Communication Disorders Quarterly

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Language in the English as a Second Language and General Education Classrooms : A Tutorial
Alejandro E. Brice, Kevin J. Miller and Roanne G. Brice
Communication Disorders Quarterly 2006 27: 240
DOI: 10.1177/15257401060270040701

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 Language in the English
as a Second Language and
General Education Classrooms:
A Tutorial

Alejandro E. Brice
University of Central Florida
Kevin J. Miller
Buffalo State College
Roanne G. Brice
University of Central Florida

As the culturally and linguistically diverse population of are English language learners (ELL). The issue is com-
the United States continues to increase dramatically, speech– pounded when speech–language pathologists (SLPs) and
language pathologists (SLPs) and special education teach- special educators must provide instruction to ELL stu-
ers in particular face the challenge of how best to assess and dents from bilingual homes. The need for a more com-
teach those students whose primary language is not Eng- prehensive understanding of students learning English
lish. The changing U.S. demographics are driving a need for as a second language and the effect upon their education
a more comprehensive understanding of students learning of learning English as a second language is warranted by
English as a second language and the effect upon their ed- the changing U.S. demographics (U.S. Census Bureau,
ucation of learning English as a second language. A sub- 2001, 2003). This was noted by Whitworth (2000):
stantial number of English language learner (ELL) students,
with and without disabilities, may not possess the requisite Not only is there a continuing need for special
classroom discourse or pragmatic skills, may face difficulties, education teachers, but there is a need for teach-
and may be incapable of fully benefiting in their learning. ers appropriately trained in, and equipped with,
This tutorial will discuss factors related to describing class- the skills that special education teachers are
room discourse in the context of five ethnographic studies, going to need in the new century. As our stu-
with particular attention paid to pragmatic language skills dent population becomes more diverse [italics
for ELL students with and without disabilities. This article added] . . . we must prepare special education
will also discuss strategies for what these students need to teachers who are capable of being successful in
know regarding pragmatic language skills and which strate- the school of tomorrow. (p. 3)
gies school professionals need to implement for bilingual
ELL students (i.e., regarding planning and communica- Bilingual students do not come to school with the
tion in delivering instruction). This knowledge should same degree of English language skills and academic
assist school professionals in making more appropriate de- preparedness that monolingual, English-speaking chil-
cisions in assessment and instruction for these students. dren possess (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Steifel,
Schwartz, & Congel, 2003). In addition, bilingual stu-
dents may be provided with less than optimal instruc-
School professionals today repeatedly face the challenge tion due to language and cultural differences (Banks,
of how best to provide instruction for students who 2006; Cummins, 1984; Donovan & Cross, 2002). There-

240 Communication Disorders Quarterly 27:4 • pp. 240–247

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 Communication Disorders Quarterly • vol. 27, no. 4 / Summer 2006 241

