Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277

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Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in

International Accounting
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / a d i a c

The relations among competition, delegation, management accounting systems

change and performance: A path model
Zahirul Hoque ⁎
School of Accounting, Faculty of Law and Management, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: This paper is concerned with an empirical investigation into the relations among competition, delegation,
Management accounting change management accounting and control systems (MACS) change and organizational performance. It follows a
Delegation standard contingency type path modeling to propose that intensity of competition causes firms to change
Competition their MACS and that this change enhances their performance. Delegation of authority is implicated in the
Performance model as competition encourages delegation, and this in turn causes the change in MACS, as well as enhancing
Contingency theory
performance directly. The results from a sample of Australian strategic business units indicate that
Path model
(1) increased competition results in improved organizational performance indirectly through a greater
number of changes in MACS, and (2) increased delegation of authority to lower level management leads to
higher organizational performance. These results contribute to the management accounting change literature
by providing empirical evidence that the relationship between competition and organizational performance is
mediated by a decentralized organizational form and changes in MACS of the firm.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2005; Baines & Langfield-Smith, 2003; Brownell & McInnes, 1986;
Cavalluzzo & Ittner, 2004; Chenhall & Brownell, 1988; Emsley et al.,
In recent years, scholars have suggested that today's organizations 2006; Kren, 1992; Nouri & Parker, 1998), there has been little
need modern management accounting and control systems (MACS) 1 systematic empirical examination of whether organizational perfor-
to adapt to the rapidly changing organizational and social environ- mance 2 is influenced by competition, delegation of decision making
ment (Abernethy & Bouwens, 2005; Abernethy & Lillis, 1995, 2001; authority to lower level managers and changes in MACS. 3 This study
Abernethy & Stoelwinder, 1991; Baines & Langfield-Smith, 2003; fills this knowledge gap in current management accounting research.
Cavalluzzo & Ittner, 2004; Emsley, Nevicky, & Harrison, 2006; Foster & It makes several contributions to our understanding of the anteced-
Swensocxxn, 1997; Libby & Waterhouse, 1996; Shields, 1995; Shields ents or environmental conditions under which MACS might be used to
& McEwen, 1996; Williams & Seaman, 2001). There is the view that impact performance. Firstly, it extends prior MACS change studies of
modern MACS (such as activity-based costing, activity-based man- Libby and Waterhouse (1996) and Williams and Seaman (2001) by
agement, target costing, product life cycle costing, and balanced providing additional evidence on linking antecedents of changes in
scorecard-type performance measures) produce relevant information MACS with organizational performance, which has not been explored
that provides senior executives and other personnel with continuous by these two studies. Secondly, this study provides additional insights
signals as to what is most important in their daily organizational into our understanding of the mediating effects of delegation of
decision-making and operational activities (Anderson, 1995; Anderson authority and changes in MACS, individually and jointly, on the
& Young, 1999; Chenhall, 2003; Drake & Haka, 2008; Hoque & James, relationship between competition and performance. This issue is not
2000; Kaplan & Norton, 1996; Moers, 2006). well developed in the current management accounting research
While prior management accounting studies have examined the
relationships among environments, organizational characteristics, 2
Organizational performance or firm performance throughout the paper refers to
control systems, and performance (e.g. Abernethy & Bouwens,
performance of a strategic business unit, which is a division of a corporation or an
independent firm.
3
This paper acknowledges that numerous factors affect performance and
⁎ Tel.: + 61 3 9479 3433; fax: + 61 3 9479 3047. performance affects many other factors. But, given the need to limit the scope of
E-mail address: [email protected]. this study, it focuses on this subset of variables because links between contextual
1
Management accounting and control systems (MACS) refer to a variety of variables like competition in the external environment, management control systems
accounting and control systems that are implemented in a firm to produce information design and performance form the essence of a contingency theory of management
for managerial planning and decision making (Daft & Backer, 1978; Damanpour, 1987; accounting, and striving to understand empirically such a phenomenon has a long
Libby & Waterhouse, 1996). tradition in the management accounting literature.

0882-6110/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.adiac.2011.05.006
 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277 267

literature. Finally, the study's use of a path approach in theorizing the In this study, it is deemed that competition would affect delegation
research problems facilitates the generation of valuable insights into choice. Market competition is one of the key elements of a firm's
the subject phenomenon. external environment (Krishnan, 2005; Krishnan, Luft, & Shields,
The next section presents a literature review and develops the 2002; Libby & Waterhouse, 1996; Mia & Chenhall, 1994). The study
hypotheses. Section 3 describes the research method. Next, Section 4 uses Khandwalla's (1972) five sources of competition, namely
presents the research results. The final section offers conclusions and (a) competition for raw materials, parts and equipment, (b) com-
outlines the limitations of the study. petition for technical personnel such as engineers, accountants,
programmers, (c) competition in promotion, advertising, selling and
2. Literature and hypotheses distribution, (d) competition in quality and variety of products, and
(e) price competition in their main line of business. Intensity of these
This study uses the mediating or intervening notion of contingency competition factors has an immense impact on the internal
theory (Chenhall & Chapman, 2006; Drazin & Van de Ven, 1985; organization of the firm (Khandwalla, 1972, 1977; Lawrence & Lorsch,
Gerdin & Greeve, 2004) to examine whether delegation of authority 1967). Gailbraith's (1977) core “exogenous” variable is environmental
and changes in MACS mediate, or intervene the relationship between uncertainty, much of which is caused by competition. Gailbraith
competition and performance. Fig. 1 presents the theoretical model of (1977) recognized that companies have multiple responses to
the study. As shown in Fig. 1, both the delegation of authority and uncertainty. Delegation of authority is one possible response.
changes in MACS are the intervening variables, competition is the The above discussion suggests that as market competition in-
independent variable and performance is the dependent variable. The tensifies often in today's rapidly changing business environment, the
expected relationships among the variables are presented in turn. level of delegation of authority should also change as an adaptive
strategy. Thus, this study predicts that intensity of competition may
2.1. Competition and delegation of authority lead senior management of the firm to delegate more authority to
lower-level managers or divisions to deal with their day-to-day
Chandler (1962) suggests that delegation of authority is necessary affairs. Stated formally in the form of the following hypothesis:
for firms that wish to respond to changes in the marketplace. Another
landmark study by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) puts forward the idea H1. Intensity of competition will be positively related to delegation of
that firms whose internal organizational processes are consistent with authority.
their external environmental demands tend to be organizationally more
effective. Several studies in the organizational and accounting fields 2.2. Competition and changes in MACS
have followed this tradition and have found empirical support (for
example, see Aiken & Hage, 1971; Bruns & Waterhouse, 1975; Chenhall Prior contingency studies (e.g. Hemmer, 1996; Hoque & Hopper,
& Morris, 1986; Damanpour, 1991; Khandwalla, 1972, 1973; Kimberly & 1997; Khandwalla, 1972, 1974; Krishnan, 2005; Krishnan et al., 2002;
Evanisko, 1981; Libby & Waterhouse, 1996; Merchant, 1984; Merchant Libby & Waterhouse, 1996; Merchant, 1984) suggest that today's
& Manzoni, 1989; Moch & Morse, 1977; Moers, 2006; Thompson, 1967). firms need MACS that can provide timely, accurate and relevant
These studies suggest that the problem of managing external environ- information on a wide range of issues, including product costs,
ments such as competition involves a balance between allowing each productivity, quality, customer service, customer satisfaction, and
organization the independence to react to its environmental demands profitability. Kaplan (1995, p. 6) suggests that “The new competitive
through organizational changes and needing to control and integrate environment demands much more accurate cost and performance
the work of all divisions that make up the firm (Libby & Waterhouse, information on the firm's activities, processes, products, services,
1996). There is also the view that broadening the scope of lower-level and customers.” He (Kaplan, 1995, p. 6) further argues that in com-
managers' activities by delegating more decision-making authority petitive environments, managers must also have timely and accurate
provides business units with significant degrees of freedom to make information to guide their learning and improvement activities —
trade-offs among these activities (Jensen, 2001; Prendergast, 2002; see information that will help make processes more efficient and more
also Moers, 2006, p. 900). customer-focused.

