Order Scleractinia —The scle-
ractinians are solitary or colonial corals in
which the septa grow in multiples of six,
and they are the most important and
abundant of the modern corals. These
corals were the dominant reef builders of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic seas, and their re-
mains are common in many of the marine
formations of the State. Plate 16 illustrates
some typical scleractinian corals from the
rocks of Texas. This order has also been
referred to as subclass Hexacoralla, and
its members have been called hexacorals.
Order Tabulata - These are
corals that are now extinct but are known
from fossils in both Paleozoic and
Mesozoic rocks. Tabulate corals are
characterized by horizontal partitions
called tabulae, and septa are absent or
poorly developed. The tabulates were the
most abundant reef-building corals during
Fig. 11.Morphology and principal parts of
Solitary or "horn" coral, (b) Colonial
corals, (a) Paleozoic time and are well known as
or compound coral. fossils. Because of certain similarities with
other anthozoans, some paleontologists
mass of coral skeletons formed in this have treated the Tabulata as a distinct sub-
manner is called a corallum. Fossil corals class rather than as an order of the
commonly occur in many marine lime- Zoantharia.
stones and in places constitute a large por- Tabulate corals are not uncommon in
tion of the rock. many of the Paleozoicrocks of Texas, and
The class Anthozoa has been divided two of these {Cladochonus and Striato-
into several subclasses, but only one, the pora) are illustrated in Plate 15.
Zoantharia, is of paleontological im-
portance. Phylum Bryozoa
Subclass Zoantharia - - Most corals Bryozoans are colonial animals that are
and all sea anemones belong to this sub- often referred to as "sea mats." They have
class. Zoantharians are either colonial or been called this because they are com-
solitary and, because most of them possess monly found matted on shells, rocks, fos-
a hard preservable exoskeleton, they are
sils, and other objects. The living animal is
the most important group of anthozoans quite small, has a tentacle-bearing ridge
geologically. The various orders of the surrounding the mouth, and secretes a tiny
subclass Zoantharia are discussed below. cup-like exoskeleton composed of calca-
Order Rugosa -These are corals reous or chitinous material. These little
in which the septa are arranged in cycles
of four. Both solitary and colonial forms
occur, and they are found only in rocks of
Paleozoic age. Rugose corals are abundant
in many of the Paleozoic formations of
Texas, and two of the more typical forms
(Lophophyllidium and Caninia) are
illustrated in Plate 15. Members of this Fig. 12. Two types of bryozoans or "moss ani-
order have been placed in the subclass mals/ (a) Section of the lacy type bryozoan. (b)
Tetracoralla of older classifications. The spiral axis of Archimedes (Mississippian).
Paleozoic Sponges
Plate 15
Texas Fossils
Pennsylvanian Corals
Tertiary Corals
chambers, known as zooecia (or auto- reproductive, and excretory organs, and
pores) , areseen as small pits on the surface the tentacle-bearing lophophore.
of the bryozoan colony (Rhombopora, In adult life the brachiopod is attached
PI. 17). The zooecia grow together to to the sea bottom by means of a fleshy
form the bryozoan colony, and some fossil stalk called the pedicle (fig. 14), and this
colonies grow to be as much as 2 feet is usually extruded through a hole (the
across. Such colonies may be spiral pedicle foramen) which is located in the
(fig. 12b), branching, or lace-like (fig. ventral or pedicle valve. The upturned area
12a), and the latter two types are very which is usually present on the pedicle
common in many of the fossiliferous strata valve is called the beak. The other valve,
of Texas. Undoubted bryozoan fossils have known as the dorsal or brachial valve, is
been recorded in rocks of Lower Ordo- usually the smaller of the two (fig. 13b).
vician age, but questionable Cambrian The two valves are opened by means of
forms have also been reported. Bryozoans muscles, and since death results in relax-
are abundant in the seas of today, but ation of these muscles, fossil brachiopods
only a few forms inhabit fresh waters. are typically found with valves closed.
In Texas one may expect to find bryo- Brachiopods vary greatly in size and
zoan remains in the Pennsylvanian rocks shape and exhibit a wide variety of orna-
of north-central and Trans-Pecos Texas mentation, such as spines, ribs, nodes, and
where they are abundant in certain of other structures. They are abundant fossils
the marine shales and limestones. Bryo- in many of the Paleozoic rocks of Texas
zoans may also be collected from some but are relatively rare in Mesozoic and
Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, but their Cenozoic formations.
remains are small and fragmental and The phylum has been divided into two
they are easily overlooked. Bryozoans subclasses, the Inarticulata and the Arti-
have also been found matted on the shells culata. This classification is based upon the
of fossil mollusks and other invertebrates. nature of the hinge-line—the edge of the
shell where the two valves articulate.
Class Inarticulata —The mem-
Phylum Brachiopoda bers of this class are rather primitive and
The brachiopods are a large group of have a long geologic history. These bra-
exclusively marine organisms with shells chiopods have valves which are not pro-
vided with hinge teeth, the valves being
composed of two pieces called valves (fig. held together by muscles, and a hinge-line
13). These valves are usually composed of
is lacking (fig. 14). Most inarticulate bra-
calcareous or phosphatic material and en- chiopods are circular or tongue-like in
close and protect the soft parts of the shape and commonly composed of chiti-
brachiopod animal. The soft parts are com- nous and phosphatic material. Inarticulate
posed of muscles, the mantle (which se- brachiopods range from Lower Cambrian
cretes the valves), digestive, respiration, to Recent in age but were never as common
Fig. 13. Morphology and principal parts of articulate brachiopods.

Mississippian Brachiopods
Fig. 15. Kingena wacoensis, a common Cre-

taceous brachiopod. (a) Dorsal view, (b) Lateral
view, (c) Ventral view.
and terrestrial (land-dwelling) inverte-

brates which includes such familiar forms
Fig. 14. Lingula, a typical Recent inarticulate
as the snails, clams, oysters, squids, and
brachiopod showing extended pedicle. octopuses. Most mollusks possess a calcare-
as the articulate brachiopods, which are de- ous shell that serves as an exoskeleton, and
scribed below. Brachiopods belonging to these hard parts are well adapted for pres-
this class have been recorded from several ervation as fossils. However, some mol-
Paleozoic formations in Texas (PI. 17, lusks (the slugs) have no shells, and others
Lingula, Apsotreta, AnguXotreta). (the squids) have an internal calcareous
Class Articulata - Articulate shell. Because of their relative abundance
brachiopods have a well-defined hinge-line and great variety, mollusks are particu-
(fig. 13a). One valve has well-developed larly useful fossils. Moreover, the remains
teeth which articulate with sockets in the of certain mollusks, such as the oysters, are
opposing valve, and there is a well- important rock builders.
developed muscle system which aids in The phylum Mollusca has been divided
into five classes:
opening and closing the shell. Articulate
brachiopods are characterized by calcare- 1. Amphineura—the chitons or sea-
mice ; shell composed of eight valves
ous shells which are typically of unequal
size and a wide variety of shapes (Pis. 18, or plates; not a common fossil. Or-
19). The class has been divided into dovician to Recent.
several orders which have been established 2. Scaphopoda—the tusk-shells; shell
primarily on the nature of the pedicle fora- composed of a single tusk-like valve;
men and the nature of shell growth. generally not a common fossil but
Articulate brachiopods range from locally abundant in certain Cenozoic
Lower Cambrian to Recent in age and are formations. Devonian to Recent.
particularly abundant in certain Pennsyl- 3. Gastropoda—the snails and slugs;
vanian formations of north-central and slugs are without shells, snails have
a single-valved shell which is typi-
Trans-Pecos Texas. They are also present
in certain other fossiliferous strata of Pale- cally coiled; common fossils in Pale-
ozoic age but are less abundant and not ozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rocks.
as well preserved. The only Cretaceous Cambrian to Recent.
brachiopod that is found in large numbers 4. Pelecypoda—clams, mussels, oys-
is Kingena wacoensis (Roemer) (fig. 15), ters, scallops; shells composed of two
which is particularly abundant in certain valves, usually, but not always, of
formations in the upper part of the Co- equal size; commonfossils, especially
manche series. in Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks.
Cambrian to Recent.
Phylum Mollusca 5. Cephalopoda—squids, octopuses, the
pearly nautilus, and the ammonoids
The phylum Mollusca encompasses a (extinct) ; shell of one valve, usually
large group of aquatic (water-dwelling) coiled and partitioned by septa;
Pennsylvanian Brachiopods
Pennsylvanian Brachiopods
Texas Fossils 59
valuable fossils, especially in Paleo- type of preservation occurs after the death
zoicand Mesozoic rocks. ? Cambrian, of the animal, and the decomposition of the
Ordovician to Recent. soft parts enables the shell to become filled
Of these five classes, only the Gastro- with sediment. This filling later becomes
poda, Pelecypoda, and Cephalopoda are solidified, and the outer shell may eventu-
discussed herein. ally be removed by weathering or solution.
Class Gastropoda -The typical This type of internal mold is called a stein-
gastropod has a spirally coiled, single- kern and normally does not reflect any ex-
valved, unchambered shell. This shell en- ternalshell characteristics (PI. 2). In some
closes a soft body possessing a well-defined of the Pennsylvanian and Tertiary forma-
head with a pair of eyes and one or two tions, however, gastropods may be col-
pairs of tentacles. Most gastropods have lected with the original shell in an excellent
gills and live in shallow marine waters, but state of preservation.
some inhabit fresh water. Others are land- Plates 20-23 illustrate some typical
dwelling forms and breathe by means of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic gastro-
lungs. pods.
Gastropod shells, both Recent and fossil, Class Pelecypoda The pelecy-
exhibit a great variety of size, shape, and pods possess a shell composed of two cal-
ornamentation. Such shells may be cone- careous valves (fig. 17) which enclose the
shaped, spirally coiled, flat, turreted, or soft parts of the animal. Members of this
cylindrical. The shell is commonly wound class live exclusively in an aquatic habitat
in a spiral around a central axial pillar and are most abundant in marine environ-
.
(the columella) The closed pointed end of ments. Most pelecypods are slow-moving
the shell is called the apex, and each turn bottom-dwelling forms, but some, like the
of the shell is called a whorl (fig. 16). The oysters, are attached. Still others, for ex-
last-formed and largest whorl is called the ample, the scallop or Pecten, are swimmers.
body whorl, and this whorl contains the The Pelecypoda include such familiar salt-
aperture—the opening of the shell. The water forms as the clams and oysters, as
combined whorls exclusive of the body well as the common fresh-water mussel.
whorl are known as the spire. The inner Pelecypods range from Cambrian to Recent
and outer margins of the aperture are in age but are more abundant in Mesozoic
designated the inner lip and the outer lip, and Cenozoic rocks.
respectively. In some snails the aper- The living animal is aquatic, with
ture is closed by means of the operculum well-developed soft parts and a muscular,
—a calcareous or horny plate attached to commonly hatchet-shaped foot. The soft
the foot of the animal. This plate effec- mantle encloses the body and secretes the
tively seals the aperture when the animal is shell, and in some pelecypods part of the
withdrawn into its shell. Some gastropods mantle is developed into the incurrent and
have shells that are loosely coiled, and in excurrent siphons. The incurrent siphons
these forms the columella is absent. If the bring fresh water and food into the mantle
whorls of such shells are not in contact on cavity, and waste products are passed out
the inner surface, this leaves an open space through the excurrent siphons. Respiration
which is called the umbilicus (fig. 16a). is by means of gills within the mantle
The umbilicus is commonly seen as an cavity.
opening in the base of the gastropod shell, The typical pelecypod valves are of
but in some forms the umbilical opening equal size and form, but some, such as the
may be partially or completely covered by scallops and oysters, have two valves of
a thick growth of shell called the callus. unequal size and shape. The valves are
Many gastropods, particularly those of hinged and held together by a tough elastic
the Texas Cretaceous, are commonly pre- ligament which runs along the dorsal (top)
served as internal or external molds. This side of the shell. In addition to the liga-
Fig. 16. Morphology and principal parts of gastropod shells, (a) Low-spired
form with umbilicus,
(b) Section of spirally coiled shell showing columella.
ment, most forms have teeth and sockets merit gives strength to the hinge.
which are located along the hinge-line. The Most of the pelecypod shell is composed
teeth in one valve articulate with the sock- of calcium carbonate, but the outer layer,
ets in the opposite valve, and this arrange- or periostracum, of each valve is composed
Pennsylvanian Gastropods
Cretaceous Gastropods
Tertiary Gastropods
Tertiary Gastropods
Texas Fossils 65
of horny material. The inner surface of the the shell. The beak is commonly located on
shell is lined with a calcareous layer of the anterior (front) end of the shell, and
pearly or porcelaneous material. the end of the shell opposite this is desig-
Theoutline of the shell may vary greatly, nated posterior (the rear). The hinge and
but most pelecypods are typically clam-
ligament are located dorsally (along the
like. However, certain forms are round,
others are long and narrow, and some have top), and the lower margin of the shell
wing-like structures. Most pelecypods have where the valves open is called ventral
a beak which represents the oldest part of (fig. 17a).
Fig. 17. Morphology and principal parts of a typical pelecypod shell, (a) Exterior view, (b) In-
terior view.
The inner surface of the shell has cer- marine mollusks with or without cham-
tain markings which, along with the shell bered or solid shells which may be internal
form and dentition (the nature and ar- or external. The living animal possesses a
rangement of the teeth and sockets), are well-developed head with eyes, horny jaws,
important in classification. Muscle scars and many tentacles fused with the foot.
are present on the inside of most valves; Cephalopods are the most advanced of all
the anterior muscle scars are located near mollusks and include the squid, octopus,
the front of the shell, and the posterior pearly nautilus, and the extinct am-
muscle scars are situated near the rear monoids. Members of this class range
of the shell. These scars mark the place of from Cambrian to Recent in age but were
attachment of muscles which were used to much more abundant in ancient seas than
close the shell and aid in locomotion. Along they are today. Their remains constitute
the ventral margin of some shells there is a very useful group of fossils, particularly
a line or scar which extends from the in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks.
anterior muscle scar to the posterior Most paleontologists have divided the
muscle scar. This is known as the mantle Cephalopoda into three subclasses, the
line or pallial line and marks the place of Nautiloidea, Ammonoidea, and the Cole-
attachment of the mantle—a soft mem- oidea (known also as subclass Dibran-
branous layer that enclosed the body of the chiata and subclass Decapoda) ; each of
animal. In some pelecypods the dorsal these is discussed below.
margin of one valve bears a series of hinge Subclass Nautiloidea -The nauti-
teeth which articulate with a similar set of loids are cephalopods with external
sockets on the other valve (fig. 17b). In chambered shells in which the septa
addition to hinge teeth, certain species (dividing partitions) are simple and have
have cardinal teeth which are located smooth edges. This subclass is represented
below and in front of the hinge teeth. by a single living genus, Nautilus, and a
The exterior of most shells is marked by large number of fossil forms.
a series of concentric growth lines (fig. In the living Nautilus the shell is com-
17a) which mark points of periodic addi- posed of calcium carbonate and is coiled
tion of shell material. The external surface in a flat spiral (fig. 18). The interior of
of many shells is also marked by various the shell is divided into a series of
types of ornamentation, such as ribs, chambers by calcareous partitions called
nodes, spines, and grooves. septa. The point where each septum joins
Fossil collectors commonly find only one the inner surface of the shell is known as
valve of the pelecypod shell. This is be- the suture. These suture lines (fig. 19a)
cause the shell normally opens when the are not visible from the outside unless the
animal dies, and the valves may easily outer shell has been removed, but they are
become separated. Fossil pelecypods are visible on the internalmolds of many fossil
also commonly preserved as external and cephalopods and are of great importance in
internal molds, and these are found in nautiloid and ammonoid classification.
fossiliferous strata of almost all ages. Nautiloids have very simple smoothly
Some pelecypods of Pennsylvanian, curved suture patterns, but ammonoids
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic age are found are characterized by more complex and
with original shell material that appears wrinkled sutures (fW. 19d).
to have undergone very little change. Fossil Although the shell of the only type of
pelecypods are abundant and varied in living nautiloid is coiled, many of the early
Texas and are found in most of the forms had straight cone-shaped shells
fossiliferous formations of the Pennsyl- (Orthoceras, PI. 32), and these are com-
vanian, Cretaceous, and Tertiary systems mon in some of the Pennsylvanian forma-
(Pis. 24-31). tions of Texas. Fossil coiled nautiloids may
Class Cephalopoda -These are be collected in certain of the Cretaceous
Pennsylvanian Pelecypods
Cretaceous Pelecypods
Tertiary Pelecypods
Tertiary Pelecypods
Tertiary Pelecypods
Texas Fossils 75
Fig. 18. Morphology and principal parts of the pearly nautilus, (a) Exterior view of a Recent
shell, (b) Sectioned view of the same shell to show internal structures.
Subclass Ammonoidea - The am-