fore, the issue of adequate instruction is a serious dilemma (first grade), with particular attention to the discourse
that needs to be addressed by educators today. skills among the school professionals and their respec-
tive students. The studies were qualitative and descrip-
PROBLEMS WITH COMMUNICATION tive of English, and sometimes Spanish, discourse spoken
by both school professionals and students. The purpose
For ELL students, the problems with communication of these studies was to determine what aspects of lan-
may be acute and exacerbated by the dual demands of guage were crucial for bilingual students with and with-
learning to speak English and concurrent academic learn- out disabilities (at different grade levels) transitioning
ing (Baca & Cervantes, 1998; Cummins, 2000; Krashen, from the ESL classroom to the general education English
2000). A substantial number of students who are ELL classroom. Please refer to our previous studies for fur-
may not possess the requisite classroom discourse or prag- ther detail (A. Brice, 2003; A. Brice, Mastin, & Perkins,
matic skills, face difficulties, and be incapable of fully 1997a, 1997b; A. Brice, Miller, & R. G. Brice, 2006; A. Brice
benefiting from their learning (A. Brice, 2002; A. Brice & & Perkins, 1997).
Montgomery, 1996; Ortiz & Yates, 2002, 2003). By the Therefore, the purpose of this tutorial was to de-
time children reach school, they should exhibit a wide velop instructional strategies for use with bilingual stu-
range of language abilities (e.g., speaking English flu- dents in school classrooms—for example (a) the general
ently) that are critical to their school success in accessing education classroom, (b) the English as a second lan-
the general curriculum (e.g., learning to read) (R. G. Brice, guage classroom, and (c) the speech and language or
2004a, 2004b). A. Brice, Mastin, and Perkins (1997a) special education classrooms. It is anticipated that use of
suggested that how teachers use language in classrooms appropriate instructional strategies will improve the lan-
has an effect on how students interact, and consequently guage abilities of students who are ELL with normal lan-
learn. This point was also mentioned by Guthrie and guage lags due to learning a second language, and students
Guthrie (1987) when they stated that who are ELL with language-based learning disabilities
(LBLD). According to the American Speech-Language-
how teachers and students use language [i.e., Hearing Association (2005), “Language-based learning
classroom discourse], rather than particular lin- disabilities interfere with age-appropriate reading, spell-
guistic aspects of speech, may have more to do ing, and/or writing. . . . Learning disabilities are caused
with the way children learn, and the miscom- by a difference in brain structure that is present at birth,
munication, misunderstanding, and educational is often hereditary, and often related to specific language
difficulty students encounter. (p. 206) problems” (p. 1). Therefore, knowledge gained from this
tutorial should assist speech–language pathologists and
Thus, the student’s ability to respond to and use special education teachers become more knowledgeable
language appropriately in classrooms becomes an issue about English language acquisition issues and classroom
for many students who are ELL. A student who is learn- language issues. A better understanding of language dis-
ing English may not possess all the language skills needed course demands in the classroom, therefore, may ame-
for inclusive instruction in the general education class- liorate some learning issues for the ELL students.
room. Such a student may appear to have difficulties From our previous studies (A. Brice, 2003; A. Brice,
(e.g., not be able to ask for help) and consequently suf- Mastin, & Perkins 1997a; A. Brice, Mastin, & Perkins,
fer in learning. 1997b; A. Brice, Miller, & R. G. Brice, 2006; A. Brice &
Perkins, 1997), the authors have developed (a) strategies
PURPOSE OF THIS TUTORIAL for what ELL bilingual students (with and without dis-
abilities) need to know, presented as Pragmatic Skills
This tutorial will discuss factors related to classroom Strategies; and (b) strategies for what SLPs, special edu-
language by English language learner students and strate- cation teachers, and other teachers need to know, pre-
gies that can assist in their learning. The data were ob- sented in the form of a Planning and Communication
tained from our five previous qualitative research studies. strategy program.
These studies involved bilingual students (e.g., Mexican
and Puerto Rican Spanish–English speakers) in general PRAGMATIC SKILLS STRATEGIES
education classrooms (second and fourth grades), Eng-
lish as a second language (ESL) classrooms (first, sec- Pragmatics for students in school are an important as-
ond, and fourth grades), and speech and language rooms pect of functioning within the classroom. Pragmatic
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242 Communication Disorders Quarterly • vol. 27, no. 4 / Summer 2006

