Dietary Diversity and Child Malnutrition in Ghana: Raymond Boadi Frempong, Samuel Kobina Annim
Dietary Diversity and Child Malnutrition in Ghana: Raymond Boadi Frempong, Samuel Kobina Annim
Dietary Diversity and Child Malnutrition in Ghana: Raymond Boadi Frempong, Samuel Kobina Annim
28 August 2016
Revised:
Dietary diversity and child
3 February 2017
Accepted:
21 April 2017
malnutrition in Ghana
Heliyon 3 (2017) e00298
* Corresponding author at: Universität Bayreuth, Raum 1.0 02 146, RW I, Universitätsstraße 30, 95440 Bayreuth,
(Germany).
E-mail address: [email protected] (R.B. Frempong).
Abstract
The health of children in Ghana has improved in recent years. However, the current
prevalence rates of malnutrition remain above internationally acceptable levels.
This study, therefore, revisits the determinants of child health by using Ghana’s
Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey to investigate the effect of infant feeding
practices on child health. We used the World Health Organization’s Infant and
Young Children Feeding guidelines to measure dietary quality. The econometric
analyses show that dietary diversity may cause improvement in children’s health in
Ghana. This suggests that educational campaigns on proper infant feeding and
complementary dieting could be an effective means of improving the health of
children in Ghana.
1. Introduction
The importance of nutrition has been emphasized for the intellectual and physical
development of children. It is, therefore, important to ensure that children have
adequate diet as it will ensure a healthy and productive population in future. The
benefits of adequate nutrition to the economy come directly in the form of reduced
public health expenditure on health care and indirectly through improved health,
which may lead to economic growth (Hoddinott et al., 2008). Because of the
importance of nutrition in human and economic development, pragmatic steps,
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both at sub-national, national and international levels, have been taken to reduce
the incidence of malnutrition. The importance development practitioners attach to
nutrition is reflected in targets 1C and 4A of the first Millennium Development
Goal’s (MDG), which identify the need to reduce hunger and mortality among
children under five years of age. In spite of the various interventions, about 870
million people were malnourished globally between 2010 and 2012 (FAO, 2012),
with a sizeable proportion of this is found in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia
(UNICEF, WHO & World Bank, 2015). Also, women and children tend to be the
most affected (Bain et al., 2013). According to UNICEF, WHO & World Bank’s
(2016) joint child malnutrition estimates, about 32 percent of children in Africa are
stunted whilst another 8 percent are wasting. Malnutrition at the early stages of life
does not only affect health outcomes of the child, but it also has a serious adverse
impact on the determinants of their livelihoods, such as physical and intellectual
growth, school performance and eventual future earnings and productivity
(Hoddinott et al., 2008; Strauss and Thomas, 1998). As individuals get locked
up in a vicious cycle of poor health, lower learning capacity, reduced physical
activity, and lower productivity as a result of poverty, malnutrition and poor child
health nexus, the gains from previous economic growth may be threatened
(Bagriansky, 2010).
Some countries in Africa, including Ghana, have made marginal, but steady, gains
in reducing malnutrition among children less than five years (ICF Macro, 2010).
However, according to the last Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS4), 13
percent of children in Ghana are moderately or severely underweight, 23 percent
are stunted (too short for their age.), and 6 percent are wasting (too thin for their
height.) (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2011). Fig. 1 presents the nutritional
status of children according to the Ghana Demographic Health Survey (GDHS,
[(Fig._1)TD$IG]
Fig. 1. Nutritional Status of Children under Five Years in Ghana from the GDHS I–V and Ghana
MICS-4. (Source: ICF Macro (2010) and GSS (2011)).
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rounds I −V) and MICS4. The graph shows varying trends for overweight,
stunting, underweight and wasting among children aged 5 to 59 months in Ghana.