Delegation
(X2)
p21

p32

Changes in management
Intensity of competition p31 accounting and control
(X1) systems
(X3)
p42

p43

p41 Organizational
performance
(X4)

Fig. 1. Theoretical model of the study (path diagram for organizational performance).
268 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277

Traditional MACS provide mainly financial, quantitative and histor- their assignments when they are permitted more discretion in
ical information, which is often inadequate for performance evaluation, performing their tasks”. They further note: “allowing for decision-
planning and decision-making in today's environment of global making at a local level encourages managers to be more aggressive in
competition. Consequently, there have been calls for developments in their acquisition of local information and more entrepreneurial and
MACS that assist firms to adapt to the changed business environment strategic in their actions” (Kaplan & Atkinson, 1998, p. 293). These
(Bromwich, 1990; Bruggeman & Slagmulder, 1995; Cavalluzzo, Ittner, & arguments imply that the better the economic and strategic decisions
Larcker, 1998; Hemmer, 1996; Kaplan, 1995; Miller & O'Leary, 1990; by lower- or local-level managers, the better the performance of the
Young & Selto, 1991). Bromwich (1990) asserts that MACS should be firm. This implies a direct effect of delegation of authority on
changed or developed to focus on a firm's value-adding activities performance. Further, as shown in Fig. 1, and based on the above
relative to its competitors, and Hemmer (1996) argues that a significant discussion, one would also expect an indirect effect of the level of
catalyst for initiating such change is an increase in foreign competition. delegation of authority on performance via changes in MACS. In other
The work by Libby and Waterhouse (1996, p. 140) reinforces the view words, changes in MACS mediate the relationship between delegation
that increasing market competition provides an incentive for changes in of authority and performance. Therefore, stated formally:
MACS. Krishnan (2005) has found a positive association between
competition for price and demand for accounting information. Others H4. Delegation of authority will be positively associated with
(e.g. Cavalluzzo et al., 1998 and Hill, 2000) have found a positive organizational performance directly and indirectly via changes in
association between increased competition and the use of more refined management accounting and control systems.
management accounting systems (cited in Krishnan, 2005, p. 269).
There is also the view that in rapidly changing market conditions, the 2.5. Changes in MACS and performance
firm's MACS should be adaptive and therefore, change in MACS would
be necessary (Chenhall, 2003; Chenhall & Chapman, 2006; Hoque, Mia, As discussed above, changes in MACS allow managers to obtain
& Alam, 2001; Mia & Chenhall, 1994). information necessary to make successful economic decisions (see
In summary, based on the above discussion, it can be argued that also Chenhall & Morris, 1986; Mia & Chenhall, 1994). Contingency
due to increased level of competition most existing MACS may not be theory of management accounting choice suggests that firms are
appropriate, and firms should therefore adopt more MACS practices or likely to perform more effectively if they implement and use MACS
change them. It is thus expected that increased competition is likely to that suit their organizational and social environmental situations
lead a firm to make an increased number of changes to its MACS so (Chapman, 1997; Chenhall, 2003; Chenhall & Chapman, 2006; Otley,
that the necessary information can be generated to address issues 1980). There is also an increasing recognition in the management
arising from factors related to competition. Restated as a hypothesis: accounting literature that firms tend to implement accounting
innovations or change their existing MACS to improve decision-
H2. Intensity of competition will be positively associated with making as well as the performance of the firm (for details, see
changes in management accounting and control systems. Abernethy & Bouwens, 2005). Empirical evidence on this issue is
rather limited (Abernethy & Bouwens, 2005). The current study
2.3. Delegation and changes in MACS attempts to shed further light on this phenomenon. 4 This endeavor is
reflected in the following hypothesis:
The preceding discussion on delegation implies that delegation of
H5. Changes in management accounting and control systems will be
authority creates the opportunity for the firm's lower-level managers
positively associated with organizational performance.
to change their MACS, as needed (Abernethy & Bouwens, 2005). There
is also the view that (Thompson, 1967) due to the spread of decision-
2.6. Competition, delegation, changes in MACS and performance
making authority in decentralized business units delegation promotes
a predisposition towards innovation. This implies that with increased
As discussed above, increased competition positively and directly
delegation of authority, the firm's MACS would need to change in
influences both delegation of authority and changes in MACS. Further,
order for management and employees to adopt the new skills and
both delegation of authority and changes in MACS individually and
innovations involved with an increased level of delegation. Kaplan
jointly affect performance. As a result, one would expect that
and Atkinson (1998) argue that delegated managers need reliable
increased competition is likely to have a positive association with
information about their products and services so that appropriate
performance indirectly through delegation and changes in MACS,
decisions can be made to meet local needs. As a result, managers need
individually and jointly. In other words, as illustrated in Fig. 2, both
well-designed MACS where the relevant information can be processed
delegation of authority and changes in MACS mediate the relationship
and used. This discussion leads to a prediction that increased
between competition and performance. Stated formally:
delegation of authority is likely to be associated with a firm's attempt
to change its existing MACS. This idea is formally expressed in the H6. The relationship between intensity of competition and organiza-
following hypothesis: tional performance operates via delegation of authority and changes
in management accounting and control systems. 5
H3. Delegation of authority will be positively related to changes in
management accounting and control systems.
4
Associations between contextual variables like competition in the external
2.4. Delegation, changes in MACS and performance environment and existing management control systems reflect an equilibrium
condition. If the right “fit” is achieved between management control systems and
context, then higher performance would necessarily result. In addition, if fit was not
Prior research suggests that greater delegation provides incentives
right between these variables, the firm would fail. On this basis, one could argue that
for lower-level managers to make better economic decisions, which, in linking MACS change to changes in performance in this study is unnecessary.
turn, may result in enhanced firm performance (see e.g. Prendergast, However, as this study is about a path analysis of the relations between competition,
2002). With delegation of authority, business units then may focus on delegation, changes in MACS and performance, it is believed that a direct linkage
timely response to their local customers and other stakeholders as between changes in MACS and performance is necessary. In addition, such an analysis
will shed further light on the debate between the direct linkage between accounting
they do not have to wait for approval from higher authority for innovation and performance (for details, see Abernethy & Bouwens, 2005).
business decisions. Kaplan and Atkinson (1998, p. 293) suggest that 5
Due to lack of theoretical support, this study does not attempt to formally
decentralized managers become “more motivated and interested in hypothesize that increased competition directly leads to increased performance.
 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277 269