skills are critical to the academic progress and building be neglected by speech–language pathologists or special
of peer relationships. ELL students and bilingual stu- education teachers when working with ELL students.
dents with language-based learning disabilities LBLD may Preparing students who are ELL, with and without
need specific instruction in pragmatics skills (A. Brice, disabilities, to succeed in the general education classroom
2002; A. Brice & Absalom, 1996; A. Brice & R. G. Brice, requires an understanding of the language and pragmatic
2000; R.G. Brice, 2004b). This instruction may take the skills they are likely to encounter. It may well be that a
form of direct instruction (i.e., teaching to the task). In lack of understanding of the language and pragmatic
addition, school professionals need to be aware of the skills used by general education teachers, ESL teachers,
language demands that classrooms place upon students and students is a major contributing factor to the less
and that their instructional practices may have to be than optimal instructional practices often used with ELL
modified to match the learners’ special needs. students. Conversely, having an understanding of the
Table A1 in the appendix lists 12 recommended lan- language that teachers and students use can help guide
guage and pragmatic skill strategies to facilitate learning the development of programming for bilingual students
for students who are ELL with and without language- with and without LBLD who are included in general ed-
based learning disabilities. The literature has shown that ucation settings.
these strategies may be applied flexibly with all English When bilingual students are immersed in English-
language learners along the entire continuum of lan- language-enriched classrooms, then learning of English
guage proficiency in a variety of settings (A. Brice & will be better facilitated. The above suggestions may as-
Roseberry-McKibbin, 1999; Goldstein, 2000; Langdon sist speech–language pathologists and special education
& Cheng, 1992; Peregoy & Boyle, 1997). teachers working with ELL students in achieving school
and classroom success. In summary, Grosjean (1998)
stated that bilingualism is present in every country, in all
PLANNING AND COMMUNICATION classes of society, and at all age levels and is the norm
STRATEGIES worldwide. As more children enter U.S. schools from
non-English-speaking homes, speech–language pathol-
Studies (Brice, 2002; Brice, Miller, & Brice, 2006; Fig-
ogists and special education teachers should develop a
ueroa & Hernandez, 2000) have shown that students in
deeper understanding of English language learning is-
ELL classrooms, speech and language or special educa-
sues. It is hoped that school professionals approach Eng-
tion classrooms, and general education classrooms all
lish language learning in an informed manner.
benefit from more lesson planning and co-planning with
other school professionals (e.g., the speech–language
pathologist and the general education classroom teacher; ABOUT THE .AUTHORS
the speech–language pathologist and the special educa- Alejandro E. Brice, PhD, CCC-SLP, is an associate pro-
tion teacher), as well as communication with students fessor in communication sciences and disorders at the
and other school professionals (e.g., special education University of Central Florida. His research has focused
and general education classroom teachers; A. Brice, on issues of transference or interference between two
2002; A. Brice, Miller, & R. G. Brice, 2006; Figueroa & languages in the areas of phonetics, phonology, seman-
Hernandez, 2000). Five recommended instructional plan- tics, and pragmatics related to education and pedagogy.
ning and communication strategies drawn from research Kevin J. Miller, EdD, is an assistant professor in the
are recommended and are presented in Table A2 in the Exceptional Education Department at Buffalo State
appendix. College. His research has focused on cultural compe-
tency and teaching, effective interventions for children
CONCLUSION and youth with emotional and behavior difficulties, and
classroom/behavior management. Roanne G. Brice, PhD,
The types of language used and the language demands CCC-SLP, is the early childhood coordinator and assis-
of classrooms should be noted by the speech–language tant to the chair for the Department of Child, Family
pathologist or special education teacher when assessing and Community Sciences at the University of Central
and carrying forth Individualized Education Programs. Florida. Her research interests have focused on language
Collaboration among ESL and general education teach- and beginning literacy skills in bilingual children and
ers furthers the educational needs of ELL students. Col- students with disorders/disabilities. Address: Alejandro
laborative assessment and teaching practices should not E. Brice, University of Central Florida, 3374 Sterling
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 Communication Disorders Quarterly • vol. 27, no. 4 / Summer 2006 243

Lake Circle, Oviedo, FL 32765; e-mail: [email protected] Brice, R. G. (2004a). Identification of phonemes and graphemes in
.edu Spanish-English and English-speaking kindergarten students. Doc-
toral dissertation, University of Central Florida. (ProQuest Dig-
ital Dissertations AAT 3144882.)
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 APPENDIX
TABLE A1. Pragmatic Skills Strategies

