C# Development

#
C Development
Rob Miles
Edition 1.1 October 2009
Department of Computer Science

University of Hull
Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 11
Welcome ............................................................................................................. 11
Reading the notes................................................................................................ 11
Getting a copy of the notes ................................................................................. 11
Computers 12
An Introduction to Computers .......................................................................................... 12
Hardware and Software ...................................................................................... 12
Data and Information ........................................................................................................ 13
Data Processing .................................................................................................. 13
Programmer’s Point:At the bottom there is always hardware ............................. 14
Programming Languages 15
What is Programming? ..................................................................................................... 15
From Problem to Program .................................................................................. 15
Programmer’s Point:The specification must always be there ............................. 16
A Simple Problem ............................................................................................................. 16
Specifying the Problem....................................................................................... 16
Programmer’s Point:metadata is important ......................................................... 17
Programmer’s Point:Good programmers are good communicators .................... 19
Programming Languages .................................................................................................. 19
Programmer’s Point:The language is not that important..................................... 20
C# 20
A look at C# ...................................................................................................................... 20
Dangerous C ....................................................................................................... 20
Programmer’s Point:Computers are always stupid ............................................. 21
Safe C# ............................................................................................................... 21
C# and Objects ................................................................................................... 21
Making C# Run .................................................................................................. 21
Creating C# Programs ........................................................................................ 22
The Human Computer ........................................................................................ 22
Programmer’s Point:Great programmers debug less .......................................... 22
What Comprises a C# Program? ....................................................................................... 22
Controlling the Compiler .................................................................................... 23
Storing the Data .................................................................................................. 23
Describing the Solution ...................................................................................... 23
Identifiers and Keywords .................................................................................... 23
A First C# Program 24
The Program Example ...................................................................................................... 24
using System; ............................................................................................. 24
class GlazerCalc ...................................................................................... 25
static.............................................................................................................. 25
void .................................................................................................................. 25
Main .................................................................................................................. 25
() ....................................................................................................................... 25
i
{ .......................................................................................................................... 26
double.............................................................................................................. 26
width, height, woodLength, glassArea ...................................... 26
Programmer’s Point:Know where your data comes from ................................... 26
; ......................................................................................................................... 26
string widthString, heightString; ............................................. 27
widthString = ............................................................................................. 27
Console. ......................................................................................................... 27
ReadLine ......................................................................................................... 27
() ....................................................................................................................... 27
; ......................................................................................................................... 28
width = ........................................................................................................... 28
double. ........................................................................................................... 28
Parse ................................................................................................................ 28
(widthString); .......................................................................................... 28
heightString = Console.ReadLine(); height =
double.Parse(heightString);............................................................ 29
woodLength = 2*(width + height)*3.25 ; ................................. 29
glassArea = 2 * ( width * height ) ; ...................................... 29
Console.WriteLine ................................................................................... 29
( ......................................................................................................................... 29
"The length of the wood is " ......................................................... 29
+ ......................................................................................................................... 29
woodLength .................................................................................................... 30
+ " feet" ...................................................................................................... 30
) ......................................................................................................................... 30
; ......................................................................................................................... 31
} ......................................................................................................................... 31
} ......................................................................................................................... 31
Programmer’s Point:Program layout is very important ...................................... 31
Punctuation ......................................................................................................... 31
Manipulating Data 32
Variables and Data ............................................................................................................ 32
Types of Variables ............................................................................................................ 32
Storing Numbers ................................................................................................. 32
Storing integer values ......................................................................................... 33
Programmer’s Point:Check your own maths....................................................... 33
integer literal values............................................................................................ 34
Storing real values .............................................................................................. 34
real literal values................................................................................................. 34
Programmer’s Point:Simple variables are probably best .................................... 35
Storing Text ........................................................................................................ 35
char variables ...................................................................................................... 35
char literal values ................................................................................................ 35
string variables.................................................................................................... 36
string literal values.............................................................................................. 37
bool variables ..................................................................................................... 37
bool literal values ............................................................................................... 37
Programmer’s Point:Think about the type of your variables .............................. 37
Identifiers .......................................................................................................................... 38
Programmer’s Point:Think about the names of your variables ........................... 38
Giving Values to Variables ............................................................................................... 39
Expressions ......................................................................................................... 39
Changing the Type of Data ............................................................................................... 40
Widening and Narrowing ................................................................................... 40
Casting ................................................................................................................ 41
ii
Types of Data in Expressions............................................................................................ 42
Programmer’s Point:Casts can add clarity .......................................................... 43
Programs and Patterns ...................................................................................................... 43
Writing a Program 44
Software as a story ............................................................................................................ 44
Comments ........................................................................................................... 45
Programmer’s Point:Don't add too much detail .................................................. 45
Program Flow ................................................................................................................... 45
Conditional Execution - if .................................................................................. 46
Conditions and Relational Operators .................................................................. 46
Combining Logical Operators ............................................................................ 48
Programmer’s Point:Break down your conditions .............................................. 48
Lumping Code Together ..................................................................................... 48
Metadata, Magic Numbers and const ................................................................. 49
Loops ................................................................................................................................ 50
Programmer’s Point:Don't be clever/stupid ........................................................ 53
Breaking Out of Loops ....................................................................................... 53
Programmer’s Point:Be careful with your breaks ............................................... 53
Going back to the top of a loop .......................................................................... 54
More Complicated Decisions ............................................................................. 54
Programmer’s Point:Get used to flipping conditions .......................................... 54
Complete Glazing Program ................................................................................ 54
Operator Shorthand ........................................................................................................... 55
Statements and Values ........................................................................................ 56
Programmer’s Point:Always strive for simplicity ............................................... 57
Neater Printing .................................................................................................................. 57
Using Placeholders in Print Strings .................................................................... 57
Methods 59
Methods So Far ................................................................................................................. 59
Method and Laziness .......................................................................................... 59
Parameters .......................................................................................................... 60
Return values ...................................................................................................... 60
A Useful Method ................................................................................................ 60
Programmer’s Point:Design with methods ......................................................... 61
Method Limitations ............................................................................................ 61
Programmer’s Point:Document your side-effects ............................................... 63
Programmer’s Point:Languages can help programmers...................................... 63
Method Libraries ................................................................................................ 64
Programmer’s Point:Always consider the failure behaviours ............................. 64
Variables and Scope ......................................................................................................... 64
Scope and blocks ................................................................................................ 65
Nested Blocks ..................................................................................................... 65
For loop local variables ...................................................................................... 66
Programmer’s Point:Plan your variable use ........................................................ 66
Arrays 66
Why We Need Arrays ....................................................................................................... 66
Array Elements ................................................................................................... 67
Array Element Numbering .................................................................................. 68
Large Arrays ....................................................................................................... 68
Managing Array Sizes ........................................................................................ 68
Creating a Two Dimensional Array .................................................................... 69
More than Two Dimensions ............................................................................... 69
Programmer’s Point:Keep your dimensions low ................................................ 69
iii
Switching 70
Making Multiple Decisions ............................................................................................... 70
Selecting using the if construction.................................................................... 70
The switch construction .................................................................................. 71
Programmer’s Point:switches are a good idea .................................................... 72
Our Case Study: Friendly Bank 72

Bank System Scope........................................................................................................... 72
Bank Notes........................................................................................................................ 72
Enumerated Types 72
Enumeration and states ..................................................................................................... 73
Sample states ...................................................................................................... 73
Creating an enum type ...................................................................................................... 74
Programmer’s Point:Use enumerated types ........................................................ 74
Structures 75
What is a Structure? .......................................................................................................... 75
A sample structure .............................................................................................. 75
Creating a Structure .......................................................................................................... 76
Using a Structure .............................................................................................................. 76
Initial values in structures ................................................................................... 77
Programmer’s Point:Structures are crucial ......................................................... 77
Enumerated Types in Structures ......................................................................... 77
Objects, Structures and References 78

Objects and Structures ...................................................................................................... 79
Creating and Using a Structure ........................................................................... 79
Creating and Using an Instance of a Class .......................................................... 79
References......................................................................................................................... 81
Multiple References to an Instance ..................................................................... 81
No References to an Instance ............................................................................. 82
Programmer’s Point:Try to avoid the Garbage Collector ................................... 83
Why Bother with References? .......................................................................................... 83
References and Data Structures .......................................................................... 84
Programmer’s Point:Data Structures are Important ............................................ 84
Reference Importance ......................................................................................... 84
Bank Notes: References and Accounts ............................................................................. 84
Designing With Objects 85

Programmer’s Point:Not Everything Should Be Possible ................................... 86
Data in Objects ................................................................................................................. 86
Member Protection inside objects ...................................................................... 86
Changing private members............................................................................ 87
Programmer’s Point:Metadata makes Members and Methods ............................ 88
public Methods ............................................................................................... 88
Programmer’s Point:private data and public methods ........................................ 88
A Complete Account Class ............................................................................................... 88
Programmer’s Point:Test Driven Development – the only way.......................... 90
Bank Notes: Protecting Account Members ....................................................................... 90
Static Items 90
Static class members ......................................................................................................... 90
Using a static data member of a class ................................................................. 91
iv
Programmer’s Point:Static Data Members are Useful and Dangerous ............... 92
Using a static method in a class .................................................................... 92
Using member data in static methods ................................................................. 93
Programmer’s Point:Static Method Members can be used to make Libraries .... 94
Bank Notes: Static Bank Information ............................................................................... 94
The Construction of Objects 94

The Default Constructor ................................................................................................... 95
Our Own Constructor ........................................................................................................ 95
Feeding the Constructor Information .................................................................. 96
Overloading Constructors ................................................................................................. 96
Overloading a method name ............................................................................... 97
Constructor Management .................................................................................................. 97
Programmer’s Point:Object Construction Should Be Planned ........................... 98
A constructor cannot fail ................................................................................................... 98
Programmer’s Point:Managing Failure is Hard Work ........................................ 99
Constructors and Exceptions .............................................................................. 99
Programmer’s Point:Consider the International Issues ..................................... 100
Bank Notes: Constructing an Account ............................................................................ 100
From Object to Component 100

Components and Hardware ............................................................................................. 101
Why we Need Software Components? ............................................................................ 101
Components and Interfaces ............................................................................................. 101
Interfaces and Design ....................................................................................... 102
Implementing an Interface in C# ..................................................................................... 102
References to Interfaces .................................................................................................. 103
Using interfaces .............................................................................................................. 103
Implementing Multiple Interfaces ................................................................................... 104
Designing with Interfaces ............................................................................................... 105
Programmer’s Point:Interfaces are just promises ............................................. 105
Bank Notes: Account Interfaces...................................................................................... 105
Inheritance 106
Extending a parent class.................................................................................................. 106
Programmer’s Point:Block Copy is Evil ........................................................... 107
Overriding methods ........................................................................................................ 107
Virtual Methods ................................................................................................ 108
Protection of data in class hierarchies............................................................... 108
Bank Notes: Overriding for Fun and Profit ..................................................................... 109
Using the base method .................................................................................................... 109
Making a Replacement Method ...................................................................................... 110
Programmer’s Point:Don’t Replace Methods ................................................... 110
Stopping Overriding ....................................................................................................... 110
Bank Notes: Protect Your Code ...................................................................................... 111
Constructors and Hierarchies .......................................................................................... 111
Constructor Chaining ........................................................................................ 112
Programmer’s Point:Design your class construction process ........................... 112
Abstract methods and classes .......................................................................................... 112
Abstract classes and interfaces ......................................................................... 113
References to abstract classes ........................................................................... 115
Bank Notes: Designing with interface and abstract......................................................... 115
Don’t Panic ..................................................................................................................... 115
Object Etiquette 116

Objects and ToString ................................................................................................. 116
v
The Object class ............................................................................................... 116
The ToString method ................................................................................... 117
Getting the string description of a parent object ............................................... 117
Objects and testing for equals ......................................................................................... 118
Adding an Equals method ................................................................................. 118
Programmer’s Point:Make sure you use the right equals .................................. 119
Objects and this ........................................................................................................... 119
this as a reference to the current instance...................................................... 120
Passing a reference to yourself to other classes ................................................ 120
Confusion with this ....................................................................................... 120
Bank Notes: Good Manners are a Good Idea ................................................................. 120
Programmer’s Point:Always provide an equals behaviour ............................... 121
The power of strings and chars 121

String Manipulation ........................................................................................................ 121
String Transformation....................................................................................... 121
Immutable strings ............................................................................................. 122
String Comparison ............................................................................................ 122
String Editing.................................................................................................... 122
String Length .................................................................................................... 123
Character case................................................................................................... 123
Trimming and empty strings ............................................................................. 123
Character Commands........................................................................................ 123
String Twiddling with StringBuilder ....................................................... 124
Properties 124
Properties as class members ............................................................................................ 124
Creating Get and Set methods ......................................................................................... 124
Using Properties.............................................................................................................. 125
Properties and interfaces ................................................................................................. 126
Property problems ........................................................................................................... 126
Property Assignment Failure ............................................................................ 126
Properties Run Code ......................................................................................... 127
Programmer’s Point:Don’t use new fangled stuff just because it is there ......... 127
Building a Bank 127

Storing Accounts in an array ............................................................................ 128
Searching and Performance .............................................................................. 129
Storing Accounts using a Hash Table ............................................................... 130
Using the C# Hashtable collection.................................................................... 130
Bank Notes: Key properties are important ...................................................................... 131
Generics and Collections 131

The ArrayList class ......................................................................................................... 131
Creating an ArrayList ....................................................................................... 132
Adding Items to an ArrayList ........................................................................... 132
Accessing Items in an ArrayList ....................................................................... 132
Removing Items from an ArrayList .................................................................. 133
Finding the size of an ArrayList ....................................................................... 133
Checking to see if an ArrayList contains an item ............................................. 133
ArrayLists and Arrays ....................................................................................... 133
The List class .................................................................................................................. 134
Generics and Behaviours .................................................................................. 134
Generics and the List ........................................................................................ 135
The Dictionary class ....................................................................................................... 135
Writing Generic Code ..................................................................................................... 136
vi
Storing Business Objects 136
Saving an Account .......................................................................................................... 137
Loading an Account ........................................................................................................ 138
Programmer’s Point:There is only so much you can do ................................... 139
Multiple Accounts........................................................................................................... 139
Using streams ................................................................................................... 139
Programmer’s Point:Streams are wonderful ..................................................... 140
Saving and loading bank accounts .................................................................... 140
Bank Notes: Large Scale Data Storage ........................................................................... 141
Handling different kinds of accounts .............................................................................. 141
Health Warning ................................................................................................ 141
Banks and Flexibility ........................................................................................ 142
Saving a child class........................................................................................... 143
Loading a child class ........................................................................................ 143
Interfaces and the save operation ...................................................................... 144
Loading and factories ....................................................................................... 144
Factory Dependencies....................................................................................... 146
Bank Notes: Messy Code ................................................................................................ 146
Business Objects and Editing 146

Programmer’s Point:Production Code .............................................................. 146
The role of the Business Object ...................................................................................... 147
Managing a bank account name ........................................................................ 147
Testing Name Handling .................................................................................... 148
Programmer’s Point:Use Numbers Not Messages ............................................ 149
Editing the Name .............................................................................................. 149
Creating an Editor class .................................................................................... 149
Programmer’s Point:Get used to passing references around ............................. 150
A Text Based Edit System .............................................................................................. 151
Programmer’s Point:Every Message Counts .................................................... 152
Bank Notes: More Than One User Interface ................................................................... 152
A Graphical User Interface 152

Creating a Form ............................................................................................................. 152
Adding Components to a Form ......................................................................... 153
Editing Text with a TextBox Component ...................................................... 154
The Button Component ................................................................................. 155
Events and Delegates ...................................................................................................... 156
Events and method calls ................................................................................... 157
Button Events ................................................................................................... 157
An Account Edit Form .................................................................................................... 158
Extending the Windows Form class.................................................................. 158
Disposing of forms ........................................................................................... 160
Using the Edit form .......................................................................................... 160
Modal Editing ................................................................................................... 160
Visual Studio and Form Editing ....................................................................... 160
Programmer’s Point:Customers really care about the user interface ................ 161
Using Delegates 161

Type safe delegates ......................................................................................................... 161
Using a Delegate............................................................................................... 161
Programmer’s Point:Delegates are strong magic .............................................. 163
Structured Error Handling 163

The Exception class ........................................................................................................ 163
vii
Creating your own exception type .................................................................................. 163
Throwing an Exception ................................................................................................... 164
Programmer’s Point:Design your error exceptions yourself ............................. 165
Multiple Exception Types ............................................................................................... 165
Programmer’s Point:Programs often fail in the error handlers ......................... 166
Program Organisation 166

Using Separate Source Files ........................................................................................... 166
Creating a Library............................................................................................. 167
Using a Library ................................................................................................. 168
Library References at Runtime ......................................................................... 168
Programmer’s Point:Use Version Control and Change Management ............... 169
Namespaces .................................................................................................................... 169
Putting a Class in a Namespace ........................................................................ 170
Using a Class from a Namespace...................................................................... 170
Using a namespace ........................................................................................... 171
Nesting Namespaces ......................................................................................... 171
Namespaces in Separate Files ......................................................................................... 172
Programmer’s Point:Fully Qualified Names are Good ..................................... 172
Debugging 172
Fault Reporting ............................................................................................................... 172
Programmer’s Point:Design Your Fault Reporting Process ............................. 173
The two types of Fault ...................................................................................... 173
Bugswatting .................................................................................................................... 173
Rip it up and start again .................................................................................... 174
Programmer’s Point:Bug Fixes Cause Bugs ..................................................... 175
Making Perfect Software ................................................................................................ 175
The End? 175

Continuous Development ................................................................................................ 176
Further Reading .............................................................................................................. 176
Code Complete Second Edition: Steve McConnell .......................................... 176
How to be a programmer .................................................................................. 176
Glossary of Terms 177

Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 177
Accessor .......................................................................................................................... 177
Base ................................................................................................................................ 177
Call.................................................................................................................................. 177
Class................................................................................................................................ 177
Code Reuse ..................................................................................................................... 178
Cohesion ......................................................................................................................... 178
Collection........................................................................................................................ 178
Compiler ......................................................................................................................... 178
Component ...................................................................................................................... 178
Constructor ..................................................................................................................... 179
Coupling ......................................................................................................................... 179
Creative Laziness ............................................................................................................ 179
Delegate .......................................................................................................................... 179
Dependency .................................................................................................................... 179
Event ............................................................................................................................... 180
Functional Design Specification ..................................................................................... 180
Globally Unique Identifier (GUID) ................................................................................ 180
Hierarchy ........................................................................................................................ 180
Immutable ....................................................................................................................... 180
viii
Inheritance ...................................................................................................................... 180
Interface .......................................................................................................................... 180
Library ............................................................................................................................ 181
Machine code .................................................................................................................. 181
Member ........................................................................................................................... 181
Metadata ......................................................................................................................... 181
Method ............................................................................................................................ 181
Mutator ........................................................................................................................... 181
Namespace ...................................................................................................................... 182
Overload ......................................................................................................................... 182
Override .......................................................................................................................... 182
Portable ........................................................................................................................... 182
Private ............................................................................................................................. 182
Property .......................................................................................................................... 182
Protected ......................................................................................................................... 183
Public .............................................................................................................................. 183
Reference ........................................................................................................................ 183
Signature ......................................................................................................................... 183
Source file ....................................................................................................................... 183
Static ............................................................................................................................... 183
Stream ............................................................................................................................. 184
Structure.......................................................................................................................... 184
Subscript ......................................................................................................................... 184
Test harness .................................................................................................................... 184
This ................................................................................................................................. 184
Typesafe .......................................................................................................................... 184
Unit test........................................................................................................................... 185
Value type ....................................................................................................................... 185
Virtual Method................................................................................................................ 185
Index 187
© Rob Miles 2009 Department of Computer Science, The University of Hull.

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written
permission. The author can be contacted at:
The Department of Computer Science,

Robert Blackburn Building
The University of Hull,
Cottingham Road
HULL
HU6 7RX
UK
Department: www.dcs.hull.ac.uk
Email: [email protected]
Blog: www.robmiles.com
If you find a mistake in the text please report the error to [email protected] and I will take a look.
Vsn. 1.1
Wednesday, 23 September 2009
ix
Computers Introduction
Introduction
Welcome
Welcome to the Wonderful World of Rob Miles™. This is a world of bad jokes, puns,
and programming. In this book I'm going to give you a smattering of the C#
programming language. If you have programmed before I'd be grateful if you'd still
read the text. It is worth it just for the jokes and you may actually learn something.
If you have not programmed before, do not worry. Programming is not rocket science it
is, well, programming. The bad news about learning to program is that you get hit with
a lot of ideas and concepts at around the same time when you start, and this can be
confusing. The keys to learning programming are:
 Practice – do a lot of programming and force yourself to think about things
from a problem solving point of view
 Study – look at programs written by other people. You can learn a lot from
studying code which other folk have created. Figuring out how somebody else
did the job is a great starting point for your solution. And remember that in
many cases there is no best solution, just ones which are better in a particular
context, i.e. the fastest, the smallest, the easiest to use etc.
 Persistence – writing programs is hard work. And you have to work hard at it.
The principle reason why most folks don't make it as programmers is that they
give up. Not because they are stupid. However, don't get too persistent. If you
haven't solved a programming problem in 30 minutes you should call time out
and seek help. Or at least walk away from the problem and come back to it.
Staying up all night trying to sort out a problem is not a good plan. It just
makes you all irritable in the morning. We will cover what to do when it all
goes wrong later in these notes.
Reading the notes

These notes are written to be read straight through, and then referred to afterwards.
They contain a number of Programming Points. These are based on real programming
experience and are to be taken seriously. There are also bits written in a Posh Font.
These are really important and should be learnt by heart.
If you have any comments on how the notes can be made even better (although I of
course consider this highly unlikely) then feel free to get in touch
Above all, enjoy programming.
Rob Miles
[email protected]
www.robmiles.com
www.dcs.hull.ac.uk
Getting a copy of the notes

These notes are made freely available to Computer Science students at the University of
Hull.
The website for the book is at http://www.csharpcourse.com
C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 11

Computers An Introduction to Computers
Computers
An Introduction to Computers
Before we consider programming, we are going to consider computers. This is an
important thing to do, because it sets the context in which all the issues of programming
itself are placed.
Qn: Why does a bee hum? One way of describing a computer is as an electric box which humms. This, whilst
Ans: Because it doesn't know technically correct, can lead to significant amounts of confusion, particularly amongst
the words! those who then try to program a fridge. A better way is to describe it as:
A device which processes information according

to instructions it has been given.
This general definition rules out fridges but is not exhaustive. However for our
purposes it will do. The instructions you give to the computer are often called a
program. The business of using a computer is often called programming. This is not
what most people do with computers. Most users do not write programs, instead they
talk to programs written by other people. We must therefore make a distinction between
users and programmers. A user has a job which he or she finds easier to do on a
computer running the appropriate program. A programmer has a masochistic desire to
tinker with the innards of the machine. One of the golden rules is that you never write
your own program if there is already one available, i.e. a keen desire to process words
with a computer should not result in you writing a word processor!
However, because you will often want to do things with computers which have not been
done before, and further because there are people willing to pay you to do it, we are
going to learn how to program as well as use a computer.
Before we can look at the fun packed business of programming though it is worth
looking at some computer terminology:
Hardware and Software

If you ever buy a computer you are not just getting a box which humms. The box, to be
useful, must also have sufficient built in intelligence to understand simple commands to
do things. At this point we must draw a distinction between the software of a computer
system and the hardware.
Hardware is the physical side of the system. Essentially if you can kick it, and it stops
working when immersed in a bucket of water, it is hardware. Hardware is the
impressive pile of lights and switches in the corner....
Software is what makes the machine tick. If a computer has a soul it keeps it in its
software. Software uses the physical ability of the hardware, which can run programs,
do something useful. It is called software because it has no physical existence and it is
comparatively easy to change. Software is the voice which says "Computer Running"
in a Star Trek film.

Computers Data and Information
Windows XP is an operating All computers are sold with some software. Without it they would just be a novel and
system. It gives computer highly expensive heating system. The software which comes with a computer is often
programs a platform on which called its Operating System. The Operating System makes the machine usable. It
they can execute. looks after all the information held on the computer and provides lots of commands
to allow you to manage things. It also lets you run programs, ones you have written
and ones from other people. You will have to learn to talk to an operating system so
that you can create your C# programs and get them to go.
Data and Information

People use the words data and information interchangeably. They seem to think that
one means the other. I regard data and information as two different things:
Data is the collection of ons and offs which computers store and manipulate.
Information is the interpretation of the data by people to mean something. Strictly
speaking computers process data, humans work on information. An example, the
computer holds the bit pattern:
11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
However you could regard this as meaning:
"you are 256 pounds overdrawn at the bank"
or
"you are 256 feet below the surface of the ground"
or
"eight of the thirty two light switches are off"
The transition from data to information is usually made when the human reads the
output. So why am I being so pedantic? Because it is vital to remember that a computer
does not "know" what the data it is processing actually means. As far as it is concerned
data is just patterns of bits, it is you who gives meaning to these patterns. Remember
this when you get a bank statement which says that you have £8,388,608!
Data Processing
Computers are data processors. Information is fed into them; they do something with it,
and then generate further information. A computer program tells the computer what to
do with the information coming in. A computer works on data in the same way that a
sausage machine works on meat, something is put in one end, some processing is
performed, and something comes out of the other end:
Data Computer Data
This makes a computer a very A program is unaware of the data it is processing in the same way that a sausage
good "mistake amplifier", as machine is unaware of what meat is. Put a bicycle into a sausage machine and it will
well as a useful thing to try to make sausages out of it. Put duff data into a computer and it will do equally
blame..... useless things. It is only us people who actually ascribe meaning to data (see above),
as far as the computer is concerned it is just stuff coming in which has to be
manipulated in some way.
A computer program is just a sequence of instructions which tell a computer what to do
with the data coming in and what form the data sent out will have.

Computers Data and Information
Note that the data processing side of computers, which you might think is entirely
reading and writing numbers, is much more than that, examples of typical data
processing applications are:
Digital Watch : A micro-computer in your watch is taking pulses from a crystal
and requests from buttons, processing this data and producing a display which tells you
the time.
Car : A micro-computer in the engine is taking information from sensors telling it the
current engine speed, road speed, oxygen content of the air, setting of the accelerator
etc and producing voltages out which control the setting of the carburettor, timing of
the spark etc, to optimise the performance of the engine.
CD Player : A computer is taking a signal from the disk and converting it into the
sound that you want to hear. At the same time it is keeping the laser head precisely
positioned and also monitoring all the buttons in case you want to select another part of
the disk.
Games Console: A computer is taking instructions from the controllers and using
them to manage the artificial world that it is creating for the person playing the game.
Note that some of these data processing applications are merely applying technology to
existing devices to improve the way they work. However the CD player and games
console could not be made to work without built-in data processing ability.
Most reasonably complex devices contain data processing components to optimise their
performance and some exist only because we can build in intelligence. It is into this
world that we, as software writers are moving. It is important to think of business of
data processing as much more than working out the company payroll, reading in
numbers and printing out results. These are the traditional uses of computers.
Note that this "raises the As software engineers it is inevitable that a great deal of our time will be spent fitting
stakes" in that the data processing components into other devices to drive them. You will not press a
consequences of software switch to make something work, you will press a switch to tell a computer to make it
failing could be very work. These embedded systems will make computer users of everybody, and we will
damaging. have to make sure that they are not even aware that there is a computer in there!
You should also remember that seemingly innocuous programs can have life
threatening possibilities. For example a doctor may use a spreadsheet to calculate doses
of drugs for patients. In this case a defect in the program could result in illness or even
death (note that I don't think that doctors actually do this – but you never know..)
Programmer’s Point:At the bottom there is always hardware

It is important that you remember your programs are actually executed by a piece of hardware
which has physical limitations. You must make sure that the code you write will actually fit in the
target machine and operate at a reasonable speed. The power and capacity of modern computers
makes this less of an issue than in the past, but you should still be aware of these aspects. I will
mention them when appropriate.

Programming Languages What is Programming?
Programming Languages
What is Programming?
I tell people I am a "Software Programming is a black art. It is the kind of thing that you grudgingly admit to doing,
Engineer". at night, with the blinds drawn and nobody watching. Tell people that you program
computers and you will get one of the following responses:
1. A blank stare.
2. "That's interesting", followed by a long description of the double glazing that
they have just had fitted.
3. Asked to solve every computer problem that they have ever had, and ever will
have.
4. A look which indicates that you can't be a very good one as they all drive
Ferraris and tap into the Bank of England at will.
Programming is defined by most people as earning huge sums of money doing
something which nobody can understand.
Programming is defined by me as deriving and expressing a solution to a given
problem in a form which a computer system can understand and execute.
One or two things fall out of this definition:
 You need to be able to solve the problem yourself before you can write a
program to do it.
 The computer has to be made to understand what you are trying to tell it to do.
And remember just how much I like to think of a programmer as a bit like a plumber! A plumber will arrive at a job
plumbers earn…. with a big bag of tools and spare parts. Having looked at it for a while, tut tutting, he
will open his bag and produce various tools and parts, fit them all together and solve
your problem. Programming is just like this. You are given a problem to solve. You
have at your disposal a big bag of tricks, in this case a programming language. You
look at the problem for a while and work out how to solve it and then fit the bits of
the language together to solve the problem you have got. The art of programming is
knowing which bits you need to take out of your bag of tricks to solve each part of
the problem.
From Problem to Program

Programming is not about The art of taking a problem and breaking it down into a set of instructions you can
mathematics, it is about give a computer is the interesting part of programming. Unfortunately it is also the
organization and structure. most difficult part of programming as well. If you think that learning to program is
simply a matter of learning a programming language you are very wrong. In fact if
you think that programming is simply a matter of coming up with a program which
solves a problem you are equally wrong!
There are many things you must consider when writing a program; not all of them are
directly related to the problem in hand. I am going to start on the basis that you are
writing your programs for a customer. He or she has problem and would like you to
write a program to solve it. We shall assume that the customer knows even less about
computers than we do!
Initially we are not even going to talk about the programming language, type of
computer or anything like that, we are simply going to make sure that we know what the
customer wants.

Programming Languages A Simple Problem
Solving the Wrong Problem

Coming up with a perfect solution to a problem the customer has not got is something
which happens surprisingly often in the real world. Many software projects have failed
because the problem that they solved was the wrong one. The developers of the system
quite simply did not find out what was required, but instead created what they thought
was required. The customers assumed that, since the developers had stopped asking
them questions, the right thing was being built, and only at the final handover was the
awful truth revealed. It is therefore very important that a programmer holds off making
something until they know exactly what is required.
The worst thing you can say This is a kind of self discipline. Programmer’s pride themselves on their ability to
to a customer is "I can do come up with solutions, so as soon as they are given a problem they immediately start
that". Instead you should thinking of ways to solve it, this almost a reflex action. What you should do is think
think "Is that what the "Do I really understand what the problem is?". Before you solve a problem you
customer wants?" should make sure that you have a watertight definition of what the problem is, which
both you and the customer agree on. In the real world this is sometimes called a
Functional Design Specification or FDS. This tells you exactly what the customer
wants. Both you and the customer sign it, and the bottom line is that if you provide a
system which behaves according to the design specification the customer must pay
you. Once you have got your design specification, then you can think about ways of
solving the problem.
You might think that this is not necessary if you are writing a program for yourself;
there is no customer to satisfy. This is not true. Writing an FDS forces you to think
about your problem at a very detailed level.
Programmer’s Point:The specification must always be there

I have written many programs for money. I would never write a program without getting a solid
specification first. This is true even (or perhaps especially) if I do a job for a friend.
A Simple Problem
Consider the scenario; you are sitting in your favourite chair in the pub contemplating
the universe when you are interrupted in your reverie by a friend of yours who sells
double glazing for a living. He knows you are a programmer of sorts and would like
your help in solving a problem which he has:
He has just started making his own window units and is looking for a program which
will do the costing of the materials for him. He wants to just enter the dimensions of the
window and then get a print out of the cost to make the window, in terms of the amount
of wood and glass required.
"This looks like a nice little earner" you think, and once you have agreed a price you
start work. The first thing you need to do is find out exactly what the customer wants
you to do...
Specifying the Problem

When considering how to write the specification of a system there are three important
things:
 What information flows into the system.
 What flows out of the system.
 What the system does with the information.
There are lots of ways of representing this information in the form of diagrams, for now
we will stick with written text when specifying each of the stages:

Information going in
In the case of our immortal double glazing problem we can describe the information as:
 The width of a window.
 The height of the window.
Information coming out

The information that our customer wants to see is:
 the area of glass required for the window
 the length of wood required to build a frame.
You can see what we need if you take a look at the diagram below:
Height of
Window
Width of Window
The area of the glass is the width multiplied by the height. To make the frame we will
need two pieces of wood the width of the window, and two pieces of wood the height of
the window.
Programmer’s Point:metadata is important

Information about information is called metadata. The word meta in this situation implies a
"stepping back" from the problem to allow it to be considered in a broader context. In the case of
our window program the metadata will tell us more about the values that are being used and
produced, specifically the units in which the information is expressed and the valid range of values
that the information may have. For any quantity that you represent in a program that you write you
must have at least this level of metadata .
What the program actually does

The program can derive the two values according to the following equations:
glass area = width of window * height of window
wood length = (width of window + height of window) * 2
Putting in more detail

We now have a fairly good understanding of what our program is going to do for us.
Being sensible and far thinking people we do not stop here, we now have to worry
about how our program will decide when the information coming in is actually valid.
This must be done in conjunction with the customer, he or she must understand that if
information is given which fits within the range specified, your program will regard the
data as valid and act accordingly.
In the case of the above we could therefore expand the definition of data coming in as:

 The width of the window, in metres and being a value between 0.5 Metres
and 3.5 metres inclusive.
 The height of the window, in metres and being a value between 0.5 metres
and 2.0 metres inclusive.
Note that we have also added units to our description, this is very important - perhaps
our customer buys wood from a supplier who sells by the foot, in which case our output
description should read :
 The area of glass required for the window, in square metres. Remember
that we are selling double glazing, so two panes will be required.
 The length of wood required for the frame, given in feet using the
conversion factor of 3.25 feet per metre.
Note that both you and the Having written this all up in a form that both you and the customer can understand,
customer must understand we must then both sign the completed specification, and work can commence.
the document!
Proving it Works
In a real world you would now create a test which will allow you to prove that the
program works, you could for example say:
If I give the above program the inputs 2 metres high and 1 metre wide the program
should print out: 4 square metres of glass and 9.75 feet of wood.
The test procedure which is designed for a proper project should test out all possible
states within the program, including the all important error conditions. In a large system
the person writing the program may have to create a test harness which is fitted around
the program and will allow it to be tested. Both the customer and the supplier should
agree on the number and type of the tests to be performed and then sign a document
describing these.
Testing is a very important part of program development. There is even one
development technique where you write the tests before you write the actual program
that does the job. This is actually a good idea, and one we will explore later. In terms of
code production, you can expect to write as much code to test your solution as is in the
solution itself. Remember this when you are working out how much work is involved in
a particular job.
Getting Paid
Better yet, set up a phased At this point the supplier knows that if a system is created which will pass all the tests
payment system so that you the customer will have no option but to pay for the work! Note also that because the
get some money as the system design and test procedures have been frozen, there is no ambiguity which can lead to
is developed. the customer requesting changes to the work although of course this can still happen!
The good news for the developer is that if changes are requested these can be viewed in
the context of additional work, for which they can be expect to be paid.
Customer Involvement
Note also in a "proper" system the customer will expect to be consulted as to how the
program will interact with the user, sometimes even down to the colour of the letters on
the display! Remember that one of the most dangerous things that a programmer can
think is "This is what he wants"! The precise interaction with the user - what the
program does when an error is encountered, how the information is presented etc., is
something which the customer is guaranteed to have strong opinions about. Ideally all
this information should be put into the specification, which should include layouts of
the screens and details of which keys should be pressed at each stage. Quite often
prototypes will be used to get a idea of how the program should look and feel.

Programming Languages Programming Languages
Fact: If you expect to derive If this seems that you are getting the customer to help you write the program then you
the specification as the are exactly right! Your customer may have expected you to take the description of the
project goes on either you will problem and go into your back room - to emerge later with the perfect solution to the
fail to do the job, or you will problem. This is not going to happen. What will happen is that you will come up with
end up performing five times something which is about 60% right. The customer will tell you which bits look OK
the work! and which bits need to be changed. You then go back into your back room, muttering
under your breath, and emerge with another system to be approved. Again, Rob's law
says that 60% of the duff 40% will now be OK, so you accept changes for the last
little bit and again retreat to your keyboard....
The customer thinks that this is great, reminiscent of a posh tailor who produces the
perfect fit after numerous alterations. All the customer does is look at something,
suggests changes and then wait for the next version to find something wrong with. They
will get a bit upset when the delivery deadline goes by without a finished product
appearing but they can always cheer themselves up again by suing you.
Fact: More implementations If your insistence on a cast iron specification forces the customer to think about
fail because of inadequate exactly what the system is supposed to do and how it will work, all to the better. The
specification than for any customer may well say "But I am paying you to be the computer expert, I know
other reason! nothing about these machines". This is no excuse. Explain the benefits of "Right First
Time" technology and if that doesn't work produce a revolver and force the issue!
Again, if I could underline in red I would: All the above apply if you are writing the
program for yourself. You are your own worst customer!
You may think that I am labouring a point here; the kind of simple systems we are
going to create as we learn to program are going to be so trivial that the above
techniques are far too long winded. You are wrong. One very good reason for doing
this kind of thing is that it gets most of the program written for you - often with the help
of the customer. When we start with our double glazing program we now know that we
have to:
read in the width
verify the value
read in the height
verify the value
calculate width times height times 2 and print it
calculate ( width + height ) * 2 * 3.25 and print it
The programming portion of the job is now simply converting the above description
into a language which can be used in a computer.......
Programmer’s Point:Good programmers are good communicators

The art of talking to a customer and finding out what he/she wants is just that, an art. If you want
to call yourself a proper programmer you will have to learn how to do this. One of the first things
you must do is break down the idea of "I am writing a program for you" and replace it with "We are
creating a solution to a problem". You do not work for your customers, you work with them. This is
very important, particularly when you might have to do things like trade with the customer on
features or price.
Programming Languages
Once we know what the program should do (specification), and how we are going to
determine whether it has worked or not (test) we now need to express our program in a
form that the computer can work with.
You might ask the question "Why do we need programming languages, why can we not
use something like English?" There are two answers to this one:

C# A look at C#
1. Computers are too stupid to understand English.