Ru

p2u

X2
0.194
(1.12)
0.187
(1.15) 0.226*
(1.58)
0.386**
(2.38)
X3 0.269**
X1 (1.74)
0.392***
(2.58)
p3v p4w
Rw
X4
Rv

X1: Intensity of competition (COMPET)

X2: Delegation of authority (DELG)
X3: Number of changes in management accounting and control systems (NMACS)
X4: organizational performance (PERF)

Path coefficients with t values in parentheses; levels of significance, * p < 0.10; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01)
Source: Table 4

Fig. 2. Path diagram with path coefficients for organizational performance.

3. Method respondents and non-respondents were found on the basis of firm

size and industry grouping. Taken together, these results suggest no
3.1. Sample and data response bias in the empirical data of this study.

Consistent with prior management accounting research of this

3.2. Operationalization of variables
kind, and given the research focus, in this study the respondents were
typically financial controllers or chief financial officers of firms with
3.2.1. Organizational performance
over 100 employees. This selection criterion resulted in the study's
Based on the instrument developed by Govindarajan (1984),
use of a total of 120 manufacturing strategic business units from the
which was subsequently used by several studies (e.g. Abernethy &
list of top 200 published in the 2004 6 Business Review Weekly. Table 1
Stoelwinder, 1991; Chenhall & Langfield-Smith, 1998; Govindarajan &
presents the profile of the participating firms. Table 1 shows that
Fisher, 1990; Hoque & James, 2000), respondents were asked to
the responding firms represent a variety of simple and complex
indicate the performance of their firms relative to that of their com-
industries, including steel, chemicals, automotive, textile, clothing,
petitors over the last three years in each of the stated 10 performance
footwear, glass, building products, publishing, food and beverage,
items 7 on a scale ranging from one (‘very unsatisfactory’) to five
engineering, petroleum and grease oil. The mean number of em-
(‘outstanding’). Respondents were also asked to indicate how
ployees is 1168, with a median of 429.
important they would rate, on a scale from one (‘not important’) to
Each company secretary was phoned to collect the name and
five (‘extremely important’), each item of the performance to the
contact details of the financial controller or chief financial officer
long-term growth of their firm over the last three years. The overall
(CFO). Each CFO was then invited via telephone to participate in the
organizational performance measure was constructed by multiplying,
study. Eighty-two firms expressed interests in participating in the
for each item of performance, the ratings of importance by intensity
study and requested the details about the study in writing along with
and summing the ten products to obtain a measure of performance for
a copy of the survey instrument. The mail-out survey package
each firm (for a similar approach, see Baines & Langfield-Smith, 2003;
included a cover letter explaining the purpose of the research, a
Govindarajan & Fisher, 1990). 8 The Cronbach alpha statistics for the
copy of the survey, and two postage-paid envelopes — one for
measure was 0.76 indicating that its internal reliability is high. Table 3
returning the survey, and the second to allow respondents to request
presents the descriptive statistics.
a copy of the survey results. The survey was distributed in early June
2006 with a request for reply within four weeks of receipt of the
survey. The first mail-out resulted in only 30 completed responses. A 3.2.2. Intensity of competition
reminder was sent to all 82 firms four weeks after the initial mail-out. To assess the intensity of competition, the survey used a five-
This resulted in the return of 10 further responses. Therefore, of the item instrument, originally developed by Khandwalla (1972) and
82 questionnaires distributed, a total of 40 (48.78%) questionnaires subsequently used by several researchers including Mia and Chenhall
were returned. Of the 40 returned questionnaires, six responses (1994), Libby and Waterhouse (1996), Hoque et al. (2001), Williams
were not completed fully and therefore were not useable. Thus, the
useable response for this study is 34 (a usable response rate of 7
The ten performance items are: operating profit; return on investment; sales
41.46%). A comparative analysis of the means on the variables of growth rate; market share; cash flow from operation; new product development;
market development; research and development; cost reduction programs; and
interest (t-tests) between the early and late respondents indicated no
personnel development.
significant differences. Further, no significant differences between the 8
The current study also explores whether the relationships between the subject
variables change if the 10-item performance measures instrument is used on its own
without multiplying dimensions by importance of these dimensions; results are
6
This was the latest edition at the time of this study. similar throughout.
270 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277