Pragmatic strategy Resources Examples

1. Build lessons on the student’s background Banks, 2006; Beaumont, 1992; Brice, Questions for Discussion Examples:
knowledge and related to the textbook read- 2002, 2004a, 2004b; Cummins, Have you ever flown a kite?–Describe.
ings as an advanced organizer. 2000; Figueroa & Ruiz, 1997; What type of weather is good for kite flying?–Why?
Goldstein, 2000. Do you think it would be a good idea for you to fly your kite during a lightning
storm?–Why or why not?
What are other dangers we need to be careful of when flying our kites?
2. Provide written copies of directions and as- Brice, 2004b; Brice, Mastin, & Perk- Written Directions:
signments to complement oral instruction. ins, 1997b; Peregoy & Boyle, 1997; 1. Open science book to page 10.
Roseberry-McKibbin, 2002. 2. Read the story of “Benjamin Franklin’s Kite.”
3. Write five sentences that describe what happened in the story.
4. Draw a picture of Benjamin Franklin and his kite.
3. Ask prediction questions, such as “What do Banks, 2006; Beaumont, 1992; Brice, Prediction Questions Examples:
you think . . . ?” (i.e., to encourage skills re- Mastin, & Perkins, 1997b; Langdon & 1. What would happen if we put your names in alphabetical order?
lated to expressing oneself). Saenz, 1996; Goldstein, 2000; 2. Why did they take down the sign they made in church?
Roseberry-McKibbin & Hegde, 2000.
245

4. Teach self-study skills such as note taking, Brice, 2003; Goldstein, 2000; Lang- Self-Study Skills:
self-questioning, organizing, and test-taking don & Saenz, 1996; Mastropieri & 1. Write down key words when taking notes.
(to encourage expressing self). Scruggs, 2004; Roseberry-McKibbin, 2. Organize your notes according to themes.
2002.
5. Encourage students to ask questions. Higher- Brice & Montgomery, 1996; Langdon Higher-Order Questions:
level questions should be encouraged, such & Saenz, 1996; Roy, Roseberry- Encourage your students to ask questions such as
as questions of application, analysis, synth- McKibbin, Rau, Lamberth, McLean, & (a) Do you agree with the actions . . . ? with the outcomes . . . ?
esis, and evaluation. Madding, 2000. (b) What is your opinion of . . . ?

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(c) How would you prove . . . ? disprove . . . ?
(d) Can you assess the value or importance of . . . ?
(e) Would it be better if . . . ?
(f) Why did they (the characters) choose . . . ?
(g) What would you recommend . . . ?
6. Model correct language forms. Employ more Brice & Montgomery, 1996; Cazden, Model Correct Language Example:
pauses and wait for responses to allow ELL 2001; Langdon & Saenz, 1996; Student:
students to process oral language (to encour- Ortiz & Yates, 2003. “I finish to watch TV when it’s four o’clock.”
age active listening). SLP/Teacher:
“Oh, you finished watching TV when it was four o’clock.”
(table continues)
 (Table A1 continued)

Pragmatic strategy Resources Examples

7. Increase student-to-teacher or SLP interactions Baca & Cervantes, 1998; Brice, 2002, Student-to-Teacher/SLP Interactions:
to encourage the development of regulatory 2004b; Figueroa & Ruiz, 1997; Pen- 1. Circulate in the classroom during lesson time and individual practice.
(i.e., commands), heuristic (i.e., questions), nington, 1995. Encourage students to ask clarification questions if needed.
informational (i.e., providing information), 2. Allow for students to answer responses.
and instrumental (i.e., language used to sat- 3. Allow for students to make comments.
isfy one’s needs) language.
8. Use grammar drills and direct instruction Nye, Foster, & Seaman, 1987. Grammar Drills and Direct Instruction Example:
(i.e., teaching specific skills such as asking SLP:
questions). “Javier, I want you to ask for help. Please say, ‘Ms. Jones, can you help me with
the math problems?’”
9. Practice formalized, structured speaking Roseberry-McKibbin, 2002; Penning- Formalized Speaking Situations Example:
situations. ton, 1995; Seymour & Valles, 1998. “Fourth-grade class, today we are going to prepare speeches thanking X Com-
pany for their recent donations to our school.”
246