2. English would make a lousy programming language.
Please note that this does not To take the first point. We cannot make very clever computers at the moment.
imply that tape worms would Computers are made clever by putting software into them, and there are limits to the
make good programmers! size of program that we can create and the speed at which it can talk to us. At the
moment, by using the most advanced software and hardware, we can make computers
which are about as clever as a tape worm. Tape worms do not speak very good
English, therefore we cannot make a computer which can understand English. The
best we can do is get a computer to make sense of a very limited language which we
use to tell it what to do.
Time Files like an Arrow. To take the second point. English as a language is packed full of ambiguities. It is
Fruit Flies like a Banana! very hard to express something in an unambiguous way using English, if you do not
believe me, ask any lawyer!
Programming languages get around both of these problems. They are simple enough to
be made sense of by computer programs and they reduce ambiguity.
Programmer’s Point:The language is not that important

There are a great many programming languages around, during your career you will have to learn
more than just one. C# is a great language to start programming in, but do not think that it is the
only language you will ever need.
C#
A look at C#
There are literally hundreds We are going to learn a language called C# (pronounced C sharp). If you ever make
of programming languages the mistake of calling the language C hash you will show your ignorance straight
around, you will need to know away! C# is a very flexible and powerful programming language with an interesting
at least 3! history. It was developed by Microsoft Corporation for a variety of reasons, some
technical, some political and others marketing.
C# bears a strong resemblance to the C++ and Java programming languages, having
borrowed (or improved) features provided by these languages. The origins of both Java
and C++ can be traced back to a language called C, which is a highly dangerous and
entertaining language which was invented in the early 1970s. C is famous as the
language the UNIX operating system was written in, and was specially designed for
this.
Dangerous C
I referred to C as a dangerous language. So what do I mean by that? Consider the chain
saw. If I, Rob Miles, want to use a chain saw I will hire one from a shop. As I am not an
experienced chain saw user I would expect it to come with lots of built in safety
features such as guards and automatic cut outs. These will make me much safer with the
thing but will probably limit the usefulness of the tool, i.e. because of all the safety stuff
I might not be able to cut down certain kinds of tree. If I was a real lumberjack I would
go out and buy a professional chain saw which has no safety features whatsoever but
can be used to cut down most anything. If I make a mistake with the professional tool I
could quite easily lose my leg, something the amateur machine would not let happen.

C# A look at C#
In programming terms this means is that C lacks some safety features provided by other
programming languages. This makes the language much more flexible.
However, if I do something stupid C will not stop me, so I have a much greater chance
of crashing the computer with a C program than I do with a safer language.
Programmer’s Point:Computers are always stupid

I reckon that you should always work on the basis that any computer will tolerate no errors on your
part and anything that you do which is stupid will always cause a disaster! This concentrates the
mind wonderfully.
Safe C#
The C# language attempts to get the best of both worlds in this respect. A C# program
can contain managed or unmanaged parts. The managed code is fussed over by the
system which runs it. This makes sure that it is hard (but probably not impossible) to
crash your computer running managed code. However, all this fussing comes at a price,
causing your programs to run more slowly.
To get the maximum possible performance, and enable direct access to parts of the
underlying computer system, you can mark your programs as unmanaged. An
unmanaged program goes faster, but if it crashes it is capable of taking the computer
with it. Switching to unmanaged mode is analogous to removing the guard from your
new chainsaw because it gets in the way.
C# and Objects
The C# language is object oriented. Objects are an organisational mechanism which let
you break your program down into sensible chunks, each of which is in charge of part
of the overall system. Object Oriented Design makes large projects much easier to
design, test and extend. It also lets you create programs which can have a high degree
of reliability and stability.
I am very keen on object oriented programming, but I am not going to tell you much
about it just yet. This is not because I don't know much about it (honest) but because I
believe that there are some very fundamental programming issues which need to be
addressed before we make use of objects in our programs.
The use of objects is as much about design as programming, and we have to know how
to program before we can design larger systems.
Making C# Run
You actually write the C# is a compiled programming language. The computer cannot understand the
program using some form of language directly, so a program called a compiler converts the C# text into the low
text editor - which may be level instructions which are much simpler. These low level instructions are in turn
part of the compiling and converted into the actual commands to drive the hardware which runs your program.
running system.
We will look in more detail at this aspect of how C# programs work a little later, for
now the thing to remember is that you need to show your wonderful C# program to
the compiler before you get to actually run it.
A compiler is a very large program which knows how to decide if your program is
legal. The first thing it does is check for errors in the way that you have used the
language itself. Only if no errors are found by the compiler will it produce any output.
The compiler will also flag up warnings which occur when it notices that you have
done something which is not technically illegal, but may indicate that you have made a

C# What Comprises a C# Program?
mistake somewhere. An example of a warning situation is where you create something

but don't use it for anything. The compiler would tell you about this, in case you had
forgotten to add a bit of your program.
The C# language is supplied with a whole bunch of other stuff (to use a technical term)
which lets C# programs do things like read text from the keyboard, print on the screen,
set up network connections and the like. These extra features are available to your C#
program but you must explicitly ask for them. They are then located automatically
when your program runs. Later on we will look at how you can break a program of your
own down into a number of different chunks (perhaps so several different programmers
can work on it).
Creating C# Programs
Microsoft has made a tool called Visual Studio, which is a great place to write
programs. It comprises the compiler, along with an integrated editor, and debugger.It is
provided in a number of versions with different feature sets. There is a free version,
called Visual Studio Express edition, which is a great place to get started. Another free
resources is the Microsoft .NET Framework. This provides a bunch of command line
tools, i.e. things that you type to the command prompt, which can be used to compile
and run C# programs. How you create and run your programs is up to you.
I'm not going to go into details of how to download and install the .NET framework;
that is for other documents, I am going to assume that you are using a computer which
has a text editor (usually Notepad) and the .NET framework installed.
The Human Computer

Of course initially it is best if we just work through your programs on paper. I reckon
that you write programs best when you are not sitting at the computer, i.e. the best
approach is to write (or at least map out) your solution on paper a long way away from
the machine. Once you are sitting in front of the keyboard there is a great temptation to
start pressing keys and typing something in which might work. This is not good
technique. You will almost certainly end up with something which almost works, which
you will then spend hours fiddling with to get it going.
If you had sat down with a pencil and worked out the solution first you would probably
get to a working system in around half the time.
Programmer’s Point:Great programmers debug less

I am not impressed by hacking programmers who spend whole days at terminals fighting with
enormous programs and debugging them into shape. I am impressed by someone who turns up, types
in the program and makes it work first time!
What Comprises a C# Program?

If your mum wanted to tell you how to make your favourite fruitcake she’d write the
recipe down on a piece of paper. The recipe would be a list of ingredients followed by a
sequence of actions to perform on them.
A program can be regarded as a recipe, but written for a computer to follow, not a
cook. The ingredients will be values (called variables) that you want your program to
work with. The program itself will be a sequence of actions (called statements) that are
to be followed by the computer. Rather than writing the program down on a piece of
paper you instead put it into a file on the computer, often called a source file.
This is what the compiler acts on. A source file contains three things:

C# What Comprises a C# Program?
 instructions to the compiler

 information about the structures which will hold the data to be stored and
manipulated.
 instructions which manipulate the data.
To take these in turn:
Controlling the Compiler

. The C# compiler needs to know certain things about your program. It needs to know
which external resources your program is going to use. It also can be told about any
options for the construction of your program which are important. Some parts of your
program will simply provide this information to tell the compiler what to do.
Storing the Data

Programs work by processing data. The data has to be stored within the computer
whilst the program processes it. All computer languages support variables of one form
or another. A variable is simply a named location in which a value is held whilst the
program runs. C# also lets you build up structures which can hold more than one item,
for example a single structure could hold all the information about a particular bank
customer. As part of the program design process you will need to decide what items of
data need to be stored. You must also decide on sensible names that you will use to
identify these items.
Describing the Solution

The actual instructions which describe your solution to the problem must also be part of
your program. A single, simple, instruction to do something is called a statement. A
statement is an instruction to perform one particular operation, for example add two
numbers together and store the result.
The really gripping thing about programs is that some statements can change which
statement is performed next, so that your program can look at things and decide what to
do. In the case of C# you can lump statements together to form a lump of program
which does one particular task. Such a lump is called a method.
Seasoned programmers break A method can be very small, or very large. It can return a value which may or may
down a problem into a not be of interest. It can have any name you like, and your program can contain as
number of smaller ones and many methods as you see fit. One method may refer to others. The C# language also
make a method for each. has a huge number of libraries available which you can use. These save you from
"re-inventing the wheel" each time you write a program. We will look at methods in
detail later in these notes.
Identifiers and Keywords

You give a name to each method that you create, and you try to make the name of the
function fit what it does, for example ShowMenu or SaveToFile. The C# language
actually runs your program by looking for a method with a special name, Main. This
function is called when your program starts running, and when Main finishes, your
program ends. The names that you invent to identify things are called identifiers. You
also create identifiers when you make things to hold values; woodLength might a
good choice when we want to hold the length of wood required. Later on we will look
at the rules and conventions which you must observe when you create identifiers.
The words which are part of the C# language itself are called keywords. In a recipe a
keyword would be things like "mix" or "heat" or "until". They would let you say things
like "heat sugar until molten" or "mix until smooth". In fact, you'll find that programs
look a lot like recipes. Keywords will appear blue in our listings.

A First C# Program The Program Example
A First C# Program
The Program Example

Perhaps the best way to start looking at C# is to jump straight in with our first ever C#
program. Here it is:
using System;
class GlazerCalc
{
static void Main()
{
double width, height, woodLength, glassArea;
string widthString, heightString;
widthString = Console.ReadLine();
width = double.Parse(widthString);
heightString = Console.ReadLine();
height = double.Parse(heightString);
woodLength = 2 * ( width + height ) * 3.25 ;
glassArea = 2 * ( width * height ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "The length of the wood is " +

woodLength + " feet" ) ;
Console.WriteLine("The area of the glass is " +
glassArea + " square metres" ) ;
}
}
Code Sample 1 - GlazerCalc Program
This is a valid program. If you gave it to a C# compiler it would compile, and you
could run it. The actual work is done by the two lines that I have highlighted. Broadly
speaking the stuff before these two lines is concerned with setting things up and getting
the values in to be processed. The stuff after the two lines is concerned with displaying
the answer to the user.
We can now go through each line in turn and try to see how it fits into our program.
using System;
A big part of learning to This is an instruction to the C# compiler to tell it that we want to use things from the
program is learning how to System namespace. A namespace is a place where particular names have meaning.
use all the additional features We have namespaces in our conversations too, if I am using the "Football"
of the system which support namespace and I say "that team is really on fire" I'm saying something good. If I am
your programs. using the "Firefighter" namespace I'm saying something less good.
In the case of C# the System namespace is where lots of useful things are described.
One of these useful things provided with C# is the Console object which will let me
write things which will appear on the screen in front of the user. If I want to just refer to
this as Console I have to tell the compiler I'm using the System namespace. This
means that if I refer to something by a particular name the compiler will look in

System to see if there is anything matching that name. We will use other namespaces
later on.
class GlazerCalc
Classes are the basis of object A C# program is made up of one or more classes. A class is a container which holds
oriented programming, as we data and program code to do a particular job. In the case of our double glazing
shall see later. calculator the class just contains a single method which will work out our wood
lengths and glass area, but a class can contain much more than that if it needs to.
You need to invent an identifier for every class that you create. I've called ours
GlazerCalc since this reflects what it does. For now, don't worry too much about
classes, just make sure that you pick sensible names for the classes that you create.
Oh, and one other thing. There is a convention that the name of the file which contains
a particular class should match the class itself, in other words the program above should
be held in a file called GlazerCalc.cs.
static
This keyword makes sure that the method which follows is always present, i.e. the
word static in this context means "is part of the enclosing class and is always
here". When we get to consider objects we will find that this little keyword has all
kinds of interesting ramifications. But for now I'd be grateful if you'd just make sure
that you put it here in order to make your programs work properly.
void
A void is nothing. In programming terms the void keyword means that the method
we are about to describe does not return anything of interest to us. The method will
just do a job and then finish. In some cases we write methods which return a result (in
fact we will use such a method later in the program).
However, in order to stop someone else accidentally making use of the value returned
by our Main method, we are explicitly stating that it returns nothing. This makes our
programs safer, in that the compiler now knows that if someone tries to use the value
returned by this method, this must be a mistake.
Main
You choose the names of your methods to reflect what they are going to do for you.
Except for Main. This method (and there must be one, and only one such method) is
where your program starts running. When your program is loaded and run the first
method given control is the one called Main. If you miss out the Main method the
system quite literally does not know where to start.
()
This is a pair of brackets enclosing nothing. This may sound stupid, but actually tells
the compiler that the method Main has no parameters. A parameter to a method gives
the method something to work on. When you define a method you can tell C# that it
works on one or more things, for example sin(x) could work on a floating point
value of angle x. We will cover methods in very great detail later in this document.

{
This is a brace. As the name implies, braces come in packs of two, i.e. for every open
brace there must be a matching close. Braces allow programmers to lump pieces of
program together. Such a lump of program is often called a block. A block can contain
the declaration of variable used within it, followed by a sequence of program statements
which are executed in order. In this case the braces enclose the working parts of the
method Main.
When the compiler sees the matching close brace at the end it knows that it has reached
the end of the method and can look for another (if any). The effects of an un-paired
brace are invariably fatal....
double
By now you probably feel that you need a drink. But that is not what double means in
this context. What it means is "double precision floating point number".
Our program needs to remember certain values as it runs. Notably it will read in values
for the width and height of the windows and then calculate and print values for the glass
area and wood length. C# calls the places where values are put variables. At the
beginning of any block you can tell C# that you want to reserve some space to hold
some data values. Each item you can hold a particular kind of value. Essentially, C# can
handle three types of data, floating point numbers, integer numbers and text (i.e. letters,
digits and punctuation). The process of creating a variable is called declaring the
variable.
A double variable can hold You declare some variables of a particular type by giving the type of the data,
a very wide range of values to followed by a list of the names you want the variables to have. We are using the type
a very high precision. double for now. Later we will use other types.
width, height, woodLength, glassArea

This is a list. A list of items in C# is separated by , (comma) characters. In this case it
is a list of variable names. Once the compiler has seen the word double (see above) it
is expecting to find the name of at least one variable which is to be created. The
compiler works its way through the list, creating boxes which can hold floating point
values and giving them the appropriate names. From this point on we can refer to the
above names, and the compiler will know that we are using that particular variable.
Programmer’s Point:Know where your data comes from

In fact, given the limitations in the accuracy to which people can read tape measures, and the fact
that we are not going to make any windows as wide as the universe, a double precision floating point
number is probably overkill for this application. You would instead ask the customer if it is OK to
just express the dimensions in millimeters instead. We will look at the considerations driving the
choice of particular variable types a bit later on.
;
The semicolon marks the end of the list of variable names, and also the end of that
declaration statement. All statements in C# programs are separated by the ; character,
this helps to keep the compiler on the right track.
The ; character is actually very important. It tells the compiler where a given statement
ends. If the compiler does not find one of these where it expects to see one it will

produce an error. You can equate these characters with the sprocket holes in film, they
keep everything synchronised.

We have made some variables which can hold numbers. Now we are going to make
some which can contain strings. This is because when we read the numbers from our
user we first read them in as strings of text. We then convert the text into a number. The
variables widthString and heightString (note the sensible names) will
contain text versions of the numbers.
widthString =
This is an assignment statement. In this C# statement we are going to change the value
in a variable. Our program is going to read a line of text from the user and place the
result in the variable we have called widthString. Remember that a variable is
simply a named box of a particular size, which can hold a single data item (in this case
a string of text).
A good proportion of your programs will be instructions to assign new values to
variables, as the various results are calculated. C# uses the = character to make
assignments happen. The first part of this statement is the name of a previously defined
variable. This is followed by the = character which I call the gozzinta. I call it that
because the value on the right gozzinta (goes into) the variable on the left.
Console.
On the right of the equals we have the thing which is going to be assigned to
widthString. In this case the result is going to be the string returned by the method
ReadLine. This method is part of an object called Console .which looks after the
user input and output.
ReadLine
This indicates that the ReadLine method is to be invoked. This asks the running
program to dash off, do whatever statements there are in this method, and then come
back. Methods are a way in which you can break up your program into a number of
chunks, each of which has a particular job. They also mean that you only have to write
a particular piece of code once, put it in a method, and then call that method whenever
you want that particular job done. The C# system contains a number of built in methods
to do things for our programs. ReadLine is one of these.
When this program runs the ReadLine method is invoked (or called). It will wait for
the user to enter a line of text and press the Enter key. Whatever is typed in is then
returned as a string by the ReadLine method. The result of the method call is placed
in the widthString variable.
()
A method call is followed by the parameters to the method. A parameter is something
that is passed into a method for it to work on. Think of it as raw materials for a process
of some kind. In the case of ReadLine it has no raw materials, it is going to fetch the
information from the user console. However, we still have to tell the method call
something, even if it means there are no parameters being supplied

;
We have seen the semi-colon before. It marks the end of a statement in our program.
width =
This is another assignment (Mr. Phelps/Hawke1). The variable width is being given a
value. Many statements in your programs will simply be moving data around and
performing actions on it.
double.
But the rest of the statement looks a bit scary. In fact it is not too tricky. We are asking
Mr. double (the thing responsible holding double precision floating point numbers) to
do a little job for us. In this case the little job is "take the string held by
widthString and convert it into a double precision floating point number. Mr.
double provides this ability by exposing a method called Parse.
Note that there is nothing wrong or naughty about something in C# exposing its
methods. It is how we get things done for us. When you come to design larger programs
you will find that the best way to do this is to create components which expose
methods to get the job done. The whole of the C# library set is provided as a series of
methods and one of the things that you will have to get to grips with is where the
methods are and how to use them. As with many things in life, the trick is knowing who
to ask…
Parse
The Parse method has the job of converting the string it has been given into a double
precision floating point number. To do this it must look along the string, pull out each
digit in turn and then calculate the actual value, as in "12" means a ten and two units.
This process of looking along things is often called parsing. Hence the name of the
method we are using. The method is given the string that is to be parsed and returns the
number that it has found.
Note that this gives significant potential for evil, in that if the user doesn’t type in a
value , or types something like "Twenty Five" the Parse method call will not be able
to resolve a number and will fail as a result. How it fails, and how you can resolve this
failure, will be left for a future section in order to add more excitement to this
document.
(widthString);
We have seen that a call of a method must be followed by the raw materials
(parameters) for that method. In the case of ReadLine there are no parameters, but
we still need to supply an empty list to indicate this. In the case of Parse the method
needs to be given the string that it is to work on. We do this by putting the name of the
string variable containing the text (widthString) into the brackets as above. The
value of the information in widthString (i.e. the text that the user has typed in) is
passed into the Parse method for it to look at and extract the number from.
1
Obscure movie/TV show reference for you there folks.

These two statements simply repeat the process of reading in the text of the height value
and then converting it into a double precision value holding the height of the window.
woodLength = 2*(width + height)*3.25 ;

This is the actual nub of the program itself. This is the bit that does the work. It takes
the height and width values and uses them to calculate the length of wood required.
When I write programs I use The calculation is an expression much like above, this time it is important that you
brackets even when the notice the use of parenthesis to modify the order in which values are calculated in the
compiler does not need them. expression. Normally C# will work out expressions in the way you would expect, i.e.
This makes the program all multiplication and division will be done first, followed by addition and
clearer. subtraction. In the above expression I wanted to do some parts first, so I did what you
would do in mathematics, I put brackets around the parts to be done first.
Note that I use a factor of 3.25 to allow for the fact that the customer wants the length
of wood in feet. There are around 3.25 feet in a meter, so I multiply the result in
meters by this factor.
The + and * characters in the expression are called operators in that they cause an
operation to take place. The other items in the expression are called operands. These
are what the operators work on.

This line repeats the calculation for the area of the glass. Note that the area is given in
square meters, so no conversion is required. I've put one multiplication in brackets to
allow me to indicate that I am working out two times the area (i.e. for two panes of
glass). There is no need to do this particularly, but I think it makes it slightly clearer.
Console.WriteLine
This is a call of a method, just like the ReadLine method, except that this one takes
what it is given and then prints it out on the console.
(
This is the start of the parameters for this method call. We have seen these used in the
calls of Parse and also ReadLine
"The length of the wood is "

This is a string literal. It is a string of text which is literally just in the program. The
string of text is enclosed in double quote characters to tell the compiler that this is part
of a value in the program, not instructions to the compiler itself.
+
Plus is an addition operator. We have seen it applied to add two integers together.
However, the plus here means something completely different 2. In this case it means
"add two strings together".
2
Another TV show reference

You will have to get used to the idea of context in your programs. We have seen this
with namespaces. Here it is with operators. The C# system uses the context of an
operation to decide what to do. In the case of the previous +, between two double
precision floating point numbers it means "do a sum". Here it has a string on the left
hand side. This means that it is going to perform string concatenation rather than
mathematical addition.
woodLength
This is another example of context at work. Previously we have used woodLength as
a numeric representation of a value, in this program the length of the wood required.
However, in the context it is being used at the moment (added to the end of a string) it
cannot work like that.
The C# compiler must therefore ask the woodLength data item to convert itself into a
string so it can be used correctly in this position. Fortunately it can do this, and so the
program works as you would expect.
It is very important that you understand precisely what is going on here. Consider:
Console.WriteLine ( 2.0 + 3.0 );
This would perform a numeric calculation (2.0 + 3.0) and produce a double precision
floating point value. This result value would then be asked to provide a string version
of itself to be printed, giving the output:
5
But the line of code:

Console.WriteLine ( "2.0" + 3.0 );
Would regard the + as concatenating two strings. It would ask the value 3 to convert
itself into a string (sounds strange – but this is what happens. It would then produce the
output:
2.03
The string "2.0" has the text of the value 3.0 added on the end. This difference in
behavior is all because of the context of the operation that is being performed.
You can think of all of the variables in our program being tagged with metadata (there
is that word again) which the compiler uses to decide what to do with them. The
variable heightString is tagged with information that says "this is a string, use a
plus with this and you concatenate". The variable woodLength is tagged with
metadata which says "this is a double precision floating point value, use a plus with this
and you perform arithmetic".
+ " feet"
Another concatenation here. We are adding the word feet on the end. Whenever I print
a value out I always put the units on the end. This makes it much easier to ensure that
the value makes sense.
)
The bracket marks the end of the parameter being constructed for the WriteLine
method call. When the method is called the program first assembles a completed string
out of all the components, adding (or concatenating) them to produce a single result. It
then passes the resulting string value into the method which will print it out on the
console.

;
The semi-colon marks the end of this statement.
}
Now for some really important stuff. The program is essentially complete. We have
added all the behaviours that we need. However, the compiler still needs to be told that
we have reached the end of the program. This first close brace marks the end of the
block of code which is the body of the Main method. A block of code starts with a {
and ends with a }. When the compiler sees this it says to itself "that is the end of the
Main method".
}
The second closing brace has an equally important job to the first. It marks the end of
the class GlazerCalc. In C# everything exists inside a class. A class is a container
for a whole bunch of things, including methods. If we want to (and we will do this later)
we may put a number of methods into a class. For now however, we only want the one
method in the class. And so we use the second closing brace to mark the end of the
class itself.
Programmer’s Point:Program layout is very important

You may have noticed the rather attractive layout that I have used when I wrote the program.
Items inside braces are indented so that it is very clear where they belong. I do not do this because
I find such listings artistically pleasing. I do it because otherwise I am just about unable to read
the program and make sense of what it does.
JustlikeIfindithardtoreadenglishwithouttheproperspacing I find it hard to read a program if it has
not been laid out correctly.
Punctuation
That marks the end of our program. One of the things that you will have noticed is that
there is an awful lot of punctuation in there. This is vital and must be supplied exactly
as C# wants it, otherwise you will get what is called a compilation error. This simply
indicates that the compiler is too stupid to make sense of what you have given it!
You will quickly get used to hunting for and spotting compilation errors, one of the
things you will find is that the compiler does not always detect the error where it takes
place, consider the effect of missing out a "(" character. However, note that just
because the compiler reckons your program is OK is no guarantee of it doing what you
want!
Another thing to remember is that the layout of the program does not bother the
compiler, the following is just as valid:
using System;class GlazerCalc{static void Main(){double width, height,
woodLength, glassArea;string widthString, heightString;widthString =
Console.ReadLine();width = double.Parse(widthString);heightString =
Console.ReadLine();height = double.Parse(heightString);woodLength = 2 * ( width
+ height ) * 3.25 ;glassArea = 2 * ( width * height ) ;Console.WriteLine (
"The length of the wood is " + woodLength + " feet" ) ;Console.WriteLine(
"The area of the class is " + glassArea + " square metres" ) ;}}
- although if anyone writes a program which is laid out this way they will get a smart
rap on the knuckles from me!

Manipulating Data Variables and Data
The grammar of programs is something you will pick up as we look at more and more
of them....
Manipulating Data
In this section we are going to take a look at how we can write programs that
manipulate data, how values can be stored, retrieved and generally fiddled with. This
provides us with the ability to perform the data processing part of programs.
Variables and Data

In the glazing program above we decided to hold the width and the height of the
windows that we are working on in variables that we described as double. Before we
can go much further in our programming career we need to consider just what this
means, and what other types of data we can store in programs that we write.
Programs operate on data. A programming language must give you a way of storing the
data you are processing, otherwise it is useless. What the data actually means is
something that you as programmer decide (see the above digression on data).
A variable is a named location where you can store something. You can think of it as a
box of a particular size with a name painted on the box. You chose the name to reflect
what is going to be stored there (we used sensible names like woodLength in the
above program). You also need to choose the type of the variable (particular size and
shape of box) from the range of storage types which C# provides. The type of the
variable is part of the metadata about that variable.
Programs also contain literal values. A literal value is just a value in your program
which you use for some purpose. For each type of variable the C# language has a way
in which literal values of that type are expressed.
Types of Variables
Storing Numbers
When considering numeric values there are two kinds of data:
 Nice chunky individual values, for example the number of sheep in a
field, teeth on a cog, apples in a basket. These are referred to as integers.
 Nasty real world type things, for example the current temperature, the
length of a piece of string, the speed of a car. These are referred to as
reals.
In the first case we can hold the value exactly; you always have an exact number of
these items, they are integral.
When you are writing a In the second case we can never hold what we are looking at exactly. Even if you
specification you should measure a piece of string to 100 decimal places it is still not going to give you its
worry about the precision to exact length - you could always get the value more accurately. These are real. A
which values are to be held. computer is digital, i.e. it operates entirely on patterns of bits which can be regarded
Too much accuracy may slow as numbers. Because we know that it works in terms of ons and offs it has problems
the machine down - too little holding real values. To handle real values the computer actually stores them to a
may result in the wrong limited accuracy, which we hope is adequate (and usually is).
values being used.

Manipulating Data Types of Variables
This means that when we want to store something we have to tell the computer whether
it is an integer or a real. We also need to consider the range of possible values that we
need to hold so that we can choose the appropriate type to store the data.
You tell C# about a variable you want to create by declaring it. The declaration also
identifies the type of the thing we want to store. Think of this as C# creating a box of
a particular size, specifically designed to hold items of the given type. The box is
tagged with some metadata (there is that word again) so that the system knows what
can be put into it and how that box can be used.
Storing integer values

Integers are the easiest type of value for the computer to store. Each value will map
onto a particular pattern of bits. The only issue is one of range. The bigger the value the
larger the number of bits that you need to represent it.
C# provides a variety of integer types, depending on the range of values you would like
to store:
sbyte 8 bits -128 to 127
byte 8 bits 0 to 255
short 16 bits -32768 to 32767
ushort 16 bits 0 to 65535
int 32 bits -2147483648 to 2147483647
uint 32 bits 0 to 4294967295
long 64 bits -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807
ulong 64 bits 0 to 18446744073709551615
char 16 bits 0 to 65535
Note that we can go one The standard integer type, int, can hold frighteningly large numbers in C#, in the
further negative than positive. range -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 If you want to hold even larger integers than
This is because the numbers this (although I've no idea why you'd want this) there is a long version.
are stored using "2's
An example of an int variable would be something which kept track of the number
complement" notation
of sheep in a field:
int numberOfSheep;
This creates a variable with could keep track of over two thousand million sheep! It
also lets a program manipulate "negative sheep" which is probably not meaningful
(unless you run a sheep bank of course and let people owe you them). Remember that
the language itself is unaware of any such considerations. If you want to make sure that
we never have more than 1,000 sheep and the number of sheep never goes negative you
must add this behaviour yourself.
Programmer’s Point:Check your own maths

Something else which you should bear in mind is that a program will not always detect when you
exceed the range of a variable. If I put the value 255 into a variable of type byte this is OK,
because 255 is the biggest possible value of the type can hold. However, if I add one to the value in
this variable the system may not detect this as an error. In fact this may cause the value to "wrap
round" to 0. Which could cause my program big problems.

integer literal values

An integer literal is expressed as a sequence of digits with no decimal point:
23
This is the integer value 23. I could use it in my program as follows:

numberOfSheep = 23 ;
If I am using one of the "shorter" types the literal value is regarded by the compiler as
being of that type:
sbyte tinyVal = 127;
In this statement the 127 is regarded as an sbyte literal, not an integer. This means
that if I do something stupid:
sbyte tinyVal = 128;
(the maximum value that an sbyte can hold is 127) the compiler will detect that I have
made a mistake and the program will not compile.
Storing real values

"Real" is a generic term for numbers which are not integers. They have a decimal point
and a fractional part. Depending on the value the decimal point floats around in the
number, hence the name. C#
C# provides a type of box which can hold a real number. A standard float value has
a range of 1.5E-45 to 3.4E48 with a precision of only 7 digits (i.e. not as good as most
pocket calculators).
If you want more precision (although of course your programs will be use up more
computer memory and run more slowly) you can use a double box instead (double is
an abbreviation for double precision). This is takes up more computer memory but it
has a range of 5.0E-324 to 1.7E308 and a precision of 15 digits.
An example of a float variable could be something which held the average price of ice
cream:
float averageIceCreamPriceInPence;
An example of a double variable could be something which held the width of the
universe in inches:
double univWidthInMeters;
Finally, if you want the ultimate in precision but require a slightly smaller range you
can use the decimal type. This uses twice the storage space of a double and holds
values to a precision of 28-29 digits. It is used in financial interest calculations.
decimal robsOverdraft;
real literal values

There are two ways in which you can store floating point numbers; as float or as
double. When it comes to putting literal values into the program itself the compiler
likes to know if you are writing a floating point value (smaller sized box) or double
precision (larger sized box).
A float literal can be expressed as a real number with an f after it:
2.5f
A double literal is expressed as a real number without the f:

3.5
You can also use exponents to express double and float values:
9.4605284E15
This is a double precision literal value which is actually the number of meters in a light
year. If you put an f on the end it becomes a floating point literal value.
Unlike the way that integers work, with real numbers the compiler is quite fussy about
how they can and can't be combined. This is because when you move a value from a
double precision variable into an ordinary floating point one some of the precision is
lost. This means that you have to take special steps to make sure that you as
programmer make clear that you want this to happen and that you can live with the
consequences. This process is known as casting and we will consider it in detail a bit
later in these notes.
Programmer’s Point:Simple variables are probably best

You will find that I, and most programmers, tend to use just integers and floating point variable
types. This may seem wasteful (it is most unlikely I'll ever need to keep track of two thousand
million sheep) but it makes the programs easier to understand.
Storing Text
Sometimes the information we want to store is text. This can be in the form of a single
character, at other times it will be a string. C# provides variables for looking after both
of these types of information:
char variables
A char is type of variable which can hold a single character. A character is what you get
when you press a key on a keyboard or display a single, er, character on the screen.
Note that C# can use a character set called UNICODE which can handle over 65,000
different character designs including a wide range of foreign characters.
An example of a character variable could be something which held the command key
that the user has just pressed:
char commandKey;
char literal values

You express a character by enclosing it in single quotes:
'A'
This means "the character A". It is what your program would get if you asked it to read
a character off the keyboard and the user held down shift and pressed A.
Character Escape Sequences

This leads to the question "How do we express the ' (single quote) character". This is
achieved by the use of an escape sequence. This is a sequence of characters which
starts with a special escape character. Escape in this context means "escape from the
normal hum-drum conventions of just meaning what you are and let's do something
special". The escape character is the \ (backslash) character. Possible escape sequences
are:

Character Escape Sequence name
\' Single quote

\" Double quote
\\ Backslash
\0 Null
\a Alert
\b Backspace
\f Form feed
\n New line
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical quote
The effect of these escape sequences depends on the device you send them to. Some
systems will make a beep when you send the Alert character to them. Some clear the
screen when you send the Form feed character.
You can use them as follows:
char beep = '\a' ;
Note that the a must be in lower case.
Character code values

We have already established that the computer actually manipulates numbers rather
than actual letters. C# uses the Unicode standard to map characters onto numbers that
represent them. If you wish, you can express a character literal as a value from the
Unicode character set. The good news is that this gives you access to a huge range of
characters (as long as you know the codes for them). The bad news is that you must
express this value in hexadecimal which is a little bit harder to use than decimal. The
best news of all is that you probably don't need to do this kind of thing very often, if at
all.
As an example however, I happen to know that the Unicode value for capital a (A) is
65. This is represented in hexadecimal (base 16) as four sixteens and a single one (i.e.
41). I can therefore put this in my program as:
char capitalA = '\x0041' ;
Note that I had to put leading zeroes in front of the two hex digits.
string variables
A type of box which can hold a string of text. In C# a string can be very short, for
example "Rob", or it can be very long, for example "War and Peace" (that is the book
not the three words). A string variable can hold a line of text. However, because there
are special characters which mean "take a new line" (see above) it is perfectly possible
for a single string to hold a large number of lines of text.
An example of a string variable could be something which holds the line that the user
has just typed in:

string commandLine;
string literal values

A string literal value is expressed enclosed in double quotes:
"this is a string"
The string can contain the escape sequences above:

"\x0041BCDE\a"
If we print this string it would print out:

ABCDE
- and try to ring the bell.

If I am just expressing text with no escape characters or anything strange I can tell the
compiler that this is a verbatim string. I do this by putting an @ in front of the literal:
@"\x0041BCDE\a"
If I print this string I get:

\x0041BCDE\a
This can be useful when you are expressing things like file paths. The verbatim
character has another trick, which is that you can use it to get string literals to extend
over several lines:
@"The quick
brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog"
This expresses a string which extends over three lines. The line breaks in the string are
preserved when it is stored.
bool variables
A bool (short for boolean) variable is a type of box which can hold whether or not
something is true. Sometimes that is all you want. If you are storing whether or not a
subscription has been paid or not there is no need to waste space by using a type which
can hold a large number of possible values. Instead you just need to hold the states true
or false. These are the only two values which the bool type allows.
An example of a bool variable could be one which holds the state of a network
connection:
bool networkOK;
bool literal values

These are easily expressed as either true or false:
networkOK = true ;
Programmer’s Point:Think about the type of your variables

Choosing the right type for a variable is something of a skill. I tend to use floating point storage
only as a last resort. They introduce a lack of precision that I am not too keen on. I find that with a
little bit of ingenuity I can work in integers quite comfortably. For example, rather than store the
price of an item as 1.5 pounds (needing the use of float) I will store the price as 150 pence.

Manipulating Data Identifiers
Also when considering how to store data it is important to remember where it comes from. In the
example above I've used the double type to hold the width and height of a window. This is really
stupid. It does not take into account the precision required or indeed how accurately the window
can be measured. I would suspect that my glazing salesman will not be able to measure to an
accuracy greater than 1 mm and so it would make sense to only store the data to that precision.
This illustrates another metadata consideration, when you are given the prospect of storing floating
point information; find out how it is being produced before you decide how it will be stored. As an
example, you might think that being asked to work with the speed of a car you would have to store a
floating point value. However, when you find out that the speed sensor only gives answers to an
accuracy of 1 mile per hour, this makes the job much simpler.
Identifiers
In C# an identifier is a name that the programmer chooses for something in the
program. The name of a variable is more properly called an identifier. We will see
other places where we create identifiers. C# has some rules about what constitutes a
valid identifier:
 All identifiers names must start with a letter.
 After the letter you can have either letters or numbers or the underscore
"_" character.
Upper and lower case letters are different, i.e. Fred and fred are different identifiers.
Here are a few example declarations, one of which are not valid (see if you can guess
which one and why) :
int fred ;
float jim ;
char 29yesitsme ;
One of the golden rules of programming, along with "always use the keyboard with the
keys uppermost" is:
Always give your variables meaningful names.
According to the Mills and Boon romances that I have read, the best relationships are
meaningful ones.
The convention in C# for the kind of variables that we are creating at the moment is to
mix upper and lower case letters so that each word in the identifier starts with a capital:
float averageIceCreamPriceInPence;
This is sometimes called camel case, presumably because of the "humps" in the
identifier which are caused by the capitals.
Programmer’s Point:Think about the names of your variables

Choosing variable names is another skill you should work at. They should be long enough to be
expressive but not so long that your program lines get too complicated. Perhaps the name
averageIceCreamPriceInPence is a bit over the top in this respect. But I could live with it.
Remember that you can always do sensible things with your layout to make the program look OK:
averageIceCreamPriceInPence =
computedTotalPriceInPence / numberOfIceCreams;

Manipulating Data Giving Values to Variables
Giving Values to Variables

Once we have got ourselves a variable we now need to know how to put something into
it, and get the value out. C# does this by means of an assignment statement. There are
two parts to an assignment, the thing you want to assign and the place you want to put
it, for example consider the following:
class Assignment {
static void Main ()
{
int first, second, third ;
first = 1 ;
second = 2 ;
second = second + first ;
}
}
The first part of the program should be pretty familiar by now. Within the Main
function we have declared three variables, first, second and third. These are
each of integer type.
The last three statements are the ones which actually do the work. These are assignment
statements. An assignment gives a value to a specified variable, which must be of a
sensible type (note that you must be sensible about this because the compiler, as we
already know, does not know or care what you are doing). The value which is assigned
is an expression. The equals in the middle is there mainly to confuse us, it does not
mean equals in the numeric sense; I like to think of it as a gozzinta (see above).
Gozzintas take the result on the right hand side of the assignment and drop it into the
box on the left, which means that:
2 = second + 1;
- is a piece of programming naughtiness which would cause all manner of nasty errors
to appear.
Expressions
An expression is something which can be evaluated to produce a result. We can then
use the result as we like in our program. Expressions can be as simple as a single value
and as complex as a large calculation. They are made up of two things, operators and
operands.
Operands
Operands are things the operators work on. They are usually literal values or the
identifiers of variables. In the program above first, second, third are identifiers
and 2 is a literal value. A literal value is something which is literally there in the code.
A literal value has a type associated with it by the compiler.
Operators
Operators are the things which do the work: They specify the operation to be performed
on the operands. Most operators work on two operands, one each side. In the program
above + is the only operator.
Here are a few example expressions:
2 + 3 * 4
-1 + 3
(2 + 3) * 4
These expressions are worked out (evaluated) by C# moving from left to right, just as
you would yourself. Again, just as in traditional maths all the multiplication and
division is performed first in an expression, followed by the addition and subtraction.