Table 1 (i) alter responsibilities/areas of work of staff departments; (j) labor

Profile of responding firms. force requirements for the plant/branch; (k) delivery dates or the
Number of employees N Organizational type priority of orders; (l) what production schedules are set; (m) which
machinery/equipment is to be used; (n) allocation of work to be done
100–249 10 Chemicals 2
Grease and oil among available workers. Five possible levels were included, ranging
Filtration wholesale and distribution from production worker (scored as 5) to someone outside the
Automotive components 2 particular location sampled for the study (scored as 1). The sum of
Food and beverage equipment 2
the scores assigned to each of the firm's policies on the list was used to
Building products 2
250–499 12 Chemicals 2 indicate the level of delegation of authority within the sampled firms
Publishing (Libby & Waterhouse, 1996, p. 140). Firms where operating decisions
Clothing can be made at relatively low levels (i.e., obtaining relatively high
Footwear scores) were considered to be decentralized (Libby & Waterhouse,
Wine manufacturing and sales 2
1996, pp. 140–41; Williams & Seaman, 2001). The Cronbach co-
Semi trailer manufacturing
Styron and derivatives efficient alpha for this measure was 0.95. Table 3 presents the
Building products 3 descriptive statistics.
500–999 5 Forklift manufacture and sales
Chemicals
3.2.4. Changes in MACS
Textiles
Truck manufacture To measure changes in MACS, the survey used Libby and
Automotive components Waterhouse's (1996) 23-item scale which was divided into five
1000 or greater 7 Glass manufacture main elements: a) planning, b) controlling, c) costing, d) directing, and
Electronic systems e) decision-making (see Appendix A). This 23-item scale captures both
Steel products 2
conventional and newer management accounting tools. Respondents
Engineering and development
Alumina refining were also given an opportunity to add other tools and techniques
Logistics not listed in the scale. The reliability of this instrument has been
Total 34 verified in a subsequent study by Williams and Seaman in 2001.
Further, in this study this instrument has also been subject to pilot
tests with four CFOs. The instrument asked respondents to indicate
whether changes had occurred in any of these MACS components
and Seaman (2001), and Moers (2006). The instrument used two during the period 2003–2005. On a similar note to Libby and
questions: the first question asked respondents to indicate how Waterhouse (1996) and Williams and Seaman (2001), the present
intense, on a five-point scale ranging from one (‘negligible’) to five study examined the number of changes in MACS that were im-
(‘extremely intense’), each of the following types of competition plemented in a particular ORGANIZATIONAL between 2003 and 2005.
was in their firm's main line of business for the past three years Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics.
(2003–2005): (1) competition for raw materials, parts and equip-
ment, (2) competition for technical personnel such as engineers, 3.3. The path model
accountants, programmers, (3) competition in promotion, advertis-
ing, selling, distribution, etc., (4) competition in quality and variety of To examine the pattern of the causal connections between the
products, and (5) price competition in their main line of business. The variables, as outlined in the form of hypotheses above, a path analysis
second question asked respondents to indicate how important they (Asher, 1983; Davis, 1985; Land, 1969; Pedhazur, 1982) is used. Fig. 2
would rate, on a scale from one (‘not important’) to five (‘extremely highlights the path diagram which makes explicit the causal
important’), each form of competition to the long-term profitability connections between competition (COMPET), delegation of authority
and growth of their firms. The overall intensity of competition was (DELG), number of changes in MACS (NMACS), and organizational
constructed by multiplying, for each type of competition, the ratings performance (PERF). The relationships between these variables are
of importance by intensity, and summing the five products to obtain a indicated by arrows, p (path), which can be statistically expressed by
measure of competitive pressure for each firm. 9 The Cronbach alpha path coefficients. The path model in Fig. 2 proposes that COMPET has
coefficient (Cronbach, 1951) of 0.84 indicates that the items used in indirect effects on PERF, as follows: COMPET affects NMACS (p31)
the measure are internally consistent and reliable. Table 3 presents which in turn affects PERF (p43); COMPET affects DELG (p21) which in
the descriptive statistics. turn affects PERF (p42); and COMPET affects DELG (p21) again, but this
time passes through NMACS (p32) to affect PERF (P43). Further, DELG
3.2.3. Delegation of authority has a direct effect on PERF (p42) and an indirect effect whereby it
Following Libby and Waterhouse (1996), to assess the level of affects NMACS (p32) which in turn affects PERF (p43). NMACS have a
delegation of authority the instrument asked respondents to identify direct effect on PERF (p43), but no indirect effects.
the most junior level of job that had the authority to make decisions Fig. 2 also shows that additional arrows directed to DELG, NMACS
on the following operating policies during the period 2003–2005: and PERF variables from outside indicate the amount of unexplained
(a) spend unbudgeted or unallocated money on capital items; variance for each variable respectively. The error from Ru to DELG
(b) determine new products or services; (c) which market to be (p2u) refers to the amount of variance in DELG that is not accounted
aimed for; (d) what should be costed (i.e. to what the costing system, for by COMPET. Similarly, the arrow from Rw to PERF (p4w) denotes
if any, should be applied); (e) what should be inspected (i.e. to what the amount of error arising from the variance in PERF that is not
the inspection system, if any, should be applied); (f) determine which explained by COMPET, DELG, and NMACS. Finally, the arrow from Rv
suppliers of material are to be used; (g) what type and how many to NMACS (p3v) denotes the amount of variance that is unexplained
benefits are to be provided to employees; (h) the price of output; by COMPET and DELG. Overall, these error terms suggest that there
are other variables that have an impact on DELG, NMACS and PERF,
but which are not included in the path model in Fig. 2.
In order to assess these direct and indirect relationships, path
9
This study used the similar approach as in the performance scale (footnote 4), coefficients (standardized regressions) are computed using partial least
results are similar throughout. square (PLS) regression procedures (Chin, 1998; Cohen, 2003). To
 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277 271

Table 2 Table 3
Formulae for the decomposition of the observed correlations in the path model of Fig. 2. Descriptive statistics.

Combination Observed = Direct + Indirect effect + Spurious effect Variable Mean Median Standard Theoretical Observed range
of variables correlation effect deviation range

X1 with X2 r12 = p21 + – + – COMPET 18.76 19.24 2.97 5–25 12.94–23.94

X1 with X3 r13 = p31 + p21p32 + – DELG 38.19 39.00 6.50 14–70 24–51
X1 with X4 r14 = p41 + p21p42 + + – NMACS 5.29 5.00 3.69 0–23 0–14
p21p32p43 + NPLAN 1.26 1.00 0.99 0–5 0–3
p31p43 NCONTROL 1.41 1.00 1.52 0–5 0–5
X2 with X3 r23 = p32 + – + p21p31 NCOSTING 0.41 1.00 0.70 0–5 0–2
X2 with X4 r24 = p42 + p32p43 + p21p31p43 NDIRECT 0.71 1.00 0.94 0–3 0–3
X3 with X4 r34 = p43 + – + p31p41 + NDECISION 1.50 1.00 1.33 0–5 0–4
p32p42 + PERF 35.32 35.24 5.99 10–50 23.21–49.47
p31p21p42 SIZE_EMPL 1168.57 429.00 2297.33 N 100 100–11,650

X1 = intensity of competition (COMPET); X2 = delegation of authority (DELG); n = 34.

X3 = number of changes in management accounting control systems (NMACS); COMPET = intensity of competition; DELG = delegation of authority; NMACS =
X4 = organizational performance (PERF). number of changes in MACS; NPLAN = number of planning systems changes;
NCONTROL = number of controlling systems changes; NCOSTING = number of costing
systems changes; NDIRECT = number of directing systems changes; NDECISION =
generate the path coefficients, the following three structural equations number of decision-making systems changes; PERF = organizational performance;
are used10: SIZE_EMPL = number of employees.

