AC Fundamentals

Required reading in Text book: chapter 4 -Steady State Analysis of Sinusoidal Excitation

Alternating voltage can be generated in one of the two ways.

1. Rotating coil in a uniform magnetic field
2. rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
The value of voltage generated depends on
– number of turns in the coil
– strength of the magnetic field
– and speed of coil or speed or magnetic field

Equations of Alternating Voltage:

When a coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, alternating emf is induced in coil . The induced emf, e
is given by

−d −d
e= Nф = Nфm cos ωt (-ve sign because induced emf opposes the magnetic flux)
dt dt
= ωNфm sin ωt
from this equation, we can derive that
e = Emsin θ = Emsin ωt where Em = ωNфm = ωNBMA where Bm is maximum flux density
A is area of coil
f is frequency of rotation of coil
Similarly, current i = Im sin ωt
v T
voltage v = Vm sin ωt
Vm

0 π 2π ωt

Thus alternating emf (current) varies sinusoidally with time.

Simple waveforms
Alternating voltage (or current) may not always take the form of pure sinusoidal waveforms. The
waveforms deviating from the standard sine wave are called distorted waves.
An alternating voltage (current) is one the directions of which reverses at regularly repeating intervals.
Basic terms while dealing with alternating currents and voltages

• Cycle – is one complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity which
repeats periodically.
• Time Period (T sec) – is the time taken be an alternating quantity to complete one cycle.
• Frequency (f) – is the number of cycles the alternating quantity repeats per second
f = 1/T cycles/sec
• Amplitude – is the maximum value of alternating quantity.
• Phase – is the fraction of time period of an alternating quantity which has elapsed since the
quantity last passed through the zero position of reference. Phase relates a full cycle to 3600 as a
reference.
v T
eA
eC eB

Vm
θ
φ π ωt
0 2π

• Phase Difference – In a circuit, various voltages or currents do not reach their zero (or
maximum) values simultaneously.

Mathematically the phase difference is expressed as follows:

eA = Em sin ωt …............ reference quantity
eB = Em sin (ωt – α )…..... lagging eA by α
eC = Em sin (ωt +β)........... leading eA by β

• Root Mean Square (rms) Value - of an alternating current (I) is given by thatt steady (dc)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
Rms current is also called effective value or virtual value of alternating current .
In ac circuits, ammeters and voltmeters measure rms values of current and voltage respectively.
Unless otherwise indicated, the values of given current and voltage are always RMS values.


2
I = ∫ i dt integrated over limits from 0 to T
T
• Average value – of an alternating current (Iav), is that steady current which transfers across any
circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating current during the same time.
In a pure sinusoidal current average current is 0 over a cycle. Therefore, for sinusoidal
alternating current, average value is computed over a half cycle.
In non-sinusoidal currents, average current in not zero. Therefore, for these currents, average
value is computed over a full cycle.
i
Iav = ∫ dt integrated over limits from 0 to T
T
• Form Factor is the ratio of rms value to average value.
 rms value
Kf =
average value
• Peak Factor - is the ratio of maximum value to rms value. Knowledge of peak factor is of
importance in dielectric insulation testing. Dielectric stress to which the insulation is subjected,
is proportional to the peak value of the applied voltage. The knowledge is also necessary when
measuring iron losses, because the iron losses depend on the value of maximum flux.
maxium value
Ka =
rms value
 Representation of Alternating Quantities

AC computations are based on the assumption of sinusoidal voltages and currents. It is cumbersome to
continuously handle the instantaneous values in the form of trigonometric equations.

A convenient method is to use represent these sine waves in phasor form. Then we can manipulate
these vectors to solve ac circuits easily.