Manipulating Data Changing the Type of Data
C# does this by giving each operator a priority. When C# works out an expression it
looks along it for all the operators with the highest priority and does them first. It then
looks for the next ones down and so on until the final result is obtained. Note that this
means that the first expression above will therefore return 14 and not 20.
If you want to force the order in which things are worked out you can put brackets
around the things you want done first, as in the final example. You can put brackets
inside brackets if you want, provided you make sure that you have as many open ones
as close ones. Being a simple soul I tend to make things very clear by putting brackets
around everything.
It is probably not worth getting too worked up about this expression evaluation as posh
people call it; generally speaking things tend to be worked out how you would expect
them.
For completeness here is a list of all operators, what they do and their precedence
(priority). I am listing the operators with the highest priority first.
op. Use
- unary minus, the minus that C# finds in negative numbers, e.g. -1.
Unary means applying to only one item.
* multiplication, note the use of the * rather than the more
mathematically correct but confusing x.
/ division, because of the difficulty of drawing one number above
another on a screen we use this character instead
+ Addition.
- subtraction. Note that we use exactly the same character as for unary
minus.
This is not a complete list of all the operators available, but it will do for now. Because
these operators work on numbers they are often called the numeric operators. But of
course you should remember that some of them (for example +) can be used between
other types of data as well. It is also possible to use operators in a way which causes
values to be moved from one type to another. This can cause problems as we shall see
now:
Changing the Type of Data

Whenever I move a value from one type to another the C# compiler gets very interested
in what I am doing. It worries about whether or not the operation I'm about to perform
will cause data to be lost from the program. It considers every operation in terms of
"widening and narrowing" values.
Widening and Narrowing

The general principle which C# uses is that if you are "narrowing" a value it will always
ask you to explicitly tell it that this is what you want to do. If you are widening there is
no problem.
To understand what we mean by these terms we could consider suitcases. If I am
packing for a trip I will take a case. If I decide to switch to a smaller case I will have to
take everything out of the large case and put it into the smaller one. But it might not
have room, so I have to leave behind one of my shirts. This is "narrowing".
However, if I change to a bigger case there is no problem. The bigger case will take
everything that was in the smaller case, and have room for more.

Manipulating Data Changing the Type of Data
In C# terms the "size" of a type is the range of values (the biggest and smallest) and the
precision (the number of decimal places). This means that if I write:
int i = 1 ;
float x = i;
This works fine because the floating point type can hold all the values supported by the
integer type. However:
float x = 1;
int i = x ;
- would cause the compiler to complain (even though at the moment the variable x only
holds an integer value). The compiler is concerned that you may be discarding
information by such an assignment and treats it as an error.
Note that this applies within a floating point values as well, for example:
double d = 1.5;
float f = d ;
- would cause an error as well, since the compiler knows that a double is wider than a
float.
Casting
We can force C# to regard a value as being of a certain type by the use of casting. A
cast takes the form of an additional instruction to the compiler to force it to regard a
value in a particular way. You cast a value by putting the type you want to see there in
brackets before it. For example:
double d = 1.5;
float f = (float) d ;
In the above code the message to the compiler is "I don't care that this assignment could
cause the loss of information. I, as the writer of the program, will take the responsibility
of making sure that the program works correctly". You can regard casting as the
compiler's way of washing its hands of the problem. If a program fails because data is
lost it is not because the compiler did something silly.
As we saw above, each type of variable has a particular range of possible values, and
the range of floating point values is much greater than that for integers. This means that
if you do things like this:
int i ;
i = (int) 123456781234567890.999 ;
I do not think of this as a - the cast is doomed to fail. The value which gets placed in i will be invalid.
failing in C#. It gives you Nowhere in C# does the language check for mistakes like this. It is up to you when
great flexibility, at the cost of you write your program to make sure that you never exceed the range of the data
assuming you know what you types you are using - the program will not notice but the user certainly will!
are doing....
A cast can also lose information in other ways:
int i ;
i = (int) 1.999 ;
The code above takes 1.999 (which would be compiled as a value of type double)
and casts it to int. This process discards the fractional part, which means that the
variable I will end up with the value 1 in it, even though the original number was much
closer to 2. You should remember that this truncation takes place whenever you cast
from a value with a fractional part (float, double, decimal) into one without.

Manipulating Data Types of Data in Expressions
Casting and Literal Values

We have seen that you can put "literal" values into your program. These are just values
you want to use in your calculations. For example, in our double glazing program we
had to multiply the wood length in meters by 3.25 to convert the length value from
meters to feet (there are about 3.25 feet in a meter).
C# keeps careful track of the things that it is combining, and this includes how it allows
literal values to be used. This is so that statements like:
int i ;
i = 3.4 / "stupid" ;
- will be treated with the contempt they richly deserve. The C# compiler knows that it is
daft to divide the value 3.0 by the string "stupid". However, consider this:
float x ;
x = 3.4 ;
This code looks perfectly legal. However, it is not. This is because the literal value 3.4
is a double precision value when expressed as a literal, and the variable x has been
declared as a floating point. If I want to put a floating point literal value into a floating
point variable I can use casting:
float x ;
x = (float) 3.4 ;
This casts the double precision literal into a floating point value, so that the assignment
works.
To make life easier the creators of C# have added a different way we can express a
floating point literal value in a program. If you put an f after the value this is regarded
as a floating point value. This means that:
float x ;
x = 3.4f ;
- would compile correctly.
Types of Data in Expressions

When C# uses an operator, it makes a decision as to the type of the result that is to be
produced. Essentially, if the two operands are integer, it says that the result should be
integer, if the two are floating point, it says that the result should be floating point. This
can lead to problems, consider the following:
1/2
1/2.0
You might think that these would give the same result. Not so. The compiler thinks that
the first expression, which involves only integers, should give an integer result. It
therefore would calculate this to be the integer value 0 (the fractional part is always
truncated). The second expression, because it involves a floating point value would
however be evaluated to give a double precision floating point result, the more accurate
answer of 0.5.
The way that an operator behaves depends on the context of its use. Later on we will
see that the + operator, which normally performs a numeric calculation, can be used
between strings to concatenate them together, i.e. "Ro" + "b" would give the result
"Rob".
If you want complete control over the particular kind of operator the compiler will
generate for you the program must contain explicit casts to set the correct context for
the operator.

Manipulating Data Programs and Patterns
using System;
class CastDemo {
static void Main ()
{
int i = 3, j = 2 ;
float fraction ;
fraction = (float) i / (float) j ;
Console.WriteLine ( "fraction : " + fraction ) ;
}
}
The (float) cast in the above tells the compiler to regard the values in the integer
variables as floating point ones, so that we get 1.5 printed out rather than 1.
Programmer’s Point:Casts can add clarity

I tend to put the casts in even if they are not needed, this can make the program clearer. It may
not affect the result of the calculation but it will inform the reader of what I am trying to do.
Programs and Patterns

At this point we can revisit our double glazing program and look at the way that it
works. The code that actually does the work boils down to just a few lines which read
in the data, store it in an appropriate type of location and then uses the stored values to
calculate the result that the user requires:
string widthString = Console.ReadLine();
double width = double.Parse(widthString);
string heightString = Console.ReadLine();


Console.WriteLine("The area of the class is " +
The interesting thing about this is that it is a pattern of behaviour which can be reused
time and time again.
As an example, consider another friend of yours, who runs a chemist shop. He wants a
program that will work out the total cost of tablets that he buys, and the number of
bottles that he needs. He enters the cost of the tablets and the number he wants. The
tablets are always sold in bottles of 100.
You can very easily modify your program to do this job, the only hard part is figuring
out how many bottles that are needed for a particular number of tablets. If you just
divide the number of tablets by 100 an integer division will give you the wrong answer
(for any number of tablets less than 100 your program will tell you that 0 bottles are
needed). One way to solve this is to add 99 to the number of tablets before you
perform the division, forcing the number of bottles required to "round up" any number
of tablets greater than 0. This makes the active part of the program as follows:
int bottleCount = ((tabletCount + 99) / 100) ;
int salePrice = bottleCount * pricePerBottle ;
We can then put the rest of the code around this to make a finished solution:

Writing a Program Software as a story
string pricePerBottleString = Console.ReadLine();

int pricePerBottle = int.Parse(pricePerBottleString);
string tabletCountString = Console.ReadLine();

int tabletCount = int.Parse(tabletCountString);
int bottleCount = ((tabletCount + 99) / 100) ;
int salePrice = bottleCount * pricePerBottle ;
Console.WriteLine ( "The number of bottles is " +

bottleCount ) ;
Console.WriteLine("The total price is " +
salePrice ) ;
[Remember that if you divide two integers the result is always rounded down and the
fractional part discarded. ]
The interesting thing here is that the program for the chemist is actually just a variation
on the program for the double glazing salesman. Both conform to a pattern of
behaviour (read data in, process it, print it out) which is common to many applications.
Any time that you are asked to write a program that reads in some data, works out some
answers and then prints out the result you can make use of this pattern.
Part of the skill of a programmer is identifying the nature of a problem in terms of the
best pattern to be used to solve it.
Writing a Program
The programs that we have created up until now have been very simple. They just read
data in, do something with it and then print out the result. However, we will need to
create programs which do things which are more complex that this. They may have to
make a decision based on the data which they are given. They may need to repeat things
until something is true. They may need to read in a large amount of data and then
process that in a number of different ways.
In this section we are going to consider how we can give our programs that extra level
of complexity, and look at the general business of writing programs.
Software as a story
Some people say that writing a program is a bit like writing a story. I'm not completely
convinced that this is true. I have found that some computer manuals are works of
fiction, but programs are something else. I think that while it is not a story as such, a
good program text does have some of the characteristics of good literature:
 It should be easy to read. At no point should the hapless reader be forced to
backtrack or brush up on knowledge that the writer assumes is there. All the
names in the text should impart meaning and be distinct from each other.
 It should have good punctuation and grammar. The various components
should be organised in a clear and consistent way.
 It should look good on the page. A good program is well laid out. The
different blocks should be indented and the statements spread over the page in
a well formed manner.
 It should be clear who wrote it, and when it was last changed. If you write
something good you should put your name on it. If you change what you wrote
you should add information about the changes that you made and why.

Writing a Program Program Flow
Comments
A big part of a well written program is the comments that the programmer puts there. A
program without comments is a bit like an aeroplane which has an autopilot but no
windows. There is a chance that it might take you to the right place, but it will be very
hard to tell where it is going from the inside.
Block Comments
When the C# compiler sees the "/*" sequence which means the start of a comment it
says:
Aha! Here is a piece of information for greater minds than mine to ponder. I will
ignore everything following until I see a */ which closes the comment.
As an example:
/* This program works out glass and wood required for
a double glazing salesman. */
Be generous with your comments. They help to make your program much easier to
understand. You will be very surprised to find that you quickly forget how you got your
program to work. You can also use comments to keep people informed of the particular
version of the program, when it was last modified and why, and the name of the
programmer who wrote it - if you dare!
Line Comments
Another form of comment makes use of the // sequence. This marks the start of a
comment which extends to the end of that particular line of code. It is useful for putting
a quick note on the end of a statement:
position = position + 1 ; //move on to the next customer
I've annotated the statement to give the reader extra information about what it actually
does.
Programmer’s Point:Don't add too much detail

Writing comments is a very sensible thing to do. But don't go mad. Remember that the person who is
reading your program can be expected to know the C# language and doesn't need things explained
to them in too much detail:
goatCount = goatCount + 1 ; // add one to goatCount
This is plain insulting to the reader I reckon. If you chose sensible identifiers you should find that
your program will express most of what it does directly from the code itself.
Program Flow
Our first double glazing program is very simple, it runs straight through from the first
statement to the last, and then stops. Often you will come across situations where your
program must change what it does according to the data which is given to it. Basically
there are three types of program flow:
1. straight line
2. chosen depending on a given condition
3. repeated according to a given condition

Every program ever written is composed of the three elements above, and very little
else! You can use this to good effect when designing an overall view of how your
program is going to work. At the moment we have only considered programs which run
in a straight line and then stop. The path which a program follows is sometimes called
its "thread of execution". When you call a function the thread of execution is
transferred into the function until it is complete.
Conditional Execution - if
The program above to work out the wood and glass for our glazing man is nice, in fact
our customer will probably be quite pleased with it. However, it is not perfect. The
problem is not with the program, but with the user.
If you give the program a window width of -1 it goes ahead and works out a stupid
result. Our program does not have any checking for invalid widths and heights. The
user might have grounds for complaint if the program fails to recognise that he has
given a stupid value, in fact a number of cases are currently being fought in the United
States courts where a program has failed to recognise invalid data, produced garbage
and caused a lot of damage.
What we want to do is notice the really stupid replies and tell the user that he has done
something dubious. In our program specification, which we give the customer, we have
said something like (this is our metadata):
The program will reject window dimensions outside the following ranges:
width less than 0.5 metres
width greater than 5.0 metres
height less than 0.75 metres
height greater than 3.0 metres
This means that we have done all we can; If the program gets 1 rather than 10 for the
width then that is the users' problem, the important thing from our point of view is that
the above specification stops us from being sued!
In order to allow us to do this the program must notice naughty values and reject them.
To do this we can use the construction:
if (condition)
statement or block we do if the condition is true
else
statement or block we do if the condition is false
The condition determines what happens in the program. So what do we mean by a

condition? C# has a way in which true and false can be explicitly stated in a program.
We have already seen that the bool type is used to store this logical state.
We can create conditions which return a logical result. These are called "logical
conditions". Which is logical. The simplest condition is simply the value true or false,
for example:
if (true)
{
Console.WriteLine ( "hello mum" ) ;
}
This is valid, although rather useless as the condition is always true, so "hello mum"
is always printed (note that we left the else portion off - this is OK because it is
optional).
Conditions and Relational Operators

To make conditions work for us we need a set of additional relational operators which
we can use to in logical expressions. Relational operators work on operands, just like

numeric ones. However any expression involving them can only produce one of two
values, true or false. Relational operators available are as follows:
==
equals. If the left hand side and the right hand side are equal the expression has the
value true. If they are not equal the value is false.
4 == 5
- would evaluate to false. Note that it is not particularly meaningful to compare

floating point values in this way. Because of the fact that they are held to limited
precision you might find that conditions fail when they should not for example the
following equation:
x = 3.0 * (1.0 / 3.0) ;
- may well result in x containing 0.99999999, which would mean that:

x == 1.0
If you want to compare - would be false - even though mathematically the test should return true.
floating point values subtract
them and see if the difference
is very small.
!=
not equal. The reverse of equals. If the operands are not equal the expression has the
value true, if they are equal it has the value false. Again, this test is not advisable
for use with floating point numbers.
<
less than. If the operand on the left is less than the one on the right the value of the
expression is true. If the left hand operand is larger than or equal to the right hand
one the expression gives false. It is quite valid to compare floating point numbers in
this way.
>
greater than. If the operand on the left is greater than the one on the right the result is
true. If the operand on the left is less than or equal to the one on the right the result is
false.
<=
less than or equal to. If the operand on the left is less than or equal to the one on the
right you get true, otherwise you get false.
>=
greater than or equal to. If the operand on the left is greater than or equal to the one on
the right you get true, otherwise it is false.
!
not. This can be used to invert a particular value or expression, for example you can say
!true, which is false, or you could say: !(x==y) - which means the same as
(x!=y). You use not when you want to invert the sense of an expression.

Combining Logical Operators

Sometimes we want to combine logical expressions, to make more complicated choices,
for example to test for a window width being valid we have to test that it is greater than
the minimum and less than the maximum. C# provides additional operators to combine
logical values:
&&
and. If the operands each side of the && are true the result of the && is true. If one of
them is false the result is false, for example
(width > 0.5) && (width < 5.0)
- this would be true if the width was valid according to our above description.
||
or. If either of the operands each side of the || are true the result of the expression is
true. The expression is only false if both operands are false, for example:
(width <= 0.5) || (width >= 5.0)
De Morgans theorem is the - this would be true if the width was invalid. We are saying that the width is invalid if
basis of this. it is less than the minium or larger than the maximum. Note that to reverse the sense
of the condition (i.e. true when the value is invalid) we not only have to change the >
into <= in each expression, but also change the && into an ||.
Using these operators in conjunction with the if statement we can make decisions and
change what our program will do in response to the data we get.
Programmer’s Point:Break down your conditions

If you find that you are making huge and complicated conditions to get a statement obeyed you
might find that you can make things clearer by using more than one if statement, and indenting the
code in an appropriate way. This will make the code easier to debug as well, because you can watch
the program step through your conditions one at a time, instead of going off in a particular
direction based on a huge condition you will then have to unpick.
Lumping Code Together

We have decided that if the user gives a value outside our allowed range an error is
generated and the value is then set to the appropriate maximum or minimum. To do this
we have to do two statements which are selected on a particular condition, one to print
out the message and the other to perform an assignment. You can do this by using the {
and } characters. A number of statements lumped together between { and } characters
is regarded as a single statement, so we do the following:
if ( width > 5.0 ){
Console.WriteLine ("Width too big,using maximum\n") ;
width = 5.0 ;
}
The two statements are now a block, which is performed only if width is greater than
5.0. You can lump many hundreds of statements together in this way, the compiler
does not mind. You can also put such blocks of code inside other blocks, this is called
nesting.
The number of { and } characters must agree in your program, otherwise you will get
strange and incomprehensible errors when the compiler hits the end of the file in the
middle of a block or reaches the end of your program half way down your file!

I make things much easier to understand by indenting a particular block by a number of

spaces, i.e. each time I open a block with the { character I move my left margin in a
little way. I can then see at a glance whereabouts I am in the levels at any time.
Metadata, Magic Numbers and const

A magic number is a value with a special meaning. It will never be changed within the
program; it is instead a constant which is used within it. When I write my glazing
program I will include some magic numbers which give the maximum and minimum
values for heights and widths. These come from the metadata I was so careful to gather
when I wrote the specification for the program.
Now I could just use the values 0.5, 5.0, 0.75 and 3.0 - but these are not packed
with meaning and make the program hard to change. If, for some reason, my maximum
glass size becomes 4.5 metres I have to look all through the program and change only
the appropriate values. I do not like the idea of "magic numbers" in programs, what I
would like to do is replace each number with something a bit more meaningful.
We can do this by making a variable which is constant, i.e. it is never changed.
const double PI=3.141592654;
This means that you can do things like:

circ = rad * 2 * PI ;
This both more meaningful (we are using PI not some anonymous value) and makes the
program quicker to write. Anywhere you use a magic number you should use a constant
of this form, for example:
const double MAX_WIDTH 5.0 ;
This makes your programs much easier to read, and also much easier to change.
There is a convention that you always give constant variables names which are
expressed in CAPITAL LETTERS. This is so that when you read your program you
can tell which things have been defined.
We can therefore modify our double glazing program as follows:
using System;
class GlazerCalc
{
static void Main()
{
const double MAX_WIDTH = 5.0 ;

const double MIN_WIDTH = 0.5 ;
const double MAX_HEIGHT = 3.0 ;
const double MIN_HEIGHT = 0.75 ;
Console.Write ( "Give the width of the window : " );

if (width < MIN_WIDTH) {

Console.WriteLine ( "Width is too small" ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "Using minimum" ) ;
width = MIN_WIDTH ;
}
if (width > MAX_WIDTH) {

Console.WriteLine ( "Width is too large.\n\n" ) ;

Writing a Program Loops
Console.WriteLine ( "Using maximum" ) ;

width = MAX_WIDTH ;
}
Console.Write ( "Give the height of the window : " );

if (height < MIN_HEIGHT) {

Console.WriteLine( "Height is too small.\n\n" ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "Using minimum" ) ;
height = MIN_HEIGHT ;
}
if (height > MAX_HEIGHT) {
Console.WriteLine( "Height is too large.\n\n" ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "Using maximum" ) ;
height = MAX_HEIGHT ;
}

}
}
This program fulfils our requirements. It will not use values incompatible with our
specification. However I would still not call it perfect. If our salesman gives a bad
height the program simply limits the value and needs to be re-run, with the height
having to be entered again.
What we would really like is a way that we can repeatedly fetch values for the width
and height until we get one which fits. C# allows us to do this by providing looping
constructions.
Loops
Conditional statements allow you to do something if a given condition is true. However
often you want to repeat something while a particular condition is true, or a given
number of times.
C# has three ways of doing this, depending on precisely what you are trying to do. Note
that we get three methods not because we need three but because they make life easier
when you write the program (a bit like an attachment to our chainsaw to allow it to
perform a particular task more easily). Most of the skill of programming involves
picking the right tool or attachment to do the job in hand. (the rest is finding out why
the tool didn't do what you expected it to!).
In the case of our program we want to repeatedly get numbers in until while we are
getting duff ones, i.e. giving a proper number should cause our loop to stop. This means
that if we get the number correctly first time the loop will execute just once. You might
think that I have pulled a fast one here; all I have done is change:
Get values until you see one which is OK
into
Get values while they are not OK
Part of the art of programming is changing the way that you think about the problem to
suit the way that the programming language can be told to solve it.

do -- while loop
In the case of our little C# program we use the do -- while construction which looks like
this:
do
statement or block
while (condition) ;
This allows us to repeat a chunk of code until the condition at the end becomes false.
Note that the test is performed after the statement or block, i.e. even if the test is bound
to fail the statement is performed once.
A condition in this context is exactly the same as the condition in an if statement,
raising the intriguing possibility of programs like:
using System;
class Forever {
public static void Main () {
do
Console.WriteLine ( "Hello mum" ) ;
while ( true );
}
}
This is a perfectly legal C# program. How long it will run for is an interesting question,
the answer contains elements of human psychology, energy futures and cosmology, i.e.
it will run until:
1. You get bored with it.

2. Your electricity runs out.
3. The universe implodes.
This is a chainsaw situation, not a powerful chainsaw situation. Just as it is possible
with any old chainsaw to cut off your leg if you try really hard so it is possible to use
any programming language to write a program which will never stop. It reminds me of
my favourite shampoo instructions:
1. Wet Your Hair

2. Add Shampoo and Rub vigorously.
3. Rinse with warm water.
4. Repeat.
I wonder how many people there are out there still washing their hair at the moment?
while loop
Sometimes you want to decide whether or not to repeat the loop before you perform it.
If you think about how the loop above works the test is done after the code to be
repeated has been performed once. For our program this is exactly what we want, we
need to ask for a value before we can decide whether or not it is valid. In order to be as
flexible as possible C# gives us another form of the loop construction which allows us
to do the test first:
while (condition)
statement or block
Note that C makes an attempt to reduce the number of keys you need to press to run the
program by leaving out the word do. (if you put the do in the compiler will take great
delight in giving you an error message - but you had already guessed that of course!).

for loop
Often you will want to repeat something a given number of times. The loop
constructions we have given can be used to do this quite easily:
using System;
class WhileLoopInsteadOfFor {
int i ;
i = 1 ;
while ( i < 11 ) {
i = i + 1 ;
}
}
}
The variable which controls This useless program prints out hello 10 times. It does this by using a variable to
things is often called the control the loop. The variable is given an initial value (1) and then tested each time
control variable, and is we go around the loop. The control variable is then increased for each pass through
usually given the name i. the statements. Eventually it will reach 11, at which point the loop terminates and
our program stops.
C# provides a construction to allow you to set up a loop of this form all in one:
for ( setup ; finish test ; update ) {
things we want to do a given
number of times
}
We could use this to re-write the above program as:

using System;
class ForLoop {
int i ;
for ( i = 1 ; i < 11 ; i = i + 1 ) {
}
}
}
The setup puts a value into the control variable which it will start with. The test is a
condition which must be true for the for -- loop to continue. The update is the statement
which is performed to update the control variable at the end of each loop. Note that the
three elements are separated by semicolons. The precise sequence of events is as
follows:
1. Put the setup value into the control variable.
2. Test to see if we have finished the loop yet and exit to the statement after
the for loop if we have.
3. Perform the statements to be repeated.
4. Perform the update.
5. Repeat from step 2.
Writing a loop in this way is quicker and simpler than using a form of while because
it keeps all the elements of the loop in one place instead of leaving them spread about
the program. This means that you are less likely forget to do something like give the
control variable an initial value, or update it.
If you are so stupid as to mess around with the value of the control variable in the loop
you can expect your program to do stupid things, i.e. if you put i back to 0 within the
loop it will run forever. And serve you right.

Programmer’s Point:Don't be clever/stupid

Some people like to show how clever they are by doing cunning things with the setup, condition and
update statements, which can do things other than simple assignment, increment and test. Some
programmers think they are very clever if they can do all the work "inside" the for loop and have an
empty statement after it.
I call these people "the stupid people". There is rarely need for such convoluted code. When you are
writing programs the two things which you should be worrying about are "how do I prove this
works?" and "how easy is it to understand?" Complicated code does not help you do either of these
things.
Breaking Out of Loops

Sometimes you may want to escape from a loop whilst you are in the middle of it, i.e.
your program may decide that there is no need or point to go on and wishes to leap out
of the loop and continue the program from the statement after it.
You can do this with the break statement. This is a command to leave the loop
immediately. Your program would usually make some form of decision to quit in this
way. I find it most useful so that I can provide a "get the heck out of here" option in the
middle of something, for example in the following program snippet the variable
aborted, normally false becomes true when the loop has to be abandoned and
the variable runningOK, normally true, becomes false when it is time to finish
normally.
while (runningOK) {
complex stuff
....
if (aborted) {
break ;
}
....
more complex stuff
....
}
....
bit we get to if aborted becomes true
....
Note that we are using two variables as switches, they do not hold values as such; they
are actually used to represent states within the program as it runs. This is a standard
programming trick that you will find very useful.
You can break out of any of the three kinds of loop. In every case the program
continues running at the statement after the last statement of the loop.
Programmer’s Point:Be careful with your breaks

The break keyword smells a little like the dread goto, which programmers are often scared of. The
goto lets you jump from one part of the program to another. For this reason the goto is condemned
as a potentially dangerous and confusing device. The break statement lets you jump from any point
in a loop to the statement just outside the loop. This means that if my program is at the statement
immediately following the loop, there are a number of ways it could have got there; one for every
break in the loop above. This can make the code harder to understand. The break construction is
less confusing than the goto, but can still lead to problems. In this respect we advise you to
exercise caution when using it.

Going back to the top of a loop

Every now and then you will want to go back to the top of a loop and do it all again.
This happens when you have gone as far down the statements as you need to. C
provides the continue statement which says something along the lines of:
Please do not go any further down this time round the loop. Go back to the top of the
loop, do all the updating and stuff and go around if you are supposed to.
In the following program the bool variable Done_All_We_Need_This_Time is
set true when we have gone as far down the loop as we need to.
for ( item = 1 ; item < Total_Items ; item=item+1 ) {
.....
item processing stuff
....
if (Done_All_We_Need_This_Time) {
continue ;
....
additional item processing stuff
....
}
The continue causes the program to re-run the loop with the next value of item if it
is OK to do so. You can regard it as a move to step 2 in the list above.
More Complicated Decisions

We can now think about using a loop to test for a valid width or height. Essentially we
want to keep asking the user for a value until we get one which is OK; i.e. if you get a
value which is larger than the maximum or smaller than the minimum ask for another.
To do this we have to combine two tests to see if the value is OK. Our loop should
continue to run if:
width > MAX_WIDTH
or
width < MIN_WIDTH
To perform this test we use one of the logical operators described above to write a
condition which will be true if the width is invalid:
( (width < MIN_WIDTH) || (width > MAX_WIDTH) )
- note the profuse use of brackets. You must put these in.
Programmer’s Point:Get used to flipping conditions

One of the things that you will have to come to terms with is the way that you often have to
reverse the way you look at things. Rather than saying "Read me a valid number" you will have to say
"Read numbers while they are not valid". This means that you will often be checking to find the thing
that you don't want, rather than the thing that you do. Remember the notes about reversing
conditions above when you write the code.
Complete Glazing Program

This is a complete solution to the glazing problem. It uses all the tricks mentioned
above.

Writing a Program Operator Shorthand
// Complete Double Glazing Program

// Rob Miles Oct. 2004
using System;
class GlazerCalc
{
static void Main()
{
const double MAX_WIDTH = 5.0 ;

const double MIN_WIDTH = 0.5 ;
const double MAX_HEIGHT = 3.0 ;
const double MIN_HEIGHT = 0.75 ;
do {
Console.Write ( "Give the width of the window between " +

MIN_WIDTH + " and " + MAX_WIDTH + " :" );
} while ( (width < MIN_WIDTH) || (width > MAX_WIDTH) ) ;
do {
Console.Write ( "Give the height of the window between " +

MIN_HEIGHT + " and " + MAX_HEIGHT + " :" );
} while ( (height < MIN_HEIGHT) || (height > MAX_HEIGHT) );

}
}
Operator Shorthand
So far we have looked at operators which appear in expressions and work on two
operands, e.g.
window_count = window_count + 1
In this case the operator is + and is operating on the variable window_count and the
value 1. The purpose of the above statement is to add 1 to the variable
window_count. However, it is a rather long winded way of expressing this, both in
terms of what we have to type and what the computer will actually do when it runs the
program. C# allows us to be more terse if we wish, the line:

Writing a Program Operator Shorthand
window_count++
- would do the same thing. We can express ourselves more succinctly and the compiler
can generate more efficient code because it now knows that what we are doing is
adding one to a particular variable. The ++ is called a unary operator, because it works
on just one operand. It causes the value in that operand to be increased by one. There is
a corresponding -- operator which can be used to decrease (decrement) variables.
You can see examples of this construction in the for loop definition in the example
above.
The other shorthand which we use is when we add a particular value to a variable. We
could put :
house_cost = house_cost + window_cost
This is perfectly OK, but again is rather long winded. C# has some additional operators
which allow us to shorten this to:
house_cost += window_cost
The += operator combines addition and the assignment, so that the value in
house_cost is increased by window_cost. Some other shorthand operators are:
a += b the value in a is replaced a + b.

a -= b the value in a is replaced by a - b.
a /= b the value in a is replaced by a / b.
a *= b the value in a is replaced by a * b.
There are other combination operators; I will leave you to find them!
Statements and Values

One of the really funky things about C# is that all statements return a value, which you
can use in another statement if you like. Most of the time you will ignore this value,
which is OK, but sometimes it can be very useful, particularly when we get around to
deciding things (see later). In order to show how this is done, consider the following:
i = (j=0);
This is perfectly legal (and perhaps even sensible) C#. It has the effect of setting both i
and j to 0. An assignment statement always returns the value which is being assigned
(i.e. the bit on the right of the gozzinta). This value can then be used as a value or
operand. If you do this you are advised to put brackets around the statement which is
being used as a value, this makes the whole thing much clearer for both you and the
compiler!
When you consider operators like ++ there is possible ambiguity, in that you do not
know if you get the value before or after the increment. C# provides a way of getting
either value, depending on which effect you want. You determine whether you want to
see the value before or after the sum by the position of the ++ :
i++ Means give me the value before the increment.

++i means give me the value after the increment.
As an example:
int i = 2, j ;
j = ++i ;
- would make j equal to 3. The other special operators, += etc all return the value after
the operator has been performed.

Writing a Program Neater Printing
Programmer’s Point:Always strive for simplicity

Don't get carried away with this. The fact that you can produce code like:
height = width = speed = count = size = 0 ;
- does not mean that you should. Nowadays when I am writing a program my first consideration is
whether or not the program is easy to understand. I don't think that the statement above is very
easy to follow – so irrespective of how much more efficient it is, I still don't do it.
Neater Printing
Note that the way that a If you have run any of the above programs you will by now have discovered that the
number is printed does not way in which numbers are printed leaves much to be desired. Integers seem to come
affect how it is stored in the out OK, but floating point numbers seem to have a mind of their own. To get around
program, it just tells the this C# provides a slightly different way in which numbers can be printed. This
printing method how it is provides more flexibility, and is also somewhat easier to use if you are printing a
supposed to be printed. large number of values.
Using Placeholders in Print Strings

A placeholder just marks the place where the value is to be printed. Consider:
int i = 150 ;
double f = 1234.56789 ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0} f: {1}", i, f ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {1} f: {0}", f, i ) ;
This would print out:

i: 150 f: 1234.56789
i: 150 f: 1234.56789
The {n} part of the string says "parameter number n, counting from 0". In the second
write statement I have swapped the order of the numbers, but since I've swapped the
order of the parameters too the output is the same.
Of course if I do something mad, for example {99}, the WriteLine method will
fail with an error.
Adjusting real number precision

Placeholders can have formatting information added to them:
int i = 150 ;
double f = 1234.56789 ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0:0} f: {1:0.00}", i, f ) ;

i: 150 f: 1234.57
The 0 characters stand for one or more digits. When placed after a decimal point they
can be used to control the number of decimal places which are used to express a value.
Note that doing this means that if the number is an integer it is printed out as 12.00.
Specifying the number of printed digits

I can specify a particular number of digits by putting in a given number of zeroes:

Writing a Program Neater Printing
int i = 150 ;
double f = 1234.56789 ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0:0000} f: {1:00000.00}", i, f );

i: 0150 f: 01234.57
Note that if I do this I get leading zeroes printed out, which is useful if you are printing
things like cheques.
Really Fancy Formatting

If you want really fancy levels of control you can use the # character. A # in the format
string means "put a digit here if you have one":
int i = 150 ;
double f = 1234.56789 ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0:#,##0} f: {1:##,##0.00}",i, f );
I have used the # character to get my thousands printed out with commas:
i: 150 f: 1,234.57
Note that the formatter only uses the # characters and commas that it needs. The value
150 does not have a thousands digit so it and the comma are left out. Note also though
that I have included a 0 as the smallest digit. This is so that when I print the value 0 I
actually get a value printed, otherwise when I print zero I get absolutely nothing on the
page.
Printing in columns
Finally I can add a width value to the print layout information. This is very useful if you
want to print material in columns:
int i = 150 ;
double f = 1234.56789 ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0,10:0} f: {1,15:0.00}", i, f ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0,10:0} f: {1,15:0.00}", 0, 0 ) ;
This would produce the output:

i: 150 f: 1234.57
i: 0 f: 0.00
The integer value is printed in a column 10 characters wide, and the double is printed in
a 15 character wide column. At the moment the output is right justified, if I want the
numbers left justified I make the width negative:
int i = 150 ;
double f = 1234.56789 ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0,-10:0} f: {1,-15:0.00}",i, f ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "i: {0,-10:0} f: {1,-15:0.00}",0, 0 ) ;
This would produce the output:

i: 150 f: 1234.57
i: 0 f: 0.00
Note that this justification would work even if you were printing a string rather than a
number, so if you want to print columns of words you can use this technique to do it.
There are other ways in which you can control the printing process, for example you
can select the number base for the value to be printed. I will leave you to find out these!
Note also that you can specify the print width of any item, even a piece of text, which
makes printing in columns very easy.

Methods Methods So Far
Methods
We have already come across the methods Main, WriteLine and ReadLine.
Main is the method we write which is where our program starts. WriteLine and
ReadLine were provided by the creators of C# to give us a way of displaying text and
reading information from the user.
This is what methods are all about. Your programs will contain methods that you create
to solve parts of the problem and they will also use methods that have been provided by
other people. In this section we are going to consider why methods are useful and how
you can create your own.
Methods So Far
In the glazing program above we spend a lot of time checking the values of inputs and
making sure that they are in certain ranges. We have exactly the same piece of code to
check widths and heights. If we added a third thing to read, for example frame
thickness, we would have to copy the code a third time. This is not very efficient; it
makes the program bigger and harder to write. What we would like to do is write the
checking code once and then use it at each point in the program. To do this you need to
define a method to do the work for you.
Method and Laziness

We have already established that a good programmer is creatively lazy. One of the
tenets of this is that a programmer will try to do a given job once and once only.
Up until now all our programs have been in a single method. The method is the block
of code which follows the main part in our program. However, C# lets us create other
methods which are used when our program runs. Methods give us two new weapons:
1. We can use methods to let us re-use a piece of code which we have written.
2. We can also use methods to break down a large task into a number of smaller
ones.
We will need both of these when we start to write larger programs. Again, as with lots
of features of the C# language, methods don't actually make things possible, but they do
help with the organisation of our programs.
Essentially you take a block of code and give it a name. Then you can refer to this
block of code to do something for you. As a silly example:
using System ;
class MethodDemo {
static void doit () {
Console.WriteLine ("Hello");
}
doit();
doit();
}
}
In the main method I make two calls of doit. Each time I call the method the code in
the block which is the body of the method is executed. In this case it contains a single
statement which prints "Hello" on the console. The result of running the above
program would be:

Hello
Hello
So, we can use methods to save us from writing the same code twice. We simply put the
code inside a method body and then call it when we need it.
Parameters
At this point methods are useful because they let us use the same block of statements at
many points in the program. However, they become more useful if we allow them to
have parameters.
A parameter is a means of passing a value into a method call. The method is given the
data to work on. As an example, consider the code below:
using System ;
class MethodDemo {
static void silly ( int i) {
Console.WriteLine ( "i is : " + i ) ;
}
silly ( 101 ) ;
silly ( 500 ) ;
}
}
The method silly has a single integer parameter. Within the block of code which is
the body of this method we can use the parameter i as if it was an integer variable.
When the method starts the value supplied for the parameter is copied into it. This
means that when the program runs we get output like this:
i is : 101
i is : 500
Return values
A method can also return a value:
using System ;
class ReturnDemo {
static int sillyReturnPlus ( int i) {

i = i + 1;
return i;
}

int res;
res = sillyReturnPlus (5);
Console.WriteLine ( "res is : " + res ) ;
}
}
The method sillyReturnPlus takes the value of the parameter and returns it plus
one.
A Useful Method
If we put these two abilities together we can start to write genuinely useful methods:

class MethodDemo {
static double readValue (

string prompt, // prompt for the user
double low, // lowest allowed value
double high // highest allowed value
) {
double result = 0;
do {
Console.WriteLine (prompt +
"between " + low +
" and " + high );
string resultString = Console.ReadLine ();
result = double.Parse(resultString);
} while ( (result < low) || (result > high) );
return result ;
}

double age = readValue (
"Enter the age : ", 0, 100.0 ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "Age is : " + age ) ;
}
}
The readValue method is told the prompt to use and the lowest and the highest
allowed values. It can then be used to read values and make sure that they are in range.
We can use this method to read the ages of people as in the example above. However,
we can also use exactly the same method to read in the width and height of our
windows:
double windowWidth = readValue (
"Enter width of window: ", MIN_WIDTH, MAX_WIDTH) ;
Programmer’s Point:Design with methods

Methods are a very useful part of the programmer's toolkit. They form an important part of the
development process. Once you have worked out what the customer wants and gathered your
metadata you can start thinking about how you are going to break the program down into methods.
Often you find that as you write the code you are repeating a particular action. If you do this you
should consider taking that action and moving it into a method. There are two reasons why this is a
good idea:
1. It saves you writing the same code twice.
2. If a fault is found in the code you only have to fix it in one place.
Moving code around and creating methods is called refactoring. This will be an important part of the
Software Engineering we do later.
Method Limitations
The method is very good for getting work done, but it is a bit limited because of the
way that it works. For example, if I want to write a method which reads in the name and
age of a person I have a problem. From what we have seen of methods, they can only
return one value. So I could write a method which returns the name of a person, or
write on which returns an age. But not both values at the same time. This limitation is
because, unless you specify otherwise, only the value of a parameter is passed into a
call to a method.