X2 = p21 X1 + p2u Rvu ð1Þ

(0.194), it is not statistically significant (p = 0.271). Further, the
X3 = p31 X1 + p32 X2 + p3v Rv ð2Þ overall structural model for the independent variable explains only
3.8% (R2) of the variance in the dependent variable (F = 1.256,
X4 = p41 X1 + p42 X2 + p43 X3 + p4w Rw ð3Þ
p = 0.271). Therefore, these results do not support H1.
H2 predicts that a firm facing increased competition is likely
where, X1 = intensity of competition (COMPET), X2 = level of delega-
to respond to such an environment by attempting a greater number
tion of authority (DELG), X3 = number of changes in management
of changes in its MACS. A positive path coefficient p31 (0.386, t-value =
accounting and control systems (NMACS), and X4 = Organizational
2.376, p = 0.024) and a high R2 (0.212) provide evidence to support
performance (PERF), Pij = the standardized path coefficients, and Ri =
H2. The associated F value is 4.176 at p = 0.025. These results indicate
the standardized residuals.
that increased competition is positively related to the greater number
The relative magnitude of these direct and indirect effects is
of changes in MACS.
assessed by decomposing observed correlations among COMPET,
The results in Table 5 indicate that the 0.187 path coefficient p32 is
DELG, NMACS and PERF. The formulae for the decomposition of the
not significant (p = 0.258), suggesting no support for H3. These
observed correlations are presented in Table 2. As shown in this table,
results imply a lack of conclusive evidence to support the idea that
there are three components in this process: direct effects, indirect
increased delegation of authority may result in a greater number of
effects, and spurious effects. 11 These are discussed in the next section.
changes in MACS.
H4 conjectures that increased delegation of authority affects
4. Results
performance directly and indirectly through the number of changes
in MACS. The results in Table 5 indicate a positive and significant path
4.1. Descriptive statistics
coefficient p42 (0.226, t-value = 1.582, p = 0.031), thereby providing
support for H4 regarding the direct positive effect of DELG on PERF.
Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics for all the variables of
On the other hand, the results presented in Table 5 indicate a low
interest. The correlation matrix for the variables is presented in
path coefficient (0.050) for an indirect effect. Therefore, the idea
Table 4. The relationships between the contextual variables are not
that increased delegation has an indirect effect on organizational
highly correlated to each other, suggesting that multicollinearity is
performance via changes in MACS cannot be supported, as predicted
unlikely (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Also, tests of nonlinearity and
in H4.
heteroskedasticity of the data indicate no major problem for
It appears from the results in Table 5 that the path coefficient p43
structural regression analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).
between NMACS and PERF is positive (p43 = 0.269) and significant
(p = 0.045, t-value = 1.738), with a high R2 of 0.433. These results
4.2. Regression (path) results

Table 5 presents the results of the three structural equations (PLS

Table 4
regressions) outlined above. H1 postulates a positive association
Zero-order correlations matrix and reliability coefficients (Cronbach alpha).
between intensity of competition (COMPET) and delegation of
authority (DELG). Although the path coefficient p21 is positive Variables COMPET DELG NMACS PERF LnSIZE

COMPET 0.84
DELG 0.194 0.95
10 NMACS 0.423⁎⁎⁎ 0.262⁎ n/a
As the structural equations are linear in the Pij they do not have a constant term. As
PERF 0.550⁎⁎⁎ 0.373⁎⁎ 0.494⁎⁎⁎ 0.76
Asher (1983) suggests, in a structural equation, a constant term can be omitted if the
LnSIZE −0.01 −0.17 0.20⁎ 0.02 n/a
experimental variables are standardized by giving them a mean of zero and a standard
deviation of one, and if it is assumed that the unmeasured residual terms are also n = 34.
standardized. Cronbach alpha reliabilities appear in the diagonal cells.
11
The spurious effects refer to “those compound paths that are mathematically part COMPET = intensity of competition; DELG = delegation of authority; NMACS =
of the decomposition but that do not represent substantively meaningful indirect number of changes in MACS; PERF = organizational performance.
effects” (Asher, 1983, p. 34). In other words, the relationship between two variables ⁎ p b 0.10 (2-tailed).
may not be a ‘true’ relationship; the difference exhibited by each variable is affected by ⁎⁎ p b 0.05 (2-tailed).
a third variable (Bryman & Cramer, 1995). ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.01 (2-tailed).
272 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277

Table 5
Path analysis.

Dependent variable Independent variable Relevant hypothesis Relevant path Path coefficienta t-value p-valueb R2

X2 DELG X1 COMPET H1 p21 0.194 1.120 0.271 0.038

X3 NMACS X1 COMPET H2 p31 0.386 2.376 0.024 0.212
X3 NMACS X2 DELG H3 p32 0.187 1.152 0.258 –
X4 PERF X2 DELG H4 p42 0.226 1.582 0.062 –
X4 PERF X3 NMACS H5 p43 0.269 1.738 0.045 –
X4 PERF X1 COMPET H6 p41 0.392 2.575 0.015 0.323

COMPET = intensity of competition; DELG = delegation of authority; NMACS = number of changes in MACS; PERF = organizational performance.
F values for:
X2 = p21X1 + p2uRvu: 1.255 (p = 0.271).
X3 = p31X1 + p32X2 + p3vRv: 4.176 (p = 0.025).
X4 = p41X1 + p42X2 + p43X3 + p4wRw: 4.772 (p = 0.008).
a
Standardized partial least squares (PLS) path coefficients.
b
Two-tailed level of significance.