monoids are a group of extinct cephalo-
pods which are related to the nautiloids
but are characterized by more complex
suture patterns. Members of this subclass
have an external partitioned shell which
is straight, curved, or spirally coiled
(PI. 33). This group of cephalopods first
appeared in Devonian time, became ex-
tremely abundant and varied during the
Mesozoic, and was extinct by the end of
the Cretaceous period.
Most Paleozoic ammonoids are charac-
terized by a combination curved and
angular suture pattern, and this type of
suture pattern is referred to as goniatitic
(fig. 19b). Sutures that are curved and
crenulated (marked in places by a series
of tooth-like indentations) are known as
ceratitic (fig. 19c). Ceratitic sutures first
appeared in the Mississippian, became
increasingly abundant during the Triassic
but were much less abundant during the
Cretaceous. The ammonitic suture has
a very complexly subdivided pattern
Fig. 19. Characteristic features of the various (fig. 19d). Cephalopods with ammonitic
types of cephalopod sutures, (a) Nautiloid type,
(b) Goniatite type, (c) Ceratite type, (d) Am- sutures range from Pennsylvanian to
monite type. Cretaceous in age and were the most
abundant cephalopods of the Mesozoic.
and Tertiary strata of the State, but their Ammonoids are locally abundant in
remains are not common. Cymatoceras many of the fossiliferous rocks of Texas
(PL 32) is a coiled fossil nautiloid from and are among the more useful Mesozoic
the Cretaceous of north Texas. guide fossils. Goniatites may be found in
Cretaceous Cephalopods
Cretaceous Cephalopods
the Pennsylvania!! of north-central and
Trans-Pecos Texas, and ammonoids with
the ceratitic suture pattern can be collected
from the Lower Cretaceous of many parts
of the State. Cephalopods exhibiting the
typical ammonitic suture pattern are
abundant in many of the Cretaceous rocks
of Texas, and thesefossils have contributed
much toward an understanding of the Fig. 20. Types of typical annelid worms, (a)
Serpula (xl). (b) Hamulus (x2). (c) Spirobis
Cretaceous strata of this State. (x!5).
Subclass Coleoidea -These are squid-
like cephalopods characterized by an in- Some annelids have small chitinous
ternal shell or no shell at all. Included in jaws and teeth which also may be pre:
this group are the squids, cuttlefish, octo-
served as fossils. These dental structures
puses, and the extinct belemnoids, but of are
called scolecodonts and are micro-
these only the belemnoids are useful fossils. fossils.
Members of this subclass range from
Mississippian to Recent in age. Phylum Arthropoda
OrderBelemnoidea -The belem-
noids appear to be the oldest and most The arthropods are one of the more ad-
primitive of the coleoid cephalopods. Their vanced groups of invertebrates, and they
earliest known occurrence is in rocks of are known from the Cambrian to the
Mississippian age, and they were particu- Recent (PI. 34). Modern representatives
larly abundant during the Mesozoic. They of this group include the crabs, shrimp,
became extinct at the end of Cretaceous crayfish, insects, and spiders. Arthropods
time but have left considerable evidence of vary greatly in size and shape and are
their existence in the Mesozoic strata of among the most abundant of all animals.
many parts of the world. Certain forms, They have become successfully adapted to
because of their abundance and relatively a wide variety of environments and live
short geologic range, are excellent guide on land, in water, and in the air. The
fossils. Belemnoids have been found in the typical arthropod has a segmented body
Upper Cretaceous of Texas (PI. 33) but which is usually covered by a chitinous
in general are rare or unknown in most exoskeleton which, in some forms, contains
Texas formations. additions of calcium carbonate. They are
highly specialized and well-developed ani-
Phylum Annelida mals in which locomotion is by means of
Members of the phylum Annelida in- paired jointed appendages.
clude the segmented worms such as the Although the arthropods are of greaj,
common earthworm. Annelids are marine, importance in nature today, only a few
fresh-water, or terrestrial and have ap- groups are of importance to the paleon-
parently been common through much of tologist. Only two of these, the trilobites
geologic time. Because of their lack of and the ostracodes, are discussed herein.
hard parts, most of these worms have left
little direct fossil evidence of their ac- Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
tivities in the geologic past. Some annelids
secrete straight or coiled calcareous tubes, The members of this subphylum are
and fossil worm tubes of this sort (fig. 20) extinct arthropods which were most
are commonly found attached to brachio- abundant during early Paleozoic time.
pods, mollusks, and other objects. Tubes Class Trilobita -The trilobites
of this nature have been reported from are a group of exclusively marine arthro-
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rocks pods which derive their name from the
in Texas. typical three-lobed appearance of their
Fossil Arthropods
bodies (fig. 21a). The trilobite body is Subphylum Crustacea

divided into a central or axial lobe and The crustaceans are the crabs, shrimp,
two lateral lobes. The body of the animal
crayfish, and ostracodes. Although not
abundant, fossil crabs have been described
from certain Cretaceous and Tertiary
formations of the State {Notopocorystes,
PL 34). However, the most useful and
abundant crustacean fossils are the mem-
bers of the class Ostracoda.
Class Ostracoda - The ostra-
codes are small, bivalved, aquatic crusta-
ceans which have the external appearance
of small clams (PL 34). The remains of
these tiny animals are so small that they
are best studied under a low-power micro-
scope, and because of their small size they
are particularly useful to the micro-
paleontologist.
Fossil ostracodes range from Ordovician
to Recent in age and have been recorded
in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
rocks of Texas. Their remains are particu-
larly abundant in certain of the Cretaceous
and Tertiary marine formations of the
State.
Phylum Echinodermata
Fig. 21. Morphology and principal parts of
trilobites. The echinoderms are a large group of
exclusively marine animals, most of which
exhibit a marked five-fold radial sym-
was encased in a chitinous exoskeleton. metry (Pis. 35, 36). Living echinoderms
The top part of this exterior covering, the have well-developed nervous and digestive
carapace, is very thick, and it is this part systems, a distinct body cavity, and are a
of the trilobite that is usually preserved. relatively complex group of organisms.
The body is also divided into three The typical echinoderm has a skeleton
parts from front to back. Beginning at the composed of numerous calcareous plates
front of the animal these divisions are the which are intricately fitted together and
cephalon or head, the thorax or abdomen, covered by a leathery outer skin (the
and the pygidium or tail (fig. 21a). The .
integument) The echinoderm body often
body segments of the thorax were ar- exhibits a typical star-shaped form, but
ranged in such a manner as to permit the some types may be heart-shaped, biscuit-
animal to roll up into a ball, and many shaped, or cucumber-shaped.
trilobites are found in this position Members of this phylum range from
(% 21b). Cambrian to Recent in age and are
Trilobites first appeared in the Cam- abundant as fossils in many of the marine
brian and were extinct by the end of the formations of Texas.
Permian. They occur sparingly in certain The phylum Echinodermata has been
of the Paleozoic rocks of Texas and when divided into two subphyla, the Pelmatozoa
found are likely to be fragmental and in (those forms that were attached to sea
a poor state of preservation. floor by a stem or a stalk) and the
Texas Fossils 81
Eleutherozoa (the stemless unattached careous plates arranged in a typical five-

echinoderms). sided pattern (fig. 22a). The mouth is
located in the center of the calyx and is
Subphylum Pelmatozoa surrounded by five openings called spira-
These are echinoderms which are more cles. Five distinct ambulacral or food
or less permanently attached to the bottom grooves radiate outward from the mouth.
of the sea by means of a stalk which is Blastoids range from Ordovician to Per-
composed of slightly movable, calcareous, mian in age and were especially abundant
disk-like segments (fig. 23). during the Mississippian period. No blas-
Pelmatozoans range from Cambrian to toids have been reported from any of the
Recent in age, and their fossilized remains rocks of Texas.
are particularly abundant in Paleozoic Class Crinoidea -The crinoids
rocks. The subphylum has been divided are commonly called sea-lilies because of
into several classes, but only three of these, their flower-like appearance. The calyx is
the Cystoidea, Blastoidea, and Crinoidea, composed of symmetrically arranged cal-
are discussed here. With the exception of careous plates, and most crinoids have a
the Crinoidea, all of the attached echi- long stem. Other crinoids are free-swim-
noderms are extinct. ming in the adult stage and are attached
Class Cystoidea -These are prim- only during the earlier phases of their de-
itive attached echinoderms which were rel- velopment.
atively common in early Paleozoic time. Thecrinoid calyx is typically cup-shaped
The typical cystoid has a somewhat globu- (fig. 23) and five groovesradiate out from
lar or sac-like calyx (the main body skele-
ton) composed of numerous, irregularly
arranged, calcareous plates (fig. 22b). The
plates composing the calyx are usually per-
forated by pores or slits which were prob-
ably used in excretion or respiration. The
calyx was attached to the sea bottom by a
short stem.
Cystoids range from Cambrian to De-
vonian in age and were especially abundant
during Ordovician and Silurian time.
Their remains are rare or absent in the
rocks of Texas.
Fig. 22. Two extinct attached echinoderms. Fig. 23. Typical modern crinoid, or "sea lily,
(a) Pentremites (Mississippian). (b) Caryocrin- showing principal parts.
ites (Silurian).
its center. These grooves continue outward
Class Blastoidea -The blastoids along the complexly segmented arms and
are extinct short-stemmed echinoderms are used as channels to convey food to the
with a small, symmetrical, bud-like calyx. mouth.
The blastoid calyx is composed of 13 cal- The crinoid stem is attached to the base
of the calyx and serves for purposes of sup- neither of these groups is of paleontologi-
port and attachment. This stem consists of cal importance. The class Echinozoa (echi-
a relatively long flexible stalk composed noderms without laterally directed arm-
of numerous calcareous disk-shaped seg- like extensions) contains the subclasses
ments called columnals (fig. 23; PI. 35), Echinoidea (the sea urchins and sand dol-
each of which contains a round or star- lars) and Holothuroidea (the sea cucum-
shaped opening in its center. Many crinoids .
bers) Of these two subclasses, only the
have very long stalks (some are as much as Echinoidea are useful fossils.
50 feet in length), and when the animal Class Asterozoa -These are typi-
dies the columnals become separated and cal star-shaped free-moving echinoderms in
are scattered about on the ocean floor. which the body is divided into a central
Many Paleozoic limestones contain such disk and radiating arms.
great numbers of crinoid columnals that Subclass Asteroidea -This class con-
they are referred to as crinoidal limestones tains the starfishes which, although not
(fig. 8). Crinoidal limestones occur in common fossils, illustrate well the typical
some of the Mississippian and Pennsyl- echinoderm characteristics (PI. 35). Fossil
vanian formations of central Texas and in starfishes have been found sparingly in
the Pennsylvanian of north-central and certain formations in Texas, but well-
Trans-Pecos Texas. preserved specimens are quite rare. How-
The stalk is attached to the sea floor or ever, excellently preserved starfishes have
some other object by means of a root sys- been found in slabs of Cretaceous lime-
tem called the holdfast (fig. 23). This stones from central and north-central
structure commonly branches out into the Texas.
surrounding sediments, and in this manner Subclass Ophiuroidea -The ophiu-
the crinoid animal is firmly anchored to roids are echinoderms with a well-defined
the bottom of the sea. central disk and five long, slender, whip-
Crinoids, like most echinoderms, are like arms. They have been called brittle
gregarious animals—that is, they com- stars because of their ability to shed their
monly live together in large numbers, and arms when they are disturbed. Their long,
for this reason great numbers of crinoid slender, snake-like arms have also resulted
remains are commonly found concentrated in their being called serpent stars. Ophiu-
in relatively small local areas. Most fossil roids range from Ordovician to Recent in
crinoids are found as stem fragments be- age, but because of the delicate nature of
cause the more fragile calyx and root sys- their bodies they are seldom found as fos-
tem are less likely to be preserved. sils. Ophiuroid remains have been found in
The earliest known crinoids have been certain Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of
found in rocks of Ordovician age, and their Texas, but they consist largely of small seg-
remains are particularly abundant in Pale- ments of the arms or body fragments.
zoic rocks. Crinoids are living today but Class Echinozoa -The echinozo-
most of them are stemless free-swimming ans are a group of unattached echinoderms
forms called "feather stars," much less whose bodies consist of numerous calcare-
abundant than their Paleozoic ancestors. ous plates and spines, but they do not
possess the radiating arm-like extensions
Subphylum Eleutherozoa which characterize the asterozoans.
The eleutherozoans are free-swimming, Subclass Echinoidea -Echinoids are
bottom-dwelling, echinoderms which have free-moving echinoderms with disk-shaped,
been divided into two classes. The class heart-shaped, biscuit-shaped, or globular
Asterozoa (star-shaped echinoderms) con- exoskeletons (PI. 36). Modern represent-
tains the subclasses Asteroidea (the star- atives of this group include the familiar
fishes) and the Ophiuroidea (the brittle sea urchins, heart urchins, and the sand
stars). Although they are known as fossils, dollars.
Cretaceous Fossil Starfishes