The graph shows that child stunting and underweight have reduced since 2003,
even though the proportion of children who are stunted in Ghana is still higher than
the global average of 25 percent (UNICEF, 2013). On the other hand, child wasting
and overweight rose between 2003 and 2008. Both indicators increased by 1
percent between 2003 and 2008. Similarly, the GDHS estimate of child wasting is
higher than the global estimate of five (5) percent (UNICEF, 2013). Whilst these
figures are encouraging when they are benchmarked against other African
countries (UNICEF, WHO & World Bank, 2016), they are still above the World
Health Organization’s (WHO) classification of low prevalence. Thus, notwith-
standing this progress, there is the need to investigate the drivers behind
malnutrition in Ghana. This has become necessary given the fact that there has not
been a steady downward trend for some indicators.
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The next section of the paper discusses the methodology, then we present results
and discussion and finally draw conclusions from the study.
2. Methodology
2.1. Data
Data for the study was obtained from the fourth round of the Ghana Multiple
Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS4) collected in 2011. The MICS4 was conducted
by the GSS as part of a broader international household survey designed by the
UNICEF. The aim of the survey is to provide current information on the socio-
economic circumstances of children and women by measuring key indicators
relating to the MDGS (GSS, 2011). MICS4 is, therefore, a cross-sectional survey
that provides current information on the health, social and economic circumstances
of women, children and other household members. To obtain the sample for the
survey, rural and urban areas in the ten administrative regions of Ghana were used
as the main sampling strata. The final sample was selected in two stages. In the first
stage, enumeration areas were selected with the probability of selection being
proportional to the size. Then 15 households in each enumeration area were
systematically selected. Eventually, 12,150 households were successfully sampled
and interviewed. This consists of 11,925 households, 10,627 women aged 15 to 49
year and 7550 under the age of five years (GSS, 2011). After cleaning a merging
the various data files, we 6598 children remained for the regression analysis.
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where: sex = sex of child; age = age of child; numchildren = number of children in
household; urban = whether household is in an urban area; mage = mother’s age;
medu = mother’s education; wealth = wealth quintile; water = source of water;
toilet = type of toilet; food = food diversity score; Bmilk = child ever breastfed;
ethnic = ethnicity of household head; region = which administrative region
household is located in;yj ¼ ðWAZ; HAZ; WHZ Þ are the raw z-score of the
respective indicator; and i indexes individual children.
Estimating Eq. (1) with ordinary least squares (OLS) can yield a consistent
estimate of the effect of dietary diversity on child health if dietary diversity is
exogenous; that is uncorrelated with the error term in the model. However, this
may not be the case because of the bi-causal relationship between the two
variables. This bi-causal relationship is likely to arise because parents and
caregivers may adopt different feeding practices depending on the current health
status of the child. In this instance, the direction of causality could also run from
child health to dietary diversity. If this is the case, the OLS estimates will no longer
be consistent. To resolve this problem, we employed the Two Stage Least Square
(TSLS) estimator to identify the causal effect of dietary diversity on child health.
We used the number of chicken owned as well as household ownership of pigs as
instruments for dietary diversity. We assume our instruments have no direct effect
on child health outcomes but they indirectly influence it by improving the quality
of diet consumed. Based on these considerations we estimate the following
equations:
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where f d
oodi is the linearly predicted food diversity score from Eq. (2); pig and
chicken are the number of pigs and chicken owner by the household.
One can also observe that the difference between the incidence of malnutrition
over the different age groups is statistically significant. It is important to note that
in all the three cases the proportion of malnourished children increases with age up
to age 35 months and then falls, thus, suggesting a non-linear relationship between
child age and nutritional status. Apart from stunting, we observe significant
differences in the prevalence of wasting and underweight among children who had
suffered from fever in the past two weeks and those who had not.
On the association between dietary diversity and child health, Table 1 shows that
malnourishment varies significantly for the different levels of consumption. About
a quarter of children who consumed at least four of the seven food items are
stunted: 5 percent of this group were wasted and another 12 percent were
underweight. The prevalence of wasting and child underweight begins to decline
after the intake of two or more food items. Thus, child health improves as the
intensity of dietary diversity increases.