support the hypothesis (H5) that the number of changes in MACS is delegation of authority to lower-level managers is not an intervening
positively associated with organizational performance. 12 variable of competition and the number of changes in MACS.
With regard to H6, the results in Table 5 show that the path In regards to (b), (c) and (d) above, the observed correlation
coefficient p41 is positive (0.392) and significant (t-value = 2.575, (r14 = 0.550) is composed of a positive and significant direct effect of
p = 0.015). Based on these results, it can be concluded that changes in competition on organizational performance (p41 = 0.392) plus three
intensity of competition is associated with organizational performance. indirect effects via two intervening variables, DELG and number of
Further, it appears from the results (indirect coefficient= 0.158) in changes in MACS, (0.158). This is composed of the following three
Table 5 that increased competition also affects organizational perfor- indirect components as in (b), (c) and (d) above:
mance indirectly through both delegation and changes in MACS.
a) Competition (X1) on organizational performance (X4) via delega-
tion (X2) (p21p42) = 0.044 [0.194 ∗ 0.226]
4.3. Decomposition of observed correlations b) Competition (X1) on organizational performance (X4) via both
delegation (X2) and number of changes in MACS (X3) (p21p32p43) =
The causal diagram in Fig. 2 indicates that one variable can go 0.010 [0.194 ∗ 0.187 ∗ 0.269)]
directly from one variable to another, which is represented by a c) Competition (X1) on organizational performance (X4) via number
simple path, for example, p21. However, a variable also can go to a of changes in MACS (X3) (p31p43) = 0.104 [0.386 ∗ 0.269].
target variable via another variable, for example in Fig. 2, X1 to X2 to X3,
which is a product of p21p31. This section decomposes an observed The total causal effect of each of these three variables on
correlation between two variables, which is a product of three organizational performance would be: direct effect (p21) 0.392 plus a
components: direct effects, indirect effects, and spurious effects. 13 total of the above three indirect effects, 0.158 (0.044 + 0.010 + 0.104),
These effects are examined using the formulae presented in Table 2. which is 0.550. Note that, of the three indirect effects, the path
The results are presented in Table 6. or the relationship between competition and the number of changes
The intervening effects 14 depicted in Fig. 2 can be summarized, as in MACS has the greater overall indirect effect (0.104) on organiza-
follows: tional performance (the outcome variable). These results indicate
that the change in MACS has significant intervening (or mediating)
a) X1 to X2 (intervening) to X3, effect on the relationship between competition and organizational
b) X1 to X3 (intervening) to X4, performance.
c) X1 to X2 (intervening) to X3 (intervening) to X4, Sequence (e) above indicates the number of changes in MACS as
d) X1 to X2 (intervening) to X4, and an intervening variable of the delegation of authority variable and
e) X2 to X3 (intervening) to X4. the organizational performance variable. The observed correlation
is composed of a direct effect of delegation on organizational
The analysis presented in Table 6 with regard to (a) above indicates
that the observed correlation (r13) of 0.423 is composed of a positive and
significant direct effect of competition on the number of changes in
Table 6
MACS (p31 = 0.386) plus an indirect effect via delegation (p21p31 = Computation of the decomposition of the observed correlations in the model of Fig. 2.
0.037). The low magnitude of the indirect effect suggests that the (Source: Tables 3 and 4).

Combination Observed = Direct + Indirect + Spurious Total

of variables correlation effect effect effect effectsa
12
One may argue that short-term changes in MACS might lead to lower profits
X1 with X2 0.194 = 0.194 + – + – 0.194
because many of the MACS changes could be quite costly. Many of the benefits that
X1 with X3 0.423 = 0.386⁎⁎⁎ + 0.037 + – 0.423
might be forthcoming would come later. Therefore, this study has also attempted to
X1 with X4 0.550 = 0.392⁎⁎⁎ + 0.158⁎ + – 0.550
reverse the causal ordering, that is, to see whether poor organizational performance
X2 with X3 0.262 = 0.187 + – + 0.075 0.262
leads to changes in MACS. While not presented here, it has been found that poor
X2 with X4 0.373 = 0.226⁎ + 0.050 + 0.017 0.373
organizational performance is not significantly associated with changes in MACS.
X3 with X4 0.494 = 0.269⁎⁎ + – + 0.219 0.494
Future research may wish to explore this further with a larger set of sample in similar
or alternative settings. X1 = intensity of competition (COMPET); X2 = delegation of authority (DELG); X3 =
13
There is a possibility of the fourth component, unanalyzed effects, which may arise number of changes in management accounting control systems (NMACS); X4 =
when no causal ordering is imposed among the exogenous variables. Note that any organizational performance (PERF).
a
compound path, including an unanalyzed correlation, cannot be considered a causally Total effects = direct effect + indirect effect + spurious effect.
interpretable indirect effect (Asher, 1983, p. 35). ⁎ p b 0.10 (2-tailed).
14
For a detailed discussion about the intervening model, see Asher (1983) and ⁎⁎ p b 0.05 (2-tailed).
Bryman and Cramer (1995). ⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.01 (2-tailed).
 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277 273

Table 7
Additional path analysisa for change in components of MACS.

Dependent variable Independent variable Hypothesis (path) NPLAN NCONTROL NCOSTING NDIRECT NDECISION

X2 DELG X1 COMPET H1 (p21) 0.194 0.194 0.194 0.194 0.194

(1.12) (1.12) (1.12) (1.12) (1.12)
X3 NMACS X1 COMPET H2 (p31) 0.291 0.372 0.001 0.336 0.205
(1.694⁎) (2.186⁎⁎) (0.007) (2.120⁎⁎) (1.175)
X3 NMACS X2 DELG H3 (p32) −0.256 −0.095 0.252 0.312 0.191
(− 1.488) (− 0.557) (1.422) (1.968⁎⁎) (1.095)
X4 PERF X2 DELG H4 (p42) 0.257 0.278 0.264 0.316 0.256
(1.694⁎) (1.885⁎) (1.746⁎) (2.049⁎⁎) (1.724⁎)
X4 PERF X3 NMACS H5 (p43) −0.078 0.019 0.049 −0.127 0.108
(− 0.511) (0.121) (0.328) (−.772) (0.719)
X4 PERF X1 COMPET H6 (p41) 0.519 0.489 0.496 0.539 0.474
(3.392⁎⁎⁎) (3.099⁎⁎⁎) (3.381⁎⁎⁎) (3.460⁎⁎⁎) (3.183⁎⁎⁎)

COMPET = intensity of competition; DELG = delegation of authority; NMACS = number of changes in MACS; NPLAN = number of planning systems changes; NCONTROL = number
of controlling systems changes; NCOSTING = number of costing systems changes; NDIRECT = number of directing systems changes; NDECISION = number of decision-making
systems changes; PERF = organizational performance.
a
Standardized partial least squares (PLS) path coefficients (t-value).
⁎ p b 0.010 (Two-tailed level of significance).
⁎⁎ p b 0.05 (Two-tailed level of significance).
⁎⁎⁎ p b 0.01 (Two-tailed level of significance).