Cretaceous Echinoids
Texas Fossils 85
The echinoid test (exoskeleton) is com- presence of a well-developed nervous sys-

posed of many intricately fitting calcare- tem and a body supported by a bony or
ous plates (PL 36) which enclose the cartilaginous notochord and/or spinal
animal's soft parts. The exterior of the test column. In the higher chordates (the verte-
is typically covered with large numbers of brates) the notochord is normally replaced
movable spines (PI. 36) which vary by bone, but in the lower chordates (for
greatly in size. These spines are of some example, the graptolites) it remains in a
aid in locomotion, support the skeleton of cartilaginous condition.
the animal, and provide a measure of pro- The phylum Chordata contains only two
tection from enemies. subphyla of paleontological significance.
The oldest known echinoids have been These are the subphylum Hemichordata,
recorded from rocks of Ordovician age, but composed of primitive chordates (includ-
it was not until the Mesozoic that the group ing the graptolites which are important
began to flourish. They were especially fossils), and the Vertebrata, which in-
abundant during the Cretaceous and have cludes all animals with backbones.
been abundant and varied from that time
until the present. Subphylum Hemichordata
Echinoids are particularly numerous in The hemichordates are characterized by
many of the Lower Cretaceous formations a well-defined notochord which runs the
of Texas where they are commonly found length of the body, but they do not possess
in an excellent state of preservation. Heart
a true backbone. Only one class, the Grap-
urchins and biscuit urchins may be found tolithina, is of paleontological importance.
in large numbers in many areas of the Class Graptolithina - The
State, and especially in areas where there graptolites are a group of extinct colonial
are good exposures of fossiliferous Lower
animals which were very abundant during
Cretaceous rocks. early Paleozoic time. They are character-
Subclass Holothuroidea - Members ized by a chitinous exoskeleton consisting
of this class, commonly called sea cucum- of rows of cups or tubes which housed the
bers, have a rather elongate, sac-like, living animal. These cups are attached to
cucumber-shaped body and bear little re- single or branching stalks (fig. 24) which
semblance to other members of the phylum in some forms were attached to sea weeds,
Echinodermata. The sea cucumbers do not rocks, or other foreign objects where they
have a well-defined skeleton; rather the led a fixed existence. The stalks of the un-
body is supported by many small, discon- attached graptolites grew on floats (fig.
nected, calcareous plates or rods called 24a) and these floating forms attained
ossicles or sclerites (PI. 35). These minute
wide geographic distribution. It is also pos-
structures are embedded in the leathery
sible that some of the attached forms were
skin which covers the body of the sea cu- fixed to floating objects, such as sea weed,
cumber and may be preserved as fossils. and thus were distributed in this manner.
Such remains are locally abundant in cer- Previous classifications have recognized
tain formations in Texas, but because of the graptolites as members of the phylum
their small size, scattered occurrence, and
Coelenterata. As coelenterates they were
problems in classification, this group is of
assigned, at various times, to the classes
little use to most paleontologists. Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, and Graptozoa. In
Holothuroid body impressions have beenaddition, they were also classified as
reported from the Middle Cambrian, and bryozoans by certain of the early paleon-
sclerites from rocks as old as Mississippian.
tologists. This publication, in keeping with
recent changes in taxonomy, considers
Phylum Chordata graptolites to be an extinct group of
The chordates are the most advanced of hemichordates. This classification is
all animals and are characterized by the based upon research in which uncom-
Fig. 24. Graptolites. (a) Diplograptus (x2). (b) Dendrograptus (x3). (c) Phyllograptus (x2)
pressed graptolites were etched out of Subphylum Vertebrata

chert and studied in great detail. Informa-
tion derived from these relatively undis- The vertebrates are the most advanced
torted specimens indicates a much higher of all chordates. They are characterized by
degree of body organization than was a skull and a bony or cartilaginous internal
skeleton, with a vertebral column of bone
previously suspected, and as a result of
or cartilage. This subphylum is commonly
these studies most paleontologists now con-
sider graptolites to be some form of divided into two superclasses, the Pisces
(the fishes and their relatives) and the
primitive chordate.
The chitinous graptolite exoskeleton is Tetrapoda (the four-footed animals).
As mentioned earlier, most amateur
commonly preserved as a flattened carbon very few vertebrate re-
residue; their remains may be locally collectors collect
mains, and for this reason this group is
abundant along the bedding planes of cer-
tain black or dark gray shales. not discussed in detail. However, the more
are briefly re-
Graptolites are known from rocks that important vertebrate classes
range from Cambrian to Mississippian in
viewed to enable the reader to have some
age, and they are among the most impor- understanding of this important group of
tant guide fossils for Ordovician and animals. This part of the handbook will
Silurian rocks. also serve as an introduction to some of the
Graptolites have been reported from interesting and* unusual, but now extinct,
Cambrian rocks in central Texas and from animals that have inhabited Texas in the
the Ordovician of west Texas (fig. 24). geologic past. Among these animals are
The most abundant of these occur in cer- giant fishes, primitive amphibians, and
tain Ordovician rocks in the Trans-Pecos many different types of dinosaurs. In-
area where they are common fossils in cluded also are such unusual mammals as
certain formations. the giant ground sloths, saber-tooth cats,
Texas Fossils 87
mammoths, and mastodons, all of which they became extinct. Placoderms are rare
are now extinct. The remains of these, and in Texas, but the fragmentary remains of'
many other interesting extinct vertebrates, these primitive fishes have been found in
may be seen in the geological collec- Devonian rocks in central Texas.
tions of the Texas Memorial Museum at Class Chondrichthyes -This
Austin. Many of these displays are ac- class includes such modern forms as the
companied by drawings which depict the sharks, rays, and skates. They are charac-
scientific restoration of the animal's soft terized by skeletons which are composed
parts and show how the animal may have of cartilage and are very abundant in the
appeared in life. marine waters of today. The earliest
known representatives of this class are re-
Superclass Pisces ported from rocks of Devonian age, and,
The members of this superclass are com- they have been relatively common up to
monly called fishes and are the simplest the present time.
and most numerous of all vertebrates. Shark teeth (PI. 37) can be found in
They are aquatic, free-moving, cold- Texas in Pennsylvanian, Permian, Creta-
blooded (their blood maintains the tem- ceous, Paleocene, Eocene, and Miocene
perature of the surrounding water), and
rocks. These are probably the most com-
mon vertebrate fossils to be found in Texas
breathe primarily by means of gills. How-
and are usually found in thin-bedded
ever, some forms (the lungfishes) breathe
marine limestones or clays.
by means of a lung developed from the
air-bladder. Class Osteichthyes -The Os-
The most recent fish classification rec- teichthyes includes the true bony fishes,
ognizes four major classes, the Agnatha which are the most highly developed and
(primitive jawless fishes), the Placodermi abundant of all fishes. They possess an
(armored fishes with primitive jaws), the internal bony skeleton, well-developed
Chondrichthyes (sharks and related forms
jaws, an air-bladder, and, typically, an
with cartilaginous internal skeletons), and external covering of overlapping scales.
the Osteichthyes (true bony fishes). Included in this class are a primitive
group of fishes called crossopterygians.
Class Agnatha -Fishes belonging
to this class are primitive, jawless, and
These were very abundant in the Devonian
represented by the living lampreys and and are believed to be the ancestors of the
hagfishes. The first agnathans appeared in
amphibians. The modern lungfishes also
the Ordovician and were armored by a belong to the class Osteichthyes, and these
bony covering on the front part of their primitive fishes, which are now found only
in Australia, South America, and Africa,
bodies. These primitive fishes, called ostra-
coderms, are the earliest recorded fishes breathe by means of gills and lungs which
and, in addition, appear to be the first
have been developed from the air-bladder.
Although not abundant as fossils, the re-
known vertebrate animals. The ostra- mains of these specialized fishes have
coderms first appeared in late Ordovician added much to present knowledge con-
time, increased in numbers in the Silurian,
and were extinct by the end of the cerning the development of certain of the
higher vertebrates.
Devonian. The remains of bony fishes have been
Class Placodermi -These are collected at many localities in Texas, and
primitive jaw-bearing fishes, the majority fossils of this type have been found pri-
of which were heavily armored (PI. 37). marily in rocks of Cretaceous age but
The placoderms were shark-like in appear- have been reported from other rocks as
ance, and some of them grew to be as well. Fish fossils are more commonly found
much as 30 feet in length. Members of this in the form of teeth (PL 37), vertebrae,
class appeared first in the Devonian and scales, and an occasional well-preserved
lasted into the Permian, at which time skeleton.
Primitive Armored Fish

Texas Fossils 89
Conodonts (Pi. 37) are small, amber- ment. They are cold-blooded and are nor-
colored, tooth-like fossils which are be- mally characterized by a scaly skin. Rep-
lieved to represent the teeth of some type tiles have been much more abundant in
of extinct fish. Although geologists do not the past than they are today, and they
know a great deal about the origin of these assumed many different shapes and sizes
strange fossils they are of value in, in the geologic past. Modern classifications
micropaleontology. Conodonts have been recognize a large number of reptilian
reported from several Paleozoic formations groups, but only the more important of
in Texas and are useful guide fossils in these are briefly reviewed here.
some areas. Cotylosaurs -These were a group of
primitive reptiles which, although retain-
Superclass Tetrapoda ing some amphibian characteristics, be-
The tetrapods are the most advanced came adapted to an exclusively land-dwell-
chordates and are typified by the presence ing existence. The cotylosaurs lived during
of lungs, a three- or four-chambered heart, the Pennsylvanian and Permian and ap-
and paired appendages. Included here are parently became extinct sometime during
the classes Amphibia (frogs, toads, and the late Permian. Cotylosaurs (PI. 40) are
salamanders), Reptilia (lizards, snakes, well known from the Permian of north
turtles, and the extinct dinosaurs), Ayes Texas.
(birds), and Mammalia (including the Turtles -These are reptiles in which
mammals, such as men, does, whales, etc.). the body is more or less completely en-
Class Amphibia -The amphibians closed by bony plates. This group is first
were the earliest developed four-legged ani- known as fossils from late Triassic rocks of
mals and are represented by such living Europe, and modern representatives of the
forms as the toads, frogs, and salamanders. group include the turtles and tortoises.
Amphibians are cold-blooded animals that Fragmentary remains of turtle shells are
primarily breathe by lungs and spend most among the most common vertebrate fossils
of their life on land, but during their early found in the Tertiary. Some of the late
stages of development they live in the water Tertiaryland tortoises were 3 to 4 feet long.
where they breathe by means of gills. The earliest known turtles in Texas have
The amphibians apparently developed been found in Cretaceous rocks.
from the crossopterygian fishes during late Pelycosaurs -The pelycosaurs were
Devonian time and were relatively abun-
a group of late Paleozoic reptiles some of
dant in the Pennsylvanian, Permian, and
Triassic. which were characterized by the presence
Amphibian remains in Texas are con- of a tall fin on the:"r back (PI. 40). The
fined largely to lower Paleozoic and upper fossils of these unusual creatures are well
Mesozoic rocks. Numerous interesting and known from the Permian red beds of north-
important discoveries of fossil amphibians central Texas.
have been made in north and west Texas Therapsids -The therapsids were a
where their remains (PI. 40) have been mammal-like group of reptiles which were
collected in association with early types of well developed for a terrestrial existence.
reptiles. The areas where Permian red Although the remains of these primitive
beds are exposed in Archer and Baylor reptiles are not particularly important
counties and where Triassic red beds are fossils, study of the therapsids hasprovided
exposed from Big Spring north along the much valuable information about the
edge of the High Plains have furnished origin of the mammals. Members of this
most of these specimens. group appeared first in the middle Permian
Class Reptilia -The reptiles have and persisted until the middle Jurassic,
become adapted to permanent life on land but therapsid remains have not been re-
and need not rely on an aquatic environ- ported from Texas.
Rpduc DmthCexDBaylorofwTanWsdUnGivegst,iurJ.
ept.RducflyingDrCxMeDsozicfBaorswamndwthTWUGevt, J.
Cotylosaur
Swimming Reptiles
Texas Fossils
Plate 42
Flying Dinosaurs
Texas Fossils 95
Ichthyosaurs These were extinct, Crocodiles and alligators -These