Sanitation factors such as the type of toilet facility and the source of drinking water
also tend to have a significant association with child health in Ghana. About 30
percent of children found in households where the bush or bucket are used as toilet
facility is stunted, whilst only 10 percent of their counterparts in households with
flush toilets are stunted. Similarly, only 4 percent of children found in households
with flush toilets are wasted as compared to 7 percent of children found in
households which neither use flush toilet nor pit latrine. The incidence of
malnutrition decreases as the source of drinking water improves. For instance, the
prevalence of child underweight falls from 17 percent among those who use
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Sex
Female 20 699 5.2 182 11.1 389
Male 25.1 852 7.6 261 15.6 536
Chi square 24.83 (Pr = 0.000) 27.78 (Pr = 0.000) 15.78 (Pr = 0.000)
Age
0–5 7.8 62 11.3 89 6.6 52
6–11 12.5 88 11.3 80 15.9 113
12–23 26.5 365 7.9 108 16.6 231
24–35 29.2 412 5 70 14 199
36–47 26.8 373 2.7 38 13.1 185
48–59 20.7 251 4.8 58 11.9 145
Chi square 207.77 (Pr = 0.000) 140.20 (Pr = 0.000) 68.14 (Pr = 0.000)
Chi square 0.78 (Pr = 0.384) 10.91 (Pr = 0.001) 28.73 (Pr = 0.000)
Chi square 99.48 (Pr = 0.000) 84.77 (Pr = 0.000) 30.3136 (Pr = 0.000)
Chi square 93.33 (Pr = 0.000) 10.70 (Pr = 0.005) 106.60 (Pr = 0.000)
(Continued)
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Table 1. (Continued)
Stunted Wasted Underweight
% No. of % No. of % No. of
Children Children Children
Chi square 104.37 (Pr = 0.000) 11.68 (Pr = 0.003) 63.35 (Pr = 0.000)
Number of children
1–3 20.6 830 6 242 11.6 475
4–6 23.6 574 6.8 166 14.4 352
7–9 33.7 115 8.5 29 23.2 80
More than 9 39.8 32 6.8 6 23.8 19
Chi square 42.4681 (Pr = 0.000) 8.80 (Pr = 0.032) 53.84 (Pr = 0.000)
Mother's education
None 28.4 620 8.1 177 16.9 372
Primary 25 383 5.3 82 13.7 212
Middle/JSS 18.5 437 5.5 130 11.1 263
Secondary + 13.7 111 6.9 55 9.6 78
3.
Chi square 109.61 (Pr = 0.000) 13.41 (Pr = 0.004) 59.10 (Pr = 0.000)
Region
Western 23 157 7.6 53 14.5 100
Central 22.2 148 5.6 38 13.3 90
Greater Accra 13.5 137 3.4 35 8 81
Volta 22.1 121 9.1 50 10.9 60
Eastern 20.7 159 7 54 10.8 83
Asante 22.2 289 6.6 86 11.7 154
Brong Ahafo 18.4 115 3.4 21 12.3 78
Northern 37.1 286 8.4 65 23.9 185
Upper East 30.9 93 7.5 23 20.3 62
Upper West 22.5 46 9.7 20 15.1 32
Chi square 184.54 (Pr = 0.000) 31.45 (Pr = 0.000) 143.05 (Pr = 0.000)
(Continued)
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Table 1. (Continued)
Stunted Wasted Underweight
% No. of % No. of % No. of
Children Children Children
Chi square 116.18 (Pr = 0.000) 20.11 (Pr = 0.005) 67.48 (Pr = 0.000)
unprotected water sources to 11 percent among those who use pipe-borne water.
Good sanitation and water supply improve health by reducing infections and
malnutrition (Cuesta, 2007).
We also find that wealthier households have children with better nutritional status
than poorer households. About a third of children born to poor parents are stunted.