10. Allow for code switching and code mixing Aguirre, 1988; Brice, Mastin, & Perk- Code Switching/Mixing Example:
behaviors to occur. Code switching, code ins, 1997b; Ramírez, 2000. Student: “Vamos a comer lunch?”
mixing, and native language use have been SLP/Teacher:
shown to promote and accelerate English “Si, we are going to have lunch.”
language learning.
11. Once students reach a higher level of Eng- Johnson, 1996; Owens, 1996; Díaz- Longer Sentences Example:
lish language proficiency, use longer and Rico, 2004. “Okay, third grade. Pull out your math book and turn to page 11 and start prob-
more complex sentences to teach and rein- lems 1 through 10 and then continue with problems 20–30. After you finish
force language. This will increase memory those problems, put your workbooks aside so that I can check your addition prob-

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skills and attention, specifically memory for lems with the 10’s carryover.”
sentences and the cognitive skill of increased
attention span.
12. Expand your vocabulary use in instructional Brice, 2004a, 2004b; Reed, 2004; Vocabulary:
lessons. It has been noted that bilingual and Roseberry-McKibbin, 2002. 1. Give synonyms and antonyms of less common classroom words.
monolingual students with language-based 2. Use lesson words in classroom teaching contexts.
learning disabilities need additional and 3. Repeat new words throughout lessons and the day.
repeated instruction in vocabulary.
 Communication Disorders Quarterly • vol. 27, no. 4 / Summer 2006 247

TABLE A2. Planning and Communication Strategies

Planning and communication strategies Resources Examples

1. Plan lessons and establish what expected learning Bahamonde & Friend, 1999; Plan lessons beyond the use of work-
outcomes should result from the lessons. Outline DeBoer & Fister, 1998; Dieker books, i.e., working through 20 math
what adaptations may be needed for children & Barnett, 1996; Mastropieri & problems on the board or overhead or
learning English and students with disabilities. Scruggs, 2004 reading 30 /br/ blends in segmenting
Engage in teaching and demonstrating learning initial consonant-consonant words.
strategies that students may incorporate.
2. Plan lessons jointly with other school professionals DeBoer & Fister, 1998; Dieker & Reinforce the same key terms in both
so that continuity of information may occur across Barnett, 1996; Mastropieri & classrooms. Reiterate key concepts in both
classrooms. Key terms and concepts should be re- Scruggs, 2004 classrooms to reinforce continuity of
inforced in both classrooms to enhance vocabulary instruction.
and concept acquisition.
3. Plan lessons that allow students to be successful Cazden, 2001; McGregor & Engage students in small-group assign-
and allow for opportunities to use language in Vogelsberg, 1998; Pearl, 2005 ments, speak out loud, provide informa-
purposeful dialogue. tion, ask questions. Also engage in turn-
taking and other classroom discourse events.
4. Establish a routine of communicating with students. Brice, 2004b; Cazden, 2001; Provide an advance organizer to each les-
Engage in turn-taking and exchanging ideas. In- Pennington, 1995; Roseberry- son (what is to be covered); teach; and then
corporate pauses and listen to the students. Com- McKibbin, 2002; Seymour & provide a summary of what has been
municate frequently with students in one-to-one Valles, 1998 learned. Throughout the lessons, pause
exchanges. Involve all students in whole-classroom after every 3rd sentence.
and small-group activities.
5. Establish a pattern of communicating with other Roseberry-McKibbin, 2002; Schedule meeting times with the other
school professionals. This should be formalized for Stainback & Stainback, 1996; teachers. Attend regularly. Topics should
discussing lessons, students, and educational out- Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2003 include lessons and student outcomes for
comes. Specific times and days should be set for each lesson.
these co-professional conferences.

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