short-necked, marine reptiles that were reptiles adapted themselves to the same
fish-like in appearance. Ichthyosaurs re- type habitat that was occupied by the phy-
semble the modern dolphins, and some of tosaurs, which preceded them. Crocodiles
them attained lengths of 25 to 40 feet (PL and alligators were much larger and more
41), though the average was much less. abundant during Cretaceous and Cenozoic
The group is known from rocks ranging time than they are today; the crocodiles
from middle Triassic to late Cretaceous in first appeared in the Cretaceous and the
age. alligators in the Tertiary. The remains of
Mosasaurs -The mosasaurs are an- both crocodiles and alligators have been
other group of extinct marine lizards which found in Texas, and one such crocodile
lived in Cretaceous seas. Some of these (Phobosuchus) represents the remains of
great reptiles grew to be as much as 50 the largest crocodile yet discovered (PL
feet long, and their great gaping jaws were 43). This specimen probably had an over-
filled with many sharp recurved teeth (PI. all length of 40 to 50 feet, and its massive
41). Mosasaurs were present in the great skull was 6 feet long and possessed excep-
Cretaceous seas which covered many parts tionally strong jaws. The remains of this
of Texas, and their remains have been re- great beast were collected from exposures
ported from both north and central Texas. of Upper Cretaceous rocks along the Rio
One such skeleton was found near Austin, Grande in Trans-Pecos Texas.
and its skull is on display in the Texas Pterosaurs -These were Mesozoic
Memorial Museum. reptiles with bat-like wings supported by
Plesiosaurs -The plesiosaurs were arms and long thin "fingers" (PL 42). The
marine reptiles which were characterized pterosaurs were well adapted to life in the
by a broad turtle-like body, paddle-like air, and their light-weight bodies and wide
flippers, and a long neck and tail (PI. 41). skin-covered wings enabled them to soar
These reptiles were not as streamlined or or glide for great distances. The earliest
well equipped for swimming as the ich- known pterosaurs were found in lower
thyosaurs or mosasaurs, but the long Triassic rocks, and the group became ex-
serpent-like neck was probably very useful tinct by the end of the Cretaceous. During
in helping the reptile catch fish and other this timecertain of these creatures attained
small animals for food. Pjesiosaur remains a wingspread of as much as 27 feet, but
range from middle Triassic to late Cre- their bodies were small and light.
taceous in age, and they have been found Dinosaurs The collective term
in Cretaceous rocks in Texas. A short- "dinosaurs" (meaning terrible lizards) has
neckedplesiosaur which was collected from been given to that distinctive group of rep-
Upper Cretaceous rocks near Waco is on tiles prominent in Mesozoic life for some
display in the Strecker Museum at Baylor 140 million years. In size, the dinosaurs
University in Waco. ranged from as little as 1 foot to as much
Phytosaurs -The phytosaurs were a as 85 feet in length and from a few pounds
group of crocodile-like reptiles which to perhaps 45 tons in weight. Some were
ranged from 6 to 25 feet in length (PI. 42). carnivorous (meat-eaters) but the majority
They resembled the crocodiles both in ap- were herbivorous (plant-eaters). Some
pearance and in their mode of life, but this were bipedal (walked on their hind-legs)
similarity is only superficial, and the phy- while others were quadrupedal (walked on
tosaurs and crocodiles are two distinct all fours), and although most of the dino-
groups of reptiles. saurs were terrestrial in habitat, aquatic
The phytosaurs are exclusively Triassic and semi-aquatic forms were also present.
in age and their remains have been col- According to the structure of their hip
lected from Triassic rocks along the eastern bones, the dinosaurs have been divided
margin of the High Plains of Texas. into two great orders. These are the Sau-
Dr. Brown, R. T. Bird, and Dr. Schaikjer with the skull of Phobosuchus, an extinct crocodile from the
Cretaceous of Trans-Pecos Texas.
Photograph courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.
Texas Fossils 97
rischia (forms with lizard-like pelvic (PI. 4) and Upper Cretaceous beds in Big
girdle) and the Ornithischia (dinosaurs Bend National Park in Trans-Pecos Texas.
with a bird-like pelvic girdle). Order Ornithischia —The orni-
Order Saurischia-Dinosaurs be- thischian, or bird-hipped dinosaurs, were
longing to this order were particularly herbivorous reptiles which were quite
abundant during the Jurassic and are varied in form and size and appear to have
characterized by hip bones that are similar been more highly developed than the sau-
to those of modern lizards. These dino- rischians. This order includes the duck-
saurs were first discovered in rocks of billed dinosaurs (ornithopods), the plate-
Triassic age and did not become extinct bearing dinosaurs (stegosaurs), the ar-
until the end of the Cretaceous. The lizard- mored dinosaurs (ankylosaurs), and the
hipped reptiles are divided into two rather horned dinosaurs (ceratopsians). Orni-
specialized groups of dinosaurs: the thero- thischian tracks are known from Creta-
pods (carnivorous bipedal dinosaurs that ceous rocks in central and Trans-Pecos
varied greatly in size) and the sauropods Texas.
(herbivorous, quadrupedal, semi-aquatic, Suborder Ornithopoda —These
usually gigantic dinosaurs). unusual dinosaurs were predominantly bi-
Suborder Theropoda -This pedal, semi-aquatic, and some (like the
type of saurischian dinosaur walked on duck-billed dinosaurs) were highly special-
bird-like hind limbs, and they were exclus- ized (Trachodon, PI. 45).
ively meat-eating forms, such as Allosaurus Suborder Stegosauria -The
(PI. 44) of Jurassic age. Some theropods stegosaurs were herbivorous, quadrupedal
were exceptionally large and were undoubt- ornithischians with large projecting plates
edly vicious beasts of prey. This assump- down the back and heavy spikes on their
tion is borne out by such anatomical fea- tails. The Jurassic dinosaur Stegosaurus
tures as the small front limbs with long (PI. 45) is most typical of the plate-bearing
sharp claws for holding and tearing flesh, forms. This creature weighed about 10
and the large strong jaws which were arm- tons, was some 30 feet long, and stood
ed with numerous, sharp, dagger-like teeth. about 10 feet tall at the hips. Stegosaurus
The largest of all known theropods was Ty- is characterized by a double row of large,
ranosaurus rex which, when standing on heavy, pointed plates which run along the
his hind limbs, was almost 20 feet tall. Some animal's back. These places begin at the
individuals were as much as 50 feet long, back of the skull and stop near the end of
and Tyrannosaurus is believed to have the tail. The tail was also equipped with
been among the most vicious animals to four or more long curved spikes which
ever inhabit our earth. A cast of the skull were probably used as a means of defense.
of one of these great beasts is on display The animal had a very small skull which
in the Texas Memorial Museum at Austin, housed a brain that was about the size of a
and a Tyrannosaurus tooth has been found walnut, and it is assumed that these, and
in the Big Bend National Park in Trans- all other dinosaurs, were of very limited
Pecos Texas. intelligence.
Suborder Sauropoda -The Stegosaurus remains have not been dis-
sauropods were the largest of all dinosaurs, covered in Texas, but these, like certain
and some attained a length of 85 feet and other of the extinct vertebrates, are men-
probably weighed 40 to 50 tons (Bronto- tioned because of their interesting and
saurus, PI. 44). They were primarily herbi- unusual form.
vorous dinosaurs which had become adapt- Suborder Ankylosauria -The
ed to an aquatic or semi-aquatic type of ankylosaurs were four-footed, herbivorous,
existence and probably inhabited lakes, Cretaceous dinosaurs which had relatively
rivers, and swamps. The tracks of sauro- flat bodies. The skull and back of the ani-
pod dinosaurs have been collected from mal were protected by bony armor, and the
Lower Cretaceous rocks in central Texas club-like tail was armed with spikes. Paleo-
Saurischian Dinosaurs
Ornithischian Dinosaurs
100 Bureau oj Economic Geology—Guidebook 2
scinus (PL 45), a typical ankylosaur, had and were probably derived from some
largespines projecting from along the sides form of mammal-like reptile. Although
of the body and tail. The armored spiked rare during the Mesozoic, mammals under-
back and the heavy club-like tail probably went rapid development and expansion
provided Pdleoscincus with much-needed during the Cenozoic, and during this era
protection from the vicious meat-eating certain types of mammals became ex-
dinosaurs of Cretaceous time. tremely large and assumed many bizarre
Suborder Ceratopsia -The cer- shapes. The majority of these unusual
atopsians, or horned dinosaurs, are another forms lived but a short time but are well
group of dinosaurs that are known only known from their fossils, and the remains
from rocks of Cretaceous age. These plant- of some of these animals which inhabited
eating dinosaurs possessed beak-like jaws, Texas during the Cenozoic may be seen
a bony neck frill which extended back in the Texas Memorial Museum at Austin.
from the skull, and one or more horns. Tri- Recent mammalian classification rec-
ceratops (PI. 45) is the largest of the ognizes several subclasses and numerous
horned dinosaurs (some forms were as orders and suborders, but the treatment of
much as 30 feet long), and the skull the mammals in a publication of this na-
measured 8 feet from the tip of the parrot- ture must of necessity be somewhat brief
like beak to the back of the neck shield. and no attempt at detailed classification
Class Aves -Because of the fragile is made.
nature of their bodies, birds are seldom Subclass Allotheria -The allotheri-
found as fossils. In spite of this, however, ans first appeared during the Jurassic
some interesting and important fossil bird and underwent considerable development
remains have been discovered. in the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary.
The oldest known bird was found in Included in this subclass are the multi-
Upper Jurassic rocks exposed in Germany. tuberculates which are a group of small
This primitive bird, named Archaeop- rodent-like animals that were probably the
teryx, is little more than a reptile with earliest of the herbivorous mammals.
feathers. Archaeopteryx was a pigeon- These animals were probably never very
sized creature which had scales as well as numerous, and they became extinct dur-
feathers, a lizard-like tail, a toothed beak, ing the early part of Eocene time.
and other definitely reptilian characteris- Subclass Theria -Members of this
tics. subclass are first known from rocks of
During late Cretaceous time the birds Jurassic age, and they constitute the
underwent changes that resulted in forms largest group of mammals that are living
similar to those that are living today, and today. Therians undergo considerable de-
most of the present-day birds had devel- velopment before they are born and at
oped by the end of the Tertiary. birth typically resemble the fully developed
Although not commonly found, fossil animal. This subclass has been divided
birds have been recorded from certain of into several orders but only the more im-
the Cenozoic rocks of Texas. portant ones are discussed here.
Class Mammalia -The mammals Order Edentata —The edentates.
are animals that are born alive and fed are a rather primitive group of mammals
with milk from the mother's breast. They which are represented by such living'
are warm-blooded, air-breathing, have a forms as the anteaters, tree sloths, and
protective covering of hair, and are -the armadillos. Members of this group were
most advanced of all vertebrates. The fore- common in the southern part of the United
going features are the more typical mam- States in Pleistocene and Pliocene time,
malian characteristics, but exceptions to and fossil edentates have been reported
these are found in certain mammals. from rocks of this age in Texas. One such
Mammals first appeared in the Jurassic form was Mylodon (PI. 46), one of the ex-
Cenozoic Mammals
tinct giant ground sloths. These huge diris (PI. 47), both of which have been re-
sloths were quite heavy and some of them ported from the Texas Pleistocene. Some
stood as much as 15 feet tall; these great remains of these unusual forms, represent-
creatures were the forerunners of the mod- ing the cat and dog families, are on display
ern tree sloths of South America. The at the Texas Memorial Museum.
mounted skeleton of one of these giant Order Pantodonta —Pantodonts,
ground sloths is displayed in the Texas known also as amblypods, were primitive,
Memorial Museum. hoofed, herbivorous animals. They were
Another interesting representative of distinguished by a heavy skeleton, short
this order was the glyptodont. These pe- stout limbs, and blunt spreading feet. The
culiar mammals, which were ancestral to pantodonts appeared first during Paleo-
the present-day armadillos, developed at cene time and had become extinct by the
about the same time as the ground sloths. end of the Oligocene.
Glyptodon (PI. 46), a typical glyptodont Order Dinocerata -The mem-
that has been reported from the Pleisto- bers of this order are an extinct group of
cene of Texas, is quite characteristic of gigantic mammals commonly called uinta-
this group. This armadillo-like beast had theres. Uintalherium (PI. 48), which is
a solid turtle-like shell that in some forms typical of the group, had three pairs of
waj as much as 4 feet high. From the blunt horns, and the males had dagger-
front of the bone capped head to the tip of like upper tusks. Some of the uintatheres
its tail, a large individual might be ac were as large as a small elephant and stood
much as 15 feet long. The thick heavy tail as much as 7 feet tall at the shoulders. The
was protected by a series of bony rings, size of the brain in relation to the size of
and in some species the end of the tail was the body suggests that these animals were
developed into a bony heavily spiked not as intelligent as most mammals. Uinta-
club. The carapace (hard outer shell) of a theres are known from rocks ranging from
large glyptodont is mounted at the Texas Paleocene to Eocene in age. Uintathere re-
Memorial Museum. mains have been reported from Big Bend
Order Carnivora -Animals be- National Park in Trans-Pecos Texas.
longing to this order are called carnivores Order Proboscidea -The earliest
and are characterized by clawed feet and proboscideans, the elephants and their rela-
by teeth which are adapted for tearing and tives, first appeared in the late Eocene of
cutting flesh. The carnivores, or meat-eat- Africa and were about the size of a small
ers, were first represented by an ancient modern elephant but had larger heads and
group of animals called creodonts, and this shorter trunks. Proboscidean development
short-lived group first appeared in the is marked by an increase in size, change in
Paleocene and were extinct by the end of skull and tooth structure, and elongation
the Eocene. They ranged from the size of of the trunk. Two well-known fossil pro-
a weazel to that of a large bear, and their boscideans are the mammoth and the
claws were sharp and well developed. Their mastodon, both of which inhabited Texas
teeth, however, were not as specialized as during Pleistocene time. The mastodons
those of modern carnivores, and the creo- resembled the elephants, but the structure
dont brain was relatively small. It is as- of their teeth was quite different (fig. 25).
sumed that these animals had a very low Moreover, the mastodon skull was lower
order of intelligence when compared to the than that of the elephant and the tusks
v
more advanced carnivores of today. were exceptionally large —some reaching

These early meat-eaters were followed a length of 9 feet.
by more specialized carnivores which de- There were several types of mammoths,
veloped throughout Cenozoic time. Some and the woolly mammoth is probably the
examples of these are the saber-tooth cat best known. This animal lived until the
Dinobastis (PI. 47) and the dire wolf Canis end of the Pleistocene and, like the woolly
Cenozoic Mammals
known horse (PL 47). This small animal,
whose remains have been found in Big
Bend National Park, was about 1 foot high
and his teeth indicate a diet of soft food.
Following the first horse, there is a long
series of fossil horses which provide much
valuable information on the history of this
important group of animals.
The record of the development of the
horse is well represented in Texas, and the
bones and teeth of fossil horses are com-
mon in certain parts of the State. Fossils
of this type have been reported from the
Tertiary of the Trans-Pecos, Gulf Coastal
Plain, and High Plains regions of Texas,
and the teeth of Pleistocene horses have
been found in sand and gravel pits in many
parts of the State. Horse teeth (fig. 26) are
Fig. 25. Sketches of Pleistocene (a) mastodon

tooth (xl/6) and (b) mammoth tooth (xl/6).
rhinoceros discussed below, is known from

ancient cave paintings and frozen remains.
Information gathered from these sources
indicates that this great beast had a long
coat of black hair with a woolly undercoat
(PI. 49).
During the Pleistocene, mammoths were
widespread over the United States, and
their remains are abundant in many stream
deposits of this age. Proboscidean bones Fig. 26. Typical Pliocene horse tooth. Top view
have been reported from Pleistocene rocks (a) and lateral view (b) of molar tooth (xl/2).
in many parts of Texas, where they are
commonly found in sand and gravel pits. particularly useful fossils as they may be
Order Perissodactyla -The accurately identified and used to determine
perissodactyls, or odd-toed animals, are the age of the rocks in which they are
mammals in which the central toe on each found.
limb is greatly enlarged. Modern repre- Titanotheres -This group of
sentatives include the horses, rhinoceroses, odd-toed mammals appeared first in the
and tapirs. Extinct members of the Perisso- Eocene, at which time they were about the
dactyla include the titanotheres, chalico- size of a sheep. By Middle Oligocene time
theres, and baluchitheres, all of which they had increased to gigantic proportions
grew to tremendous size and took on many but still had a small and primitive brain.
unusual body forms. Brontotherium (PI. 48) was slightly rhi-
Horses —One of the first pc- noceros-like in appearance and is believed
rissodactyls was Hyracotherium (also to be the largest land animal that ever in-
called Eohippus) , which is the earliest habited the North American continent.
Tertiary Mammals
This animal was about 8 feet tall at the measured approximately 25 feet from head
shoulders; a large bony growth protruded to tail, stood almost 18 feet high at the
from the skull and this was extended into shoulder, and must have weighed many
a flattened horn, which was divided at the tons. Remains of these creatures have not
top. been discovered in North America, and
Although the titanotheres underwent they appear to have been restricted to
rapid development during the early Ter- Central Asia.
tiary, these huge beasts became extinct Order Artiodactyla —The artio-
during the middle of the Oligocene epoch. dactyls are the even-toed hoofed mammals
Titanothere remains have been reported and include such familiar forms as pigs,
from the Trans-Pecos region of Texas. camels, deer, goats, sheep, and hippo-
Chalicotheres-The chalico- potamuses. This is a large and varied group
theres were in some ways like the titano- of animals, but the basic anatomical struc-
theres, but they also exhibited many ture of the limbs and teeth show well the
peculiarities of their own. The head and relationship between the different forms.
neck of Moropus, a typical chalicothere, Artiodactyls are abundant fossils in rocks
were much like that of a horse, but the ranging from Eocene to Pleistocene in age
front legs were longer than the hind legs, and are common in rocks of this age in
and the feet resembled those of a rhinoc- Texas.
eros except that they bore long claws in- Entelodonts —These giant pig-
stead of hoofs. The chalicotheres lived in like artiodactyls lived during Oligocene
North America from Miocene until Pleis- and early Miocene time and were distin-
tocene time but were probably never very guished by a long heavy skull that held a
numerous, and their remains have not yet relatively small brain. The face was
been discovered in Texas. marked by large knobs which were located
Rhinoceroses —The rhinocer- beneath the eyes and on the underside of
Oses are also odd-toed animals, and there the lower jaw, and although these knob-
are many interesting and well-known like structures were blunt they had the ap-
fossils in this group. The woolly rhinoceros pearance of short horns. Certain of these
(PI. 49) was a Pleistocene two-horned giant swine attained a height of 6 feet at
form that ranged from southern France to the shoulders and had skulls that measured
northeastern Siberia. The woolly rhinoc- 3 feet in length (PI. 46). Entelodont re-
eros is wellknown from complete carcasses mains have been found in the Miocene of
recovered from the frozen tundra of Siberia the Texas Coastal Plain.
and from remains that were found pre- Camels - The first known
served in an oil seep in Poland. These camels have been reported from rocks of
unusual specimens plus cave paintings upper Eocene age, and these small forms
made by early man have given a complete underwent considerable specialization of
and accurate record of this creature. Al- teeth and limbs as they developed in size.
though the woolly rhinoceros has not been Many of the camels that lived during the
reported from Texas, other fossil rhinoc- middle Cenozoic had long legs which were
eroses have been found in the High Plains well adapted to running and long necks
and Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas. These which would have allowed the animals to
fossils have been found in rocks ranging browse on the leaves of tall trees.
from Middle Oligocene to late Pliocene The earliest known Texas camels were
in age. found in rocks of Oligocene age, and
Baluchitherium, the largest land mam- camels, like horses, must have been abun-
mal known to science, was a hornless rhi- dant in Texas during the Pleistocene for
noceros that lived in late Oligocene and their fossilized remains are common in
early Miocene time. This immense creature many parts of the State.
Cenozoic Mammals
Books About Fossils
The following books are recommended Colbert, E. H. (1957) Dinosaurs, American Mu-
seum of Natural History, New York.
for the reader who wants to know more This little booklet provides a well-illustrated
about fossils and fossil collecting. The introduction to the dinosaurs. For high school
publications listed below cover various and adult-level readers.
Dilckinson, Alice (1954) First book of prehis-
phases of historical geology and paleon- toric animals, Franklin Watts, Inc., New York.
tology and range from children's books to Easy to read, well-illustrated book for grade-
school age.
the more technical publications of the pro- Dunkle, D. H. (1957) The world of the dino-
fessional paleontologist. This list, however, saurs, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
is by no means all-inclusive and many D. C.
An easy to understand, amply illustrated intro-
other interesting and useful publications duction to the dinosaurs (high school —adult
are available. level).
Fenton, C. L. (1937) Life long ago, The John
General Works Day Co.,New York.
Very good for advanced grade and high-school
Dunbar, C. 0. (1959) Historical geology, John age.
Wiley and Sons,New York. Heal, Edith (1930) How the world began,
College-level text, well written and well illus- Thomas S. Rockwell Co.,Chicago.
trated. An account of the beginnings of life. For upper
Moore, R. C. (1958) Introduction to historical grade through high-school age.
geology, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Markman, H. C. (1954) Fossils, Denver Museum
College-level presentation of earth history. of Natural History, Denver, Colo.
Many illustrations of fossils. A well-illustrated general survey of fossils. For
Moore, Ruth (1953) Man, time, and fossils,Al- adult-level readers.
Fred Knopf, New York. Matthews lit, W. H. (1962) Fossils: An intro-
A readable account of fossils and their develop- duction to prehistoric life, Barnes and Noble,
ment throughout geologic time. Inc., New York. ["In preparation" at time of
Pangborn, M. W., Jr. (1957) Earth for the lay- first printing of Guidebook No. 2.]
man, American Geological Institute, Washing- This publication contains many collecting aids
ton, D. C. and much background material for amateur
Contains many valuable references. collectors. Contains also a brief review of earth
Raymond, P. E. (1950) Prehistoric life, Harvard history.
University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Matthews 111, W. H. (1963) Wonders of the
College-level text. dinosaur world, Dodd, Mead & Co.,New York.
Richards, H. G. (1953) Record of the rocks, Well illustrated, non-technical presentation of
Ronald Press, New York. dinosaurs. For junior-high and high-school
College-level earth history text. teachers.
Simpson, G. G. (1953) Life of the past, Yale
University Press, New Haven, Conn. Parker, B. M. (1942) Stories read from the rocks,
Thorough, yet readable, introduction to paleon- Basic Science Education Series,Row, Peterson
tology. and Co., Evanston, 111.
Stirton, R. A. (1959) Time, life, and man: the Well written and colorfully illustrated. For ad-
fossil record, John Wiley and Sons, New York. vanced grades and junior high.
An introductory college text, most of which is Parker, B. M. (1948) Animals of yesterday,
of interest to adult level general readers. Basic Science Education Series, Row, Peterson,
Note: See also sections on Paleontology and and Co.,Evanston, 111.
Fossils in Encyclopedia Americana, Encyclo- Well written and colorfully illustrated. For ad-
paedia Britannica, and others. vanced grades and junior high.
Shaver, R. H. (1959) Adventures with fossils,
Geological Survey, Indiana Department of Con-
servation, Bloomington, Ind.
Nontechnical and Juvenile Collection hints and general information on fos-
Andrews, R. C. (1953) All about dinosaurs, Ran- sils. Particularly for the lower grades.
dom House, New York. Shuttlesworth, D. E. (1957) Real book of pre-
Interesting and readable dinosaur book for historic life, Garden City Books, Garden City,
junior high and high-school age. N.Y.
Andrews, R. C. (1956) All about strange beasts Survey of prehistoric life. For grade and junior-
of the past, Random House, New York. high levels.
Interesting and easy to read, this book deals Collecting Helps
largely with extinct and unusual mammals
(junior high and .high school). Brown, Vinson (1954) How to make a home na-
Colbert, E. H. (1945) The dinosaur book, Amer- ture museum, Little, Brown and Co., Boston.
ican Museum of Natural History, New York. Contains suggestions for collecting, mounting,
A classic among "popular" dinosaur books. For and displaying fossils and other objects of na-
all age levels. ture.
Texas Fossils 109
Camp, C. L., and Hanna, G. D. (1937) Methods Jones, D. J. (1956) Introduction to microfossils,
in paleontology, University of California Press, Harper and Brothers, New York.
Berkeley. College-level textbook with considerable infor-
Excellent discussion of collecting and prepara- mation on collection, preparation, and the types
tion techniques. of microfossils.
Casanova,Richard (1957) An illustrated guide Moore, R. C, et al. (1953-1959) Treatise on in-
to fossil collecting, Natureograph Co.,San Mar- vertebrate paleontology, Geological Society of
tin, Calif. America and University of Kansas, Lawrence,
Has collecting hints and fossil localities for Kansas.
most of the States. A technical reference for the more advanced
Collinson, C. C. (1959) Guide for beginning collector. It is issued in several parts and con-
fossil hunters, Educational Series 4, Illinois tains latest classification.
State Geological Survey, Urbana. Moore, R. C, Lalicker, C. G.,and Fisher, A. G.
Clearly written, well illustrated, particularly (1953) Invertebrate fossils,McGraw-Hill Book
for thelower grades. Co., New York.
Goldring, Winifred (1950) Handbook of paleon- College-level reference with fine illustrations.
tology for beginners and amateurs, New York Of value for purposes of identification.
State Museum, Albany, N. Y. Romer, A. S. (1945) Vertebrate paleontology,
A complete summary of paleontology. For the University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
advanced collector. A college-level textbook with numerous illus-
La Rocque, A., and Marple, M. F. (1955) Ohio trations.
fossils,Ohio Division of Geological Survey, Bul- Shimer, H. W. (1933) Introduction to the study
letin 54, Columbus,
Ohio. of fossils,The Macmillan Company, New York.
Rather comprehensive treatment of the inverte- A relatively simple college-level presentation
brates with several useful keys for fossil identi- of plant and animal fossils.
fication. Shimer,H. W., and Shrock, R. R. (1944) Index
Liviingston, V. E., Jr. (1959) Fossils in Washing- fossils of North America, John Wiley and Sons,
ton, Division of Mines and Geology, Department New York.
of Conservation, Olympia, Wash. Comprehensive survey of the more common
An introduction to the geology and fossils of fossils of North America. Useful to the ad-
Washington. Contains guide to collecting lo- vanced collector and a most useful aid for
calities. fossil identification.
Simpson, B. W. (1958) Gem trails of Texas, Bes- Shrock, R. R., and Twenhofel, W. H. (1953)
sie W. Simpson, Granbury, Texas. Principles of invertebrate paleontology, Mc-
Field guide to Texas mineral, rock, and fossil Graw-Hill Book Co., New York.
locations. Contains numerous maps and well- Useful college-level reference for advanced col-
described collecting localities. lectors.
Unklesbay, A. G. (1955) Common fossils of
Selected References on Texas Fossils