Equally, one-fifth of children born into poor households are underweight compared
to only 6 percent of those in the richest households. A similar pattern was observed
by Urke et al. (2011), who found that wealth status and maternal education are
positively associated with child health outcomes. In addition, we observe a positive
relationship between maternal education and child health outcomes. The effect of
dependence and competition for care is also felt through the number of children in
the household. Table 1 shows that child nutritional status worsens as the number of
children increases. This could be because of competition for care and resources in
the household.
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[(Fig._2)TD$IG]
Fig. 2. Feeding Pattern in Ghana by child age groups. (Source: Authors’ Computation from MICS,
2011).
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+
p < 0.1, *p < 0.05, p < 0.01,
**
p < 0.001. Source: Authors’ Computation from MICS, 2011.
***
not statistically different from those who are born to mothers with either middle/
JHS or secondary school education. This suggests that intensifying nutrition
education at basic/primary school level could also be an effective approach to
fighting malnutrition.
[(Fig._3)TD$IG]
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Western and Eastern regions are less than the national average of 3.12. The
implication of this of this pattern on children’s nutrition is seen in Table 1, where
the regions with low dietary diversity are also the ones with a high incidence of
child malnutrition.
On the effect of ethnicity on child health, we find in Table 3 that children from the
Ewe, Grusi, Guan and Mole/Dagbani ethnic groups have better anthropometric
scores than those from the Akan ethnic group. This result shows that ethnicity may
have an important influence on child health in Ghana. This may be attributed to
differences in feeding and post-partum practices across the different ethnic groups.
Elsewhere, Adedini et al. (2015) and Annim and Imai (2014) have found that child
health outcomes differ among children of different ethnic descent in Lao People’s
Democratic Republic.
In addition, children who had diarrhea have lower anthropometric scores compared
to those who did not. Infections that lead to diarrhea and fever adversely affect
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Table 3. Effects of food diversity, mother's education and ethnicity on child health outcomes in Ghana (all
children under 5 years).
(Continued)
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Table 3. (Continued)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Weight-for-Height Height-for-Age Weight-for-Age First stage results
(OLS) (IV) (OLS) (IV) (OLS) (IV) IYCF
Ethnicity (Akan = 0)
(Continued)
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Table 3. (Continued)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Weight-for-Height Height-for-Age Weight-for-Age First stage results
(OLS) (IV) (OLS) (IV) (OLS) (IV) IYCF
Region (Western = 0)
Instruments
(Continued)
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Table 3. (Continued)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Weight-for-Height Height-for-Age Weight-for-Age First stage results
(OLS) (IV) (OLS) (IV) (OLS) (IV) IYCF
Regional fixed effects are significant in explaining child nutrition. With the
Western region as the base, we observe that except for Greater Accra, children in
the other regions have lower weight-for-age than those in the Western region.
Similarly, children in Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions are worse off
in terms of weight-for-height than their counterparts in the Western region.
Interestingly the difference between the anthropometric score of children in the
Western region and the three northern regions tends to be higher. This could be
attributable to the high poverty and deprivation rates in this region.
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δ ¼ 1; R2max ¼ 3.
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In general, our analysis shows that dietary diversity causes improvements in child
health among under five-year-olds in Ghana. We interpret this results with caution
because dietary diversity was measured over a one-day recall period which may
not be an accurate reflection the dietary pattern for a longer period. Despite this
limitation, our results show a consistent relationship across all the three
anthropometric indicators. We recommend that public health officials should
educate parents and caregivers on the importance of dietary diversity to their
children. The government could also take advantage of the structures of the
national school feeding program to diversify the diet of the school children. Our
analysis of the effects of each individual food groups on child health shows that
vitamin A rich food (pumpkin, yellow yam, green vegetables [kontomire] mangoes
and pawpaw), eggs and other vegetables have a positive association with the
weight-for-age score. Hence, given the right nutritional education, malnutrition
among children in rural areas could be minimized at a relatively lower cost because
these food items tend to be inexpensive in rural farming communities.
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Declarations
Author contribution statement
Raymond Boadi Frempong, Samuel Kobina Annim: Conceived and designed the
experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data;
Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.
Funding statement
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Additional information
No additional information is available for this paper.
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