Parameter Passing By Value

So, what do I mean by "passing parameters by value". Consider:
static void addOneToParam ( int i) {
i = i + 1;
}
The method addOneToParam adds one to the parameter, prints the result out and
then returns:
int test = 20 ;
addOneToParam(test);
Console.WriteLine ( "test is : " + test ) ;
The piece of C# above calls the method with the variable test as the parameter. When
it runs it prints out the following:
i is : 21
test is : 20
It is very important that you understand what is happening here. The value of test is
being used in the call of addOneToParam. The program works out the result of the
expression to be passed into the method call as a parameter. It then passes this value
into the call. This means that you can write calls like:
test = 20 ;
addOneToParam(test + 99);

i is : 120
Pass by value is very safe, because nothing the method does will affect variables in the
code which calls it. However, it is a limitation when we want to create a method which
returns more than one value.
Parameter Passing By Reference

It is very important that you Fortunately C# provides a way that, rather than sending the value of a variable into a
understand how references method, instead a reference to that variable is supplied instead. Inside the method,
work. If you don't understand rather than using the value of the variable the reference is used to get the actual
these you can't call yourself a variable itself. Effectively the thing that is passed into the method is the position or
proper programmer! address of the variable in memory, rather than the content of the variable.
So, rather than passing in "20" in our above call the compiler will generate code which
passes in "memory location 5023" instead (assuming that the variable test is actually
stored at 5023). This memory location is used by the method, instead of the value. In
other words:
"If you pass by reference, changes to the parameter change the variable whose
reference you passed"
Consider the code:
static void addOneToRefParam ( ref int i)
{
i = i + 1;
}
Note that the keyword ref has been added to the information about the parameter.

test = 20 ;
addOneToRefParam(ref test);
Console.WriteLine ( "test is : " + test ) ;
The code above makes a call to the new method, and also has the word ref in front of
the parameter. In this case the output is as follows:
i is : 21
test is : 21
In this case the method call has made changes to the content of the variable. Note that
C# is careful about when a parameter is a reference. You have to put the word ref in
the method heading and also in the call of the method.
Programmer’s Point:Document your side-effects

A change by a method to something around it is called a side effect of the method. Generally
speaking you have to be careful with these, as someone reading your program has to know that your
method has made changes in this way.
Passing Parameters as "out" references

When you pass a parameter as a reference you are giving the method complete control
of it. Sometimes you don't want this. Instead you want to just allow the method to
change the variable. This is the case when we want to read in the name and age of a
user. The original value of the parameters is of no interest to the method. Instead it just
wants to deliver results to them. In this case I can replace the ref with the keyword
out:
static void readPerson ( out string name, out int age )
{
name = readString ( "Enter your name : " ) ;
age = readInt ( "Enter your age : ", 0, 100 ) ;
}
The method readPerson reads the name and the age of a person. Note that it uses
two more methods that I have created, readString and readInt.
I can call readPerson as follows:
string name ;
int age ;
readPerson ( out name, out age ) ;
Note that I must use the out keyword in the call of the method as well.
The readPerson method will read the person and deliver the information into the
two variables.
Programmer’s Point:Languages can help programmers

The out keyword is a nice example of how the design of a programming language can make programs
safer and easier to write. It makes sure that a programmer can't use the value of the parameter in
the method. It also allows the compiler to make sure that somewhere in the method the output
parameters are assigned values. This is very useful. It means that if I mark the parameters as out I
must have given them a value for the program to compile. This makes it harder for me to get the
program wrong, as I am protected against forgetting to do that part of the job.

Methods Variables and Scope
Method Libraries
The first thing that a good programmer will do when they start writing code is to create
a set of libraries which can be used to make their job easier. In the code above I have
written a couple of library methods which I can use to read values of different types:
static string readString ( string prompt )
{
string result ;
do
{
Console.Write ( prompt ) ;
result = Console.ReadLine ();
} while ( result == "" ) ;
return result ;
}
static int readInt ( string prompt, int low, int high )

{
int result ;
do
{ string intString = readString (prompt) ;
result = int.Parse(intString);
} while ( ( result < low ) || ( result > high ) );
return result;
}
The readString method will read text and make sure that the user does not enter
empty text. The readInt method reads a number within a particular range. Note how
I have rather cleverly used my readString method in my readInt one, so that the
user can't enter an empty string when a number is required.
Programmer’s Point:Always consider the failure behaviours

Whenever you write a method you should give some thought to the ways that it could fail. If the
method involves talking to the user it is possible that the user may wish to abandon the method, or
that the user does something that may cause it to fail. You need to consider whether or not the
method should deal with the problem itself or pass the error onto the system which tried to use it.
If the method deals with the error itself this may lead to problems because the user may have no
way of canceling a command. If the method passes the error on to the code which called it you have
to have a method by which an error condition can be delivered to the caller. I often solve this
problem by having my methods return a code value. If the return value is 0 this means that the
method returned correctly. If the return value is non-zero this means that the method did not work
and the value being returned is an error which identifies what went wrong. This adds another
dimension to program design, in that you also have to consider how the code that you write can fail,
as well as making sure that it does the required job! We are going to discuss error management
later
Variables and Scope

We have seen that when we want to store a quantity in our program we can create a
variable to hold this information. The C# compiler makes sure that the correctly sized
chunk of memory is used to hold the value and it also makes sure that we only ever use
that value correctly. The C# compiler also looks after the part of a program within
which a variable has an existence. This is called the scope of a variable.

Methods Variables and Scope
Scope and blocks

We have already seen that a block is a number of statements which are enclosed in
curly brackets. Any block can contain any number of local variables, i.e. variables
which are local to that block.
The scope of a local variable is the block within which the variable is declared. As far
as the C# language is concerned you can declare a variable at any point in the block,
but you must declare it before you use it. When the execution of the program moves
outside a block any local variables which are declared in the block are automatically
discarded. The methods that we have created have often contained local variables; the
variable result in the readInt method is local to the method block.
Nested Blocks
We have seen that in C# the programmer can create blocks inside blocks. Each of these
nested blocks can have its own set of local variables:
{
int i ;
{
int j ;
}
}
The variable j has the scope of the inner block. This means that only statements in the
inner block which are after the declaration can use this variable. In other words the
code:
{
int i ;
{
int j ;
}
j = 99 ;
}
- would cause an error, as the variable j does not exist at this point in the program.
In order to keep you from confusing yourself by creating two versions of a variable
with the same name C# has an additional rule about the variables in the inner blocks:
{
int i ;
{
int i ;
}
}
This is not a valid program because C# does not let a variable in an inner block have
the same name as one in an outer block. This is because inside the inner block there is
the possibility that you may use the "inner" version of i when you intend to use the
outer one. In order to remove this possibility the compiler refuses to allow this. Note
that this is in contrast to the situation in other languages, for example C++, where this
behaviour is allowed.
If is however perfectly acceptable to reuse a variable name in successive blocks
because in this situation there is no way that one variable can be confused with another.

Arrays Why We Need Arrays
{
int i ;
}
{
int i ;
{
int j ;
}
}
The first incarnation of i has been destroyed before the second, so this code is OK.
For loop local variables

A special kind of variable can be used when you create a for loop construction. This
allows you to declare a control variable which exists for the duration of the loop itself:
for ( int i = 0 ; i < 10 ; i = i + 1 ) {
Console.WriteLine ( "Hello") ;
}
The variable i is declared and initialized at the start of the for loop and only exists for
the duration of the block itself.
Programmer’s Point:Plan your variable use

You should plan your use of variables in your programs. You should decide which variables are only
required for use in local blocks and which should be shared over the entire class.
Arrays
We now know how to create programs that can read values in, calculate results and
print them. Our programs can also make decisions based on the values supplied by the
user and also repeat actions a given number of times.
It turns out that you now know about nearly all the language features that are required
to implement every program that has ever been written. Only one thing is missing, and
that is the ability to create programs which store large amounts of data. Arrays are one
way to do this, and we are going to find out about them next.
Why We Need Arrays

Your fame as a programmer is now beginning to spread far and wide. The next person
to come and see you is the chap in charge of the local cricket team. He would like to
you write a program for him which allows the analysis of cricket results. What he wants
is quite simple; given a list of cricket scores he wants a list of them in ascending order.
"This is easy" you think. Having agreed the specification and the price you sit down
that night and start writing the program. The first thing to do is define how the data is to
be stored:
int score1, score2, score3, score4, score5, score6, score7
score8, score9, score10, score11 ;
Now you can start putting the data into each variable:

Console.WriteLine("Enter the scores ");

string score1String = Console.ReadLine();
int score1 = int.Parse(score1String);
All we have to do next is sort them..... Hmmmm..... This is awful! There seems to be no
way of doing it. Just deciding whether score1 is the largest value would take an if
construction with 10 comparisons! Clearly there has to be a better way of doing this,
after all, we know that computers are very good at sorting this kind of thing.
C# provides us with a thing called an array. An array allows us to declare a whole row
of a particular kind of box. We can then use things called subscripts to indicate which
box in the row that we want to use. Consider the following:
using System;
class ArrayDemo {
public static void Main ()
{
int [] scores = new int [11] ;
for ( int i=0; i<11; i=i+1) {
string scoreString = Console.ReadLine();
scores [i] = int.Parse(scoreString);
}
}
}
The int [] scores part tells the compiler that we want to create an array variable.
You can think of this as a tag which can be made to refer to a given array.
The bit which makes the array itself is the new int [11]. When C# sees this it says
"aha! What we need here is an array". It then gets some pieces of wood and makes a
long thin box with 11 compartments in it, each large enough to hold a single integer. It
then paints the whole box red - because boxes which can hold integers are red. It then
gets a piece of rope and ties the tag scores to this box. If you follow the rope from the
scores tag you reach the array box. Actually, it probably doesn't use wood or rope, but
you should get a picture of what is going on here.
Array Elements
Each compartment in the box is called an element. In the program you identify which
element you mean by putting its number in square brackets [ ] after the array name.
This part is called the subscript. Note that the thing which makes arrays so wonderful is
the fact that you can specify an element by using a variable, as well as a constant. In
fact you can use any expression which returns an integer result as a subscript, i.e.

scores [i+1]
- is quite OK. (as long as you don't fall off the end of the array)
Array Element Numbering

C# numbers the boxes starting at 0. This means that you specify the first element of the
array by giving the subscript 0. There is consequently no element scores [11]. If
you look at the part of the program which reads the values into the array you will see
that we only count from 0 to 10. This is very important. An attempt to go outside the
array bounds of scores cause your program to fail as it runs.
Large Arrays
The real power of arrays comes from our being able to use a variable to specify the
required element. By running the variable through a range of values we can then scan
through an array with a very small program; indeed to change the program to read in
1000 scores we only have to make a couple of changes:
using System;
class ArrayDemo {
{
int [] scores = new int [1000] ;
for ( int i=0; i<1000; i=i+1) {
}
}
}
The variable i now ranges from 0 to 999, vastly increasing the amount of data we are
storing.
Managing Array Sizes

A good trick when working with arrays is to make use of constant variables to hold the
size of the array. This has two significant benefits:
 It makes the program easier to understand
 It makes the program easier to change
A constant variable is given a value when it is declared. This value can then only be
read by the program, never updated. So, if I wanted to write a scores program that
could be easily changed for any size of team I could write:
using System;
class ArrayDemo {
{
const int SCORE_SIZE = 1000;
int [] scores = new int [SCORE_SIZE] ;
for ( int i=0; i < SCORE_SIZE; i=i+1) {
}
}
}
The variable SCORE_SIZE is an integer which has been marked with const. This
means that it cannot be changed by statements within the program. It will never have a
value other than 1000. There is a convention that constants of this kind are given in
LARGE LETTERS with an underscore between words.

Everywhere I previously used a fixed value to represent the size of the array I now use
my constant instead. This means that if the size of the team changes I just have to
change the value assigned when the constant is declared and then re-compile the
program. The other benefit of this is that the for loop now looks a lot more
meaningful. Since the value of i is now going from 0 to SCORE_SIZE it is more
obvious to the reader that it is working through the score array.
Creating a Two Dimensional Array

However, sometimes we want to hold more than just a row. Sometimes we want a grid.
We can do this by creating a two dimensional array. You can think of this as an "array
of arrays" if you like (but only if this doesn't make your head hurt). For example, to
hold the board for a game of noughts and crosses we could use:
int [,] board = new int [3,3];
board [1,1] = 1;
This looks very like our one dimensional array, but there are some important
differences. The [,] now has a comma. The presence of a comma implies something
each side of it. This means that the array now has two dimensions, rather than just one.
So when we give the size of the board we must supply two dimensions rather than just
one. Then, when we want to specify an element we have to give two subscript values. In
the code above I've set the value in the middle square (the best one) to 1.
In the example above the array is square (i.e. the same dimension across as up). We can
change this if we like:
int [,] board = new int [3,10];
- but this would make it rather hard to play a sensible game on...
You can think of a two dimensional array as a grid if you like. The subscripts become x
and y values which indicate a particular value in the grid.
More than Two Dimensions

Once in a blue moon you may need to use more than two dimensions. If you go to three
dimensions you can think in terms of a pile of grids if you like, with the third dimension
(which you could call z) giving you the particular grid. If we wanted to play three
dimensional noughts and crosses in a board which is a cube we can declare the array to
do it as follows:
int [,,] board = new int [3,3,3];
board [1,1,1] = 1;
This code creates a three dimensional board and then gets the highly valuable location
right in the middle of the game cube.
You can go to more than three dimensions if you like, in that C# does not have a
problem with this. However, you might have big problems because this is very hard to
understand and visualise.
Programmer’s Point:Keep your dimensions low

In all my years of programming I've never had to use anything more than three dimensions. If you
find yourself having lots of dimensions I would suggest that you are trying to do things the wrong
way and should step back from the problem. It may be that you can get a much more efficient
solution by creating a struct and then making an array of the structure items. We will talk about
structures later.

Switching Making Multiple Decisions
Switching
We now know nearly everything you need to know about constructing a program in the
C# language. You may find it rather surprising, but there is really very little left to
know about programming itself. Most of the rest of C is concerned with making the
business of programming simpler. A good example of this is the switch construction.
Making Multiple Decisions

Suppose you are refining your double glazing program to allow your customer to select
from a pre-defined range of windows. You ask something like
Enter the type of window:
1 = casement
2 = standard
3 = patio door
Your program can then calculate the cost of the appropriate window by selecting type
and giving the size. Each method asks the relevant questions and works out the price of
that kind of item.
When you come to write the program you will probably end up with
something like:
static void handleCasement ()
{
Console.WriteLine("Handle Casement");
}
static void handleStandard ()

{
Console.WriteLine("Handle Standard");
}
static void handlePatio ()
{
Console.WriteLine("Handle patio");
}
These methods are the ones which will eventually deal with each type of window. At
the moment they just print out that they have been called. Later you will go on and fill
the code in (this is actually quite a good way to construct your programs).
Selecting using the if construction

When you come to perform the actual selection you end up with code which looks a bit
like this:
int selection ;
selection = readInt ( "Window Type : ", 1, 3 ) ;
if ( selection == 1 )
{
handleCasement();
}
else
{
{
handleStandard();
}

Switching Making Multiple Decisions
else
{
{
handlePatio() ;
}
else
{
Console.WriteLine ( "Invalid number" );
}
}
}
This would work OK, but is rather clumsy. You have to write a large number of if
constructions to activate each option.
The switch construction

Because you have to do this a lot C# contains a special construction to allow you to
select one option from a number of them based on a particular value. This is called the
switch construction. If you write the above using it your program would look like this.
switch (selection)
{
case 1 : handleCasement ();
break ;
case 2 : handleStandard () ;
break ;
case 3 : handlePatio () ;
break ;
default :
Console.WriteLine ( "Invalid number" ) ;
break ;
}
The switch construction takes a value which it uses to decide which option to
perform. It executes the case which matches the value of the switch variable. Of
course this means that the type of the cases that you use must match the switch selection
value although, in true C# tradition, the compiler will give you an error if you make a
mistake. The break statement after the call of the relevant method is to stop the
program running on and performing the code which follows. In the same way as you
break out of a loop, when the break is reached the switch is finished and the
program continues running at the statement after the switch.
Another other useful feature is the default option. This gives the switch somewhere
to go if the switch value doesn't match any of the cases available; in our case (sorry!)
we put out an appropriate message.
You can use the switch construction with types other than numbers if you wish:
switch (command)
{
case "casement" : handleCasement ();
break ;
case "standard" : handleStandard () ;
break ;
case "patio" : handlePatio () ;
break ;
default :
Console.WriteLine ( "Invalid command" ) ;
break ;
}
This switch uses a string to control the selection of the cases. However, your users
would not thank you for doing this, since it means that they have to type in the complete

Our Case Study: Friendly Bank Bank System Scope
name of the option, and of course if they type a character wrong the command is not
recognised.
Programmer’s Point:switches are a good idea

Switches make a program easier to understand as well as quicker to write. It is also easier to add
extra commands if you use a switch since it are just a matter of putting in another case. However,
I'd advise against putting large amounts of program code into a switch case. Instead you should put
a call to a method as I have above.
Our Case Study: Friendly Bank

The bulk of the text is based on a case study which will allow you to see the features of
C# in a strong context. You are taking the role of a programmer who will be using the
language to create a solution for a customer.
The program we are making is for a bank, the "United Friendly and Really Nice Bank
of Lovely People ™", otherwise known as the Friendly Bank. We will be creating the
entire bank application using C# and will be exploring the features of C# that make this
easy.
Bank System Scope

The scope of a system is a description of the things that the system is going to do. This
is also, by implication, a statement of what the system will not do. This equally as
important, as a customer will not usually have clear idea of what you are doing and may
well expect you to deliver things that you have no intention of providing. By setting out
the scope at the beginning you can make sure that there are no unpleasant surprises later
on.
At the moment we are simply concerned with managing the account information in the
bank. The bank manager has told us that customers of the bank each have an account
which holds their name, address, account number, balance and overdraft value. There
are many thousands of customers and the manager has also told us that there are also a
number of different types of accounts (and that new types of account are invented from
time to time). The system must also generate warning letters and statements as required.
The scope does not include to telephone or web based banking, yet.
Bank Notes
At the end of some sections there will be a description of how this new piece of C# will
affect how we create our bank system. These notes should put the feature into a useful
context.
Enumerated Types
These sound really posh. If anyone asks you what you learnt today you can say "I learnt
how to use enumerated types" and they will be really impressed. Of course if they know

Enumerated Types Enumeration and states
about programming they'll just say "Oh, you mean you’ve numbered some states" and
not be that taken with it.
Enumeration and states

Enumerated sounds posh. But if you think of "enumerated" as just meaning "numbered"
things get a bit easier. To understand what we are doing here we need to consider the
problem which these types are intended to solve.
We know that if we want to hold an integer value we can use an int type. If we want
to hold something which is either true or false we can use a bool. However, sometimes
we want to hold a range of particular values or states.
Sample states
Enumerated types are very useful when storing state information. States are not quite
the same as other items such as the name of a customer or the balance of their account.
For example, if I am writing a program to play the game Battleships (where squares of
the "sea" hold different types of craft which can be attacked) I may decide that a given
square of the sea can have the following thing in it:
 Empty sea
 Attacked
 Battleship
 Cruiser
 Submarine
 Rowing boat
If you think about it, I am sort of assembling more metadata here, in that I have decided
that I need to keep track of the sea and then I have worked out exactly what I can put in
it. I could do something with numbers if I like:
 Empty sea = 1
 Attacked = 2
 Battleship = 3
 Cruiser = 4
 Submarine = 5
 Rowing boat = 6
However, this would mean that I have to keep track of the values myself and remember
that if we get the value 7 in a sea location this is clearly wrong.
C# has a way in which we can create a type which has just a particular set of possible
values. These types are called "enumerated types":
enum SeaState {
EmptySea,
Attacked,
Battleship,
Cruiser,
Submarine,
RowingBoat
} ;
I have created a type called SeaState which can be used to hold the state of a
particular part of the sea. It can only have the given values above, and must be managed
solely in terms of these named enumerations. For example I must write:

Enumerated Types Creating an enum type
SeaState openSea ;
openSea = SeaState.EmptySea;
My variable openSea is only able to hold values which represent the state of the sea
contents. Of course C# itself will actually represent these states as particular numeric
values, but how these are managed is not a problem for me.
Creating an enum type

The enum type must be created outside any program block and is held within the
enclosing class:
using System;
class EnumDemonstration {
enum TrafficLight {
Red,
RedAmber,
Green,
Amber
} ;

TrafficLight light ;
light = TrafficLight.Red;
}
}
Every time that you have to hold something which can take a limited number of
possible values, or states (for example OnSale, UnderOffer, Sold,
OffTheMarket etc) then you should think in terms of using enumerated types to hold
the values.
Programmer’s Point:Use enumerated types

Enumerated types are another occasion where everyone benefits if you use them. The program
becomes simpler to write, easier to understand and safer. You should therefore use them
For the bank you want to hold the state of an item as well as other information about the
customer. For example, we could have the states "Frozen", "New", "Active", "Closed"
and "Under Audit" as states for our bank account. If this is the case it is sensible to
create an enumerated type which can hold these values and no others
enum accountState {
New,
Active,
UnderAudit,
Frozen,
Closed
} ;
We now have a variable which can hold state information about an account in our bank.

Structures What is a Structure?
Structures
Structures let us organise a set of individual values into a cohesive lump which we can
map onto one of the items in the problem that we are working on. This is important in
many applications.
What is a Structure?
Often when you are dealing with information you will want to hold a collection of
different things about a particular item. The Friendly Bank has commissioned an
account storage system and you can use structures to make this easier. Like any good
programmer who has been on my course you would start by doing the following:
1. Establish precisely the specification, i.e. get in written form exactly what
they expect your system to do.
2. Negotiate an extortionate fee.
3. Consider how you will go about storing the data.
A sample structure
From your specification you know that the program must hold the following:
 customer name - string
 customer address - string
 account number - integer value
 account balance - integer value
 overdraft limit - integer value
The Friendly Bank have told you that they will only be putting up to 50 people into
your bank storage so, after a while you come up with the following:
const int MAX_CUST = 50;
string [] names = new string [MAX_CUST] ;

string [] addresses = new string [MAX_CUST] ;
int [] accountNos = new int [MAX_CUST] ;
int [] balances = new int [MAX_CUST] ;
int [] overdraft = new int [MAX_CUST] ;
What we have is an array for each single piece of data we want to store about a
particular customer. If we were talking about a database (which is actually what we are
writing), the lump of data for each customer would be called a record and an individual
part of that lump, for example the overdraft value, would be called a field. In our
program we are working on the basis that balance[0] holds the balance of the first
customer in our database, overdraft [0] holds the overdraft of the first customer,
and so on. (Remember that array subscript values start at 0).
This is all very well, and you could get a database system working with this data
structure. However it would me much nicer to be able to lump your record together in a
more definite way.

Structures Creating a Structure
Creating a Structure
C# lets you create data structures. A structure is a collection of C# variables which you
want to treat as a single entity. In C# a lump of data would be called a structure and
each part of it would be called a field. To help us with our bank database we could
create a structure which could hold all the information about a customer:
struct Account
{
public string Name ;
public string Address ;
public int AccountNumber ;
public int Balance ;
public int Overdraft ;
} ;
This defines a structure, called Account, which contains all the required customer
information. Having done this we can now define some variables:
Account RobsAccount ;
Account [] Bank = new Account [MAX_CUST];
The first declaration sets up a variable called RobsAccount, which can hold the
information for a single customer. The second declaration sets up an entire array of
customers, called Bank which can hold all the customers.
We refer to individual members of a structure by putting their name after the struct
variable we are using with a . (full stop) separating them, for example:
RobsAccount.AccountNumber
- would refer to the integer field AccountNumber in the structured variable

RobsAccount. (i.e. the AccountNumber value in RobsAccount)
You can do this with elements of an array of structures too, so that:
Bank [25].Name
- would be the string containing the name of the customer in the element with subscript
25.
Using a Structure
A program which creates and sets up a structure looks like this:

Structures Using a Structure
using System;
class BankProgram {
// structure
struct Account
{
} ;
// program
RobsAccount.Name = "Rob Miles";
RobsAccount.Address = "His house";
RobsAccount.AccountNumber = 1234;
RobsAccount.Balance = 0;
RobsAccount.Overdraft = -1000;
Console.WriteLine ( "Name is : " + RobsAccount.Name ) ;
Console.WriteLine ( "Balance is : " + RobsAccount.Balance ) ;
}
}
Note how the structure is declared outside the Main method. This is so that it can be
used by any methods in the class. Note also that once I have created my structure I can
use it in the same way that I would use something like int or float.
This program doesn’t create an array of structures, but it does show you how to access
the various fields in a single structure variable.
Initial values in structures

When a structure is created as a local variable (i.e. in a block) the values in it are
undefined. This means that if you try to use them in your program you will get a
compilation error. This is exactly the same as if you use a variable in a program before
giving it a value. In other words:
Console.WriteLine ( "Name is : " + RobsAccount.Name ) ;
- would produce a compilation error. It is your job as programmer to make sure that
you always put a value into a variable before you try to get something out of it.
Programmer’s Point:Structures are crucial

In a commercial system it is common to spend a very long time designing the structures which make
up the data storage. They are the fundamental building blocks of the program since they hold all
the data upon which everything else is built. You can regard the design of the structures and the
constraints on their content as another big chunk of metadata about a system that you create.
Enumerated Types in Structures

Since any given account instance will have a particular state it makes sense to add a
state value to each one:

Objects, Structures and References Using a Structure
enum accountState {
New,
Active
UnderAudit,
Frozen,
Closed
} ;
struct Account
{
public accountState state ;
} ;
Objects, Structures and

References
You have seen that if you want to store a block of information about a particular item
you can bring all this together in a structure. Structures are useful, but we would like to
be able to solve other problems when we write large programs:
 We want to make sure that a given item in our program cannot be placed into
an invalid state, i.e. we don’t want to have bank accounts with empty or
incorrect account numbers.
 We want to be able to break a large system down into distinct and separate
components which can be developed independently and interchanged with
others which do the same task, i.e. we want to get one team of programmers
working on accounts, another on cheques, another on credit cards etc.
 We want to make sure that the effort involved with making new types of bank
account is as small as possible, i.e. if the bank decides to introduce a new high
interest deposit account we want to be able to make use of existing deposit
account
To do all these things we are going to have to start to consider programs from the point
of view of object based design. This section should come with some kind of a health
warning along the lines of "some of these ideas might hurt your head a bit at the start".
But the following points are also very important:
 objects don’t add any new behaviours to our programs – we know just about
everything we need to know to write programs when we have learnt about
statements, loops, conditions and arrays.
 objects are best regarded as a solution to the problem of design. They let us
talk about systems in general terms. We can go back and refine how the
objects actually do their tasks later.
You can write just about every program that has ever been written just by using the
technologies that we have so far looked at. But objects allow us to work in a much nicer
way. And so we are going to have to get the hang of them, like it or not…

Objects, Structures and References Objects and Structures
Objects and Structures

In C# objects and structures have a lot in common. They can both hold data and contain
methods. However, there is a crucial difference between the two. Structures are
managed in terms of value whereas objects are managed in terms of reference.
It is very important that you understand the distinction between the two, for it has a big
impact on the way that they are used.
Creating and Using a Structure

Consider the code:
class StructsAndObjects {
struct AccountStruct
{
} ;

AccountStruct RobsAccountStruct ;
RobsAccountStruct.Name = "Rob";
Console.WriteLine ( RobsAccountStruct.Name ); }
}
This implements a very simple bank account, where we are only holding the name of
the account holder. The Main method creates a structure variable called
RobsAccountStruct.
RobsAccountStruct
Name: Rob
It then sets the name property of the variable to the string "Rob". If we run this program
it does exactly what you would expect, in that it prints out the name "Rob". If the
structure contained other items about the bank account these would be stored in the
structure as well, and I could use them in just the same way.
Creating and Using an Instance of a Class

We can make a tiny change to the program and convert the bank account to a class:
class Account
{
} ;

RobsAccount.Name = "Rob";
Console.WriteLine (RobsAccount.Name ); }
}
The account information is now being held in a class, rather than a structure. The
account class is called, quite simply, Acount. The problem is that when we compile
the program we get this:

Objects, Structures and References Objects and Structures
ObjectDemo.cs(12,3): error CS0165: Use of unassigned local

variable ' RobsAccount'
So, what is going on?

To understand what is happening you need to know what is performed by the line:
Account RobsAccount;
This looks like a declaration of a variable called RobsAccount. But in the case of
objects, this is not what it seems.
RobsAccount
What you actually get when the program obeys that line is the creation of a reference
called RobsAccount. Such references are allowed to refer to instances of the
Account. You can think of them as a bit like a luggage tag, in that they can be tied to
something with a piece of rope. If you have the tag you can then follow the rope to the
object it is tied to.
But when we create a reference we don't actually get one of the things that it refers to.
The compiler knows this, and so it gives me an error because the line:
- is an attempt to find the thing that is tied to this tag and set the name property to
"Rob". Since the tag is presently not tied to anything our program would fail at this
point. The compiler therefore says, in effect, "you are trying to follow a reference
which does not refer to anything, therefore I am going to give you a 'variable undefined'
error".
We solve the problem by creating an instance of the class and then connecting our tag
to it. This is achieved by adding a line to our program:
class Account
{
} ;

RobsAccount = new Account();
Console.WriteLine (RobsAccount.Name ); }
}
The line I have added creates a new AccountClass object and sets RobsAccount
to refer to it.
Account
RobsAccount
Name:
We have seen this keyword new before. We use it to create arrays. This is because an
array is actually implemented as an object, and so we use new to create it. The thing
that new creates is an object. An object is an instance of a class. I'll repeat that in a posh
font:

Objects, Structures and References References
“An object is an instance of a class”

I have repeated this because it is very important that you understand this. A class
provides the instructions to C# as to what is to be made, and what it can do. The new
keyword causes C# to use the class information to actually make an instance. Note that
in the above diagram I have called the object an Account, not RobsAccount. This
is because the object instance does not have the identifier RobsAccount, it is simply
the one which RobsAccount is connnected to at the moment.
References
We now have to get used to the idea that if we want to use objects, we have to use
references. The two come hand in hand and are inseparable. Structures are kind of
useful, but for real object oriented satisfaction you have to have an object, and that
means that we must manage our access to a particular object by making use of
references to it. Actually this is not that painful in reality, in that you can treat a
reference as if it really was the object just about all of the time, but you must remember
that when you hold a reference you do not hold an instance, you hold a tag which is tied
onto an instance…
Multiple References to an Instance

Perhaps another example of references would help at this point. Consider the following
code:
Console.WriteLine (RobsAccount.Name );
Account Temp ;
Temp = RobsAccount;
Temp.Name = "Jim";
The question is; what would the second call of WriteLine print out? If we draw a
diagram the answer becomes clearer:
Account
RobsAccount
Name: Jim
Temp
Both of the tags refer to the same instance of Account. This means that any changes
which are made to the object that Temp refers to will also be reflected in the one that
RobsAccount refers to, because they are the same object. This means that the
program would print out Jim, since that is the name in the object that RobsAccount
is referring to.

Objects, Structures and References References
This indicates a trickiness with objects and references. There is no limit to the number
of references that can be attached to a single instance, so you need to remember that
changing the object that a reference refers to may well change that instance from the
point of view of other objects.
No References to an Instance
Just to complete the confusion we need to consider what happens if an object has no
references to it:
RobsAccount.Name = "Jim";
This code makes an account instance, sets the name property of it to Rob and then
makes another account instance. The reference RobsAccount is made to refer to the
new item, which has the name set to Jim. The question is: What happens to the first
instance? Again, this can be made clearer with a diagram:
Account
RobsAccount
Name: Rob
Account
Name: Jim
The first instance is shown “hanging” in space, with nothing referring to it. As far as
making use of data in the instance is concerned, it might as well not be there. Indeed the
C# language implementation has a special process, called the “Garbage Collector”
which is given the job of finding such useless items and disposing of them. Note that
the compiler will not stop us from “letting go” of items like this.
You should also remember that you can get a similar effect when a reference to an
instance goes out of scope:
{
Account localVar ;
localVar = new Account();
}
The variable localVar is local to the block. This means that when the program
execution leaves the block the local variable is discarded. This means that the only
reference to the account is also removed, meaning another job for the garbage
collector..

Objects, Structures and References Why Bother with References?
Programmer’s Point:Try to avoid the Garbage Collector

While it is sometimes reasonable to release items you have no further use for, you must remember
that creating and disposing of objects will take up computing power. When I work with objects I
worry about how much creating and destroying I am doing. Just because the objects are disposed of
automatically doesn’t mean that you should abuse the facility.
Why Bother with References?

References don’t sound much fun at the moment. They seem to make it harder to create
and use objects and may be the source of much confusion. So why do we bother with
them?
To answer this we can consider the Pacific Island of Yap. The currency in use on this
island is based around 12 feet tall stones which weigh several hundred pounds each.
The value of a “coin” in the Yap currency is directly related to the number of men who
died in the boat bringing the rock to the island. When you pay someone with one of
these coins you don’t actually pick it up and give it to them. Instead you just say “The
coin in the road on top of the hill is now yours”. In other words they use references to
manage objects that they don’t want to have to move around.
That is why we use references in our programs. Consider a bank which contains many
accounts. If we wanted to sort them into alphabetical order of customer name we have
to move them all around.
Sorting by moving objects around

If we held the accounts as an array of structure items we would have to do a lot of work
just to keep the list in order. The bank may well want to order the information in more
than one way too, for example they might want to order it on both customer surname
and also on account number. Without references this would be impossible. With
references we just need to keep a number of arrays of references, each of which is
ordered in a particular way:
Sorting by using references.

Objects, Structures and References Why Bother with References?
If we just sort the references we don’t have to move the large data items at all. New
objects can be added without having to move any objects, instead the references can be
moved around.
References and Data Structures

Our list of sorted references is all very good, but if we want to add something to our
sorted list we still have to move the references around. We can get over this, and also
speed up searching, by structuring our data into a tree form.
Sorting by use of a tree.

In the tree above each node has two references; one can refer to a node which is
“lighter”, the other to a node which is “darker”. If I want a sorted list of the items I just
have to go as far down the “lighter” side as I can and I will end up at the lightest. Then
I go up to the one above that (which must be the next lightest). Then I go down the dark
side (Luke) and repeat the process. The neat thing about this approach is also that
adding new items is very easy; I just find the place on the tree that they need to be hung
on and attach the reference there.
Searching is also very quick, in that I can look at each node and decide which way to
look next until I either find what I am looking for or I find there is no reference in the
required direction, in which case the item is not in the structure.
Programmer’s Point:Data Structures are Important

This is not a data structures document, it is a programming document. If you don’t get all the stuff
about trees just yet, don’t worry. Just remember that references are an important mechanism for
building up structures of data and leave it at that. But some time in the future you are going to have
to get your head around how to build structures using these things.
Reference Importance
The key to this way of working is that an object can contain references to other objects,
as well as the data payload. We will consider this aspect of object use later; for now we
just need to remember that the reference and the object are distinct and separate.
Bank Notes: References and Accounts

For a bank with many thousands of customers the use of references is crucial to the
management of the data that they hold. The accounts will be held in the memory of the
computer and, because of the size of each account and the number of accounts being
stored, it will not be possible to move them around memory if we want to sort them.

Designing With Objects Why Bother with References?
This means that the only way to manipulate them is to leave them in the same place and
have lists of references to them. The references are very small "tags" which can be used
to locate the actual item in memory. Sorting a list of references is very easy, and it
would also be possible to have several such lists. This means that we can offer the
manager a view of his bank sorted by customer name and another view sorted in order
of balance. And if the manager comes along with a need for a new structure or view we
can create that in terms of references as well.
Designing With Objects

We are now going to start thinking in terms of objects. The reason that we do this is
that we would like a way of making the design of our systems as easy as possible. This
all comes back to the “creative laziness” that programmers are so famous for. The thing
that we are trying to do here is best expressed as:
“Put off all the hard work for as long as we can, and if possible get someone else to do
it.”
Objects let us do this. If we return to our bank account we can see that there are a
number of things that we need to be able to do with our bank account:
 pay money into the account
 draw money out of the account
 find the balance
 print out a statement
 change the address of the account holder
 print out the address of the account holder
 change the state of the account
 find the state of the account
 change the overdraft limit
 find the overdraft limit
Rather than saying “We need to do these operations on a bank account”, object based
design turns this on its head, a bit like President Kennedy did all those years ago:
“And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what
you can do for your country” (huge cheers)
We don’t do things to the bank account. Instead we ask it to do these things for us. The
design of our banking application can be thought of in terms of identifying the objects
that we are going to use to represent the information and then specifying what things
they should be able to do. The really clever bit is that once we have decided what the
bank account should do, we then might be able to get somebody else to make it do
these things.
If our specification is correct and they implement it properly, we don’t have to worry
precisely how they made it work – we just have to sit back and take the credit for a job
well done.
This brings us back to a couple of recurring themes in this document; metadata and
testing. What a bank account object should be able to do is part of the metadata for this
object. And once we have decided on the actions that the account must perform, the
next thing we need to do is devise a way in which each of the actions can be tested.
In this section we are going to implement an object which has some of the behaviours
of a proper bank account.

Designing With Objects Data in Objects
Programmer’s Point:Not Everything Should Be Possible

Note that there are also some things that we should not be able to do with our bank account
objects. The account number of an account is something which is unique to that account and should
never change. We can get this behaviour by simply not providing a means by which it can be changed.
It is important at design time that we identify what should not be possible, along with what should
be done. We might even identify some things as being audited, in that an object will keep track of
what has been done to it. That way we can easily find out if bad things are being done.
Data in Objects
So, we can consider our bank account in terms of what we want it to do for us. The first
thing is to identify all the data items that we want to store in it. For the sake of
simplicity, for now I’m just going to consider how I keep track of the balance of the
accounts. This will let me describe all the techniques that are required without getting
bogged down too much.
class Account
{
public decimal Balance;
} ;
The Account class above holds the member that we need to store about the balance of
our bank accounts. Members of a class which hold a value which describes some data
which the class is holding are often called properties. I’ve used the decimal type for the
account balance, since this is specially designed to hold financial values.
We have seen that each of the data items in a class is a member of it and stored as part
of it. Each time I create an instance of the class I get all the members as well. We have
already seen that it is very easy to create an instance of a class and set the value of a
member:
The reason that this works is that the members of the object are all public and this
means that anybody has direct access to them. This means that any programmer writing
the application can do things like:
- and take away all my money. If we are going to provide a way of stopping this from
happening we need to protect the data inside our objects.
Member Protection inside objects

If objects are going to be useful we have to have a way of protecting the data within
them. Ideally I want to get control when someone tries to change a value in my objects,
and stop the change form being made if I don’t like it. The posh word for this is
encapsulation. I want all the important data hidden inside my object so that I have
complete control over what is done with it. This technology is the key to my defensive
programming approach which is geared to making sure that, whatever else happens, my
part of the program does not go wrong.
For example, in our bank program we want to make sure that the balance is never
changed in a manner that we can't control. The first thing we need to do is stop the
outside world from playing with our balance value:

Designing With Objects Data in Objects
class Account
{
private decimal balance;
} ;
The property is no longer marked as public. Instead it is now private. This means
that the outside world no longer has direct access to it. If I write the code:
RobsAccount.balance = 0;
- I will get an error when I try to compile the program:

PrivateDemo.cs(13,3): error CS0122:
'PrivateMembers.Account.balance' is inaccessible due to its
protection level
The balance value is now held inside the object and is not visible to the outside world.
Changing private members

I can tell what you are thinking at this point. You are thinking “what is the point of
making it private, now you can’t change it at all”. Well, thanks for the vote of
confidence folks. It turns out that I can change the value, but only using code actually
running in the class. Consider the program:
class Account
{
private decimal balance = 0;
public bool WithdrawFunds ( decimal amount )

{
if ( balance < amount )
{
return false ;
}
balance = balance - amount ;
return true;
}
} ;
class Bank {

if ( RobsAccount.WithdrawFunds (5) )
{
Console.WriteLine ( "Cash Withdrawn" ) ;
}
else
{
Console.WriteLine ( "Insufficient Funds" ) ;
}
}
}
This creates an account and then tries to draw five pounds out of it. This will of course
fail, since the initial balance on my account is zero, but it shows how I go about
providing access to members in an account. The method WithdrawFunds is a
member of the Account class and can therefore access private members of the class.