Missouri, University of Missouri Bulletin, Hand-
book 4, Columbia,Mo.
Written for the amateur; contains much gen-
eral information of interest to the beginning
collector. *Adkins, W. S. (1920) The Weno and Paw-
paw formations of the Texas Comanchean:
Univ. Texas Bull. 1856.
Reference Works Descriptions and illustrations of many common
Cretaceous fossils.
Arnold, C. A. (1947) An introduction to paleo- *Adkins, W. S. (1928) Handbook of Texas Cre-
botany, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,New Ycrk. taceous fossils: Univ. Texas Bull. 2838.
College-level textbook. Lists all fossils described from the Texas Cre-
Beerbower, J. R. (1960) Search for the past, taceous prior to 1928, with many useful illus-
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J. trations.
Good background text. Well illustrated. Has *Adkins, W. S., and Winton, W. M. (1919)
section on vertebrates. Paleontological correlation of the Fredericks-
Colbert, E. H. (1955) Evolution of the verte- burg and Washita formations of north-central
brates, John Wiley and Sons,New York. Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 1945.
Comprehensive and technical treatment of Contains descriptions and illustrations of many
vertebrate fossils. common Lower Cretaceous fossils of north-
central Texas.
Cushman,J.A. (1948) Foraminifera,their classi-
fication and economic use, Harvard University Clarke, W. 8., and Twitchell, M. W. (1915)
Press, Cambridge, Mass. The Mesozoic and Cenozoic Echinodermata of
College-level text containing large numbers of the United States: U. S. Geological Survey
descriptions and illustrations of foraminifera. Monograph 54, Washington, D. C.
A valuable guide to the Mesozoic and Ceno-
Easton, W. H. (1960) Invertebrate paleontology, zoic echinoderms of Texas.
Harper& Bros., Inc., New York.
College-level text. Good illustrations, useful for
identification. Entries marked with asterisk are published by the Bureau
Fenton, C. L., and Fenton, M. A. (1958) The *
of Economic Geology, The University of Texas, Austin. Those
fossil book, Doubleday and Co., New York. not out of print are distributed at nominal sale price; list
Comprehensive, easy-to-read, beautifully illus- sent on request. These publications may be consulted at many
trated treatment of all types offossils. public libraries and/or Chamberof Commerceoffices.
*Frizzell, D. L. (1954) Handbook of Cretaceous *Plummer, F. 8., and Scott, Gayle (1937) Up-
Foraminifera of Texas: Univ. Texas, Bureau per Paleozoic ammonites in Texas: Univ.
Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 22. TexasBull. 3701, pt. 1.
A technical, but invaluable aid in the h-ludy of *Renick, B. C, and Stenzel, H. B. (1931) The
Texas Cretaceous microfossils. lower Claiborne of the Brazos River, Texas:
*Girard, R. M. (1959) Bibliography and index Univ. Texas Bull. 3101, pp. 73-108.
of Texas geology, 1933-1950: Univ. Texas Pub. Contains discussion and illustrations of many
5910. common Tertiary fossils.
This valuable reference guide contains many Sellards, E. H. (1955) Texas through 250 mil-
references to Texas fossils. Note especially en- lion years: Museum Notes No. 4, Texas Me-
tries under Paleontology in the index. morial Museum, Austin.
Heuer, Edward (1958) Comments on the nomen- This little booklet provides a short geologic
clature revision of the Strawn and Canyon history of Texas along with a review of oil in
megafossil plates, in A guide to the Strawn and Texas.
Canyon Series of the Pennsylvanian System in *Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and Plummer,
Palo Pinto County, Teaxs, An Occasional Pub- F. B. (1933) The geology of Texas, Vol. I,
lication of the North Texas Geological Society, Stratigraphy: Univ. Texas Bull. 3232 (August
Wichita Falls, Texas. 22,1932).
Contains illustrations and latest name changes This important publication will give the ad-
of many of the more common Pennsylvanian vanced collector much valuable information on
fossils of north Texas. the distribution of the rocks of Texas. Com-
*King, R. E. (1930) Geology of the Glass Moun- plete with geologic map.
tains, Part 11, Faunal summary and correlation Stanton, T. W. (1947) Studies of some Co-
of the Permian formations with description of
manche pelecypods and gastropods: U. S. Ge-
Brachiopoda: Univ. Texas Bull. 3042. ological Survey Prof. Paper 211, Washington,
D. C.
Contains descriptions and illustrations of nu- Describes and illustrates most of the more com-
merous brachiopods from the Glass Mountains
mon Lower Cretaceous pelecypods and gastro-
of Trans-Pecos Texas.
pods of the State.
*Lee, Wallace, et al. (1939) Stratigraphic and *Stenzel, H. 8., Krause, E. X., and Twining,
paleontologic studies of the Pennsylvanian and J. T. (1957) Pelecypoda from the type locality
Permian rocks of north-central Texas: Univ. of the Stone City beds (Eocene) of Texas:
Texas Pub. 3801. Univ. Texas Pub. 5704.
Contains an extensive faunal list and important Descriptions and illustrations of many of the
collecting localities for Pennsylvanian inverte- more common Tertiary clams and oysters.
brates. *Stephenson, L. W. (1941) The larger inverte-
*Moore, R. C, and Jeffords, R. M. (1944) De- brate fossils of the Navarro group of Texas:
scription of lower Pennsylvanian corals from Univ. Texas Pub. 4101.
Texas and adjacent states: Univ. Texas Pub. Contains descriptions of many common Upper
4401, pp. 77-208. Cretaceous invertebrates (exclusive of corals
Describes and illustrates many of the more and crustaceans).
common Pennsylvanian corals. Stephenson, L. W. (1952) Larger invertebrate
*Plummer, F. B. (1943) The Carboniferous rocks fossils of the Woodbine formation (Cenoman-
of the Llano region of central Texas: Univ. ian) of Texas: U. S. Geological Survey Prof.
Texas Pub. 4329. Paper 242, Washington, D. C.
Contains geologic map, locality data, and illus- *Winton, W. M. (1925) The geology of Denton
trations of many Carboniferous fossils. County: Univ. Texas Bull. 2544.
Illustrates and discussesthe occurrence of many
*Plummer, F. 8., and Moore, R. C. (1921) Stra-
tigraphy of the Pennsylvanian formations of
Cretaceous fossils.
*Winton, W. M., and Adkins, W. S. (1920) The
north-central Texas: Univ. Texas Bull. 2132. geology of Tarrant County: Univ. Texas Bull.
Describes and illustrates many of the more 1931.
common Pennsylvanian fossils of north-central Contains many illustrations of common north
Texas. Texas Cretaceous fossils.
Glossary
Amber —a hard, yellowish, translucent, fossilized Chert—a cryptocrystalline variety of silica; flint
plant resin. is a variety of chert.
Ammonite —ammonoid cephalopod with com- Chitin—a horn-like substance, found in the hard
plexly wrinkled suture pattern; member of parts of many animals, such as beetles, crabs,
subclass Ammonoidea. etc.
Anterior —front or fore. Chitinous—composed of chitin.
Anus—the terminal opening of the alimentary Cirri—in crinoids, the jointed appendages which
canal, through which waste matter is discarded branch off the side of the stem or from the base
from the body. of some crinoid stems.
Aperture—the opening of shells, cells, etc. Coelenterate—invertebrates characterized by a
Aragonite —calcium carbonate (CaCCM crystal- hollow body cavity, radial symmetry, and sting-
lizing in a different form than calcite. In shells ing cells; a member of phylum Coelenterata;
it is chalky and opaque; is less stable than includes jellyfishes, corals, sea anemones.
calcite. Colonial—in biology refers to the way in which
Archeozoic—the oldest known geological era; some invertebrateslive in close association with,
early Precambrian time. and are more or less interdependent upon, each
Articulated—joined by interlocking processes other; colonial corals, hydroids, etc.
or by teeth and sockets. Columella—a small column or central axis; in
Asymmetrical—without or lacking symmetry. corals the small rod or axial pillar in the center
Bilateral—pertaining to the two halves of a body of the corallite; in gastropods the solid or perfo-
as symmetrical and mirror images of each other. rate pillar formed by the union of the successive
Binomial nomenclature —system of scientific coils of a conispiral shell.
nomenclature requiring two names: generic Columnal—one of the disk-shaped segments of
and trivial. a crinoid stalk.
Blastoid—stalked echinoderm with bud-like Concentric—having a common center, as circles;
calyx usually consisting of 13 plates; member refers to shell markings that are parallel to
of class Blastoidea. shell margin.
Brachiopod—bivalved marine invertebrate; Concretion—nodular or irregular masses in
member of phylum Brachiopoda. sedimentary rocks and usually formed around
Brackish—a mixture of salt and fresh waters. a central core, which is often a fossil.
Burrow —a hole in the ground, rock, wood, etc., Conical—cone-shaped.
made by certain animals for shelter or while Conodont—minute tooth-like fossils found in
gathering food. certain Paleozoic rocks; their origin is not defi-
Calcareous—composed of, or containing, calcium nitely known, but they may have been part of
carbonate; limy. some type of extinct fish.
Calcite—calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) crystalliz- Coral—bottom-dwelling marine invertebrate that
ing in a differentform than aragonite. In shells secretes calcareous hard parts; member of class
it is translucent and more stable than arago- Anthozoa, phylum Coelenterata.
nite. Corallite—the skeleton formed by an individual
Cambrian—the first (oldest) period of the Pale- coral animal; may be solitary or form part of
ozoic era. a colony.
Calyx—in corals the bowl-shaped depression in Corallum—the skeleton of a coral colony.
the upper part of the skeleton; in stalked echi- Corona—crown; in echinoids the main part of
noderms that part of the body which contains the skeleton consisting of symmetrically ar-
most of the soft parts. ranged calcareous plates.
Caprinid—a Cretaceous pelecypod that is typi- Coprolite—the fossil excrement of animals.
cally coiled in the form of a ram's horn. Correlation—the process of demonstrating that
Carapace—the hard protective covering that certain strata are closely related to each other
forms the exoskeleton of many invertebrates; in or that they are stratigraphic equivalents.
arthropods it is usually chitinous or calcaro- Cretaceous—the third and last period of the
chitinous. Mesozoic era.
Carbonization—the process of fossilization Cystoid—an extinct stemmed echinoderm with
whereby organic remains are reduced to car- calyx composed of numerous irregularly ar-
bon or coal. ranged plates; member of class Cystoidea.
Cast—the impression taken from a mold. Dendritic—resembling a tree, branching.
Cenozoic—the latest era of geologic time, fol- Dentition—the system or arrangement of teeth
lowing the Mesozoic era and extending to the peculiar to any given animal.
present. Devonian—the fourth oldest period of the Pale-
Cephalon—the head; in trilobites the anterior ozoic era, follows the Silurian, precedes the
body segment forming the head. Mississippian.
Cephalopod—marine invertebrate with well-de- Dip —the angle of inclination which the bedding
fined head and eyes and with tentacles around plane of rocks makes with a real or imaginary
the mouth; member of class Cephalopoda, phy- horizontal line.
lum Mollusca; includes squids, octopuses, Distillation—in fossils that process by which
pearly nautilus. volatile organic matter is removed, leaving a
Ceratite—an ammonoid cephalopod with suture carbon residue.
composed of rounded saddles and jagged lobes; Dolomite —a mineral composed of calcium mag-
member of subclass Ammonoidea. nesium carbonate (CaMg(COa)2).
Dorsal—pertaining to the back. Geologic range —the known duration of an or-