performance (p42 = 0.226) plus an intervening (indirect) effect via p b 0.05). Delegation directly affects only the NDIRECT component of
the number of changes in MACS (p32p43 = 0.050) and a spurious MACS (p32 = 0.312, t = 1.968, p b 0.05). Delegation has also produced
effect. 15 The low value of p32p43 suggests that the indirect effect of the significant and positive associations with organizational performance
number of changes in MACS on the relationship between delegation for all components of MACS. Surprisingly, no components of MACS
and organizational performance is likely to be minimal. These results appear to have any significant direct influence on organizational
provide no support for the view that increased delegation has an performance. Consistent with earlier results, the change in competi-
indirect effect on performance acting through the number of changes tion is positively and significantly associated with organizational
in MACS. performance for all components of MACS at the 0.01 level of
significance with t-values of greater than 3.00. Further, the analysis
4.4. Additional analysis — changes in components of MACS of the indirect effects for MACS components (not shown) indicates no
significant indirect effects. Taken together, these results reinforce the
The analysis presented above is based on the overall index of the earlier view put forward above based on the overall number of
five components of MACS. To further explore the relationships changes in MACS. 16
predicted in the research model, this study undertook an additional
path analysis using each of the five components of MACS individually. 5. Conclusions
The results of this analysis are presented in Table 7.
The results presented in Table 7 indicate that the change in This study makes several contributions to the management
competition is positively associated with three of the five components accounting literature. First, the positive association between competi-
of MACS: NPLAN (p31 = 0.291, t = 1.694, p b 0.10), NCONTROL (p31 = tion and delegation of authority reported in this paper suggests that
0.372, t = 2.186, p b 0.01), and NDIRECT (p31 = 0.336, t = 2.1200, when firms face increased competition in the marketplace they tend to
delegate more decision-making powers to lower- or local-level
managers, so that quicker and more effective decisions can be made at
the local entity level. This result is consistent with the view put forward
by organizational theorists that in a highly competitive environment
15
Fig. 2 and Table 2 depict three spurious effects. Firstly, whether the relationship a greater emphasis should be placed by senior management on
between delegation (X2) and changes in MACS (X3) is spurious as competition affects delegating more authority to lower-level management (e.g. Burns &
both delegation and changes in MACS (p21p31) has been tested. If the relationship is Stalker, 1961; Chandler, 1962). In the management accounting research
spurious, one would expect the relationship between delegation and number of
literature, it is also evident that the greater the environmental
changes in MACS to disappear (Bryman & Cramer, 1995). The analysis presented in
Table 6 indicates that of the observed correlation of 0.262, the value of spurious effect complexity, the greater the level of delegation of authority to lower-
is only 0.075, suggesting that the spurious effect of competition on delegation (the level management of the firm (e.g. Bruns & Waterhouse, 1975; Chenhall
independent variable) and number of changes in MACS (the dependent variable) is & Morris, 1986; Hoque & Hopper, 1997; Merchant, 1984).
minimal. In other words, the relationship between delegation and number of changes Second, it appears from the results presented in this paper that
in MACS appears to be a ‘true’ relationship. Secondly, this paper examines whether the
relationship between delegation (X2) and organizational performance (X4) is
delegation does not lead to changes in MACS to affect organizational
significantly affected by both competition and the number of changes in MACS performance. Such an insignificant link between the delegation of
(p21p31p43). The analysis in Table 6 indicates the existence of a very low spuriousness
(p21p31p43 = 0.017) for the relationship between delegation and organizational
performance, suggesting that this relationship is a ‘true’ relationship. That is, the
greater the delegation of authority, the higher the organizational performance. Thirdly,
the data presented in Table 6 indicate that, of the observed correlation between the
16
number of changes in MACS and organizational performance (r34) of 0.488, the direct In order to validate the results presented above and to further explore the
effect (p43) is 0.269 and the spurious effect of competition and delegation is 0.219, hypothesized relationships, this study repeated the path analysis using factor scores
which is relatively high. These results suggest that the relationship between the that were saved as variables using SPSS programs. The Cronbach alphas reported in the
number of changes in MACS and organizational performance is relatively spurious. In research method section have supported that the variables being used in the analyses
other words, both competition and delegation may affect (or control) the relationship are unidimensional, and this study found no discernible differences between the two
between the number of changes in MACS and organizational performance. sets of results.
274 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277

authority and changes in MACS could be due to little variation in the budgeting agenda and drop conventional budgets. Future research
delegation of authority variable in the sampled organizations. Further, may be undertaken to explore this idea that will provide much
this evidence also indicates that the delegation of authority and insights into the processes involved in MACS change.
management accounting practices can be simultaneously determined As in most prior studies, the results presented in this paper should be
because they can be complement or substitutes. interpreted in terms of the study's limitations that might be addressed
Third, the results also provide support for a positive association by future research. Firstly, due to the study's small number of cases (34),
between competition and changes in MACS. An interpretation of this any generalization of the study's results to manufacturing firms or
result is that when organizations experience an intense competitive beyond cannot be made without considerable caution. Further research
business environment, they become less stable and face market with a large cross sectional dataset needs to be conducted to establish a
uncertainty; therefore these firms tend to initiate more changes in firm conclusion on the phenomena under study. Secondly, the firm
MACS to address issues resulting from high competitive uncertainty. performance is measured perceptually, which is a common choice of
This result is also consistent with the view put forward by prior survey researchers. This study asked the respondents (CFOs) in the
management accounting research that the greater the competition, survey to provide “hard” performance measures, such as profitability
the greater the need for sophisticated management control tools that and growth rates, but about 80% of the respondents did not provide any
can provide managers with high quality information for improved such hard measures of performance. Consistent with most prior
decision-making, so that organizations are able to enhance their management accounting research, this study used “soft” measures of
competitiveness (e.g. Cooper, 1995; DeFond & Park, 1999; Hoque et firm performance. Future research can explore whether the theoretical
al., 2001; Hoque & James, 2000; Kaplan & Norton, 1996; Khandwalla, model in Fig. 1 in this paper fits the data better than other specifications
1972; Krishnan, 2005; Lynch & Cross, 1991). In addition to this direct of models with the study's four categories of variables — intensity of
relationship, the results in this study also indicate that those competition, delegation of authority, changes in MACS, and organiza-
organizations that face intense competition become more interested tional performance. Such tests require much more data than is available
in attempting a greater number of changes in MACS, which in turn, in the current study. Finally, future research could come up with an
heighten their organization's performance. In other words, we should improved measurement of changes in MACS, which would be a useful
see more change or less change in MACS depending on the level of extension.
environmental uncertainty. Notwithstanding the above limitations, this study has added to the
Fourth, in the current study the change in MACS was found to be limited body of knowledge concerning the linkages between
an important influential factor of organizational performance, which environment, MACS, and performance by providing evidence that
was evidenced by a significant direct association between the number the relationship between intensity of competition and organizational
of changes in MACS and organizational performance. This result performance is likely to be mediated by delegation of authority and
suggests that more changes in MACS mean greater organizational changes in management accounting systems of the firm.
capacity to build accurate and useful information for effective decision
making processes, which in turn, will have a positive impact on Acknowledgments
organizational performance. This finding does not support prior
studies (for example, see Abernethy & Lillis, 2001; Abernethy & Financial support for this study was provided by the William P.
Bouwens, 2005; Bruns, 1987; Cavalluzzo & Ittner, 2004; Cooper, Burkett Research Grant Scheme of CPA Australia. An earlier version of
Kaplan, Maisel, Morrissey, & Oehm, 1992; Innes & Mitchell, 1991), this paper was presented at Nanyang Business School of Nanyang
with the exception of Baines and Langfield-Smith (2003), which Technology University, Singapore. The author greatly appreciates Hun
suggests that management accounting innovations do not always lead Tong Tan, Khim Kelly and Mahmud Hossain for their useful comments
to improve organizational performance. on an earlier draft. Special thanks also to Therese Libby for supplying a
Fifth, a significant finding of this study is the presence of a copy of her original survey instrument. The author also gratefully
relationship between competition and organizational performance acknowledges the helpful comments of the reviewers and Philip
which is due to two important mediators — delegation of authority Reckers (the editor).
and changes in MACS. These results suggest that competition affects
organizational performance via the organization's level of delegation
of authority to lower-level managers and changes in MACS. Appendix A. The survey instrument
However, one may argue that if a firm has already developed an
appropriate management accounting system given its level of (Adapted from: Libby & Waterhouse, 1996).
competition and delegation of authority, why change it? Based on
the empirical evidence in this paper, it can be argued that as Changes in management accounting and control systems
competition and level of delegation increase, most existing MACS no
longer appropriate or there have been so many MACS innovations in Respondents were provided with the following list of 23
the previous few years that existing MACS have become outdated. management accounting control systems that had been divided into
As discussed above, the two options under study here – delegating five main components, as follows. Respondents were asked the
powers to lower level managers and changing existing MACS – appear following two questions:
to be influential forces for a positive relationship between competi-
tion and firm performance. This study opens up avenues for future (a) Did you have the following system at your business unit during
research to explore what other ways the relationship between the period 2003–2005: (Yes or No)?
competition and firm performance might be improved. Should more (b) Has a change occurred in the following system during the
resources be channeled into hiring more skilled or technical people to period 2003–2005? (Yes or No)
increase firm capacity to learn and grow? Or should firms implement
more sophisticated production technology and IT support to address
Planning systems
increased competitiveness facing the firm? What should be the role of 1. Budgeting
management accounting control systems in this context? Further, it 2. Operations planning (production)
might be possible that delegation may encourage the adoption of one 3. Capital budgeting
practice, such as budgets to act as an integrative mechanism, while 4. Strategic planning
5. Any other planning systems? Please specify here:
intensity of competition may encourage firms to move to a beyond
 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277 275