Designing With Objects A Complete Account Class
Programmer’s Point:Metadata makes Members and Methods

I haven’t mentioned metadata for at least five minutes. So perhaps now is a good time. The
metadata that I gather about my bank system will drive how I provide access to the members of my
classes. In the code above the way that I am protecting the balance value is a reflection of how the
customer wants me to make sure that this value is managed properly.
public Methods
You may have noticed that I made the WithdrawFunds method public. This
means that code running outside the class can make calls to that method. This has got to
be the case, since we want people to interact with our objects by calling methods in
them. In general the rules are:
 if it is a data member (i.e. it holds data) of the class, make it private
 if it is a method member (i.e. it does something) make it public
Of course, the rules can be broken on special occasions. If you don’t care about
possible corruption of the member and you want your program to run as quickly as
possible you can make a data member public. If you want to write a method which is
only used inside a class and performs some special, secret, task you can make it
private.
Programmer’s Point:private data and public methods

If you look closely at the code I write (and I would advise you to do this – it is good stuff) you will
find that when I write the name of a public item I use a capital letter to start the name (as in the
case of WithdrawFunds to withdraw from our bank account). But I make the first letter of private
members lower case (as in the case of the balance data member of our bank account). This makes it
easy for someone reading my code, because they can see from the name of a class member whether
or not it is public or private. The convention also extends to variables which are local to a block.
These (for example the ubiquitous i) always start with a lower case letter.
A Complete Account Class

We can now create a bank account class which controls access to the balance value:

Designing With Objects A Complete Account Class
public class Account

{

{
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}
public void PayInFunds ( decimal amount )

{
balance = balance + amount ;
}
public decimal GetBalance ()

{
return balance;
}
}
The bank account class that I have created above is quite well behaved. I have created
three methods which I can use to interact with an account object. I can pay money in,
find out how much is there and withdraw cash, for example:
Account test = new Account();
test.PayInFunds(50);
At the end of this set of statements the test account should have 50 pounds in it. If it
does not my program is faulty. The method GetBalance is called an accessor since it
allows access to data in my business object. I could write a little bit of code to test these
methods:
test.PayInFunds(50);
if ( test.GetBalance() != 50 ) {
Console.WriteLine ( "Pay In test failed" );
}
My program now tests itself, in that it does something and then makes sure that the
effect of that action is correct. Of course I must still read the output from all the tests,
which is tedious. Later in the course we will consider the use of unit tests which make
this much easier.

Static Items Static class members
Programmer’s Point:Test Driven Development – the only way

I love test driven development. If I ever write anything from now on you can bet your boots that I
will write it using a test driven approach. This solves three problems that I can see:
Firstly you don't do the testing at the end of the project. This is usually the worst time to test,
since you might be using code that you wrote some time back. If the bugs are in an old piece of code
you have to go through the effort of remembering how it works. Far better to test the code as you
write it, when you have the best possible understanding of what it is supposed to do.
The second good reason for using a test driven approach is that it lets you write code early in the
project which will probably be useful later on. Many projects are doomed because people start
writing code before they have a proper understanding of the problem. Writing the tests first is
actually a really good way of refining your understanding. And there is a good chance that the tests
that you write will be useful at some point too.
The final reason for using tests is that when I fix bugs in my program I need to be able to convince
myself that the fixes I have applied have not broken some other part (about the most common way
of introducing new faults into a program is to mend a bug). If I have a set of automatic tests that I
can run after every bug fix I have a way of stopping this from happening.
Bank Notes: Protecting Account Members

The bank manager approves of our use of private and public. This means that
other programmers (i.e. the people who write systems which use the Account class
instances in the bank) will not be allowed unrestricted access to the very important
information held inside them. This is very important.
Static Items
At the moment all the members that we have created in our class have been part of an
instance of the class. This means that whenever we create an instance of the Account
class we get a balance member. However, we can also create members which are
held as part of the class, i.e. they exist outside of any particular instance.
Static class members

The static keyword lets us create members which are not held in an instance, but in
the class itself.
It is very important that you learn what static means in the context of C# programs.
We have used it lots in just about every program that we have ever written:

class AccountTest {
test.PayInFunds (50);
Console.WriteLine ("Balance:" + test.GetBalance());
}
}
The AccountTest class has a static member method called Main. We know that
this is the method which is called to run the program. It is part of the class
AccountTest. If I made fifty AccountTest instances, they would all share the
same Main method. In terms of C# the keyword static flags a member as being part
of the class, not part of an instance of the class. I will write that down again in a posh
font, for it is important:
“A static member is a member of the class, not

a member of an instance of the class”
I don't have to make an instance of the AccountTest class to be able to use the
Main method. This is how my program actually gets to work, in that when it starts it
has not made any instances of anything, and so this method must be there already,
otherwise it cannot run.
Static does not mean "cannot be changed". I think this is time for more posh font stuff:
Static does not mean "cannot be changed".

Members of a class which have been made static can be used just like any other
member of a class. Either a data member or a method can be made static.
Using a static data member of a class

Perhaps an example of static data would help at this point. Consider the interest
rates of our bank accounts. The customer has told us that one of the members of the
account class will need to be the interest rate on accounts. In the program we can
implement this by adding another member to the class which holds the current interest
rate:
public class Account {
public decimal Balance ;
public decimal InterestRateCharged ;
}
Now I can create accounts and set balances and interest rates on them. (of course if I
was doing this properly I'd make this stuff private and provide methods etc, but I'm
keeping things simple just now).
Account RobsAccount = new Account();
RobsAccount.InterestRateChanged = 10;
The snag is; I've been told that the interest rate is held for all the accounts. If the
interest rate changes it must change for all accounts. This means that to implement the
change I'd have to go through all the accounts and update the rate. This would be
tedious, and if I missed one account, possibly expensive.
I solve the problem by making the interest rate member static:


public decimal balance ;
public static decimal interestRateCharged ;
}
The interest rate is now part of the class, not part of any instance. This means that I
have to change the way that I get hold of it:
Account RobsAccount = new Account();
Account.InterestRateChanged = 10;
Since it is a member of the class I now have to use the class name to get hold of it
instead of the name of the instance reference.
Programmer’s Point:Static Data Members are Useful and Dangerous

When you are collecting metadata about your project you should look for things which can be made
static. Things like the limits of values (the largest age that you are going to permit a person to
have) can be made static. There might be a time where the age limit changes, and you don't want to
have to update all the objects in your program.
But of course, as Spiderman's uncle said, "With great power comes great responsibility". You should
be careful about how you provide access to static data items. A change to a single static value will
affect your entire system. So they should always be made private and updated by means of method
calls.
Using a static method in a class

We can make methods static too. We have been doing this for ages with the Main
method. But you can also use them when designing your system. For example, we
might have a method which decides whether or not someone is allowed to have a bank
account. It would take in their age and income. It would then return true or false
depending on whether these are acceptable or not:
public bool Allowed ( decimal income, int age ) {
if ( ( income >= 10000 ) && ( age >= 18 ) ) {
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}
This checks the age and income; you must be over 17 and have at least 1000 pounds
income to be allowed an account. The snag is that, at the moment, we can't call the
method until we have an Account instance. We can solve this by making the method
static:
public static bool Allowed ( decimal income, int age ) {
if ( ( income >= 10000 ) && ( age >= 18 ) ) {
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}
Now the method is part of the class, not an instance of the class. I can now call the
method by using the class name:

if ( Account.Allowed ( 25000, 21 ) ) {
Console.WriteLine ( "Allowed Account");
}
This is nice because I have not had to make an instance of the account to find out if one
is allowed..
Using member data in static methods

The Allowed method is OK, but of course I have hard wired the age and income
methods into it. I might decide to make the method more flexible:
private decimal minIncome = 10000;

private int minAge = 18;
public static bool Allowed(decimal income, int age) {

if ( ( income >= minIncome) && ( age >= minAge) ) {
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}
}
This is a better design, in that I now have members of the class which set out the upper
limits of the age and income. However it is a bad program, since the class above will
not compile:
AccountManagement.cs(19,21): error CS0120: An object
reference is required for the nonstatic field, method, or
property 'Account.minIncome'
AccountManagement.cs(19,43): error CS0120: An object

reference is required for the nonstatic field, method, or
property 'Account.minAge'
As usual, the compiler is telling us exactly what is wrong; using language which makes
our heads spin. What the compiler really means is that "a static method is using a
member of the class which is not static".
If that doesn’t help, how about this: The members minIncome and minAge are held
within instances of the Account class. However, a static method can run without an
instance (since it is part of the class). The compiler is unhappy because in this situation
the method would not have any members to play with. We can fix this (and get our
program completely correct) by making the income and age limits static as well:

The Construction of Objects Static class members
private static decimal minIncome ;

private static int minAge ;
public static bool Allowed(decimal income, int age) {

if ( ( income > minIncome) && ( age > minAge) ) {
return true;
}
else {
return false;
}
}
}
If you think about it, this makes perfect sense. The limit values should not be held as
members of a class, since we want them to be the same for all instances of the class,
therefore, making them static is what we should have done in the first place.
Programmer’s Point:Static Method Members can be used to make

Libraries
Sometimes in a development you need to provide a library of methods to do stuff. In the C# system
itself there are a huge number of methods to perform maths functions, for example sin and cos. It
makes sense to make these methods static, in that in this situation all we want is the method itself,
not an instance of a class. Again, when you are building your system you should think about how you
are going to make such methods available for your own use.
Bank Notes: Static Bank Information

The kind of problems that we can use static to solve in our bank are:
static member variable: the manager would like us to be able to set the interest rate
for all the customer accounts at once. A single static member of the Account class will
provide a variable which can be used inside all instances of the class. But because there
is only a single copy of this value this can be changed and thereby adjust the interest
rate for all the accounts. Any value which is held once for all classes (limits on values
are another example of this) is best managed as a static value. The time it becomes
impossible to use static is when the manager says "Oh, accounts for five year olds have
a different interest rate from normal ones". At this point we know we can’t use static
because we need to hold different values for some of the instances.
static member method: the manager tells us that we need a method to determine
whether or not a given person is allowed to have an account. I can't make this part of
any Account instance because at the time it runs an account has not been generated. I
must make it static, so that it can execute without an instance.
The Construction of Objects

We have seen that our objects are created when we use new to bring one into being:
test = new Account();
If you look closely at what is happening you might decide that what is happening looks
quite a bit like a method call.

The Construction of Objects The Default Constructor
This is actually exactly what is happening. When an instance of a class is created the
C# system makes a call to a constructor method in that class. The constructor method is
a member of the class and it is there to let the programmer get control and set up the
contents of the shiny new object. One of the rules of the C# game is that every single
class must have a constructor method to be called when a new instance is created.
“But wait a minute”, you say, “We’ve been making objects for a while and I’ve never
had to provide a constructor method”. This is because the C# compiler is, for a change,
being friendly here. Rather than shout at you for not providing a constructor method,
the compiler instead quietly creates a default one for you and uses that.
You might think this is strange, in that normally the compiler loses no time in telling
you off when you don’t do something, but in this case it is simply solving the problem
without telling you. There are two ways to look at this:
 nice compiler: the compiler is trying to make life easier for you
 evil compiler: the compiler knows that if it does this automatically now you
will suffer more later when you try to understand why you don’t need to add
one
How you regard the action of the compiler is up to you.
The Default Constructor

A constructor method has the same name as the class, but it does not return anything. It
is called when we perform new. If you don’t supply a constructor (and we haven’t so
far) the compiler creates one for us.
public Account () {
}
}
This is what the default constructor looks like. It is public so that it can be accessed
from external classes who might want to make instances of the class. It accepts no
parameters. If I create my own constructor the compiler assumes that I know what I’m
doing and stops providing the default one. This can cause problems, which we will
discuss later.
Our Own Constructor

For fun, we could make a constructor which just prints out that it has been called:
public Account () {
Console.WriteLine ( "We just made an account" );
}
}
This constructor is not very constructive (ho ho) but it does let us know when it has
been called. This means that when my program executes the line:
robsAccount = new Account();
- the program will print out the message:

We just made an account
Note that this is not very sensible, in that it will result in a lot of printing out which the
user of the program might not appreciate, but it does show how the process works.

The Construction of Objects Overloading Constructors
Feeding the Constructor Information

It is useful to be able to get control when an Account is created, but it would be even
nicer to be able to feed information into the Account when I create it. As an example,
I might want to set the name, address, and initial balance of an account holder when the
account is created. In other words I want to do:
robsAccount = new Account("Rob Miles", "Hull", 0);
This could create a new account and set the name property to Rob Miles, the address
to Hull and the initial balance to zero. It turns out that I can do this very easily, all I
have to do is make the constructor method to accept these parameters and use them to
set up the members of the class:
class Account {
// private member data
private string name;
private string address;
// constructor
public Account (string inName, string inAddress,
decimal inBalance) {
name = inName;
address = inAddress;
balance = inBalance;
}
}
The constructor takes the values supplied in the parameters and uses them to set up the
members of the Account instance that is being created. In this respect it behaves
exactly as any other method call.
Note that adding a constructor like this has one very powerful ramification:
You must use the new constructor to make an instance of a class, i.e. the only way I can
now make an Account object is by supplying a name, address and starting balance. If
I try to do this:
robsAccount = new Account();
- the compiler will stop being nice to me and produce the error:
AccountTest.cs(9,27): error CS1501: No overload for method
'Account' takes '0' arguments
What the compiler is telling me is that there is no constructor in the class which does
not have any parameters. In other words, the compiler only provides a default
constructor if the programmer doesn't provide a constructor.
This can cause confusion if we have made use of the default constructor in our program
and we then add one of our own. The default constructor is no longer supplied by the
compiler and our program now fails to compile correctly. In that situation you have to
either find all the calls to the default one and update them, or create a default
constructor of your own for these calls to use. Of course you don't have to do this
because your design of the program was so good that you never have this problem. Just
like me, hem hem.
Overloading Constructors
Overload is an interesting word. In the context of the "Star Trek" science fiction series
it is what they did to the warp engines in every other episode. In the context of a C#
program it means:
"A method has the same name as another, but has a different set of parameters"

The Construction of Objects Constructor Management
The compiler is quite happy for you to overload methods, because it can tell from the
parameters given at the call of the method which one to use. In the context of the
constructor of a class, what this means is that you can provide several different ways of
constructing an instance of a class. For example, many (but not all) of your accounts
will be created with a balance value of zero, i.e. nothing in the account. This means that
we would like to be able to write
robsAccount = new Account("Rob Miles","Hull");
I've missed off the balance value, since I want to use the "default" one of zero. If your
code does this the compiler simply looks for a constructor method which has two
strings as parameters, and nothing else. Something a bit like this:
public Account (string inName, string inAddress){
name = inName;
balance = 0;
}
Overloading a method name

In fact, you can overload any method name in your classes. This can be useful if you
have a particular action which can be driven by a number of different items of data, for
example you could provide several ways of setting the date of a transation:
SetDate ( int year, int month, int day)
SetDate ( int year, int julianDate )
SetDate ( string dateInMMDDYY)
A call of:
SetDate (23, 7, 2005 );
- would be matched up with the method which accepts three integer parameters and that
code would be executed.
Constructor Management
If the Account class is going to have lots of constructor methods this can get very
confusing for the programmer:
name = inName;
}

name = inName;
balance = 0;
}
public Account (string inName) {

name = inName;
address = "Not Supplied";
balance = 0;
}
I've made three constructors for an Account instance. The first is supplied with all the
information, the second is not given a balance and sets the value to 0. The third is not
given the address either, and sets the address to "Not Supplied".

The Construction of Objects A constructor cannot fail
To do this I have had to duplicate code. Good programmers hate duplicating code. It is
regarded as "dangerous extra work". The scary thing is that it is quite easy to do, just
use the block copy command in the text editor and you can take the same piece of
program and use it all over the place. But you should not do this. Because it is bad. If
you need to change this piece of code you have to find every copy of the code and
change it.
This happens more often than you'd think, even if you don't put a bug in your code, you
still might find yourself having to change it because the specification changes. So, C#
provides a way in which you can call one constructor from another. Consider:
name = inName;
}
public Account ( string inName, string inAddress ) :
this (inName, inAddress, 0 ) {
}
public Account ( string inName ) :

this (inName, "Not Supplied", 0 ) {
}
The keyword this means "another constructor in this class". As you can see in the
code sample above, the highlighted bits of the code are calls to the first constructor.
They simply pass the parameters which are supplied, along with any default values that
we have created, on to the "proper" constructor to deal with. This means that the actual
transfer of the values from the constructor into the object itself only happens in one
method, and the other constructor methods just make calls to it.
The syntax of these calls is rather interesting, in that the call to the constructor takes
place before the body of the constructor method. In fact it is outside the block
completely. This is sensible, because it reflects exactly what is happening. The "this"
constructor runs before the body of the other constructor is entered. In fact, in the code
above, since the call of this does all the work, the body of the constructor can be
empty.
Programmer’s Point:Object Construction Should Be Planned

The way in which objects are constructed is something that you should plan carefully when you write
your program. You should create one "master" constructor which handles the most comprehensive
method of constructing the object. Then you should make all the other constructor methods use
this to get hold of that method.
A constructor cannot fail

If you watch a James Bond movie there is usually a point at which 007 is told that the
fate of the world is in his hands. Failure is not an option. Constructors are a bit like this.
Constructors cannot fail. And this is a problem:
Whenever we have written methods in the past we have made sure that their behaviour
is error checked so that the method cannot upset the state of our object. For example,
attempts to withdraw negative amounts of money from a bank account should be
rejected.
The whole basis of the way that we have allowed our objects to be manipulated is to
make sure that they cannot be broken by the people using them. If you try to do

The Construction of Objects A constructor cannot fail
something stupid with a method call it should refuse to perform the action and return
something which indicates that it could not do the job.
So we know that when we create a method which changes the data in an object we have
to make sure that the change is always valid. For example, we would not let the
following call succeed:
RobsAccount.PayInFunds (1234567890);
There will be an upper limit to the amount of cash you can pay in at once, so the
PayInFunds method will refuse to pay the money in. But what is to stop the
following:
RobsAccount = new Account ("Rob","Hull",1234567890);
Like James Bond, constructors are not allowed to fail. Whatever happens during the
constructor call, it will complete and a new instance will be created.
This poses a problem. It looks as if we can veto stupid values at every point except the
one which is most important, i.e. when the object is first created.
Programmer’s Point:Managing Failure is Hard Work

This brings us on to a kind of recurring theme in our quest to become good programmers. Writing
code to do a job is usually very easy. Writing code which will handle all the possible failure
conditions in a useful way is much trickier. It is a fact of programming life that you will (or at least
should) spend more time worrying about how things fail than you ever do about how they work
correctly.
Constructors and Exceptions

The only way round this at the moment is to have the constructor throw an exception if
it is unhappy. This means that the user of the constructor must make sure that they catch
exceptions when creating objects, which is not a bad thing. The really clever way to do
this is to make the constructor call the set methods for each of the properties that it has
been given, and if any of them returns with an error the constructor should throw the
exception at that point:
if ( SetName ( inName ) == false ) {
throw new Exception ( "Bad name " + inName) ;
}
if ( SetAddress ( inAddress) == false ) {
throw new Exception ( "Bad address" + inAddress) ;
}
}
If we try to create an account with a bad name it will throw an exception, which is what
we want. The only problem here is that if the address is wrong too, the user of the
method will not know this until they have fixed the name and then called the
constructor again.
I hate it when I'm using a program and this happens. It is normally when I'm filling in a
form on the web. I type in my name wrong and it complains about that. Then I put my
name right, and it complains about my address. What I want is a way in which I can get
a report of all the invalid parts of the item at once. This can be done, at the expense of a
little bit of complication:

From Object to Component Bank Notes: Constructing an Account

string errorMessage = "";
if ( SetName ( inName ) == false ) {
errorMessage = errorMessage + "Bad name " + inName;
}
if ( SetAddress ( inAddress) == false ) {
errorMessage = errorMessage + " Bad addr " + inAddress;
}
if ( errorMessage != "" ) {
throw new Exception ( "Bad account" + errorMessage) ;
}
}
This version of the constructor assembles an error message which describes everything
which is wrong with the account. Each new thing which is wrong is added to the
message and then the whole thing is put into an exception and thrown back to the caller.
Programmer’s Point:Consider the International Issues

The code above assembles a text message and sends it to the user when something bad happens.
This is a good thing. However, if you write the program as above this might cause a problem when
you install the code in a French branch of the bank. During the specification process you need to
establish if the code is ever going to be created in multiple language versions. If it is you will need
to manage the storage and selection of appropriate messages. Fortunately there are some C#
libraries which are designed to make this easier.
Bank Notes: Constructing an Account

The issues revolving around the constructor of a class are not directly relevant to the
bank account specification as such, since they really relate to how the specification is
implemented, and not what the system itself actually does.
That said, if the manager says something like "The customer fills in a form, enters their
name and address and this is used to create the new account" this gives you a good idea
of what parameters should be supplied to the constructor.
From Object to Component

I take the view that as you develop as a software writer you go through a process of
"stepping back" from problems and thinking at higher and higher levels. Posh people
call this "abstraction". This is the progress that we have made so far:
 representing values by named locations (variables)
 creating actions which work on the variables (statements and blocks)
 putting behaviours into lumps of code which we can give names to. We can
reuse these behaviours and also use them in the design process (methods)
 creating things which contain member variables as properties and member
methods as actions (objects)
Rather than spend a lot of time at the start of a project worrying just how we are going
represent an account and precisely what it should do, we just say "We need an account
here" and then move on to other things. Later we will come back and revisit the
problem in a greater level of detail, and from the point of view of what the Account
class needs to do.

From Object to Component Components and Hardware
The next thing to do is consider how we take a further step back and consider
expressing a solution using components and interfaces. In this section you will find out
the difference between an object and a component, and how to design systems using
them.
Components and Hardware

Before we start on things from a software point of view it is probably worth considering
things from a hardware point of view. You should be familiar with the way that, in a
typical home computer, some parts are not "hard wired" to the system. For example, the
graphics adapter is usually a separate device which is plugged into the main board. This
is good; because it means that I can buy a new graphics adapter at any time and fit it
into the machine to improve the performance.
For this to work properly the people who make main boards and the people who make
graphics adapters have had to agree on an interface between two devices. This takes the
form of a large document which describes exactly how the two components interact, for
example which signals are inputs, which signals are outputs and so on. Any main board
which contains a socket built to the standard can accept a graphics card.
So, from the point of view of hardware, components are possible because we have
created standard interfaces which describe exactly how they fit together.
Software components are exactly the same.
Why we Need Software Components?

At the moment you might not see a need for software components. When we are
creating a system we work out what each of the parts of it need to do, and then we
create those parts. It is not obvious at this stage why components are required.
Well, a system designed without components is exactly like a computer with a graphics
adapter which part of the main board. It is not possible for me to improve the graphics
adapter because it is "hard wired" into the system.
However, it is unfortunately the case that with our bank system we may have a need to
create different forms of bank account class. For example, we might be asked to create
a "BabyAccount" class which only lets the account holder draw out up to ten pounds
each time. This might happen even after we have installed the system and it is being
used.
If everything has been hard wired into place this will be impossible. By describing
objects in terms of their interfaces however, we can use anything which behaves like an
Account in this position.
Components and Interfaces

One point I should make here is that we are not talking about the user interface to our
program. The user interface is the way a person using our program would make it work
for them. These are usually either text based (the user types in commands and gets
responses) or graphical (the user clicks on “buttons” on a screen using the mouse).
An interface on the other hand just specifies how a software component could be used
by another software component. Please don’t be tempted to answer an exam question
about the C# interface mechanism with a long description of how windows and buttons
work. This will earn you zero marks.

From Object to Component Implementing an Interface in C#
Interfaces and Design

So, instead of starting off by designing classes we should instead be thinking about
describing their interfaces, i.e. what it is they have to do. In C# we express this
information in a thing called an interface. An interface is simply a set of method
definitions which are lumped together.
Our first pass at a bank account interface could be as follows:
public interface IAccount {
void PayInFunds ( decimal amount );
bool WithdrawFunds ( decimal amount );
decimal GetBalance ();
}
This says that the IAccount interface is comprised of three methods, one to pay
money in; another to withdraw it and a third which returns the balance on the account.
From the balance management point of view this is all we need. Note that at the
interface level I am not saying how it should be done, I am instead just saying what
should be done. An interface is placed in a source file just like a class, and compiled in
the same way. It sets out a number of methods which relate to a particular task or role,
in this case what a class must do to be considered a bank account.
Implementing an Interface in C#
Interfaces become interesting when we make a class implement them. Implementing an
interface is a bit like a setting up a contract between the supplier of resources and the
consumer. If a class implements an interface it is saying that for every method
described in the interface, it has a corresponding implementation.
In the case of the bank account, I am going to create a class which implements the
interface, so that it can be thought of as an account component, irrespective of what it
really is:
public class CustomerAccount : IAccount {

{
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}

{
}

{
return balance;
}
}
The code above does not look that different from the previous account class. The only
difference is the top line:

From Object to Component References to Interfaces

...
The highlighted part of the line above is where the programmer tells the compiler that
this class implements the IAccount interface. This means that the class contains
concrete versions of all the methods described in the interface. If the class does not
contain a method that the interface needs you will get a compilation error:
error CS0535: 'AccountManagement.CustomerAccount' does not
implement interface member
'AccountManagement.IAccount.PayInFunds(decimal)'
In this case I missed out the PayInFunds method and the compiler complained
accordingly.
References to Interfaces
Once we have made the CustomerAccount class compile, we have now got
something which can be regarded in two ways:
 as a CustomerAccount (because that is what it is)
 as an IAccount (because that is what it can do)
People do this all the time. You can think of me in a whole variety of ways, here are
two:
 Rob Miles the individual (because that is who I am)
 A university lecturer (because that is what I can do)
If you think of me as a lecturer you would be using the interface that contains methods
like GiveLecture. And you can use the same methods with any other lecturer (i.e.
person who implements that interface). From the point of view of the university, which
has to manage a large number of interchangeable lecturers, it is much more useful for it
to think of me as a lecturer, rather than Rob Miles the individual.
So, with interfaces we are moving away from considering classes in terms of what they
are, and starting to think about them in terms of what they can do. In the case of our
bank, this means that we want to deal with objects in terms of IAccount,(the set of
account abilities) rather than CustomerAccount (a particular account class).
In C# terms this means that we need to be able to create reference variables which refer
to objects in terms of interfaces they implement, rather than the particular type that they
are. It turns out that this is quite easy:
IAccount account = new CustomerAccount();
account.PayInFunds(50);
The account variable is allowed to refer to objects which implement the IAccount
interface. The compiler will check to make sure that CustomerAccount does this,
and if it does, the compilation is successful.
Note that there will never be an instance of IAccount interface. It is simply a way
that we can refer to something which has that ability (i.e. contains the required
methods).
This is the same in real life. There is no such physical thing as a "lecturer", merely a
large number of people who can be referred to as having that particular ability or role.
Using interfaces
Now that we have our system designed with interfaces it is much easier to extend it. I
can create a BabyAccount class which implements the IAccount interface. This

From Object to Component Implementing Multiple Interfaces
implements all the required methods, but they behave slightly differently because we
want all withdrawals of over ten pounds to fail:
public class BabyAccount : IAccount {

{
if (amount > 10)
{
return false ;
}
if (balance < amount)
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}

{
}

{
return balance;
}
}
The nice thing about this is that as it is a component we don’t have to change all the
classes which use it. When we create the account objects we just have ask if a standard
account or a baby account is required. The rest of the system can then pick up this
object and use it without caring exactly what it is. We will of course have to create
some tests especially for it, so that we can make sure that withdrawals of more than ten
pounds do fail, but using the new kind of account in our existing system is very easy.
Implementing Multiple Interfaces

A component can implement as many interfaces as are required. The IAccount
interface lets me regard a component purely in terms of its ability to behave as a bank
account. However, I may want to regard a component in a variety of ways. For
example, the bank will want the account to be able to print itself out on paper.
You might think that all I have to do is add a print method to the IAccount interface.
This would be reasonable if all I ever wanted to print was bank accounts. However,
there will be lots of things which need to be printed, for example warning letters,
special offers and the like. Each of these items will be implemented in terms of a
component which provides a particular interface (IWarning, ISpecialOffer for
example). I don't want to have to provide a print method in each of these, what I really
want is a way that I can regard an object in terms of its ability to print.
This is actually very easy. I create the interface:
public interface IPrintToPaper {
void DoPrint ();
}
Now anything which implements the IPrintToPaper interface will contain the
DoPrint method and can be thought of in terms of its ability to print.
A class can implement as many interfaces as it needs. Each interface is a new way in
which it can be referred to and accessed.

From Object to Component Designing with Interfaces
public class BabyAccount : IAccount, IPrintToPaper {

...
This means that a BabyAccount instance behaves like an account and it also contains
a DoPrint method which can be used to make it print out.
Designing with Interfaces

If you apply the "abstraction" technique properly you should end up with a system
creation process which goes along the lines of:
 gather as much metadata as you can about the problem; what is important to
the customer, what values need to be represented and manipulated and the
range of those values
 identify classes that you will have to create to represent the components in the
problem
 identify the actions (methods) and the values (properties) that the components
must provide
 put these into interfaces for each of the components
 decide how these values and actions are to be tested
 implement the components and test them as you go
You can/should do much of this on paper, before you write any code at all. There are
also graphical tools that you can use to draw formal diagrams to represent this
information. The field of Software Engineering is entirely based on this process.
Programmer’s Point:Interfaces are just promises

An interface is less of a binding contract, and more a promise. Just because a class has a method
called PayInFunds does not mean that it will pay money into the account; it just means that a
method with that name exists within the class. Nothing in C# allows you to enforce a particular
behaviour on a method; that is down to how much you trust the programmer that made the class
that you are using, and how good your tests are. In fact, we sometimes use this to good effect when
building a program, in that we can create "dummy" components which implement the interface but
don't have the behaviour as such.
Bank Notes: Account Interfaces

The interface mechanism gives us a great deal of flexibility when making our
components and fitting them together. It means that once we have found out what our
bank account class needs to hold for us we can then go on to consider what we are
going to ask the accounts to do. This is the real detail in the specification. Once we
have set out an interface for a component we can then just think in terms of what the
component must do, not precisely how it does it.
For example, the manager has told us that each bank account must have an account
number. This is a very important value, in that it will be fixed for the life of the account
and can never be changed. No two accounts should ever have the same number.
From the point of view of interface design this means that the account number will be
set when the account is created and the account class will provide a method to let us get
the value (but there will not be a method to set the account number).
We don't care what the method GetAccountNumber actually does, as long as it
always returns the value for a particular account. So this requirement ends up being
expressed in the interface that is implemented by the account class.

Inheritance Extending a parent class
interface IAccount {
int GetAccountNumber ();
}
This method returns the integer which is the account number for this instance. By
placing it in the interface we can say that the account must deliver this value, but we
have not actually described how this should be done. The design of the interfaces in a
system is just this. They state that we have a need for behaviours, but they do not
necessarily state how they are made to work. I have added comments to give more
detail about what the method does.
The need for things like account numbers, which really need to be unique in the world,
has resulted in the creation of a set of methods in the C# libraries to create things called
Globally Unique Identifiers or GUIDs. These are data items which are created based on
the date, time and certain information about the host computer. Each GUID is unique in
the world. We could use these in our Account constructor to create a GUID which
allows each account to have a unique number.
Inheritance
Inheritance is another way we can implement creative laziness. It is a way that we can
pick up behaviours from classes and just modify the bits we need to make new ones. In
this respect you can regard it as a mechanism for what is called code reuse. It can also
be used at the design stage of a program if you have a set of related objects that you
wish to create.
Inheritance lets a class pick up behaviours from the class which is its parent. You can
regard an interface as a statement by a class that it has a set of behaviours because it
implements a given interface. If a class is descended from a particular parent class this
means that it has a set of behaviours because it has inherited them from its parent. In
short:
Interface: "I can do these things because I have told you I can"
Inheritance: "I can do these things because my parent can"
Extending a parent class

We can see an example of a use for inheritance in our bank account project. We have
already noted that a BabyAccount must behave just like a CustomerAccount
except in respect of the cash withdrawal method. Customer accounts can draw out as
much as they want. Baby accounts are only allowed to draw up to 10 pounds out at a
time.
We have solved this problem from a design point of view by using interfaces. By
separating the thing that does the job from the description of the job (which is what an
interface lets you do) we can get the whole banking system thinking in terms of
IAccount and then plug in accounts with different behaviours as required. We can
even create brand new accounts at any time after the system has been deployed. These
can be introduced and work alongside the others because they behave correctly (i.e.
they implement the interface).
But this does make things a bit tiresome when we write the program. We need to create
a BabyAccount class which contains a lot of code which is duplicated in the
CustomerAccount class. "This is not a problem" you probably think "I can use the
editor block copy to move the program text across". But:

Inheritance Overriding methods
Programmer’s Point:Block Copy is Evil

I still make mistakes when I write programs. You might think that after such a huge number of
years in the job I get everything right every time. Wrong. And a lot of the mistakes that I make
are caused by improper use of block copy. I write some code and find that I need something similar,
but not exactly the same, in another part of the program. So I use block copy. Then I change most,
but not all, of the new code and find that my program doesn't work properly.
Try not to do this. A great programmer writes every piece of code once, and only once. If you need
to use it in more than one place, make it a method.
What we really want to do is pick up all the behaviours in the CustomerAccount

and then just change the one method that needs to behave differently. It turns out that
we can do this in C# using inheritance. When I create the BabyAccount class I can
tell the compiler that it is based on the CustomerAccount one:
public class BabyAccount : CustomerAccount,IAccount {
}
The key thing here is the highlighted part after the class name. I have put the name of
the class that BabyAccount is extending. This means that everything that
CustomerAccount can do, BabyAccount can do.
I can now write code like:
BabyAccount b = new BabyAccount();
b.PayInFunds(50);
This works because, although BabyAccount does not have a PayInFunds method,
the parent class does. This means that the PayInFunds method from the
CustomerAccount class is used at this point.
So, instances of the BabyAccount class have abilities which they pick up from their
parent class. In fact, at the moment, the BabyAccount class has no behaviours of its
own; it gets everything from its parent.
Overriding methods
We now know that we can make a new class based on an existing one. The next thing
we need to be able to do is change the behaviour of the one method that we are
interested in. We want to replace the WithdrawFunds method with a new one. This
is called overriding a method. In the BabyAccount class I can do it like this:
public override bool WithdrawFunds (decimal amount)

{
if (amount > 10)
{
return false ;
}
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}
}
The keyword override means "use this version of the method in preference to the one in
the parent". This means that code like:

Inheritance Overriding methods
BabyAccount b = new BabyAccount();

b.PayInFunds(50);
b.WithdrawFunds(5);
The call of PayInFunds will use the method in the parent (since that has not been
overridden) but the call of WithdrawFunds will use the method in BabyAccount.
Virtual Methods
Actually, there is one other thing that we need to do in order for the overriding to work.
The C# compiler needs to know if a method is going to be overridden. This is because
it must call an overridden method in a slightly different way from a "normal" one. In
other words, the above code won't compile properly because the compiler has not been
told that WithDrawFunds might be overridden in classes which are children of the
parent class.
To make the overriding work correctly I have to change my declaration of the method
in the CustomerAccount class.
public virtual bool WithdrawFunds ( decimal amount )

{
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}

{
}

{
return balance;
}
}
The keyword virtual means “I might want to make another version of this method in
a child class”. You don’t have to override the method, but if you don’t have the word
present, you definitely can’t.
This makes override and virtual a kind of matched pair. You use virtual to
mark a method as able to be overridden and override to actually provide a
replacement for the method.
Protection of data in class hierarchies

It turns out that the code above still won’t work. This is because the balance value in
the CustomerAccount class is private. We carefully made it private so that
methods in other classes can’t get hold of the value and change it directly.
However, this protection is too strict, in that it stops the BabyAccount class from
being able to change the value. To get around this problem C# provides a slightly less
restrictive access level called protected. This makes the member visible to classes
which extend the parent. In other words, methods in the BabyAccount class can see
and use a protected member because they are in the same class hierarchy as the class
containing the member.