Echinoderm —a marine invertebrate with cal- ganism's existence throughout geologic time
careous exoskeleton and usually exhibiting a (e.g., Cambrian to Recent for brachiopods).
five-fold radial symmetry; member of phylum Glauconite—a greenish mineral commonly
Echinodermata; includes cystoids, blastoids, formed in marine environments and essentially
crinoids, starfishes,and sea urchins. a hydrous silicate of iron and potassium.
Echinoid —bottom-dwelling, unattached marine Goniatite—an ammonoid cephalopod with suture
invertebrate with exoskeleton of calcareous composed of smooth saddles and simple angu-
plates covered by movable spines; member of lar lobes; member of subclass Ammonoidea.
class Echinoidea; sea urchins, heart urchins, Graptolite—an extinct, marine, colonial organ-
biscuit urchins. ism with chitinous hard parts; believed to be-
Endoskeleton—the internal supporting struc- long to subphylum Hemichordata of phylum
ture of an animal. Chordata.
Eocene—the next to earliest of the Tertiary Guide fossil—see Fossil.
epochs, follows the Paleocene and precedes the Habitat—the physical environment in which an
Oligocene. organism lives.
Equivalved—right and left valves subequal and Hinge-line—in brachiopods, the edge of the
(except for hinge structures) comprising mir- shell where the two valves articulate; in pelecy-
ror images of each other. pods, the dorsal margin of the valve which is in
Evolution—a term applied to those methods or continual contact with the opposite valve.
processes and to the sum of those processes Igneous rock—rocks which have solidified from
whereby organisms change through successive lava or molten rock called magma.
generations. Index fossil—see Fossil.
Exoskeleton—an external skeleton, or hard Inequivalved—opposite valves unlike in shape
covering for the rotection of soft parts, par- or size, or both.
"
ticularly among in/ertebrates. Jurassic—second oldest period of the Mesozoic;
Fault—the displacement of rocks along a zone of follows the Triassic, precedes the Cretaceous.
fracture. Keel—a strong continuous ridge along the ven-
Fauna—an assemblage of animals (living or tral side of ammonites.
fossil) living in a given place at a given time. Larva—the young form of some animals before
Flank—the side or lateral portion of anything. they assume the mature shape.
Flora—an assemblage of plants (living or fossil) Lateral—side or to the side.
living in a given place at a given time. Lithology —the study and description of rocks
Fold—in brachiopods, a major rounded elevation based on the megascopic (with the naked eye)
of shell which affects both inner and outer examination of samples. Used also to refer to
shell surfaces. the texture and composition of any given rock
Foramen—in brachiopods, the opening in the sample.
pedicle valve near the beak where the pedicle Living chamber—in mollusks, that part of the
extends through the shell. shell which is occupied by the living animal.
Foraminifer—a protozoan usually possessing a Lobe—in cephalopods, the backward flexure of
calcareous, perforated, chambered shell, but the suture or septum.
shell may be chitinous or agglutinated; a mem- Longitudinal—in a direction parallel with the
ber of the order Foraminifera, phylum Proto- length.
zoa. Lophophore—in brachiopods,a tentacle-bearing
Formation —a rock unit useful for mapping and appendage attached to the anterior surface of
distinguished primarily on the basis of litho- the mantle cavity.
logic characters. Mantle—in mollusks and brachiopods, a layer
Fossil—the remains or traces of organisms buried of tissue containing cells that secrete the shell.
by natural causes and preserved in the earth's Meso—a prefix signifying middle.
crust. Mesozoic—that era of geologic time that pre-
Guide fossil—a fossil which, because of its lim- cedes the Cenozoic and follows the Paleozoic.
ited vertical but wide horizontal distribution, Miocene—fourth oldest epoch of the Tertiary
is of value as a guide or index to the age of period; follows the Oligocene, precedes the
the rocks in which it is found. Pliocene.
Fossiliferous—containing fossilized organic re- Mississippian—fifth oldest period of the Pale-
mains. ozoic; follows theDevonian, precedes the Penn-
sylvanian.
Fusulinid—a spindle-shaped foraminifer; test Multicellular —composed of more than one cell.
shaped like a grain of wheat. Nacreous —pearly.
Gastrolith —highly polished well-rounded peb-
bles found associated with certain reptilian Node —a knob.
-oid—a suffix meaning "in the form of."
fossils;"stomach stones." Oligocene—the third oldest epoch of the Ter-
Gastropod—a terrestrial or aquatic invertebrate, tiary period; precedes the Miocene, follows the
typically possessing a single-valved, calcareous, Eocene.
coiled shell; member of class Gastropoda, phy- Operculum—the lid or covering of the apper-
lum Mollusca; snails and slugs. ture of certain shells.
Geologic age—the age of an object as stated Oral—referring to the mouth or aperture.
in terms of geologic time (e.g., a Pennsylvanian Orbitoidids—foraminifers with large typically
fern, Cretaceous dinosaur). disk-shaped tests.
Geologic map—map showing distribution of Ordovician—second oldest period of the Pale-
rock outcrops, structural features,mineral de- ozoic era; follows the Cambrian,precedes the
posits, etc. Silurian.
Texas Fossils 113
Ossicle—loosely used as a small plate. tion accompanied by almost simultaneous dep-

Paleocene—oldest epoch of the Tertiary period; osition of other substances in the resulting
precedes the Eocene. voids; mineralization.
Paleozoic—that era of geologic time that follows Respiration—the process of oxygenation.
Precambrian time and precedes the Mesozoic Rock—an aggregation of one or more minerals.
era. Rock-unit —divisions of rocks based on definite
Pedicle opening (pedicle foramen) —see physical and lithologic characteristics and not
Foramen. defined on the basis of geologic time alone;
Pelecypod—a bivalved aquatic invertebrate; groups, formations, members.
member of class Pelecypoda, phylum Mollusca. Rudistid—a Cretaceous pelecypod that does not
Pennsylvanian—the sixth oldest period of the exhibit the typical clam or oyster shape; many
Paleozoic era; follows the Mississippian, pre- are cone-shaped,resembling corals.
cedes the Permian. Saddle—in cephalopods, the forward flexure
Period—a division of geologic time (PL 1). (curved toward the aperture) of the suture or
Periostracum—the horny outer covering or epi- septum.
dermis on shells. Scaphopod—an exclusively marine mollusk with
Permian—seventh and last period of the Pale- a single-valved tusk-shaped shell; member of
ozoic. class Scaphopoda, phylum Mollusca.
Permineralization—that process by which min- Scavenger—an animal that feeds on organic re-
eral matter has been added to the original shell fuse.
material by precipitation in the interstices rath- Sedentary—stationary in life, not moving from
er than replacing the original shell material. place to place.
Phosphatic—containing or pertaining to phos- Sediment—material that has been deposited by
phate minerals. settling from a transportation agent such as
Phylum—one of the primary divisions of the water or air; typically composed of weathered
animal or vegetable kingdoms. rock fragments.
Planispiral—shell coiled in one plane. Sedimentary rock—rocks formed from the ac-
Pleistocene —earliest epoch of Quaternary pe- cumulation and lithification of sediments.
riod, Cenozoic era; follows Pliocene epoch of Segment—one of the parts into which a body
Tertiary period, precedes Recent epoch of naturally separates or is divided; for example,
Quaternary. segments of arthropods or annelid worms.
Pleural—referring to the side or ribs; in trilo- Septal—pertaining to the septum.
bites, refers to lateral portions of thorax and Septum (plural, septa)-—a dividing wall or par-
pygidium. tition; in fusulinids, a partition between cham-
Pliocene —latest epoch of Tertiary period of bers in the fusulinid shell; in corals, one of the
Cenozoic era; follows Miocene epoch and pre- radiating, longitudinal, calcareous plates lo-
cedes Pleistocene epoch of Quaternary period. cated within the corallite; in cephalopods, the
Polygonal—many sided or having many-sided transverse partitions between the chambers.
plates. Series—the rocks formed during an epoch; the
Polyp— a many-tentacled aquatic coelenterate time-stratigraphic term next in rank below
animal, typically cylindrical or cup-shaped, as a system.
in corals. Serrate—notched like a saw.
Porcelaneous—like porcelain. Sessile—animal attached to the sea floor more or
Pore—a verysmall opening. less permanently.
Posterior —situated behind; to the rear. Silica—an oxide of silicon (S1O2).
Precambrian—that portion of geologic time be- Siliceous—containing or pertaining to silica.
fore the Cambrian;divided into Archeozoic era Silicification—the process of combining or im-
(Early Precambrian) and Proterozoic era pregnating with silica.
(Late Precambrian). Silurian—the third oldest period of the Pale-
Protero—combining form meaning fore, former, ozoic era; follows the Ordovician,precedes the
or anterior in time (Greek proteros, fore). Devonian.
Proterozoic—youngest era of the Precambrian; Sinus—an elongate depression on brachiopod
follows the Archeozoic era and precedes the shells.
Cambrian period of the Paleozoic era. Siphuncle—in cephalopods, the segmented
Protista—the organic kingdom including the horny or calcareous tube which extends from
simplest of all one-celled organisms which pos- the protoconch to the living chamber.
sess various characters of both plants and ani-
mals; bacteria, algae, foraminifers,radiolarians. Slickensides—polished and grooved surfaces
that are the result of two rock masses sliding
Protoconch—in mollusks, the initial chamber of past each other as in faulting.
shell.
Pyrite—a hard, brass-yellow mineral composed of Solitary—living alone; not part of a colony.
iron sulfide; "fool's gold." Species—one of the smaller natural divisions in
Quaternary—the youngest period of the Ceno- classification.
zoic era, follows the Tertiary period. Specific name—see Trivial name.
Radial symmetry—see Symmetry. Spicule—a minute spike or dart, skeletal ele-
Reef—a mound-like or ridge-like elevation of the ment in sponges and holothurians.
sea bottom which almost reaches the surface Stratum (plural, strata) —a single bed or layer
of the water, composed primarily of organic ma- of rock.
terial and commonly formed by reef-building Strike—the direction of a real or imaginary line
animals,such as coralsand oysters. that is formed by the intersection of a bed or
Replacement—type of fossilization whereby stratum with a horizontal plane; strike is per-
hard parts of organisms are removed by solu- pendicular to the dip.
Subconical—less than conical in shape; almost Topography—the physical features or configura-