Controlling systems 1 = off site; 2 = most senior person at this location; 3 =

6. Individual or team-based performance measurement
department manager (or next most senior person); 4 = supervisor;
7. Firm performance measuremen
8. Measurement of performance in terms of quality 5 = production worker.
9. Measurement of performance in terms of customer satisfaction
10. Other types of performance measures? Please specify here: During Has this changed
Costing systems 2005? in the last 3 years?
11. Direct allocation of manufacturing overheads
12. Direct allocation of other overhead 1) The number of supervisory personnel
13. Direct allocation of marketing costs 2) Spend unbudgeted or unallocated money on
14. Internal (dept. or divisional) product transfers capital items
15. Other costing systems – please specify here 3) Determine new products or services
Directing systems 4) Which market to be aimed for
16. Reward systems - bonuses 5) What should be costed (i.e. to what the costing
17. Reward systems – pay for performance plans based system, if any, should be applied)
18. Other reward systems – please specify here 6) What should be inspected (i.e. to what the
Decision-making systems inspection system, if any, should be applied)
19. Information reported more frequently 7) Determine which suppliers of material are to
20. Use of more non-financial measures be used
21. Information reported more broadly 8) What type and how many benefits are to be
22. Other changes to reporting systems provided to employees
23. If there is any other changes to systems that do not appear on this list, please 9) The price of output
specify here: 10) Alter responsibilities/areas of work of staff
departments
11) Labor force requirements for the plant/branch
12) Delivery dates or the priority of orders
13) What production schedules are set
Intensity of competition 14) Which machinery/equipment is to be used
15) Allocation of work to be done among available
workers
(a) Respondents were asked to indicate how intense, on the
following scale ranging from 1 to 5, each of the following types
of competition was in their main line of business during the Organizational performance
period 2003–2005? 1 = negligible; 2 = moderately compet-
itive; 3 = competitive; 4 = intense; 5 = extremely intense. Respondents were asked to indicate their business unit's perfor-
mance relative to their competitors, on the following scale in 2005,
2004 and 2003.
(b) Respondents were also asked to indicate how important they 1 = very unsatisfactory; 2 = unsatisfactory; 3 = neither poor nor
would rate, on a scale from 1 to 5, each form of competition to good; 4 = good; 5 = outstanding.
the long-term profitability and growth of their ORGANIZA- Respondents were also asked to indicate how important they would
TIONAL in 2005, 2004 and 2003. 1 = not important; 2 = of rate on the following scale, each form of performance dimensions to
little importance; 3 = moderately important; 4 = important; the long-term growth of their organization in 2005, 2004 and 2003.
5 = extremely important. 1 = not important; 2 = of little importance; 3 = moderately
important; 4 important; 5 = extremely important.

2005 2004 2003

2005 2004 2003
1 (a) Competition for raw materials, parts and equipment.
(b) How important would you rate this form of 1 (a) Operating profit
competition on long-term profitability and growth of the (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
firm? performance on long-term growth of the firm?
2 (a) Competition for technical personnel such as engineers, 2 (a) Return on investment
accountants, programmers. (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
(b) How important would you rate this form of performance on long-term growth of the firm
competition on long-term profitability and growth of the 3 (a) Sales growth rate
firm? (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
3 (a) Competition in promotion, advertising, selling, performance on long-term growth of the firm?
distribution, etc., in your main line of business. 4 (a) Market share
(b) How important would you rate this form of (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
competition on long-term profitability and growth of the performance on long-term growth of the firm?
firm? 5 (a) Cash flow from operation
4 (a) Competition in quality and variety of products. (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
(b) How important would you rate this form of performance on long-term growth of the firm?
competition on long-term profitability and growth of the 6 (a) New product development
firm? (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
5 (a) Price competition in your main line of business. performance on long-term growth of the firm?
(b) How important would you rate this form of 7 (a) Market development
competition on long-term profitability and growth of the (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
firm? performance on long-term growth of the firm?
8 (a) Research & development
(b) How important would you rate this dimension of
performance on long-term growth of the firm?
Delegation of authority
9 (a) Cost reduction programs
(b) How important would you rate this dimension of
Respondents were asked to identify, using the following scale, the performance on long-term growth of the firm?
most junior level of job that has the authority to make decisions on the 10 (a) Personnel development
following list of operating policies (authority = action can be taken on (b) How important would you rate this dimension of
performance on long-term growth of the firm?
the decision without waiting for confirmation from above).
276 Z. Hoque / Advances in Accounting, incorporating Advances in International Accounting 27 (2011) 266–277

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