Inheritance Bank Notes: Overriding for Fun and Profit
A class hierarchy is a bit like a family tree. Every class has a parent and can do all the
things that the parent can do. It also has access to all the protected members of the
classes above it.
protected decimal balance = 0;
.....
}
I’m not terribly happy about doing this, the balance is very important to me and I’d
rather that nobody outside the CustomerAccount class could see it. However, for
now making this change will make the program work. Later we will see better ways to
manage this situation.
Bank Notes: Overriding for Fun and Profit

The ability to override a method is very powerful. It means that we can make more
general classes (for example the CustomerAccount) and customise it to make them
more specific (for example the BabyAccount). Of course this should be planned and
managed at the design stage. This calls for more metadata to be gathered from the
customer and used to decide which parts of the behaviour need to be changed during
the lift of the project. We would have made the WithDrawFunds method virtual
because the manager would have said “We like to be able to customise the way that
some accounts withdraw funds”. And we would have written this down in the
specification.
Using the base method

Remember that programmers are essentially lazy people who try to write code only
once for a given problem. Well, it looks as if we are breaking our own rules here, in
that the WithDrawFunds method in the BabyAccount class contains all the code
of the method in the parent class.
We have already noted that we don’t like this much, in that it means that the balance
value has to be made more exposed that we might like. Fortunately the designers of C#
have thought of this and have provided a way that you can call the base method from
one which overrides it.
The word base in this context means “a reference to the thing which has been
overridden”. I can use this to make the WithDrawFunds method in my
BabyAccount much simpler:
public override bool WithdrawFunds (decimal amount)

{
if (amount > 10)
{
return false ;
}
return base.WithdrawFunds(amount);
}
}
The very last line of the WithDrawFunds method makes a call to the original
WithDrawFunds method in the parent class, i.e. the one that the method overrides.
It is important that you understand what I’m doing here, and why I’m doing it:
 I don’t want to have to write the same code twice

Inheritance Making a Replacement Method
 I don’t want to make the balance value visible outside the

CustomerAccount class.
The use of the word base to call the overridden method solves both of these problems
rather beautifully. Because the method call returns a bool result I can just send
whatever it delivers. By making this change I can put the balance back to private
in the CustomerAccount because it is not changed outside it.
Note that there are other useful spin-offs here. If I need to fix a bug in the behaviour of
the WithDrawFunds method I just fix it once, in the top level class, and then it is
fixed for all the classes which call back to it.
Making a Replacement Method

This bit is rather painful, but don’t worry too much since it actually does make sense
when you think about it. If you play around with C# you will find out that you don’t
actually seem to need the virtual keyword to override a method. If I leave it out
(and leave out the override too) the program seems to work fine.
This is because in this situation there is no overriding, you have just supplied a new
version of the method (in fact the C# compiler will give you a warning which indicates
that you should provide the keyword new to indicate this):
public new bool WithdrawFunds (decimal amount)

{
if (amount > 10)
{
return false ;
}
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}
}
The problem with this way of working is that you are unable to use base. This makes
it more difficult to pick up behaviours from parent classes.
Programmer’s Point:Don’t Replace Methods

I am very against replacing methods rather than overriding them. If you want to have a policy of
allowing programmers to make custom versions of classes in this way it is much more sensible to
make use of overriding since this allows a well managed way of using the method that you over-rid.
In fact, I’m wondering why I mentioned this at all..
Stopping Overriding
Overriding is very powerful. It means that a programmer can just change one tiny part
of a class and make a new one with all the behaviours of the parent. This goes well with
a design process which means that as you move down the “family tree” of classes you
get more and more specific.

Inheritance Bank Notes: Protect Your Code
However, overriding/replacing is not always desirable. Consider the GetBalance

method. This is never going to need a replacement. And yet a naughty programmer
could write their own and override or replace the one in the parent:
public new decimal GetBalance ()
{
return 1000000;
}
This is the banking equivalent of the bottle of beer that is never empty. No matter how
much cash is drawn out, it always returns a balance value of a million pounds!
A naughty programmer could insert this into a class and give himself a nice spending
spree. What this means is that we need a way to mark some methods as not being able
to be overridden. C# does this by giving us a sealed keyword which means “You
can’t override this method any more”.
Unfortunately this is rather hard to use. The rules are that you can only seal an
overriding method (which means that we can’t seal the GetBalance virtual method
in the CustomerAccount class) and you can still replace a sealed method.
Another use for sealed, which has a bit more potential, is that you can mark a class
as sealed. This means that the class cannot be extended, i.e. it cannot be used as the
basis for another class.
public sealed class BabyAccount : CustomerAccount,IAccount {
.....
The compiler will now stop the BabyAccount from being used as the basis of
another account.
Bank Notes: Protect Your Code

As far as the bank application is concerned, the customer will not have particularly
strong opinions on how you use things like sealed in your programs. But they will
want to have confidence in the code that you make. One of the unfortunate things about
this business is that you will have to allow for the fact that people who use your
components might not all be nice and trustworthy. This means that you should take
steps when you design the program to decide whether or not methods should be flagged
as virtual and also make sure that you seal things when you can do so.
For a programming course at this level it is probably a bit heavy handed of me to labour
this point just right now, and if it didn’t all make sense there is no particular need to
worry, just remember that when you create a program this is another risk that you will
have to consider.
Constructors and Hierarchies

A constructor is a method which gets control during the process of object creation. It is
used by a programmer to allow initial values to be set into an object:
robsAccount = new CustomerAccount("Rob Miles","Hull");
The code above will only work if the CustomerAccount class has a constructor
which accepts two strings, the name and the address of the new customer.
You might think that I could solve this by writing a constructor a bit like this:

Inheritance Abstract methods and classes
public CustomerAccount (string inName,decimal inBalance)

{
name = inName;
}
But this class is an extension of the Account class. In other words, to make a
CustomerAccount I have to make an Account. And the account is the class which
will have a constructor which sets the name and the initial balance. In this situation the
constructor in the child class will have to call a particular constructor in the parent to
set that up before it is created. The keyword base is used to make a call to the parent
constructor. In other words, the proper version of the customer account constructor is as
follows:
public CustomerAccount (string inName,decimal inBalance) :
base ( inName, inBalance)
{
}
The base keyword is used in the same way as this is used to call another constructor in
the same class. The constructor above assumes that the Account class which
CustomerAccount is a child of has a constructor which accepts two parameters, the first
a string and the second a decimal value.
Constructor Chaining
When considering constructors and class hierarchies you must therefore remember that
to create an instance of a child class an instance of the parent must first be created. This
means that a constructor in the parent must run before the constructor in the child. In
other words, to create a CustomerAccount you must first create an Account. The
result of this is that programmers must take care of the issue of constructor chaining.
They must make sure that at each level in the creation process a constructor is called to
set up the class at that level.
Programmer’s Point:Design your class construction process

The means by which your class instances are created is something you should design into the system
that you build. It is part of the overall architecture of the system that you are building. I think of
these things as a bit like the girders that you erect to hold the floors and roof of a large building.
They tell programmers who are going to build the components which are going to implement the
solution how to create those components. It is of course very important that you have these designs
written down and readily available to the development team.
Abstract methods and classes

At the moment we are using overriding to modify the behaviour of an existing parent
method. However, it is also possible to use overriding in a slightly different context. I
can use it to force a set of behaviours on items in a class hierarchy. If there are some
things that an account must do then we can make these abstract and then get the child
classes to actually provide the implementation.
For example, in the context of the bank application we might want to provide a method
which creates a warning letter to the customer that their account is overdrawn. This will
have to be different for each type of account (we don’t want to use the same language to
a baby account holder as we do for an older one). This means that at the time we create
the bank account system we know that we need this method, but we don’t know
precisely what it does in every situation.

We could just provide a “standard” method in the CustomerAccount class and

then rely on the programmers overriding this with a more specific message but we then
have no way of making sure that they really do provide the method.
C# provides a way of flagging a method as abstract. This means that the method
body is not provided in this class, but will be provided in a child class:
public abstract class Account
{
public abstract string RudeLetterString();
}
The fact that my new Account class contains an abstract method means that the
class itself is abstract (and must be marked as such). It is not possible to make an
instance of an abstract class. If you think about it this is sensible. An instance of
Account would not know what to do it the RudeLetterString method was ever
called.
An abstract class can be thought of as a kind of template. If you want to make an
instance of a class based on an abstract parent you must provide implementations of all
the abstract methods given in the parent.
Abstract classes and interfaces

You might decide that an abstract class looks a lot like an interface. This is true, in that
an interface also provides a “shopping list” of methods which must be provided by a
class. However, abstract classes are different in that they can contain fully implemented
methods alongside the abstract ones. This can be useful because it means you don’t
have to repeatedly implement the same methods in each of the components that
implement a particular interface.
The problem is that you can only inherit from one parent, so you can only pick up the
behaviours of one class. If you want to implement interfaces as well, you may have to
repeat methods as well.
Perhaps at this point a more fully worked example might help.
If we consider our bank account problem we can identify two types of behaviour:
 those which every type of bank account must provide (for example
PayInFunds and GetBalance)
 those which each type of bank account must provide in a way specific to that
particular account type (for example WithdrawFunds and
RudeLetterString)
The trick is to take all the methods in the first category and put them inside the parent
class. The methods in the second category must be made abstract. This leads us to a
class design a bit like this:

public interface IAccount

{
string RudeLetterString();
}
public abstract class Account : IAccount
{
public abstract string RudeLetterString();

{
{
return false ;
}
return true;
}
public virtual decimal GetBalance ()

{
return balance;
}

{
}
}
public class CustomerAccount : Account

{
public override string RudeLetterString()
{
return "You are overdrawn" ;
}
}
public class BabyAccount : Account

{
public override bool WithdrawFunds ( decimal amount )
{
if (amount > 10)
{
return false ;
}
}
public override string RudeLetterString()
{
return "Tell daddy you are overdrawn";
}
}
This code repays careful study. Note how I have moved all the things that all accounts
must do into the parent Account class. Then I have added customised methods into
the child classes where appropriate. Note also though that I have left the interface in
place. That is because; even though I now have this abstract structure I still want to

Inheritance Bank Notes: Designing with interface and abstract
think of the account objects in terms of their “accountness” rather than any particular
specific type.
References to abstract classes

References to abstract classes work just like references to interfaces. A reference to an
Account class can refer to any class which extends from that parent. This might seem
useful, as we can consider something as an “account” rather than a BabyAccount.
However, I much prefer it if you mange references to abstract things (like accounts) in
terms of their interface instead.
Bank Notes: Designing with interface and abstract

For the purpose of this part of the course you now have broad knowledge of all the
tools that can be used to design large software systems. If you have an understanding of
what an interface and abstract classes are intended to achieve this will stand you in very
good stead for your programming career. Broadly:
Interface: lets you identify a set of behaviours (i.e. methods) which a component can
be made to implement. Any component which implements the interface can be thought
of in terms of a reference of that interface type. A concrete example of this would be
something like IPrintHardCopy. Lots of items in my bank system will need to do
this and so we could put the behaviour details into the interface for them to implement
in their own way. Then our printer can just regard each of the instances that implement
this interface purely in this way. Interfaces let me describe a set of behaviours which a
component can implement. Once a component can implement an interface it can be
regarded purely in terms of a component with this ability. Objects can implement more
than one interface, allowing them to present different faces to the systems that use them.
Abstract: lets you create a parent class which holds template information for all the
classes which extend it. If you want to create a related set of items, for example bank
account, receipt, invoice, person then the best way to do this is to set up a parent class
which contains abstract and non-abstract methods. The child classes can make use of
the methods from the parent and override the ones that need to be provided differently
for that particular class.
One important consideration though, is that even if you make use of an abstract parent
class I reckon that you should still make use of interfaces to reference the accounts.
And the reason why goes like this:
If our bank takes over another bank and wants to share account information we might
need a way to use their accounts. If their accounts are software components too (and
they should be) then all we have to do is implement the required interfaces at each end
and then our systems understand each other. In other words the other bank must create
the methods in the IAccount interface, get their account objects (whatever they are
called) to implement the interface and, hey presto, I can now use their accounts.
This would be much more difficult if my entire system thought in terms of a parent
Account class – since their classes would not fit into this hierarchy at all.
Don’t Panic
This is all deep stuff. If you don’t get it now, don’t worry. These features of C# are tied
up with the process of software design which is a very complex business. The important
point to bear in mind is that the features are all provided so that you can solve one
problem:

Object Etiquette Objects and ToString
Create software which is packaged in secure,

interchangeable components.
Interfaces let me describe what each component can do. Class hierarchies let me re-use
code inside those components.
And that is it.
Object Etiquette
We have considered objects "in the large", in that we know how they can be used to
design and implement large software systems. What we need to do now is take a look at
some smaller, but very important, issues that relate to how we use objects in our
programs.
Objects and ToString

We have taken it as read that objects have a magical ability to print themselves out. If I
write the code:
int i = 99;
Console.WriteLine(i);
This will print out:

99
The integer somehow seems to know how to print itself out. Now it is time to find out
how this is achieved, and also how we can give our own objects the same magical
ability.
It turns out that this is all provided by the "objectness" of things in C#. We know that
an object can contain information and do things for us. (in fact we have seen that the
whole basis of building programs is to decide what the objects should do and then make
them do these things). We have also seen that you can extend a parent object to create a
child which has all the abilities of the parent, plus the new ones that we add. Now we
are going to see how these abilities of objects are used in making parts of the C#
implementation itself work.
The Object class

When you create a new class this is not actually created from nowhere. It is in fact a
child of the object class. In other words, if I write:
- this is equivalent to writing:

public class Account : object {
The object class is a part of C#, and everything is a child of the object class. This has
a couple of important ramifications:
1. Every object can do what an object can do.
2. A reference to an object type can refer to any class.

Object Etiquette Objects and ToString
For the purpose of this part of the notes, the first point is the one which has the most
importance here. It means that all classes that are made have a number of behaviours
that they inherit from their ultimate parent, the object. If you look inside the actual code
that makes an object work you will find a method called ToString. The object
implementation of ToString returns a string description of the type of that object.
The ToString method

The system knows that ToString exists for every object, and so if it ever needs the
string version of an object it will call this method on the object to get the text.
In other words:
object o = new object();
Console.WriteLine(o);
- would print out:

System.Object
You can call the method explicitly if you like:

Console.WriteLine(o.ToString());
- and the results would be exactly the same.

The nice thing about ToString is that it has been declared virtual. This means
that we can override it to make it behave how we would like:
class Account
{
public override string ToString()

{
return "Name: " + name + " balance: " + balance;
}
public Account (string inName, decimal inBalance)

{
name = inName;
}
}
In the tiny Account class above I've overridden the ToString method so that it
prints out the name and balance value. This means that the code:
Account a = new Account("Rob", 25);
Console.WriteLine(a);
- would print out:

Name: Rob balance: 25
So, from the point of view of good etiquette, whenever you design a class you should
provide a ToString method which provides a text version of the content of that class.
Getting the string description of a parent object

If you want to get hold of a string description of the parent object, you can use the base
mechanism to do this. This is sometimes useful if you add some data to a child class
and want to print out the content of the parent first:

Object Etiquette Objects and testing for equals
public override string ToString()

{
return base.ToString() + " Parent : " + parentName;
}
The method above is from a ChildAccount class. This class extends the
CustomerAccont and holds the name of the child's parent. The code above uses the
ToString method in the parent object and then tacks the name of the parent on the
end before returning it. The nice thing about this is that if the behaviour of the parent
class changes, i.e. new members are added or the format of the string changes, the
ChildAccount class does not have to change, since it will just make use of the
upgraded method.
Objects and testing for equals

We have seen that when object references are compared a test for equals does not mean
the same as it does for values. We know that objects are managed by named tags which
refer to unnamed items held in memory somewhere. When we perform an equals test
the system simply checks to see if both references refer to the same location.
To see how this might cause us problems we need to consider how we would implement
a graphical computer game (makes a change from the bank for a while). In the game the
various objects in it will be located at a particular place on the screen. We can express
this position as a coordinate or point, with an x value and a y value. We then might
want to test to see if two items have collided.
class Point
{
public int x;
public int y;
}
This is my point class. I can now create instances of Point and use them to manage
my game objects:
Point spaceshipPosition = new Point();
spaceshipPosition.x = 1;
spaceshipPosition.y = 2;
Point missilePosition = new Point();

missilePosition.x = 1;
missilePosition.y = 2;
if ( spaceshipPosition == missilePosition )
{
Console.WriteLine("Bang");
}
Note that I've made the x and y members of the Point class public. This is because
I'm not that concerned about protecting them, but I do want my program to run quickly.
The problem is that the above program code does not work. Even though I have put the
spaceship and the missile at the same place on the screen the word Bang is not printed.
This is because although the two Point objects hold the same data, they are not
located at the same address in memory, which means that the equals test will fail.
Adding an Equals method

The way that you solve this problem is to provide a method which can be used to
compare the two points and see if they refer to the same place. To do this we must
override the standard Equals behaviour and add one of our own:

public override bool Equals(object obj)

{
Point p = (Point) obj;
if ( ( p.x == x ) && ( p.y == y ) )
{
return true;
}
else
{
return false;
}
}
The Equals method is given a reference to the thing to be compared. Note that this
reference is supplied as a reference to an object. The first thing we need to do is create
a reference to a Point. We need to do this because we want to get hold of the x and y
values from a Point (we can't get them from an object).
The object is cast into a Point and then the x and y values are compared. If they are
both the same the method returns true to the caller. This means that I can write code
like:
if ( missilePosition.Equals(spaceshipPosition) )
{
Console.WriteLine("Bang");
}
This test will work, because the Equals method actually compares the content of the
two points rather than just their references.
Note that I didn't actually need to override the Equals method, I could have written
one called TheSame which did the job. However, the Equals method is sometimes
used by C# library methods to see if two objects contain the same data and so
overriding Equals makes my class behave correctly as far as they are concerned.
Programmer’s Point:Make sure you use the right equals

As a programmer, I must remember that when I'm comparing objects to see if they contain the
same data I need to use the Equals method rather than the == operator. Some of the nastiest bugs
that I've had to fix have revolved around programmers who have forgotten which test to use. If
you are determined to get the right behaviour, C# provides a technology called "operator
overriding" where I can provide a new behaviour for the == operator. It is well worth investigating
this.
Objects and this

By now you should be used to the idea that we can use a reference to an object to get
hold of the members of that object. Consider:
public class Counter
{
public int Data=0;
public void Count ()
{
Data = Data + 1;
}
}
The class above has a single data member and a single method member. The data is a
counter. Each time the Count method is called the counter is made one larger. I can
use the class as follows:

Counter c = new Counter();

c.Count();
Console.WriteLine("Count : " + c.Data);
This calls the method and then prints out the data. We know that in this context the .
(dot) means "follow the reference to the object and then use this member of the class".
this as a reference to the current instance

I hate explaining this. I want to use the word this to mean this, but this also has a
special meaning within your C# programs. Perhaps the best way to get around the
problem is to remember that when I use the word this I mean "a reference to the
currently executing instance of a class". When a method in a class accesses a member
variable the compiler automatically puts a this. in front of each use of a member of
the class. In other words, the "proper" version of the Counter class is as follows:
public class Counter
{
public int Data=0;
public void Count ()
{
this.Data = this.Data + 1;
}
}
We can add a this. if we like to make it explicit that we are using a member of a
class rather than a local variable.
Passing a reference to yourself to other classes

Another use for this is when a class needs to provide a reference to itself to another
class that wants to use it. It can simply pass this as a parameter to a method call.
x.AddItem(this);
I call the method AddItem on x to give it a reference to the currently executing

object. If this hurts your head, then don't worry about it for now.
Confusion with this

I reckon that using this is a good idea. It means that people reading my code can tell
instantly whether I am using a local variable or a member of the class. However it
might take a bit of getting used to. If I have a member of my class which contains
methods, and I want to use one of those methods, I end up writing code like this:
this.account.SetName("Rob");
This means "I have a member variable in this class called account. Call the
SetName method on that member to set the name to 'Rob'".
Bank Notes: Good Manners are a Good Idea

It is considered good manners to provide the Equals and ToString methods in the
classes that you create. These will allow your classes to fit in with others in the C#
system. It is also very useful to make appropriate use of this when writing methods in
classes. When you start to create your bank account management system you should
arrange a meeting of all the programmers involved and make them aware that you will
be insisting on good mannered development like this. In fact, for a professional
approach you should set out standards which establish which of these methods you are

The power of strings and chars String Manipulation
going to provide. You will expect all programmers to write to these standards if they
take part in the project.
Programmer’s Point:Always provide an equals behaviour

The customer for our bank account management program is very keen that every single bank
account that is created is unique. If the bank ever contains two identical accounts this would cause
serious problems. The fact that everything in the system is required to be unique might lead you to
think that there is no need to provide a way to compare two Account instances for equality. “If the
system will never contain two things that are the same, why should I waste time writing code to
compare them in this way?”.
However, there is a very good reason why you might find an equals behaviour very useful. When you
write the part of the program which stores data and brings it back again you will find it very useful
to have a way of testing that what comes back from the store is identical to what you put there. In
this situation an equals behaviour is important, and so I reckon you should always provide one.
The power of strings and chars

It is probably worth spending a few moments considering the string type in a bit more
detail. This is because it gives you a lot of nice extra features which will save you a lot
of work. These are exposed as methods which you can call on a string reference. The
methods will return a new string, transformed in the way that you ask. You can sort out
the case of the text, trim spaces off the start and end and extract sub-strings using these
methods.
String Manipulation
Strings are rather special. I regard them as a bit like bats. A bat can be regarded as
either an animal or a bird in many respects. A string can be regarded as either an object
(referred to by means of a reference) or a value (referred to as a value).
This hybrid behaviour is provided because it makes things easier for us programmers.
However it does mean that we have to regard strings as a bit special when you are
learning to program, because they seem to break some of the rules that we have learnt.
String Transformation
It is very important that you understand what happens when you transform a string. This
is because, although strings are objects, they don't actually behave like objects all the
time.
string s1="Rob";
string s2=s1;
s2 = "different";
Console.WriteLine(s1 + " " + s2);
If you think you know about objects and references, you should be expecting s1 to
change when s2 is changed. This does not happen though, because C# regards an
instance of a string type in a special way. It calls it immutable. This is because
programmers want strings to behave a bit like values in this respect.

Immutable strings
The idea is that if you try to change a string, the C# system instead creates a new string
and makes the reference you are "changing" refer to the changed one. In other words,
when the system sees the line:
s2 = "different";
- it makes a new string which contains the text "different" and makes s2 refer to that.
The thing that s1 is referring to is unchanged. So, after the assignment s1 and s2 no
longer refer to the same object. This behaviour, never allowing a thing to be changed
by making a new one each time it is required, is how the system implements immutable.
You might ask the question: "Why go to all the trouble?" It might seem all this hassle
could be saved by just making strings into value types. Well, no. Consider the situation
where you are storing a large document in the memory of the computer. By using
references we only actually need one string instance with the word “the” in it. All the
occurrences in the text can just refer to that one instance. This saves memory and it also
makes searching for words much faster.
String Comparison
The special nature of strings also means that you can compare strings using equals and
get the behaviour you want:
if ( s1 == s2 )
{
Console.WriteLine("The same");
}
If s1 and s2 were proper reference types this comparison would only work if they
referred to the same object. But in C# the comparison works if they contain the same
text. You can use an equals method if you prefer:
if ( s1.Equals(s2) )
{
Console.WriteLine("Still the same");
}
String Editing
You can read individual characters from a string by indexing them as you would an
array:
char firstCh = name[0];
This would set the character variable firstCh to the first character in the string.
However, you can't change the characters:
name[0] = 'R';
- would cause a compilation error because strings are immutable.

You can pull a sequence of characters out of a string using the SubString method:
string s1="Rob";
s1=s1.Substring(1,2);
The first parameter is the starting position and the second is the number of characters to
be copied. This would leave the string "ob" in s1.(remember that strings are indexed
starting at location 0).
You can leave out the second parameter if you like, in which case all the characters up
to the end of the string are copied:

string s1="Miles";
s1=s1.Substring(2);
- would leave "les" in s1.
String Length
All of the above operations will fail if you try to do something which takes you beyond
the length of the string. In this respect strings are just like arrays. It is also possible to
use the same methods on them to find out how long they are:
Console.WriteLine ( "Length: " + s1.Length);
The length property gives the number of characters in the string.
Character case
Objects of type string can be asked to create new, modified, versions of themselves in
slightly different forms. You do this by calling methods on the reference to get the
result that you want:
s1=s1.ToUpper();
The ToUpper method returns a version of the string with all the letters converted to
UPPER CASE. No other characters in the string are changed. There is a corresponding
ToLower method as well.
Trimming and empty strings

Another useful method is Trim. This removes any leading or trailing spaces from the
string.
s1=s1.Trim();
This is useful if your users might have typed " Rob " rather than "Rob". If you don't
trim the text you will find equals tests for the name will fail. There are TrimStart
and TrimEnd methods to just take off leading or trailing spaces if that is what you
want. If you trim a string which contains only spaces you will end up with a string
which contains no characters (i.e. its length is zero).
Character Commands
The char class also exposes some very useful methods which can be used to check the
values of individual characters. These are static methods which are called on the
character class and can be used to test characters in a variety of ways:
char.IsDigit(ch) returns true if the character is a digit (0 to 9)
char.IsLetter(ch) returns true if the character is a letter (a to z or A
to Z)
char.IsLetterOrDigit(ch) returns true if the character is a letter or a digit
char.IsLower(ch) returns true if the character is a lower case letter
char.IsUpper(ch) returns true if the character is an upper case
letter
char.IsPunctuation(ch) returns true if the character is a punctuation
character
char.IsWhiteSpace(ch) returns true if the character is a space, tab or
newline

Properties Properties as class members
You can use these when you are looking through a string for a particular character.
String Twiddling with StringBuilder

If you really want to twiddle with the contents of your strings you will find the fact that
you can't assign to individual characters in the string a real pain. The reason you are
suffering is that strings are really design to hold strings, not provide a way that they can
be edited. For proper string editing C# provides a class called StringBuilder. It is
found in the System.Text namespace.
It works a lot like a string, but you can assign to characters and even replace one string
with another. It is also very easy to convert between StringBuilder instances and
strings. You should look this up if you have a need to do some proper editing.
Properties
Properties are a nice bit of sugar coating. They are a bit like the switch keyword,
which lets us select things easily. We don't need properties, but C# provides them
because they make programs slightly easier to write and simpler to read.
Properties as class members

A property is a member of a class that holds a value. We have seen that we can use a
member variable to do this kind of thing, but we need to make the member value
public. For example, the bank may ask us to keep track of staff members. One of the
items that they may want to hold is the age of a member of staff. I can do it like this:
public class StaffMember
{
public int Age;
}
The class contains a public member. I can get hold of this member in the usual way:
StaffMember s = new StaffMember();
s.Age = 21;
I can access a public member of a class directly; just by giving the name of the member.
The problem is that we have already decided that this is a bad way to manage our
objects. There is nothing to stop things like:
s.Age = -100210232;
This is very naughty, but because the Age member is public we cannot stop it.
Creating Get and Set methods

To get control and do useful things we can create get and set methods which are
public. These provide access to the member in a managed way. We then make the
Age member private and nobody can tamper with it:

Properties Using Properties

{
private int age;
public int GetAge()
{
return this.age;
}
public void SetAge( int inAge )
{
if ( (inAge > 0) && (inAge < 120) )
{
this.age = inAge;
}
}
}
We now have complete control over our property, but we have had to write lots of extra
code. Programmer’s who want to work with the age value now have to call methods:
s.SetAge(21);
Console.WriteLine ( "Age is : " + s.GetAge() );
Using Properties
Properties are a way of making the management of data like this slightly easier. An age
property for the StaffMember class would be created as follows:
{
private int ageValue;
public int Age

{
set
{
if ( (value > 0) && (value < 120) )
{
this.ageValue = value;
}
}
get
{
return this.ageValue;
}
}
}
The age value has now been created as a property. Note how there are get and set parts
to the property. These equate directly to the bodies of the get and set methods that I
wrote earlier. The really nice thing about properties is that they are used just as the
class member was:
s.Age = 21;
Console.WriteLine ( "Age is : " + s.Age );
When the Age property is given a value the set code is run. The keyword value
means “the thing that is being assigned”. When the Age property is being read the get
code is run. This gives us all the advantages of the methods, but they are much easier to
use and create.
I can do other clever things too:

Properties Properties and interfaces
public int AgeInMonths

{
get
{
return this.ageValue*12;
}
}
This is a new property, called AgeInMonths. It can only be read, since it does not
provide a set behaviour. However, it returns the age in months, based on the same
source value as was used by the other property. This means that you can provide
several different ways of recovering the same value.
You can also provide read-only properties by leaving out the set behaviour. Write only
properties are also possible if you leave out the get.
Properties and interfaces

Interfaces are a way that you can bring together a set of behaviours. They are packaged
as a list of methods which a class must contain if it implements the interfaces. It is also
possible to add properties to interfaces. You do this by leaving out the statements which
are the body of the get and set behaviours:
interface IStaff
{
int Age
{
get;
set;
}
}
This is an interface that specifies that classes which implement it must contain an Age
property with both get and set behaviours.
Property problems
Properties are really neat, and they are used throughout the classes in the .NET
libraries. But there are a few things that you need to be aware of when deciding whether
or not to use them:
Property Assignment Failure

We have seen that the set behaviour can reject values if it thinks they are out of range.
This is OK, but it has no way of telling the user of the property that this has happened.
With our Age property above the code:
s.Age = 121;
- would fail. However, the person performing the assignment would not be aware of
this, since there is no way that the property can return a value which indicates success
or failure. The only way that a property set method could do this would be to throw and
exception, which is not a good way to go on.
A SetAge method on the other hand could return a value which indicates whether or
not it worked:

Building a Bank Property problems
public bool SetAge( int inAge )

{
if ( (inAge > 0) && (inAge < 120) )
{
this.age = inAge;
return true;
}
return false;
}
A programmer setting the age value can now find out if the set worked or failed.
If there is a situation where a property assignment can fail I never expose that as a
property. I suppose that it would be possible to combine a set method and a get
property, but I reckon that would be madness.
Properties Run Code

When you assign a value to a property you are actually calling a method. Unfortunately
there is no way you can tell that from the code which does the assignment:
s.Age = 99;
This looks very innocent, but could result in a thousand lines of code running inside the
set property. It is possible to use this to advantage, in that an object can react to and
track property changes. But it can also be made very confusing.
Programmer’s Point:Don’t use new fangled stuff just because it is

there
Programmer’s love new shiny toys. They are very keen to use language features to show off.
Properties can be a bit like this. When considering properties versus get and set methods I am
rather a fan of the old fashioned get and set methods because you know where you are with these.
On the other hand I can see where properties might make life easier, if used in the correct way.
When you are deciding whether or not to use a language feature you need to ask yourself whether it
is the best way to do the job. If you are using a feature just because it is cool, you might not be
doing things the best way.
Building a Bank
We are now in a situation where we can create working bank accounts. We can use
interfaces to define the behaviour of a bank account component. This gives us a way of
creating new types of account as the bank business develops. What we now need is a
way of storing a large number of accounts. This container class will provide methods
which allow us to find a particular account based on the name of the holder. We can
express the behaviour that we need from our bank in terms of an interface:
interface IBank
{
IAccount FindAccount (string name);
bool StoreAccount (IAccount account);
}
A class which implements these methods can be used for the storage of accounts. I can
put an account into it and then get it back again:

IBank friendlyBank = new ArrayBank (50);

IAccount account = new CustomerAccount("Rob", 0);
if (friendlyBank.StoreAccount(account)) {
Console.WriteLine ( "Account stored OK" );
}
The code above creates a bank and then puts an account into it, printing out a message
if the storage worked.
Storing Accounts in an array

The class ArrayBank is a bank account storage system which works using arrays.
When you create an instance of an ArrayBank you tell it how many accounts you
want to store by means of the constructor. In the code above we are creating a bank
with enough room for references to 50 accounts. The constructor creates an array of the
appropriate size when it is called:
private IAccount [] accounts ;
public ArrayBank( int bankSize )

{
accounts = new IAccount[bankSize];
}
Note that it is very important that you understand what has happened here. We have not
created any accounts at all. What we have created is an array of references. Each
reference in the array can refer to an object which implements the IAccount
interface. But at the moment none of the references refer anywhere, they are all set to
null. When we add an account to the bank we simply make one of the references refer
to that account instance. We never place an account "in" the array; instead we put a
reference to that account in the array.
accounts
Name : "Rob"
Balance : 0
The diagram shows the state of the accounts array after we have stored our first
account. The light coloured elements are set to null. The element at the start of the
array contains a reference to the account instance.
The method to add an account to our bank has to find the first empty location in the
array and set this to refer to the account that has been added:

public bool StoreAccount (IAccount account)

{
int position = 0;
for (position = 0; position<accounts.Length; position++)
{
if (accounts[position] == null)
{
accounts[position] = account;
return true;
}
}
return false;
}
This method works through the array looking for an element containing null. If it finds
one it sets this to refer to the account it has been asked to store and then returns true.
If it does not find a null element before it reaches the end of the array it returns
false to indicate that the store has failed.
When we want to work on an account we must first find it. The bank interface provides
a method called FindAccount which will find the account which matches a
particular customer name:
IAccount fetchedAccount = arrayBank.FindAccount("Rob");
This will either return the account with the required name, or null if the account
cannot be found. In the array based implementation of the bank this is achieved by
means of a simple search:
public IAccount FindAccount ( string name )
{
int position=0 ;
for (position=0 ; position<accounts.Length ; position++)
{
if ( accounts[position] == null )
{
continue;
}
if ( accounts[position].GetName() == name )
{
return accounts[position];
}
}
return null;
}
This code works its way through the accounts array looking for an entry with a name
which matches the one being looked for. If it finds an element which contains a null
reference it skips past that onto the next one. If it reaches the end of the array without
finding a match it returns null, otherwise it returns a reference to the account that it
found.
Searching and Performance

The solution above will work fine, and could be used as the basis of a bank. However,
it becomes very slow as the size of the bank increases. Each time we add a new account
the searching gets slower as the FindAccount method must look through more and
more items to find that one. On a bank with only fifty accounts this is not a problem,
but if there are thousands of accounts this simple search will much to slow.

Storing Accounts using a Hash Table

Fortunately for us we can use a device called a "hash table" which allows us to easily
find items based on a key This is much faster than a sequential search, since it uses a
technique which will take us straight to the required item.
The idea is that we do something mathematical (called "hashing) to the information in
the search property to generate a number which can then be used to identify the location
where the data is stored.
For example, we could take all the letters in the account name string, look up the ASCII
code for each letter and then add these values up. The name "Rob" could be converted
to 82+111+98 = 291. We could look in location 291 for our account.
Of course this hash code is not foolproof, the name "Rpa" would give the same total
(82+112+97) and refer to the same location. This is poetically referred to as a "hash
clash". We can do clever things with the way we combine the values to reduce the
chances of this happening, but we can't completely avoid clashes.
Clashes can be resolved by adding a test when we are storing an account. If we find the
location we would like to use is not null we simply work our way down looking for the
first free location on from that point.
When we want to find a given item we use the hash to take us to the starting position
for the search and then look for the one with the matching name.
In short, the hash function gives us a starting point for our search, rather than always
looking from the beginning of the array in our simple array based code above. This
greatly speeds up access to the data.
Using the C# Hashtable collection

Fortunately for us the designers of the C# have created a hash table class for us to use.
This will store items for us based on a particular object which is called the key. It turns
out to be very easy to create a bank storage mechanism based on this:
class HashBank : IBank
{
Hashtable bankHashtable = new Hashtable();
public IAccount FindAccount(string name)

{
return bankHashtable[name] as IAccount;
}
public bool StoreAccount(IAccount account)

{
bankHashtable.Add(account.GetName(), account);
return true;
}
}
The Hashtable class can be found in the System.Collections namespace. It

provides a method called Add which is given the value of the key and a reference to the
item to be stored on that hash code. It also allows you to use a reference to the key (in
this case the name) to locate an item:
return bankHashtable[name] as IAccount;
We have to use the "as" part of this coded as the collection will return a reference to an
object. We want to return a reference to an instance which implements the
IAccount interface. The as operator is a form of casting (where we force the
compiler to regard an item as being of a particular type). It is used in preference to the
code:

Generics and Collections The ArrayList class
return (IAccount) bankHashtable[name];
The as operator has the advantage that if bankHashtable[name] does not return
an account, or returns something of the wrong type, the as operator will generate a
null reference. Since this is just what the caller of our FindAccount method is
expecting this can be returned back directly. If a cast fails (i.e. at run time the bank hash
table returns the wrong thing) our program will fail with an exception.
It is interesting to note that because we have implemented our bank behaviour using an
interface, we can very easily change the way that the account storage part of the
program works without changing anything else.
Bank Notes: Key properties are important

The action that is being performed here is exactly the same as what happens when you
use your cash card to draw some money from the bank. The cash machine uses
information on the card as a key to find your account record so that it can check your
balance value and then update it when the money has been withdrawn.
In our simple bank we only have a single key, which is the name of the account holder.
In a real bank the key will be more complex, and there may well be more than one, so
that they can search for an account holder by name, address or account number
depending on the information they have available.
When gathering metadata about a system you will often need to consider which of the
properties of an item will be key fields.
Generics and Collections

Generics are very useful. This statement probably doesn't tell you much about them or
what they do, but it does indicate that they are very useful. They sound a bit scary;
telling people you learned about "generics" probably conjures up images of people with
white coats and test tubes, at least amongst those who can't spell very well. But I
digress. I think the root of Generics is probably "general", in that the idea of them is
that you specify a general purpose operation and then apply it in different contexts in a
way appropriate to each of them. If this sounds a bit like abstraction and inheritance
you are sort of on the right track. If it doesn't, then it might be worth re-reading those
bits of the book until they make sense.
Perhaps the best way to talk about generics is to see how they can help us solve a
problem for the bank. We have just seen that we can store Account references in an
Array. But we know that when an array is created the programmer must specify exactly
how many elements it contains. This leads to a "straw that breaks the camel's back"
problem, where adding the 10,001st customer to the bank is not actually a cause for
celebration, because the array size was set at 10,000 and our program crashes.
One way to solve this problem is to use a really big array, but we aren't that keen on
that because it means that for smaller banks the program might be wasting a lot of
memory. Fortunately the C# libraries provide a number of solutions, starting with the
simple ArrayList.
The ArrayList class

The ArrayList is a cousin of the HashTable we have just seen, in that it lives in the
same Systems.Collections namespace. It lets us create something very useful,

an array that can grow in size. We can always add new elements to the ArrayList,
and some very clever code in the library makes sure that this works.
Creating an ArrayList
It is very easy to create an ArrayList:
ArrayList store = new ArrayList();
Note that you don't have to set the size of the ArrayList, although there are
overloaded constructors that let you give this information and help the library code
along a bit:
ArrayList storeFifty = new ArrayList(50);
The ArrayList called storeFifty is initially able to store 50 references, but it

can hold more or less as required.
Adding Items to an ArrayList

Adding items to an ArrayList is also very easy. The class provides an Add method:
Account robsAccount = new Account ();
store.Add(robsAccount);
It is important to remember what is going on here. We are not putting an Account

into the arraylist; we are instead making one element of the arraylist refer to that
account. In this respect the word Add can be a bit misleading, in that what it actually
does is add a reference, not the thing itself.
Remember that it would be perfectly possible to have robsAccount in multiple
arraylists, just like your name can appear on multiple lists in the real world. It might be
that the bank has many lists of customers. It will have a list of all the customers, along
with a list of "special" customers and perhaps another list of those who owe it the most
money. So, an item "in" an arraylist is never actually in it, the list actually contains a
reference to that item. When an item is removed from an arraylist, it is not necessarily
destroyed; it is just no longer on that list.
Accessing Items in an ArrayList

Items in arraylists can be accessed in just the same way as array elements, but with a
tricky twist. It would be very nice if we could just get hold of the account from the
arraylist and use it.
Account a = store[0];
a.PayInFunds(50);
Unfortunately this won't work. If you write this code you will get a compilation error.
The reason for this is that an arraylist holds a list of Object references. If you think
about it, this is the only thing that it could hold. The designers of the ArrayList
class had no idea precisely what type of object a programmer will want to use it with
and so they had to use the Object reference.
You will no doubt remember from the discussion of object hierarchies that an Object
reference can refer to an instance of any class (since they are all derived from Object)
and so that is the only kind of reference that the arraylist works with.
This is not actually a huge problem, because a program can use a cast to change the
type of the item the arraylist returns:

Account a = (Account) store[0];

a.PayInFunds(50);
This would get the element at the start of the arraylist, cast it into an Account class
and then pay fifty pounds into it.
A slightly larger problem is that an arraylist is not typesafe. This means that I can't be
sure that an arraylist you give me has nothing other than accounts in it:
KitchenSink k = new KitchenSink();
store.Add(k);
This puts a reference to a KitchenSink instance into our bank storage. This will
cause problems (and an exception) if we ever try to use it as an Account. To get a
properly typesafe Account storage we have to take a look at generics in detail a bit
later.
Removing Items from an ArrayList

It is not really possible to remove things from an array, but the arraylist class provides a
really useful Remove behaviour. This is given a reference to the thing to be removed:
store.Remove(robsAccount);
This removes the first occurrence of the reference robsAccount from the store
arraylist. If the store contained more than one reference to robsAccount then each
of them could be removed individually. Note that if the reference given is not actually
in the arraylist (i.e. if I ran the code above when store did not contain robsAccount)
this does not cause an error. If you remove an item the size of the arraylist is decreased.
Finding the size of an ArrayList

You can use the property Count to find out how many items there are in the list:
if (store.Count == 0)
{
Console.WriteLine("The bank is empty");
}
Checking to see if an ArrayList contains an item

The final trick I'm going to mention (but there are lots more things an arraylist can do
for you) is the Contains method. This is simply a quick way of finding out whether
or not an arraylist contains a particular reference.
if (a.Contains(robsAccount))
{
Console.WriteLine("Rob is in the bank");
}
The Contains method is given a reference to an object and returns true if the
arraylist contains that reference. You could of course write this behaviour yourself, but
having it built into the class makes it much easier.
ArrayLists and Arrays

Arraylists and arrays look a lot the same. They both let you store a large number of
items and you can use subscripts (the values in square brackets) to get hold of elements
from either. They also throw exceptions if you try to access elements that are not in the
array. If you wish you can use arraylists in place of arrays and have the benefits of

Generics and Collections The List class
storage that will grow and shrink as you need it, the only problem that you have is that
an arraylist will always hold references to objects, not any particular class. However,
this can be fixed when you move over to the List class.
The List class

The List class gives you everything that an arraylist gives you, with the advantage
that it is also typesafe. It is newer than the ArrayList class, being based on the
generic features provided by a more recent version of the C# language. To understand
how it works you have to understand a bit of generics.
Generics and Behaviours

If you think about it, the fundamental behaviours of arrays are always the same.
Whether you have an int, string, float or Account array the job that it does is
exactly the same. It holds a bunch of things in one place, and provides you with some
means to work with them. The abilities an array gives you with an array of integers are
exactly the same as those you have with an array of Accounts. And because each
array is declared as holding values of a particular type, C# can make sure that an array
always holds the appropriate type of values. The way that the system works, there is
just no way that you can take an Account reference and place it in element in an array
of integers. This is all to the good, but the ArrayList breaks things a bit.
The ArrayList was added afterwards, and because it is not quite as much a part of
the language as an array is, it has to use a compromise to allow it to hold references to
any kind of item in a program. It does this by using references to objects, but this can
lead to programs which are dangerous, in that there is nothing to stop references of any
type being added to an arraylist.
If you give me an array of Accounts I can be absolutely sure that everything in the
array is an account. However, if you give me an ArrayList there is no way I can be
sure that accounts are all it contains. It could contain a whole bunch of
KitchenSinks for all I know. And I only really find out when I start trying to
process elements as Accounts and my program starts to go wrong.
One way to solve this problem would have been to find a way of making the
ArrayList strongly typed, so that it because as much a part of C# as the array is.
However, that is not what the designers of C# did. Instead they introduced a new
language feature, generics.
Generics let me write code that deal with objects as "things of a particular type". It
doesn't matter what the thing I'm dealing with is, we can sort that out when we actually
want to work with something.
This sounds a bit confusing, how about an example.
If you wanted to share out marbles amongst you and your friends you could come up
with way of doing that. Something like: "Divide the number of marbles by the number
of friends and then distribute the remainder randomly". You now have a system that
lets you share marbles. However, you could also use it to share out sweets, cakes or
even cars. What the system works on is not particularly important. You could take your
universal sharing algorithm and use it to share most anything. The sharing algorithm
could have been invented without worrying about the type of the thing being shared; it
can be a general sharing behaviour that is then applied to the things we want to share. In
this respect, generics can be regarded as another form of abstraction.