A phasor is a scaled vector that rotates in anti-clockwise direction, whose length is rms value of
alternating quantity, and its angle with reference is phase difference with the reference quantity, its
arrow points to direction in which the quantity acts.
Generally a phasor is shown as frozen at some point of time. v
i
v Reference
O
φ θ
i φ

Phasor Addition

Let v1 = 20sin(ωt + 60) and v2 = 30sin ωt

Then total voltage vtotal can be found as follows
– draw phasor diagram representing v1 and v2 on a graph paper
– construct a parallelogram about v1 and v2
– Now the length of the diagonal OA represents the magnitude of vtotal
– Angle of OA with v2 (reference) represents the phase difference of vtotal with v2.
v1
A
20 v total =v1+v2
600

O 30 v2
Phasor Subtraction
Let us find the difference between v2 and v1
Then total voltage vtotal can be found as follows
v1
Draw phasor diagram representing v1 and v2
on a graph paper 20
Draw -v1 in opposite direction to v1 from 600
point O
Construct a parallelogram about -v1 and v2 O 30 v2
Now the length of the diagonal OB -v1
vtotal =v1-v2
represents the magnitude of vtotal
Angle of OB with v2 (reference) represents B
the phase difference of vtotal with v2.

By now, you must have thought that it is not practical to draw on graph paper every time. You are right.
In practice, we use other ways of phasor representation.

Mathematical Representation of Phasors

mathematically phasors are represented in four ways:

1. Using Cartesian coordinate system, as complex numbers: Vector OE may be completely
described by stating that its horizontal component is a and vertical component is b. symbolically
it is written as a complex number as
j
E = a + jb E
b
θ
j2 Real axis
a

j3

where symbol j indicates that component b is perpendicular to component a, and the a and b are
not to be treated like terms in any algebraic expression. In electrical engineering, a is called in-
phase component and b is called quadrature component.
In mathematics, imaginary component is indicated with operator 'i'. but this is used for
instantaneous value of current in electrical engineering. Therefore we use symbol j to denote
imaginary component. Its numerical value is equal to  −1 . j indicates counter-clockwise
rotation of the vector by 900.

2. Trigonometric form : From the above figure, x-component of OE is Ecosθ, and y-component
of OE is Asin θ. E is the magnitude (length) of the vector OE.
Thus E = a + jb = E cosθ + jE sin θ

3. Exponential form: Euler's equation is

e±jθ = cosθ ± j sin θ
therefore, E = |E| (cos θ ± jsin θ ) = |E|e±jθ

4. Polar form: E = |E| (cos θ ± jsin θ ) can be written in the simplified form of E = |E| θ .
E = a + jb = |E| θ
b
|E| =  a2b2 and θ = tan-1  a 
b
When working with phasors, addition and subtraction are performed easily using complex form of
phasors. Multiplication and division are easily done using polar notation.

AC through Ohmic Resistance only:

v = Vm sin θ = Vm sin ωt
instantaneous current i = v/R = Vm sin θ = Im sin θ where Im = Vm / R
R
Alternating current and voltage are in phase with each other.
Power:
instantaneous power p = vi = VmImsin2 ωt
= VmIm(1 - cos 2ωt)/2 = VmIm/2 + (VmIm cos 2ωt)/2
for a complete cycle, second term becomes 0. therefore average power P = VmIm/2 = VI watts
where V is rms value of applied voltage and I is rms value of current.
R
I
V
I
v= Vmsin ωt

AC through Pure Inductance:

L

v= Vmsin ωt

v = L di/dt
VmSin ωt = L di/dt
or di = VmSin ω dt/L
integrating both sides we get
Vm π
i= Vm(-cos ωt)/ωL =  ∗sin ωt−  =( Vm //jXL)sin ωt = Im sin ωt
ωL 2
where j indicates 900 phase lag of I with V and XL = ωL
Im = Vm //jXL

therefore i= v/jXL
power:
Vm π
instantaneous power p = vi =  ∗sin ωt−  * VmSin ωt
ωL 2
average power P = ∫ p dt
Substituting the value of p and integrating over one cycle, we can find that average power is 0 over one
cycle.

AC Through Pure Capacitance

C

v= Vmsin ωt

i= dq/dt
VmSin ωt = v and q = Cv
d
therefore i= (CVmSin ωt)
dt
 Vm π
 ∗sin ωt 
= ωCVmcos ωt = 1 2 = ( jVm //XC)sin ωt
 
ωC
= Vm sin ωt // (-jXC)

where j indicates 900 phase lead of I with V and XC = 1/ωC

power:
Vm π
 ∗sin ωt 
instantaneous power p = vi = 1 2 * VmSin ωt
 
ωC
average power P = ∫ p dt
Substituting the value of p and integrating over one cycle, we can find that average power is 0 over one
cycle.