a cone. tion of a land surface.
Suture—the line of junction between two parts; Topographic map—a map showing the physical
in crinoids, the line of junction between two features of an area, especially the relief and
plates; in gastropods, the line of junction of the contour of theland.
whorls as seen on the exterior of the shell; in Transverse —at right angles to length.
cephalopods, the line of junction between a Triassic—the youngest period of the Mesozoic
septum and the shell wall. era; follows the Permian period of the Pale-
Symmetry—orderly arrangement of parts of an ozoic and precedes the Jurassic period of the
object with reference to lines, planes, or points. Mesozoic.
Bilateral symmetry—the symmetrical duplica- Trilobite—an extinct marine arthropod having a
tion of parts on each side of a vertical an- flattened segmented body covered by a hard-
terior-posterior plane. ened dorsal exoskeleton divided into three
Radial symmetry—the symmetrical repetition lobes.
of parts around a common vertical dorso- Trivial name—the Latinized name added lo a
ventrally disposed axis. generic name to distinguish the species; same
Pentamerous symmetry—symmetry arranged in as specific name.
a pattern of fives. Type locality—the geographic location at which
System—the rocks formed during a period; the a formation was first described and from which
time-stratigraphic term next in rank above a it was named; or from which the type speci-
series. men of a fossil species comes.
Taxonomy—that branch of science that deals Type specimen—the individual or specimen on
with classification,especially in relation to which the original designation of a species was
plants, animals, or fossils. established.
Tertiary—the oldest period of the Cenozoic era; Umbilicus —an external depression or opening
follows the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic at the center of many loosely coiled shells; in
and precedes the Quaternary period of the gastropods it is usually located at the base of
Cenozoic. the shell; in cephalopods it is usually located
Test—the protective covering of some inverte- laterally.
brate animals. Unibo—the arched part of the valve near the
Theea —a sheath or case; in coelenterates, the beak in bivalve shells.
bounding wall at or near the margin of the exo- Unicellular—composed of one cell.
skeleton; in echinoderms, the main body skel-
Valve—the one or more pieces comprising the
eton (or calyx) which houses the animal's soft shell of animals.
parts; in graptolites, any cup or tube of the
colony. Variety—a subdivision of a species, designated
by a third name when a variety is designated.
Thorax—in trilobites, that part of the body be- Ventral—pertaining to the abdomen; as opposed
tween the cephalon and pygidium.
Time-unit —a portion of continuous geologic to dorsal, pertaining to theback.
time (e.g., eras, periods, epochs, and ages). Vertebrate—an animal having a backbone or
Time-rock unit—same as time-stratigraphic spinal column.
unit. Whorl—a single turn or volution of a coiled shell.
Time-stratigraphic unit—term given to rock -zoic—combining form meaning "life" (Greek
units with boundaries established by geologic zoikos, life).
time; strata deposited during definite portions Zooecium (plural, zooecia) —tube or chamber
of geologic time (e.g., systems, series, stages, occupied by an individual of the bryozoan
etc.). colony; also called an autopore.
Index
Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.
Acanthoceras: 77 Asterozoa: 82
Actinomma: 49 Astraeospongium: 50
Africa: 87 Astrhelia: 53
Agnatha: 87 Astylospongia: 50
Alaska: 7 Aulosteges tuberculatus: 12. 13
Alectryonia lugubris: 68 Austin: 14,17,19,87
algae: 44, 46, 47 Austin College: 27
"algal biscuits": 44 Australia: 87
alligators: 95 author,of a fossil: 22
Allorisma: 67 autopores: 51
Allosaurus: 90, 97, 98 Ayes: 89, 100
Allotheria: 100 Avonia: 12, 13
allotherians: 100 signata: 12, 13
Amarillo College: 27 subhorrida: 12, 13
amber: 7
amblypods: 102 bacteria: 47
Ambocoelia: 57 Baculites: 77
Amelanchier: 48 bags, collecting: 17, 18
American Museum of Natural History: 2, 15, 96 Balcones fault zone: 36, 37
ammonites: 11,75, 76, 77, 78 baluchitheres: 104, 106
Ammonoidea: 66 Baluchitherium: 106
ammonoids: 75, 76, 77, 78 Barbatia: 74
Amphibia: 89 Baylor County: 89
amphibians: 87, 92 Baylor University: 1, 2, 27, 90, 91, 95
Amphineura: 56 Beaumont: 1, 34
Amphiscapha: 61 clay: 34
Ancilla: 64 Beaver, Harold: 1
Angulotreta: 55, 56 Belemnltes: 77, 78
ankylosaurs: 90,97,99 Belemnoidea: 78
Annelida: 78 belemnoids: 77, 78
annelids: 78 Bellerophon: 61
Anomia: 74 Big Bend area: 35, 36
anteaters: 100 National Park: 35,97,102
Anthozoa: 49, 51 Big Spring: 89
Apsotreta: 55, 56 binomial nomenclature: 21-22
aragonite: 11 Bird,R. T.:2,15,96
Archelon: 91 birds, fossil: 5, 100
Archetectonica: 64 Blastoidea: 81
Archaeopteryx: 100 blastoids: 26, 28, 81
Archeozoic, derivation and pronunciation: 33 Blinn College: 27
Archer County: 89 bone, permineralized: 9
Archimedes: 54 Books About Fossils: 108-110
arietina, Exogyra: 70 Boon, Jack: 1
Aristotle: 3 Brachiopoda: 54, 55, 56
Arizona: 7 brachiopods: 26, 29, 54, 55, 56
Arkansas: 37 articulate: 54, 55, 56, 57, 58
Arlington State College: 1, 27 Cambrian: 55
armadillos: 100, 102 Cretaceous: 56
Aronow, Saul: 1 inarticulate: 55, 56
Arthropoda: 78,79,80 Mississippian: 55
arthropods: 10,78,79,80 Pennsylvanian: 57, 58
crustaceans: 79, 80 Permian: 12, 13
insects: 7, 79 Recent: 56
ostracodes: 79, 80 silicified: 12, 13
trilobites: 78,80 symmetry: 24, 26, 29
Articulata: 56 Brachiosaurus: 90
Artiodactyla: 106
Brewster County: 11, 12,35, 41
artiodactyls: 106
camels: 106 brittle stars: 82
entelodonts: 101, 106 Bronaugh, Richmond L.: 1
ash, volcanic: 5 Brontosaurus: 90,91,98
Astacodes: 79 Brontotherium: 104, 105, 106
Astartella: 67 Brown, L. F., Jr.: 1
Asteroidea: 82 Bryophyta: 44
asteroids: 82, 83 Bryozoa: 51, 54, 55
116 Bureau of Economic Geology —Guidebook 2
bryozoans: 26, 27, 28, 30, 51, 54, 55, 84 birds: 100
Mississippian: 54 fishes: 87,88,89
Pennsylvanian: 55 graptolites: 40, 84, 86
bulla, Venericardia: 72 mammals: 100-107
Bureau of Economic Geology: 2, 19 reptiles: 89-100
burrows: 14 Cladochonus: 51, 52
"button corals": 49, 53 Cladophyllia: 53
Calamites: 48 clams: 11, 56, 59. See also pelecypods.
calcite: 10, 11 class, taxonomic: 22
callus: 59 classification,binomial nomenclature: 21-22
Calyptraphorus: 64 units of: 22
Camarotoechia: 55 club mosses: 47
Cambrian —
derivation and pronunciation: 34
coal: 20,47
mines: 20, 47
fossils: 40 plants: 16,46, 47, 48
brachiopods: 55 Cochlespiropsis: 63
graptolites: 86 Coelenterata: 49, 51, 84
of Franklin Mountains, Llano, Marathon, and coelenterates: 49, 51-53
Solitario uplifts: 40 Coleoidea: 66
camels: 106 coleoids: 77, 78
cameratus, Neospirifer: 58 collecting bags: 17, 18
Caninia: 51, 52 columella, corals: 51
Canis diris: 102, 103 gastropods: 59, 60
domestica: 22 columnal,crinoid: 82, 82, 83
caprinid: 27, 30 Comanchean series of Cretaceous: 34. See also
caprock, of High Plains: 35 Lower Cretaceous,
carbon residues: 10, 86 compass: 19
Carboniferous: 34' Composita subtilita: 57
carinata, Ostrea: 71 compound corals. See corals, colonial,
Carnivora: 102 concretions: 16
carnivores: 102, 103 coniferous trees: 7
Caryocorbula: 74 conodonts: 41,88,89
Caryocrinites: 81 Conus: 63
Casey, Josephine: 2 Cooper, G. A.: 2,12
casts: 11 coprolites: 14
catalog, fossil; number: 31 corallite: 49, 51
cement, portland: 19 corallum: 51
Cenozoic— corals: 11,24, 26, 27, 49, 51, 52, 53
derivationand pronunciation: 33 "button": 49, 53
periods of: 34 colonial: 24, 27, 30,51, 52, 53
rocks in Texas: 43 Cretaceous: 53
central Asia: 106 "horn": 49,57,52
central Texas: 11, 42 morphology: 51
Cephalopoda: 56, 66, 75, 78 Pennsylvanian: 52
cephalopods: 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 66, 75, 76 77, polyp: 49
78 solitary: 24, 28, 29, 30, 49, 51, 52, 53
ammonites: 75, 76, 77, 78 symmetry: 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30
ammonoids: 75, 76, 77, 78 Tertiary: 53
belemnoids: 77, 78 Cordaites: 48
ceratites: 75, 78 correlation: 32
coleoids: 77, 78 Corythosaurus: 90
cuttlefish: 78 cotylosaurs: 89, 92
goniatites: 75, 76 crabs: 78, 79
nautiloids: 66, 75, 76 Crassatella: 72
octopus: 66, 78 crayfish: 78
squid: 66, 78 creodonts: 102
sutures: 66, 75, 78
ceratites: 75, 78
Cretaceous —
See also Comanchean and Gulf series,
ceratopsians: 90, 99, 100 derivation and pronunciation: 34
Ceratosaurus: 90 fossils: 42-43
Cerithium: 62 arthropods: 79
chalicotheres: 104, 106 brachiopods: 56
Chelonia. See turtles, cephalopods: 66, 67, 76, 77
chisels: 17 corals: 53
chitin: 10 crocodiles: 95, 96
chitons: 56 dinosaurs: 90, 91, 93,94, 95, 97, 99
Chondrichthyes: 87 echinoderms: 83, 84, 85
Chonetes: 57 foraminifers: 49
Chordata: 84-102 gastropods: 59, 62
chordates: 84 nautiloids: 76
amphibians: 89, 92 pelecypods: 59, 66, 68-71
Texas Fossils 117
shark teeth: 88 Eastland County: 20

worms: 78 East Texas State College: 27
tubes: 9 Echinodermata: 80-84
of central Texas, Edwards Plateau, Gulf Coast- echinoderms: 80-84
al Plain, High Plains, north Texas, and asteroids: 82, 83
Trans-Pecos Texas: 42 blastoids: 81
"Pyrite Fossil Zone" of: 11 crinoids: 81, 82, 83
crinoidal limestone: 41, 82, 83 cystoids: 81, 82,83
Crinoidea: 81 echinoids: 82, 84, 85
crinoids: 26, 28, 41, 81,82,83 holothuroids: 84
calyx: 82, 82,83 sclerites: 83
morphology: 81 Echinoidea: 82
stems: 26,28,81,82,83 echinoids: 26, 28, 29, 82, 84, 85
Crockett County: 42 Cretaceous: 84, 85
Crockett formation: 43 plates: 84, 85
crocodiles: 95, 96 spines: 84, 85
crossopterygians: 87 Echinozoa: 82
crustaceans: 79, 80 Edentata: 100
Culberson County: 35 edentates: 100, 101, 102
cuttlefish: 78 Edwards Plateau: 19,36, 37, 42, 43
cycads: 47, 48 Egyptian desert: 3
Cymatoceras: 75, 76 Elasmosaurus: 91
Cystoidea: 81 elephants: 102
cystoids: 81,82,83 Eleutherozoa: 82
Ellison, Samuel P.: 1
"Dark Ages": 3 El Paso region—
da Vinci, Leonardo: 3 Devonian of: 41
Davis, Darrell: 1 Ordovician of: 40
Decapoda. See Coleoidea. Precambrian of: 40
deer: 106 Silurian of: 40
Del Mar College: 27 Endopachys: 53
dendrites: 14 Enoploclytia: 79
Dendrograptus: 86 entelodont: 101, 106
Denver, Colorado: 19 Eohippus. See Hyracotheriiun.
Derby a: 57 epoch, geologic: 33
Devonian —
era, geologic: 33-34
Erath County: 20
fossils: 41 Eryops: 92
placoderms: 87, 88 Euomphalus: 61
Psilophyton: 48 Euphemites: 62
of El Paso and Van Horn regions, Llano and Europe: 89
Marathon uplifts: 41 Exogyra arietina: 70
Diablo Mountains: 41 laeviscula: 70
diatoms: 44, 46, 47 ponderosa: 70
Dibranchiata. See Coleoidea. texana: 70
Dictyoclostus: 55
Dimetrodon: 92 "false fossils": 14
Dinobastis: 102, 103 family, taxonomic: 22
Dinocerata: 102 "feather stars": 82
dinocerates: 102, 105 ferns: 47, 48
dinosaurs: 89, 90-94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 fish: 87,88,89
armored: 90, 97, 99. 100 armored: 41, 88
duck-billed:90, 97, 99 carbon residue: 9
flying: 91, 94, 95 scales: 10
horned: 90, 99, 100 teeth: 10
plate-bearing: 90,91,99 vertebrae: 10
swimming: 91, 93, 95 Fistulipora: 55
Diplodocus: 90 Flabellum: 53
Diplograptus: 86 foramen,pedicle: 54, 56
dire wolf: 102,103 Foraminifera: 47, 49
diris, Canis: 102, 103 Cretaceous: 49
fusulinids: 26,29,49
distillation: 10 orbitoid: 26, 28
Distorsio: 63 Pennsylvanian: 49
division, plant: 44 forams: 26, 28, 29, 47, 49
Dixon, J. W., Jr.: 2,90,91 formation,geologic: 34
dolomite: 11
dolphins: 95
fossil —
birds: 5, 100
domestica, Canis: 22 burrows: 14
Dußar, Jules: 1 cataloging: 31
Dufrenoyia: 77 collecting: 17
fossil (continued)
equipment: 17
— ornamentation: 59
Pennsylvanian: 61, 62
ethics: 20 Tertiary: 59,63,64
how to collect: 20 generic name: 21-22
where to look: 19 genus: 21-22
definition: 3 geologic—
dung: 14 column: 33
footprints: 14 history: 33
gizzard stone: 14 map, definition: 40
identification: 21, 23-30 map of Texas: 38-39
keys: 26-30 time: 34
preservation— time scale: frontispiece, 33
altered hard parts: 10-11 geology of Texas: 37-43
carbonization: 9, 10 Germany: 5, 100
mineralization: 10 Gingko: 47, 48
permineralization: 10 Girtyocoelia: 50
petrifaction: 10 Glasscock County: 42
replacement, calcareous, iron, siliceous: Glass Mountains: 11,12,35, 41, 42
10, 11, 13 glauconite: 11
kinds of: 7 Globigerina: 49
original hard and soft parts: 7 Glossary: 111-114
record, missing pages in: 5 Glycymeris: 74
wood: 47 Glyptodon: 101, 102
fossilization,requirements of: 5 glyptodont: 101, 102
fossils—■ goats: 106
animal: 47-107 goniatites: 75, 76
Cambrian: 40 Grand Prairie: 36, 37
carbonized: 10 Graptolithina: 84, 86
classification of: 21-22 graptolites: 27, 30, 40, 84, 86
cleaning: 21 of Marathon uplift: 40, 86
etching in acid: 21 Graptozoa. See graptolites.
frozen: 5, 7, 104 graysonana, Gryphaea: 69
guide and/or index: 32 Great Flood: 3
in amber: 7 ground sloths: 7, 101, 102
in oil saturated soil: 7 Gryphaea graysonana: 69
in quicksand: 5 washitaensis: 69
in tar: 5 Guadalupe Mountains, Peak: 35
in volcanic ash: 5 Gulf Coast: 32
main types of: 44 Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas: 35, 36, 37, 42, 43,
natural mummies: 7 106
permineralized or petrified: 10 Gulf of Mexico: 37
plant: 4,10,20,32,44-48 Gulf series of Cretaceous: 34. See also Upper Cre-
Pleistocene: 101, 102, 103, 104 taceous.
Precambrian: 40 Gyrodes: 62
preparation of: 21
Quaternary: 43, 101, 102, 103,104 hagfish: 87
replaced or mineralized: 10 hammer, geologist's: 17, 18
silicified: 21 Hamulus: 78
Cretaceous: 11 hand lens: 17, 18
Permian: 11
etching: 21
hard parts, animal —
calcareous, chitinous, phosphatic, siliceous re-
Silurian: 40, 81 mains: 10
Tertiary: 43 Hardin-Simmons University: 27
Triassic: 42 heart urchins: 82, 83
uses of: 31-32 Heliospongia: 50
France: 106 hematite: 11
Franklin Mountains, Cambrian of: 40 Hemiaster: 85
frogs: 89 Hemichordata: 84
Frondicularia: 49 Henderson County Junior College: 27
fungi: 44 Herodotus: 3
Fusselman limestone: 40 Heterostegina: 32
Fusulina: 49 Heteralosia hystricula: 12, 23
fusulinids: 26,29,47,49 "het" zone: 32
Fusus: 63 Hexacoralla: 51
High Plains: 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 89, 95,106
Gaptank formation: 35, 41 hippopotamuses: 106
gastroliths: 14 Holaster: 85
Gastropoda: 56, 59 Holectypus: 85
gastropods: 26, 27, 29, 30, 56, 59, 60 Holothuroidea: 82
Cretaceous: 59, 62 holothuroids: 84
morphology: 60 sclerites: 83
Texas Fossils 119
Homo sapiens: 22 Macon, J. W.: 2