Generics and Collections The Dictionary class
Generics and the List

In the case of generics, the behaviour you want is that of a list. What the list stores is
not important when making the list, just as long as you have a way of telling it what to
store. The C# features that provide generics add a few new notations to allow you to
express this. The List class lives in the System.Collections.Generic
namespace and works like this:
List<Account> accountList = new List<Account>();
The above statement creates a list called acountList which can hold references to
Accounts. The type between the < and > characters is how we tell the list the kind of
things it can store. We could create a List that can hold integers in a similar way:
List<int> scores = new List<int>();
Because we have told the compiler the type of things the list can hold it can perform
type validation and make sure that nothing bad happens when the list is used:
accountList.Add(k);
The above statements would cause a compilation error, since the acountList
variable is declared as holding a list of Account references, and will not accept the
kitchen sink.
Since the compiler knows that AccountList holds Account references, this means
that you can write code like this:
accountList[0].PayInFunds(50);
There is no need to cast the item in the list as the type has already been established.
You can do everything with a List (Add, Count, Remove) that you can with an
ArrayList, which makes them the perfect way to store a large number of items of a
particular type.
The Dictionary class

Just as ArrayList has a more powerful, generically enhanced, cousin called List,
so the HashTable has a more powerful cousin called Dictionary. This allows the
key to your hashtable, and the items it stores, to be made typesafe. For example, we
might want to use the name of an account holder as a way of locating a particular
account. In other words, we have a string as the key and an Account reference as the
value. We can create a dictionary to hold these key/value pairs as follows:
Dictionary<string,Account> accountDictionary =
new Dictionary<string,Account>();
We can now add items into our dictionary:

accountDictionary.Add("Rob", robsAccount);
This looks just like the way the HashTable was used (and it is). However, using a
Dictionary has the advantage that we can only add Account values which are
located by means of a string. In other words statements like this would be rejected.
accountDictionary.Add("Glug", k);
A further advantage is that we do not need to cast the results:

d["Rob"].PayInFunds(50);
This would find the element with the hash key "Rob" and then pay fifty pounds into it.
The only problem with this use of a dictionary is that if there is no element with the key

Storing Business Objects Writing Generic Code
"Rob" the attempt to find one will result in a KeyNotFoundException being

thrown. You can get around this by asking the dictionary if it contains a particular key:
if (d.ContainsKey("Rob")) {
Console.WriteLine("Rob is in the bank");
}
The Dictionary class is simply wonderful for storing keys and values in a typesafe
manner, and I recommend it strongly to you.
Writing Generic Code

The List and Dictionary classes were of course written in C# and make use of the
generic features of the language. How these features are used to create generic classes
is a bit beyond the scope of this text, but you are strongly advised to find out more
about generics as it can make writing code, particularly library routines, a lot easier.
Programmer’s Point:Use Dictionary and List

You don't really have to know a lot about generics to be able to spot just how useful these two
things are. Every time you need to hold a bunch of things, make a List. If you want to be able to find
things on the basis of a key, use a Dictionary. Don't have any concerns about performance. The
programmers who wrote these things are very clever folks .
Storing Business Objects

For our bank to really work we have to have a way of storing the bank accounts and
bringing them back again. If we want to our program to be able to process a large
number of accounts we know that we have to create an array to manage this. This
means that our data storage requirements are that we should load all the accounts into
memory when the program starts, and then save them when the program completes.
To start with, we'll consider how we save one account. Then we can move on to
consider the code which will save a large number of them. The account that we are
going to work with only has two members but the ideas we are exploring can be
extended to handle classes containing much larger amounts of data. We can express the
required account bahviour in terms of the following interface:
{
string GetName();
}
All the accounts in the bank are going to be managed in terms of objects which
implement this interface to manage the balance and read the name of the account
owner.
W can create a class called CustomerAccount which implements the interface and
contains the required methods. It also has a constructor which allows the initial name
and balance values to be set when the account is created.

Storing Business Objects Saving an Account
public class CustomerAccount : IAccount

{
public CustomerAccount(
string newName,
decimal initialBalance)
{
name = newName;
balance = initialBalance;
}


{
{
return false;
}
return true;
}

{
}

{
return balance;
}
public string GetName()

{
return name;
}
}
Note that this version of the class does not perform any error checking of the input
values, so it is not what I would call "production" code, but it is just here to illustrate
how the data in the class can be saved and restored.
Saving an Account
The best way to make achieve the saving behaviour is to make an account responsible
for saving itself. In fact, if you think about it, this is the only way that we can save an
account, since any save mechanism would need to save data in the account which is
private and therefore only visible to methods inside the class.
We can add a Save method to our CustomerAccount class:

Storing Business Objects Loading an Account
public bool Save ( string filename )

{
try
{
System.IO.TextWriter textOut =
new System.IO.StreamWriter(filename);
textOut.WriteLine(name);
textOut.WriteLine(balance);
textOut.Close();
}
catch
{
return false;
}
return true;
}
This method is given the name of the file that the account is to be stored int. It writes
out the name of the customer and the balance of the account..So I could do things like:
if (Rob.Save ("outputFile.txt")) {
Console.WriteLine ("Saved OK");
}
This would ask the account referred to by Rob to save itself in a file called
"outputFile.txt". Note that I have written the code so that if the file output fails the
method will return false, to indicate that the save was not successful.
Loading an Account
Loading is slightly trickier than saving. When we save an account we have an account
which we want to save. When we load there will not be an account instance to load
from. A way to get around this is to write a static method which will create an account
given a filename:
public static CustomerAccount Load(string filename)
{
CustomerAccount result = null;
System.IO.TextReader textIn = null;
try
{
textIn = new System.IO.StreamReader(filename);
string nameText = textIn.ReadLine();
string balanceText = textIn.ReadLine();
decimal balance = decimal.Parse(balanceText);
result = new CustomerAccount(nameText,balance);
}
catch {
return null;
}
finally
{
if (textIn != null) textIn.Close() ;
}
return result;
}
This method opens a file, fetches the balance value and then creates a new
CustomerAccount with the balance value and name.
The Load method above takes great pains to ensure that if anything bad happens it
does a number of things:
1. It does not throw any exceptions which the caller must catch.
2. It returns null to indicate that the load failed if anything bad happens.

Storing Business Objects Multiple Accounts
3. It makes sure that the file it opens is always closed.

This is what I would call a "professional" level of quality, and is something you should
aim for when writing code you are going to sell.
We can use this as follows:
test = CustomerAccount.Load("test.txt");
This kind of method is sometimes called a “factory” method, in that it creates an

instance of a class for us. If the factory fails (because the file cannot be found or does
not contain valid content) it will return a null result, which we can test for:
if (test == null)
{
Console.WriteLine("Loaded failed");
}
Programmer’s Point:There is only so much you can do

Note that if an incompetent programmer used my Load method above they could forget to test the
result that it returns and then their program would follow a null reference if the customer is not
found. This means that their program will fail in this situation. And they will probably try and blame
me for the problem (which would be very unfair).
The way around this is to make sure that you document the null return behaviour in big letters so
that users are very aware of how the method behaves. You can also get code analysis tools which
are bit like "compilers with attitude" (a good one is called FxCop). These scan programs for
situations where the results of methods are ignored and flag these up as potential errors. At the
end of the day though there is not a great deal you can do if idiots use your software, you just have
to make sure that, whatever happens, your part doesn’t break.
Multiple Accounts
The above code lets us store and load single accounts. However, at the moment we can
only store one account in a file. We could create a new file for each account, but this
would be confusing and inefficient, with large numbers of file open and close actions
being required (bear in mind that our bank may contain thousands of accounts).
Using streams
A better solution is to give the file save method a stream to save itself, rather than a
filename. A stream is the thing that the C# library creates when we open a connection
to a file:
System.IO.TextWriter textOut =
new System.IO.StreamWriter("Test.txt");
The reference textOut refers to a stream which is connected to the file Test.txt. We
can create a save method which accepts the stream reference as a parameter instead of a
filename:
public void Save(System.IO.TextWriter textOut)
{
textOut.WriteLine(name);
textOut.WriteLine(balance);
}
This save method can be called from our original file save method:

Storing Business Objects Multiple Accounts
public bool Save ( string filename )

{
System.IO.TextWriter textOut = null;
try
{
textOut = new System.IO.StreamWriter(filename);
Save(textOut);
}
catch
{
return false;
}
finally
{
if (textOut != null)
{
textOut.Close();
}
}
return true;
}
This method creates a stream and then passes it to the save method to save the item.
Note that this is an example of overloading in that we have two methods which share
the same name.
The load method for our bank account can be replaced by one which works in a similar
way.
public static CustomerAccount Load(
System.IO.TextReader textIn)
{
CustomerAccount result = null;
try
{
string name = textIn.ReadLine();
result = new CustomerAccount(name, balance);
}
catch
{
return null;
}
return result;
}
This method is supplied with a text stream. It reads the name and the balance from this
stream and creates a new CustomerAccount based on this data.
Programmer’s Point:Streams are wonderful

Using streams is a very good idea. The C# input/output system lets us connect streams to all
manner of things, not just files on a disk. For example, you can create a stream which is connected
to a network port. This means that if you make your business objects save and load themselves using
streams they can then be sent over network connections with no extra work from you.
Saving and loading bank accounts

Now that we have a way of saving multiple accounts to a single stream we can write a
save method for the bank. This will open a stream and save all the accounts to it:

Storing Business Objects Handling different kinds of accounts

{
textOut.WriteLine(bankHashtable.Count);
foreach (CustomerAccount account in bankHashtable.Values)
{
account.Save(textOut);
}
}
This is the Save method which would be added to our Hashtable based bank. It gets
each account out of the hash table and saves it in the given stream. Note that we are
using a new C# loop construction here, foreach. This is very useful when dealing
with collections of data. It works its way through a collection, in this case the Values
property of the bankHashtable, and supplies each item in turn.
Note that before it writes anything it writes out the number of customers in the bank.
This can be obtained via the Count property of the Hashtable. We do this is so that
when the bank is read back in the load method knows how many accounts are required.
We could just write out the data and then let the load method stop when it reaches the
end of the file, but this would not allow us to detect if the file had been shortened.
The Load method for the entire bank is as follows:
public static HashBank Load(System.IO.TextReader textIn)
{
HashBank result = new HashBank();
string countString = textIn.ReadLine();
int count = int.Parse(countString);
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++)

{
CustomerAccount account = CustomerAccount.Load(textIn);
result.bankHashtable.Add(account.GetName(), account);
}
return result;
}
This reads the size of the bank and then reads each of the accounts in turn and adds it to
the hash table. Note that this load method does not handle errors. A production version
of the program would check that each account was loaded correctly before adding it to
the hash table.
Bank Notes: Large Scale Data Storage

What we have done is created a way that we can store a large number of bank account
values in a single file. We have done this without sacrificing any cohesion, in that only
the CurrentAccount class is responsible for the content. We have also been very
careful to make sure that whenever we save and load data we manage the way that this
process can fail.
Handling different kinds of accounts

The code above will work correctly if all we want to save and load are accounts of a
particular type, in that everything is written in terms of the CurrentAccount class.
However, we have seen that our customer needs the program to be able to handle many
different kinds of account.
Health Warning
This is complicated stuff. I don't expect you to understand this at first reading. The
reason that it is here is for completeness. Having told you all about class hierarchies

and how useful it is to be able to base a new class on an existing one (as we did with
BabyAccount) it would be most unfair of me to leave you guessing as to how these
things can be stored and retrieved. This material is provided to give you an idea of how
you really could make a working bank, but it assumes a very good understanding of
class hierarchies, method overriding/overloading and constructor chaining.
The good news is that when you do understand this stuff you really can call yourself a
fully fledged C# programmer.
Banks and Flexibility

We know that when our system is actually used in a bank there will be a range of
different kinds of account class, some of which will be based on others. As an example,
we have previously discussed the BabyAccount, a special account for young people
which limits the amount that can be withdrawn to no more than 10 pounds. The
customer has also asked that the BabyAccount class contains the name of the
"parent" account holder. We could implement such behaviour by creating an account
which extends the CustomerAccount class and adds the required behaviours and
properties:
public class BabyAccount : CustomerAccount
{
private string parentName;
public string GetParentName()

{
return parentName;
}
public override bool WithdrawFunds(decimal amount)

{
if (amount > 10)
{
return false;
}
}
public BabyAccount(
string newName,
decimal initialBalance,
string inParentName)
: base(newName, initialBalance)
{
parentName = inParentName;
}
}
This is a complete BabyAccount implementation. It contains an additional property,

parentName, and overrides the WithdrawFunds method to provide the new
behaviour. Note that I have created a constructor which is supplied with the name of the
account holder, the starting balance and the name of the parent. This makes use of the
constructor in the parent to set the balance and name, and then sets the parent name. I
can create a BabyAccount as follows:
BabyAccount babyJane = new BabyAccount ("Jane", 20, "John");
This would create a new BabyAccount instance and set the reference babyJane to
refer to it.

Saving a child class

When we want to save a BabyAccount we also need to save the information from the
parent class. This turns out to be very easy, as long as we use the save method which
sends the information to a stream:
public override void Save(System.IO.TextWriter textOut)
{
base.Save(textOut);
textOut.WriteLine(parentName);
}
This method overrides the Save method in the parent CustomerAccount.

However, it first calls the overridden method in the parent to save the
CustomerAccount data. Then it performs the save behaviour required by the
BabyAccount class. This is very good design, as it means that if the data content and
save behaviour of the parent class changes we don't need to change the behaviour of the
child.
Loading a child class

We could create a static load method for the BabyAccount which reads in the
information and constructs a new BabyAccount:
public static BabyAccount Load(
System.IO.TextReader textIn)
{
BabyAccount result = null;
try
{
string name = textIn.ReadLine();
string parent = textIn.ReadLine();
result = new BabyAccount (name, balance, parent);
}
catch
{
return null;
}
return result;
}
However, I'm not particularly keen on this approach. This method breaks one of the
rules of good design, in that we now have a dependency between the two classes which
means that when I change the CustomerAccount class (perhaps to add a new field
called customerPIN) I also have to update the Load method in the BabyAccount
class to make sure that this extra data is loaded. If I forget to do this the program will
compile, but when it runs it will not work correctly.
What we really want to do is make the CustomerAccount responsible for loading
its data and the BabyAccount just look after its content; in a similar way to the way
the save method uses the base keyword to save the parent object.
The way to do this is to go back to the construction process. We know that a
constructor is a method which gets control when an instance of a class is being created.
A constructor can be used to set up the data in the instance, and it can be passed
information to allow it to do this. In the code above there is a constructor for the
BabyAccount class which accepts the three data items that the BabyAccount
holds and then sets the instance up with these values.
What we do is create constructors for the CustomerAccount and BabyAccount
classes which read their information from a stream that is supplied to them:

public CustomerAccount(System.IO.TextReader textIn)

{
name = textIn.ReadLine();
balance = decimal.Parse(balanceText);
}
This constructor sets up the new CustomerAccount instance by reading the values
from the stream that is supplied with. I can therefore write code like this:
System.IO.TextReader textIn =
new System.IO.StreamReader(filename);
result = new CustomerAccount(textIn);
textIn.Close();
This creates a new CustomerAccount from the stream. Now I can create a
constructor for the BabyAccount which uses the constructor of the parent class:
public BabyAccount(System.IO.TextReader textIn) :
base (textIn)
{
parentName = textIn.ReadLine();
}
This removes the dependency relationship completely. If the behaviour of the

CustomerAccount constructor changes we do not have to change the
BabyAccount at all.
Note that these constructors do not do any error checking, they just throw exceptions if
something goes wrong. Bearing in mind that the only way that a constructor can fail is
to throw an exception anyway, this is reasonable behaviour.
Interfaces and the save operation

When we started this account development we set out an interface which describes all
the things which an instance of an account should be able to do. At the start this did not
include the save behaviours, but it could be updated to include them:
{
string GetName();
bool Save(string filename);

void Save(System.IO.TextWriter textOut);
}
We can now ask any item which implements the IAccount interface to save itself to
either a file or a stream. This is very useful when we store our collection of accounts,
since the account container will not have to behave differently depending on what kind
of account it is saving, it just has to call the save method for the particular instance.
This is a good idea.
Loading and factories

When it comes to loading our classes back, things get a little trickier. You might think it
would be sensible to add load methods to the IAccount interface, so that we can ask
instances of a particular kind of account to load themselves. However, there is a
problem here, in that when we are loading the accounts we don't actually have an
instance to call any methods on. Also, bearing mind we are reading from a stream of
data, we don't actually know what kind of item we are loading.

The solution to this problem is to identify the type of each instance in the steam when
we save the classes. The save method for our bank could look like this:
{
textOut.WriteLine(bankHashtable.Count);
foreach (CustomerAccount account in bankHashtable.Values)
{
textOut.WriteLine(account.GetType().Name);
account.Save(textOut);
}
}
This looks very like our original method, except that it has an additional line, which has
been highlighted. This writes out the name of the class. It makes use of the method
GetType(), which can be called on an instance of a class to get the type of that class.
Having got the type we can then get the Name property of this type and print that. In
other words, if the account is of type CustomerAccount the program will output:
CustomerAccount
Rob
100
The output now contains the name of the type of each class that has been written. This
means that when the stream is read back in this information can be used to cause the
correct type of class to be created. The neatest way to do this is to create a factory
which will produce instances of the required class:
class AccountFactory
{
public static IAccount MakeAccount(
string name, System.IO.TextReader textIn)
{
switch (name)
{
case "CustomerAccount":
return new CustomerAccount(textIn);
case "BabyAccount":
return new BabyAccount(textIn);
default:
return null;
}
}
}
This class only contains a single method, which is static. The method is given two
parameters, the name of the class to be created and a stream to read from. It uses the
name to decide which item to make, creates one, and then returns that to the caller. If
the name is not recognized it returns null. The bank load method can use this factory
to create instances of accounts as they are loaded:

Business Objects and Editing Handling different kinds of accounts
public static HashBank Load(System.IO.TextReader textIn)

{
HashBank result = new HashBank();
string countString = textIn.ReadLine();
int count = int.Parse(countString);
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++)

{
string className = textIn.ReadLine();
IAccount account =
AccountFactory.MakeAccount(className, textIn);
result.bankHashtable.Add(account.GetName(), account);
}
return result;
}
Again, this looks very like our original load method, except that it uses the factory to
make account instances once it has read the name of the class from the stream.
Factory Dependencies
Note that we now have a genuine dependency between our system and the factory class.
If we ever add a new type of account we need to update the behavioru of the factory so
that it contains a case to deal with the new account type. There is in fact a way of
removing the need to do this. It involves writing code which will search for C# classes
which implement particular interfaces and creating them automatically. However this
kind of stuff is beyond the scope of this text.
Bank Notes: Messy Code

You might think that the solutions above are rather messy. The way that we manage the
saving of items (by using a method in the class) loading (by using a constructor) is not
symmetrical. However, there is no dishonour in this way of working. When you want to
move from objects to storage and back you will find that you hit these issues and this
solution is as good as any I've found.
Business Objects and Editing

We have seen how to design a class which can be used to hold information about the
customers in our bank. We now also know how to save the information in a class
instance, and also perform this for a large number of items of a range of different types.
Now we need to consider how we can make our account management system genuinely
useful, by providing a user interface which lets people interact with our business objects
to run the bank.
Programmer’s Point:Production Code

From now on all the code examples are going to be given in the context of production code. This is
code which I would be happy to have supplied in a product. This means that I will be considering
what things you should look at when you are writing code for real customers. This might make the
examples a bit more complex that you might like, but I reckon this is worth doing since it is
important you start to understand that what you are writing now, and the problems you are
grappling with, are just those that "real" programmers are up against.

Business Objects and Editing The role of the Business Object
The role of the Business Object

We have taken a very strict line in our banking system to stop any of the bank account
components from actually talking to the user. This is because classes like
CustomerAccount are what is called business objects. It is not their job to talk to
users; they are strictly concerned with keeping track of the information in the bank
account of the customer. The job of the business object is to make sure that the data
that it holds is always correct. The editing behaviours should make use of the methods
that the business object exposes.
Managing a bank account name

As an example, consider the name of the bank account holder. It is important that this is
always stored safely but people may want to change their name from time to time. This
means that the business object must provide a way that the name can be changed.
However, there is more to it than just changing one string for another. The new name
must be a valid one. This means that the account must be able to reject names it doesn't
like. If it is going to reject names it would be very useful to the user if they could be
told why a given name was not valid, so the validation process should provide feedback
as to why it did not work.
A good software engineer would provide something like this:
public string GetName()

{
return this.name;
}
public static string ValidateName ( string name )

{
if ( name == null ) {
return "Name parameter null";
}
string trimmedName = name.Trim();
if ( trimmedName.Length == 0 )
{
return "No text in the name";
}
return "";
}
public bool SetName ( string inName )

{
string reply ;
reply = ValidateName(inName);
if ( reply.Length > 0 )
{
return false;
}
this.name = inName.Trim();
return true;
}
The name is stored as a private member of the account class. The programmer has
provided three methods which let the users of my Account class deal with names.
There is a method to get the name, another to set it and another to validate it. The
validate method is called by the set method so that my business object makes sure that
an account never has an invalid name. The validate method will reject a name string
which is empty, or just contains spaces. It trims off all the spaces before and after the

name text and then checks to see if the length of the resulting string is empty. If it is, the
string is rejected.
I provide the validate method so that users of my class can check their names to make
sure that they are valid. This does not involve me in much extra work, since I also use
the method myself when I validate the name. The validate method returns a string
which gives an error message if the string is rejected. There may be several reasons
why a name is not valid, at the moment I've just given two. The reasons why a name is
invalid are of course part of the metadata for the project. I’ve also made this method
static so that names can be validated without needing to have an actual instance of
the account.
Testing Name Handling

Of course, once we have these methods, the natural thing to do is create tests for them:
string reply;
reply = CustomerAccount.ValidateName(null);
if (reply != "Name parameter null")
{
Console.WriteLine("Null name test failed");
}
reply = CustomerAccount.ValidateName("");
if (reply != "No text in the name")
{
Console.WriteLine("Empty name test failed");
}
reply = CustomerAccount.ValidateName(" ");
if (reply != "No text in the name")
{
Console.WriteLine("Blank string name test failed");
}
CustomerAccount a = new CustomerAccount("Rob", 50);
if (!a.SetName("Jim"))
{
Console.WriteLine("Jim SetName failed");
}
if ( a.GetName() != "Jim" ) {
Console.WriteLine("Jim GetName failed");
}
if (!a.SetName(" Pete "))
{
Console.WriteLine("Pete trim SetName failed");
}
if ( a.GetName() != "Pete" )
{
Console.WriteLine("Pete GetName failed");
}
These are all the tests I could think of. First I test ValidateName to make sure that it
rejects both kinds of empty string. Then I make sure that I can set the name on an
account. Finally I check that the space trimming for the names works correctly.

Programmer’s Point:Use Numbers Not Messages

There is one issue which I have not addressed in my sample programs which stops them from being
completely perfect. And that is the matter of error handling. At the moment the errors supplied by
my validation methods are strings. In a genuine production environment the errors would be numeric
values. This is because they are much easier to compare in tests and it also means that my program
could be made to work in a foreign language very easily. All I would need is a lookup table to convert
the message number to an appropriate string in the currently active language. You should consider
issues like this as part of the metadata in your project. The fact that the system must work in
France and Germany is something you need to be aware of right at the start.
Editing the Name

We now have a business object that provides methods which let us edit the name value.
I can now write code to edit this property:
while (true)
{
Console.Write ( "Enter new name : " ) ;
newName = Console.ReadLine();
string reply;
reply = account.ValidateName(newName);
if ( reply.Length == 0 )
{
break;
}
Console.WriteLine( "Invalid name : " + reply );
}
account.SetName(newName);
This code will perform the name editing for an account instance referred to by
account. It will read a new name in. If the name is valid the loop is broken and the
name is set. If the name is not valid the message is printed and the loop repeats. This is
not the most elegant solution, but it does keep the user informed of what it is doing and
it does work. Now that we have our edit code we need to put it somewhere.
Creating an Editor class

The best way to do this is to create a class which has the job of doing the editing. This
class will work on a particular account that needs to be edited. There will be a
dependency between the editor class and the account class, in that if the account class
changes the editor may need to be updated, but this is something we will just have to
live with.
When I want to edit an account I create an editor instance and pass it a reference to the
account instance:

public class AccountEditTextUI

{
private IAccount account;
public AccountEditTextUI(Account inAccount)

{
this.account = inAccount;
}
public void EditName ()

{
string newName;
Console.WriteLine("Name Edit");
while (true)
{
Console.Write ( "Enter new name : " ) ;
newName = Console.ReadLine();
string reply;
reply = this.account.ValidateName(newName);
if ( reply.Length == 0 )
{
break;
}
Console.WriteLine( "Invalid name : " + reply );
}
this.account.SetName(newName);
}
}
This is my account editor class. At the moment it can only edit the name, but I will add
other edit methods later. The class keeps track of the account it is editing, I pass it a
reference to this account when I construct it. I would use the name editor as follows:
CustomerAccount a = new CustomerAccount("Rob", 50);
AccountEditTextUI edit = new AccountEditTextUI(a);
edit.EditName();
This code creates an instance of a customer account. It then creates an editor object and
asks it to edit the name of that account.
Note that the editor class is passed a reference to the IAccount interface, not a
references to the account class. This means that anything which behaves like an account
can be edited using this class. Note also that the editor remembers the account class that
is being edited so that when I call EditName it can work on that reference.
Programmer’s Point:Get used to passing references around

It is important that you get used to the idea of passing references between methods. If I want to
"give" a class something to work on I will do this by calling a method in that class and passing the
reference as a parameter to this method. In the case of the above code the method that I am
calling is actually the constructor, but the principle remains the same.

Business Objects and Editing A Text Based Edit System
A Text Based Edit System

We now have a single method in our editor class which can be used to edit the name of
a bank account. What we really want is a menu system which takes a command from
the user and performs that function:
Editing account for Pete
Enter name to edit name
Enter pay to pay in funds
Enter draw to draw out funds
Enter exit to exit program
Enter command :
The user types in the name of the command that is required and then the program
selects that function. My edit class contains a method which does this:
public void DoEdit (CustomerAccount account)
{
string command;
do
{
Console.WriteLine ( "Editing account for {0}", account.GetName() );
Console.WriteLine ( " Enter name to edit name" );
Console.WriteLine ( " Enter pay to pay in funds" );
Console.WriteLine ( " Enter draw to draw out funds" );
Console.WriteLine ( " Enter exit to exit program" );
Console.Write ("Enter command : ");
command = Console.ReadLine();
command = command.Trim();
command = command.ToLower();
switch ( command )
{
case "name" :
EditName(account);
break;
case "pay" :
PayInFunds(account);
break;
case "draw" :
WithDrawFunds(account);
break;
}
} while ( command != "exit" );

}
This is my edit method which repeatedly reads commands and dispatches them to the
appropriate method. I've extended the account class to manage the account balance and
added edit methods which pay in funds and withdraw them. Note that I trim the
command string and convert it to lower case before using it to drive the switch
construction which selects the command.
The edit method is passed a reference to the account which is being edited. It then
passes that reference to the service methods which will do the actual work.

A Graphical User Interface Creating a Form
Programmer’s Point:Every Message Counts

You should remember that every time your program sends text to the user you may have a problem
with language. The menu for my bank account edit method sample code prints out text which is hard
wired to English. In a properly written program this would be managed in terms of message numbers
to make it easier to change the text which is output.
As a general rule in a production system you should never write out straight text to your user (this
includes the names of commands that the user might type in). Everything should be managed in
terms of message numbers. The only exception to this is the situation where the customer has
assured you that the program will only ever be written for use in a particular language. The C#
libraries contain a set of resources which help you manage the internationalization of your
programs.
Bank Notes: More Than One User Interface

The bank may have a whole range of requirements for editing account details. These
will range from an operator in a call centre, an operator on a dial up terminal, a
customer on a mobile phone and a customer at a cash machine. I hope that you can see
that the only way we can manage all these different ways of interacting with the bank
account is to separate the business object (the account itself) from the input/output
behaviour.
Note that we never do things like allow the user interface code to decide what
constitutes a valid name. This question is not the responsibility of the front end. The
only thing that can decide on the validity of a name is the account object itself. The user
interface must always work on the basis that it will use the business object to perform
this kind of validation.
A Graphical User Interface

It should come as no surprise that a graphical user interface on the screen is represented
by objects. When we are dealing with windows on the screen our program is actually
calling methods in the objects to make them do things like change size and colour.
Creating a Form
If I want a form on the screen for the user to interact with, I need to create an instance
of an object to do this for me. The object that I create is a Form. This class can be
found in the System.Windows.Forms namespace. I can create an instance of this
class and ask it to do things for me:

using System.Windows.Forms;
class FormsDemo
{
{
Form f = new Form();
f.ShowDialog();
}
}
The Form class provides a method called ShowDialog. This asks the form to show
itself and pause the program until the form is closed. If I run the program above the
following appears on the screen:
When the window is closed with the red button, it disappears and the program ends.
Adding Components to a Form

A form is a container. It can 'contain' a number of graphical components which are
used to build the user interface. We must create the components and add them to the
form to make our user interface. For example, to add a label to the form we can do the
following:
class FormsDemo
{
{
Label title = new Label ();
title.Text="Hello";
f.Controls.Add(title);
f.ShowDialog();
}
}
This creates a label, sets the text property of the label to “Hello” and then adds it to the
controls which are contained by the frame. The result of this code is a form which looks
like this:
I can fiddle with the properties of a component to move it around on the screen and do
lots of interesting things:

using System.Drawing;
class FormsDemo
{
{
Label title = new Label ();
title.Text="Hello";
title.Top=50;
title.Left=50;
title.ForeColor = Color.Red;
title.BackColor = Color.Yellow;
f.Controls.Add(title);
f.ShowDialog();
}
}
The position on the screen is given in pixels (a pixel being an individual dot on the
screen). The origin (i.e. the pixel at 0,0) is in the top left hand corner of the screen.
The Color class is found in the System.Drawing namespace. It provides a whole
set of static colour values and also lets you create your own colours by setting the
intensity of the red, green and blue components. The program above would display a
form as below:
By adding a number of labels on the form and positioning them appropriately we can
start to build up a user interface.
Editing Text with a TextBox Component

Displaying labels is all very well, but what I want to do is provide a way that the name
text can be edited. The Windows Forms library provides a TextBox component which
is used for this. This is a component just like a label, but it provides text edit behaviour.
I can set the text property of the TextBox to the text I want to have edited. The user
can then enter text into the textbox and modify it. I can then read the text property back
when I want the updated value.
The TextBox gives me a great deal of functionality for very little effort on my part. It
lets the user cut and paste text in and out of the box using the Windows clipboard. It
lets the user type in huge amounts of text and scrolls the text around to make it fit in the
box. In short, it behaves like every text field you've ever used on a windows screen.
This is because it is actually the same thing as every text field you've ever used.
I can create and use a TextBox in my program as follows:

class FormsDemo
{
public static void Main()
{
Label nameLabel = new Label();

nameLabel.Text="Name";
nameLabel.Top=50;
nameLabel.Left=0;
f.Controls.Add(nameLabel);
TextBox nameTextBox = new TextBox();

nameTextBox.Top=50;
nameTextBox.Left=100;
nameTextBox.Text = "Rob";
f.Controls.Add(nameTextBox);
f.ShowDialog();
}
}
I've fiddled slightly with the position of the label and given it a more sensible name.
I've also set the name text we are editing to be Rob, just to show how the components
work. If you run this program you get a form as follows:
This is not particularly flashy, but it is not bad for 25 or so lines of code. It also lets you
change the text in the name for whatever you want. But at the moment we have no way
of signalling when the edit has been finished. For that we need a button which we can
press to cause an event.
The Button Component

What we want is a button that the user can press when they have finished editing the
name. This will trigger my program to store the updated name and close the form down.
You have pressed buttons like these thousands of times when you have used programs.
Now we are going to find out how to make one work.
A Button is just like any other component. I can place it on the form and manage its
position just like any other:

A Graphical User Interface Events and Delegates
class FormsDemo
{
{
nameLabel.Top=50;
nameLabel.Left=0;

nameTextBox.Top=50;
Button finishButton = new Button();

finishButton.Top=80;
finishButton.Left=100;
finishButton.Text="Finished";
f.Controls.Add(finishButton);
f.ShowDialog();
}
}
This gives me a button on the form which I can press:
However at the moment nothing happens when the button goes down. To get this to
work we have to bind a method in our program to the event which is generated when
the button is pressed. The windows forms system uses delegates to manage this.
Events and Delegates

Events are things that happen. (well, duh). Up until now our programs have run from
beginning to end. When the program wants something from the user it waits patiently
until that information is supplied (usually by means of a call of the ReadLine
method). In the early days of computers this is how they were all used. At any given
instant the program was either running through code or waiting for input. Nowadays
program use is quite different. Users expect to interact with items on a screen by
pressing "buttons" and triggering different actions inside the program.
This means that they way our programs work has to change. Rather than waiting for the
user to do something our programs must respond when an event is generated. The
upshot of this is that the programming language must provide some means by which
events can be managed.