"horn corals": 49, 51, 52 magnifying glass: 17, 18
horses: 103, 104 Malone Mountain: 42
teeth: 104 Mammalia: 89, 100-107
Howard County Junior College: 27 mammoths: 102, 104, 107
Hudspeth County: 35, 41, 42 frozen: 7, 102
Hueco Mountains: 41 tooth: 104
Hughes, Jack T.: 1 woolly: 102,104,107
hydroids: 49 mantle, brachiopod: 54
Hydrozoa: 49, 84 pelecypod: 59
Hyracotherium: 103, 104 maps—
hystricula, Heteralosia: 12, 13 county: 17
geologic: 19
ichthyosaurs: 91, 93, 95 of Texas: 38-39
Ichthyosaurus: 91, 93 physiographic of Texas: 36
identification keys, fossil: 26-30 topographic: 19, 20
use of: 23-27 Marathon uplift: 35, 36, 40, 41
igneous rocks: 5,19 marcasite: 11
Inarticulata: 54, 56 Marginifera: 57
Inoceramus: 69 opima: 12, 13
insects: 7,78,79 mastodon, tooth; 104
in amber: 7 Meandrostia: 50
iron, replacement by: 11 Mediterranean Sea: 3
Italy: 3 mercenaria, Venus: 22
Mesalia: 63
Jack County: 20 Mesolobus: 57
jellyfish: 5,49 Mesozoic—
Jurassic — derivation and pronunciation: 33
derivation and pronunciation: 34 periods of: 34
fosils: 42 rocks in Texas: 42-43
birds: 100 metamorphic rocks: 5, 19
dinosaurs: 90, 91, 95, 97, 98, 99 Metoicoceras: 76
Gingko: 48 Michelinia: 52
of Hudspeth County and/or Malone Mountain: Micrabacia: 49, 52
41 microfossils: 4,10, 32, 47, 49, 50, 78
micropaleontological slides: 32
Juresania: 58 micropaleontologist: 32, 47, 80
keys. See identification keys. micropaleontology: 4, 89
Midwestern University: 27
Kilgore College: 27 mine dumps: 20, 47
Kingena wacoensis: 56 Mississippian—
labels, paper: 19 fossils: 41
laeviscula, Exogyra: 70 blastoid: 81
Lamar State College of Technology: 1,2, 27 brachiopods: 55
lampreys: 87 bryozoan: 54
Latirus: 63 of Hueco Mountains: 41
Lee College: 27
Lepidodendron: 46 of Llano region: 41
mold, external: 9, 11, 59, 66
Levifusus: 64 internal: 9,11,59,62,66
Lima: 72 Mollusca: 56-78
limonite: 11 mollusks: 7, 56, 59-78. See also Mollusca.
Lingula: 55, 56 Moropus: 106
Linnaeus: 21 mosasaur: 91, 93, 95
Linne: 21 "moss animals": 54
Linoproductus: 57
mosses: 44
lisbonensis, Ostrea: 72 Muirwoodiamultistriatus: 12, 13
liverworts: 44 multituberculates: 100
lizards: 89 multistriatus, Muirwoodia: 12, 13
Llano uplift: 36, 37, 40, 41 mussels: 56, 59
Lonsdale, John T.: 1 museums, as aid in identification: 23
lophophore, brachiopod: 54 American, Natural History: 2,15, 96
Lophophyllidium: 49, 51, 52
proliferum: 52 Texas Memorial: 14,87, 95, 97,100,102
radicosum: 52 Myalina: 67
Los Angeles, California: 5 Mylodon: 100, 101
Louisiana: 37
Lower Cretaceous: 34, 42, 56, 97. See also Co-
manchean. Nautiloidea: 66
lugubris, Alectryonia: 68 nautiloids: 66
Lunatia: 62 Cretaceous: 76
lungfishes: 87 morphology: 75
Pennsylvanian: 76 Pan American College: 27
sutures: 75 Pantodonta: 102
Nautilus: 66 pantodonts: 102
morphology: 75 Parasaurolophus: 90
Neithea: 70 Parasmilia: 53
Neospirifer: 57 Parker County: 20
earneratus: 58 Pawpaw formation: 11
Nerinea: 62 pearly nautilus: 66
Neuropteris: 48 morphology: 75
Neverita: 64 Pecos County: 42
New Mexico: 7 Pecos River valley: 35
New York City: 14 Pecten: 59, 68, 74
North-Central Plains: 35, 36, 37, 40,41, 42, 43 pedicle: 54, 56
north Texas: 42 foramen: 54, 56
North Texas State College: 27 valve, brachiopod: 54
notebook, field: 17 Pelycosaurs: 89, 92
Notopocorystes: 79, 80 Pelecypoda: 56, 59, 65-66
Nucula: 73 pelecypods: 26, 29, 30, 56, 59, 60, 66
Nuculana: 67 Cretaceous: 59, 66, 68-71
Nuculopsis: 67 dentition: 66
morphology: 59, 60, 65, 66
octopus: 66, 78 ornamentation: 66
Odessa College: 27 Pennsylvanian: 66, 67
operculum: 59 teeth: 60, 65, 66
Ophiuroidea: 81 Tertiary: 72,73,74
ophiuroids: 82 Pelmatozoa: 80, 81
opima, "Marginifera": 12, 13 Pennsylvanian—
order, taxonomic: 22 derivation and pronunciation: 34
Ordovician —
fossils: 41
brachiopods: 57, 58
fossils: 40 bryozoans: 55
graptolites: 86 cephalopods: 66, 76
of El Paso region, Llano, Marathon, Solitario, corals: 52
and Van Horn uplifts: 40 crinoids: 41, 82, 83
ornamentation, brachiopod: 54 fusulinids: 47, 49
gastropod: 59 gastropods: 61, 62
pelecypod: 66 nautiloids: 76
Ornithischia: 97 pelecypods: 66, 67
ornithischians: 90, 97, 98, 100 plants: 46, 47,48
Ornithopoda: 97 shark teeth: 87
ornithopods: 90, 97, 99 sponges: 50
Orthoceras: 66, 76 of Diablo and Hueco Mountains, Llano and
Orthoyoldia: 73 Marathon uplifts, and north-central Texas:
ossicles. See sclerites. 41
Osteichthyes: 87 Pentaceros: 83
Ostracoda: 80 Pentagonaster: 83
ostracoderms: 87 Pentremites: 81
ostracodes: 78, 79,80 period, geologic: 33
Ostrea carinata: 71 periostracum: 60
lisbonensis: 72 Perissodactyla: 104
quadriplicata: 71 perissodactyls: 103, 104, 105
sellaeformis: 72 Permian—
Oxytropidoceras: 77 derivation and pronunciation: 34
oysters: 56, 59 fossils: 41
Pachecoa: 72 amphibian: 89, 92
Pachymya: 71 brachiopods: 12, 13
paleobotany: 4 cotylosaurs: 89, 92
paleobotanists: 44 pelycosaurs: 89, 92
paleontology— of Glass Mountains: 11, 12, 35
permiana, Prorichthofenia: 12, 13
definition: 4
permineralized bone: 9
divisionsof: 4 petroleum geologist: 4
history of: 3
invertebrate: 4 Phaneroceras: 76
vertebrate: 4 Phobosuchus: 95, 96
Paleoscincus: 90, 97, 99, 100 Pholadomya: 71, 72
Paleozoic— phyla: 22
derivation and pronunciation: 33 Phyllograptus: 86
periods of: 34 phylum: 22
rocks of Texas: 40-42 physiographic provinces, of Texas: 35-37
Palo Pinto County: 20 physiography, definition: 35
Paluxy Creek: 14, 15 of Texas: 35-37
Texas Fossils 121
phytosaurs: 42, 91, 94, 95 Renaissance: 3

pick, mineralogist's or prospector's: 17, 18 Reptilia: 89-100
pigs: 106 reptiles: 89-100
Pinna: 67 rhamphorhynchoids: 91
Pisces: 86-89 Rhamphorhynchus: 91, 94
Pitar: 72 rhinoceroses: 7, 104, 106, 107
Placodermi: 87 woolly: 106, 107
placoderms: 87, 88 Rhipodomella: 55
plant kingdom: 44 Rhombopora: 51, 55
plants, classification: 44 Rice University: 27
Pennsylvanian: 46, 47, 48 Rio Grande valley, of Trans-Pecos: 35, 95
Platyceras: 62 road metal: 19
Pleistocene: 43. See also Quaternary. Robultis: 49
fossils: 101, 102, 103, 104 Rock and Mineral Clubs: 23
plesiosaurs: 91, 93, 95 rock units: 34
Pleurocora: 53 rockymontanus, Spirifer: 58
Plicatula: 68, 74 Rodda, Peter U.: 1
Pliohippus: 103 rudistids: 26,27,28,29,30
Poland: 7, 106 Rugosa: 51
pollen: 47
polyp, coral: 49
Polypora: 55 saber-tooth cat: 102, 103
St. Mary's University: 27
ponderosa, Exogyra: 70 salamanders: 89
Porifera: 49
Salenia: 85
Porodiscus: 49 San Angelo College: 27
Portland cement: 19 San Antonio College: 27
Precambrian— sand dollars: 82
definition: 34 sapiens, Homo: 22
fossils: 40 Sarcodina: 47
of El Paso region: 40 Saurischia: 97
of Llano uplift: 37,40 saurischians: 90, 97, 99
of Van Horn uplift: 40
rocks of Texas: 40 Sauropoda: 97
sauropods: 90, 97, 98
Presidio County: 35 scale trees: 46, 47
Proboscidea: 102 scallops: 56, 59
proboscideans: 102, 104, 107 Scaphopoda: 56
teeth: 104 scaphopods:26,27, 2B, 29, 56
proliferum, Lophophyllidium: 52
Schizodus: 67
Prorichthofenia permiana: 12, 13 scientific names: 21-23
Proterozoic, derivationand pronunciation: 33
Protista: 47 Scleractinia: 51
Protocardia: 68 sclerites, holothurian: 83, 84
Protoceratops: 90 scolecodont: 78
scouring rushes: 47, 48
Protozoa: 47, 49 Scyphozoa: 49, 84
protozoans: 47
pseudofossils: 14 sea anemones: 49
sea cucumbers: 82
Pseudoliva: 63 "sea lily": 81, 82
Psilophyton: 48
Pteranodon: 91, 94 "sea mats": 51, 54
Pterodactyloids: 91 "sea-mice": 56
sea urchins: 82
pterosaurs: 91, 94, 95 sedimentary rocks: 5, 19
Punctospirifer: 57
pyrite: 11 sellaeformis,Ostrea: 72
septa, cephalopods: 66, 75
"Pyrite Fossil Zone" of Cretaceous: 11
corals: 49, 57
quadriplicata, Ostrea: 71 serpent stars: 82
quarries: 19 Serpula: 78
Quaternary— Seymouria: 92
derivation and pronunciation: 34 sharks: 87
fossils: 43, 101, 102, 103,104 teeth: 10, 87, 88
of Edwards Plateau, Gulf Coast,High Plains, sheep: 106
North-Central Plains, and Trans-Pecos shrimp: 78
Texas: 43 Siberia: 7, 106
quicksand: 5 Sigillaria: 46
signata, Avonia: 12, 13
radicosum, Lophophyllidium: 53 silica: 10, 11
Radiolaria: 47 silicification: 11
radiolarians: 47, 49 Silurian —
Rancho La Brea tar pit: 5
rays: 87 fossils: 40
Reagan County: 42 cvstoid: 81
Receptaculites: 50 of El Paso andVan Horn regions: 40
skates: 87 rocks of Gulf Coastal Plain, High Plains,
slickensides: 16 North-Central Plains, and Trans-Pecos
slugs: 56 region: 42
Smith,Fred: 1 Tetracoralla: 51
snails: 11, 56, 59. See also gastropods. Tetrapoda: 86, 89-107
snakes: 89 texana, Exogyra: 70
Solitario uplift: 40 Texanites: 77
Somervell County: 14, 15 Texas A. & M. College: 1, 27
South America: 87, 102 Texas Christian University: 27
Southern Methodist University: 27 Texas College: 27
South Texas College: 27 Texas College of Arts and Industries: 27
Southwestern University: 27 Texas Highway Department: 17
species: 22 Texas Memorial Museum: 14,87, 95, 97, 100, 102
spicules, sponge: 49, 50 Texas Technological College: 27
spiders: 78 Texas, the geology of: 34, 37-43
spines, echinoid: 84, 85 Texas Western College: 27
Spirifer rockymontanus: 58 Thallophyta: 43, 46
Spirorbis: 78 Theophrastus: 3
sponges: 10,27,30,49,50 Therapsids: 89
spores: 47 Theria: 100
Squamularia: 57 therians: 100-107
squid: 66, 78 artiodactyls: 101, 106
starfish: 82, 83 carnivores: 102, 103
Stegosaurus: 90, 97, 99 dinocerates: 102, 105
stegosaurs: 90,97,99 edentates: 100, 101, 102
steinkern: 59, 62 pantodonts: 102
stems, crinoid: 26,28, 41,81, 82, 83 perissodactyls: 104
Stephen F. Austin State College: 27 proboscideans: 102, 104, 107
"stomach stones": 14 Theropoda: 97
stone, building: 19 theropods: 90, 97, 98
Strabo: 3 The University of Texas: 1, 2, 27
Straparolus: 61 time, geologic: 34
Strecker Museum: 95 titanotheres: 104, 105, 106
Striatopora: 51, 52 toads: 89
Strobeus: 62 tortoises: 89
Styracosaurus: 90 traces of organisms: 14
subhorrida, Avonia: 12, 73 burrows: 14
subtilita, Composita: 57 coprolites: 14
Sul Ross State College: 27 gastroliths: 14
Surcula: 64 tracks: 14, 15
sutures, cephalopod: 66, 75, 78 trails: 14
nautiloid: 75 Tracheophyta: 44, 46, 48
swine, giant: 106 Trachodon: 90, 97, 99
Sycostoma: 64 tracks, dinosaur: 14, 75, 97
symmetry: 23 Trans-Pecos region: 35, 36, 40, 42, 43, 86, 95, 102,
bilateral: 24, 26, 29 106
radial: 24, 26, 28, 80 tree sloths: 100, 102
trees, coniferous: 7
Trepospira: 61
tabulae: 51
Tabulata: 51
Triassic—
tape, masking: 19 fossils: 42
tapirs: 104 dinosaurs: 95
tar: 5 phytosaurs: 91, 94, 95
Tarleton State College: 27 of Crockett, Glasscock, Pecos, Reagan, and
Tarrant County: 11 Upton counties; Glass Mountains and
taxonomy: 21-22
High Plains: 42
teeth, horse: 104 Triceratops: 90, 99, 100
mammoth: 104 Trigonia: 69
Trilobita: 78
shark: 10,87,88 trilobites: 78,80
Tellina: 73 morphology: 80
Tertiary— Trilobitomorpha: 78
derivation and pronunciation: 34 Trinacromerum: 91
fossils: 43 Trinity University: 27
corals: 53 trivial name: 21-22
gastropods: 59, 63, 64 Trochosmilia: 53
mammals: 100-107, 703, 705 Tuba: 64
microfossils: 32 tuberculatus, Aulosteges: 12, 13
pelecypods: 72, 73, 74 Turrilites: 77
radiolarians: 49 worthensis: 22
Texas Fossils 123
Turritella: 62, 63 vertebrates: 86-107

turtles: 89, 91 amphibians: 89, 92
tusk-shells: 56 birds: 100
Tyler Junior College: 27 fish: 87, 88, 89
Tylosaurus: 91, 93
mammals: 100-107
reptiles: 89-100
Tylostoma: 62 Vokesula: 73
Tyrannosaurus: 90, 97 volcanic ash: 5
Volutolithes: 64
uintatheres: 102, 705 Waco: 91, 92, 95
Uintatherium: 102, 105 wacoensis, Kingena: 56
umbilicus: 59, 60 Washington, D. C.: 19
United States Geological Survey: 19 washitaensls, Gryphaea: 69
United States National Museum: 2,12 Weches formation: 43
University of Corpus Christi: 27 West Texas State College: 1, 27
University of Houston: 1, 27 Wilson, John A.: 2
University of Texas, The: 1, 2, 27 Wilson, Sarah Louise: 2
Upper Cretaceous: 34, 42, 78. See also Gulf. Wise County: 20
Upton County: 42 wood, petrified: 19
Woodbine: 10,37,47
worms, annelid, fossil,segmented: 78
valves, brachiopod: 54, 56 worm tubes, Cretaceous: 9
pelecypod: 59, 65, 66 Worthenia: 61
Van Horn uplift: 35, 36, 40, 41 worthensis, Turrilites: 22
Venericardia: 73 Yoldia: 67
bulla: 72
ventral valve, brachiopod: 54 Young Couny: 20
Young, Keith: 1
Venus mercenaria: 22
Vertagus: 63 Zoantharia: 51
Vertebrata: 84, 86-107 zooecia: 51

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DEDICATION

This, the eleventh printing of Texas Fossils: An Amateur Collector's

John T. Lonsdale, Director

William H. Matthews 111

12. Fossil plants—thallophytes and tracheophytes 46

The Study of Fossils

descent mother-of-pearl layer of the shell

and the original shell material is often

Tracks, Trails, and Burrows

Cretaceous and Paleozoic (geologic time Concretions

Fossil Collecting Equipment

terial and medium-weight grocery bags Where to Look

How Fossils are Named

Unit Man Dog Clam

Use of Identification Keys

Fossil identification keys may be useful primarily on symmetry—the orderly ar-

key the beginner should know something

1. Radial symmetry—the symmetrical repeti-

It should be noted that many objects

only in Cretaceous rocks

List of Texas Colleges Offering Geology Courses

How Fossils Are Used

found in place (that is, where they were

to as Precambrian in age. The Pre- geological publications and on many of

North-Central Plains was at one time covered by Lower Creta-

Paleozoic Rocks Silurian

Texas, and their spicules have been re-

Fig. 13. Morphology and principal parts of articulate brachiopods.

Fig. 15. Kingena wacoensis, a common Cre-

and terrestrial (land-dwelling) inverte-

Subclass Ammonoidea - The am-

bodies (fig. 21a). The trilobite body is Subphylum Crustacea

Eleutherozoa (the stemless unattached careous plates arranged in a typical five-

Cretaceous Fossil Starfishes

The echinoid test (exoskeleton) is com- presence of a well-developed nervous sys-

pressed graptolites were etched out of Subphylum Vertebrata

Primitive Armored Fish

Ichthyosaurs These were extinct, Crocodiles and alligators -These

more advanced carnivores of today. were exceptionally large —some reaching

Fig. 25. Sketches of Pleistocene (a) mastodon

rhinoceros discussed below, is known from

Selected References on Texas Fossils

Dorsal—pertaining to the back. Geologic range —the known duration of an or-

Ossicle—loosely used as a small plate. tion accompanied by almost simultaneous dep-

Subconical—less than conical in shape; almost Topography—the physical features or configura-

shark teeth: 88 Eastland County: 20

Homo sapiens: 22 Macon, J. W.: 2

phytosaurs: 42, 91, 94, 95 Renaissance: 3

Turritella: 62, 63 vertebrates: 86-107

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