A Graphical User Interface Events and Delegates
Events and method calls

In C# an event is delivered to an object by means of a call to a method in that object. In
this respect you can regard an event and a message as the same thing. From the point of
view of our name editing form we would like to have a particular method called when
the "Finished" button is pressed by the user. This method would validate the new name,
store it if it was OK and then close down the edit form.
Button Events
To get back to the problem we are solving; when the user clicks on the button on our
form this is registered by the Windows operating system and then passed into the form
as an event. The form decides which of the components on the form should be given the
event and calls a method in that component to tell it "you've been pressed". The button
then does its animation so that it moves in and out. Then it looks for people to tell about
the event. The button keeps a list of people to tell about events. The list is actually a list
of delegates.
So, to get a button to run a method of ours we need to create a delegate object and then
pass that to the button so that it knows to use it when the event occurs. A delegate is an
object which can be used to represent a particular method in an instance of a class. In
the case of our button, the delegate is going to represent the method that we want to
have called when the button is pressed. We pass the button a reference to this delegate
and it can then call the method it represents when the button is pressed.
The good news is that creating a delegate instance for a windows component is such a
common task that the forms library has provided a delegate class which does this for us.
We just need to create an instance of this class to get a delegate to give to the button.
The signature of the method that is called when the event occurs is the same for every
kind of event, from mouse movement, to button press, to window closing, so we can
use this class every time we need to create a delegate. The actual code to create a
delegate and assign it to a method is as follows:
using System;
class FormsDemo
{
{
nameLabel.Top=50;
nameLabel.Left=0;

nameTextBox.Top=50;
Button finishButton = new Button();

finishButton.Top=80;
finishButton.Left=100;
finishButton.Text="Finished";
finishButton.Click +=
new EventHandler(finishButton_Click);
f.Controls.Add(finishButton);
f.ShowDialog();

A Graphical User Interface An Account Edit Form
private static void finishButton_Click(

object sender, EventArgs e)
{
Console.WriteLine ("Finish Pressed");
}
}
The highlighted code is the bit that ties a delegate to the click event. The
EventHandler delegate class is in the System namespace and can refer to methods
which are void and accept two parameters, a reference to the object which caused the
event and a reference to an EventArgs instance which contains details about the
event which occurred.
In the code above I have an event handler method called finishButton_Click
which accepts these parameters (but doesn't do anything with them). Instead it prints
out a message each time the button is pressed. If you compile the above program and
run it you will find that each time you press the Finish button the program prints out a
message. In the completed editor this method will finish the edit off for us.
Note that we don’t actually have to use the parameters, often our methods will ignore
the values supplied. However, sometimes, for example when we are capturing mouse
movement events, we might want to use them to provide information such as the mouse
coordinates.
An Account Edit Form

My example code above is OK for showing how the forms work and components are
added to them, but it is not production code. This is because I have made everything by
hand and there is no edit object as such. If you remember our text editing code you will
recall that we had an object which did the editing for us. We passed it a reference to our
account and it managed the edit process, returning when the edit was complete.
To make a proper account editor we need to create a class which will do this job for us.
This will be used in almost exactly the same way as the text editor.
Extending the Windows Form class

It turns out that the best way to create a class to do this job is to extend the Form class
to make a new form of our own. This is a standard technique for using windows
components. The idea is that when the form is created the constructor in the form
makes all the components and adds them to the form in the appropriate places. Our
form can then be regarded as a customised version of an empty form. And the way that
you create customised versions of classes is to extend them.

using System;
public class AccountEditForm : System.Windows.Forms.Form

{
private Label nameLabel;
private TextBox nameTextBox;
private Button finishButton;
IAccount account;
public AccountEditForm (IAccount inAccount)

{
this.account = inAccount;
this.nameLabel = new Label();

this.nameLabel.Text="Name";
this.nameLabel.Top=50;
this.nameLabel.Left=0;
this.Controls.Add(this.nameLabel);
this.nameTextBox = new TextBox();

this.nameTextBox.Top=50;
this.nameTextBox.Left=100;
this.nameTextBox.Text = this.account.GetName();
this.Controls.Add(this.nameTextBox);
this.finishButton = new Button();

this.finishButton.Top=80;
this.finishButton.Left=100;
this.finishButton.Text="Finished";
this.finishButton.Click += new System.EventHandler(finishButton_Click);
this.Controls.Add(this.finishButton);
}
private void finishButton_Click(object sender, System.EventArgs e)

{
string reply = account.ValidateName(nameTextBox.Text);
if ( reply.Length > 0 )
{
System.Windows.Forms.MessageBox.Show(reply) ;
return;
}
this.account.SetName( nameTextBox.Text) ;
this.Dispose();
}
}
The form will be passed a reference to the account instance which is being edited. It
then gets the properties out of the form and displays them for editing. When the user
presses the finish button the form must make sure that the name is valid. If it is the
name of the account class should be set and the form must then dispose of itself.
This code is the windows equivalent of the AccountEditTextUI method that we
created previously. All the form components are created in the constructor for the form.
The finishButton_Click method gets the name out of the text box and validates
it. If the name is invalid it uses a static method in the windows forms system to pop up a
message box and report an error:

This is how we tell the user that the name is not correct. There are a number of different
forms of this Show method which you can use to get different forms of message box
and even add extra buttons to it.
Disposing of forms
The Dispose method is used when we have finished with this form and we want it to
get rid of it. All the components on the form are destroyed and the form is removed
from the screen. Once we have disposed of a form we can never use it again. We will
need to create a new form instead.
The Dispose method is important because we must explicitly say when we have
finished with the instance. If we just removed a reference to the form object it will still
remain in memory until the garbage collector gets around to noticing it.
Using the Edit form

To use the edit form we must first construct an account instance. We then pass a
reference to the account into the constructor of an AccountEditForm.
Account a = new Account();
a.SetName("Rob");
AccountEditForm edit = new AccountEditForm (a);
edit.ShowDialog();
Console.WriteLine ( "Name value : " + a.GetName());
This piece of test code creates an account and sets the name of the account holder to
Rob. It then creates an edit form and uses that to edit the name value in the account.
Modal Editing
The call of ShowDialog in the edit form is modal. This means that while the form is
on the screen the rest of the system is paused. In the code above the WriteLine is not
performed until after the edit form has been closed.
Visual Studio and Form Editing

The Visual Studio application can take care of all the hard work of creating forms and
adding components to them. It will also look after the creation of delegates for button
actions. However, it is important to remember that although it automates a lot of the
actions that I have performed by hand above, the fundamental principles that drive the
forms it produces are exactly the same.

Using Delegates Type safe delegates
Programmer’s Point:Customers really care about the user interface

If there is one part of the system which the customer is guaranteed to have strong opinions about
it is the user interface. The design of this should start at the very beginning of the product and be
refined as it goes. Never, ever assume you know that the user interface should work in a particular
way. I have had to spend more time re-working user interface code than just about any other part
of the system. The good news is that with something like Visual Studio it is very easy to produce
quite realistic looking prototypes of the front end of a system. These can then be shown to the
customer (get them signed off even) to establish that you are doing the right thing.
Using Delegates
Events and delegates are a very important part of C#. Therefore you should read this
text carefully and make sure you understand what is going on.
Delegates are useful because they let us manipulate references to methods. We can
manage which particular method is going to be called in a given situation in terms of a
lump of data which we can move around.
Delegates are an important part of how events are managed in a C# program. Events are
things that happen which our program may need to respond to. They include stuff like
people pressing buttons in our user interface, clocks going tick and messages arriving
via the network. In each case we need to tell the system what to do when the event
occurs. The way that C# does this is by allowing us to create instances of delegate
classes which we give the event generators. When the event occurs (this is sometimes
called the event "firing") the method referred to by the event is called to deliver the
message.
I call a delegate "a way of telling a piece of program what to do when something
happens". A posh description would have the form:
A delegate is a type safe reference to a method

in a class.
Type safe delegates
The phrase type safe in this context means that if the method accepts two integer
parameters and returns a string, the delegate for that method will have exactly the same
appearance and cannot be used in any other way. This word is used to distinguish a
delegate from things like pointers which are used in more primitive languages like C.
In C you can create pointers to methods, but the C environment does not know (or even
care) what the methods really look like. This means that you can call them in the wrong
way and cause your program to explode. Don’t worry about this too much. Just
remember that delegates are safe to use.
Using a Delegate
As an example, consider the calculation of fees in our bank. The bank will have a
number of different methods which do this, depending on the type of customer and the

Using Delegates Type safe delegates
status of that customer. It might want to have a way in which a program can choose
which fee calculation method to use as it runs.
We have seen that things like overriding let us create methods which are specific to a
particular type of object, for example we provided a custom WithdrawFunds for the
BabyAccount class which only lets us draw out a limited amount of cash. These
techniques are very useful, but they are hard wired into the code that I write. Once I've
compiled the class the methods in it cannot change.
A delegate is a "stand in" for a method. If you call the delegate it calls the method it
presently refers to. This means I can use it as a kind of method selector. A delegate type
is created like this:
public delegate decimal CalculateFee (decimal balance);
Note that I've not created any delegates yet, I've just told the compiler what the delegate
type CalculateFee looks like. This delegate can stand in for a method which
accepts a single decimal parameter (the balance on the account) and returns a decimal
value (the amount we are going to charge the customer). An example of a method we
might want to use with this delegate you could consider this one:
public decimal RipoffFee (decimal balance)
{
if ( balance < 0 )
{
return 100;
}
else
{
return 1;
}
}
This is a rather evil fee calculator. If you are overdrawn the fee is 100 pounds. If you
are in credit the fee is 1 pound. If I want to use this in my program I can make an
instance of CalculateFee which refers to it:
CalculateFee calc = new CalculateFee (RipoffFee);
Now I can "call" the delegate and it will actually run the ripoff calculator method:
fees = calc(100);
The calc delegate presently refers to a delegate instance which will use the
RipoffFee method. I can change that by making another delegate:
calc = new CalculateFee (FriendlyFee);
Now when I "call" calc it will run the FriendlyFee method. This of course only
works if FriendlyFee is a method which returns a value of type decimal and accepts
a single decimal value as a parameter.
An instance of a delegate is an object like any other. This means that it can be managed
in terms of references, so I can build structures which contain delegates and I can also
pass delegates in and out of methods. You can regard a list of delegates as a list of
methods that I can call.
This gives us another layer of abstraction and means that we can now design programs
which can have behaviours which change as the program runs. For now however, it is
best just to consider them in terms of how we use delegates to manage the response of a
program to events.

Structured Error Handling The Exception class
Programmer’s Point:Delegates are strong magic

Delegates provide a very useful facility, of making programs able to change what they do as they
run. There are situations when this can be very useful. They are also a major part of how C#
programs interact with the user. But I don't use them a great deal in my programs outside of this
and it is not that likely you will either. They are a bit like that strange spanner in your toolbox which
you only use once in a while, but when you do it is the only one that fits. So use them sparingly and
make sure that they are the only way of solving the problem when you do use them.
Structured Error Handling

By now I hope that you are starting to think very hard about how programs fail. You
should also be thinking that when you build a system you should consider how you are
going to manage the way that it will fail. This is actually a very important part of the
design process. When something bad happens the program must deal with this in a
managed way. The key to achieving this is to think about making your own custom
exceptions for your system.
We have been on the receiving end of exceptions already. We have seen that if
something bad happens whilst a file is being read, or a Parse method is given an
invalid string, the system will throw an exception to indicate that it is unhappy. This
means that potentially badly behaved code like this has to be enclosed in a try –
catch construction so that our program can respond sensibly. Now we are going to
take a closer look at exceptions and see about creating our own exception types.
The Exception class

The C# System namespace holds a large number of different exceptions, but they are all
based on the parent Exception class. If you want to throw your own exceptions you
are strongly advised to create your own exception type which extends the system one.
You can generate System.Exception when something goes wrong, but this means
that exceptions produced by your code will get mixed up with those produced by other
parts of the system. If you want your code to be able to explicitly handle your errors the
best way forward is to create one or more of your own exceptions.
This means that, along with everything else in your system, you will need to design how
your program will handle and generate errors. This all (of course) leads back to the
metadata which you have gathered, in that the specification will give you information
about how things can fail and the way that the errors are produced.
Creating your own exception type

Creating your exception type is very easy. It can be done by simply extending the
System.Exception class:
public class BankException : System.Exception
{
}
This works because the System.Exception class has a default constructor which
takes no parameters. The default constructor in BankException (which is added
automatically by the compiler), can just use this to make an Exception instance.

Structured Error Handling Throwing an Exception
However, there is a version of the Exception constructor which lets us add a message to
the exception. This can be picked up and used to discover what has gone wrong. To
create a standard exception with a message I pass the constructor a string. If I want to
use this with my bank exception I have to sort out the constructor chaining for my
exception class and write code as follows:
public class BankException : System.Exception
{
public BankException (string message) :
base (message)
{
}
}
This makes use of the base keyword to call the constructor of the parent class and pass
it the string message.
Throwing an Exception
The throw keyword throws an exception at that point in the code. The thing that is
thrown must be based on the System.Exception class. For example, I might want
to throw an exception if the name of my account holder is an empty string. I can do this
with the code:
if ( inName.Length == 0 )
{
throw new BankException("Invalid Name");
}
The throw keyword is followed by a reference to the exception to be thrown. In the

code above I make a new instance of the bank exception and then throw that. At this
point the execution would transfer to the “nearest” catch construction. This might be a
catch of mine, or it might be one supplied by the system. If the exception is caught by
the system it means that my program will be terminated. However, I can catch the
exception myself as follows:
Account a;
try
{
a = new Account(newName, newAddress);
}
catch (BankException exception)
{
Console.WriteLine("Error : " + exception.Message);
}
The code tries to create a new account. If doing this causes an exception to be thrown,
the code in the exception handler is obeyed. The reference exception is set to refer
to the exception which has been thrown. The Message member of an exception is the
text which was given. This means that if I try to create an account with an empty name
the exception will be thrown, the catch invoked, and the message printed.

Structured Error Handling Multiple Exception Types
Programmer’s Point:Design your error exceptions yourself

An exception is an object which describes how things have gone wrong. It can contain a text
message which you can display to explain the problem to the user. However, you should seriously
consider extending the exception class to make error exceptions of your own which are even more
informative. Errors should be numbered, i.e. your exceptions should be tagged with an error number.
This helps a great deal in working with different languages. If the customer can say “Error number
25” when they are reporting a problem it makes it much easier for the support person to respond
sensibly. Note that, as with just about everything else, you need to design in your handling of
errors.
Multiple Exception Types

It is worth spending time thinking about how the exceptions and errors in your system
are to be managed. We can have many catch constructions if we like, and the catch will
be matched up to the type of exception that was thrown:
public class BankExceptionBadName : System.Exception
{
public BankExceptionBadName (string message) :
base (message)
{
}
}
public class BankExceptionBadAddress : System.Exception

{
public BankExceptionBadAddress (string message) :
base (message)
{
}
}
Now I can use different catches, depending on how the code fails:
Account a;
try
{
a = new Account("Rob", "");
}
catch (BankExceptionBadName nameException)
{
Console.WriteLine("Invalid name : " +
nameException.Message);
}
catch (BankExceptionBadAddress addrException)
{
Console.WriteLine("Invalid address : " +
addrException.Message);
}
catch (System.Exception exception )
{
Console.WriteLine("System exception : " +
exception.Message);
}
Each of the catches matches a different type of exception. At the very end of the list of
handlers I have one which catches the system exception. This will be called if the
exception is not a name or an address one.

Program Organisation Using Separate Source Files
Programmer’s Point:Programs often fail in the error handlers

If you think about it, error handlers are rather hard to test. They only get run when something bad
happens, and most of the time you will be using test data which assumes everything is OK. This
means that errors are more likely to get left in the error handlers themselves, since the code
doesn’t get exercised as much as the rest of the system. Of course this is a recipe for really big
disasters, in that the error handler is supposed to put things right and if it fails it will usually make
a bad situation much worse.
As a professional programmer you must make sure that your error handling code is tested at least
as hard as the rest of the system. This might mean that you have to create special test versions of
the system to force errors into the code. Believe me, it is worth the effort!
Error handling should be something you design in. When you create the system you decide how many
and what kind of errors you are going to have to manage.
Program Organisation
At the moment we have put the entire program source that we have created into a single
file, which we compile and run. This is fine for teeny tiny projects, but now we are
starting to write much larger programs and we need a better way to organise things.
This is especially important when you consider that a given project may have many
people working on it.
To do this we have to solve two problems:
 how we physically spread the code that we write around a number of files
 how we logically identify the items in our program.
The two problems are distinct and separate and C# provides mechanisms for both. In
this section we are going to see how a large program can be broken down into a number
of different chunks.
Using Separate Source Files

In a large system a programmer will want to spread the program over several different
source files. When you design your solution to a problem you need to decide where all
the files live.
In our bank management program we have identified a need for a class to keep track of
a particular account. The class will be called Account. Consider a really simple
Account class:


public void PayInFunds ( decimal amount ) {
balance = balance + amount;
}
public decimal GetBalance () {
return balance;
}
public bool WithDrawFunds ( decimal amount ) {
if ( amount < 0 ) {
return false ;
}
if ( balance >= amount ) {
return true;
}
else {
return false ;
}
}
}
This is a fairly well behaved class in that it won't let us withdraw more money than we
have in the account. We could put it into a file called "Account.cs" if we wanted to.
However, we might want to create lots of other classes which will deal with bank
accounts. So instead I have decided to put the class into a file called
"AccountManagement.cs".As I add more account management The problem is that
the compiler now gets upset when I try to compile the file:
error CS5001: AccountManagement.exe' does not have an
entrypoint defined
The compiler is expecting to produce an executable program. These have an entry point
in the form of the Main method. Our bank account class does not have a main method
because the program will never start by actually running an account. Instead other
programs will run and create accounts when they need them. So, the compiler cannot
make an executable file, since it does not know where the program should start.
Note that I have made the Account class public. This is so that classes in other
files can make use of it. You can apply the protection levels to classes in the same way
that you can protect class members. Generally speaking your classes will be public if
you want them to be used in libraries.
Creating a Library
I solve this problem by asking the compiler to produce a library instead. I use the target
option to the compile command. Options are a way of modifying what a command
does. The compiler can tell that it is being given an option because options always start
with a slash character:
csc /target:library AccountManagement.cs
The compiler will not now look for a Main method, because it has been told to
produce a library rather than a program. If I look at what has been created I find that the
compiler has not made me an executable, instead it has made me a library file:
AccountManagement.dll
The language extension dll stands for dynamic link library. This means that the content
of this file will be loaded dynamically as the program runs.

Using a Library
Now I have a library I next have to work out how to use it. Firstly I'm going to create
another source file called AccountTest.cs. This contains a Main method which
will use the Account class:
using System;
class AccountTest {
test.PayInFunds (50);
Console.WriteLine ("Balance:" + test.GetBalance());
}
}
This makes a new account, puts 50 pounds in it and then prints out the balance. If I try
to compile it I get a whole bunch of errors:
AccountTest.cs(5,3): error CS0246: The type or namespace name
'Account' could not be found (are you missing a using
directive or an assembly reference?)
AccountTest.cs(6,3): error CS0246: The type or namespace name
'test' could not be found (are you missing a using directive
or an assembly reference?)
AccountTest.cs(7,37): error CS0246: The type or namespace
name 'test' could not be found (are you missing a using
directive or an assembly reference?)
The problem is that the compiler does not know to go and look in the file
AccountManagement.cs to find the Account class. This means that it fails to
create test, which causes further errors.
To solve the problem I need to tell the compiler to refer to AccountManagement to
find the Account class:
csc /reference:AccountManagement.dll AccountTest.cs
The reference option is followed by a list of library files which are to be used. In this
case there is just the one file to look at, which is the library that contains the required
class. The compiler now knows where to find all the parts of the application, and so it
can build the executable program.
Library References at Runtime

We have now made two files which contain program code:
AccountManagement.dll the library containing the Account class code
AccountTest.exe the executable program that creates an Account
instance
Both these files need to be present for the program to work correctly. This because of
the "dynamic" in dynamic link library. It means that library is only loaded when the
program runs, not when it is built.
Deleting System Components

This means that if I do something horrid like delete the
Acccountmanagement.dll file and then run the program this causes all kinds of
nasty things to happen:

Program Organisation Namespaces
Unhandled Exception: System.IO.FileNotFoundException: File or

assembly name AccountManagement, or one of its dependencies,
was not found.
File name: "AccountManagement" at AccountTest.Main()
… lots of other stuff
This means that we need to be careful when we send out a program and make sure that
all the components files are present when the program runs.
Updating System Components

Creating a system out of a number of executable components has the advantage that we
can update part of it without affecting everything else. If I modify the
AccountManagement class and re-compile it, the new version is picked up by
AccountTest automatically. Of course this only works as long as I don't change the
appearance of the classes or methods which AccountTest uses.
The good news is that I can fix the broken parts of the program without sending out an
entire new version.
The bad news is that this hardly ever works. There is a special phrase, "dll hell",
reserved for what happens. Unless the fixed code is exactly right there is a good chance
that it might break some other part of the program. Windows itself works in this way,
and the number of times that I've installed a new program (or worse yet an upgrade of
an existing one) which has broken another program on the computer is too numerous to
happily remember.
Programmer’s Point:Use Version Control and Change Management

So many things end up being rooted in a need for good planning and management. And here we are
again. When you think about selling your application for money you must make sure that you have a
managed approach to how you are going to send out upgrades and fixes. The good news is that there
are ways of making sure that certain versions of your program only work with particular program
files. The bad news is that you have to plan how to use this technology, and then make sure you use
it. If this sounds boring and pedantic then I'm very sorry, but if you don't do this you will either go
mad or bankrupt. Or both.
Namespaces
We can use library files to break up our solution into a number of files. This makes
management of the solution slightly easier. But we also have another problem. We don't
just want to break things into physical chunks. We also want to use logical ones as well.
If you are not sure what I mean by this, consider the situation in our bank. We have
decided that Account is a sensible name for the class which holds all the details of a
customer account.
But if you consider the whole of the bank operations you find that the word "account"
crops up all over the place. The bank will buy things like paper clips, rubber stamps,
little pens on chains (pre-supplied with no ink in of course) and the like from suppliers.
You could say that the bank has an account with such a supplier. It may well wish to
keep track of these accounts using a computer system. Perhaps the programmers might
decide that a sensible name for such a thing would be Account. Arrgh! We are now
heading for real problems. If the two systems ever meet up we can expect a digital fight
to the death about what "Account" really means. Which would be bad.

We could solve the problem by renaming our account class

CustomerBankAccount. But this would be messy, and mean that at design time we
have to make sure that we name all our classes in a way which will always be unique.
A far better way would be to say that we have a CustomerBanking namespace in
which the word Account has a particular meaning. We can also have an
EquipmentSupplier namespace as well. This prevents the two names from
clashing, in that they are not defined in the same namespace.
Putting a Class in a Namespace

Up until now every name we have used has been created in what is called the global
namespace. This is because we have not explicitly set up a namespace in our source
files. However, they are very easy to set up:
namespace CustomerBanking {
public void PayInFunds ( decimal amount ) {
balance = balance + amount;
}
public decimal GetBalance () {
return balance;
}
public bool WithDrawFunds ( decimal amount ) {
if ( amount < 0 ) {
return false ;
}
if ( balance >= amount ) {
return true;
}
else {
return false ;
}
}
}
}
I have used the namespace keyword to identify the namespace. This is followed by a
block of classes. Every class declared in this block is regarded as part of the given
namespace, in this case CustomerBanking.
A given source file can contain as many namespace definitions and each can contain as
many classes as you like.
Using a Class from a Namespace

A Global class (i.e. one created outside any namespace) can just be referred to by its
name. If you want to use a class from a namespace you have to give the namespace as
well.
CustomerBanking.Account test;
This creates a variable which can refer to instances of the Account class. The
Account class we use is the one in the CustomerBanking namespace.
A name like this, with the namespace in front, is known as a fully qualified name. If we
want to create an instance of the class we use the fully qualified name again:
test = new CustomerBanking.Account();
If I want to use the Account class from the CustomerBanking namespace I have
to modify my test class accordingly.

Using a namespace
If you are using a lot of things from a particular namespace C# provides a way in which
you can tell the compiler to look in that namespace whenever it has to resolve the name
of a particular item. We do this with the using keyword:
using CustomerBanking ;
When the compiler sees a line like:

- it automatically looks in the CustomerBanking namespace to see if there is a class

called Account. If there is it uses that. We have already used this technique a lot. The
System namespace is where a lot of the library components are located. We can use
these by means of fully qualified names:
System.Console.WriteLine ( "Hello World");
However, it is common for most programs to have the line:

using System;
- at the very top. This means that the programmer can just write:
Console.WriteLine ("Hello World");
The compiler goes "ah, I'll go and have a look for a thing called Console in all the
namespaces that I've been told to use". If it finds one, and only one, Console then all
is well and it uses that. If it finds two Console items (if I was an idiot I could put a
Console class in my CustomerBanking namespace I suppose) it will complain
that it doesn't know which to use.
Nesting Namespaces
You can put one namespace inside another. This allows you to break things down into
smaller chunks. The System namespace is like this, there is a namespace which is part
of the System namespace which is specifically concerned with Input/Output. You get to
use the items in the System.IO namespace with an appropriate include:
using System.IO ;
In terms of declaring the namespace you do it like this:

namespace CustomerBanking {
namespace Accounts {
// account classes go here
}
namespace Statements {
// statement classes go here
}
namespace RudeLetters {
// rude letter classes go here
}
}
Now I can use the classes as required:

using CustomerBanking.RudeLetters ;
Of course the namespaces that you use should always be carefully designed. But then
again, you'd probably figured that one out already.

Debugging Namespaces in Separate Files
Namespaces in Separate Files

There is no rule that says you have to put all the classes from a particular namespace in
a particular file. It is perfectly OK to spread the classes around a number of different
source files. You have to make sure that the files you want to use contain all the bits are
needed, and this means of course more planning and organising.
Programmer’s Point:Fully Qualified Names are Good

There are two ways you can get hold of something. You can spell out the complete location by using a
Fully Qualified Name (CustomerBanking.RudeLetters.OverdraftWarning) or you can get hold
a items in a namespace with using. Of the two I much prefer the fully qualified name. I know that
this makes the programs slightly harder to write, but it means that when I'm reading the code I can
see exactly where a given resource has come from. If I just see the name OverdraftWarning in
the code I have no idea where that came from and so I have to search through all the namespaces
that I'm using to find it.
Debugging
Some people are born to debug. Not everyone is good at debugging, some will always
be better than others. Having said that there are techniques which you can use to ease
the process, and we are going to explore some of these here. The good news is that if
you use a test driven approach to your development the number of faults that are found
by the users should be as small as possible, but there will still be some things that need
to be fixed.
Incidentally, the reason why problems with programs are called bugs is that the original
one was caused by an actual insect which got stuck in some contacts in the computer,
causing it to fail. This is not however how must bugs are caused. It is very rarely that
you will see your program fail because the hardware is faulty, I've been programming
for many years and only seen this in a handful of occasions. The sad thing is that most
of the bugs in programs have been put there by programmers. In other words,
debugging is working very hard to find out how stupid you were in the first place.
Fault Reporting
We have already seen that a fault is something which the user sees as a result of an
error in your program.
Faults are uncovered by the testing process or by users. If a program fails as part of a
test, the steps taken to manifest it will be well recorded. However, if a user reports a
fault the evidence may bell be anecdotal, i.e. you will not be supplied with a sequence
of steps which cause the fault to appear, you will simply be told "There's a bug in the
print routine".
There is a strong argument for ignoring a fault report if you have not been given a
sequence of steps to follow to make it happen. However, this approach will not make
you popular with users. It is important to stress to users that any fault report will only
be taken seriously if it is well documented.

Debugging Bugswatting
Programmer’s Point:Design Your Fault Reporting Process

Like just about everything else I've ever mentioned, the way in which you manage your fault reports
should be considered at the start of the project. In other words, you should set up a process to
deal with faults that are reported. In a large scale development fault reports are managed, assigned
to programmers and tracked very carefully. The number of faults that are reported, and the time
taken to deal with them, is valuable information about the quality of the thing that you are making.
Also, if you formalize (or perhaps even automate) the fault reporting process you can ensure that
you get the maximum possible information about the problem.
The two types of Fault

Faults split into two kinds, those which always happen and those which sometimes
happen.
Faults which always happen are easy, you can perform the sequence which always
causes the bug to manifest itself and then use suitable techniques to nail it (see later).
Faults which sometimes happen are a pain. What this means is that you do not have a
definite sequence of events which causes the system to fail. This does not mean that
there is no sequence (unless you are suffering from a hardware induced transient of
some kind – which is rather rare) but that you have not found the sequence yet.
An example would be a print function which sometimes crashes and works at other
times. You might track this down to the number of pages printed, or the amount of text
on the page, or the size of the document which is being edited when the print is
requested.
The manifestation of a fault may be after the error itself has actually occurred, for
example a program may fail when an item is removed from a database, but the error
may be in the routine which stored the item, or in code which overwrote the memory
where the database lives.
A fault may change or disappear when the program itself is changed; errors which
overwrite memory will corrupt different parts of the program if the layout of the code
changes. This can lead to the most annoying kind of fault, where you put in extra print
statements to find out more about the problem, and the problem promptly disappears!
If you suspect such an error, your first test is to change the code and data layout in
some way and then re-run the program. If the fault changes in nature this indicates
problems with program or data being corrupted.
Bugswatting
You can split faults into other categories, where the program crashes (i.e. stops
completely) or when it does the wrong thing. Surprisingly, crashes are often easier to
fix. They usually point to:
 a state which is not catered for (make sure that all selection statements
have a default handler which does something sensible and that you use
defensive programming techniques when values are passed between
modules)
 programs that get stuck into loops, do – while constructions which
never fail, for loops which contain code which changes the control
variable, methods that call themselves by mistake and recurse their way
into stack overflow
 an exception that is not caught properly

Debugging Bugswatting
If your program does the wrong thing, this can be harder to find. Look for:
 use of un-initialised members of classes
 typographical errors (look for incorrectly spelt variable names,
incorrect comparison operators, improperly terminated comments)
 logical errors (look for faults in the sequence of instructions, invalid
loop termination's, wrongly constructed logical conditions)
As I said above, some folks are just plain good at finding bugs. Here are some tips:
1. Don't make any assumptions. If you assume that "the only way it could get
here is through this sequence" or "there is no way that this piece of code
could be obeyed" you will often be wrong. Rather than make assumptions,
add extra code to prove that what you think is happening is really
happening.
2. Explain the problem to someone else - even if it is just the cat! The act of
explaining the problem can often lead you to deduce the answer. It is best
if the person you are talking to is highly sceptical of your statements.
3. Look at all possible (if seemingly unrelated) factors in the manifestation
of the bug. This is particularly important if the bug is intermittent. If the
bug appears on Friday afternoons on your UNIX system, find out if
another department uses the machine to do a payroll run at that time and
fills up all the scratch space, or the loading department turn on the big
hoist and inject loads of noise into the mains.
4. Leave the problem alone for a while. Go off and do something different
and you may find that the answer will just appear. Alternatively you may
find the answer as soon as you come back to the problem.
5. Remember that although the bug is of course impossible, it is happening.
This means that either the impossible is happening, or one of your
assumptions that it is impossible is wrong!
6. Can you get back to a state where the bug was not present, and then look
at the changes made since? If the system is failing as a result of a change
or, heaven forbid, a bug fix, try to move back to a point where the bug is
not there, and then introduce the changes until the bug appears.
Alternatively, look carefully at how the introduction of the feature affects
other modules in the system. A good Source Code Control System is very
valuable here, in that it can tell you exactly what changes have been made
from one version to the next.
One thing that I should make clear at this point is that the process of debugging is that
of fixing faults in a solution which should work. In other words you must know how the
program is supposed to work before you try and fix problems with what it actually
does. I have been nearly moved to tears by the sight of people putting in another loop
or changing the way their conditions to "see if this will make the program work". Such
efforts are always doomed, just like throwing a bunch of electrical components at the
wall and expecting a DVD player to land on the floor is also not going to work.
Rip it up and start again

In some projects it is possible that the effort involved in starting again is less than trying
to find out what is wrong with a broken solution that you have created. If you have
taken some time off from debugging, explained the code to a friend and checked all
your assumptions then maybe, just maybe this might be the best way forward.

The End? Making Perfect Software
Programmer’s Point:Bug Fixes Cause Bugs

The primary cause of bugs is probably the bug fixing process. This is because when people change
the program to make one bit of it work the change that they make often breaks other features of
the system. I have found statistics which indicate that "two for one" is frequently to be expected,
in that every bug fix will introduce two brand new bugs. The only way round this is to make sure that
your test process (which you created as a series of lots of unit tests) can be run automatically after
you've applied the fix. This at least makes sure that the fix has not broken anything important.
Making Perfect Software

There is no such thing as perfect software. One of the rules by which I work is that "any
useful program will have bugs in it". In other words I can write programs that I can
guarantee will contain no bugs. However, such programs will be very small and
therefore not be good for much. As soon as I create a useful program, with inputs,
outputs and some behaviours, I start introducing bugs.
This does not mean that every program that I write is useless, just that it will not be
perfect. When considering faults you must also consider their impact. Part of the job of
a project manager in a development is deciding when a product is good enough to sell,
and whether or not a fault in the code is a "stopper" or not.
A stopper is a fault which makes the program un-saleable. If the program crashes every
third time you run it, or sometimes destroys the filestore of the host computer, this is
probably the behaviour of a stopper bug. But if it does something like always output the
first page twice if you do a print using the Chinese font and a certain kind of laser
printer this might be regarded as a problem most users could live with.
This means that you need to evaluate the impact of the faults that get reported to you,
prioritise them and manage how they are dealt with. You also need to be aware of the
context of the development. For example, a fault in a video game is much less of a
problem than one in an air traffic control system.
The key to making software that is as perfect as possible is to make sure that you have a
good understanding of the problem that you are solving, that you know how to solve it
before you start writing code and that you manage your code production process
carefully. Read some of the recommended texts at the end of this document for more on
this aspect of programming.
The End?
This is not all you need to know to be a programmer. It is not even all you need to
know to be a C# programmer. However, it is quite a good start, but there are quite a
few things missing from this text, because we don't have time to teach them all. You
should take a look at the following things if you want to become a great C#
programmer:
 serialisation
 attributes
 reflection
 networking

The End? Continuous Development
Continuous Development
A good programmer has a deliberate policy of constantly reviewing their expertise and
looking at new things. If you are serious about this business you should be reading at
least one book about the subject at any one time. I have been programming for as long
as I can remember but I have never stopped learning about the subject. And I've never
stopped programming, reading books about programming and looking at other people's
code.
Further Reading
Code Complete Second Edition:

Steve McConnell
Published by Microsoft: ISBN 0-7356-1967-0
Not actually a book about C#. More a book about everything else. It covers a range of
software engineering and programming techniques from the perspective of "software
construction". If you have any serious intention to be a proper programmer you
should/must read/own this book.
How to be a programmer
This web site is also worth a read, as it covers the behaviours of a programmer very
well indeed:
http://samizdat.mines.edu/howto/HowToBeAProgrammer.html

Glossary of Terms Abstract
Glossary of Terms
Abstract
Something which is abstract does not have a "proper" existence as such. When writing
programs we use the word to mean "an idealised description of something". In the case
of component design an abstract class contains descriptions of things which need to be
present, but it does not say how they are to be realised. In C# terms a class is abstract if
it is marked as such, or if it contains one or more method which is marked as abstract.
You can't make an instance of an abstract class, but you can use it as the basis of, or
template for, a concrete one. For example, we may decide that we need many different
kinds of receipt in our transaction processing system: cash receipt, cheque receipt,
wholesaler receipt etc. We don't know how each particular receipt will work inside, but
we do know those behaviours which it must have to make it into a receipt.
We can therefore create an abstract Receipt class which serves as the basis of all the
concrete ones. Each "real" receipt class is created by extending the parent, abstract one.
This means that it is a member of the receipt family (i.e. it can be treated as a Receipt)
but it works in its own way.
Accessor
An accessor is a method which provides access to the value managed within a class.
Effectively the access is read only, in that the data is held securely in the class but code
in other classes may need to have access to the value itself. An accessor is implemented
as a public method which will return a value to the caller. Note that if the thing being
given access to is managed by reference the programmer must make sure that it is OK
for a reference to the object is passed out. If the object is not to be changed it may be
necessary to make a copy of the object to return to the caller.
Base
base is a C# keyword which has different meanings depending on the context in which
it is given. It is used in a constructor of a child class to call the constructor in the parent.
It is also used in overriding methods to call the method which they have overridden.
Call
When you want to use a method, you call it. When a method is called the sequence of
execution switches to that method, starting at the first statement in its body. When the
end of the method, or the return statement, is reached the sequence of execution returns
to the statement immediately following the method call.
Class
A class is a collection of behaviours (methods) and data (properties). It can be used to
represent a real world item in your program (for example bank account). Whenever you

Glossary of Terms Code Reuse
need to collect a number of things into a single unit you should think in terms of
creating a class.
Code Reuse
A developer should take steps to make sure that a given piece of program is only
written once. This is usually achieved by putting code into methods and then calling
them, rather than repeating the same statements at different parts of a program. The use
of class hierarchies is also a way of reusing code. You only need to override the
methods that you want to update.
Cohesion
A class has high cohesion if it is not dependent on/coupled to other classes.
Collection
The C# library has the idea of a collection as being a bunch of things that you want to
store together, for example all the players in a football team or all the customers in a
bank. One form of a collection is an array. Another is the hashtable, which allows you
to easily find a particular item based on a key value in that item. A collection class will
support enumeration which means that it can be asked to provide successive values to
the C# foreach construction.
Whenever you want to store a number of things together you should consider using a
collection class to do this for you. The collection classes can be found in the
System.Collections namespace.
Compiler
A compiler takes a source file and makes sense of it. The compiler will produce an
executable file which is run. Writing compilers is a specialised business, they used to be
written in assembly language but are now constructed in high level languages (like
C#!). A compiler is a large program which is specially written for a particular computer
and programming language. Most compilers work in several phases. The first phase, the
pre-processor, takes the source which the user has written and then finds all the
individual keywords, identifiers and symbols producing a stream of program source
which is fed to the "parser" which ensures that the source adheres to the grammar of the
programming language in use. The final phase is the code generator, which produces
the executable file which is later run by the host.
Component
A component is a class which exposes its behaviour in the form of an interface. This
means that rather than being thought of in terms of what it is (for example a
BabyCustomerAccount) it is thought of in terms of what it can do (implement the
IAccount interface to pay in and withdraw money). When creating a system you
should focus on the components and how they interact. Their interactions are expressed
in the interfaces between them.

Glossary of Terms Constructor
Constructor
A constructor is a method in a class which is called as a new instance of that class is
created. Programmer’s use constructors to get control when an instance is created and
set up the values inside the class. If a class is a member of a hierarchy, and the parent
class has a constructor, it is important when making the child that you ensure the parent
constructor is called correctly. Otherwise the compiler will refuse to compile your
program.
Coupling
If a class is dependent on another the two classes are said to be coupled. Generally
speaking a programmer should strive to have as little coupling in their designs as
possible, since it makes it harder to update the system.
Coupling is often discusses alongside cohesion, in that you should aim for high
cohesion and low coupling.
Creative Laziness
It seems to me that some aspects of laziness work well when applied to programming.
Code reuse, where you try and pick up existing code, is a good example of this. Making
sure the spec. is right before you do anything is another way of saving on work.
Howver, structuring the design so that you can get someone else to do a lot of the work
is probably the best example of creative laziness in action.
Delegate
A delegate is a type safe reference to a method. A delegate is created for a particular
method signature (for example this method accepts two integers and returns a float). It
can then be directed at a method in a class which matches that signature. Note that the
delegate instance holds two items, a reference to the instance/class which contains the
method and a reference to the method itself. The fact that a delegate is an object means
that it can be passed around like any other.
Delegates are used to inform event generators (things like buttons, timers and the like)
of the method which is to be called when the event they generate takes place.
Dependency
In general, too much dependency in your designs is a bad thing. A dependency
relationship exists between two classes when a change in code in one class means that
you might have to change the other as well. It usually means that you have not properly
allocated responsibility between the objects in your system and that two objects are
looking after the same data. As an example see the discussion of the CustomerAccount
and ChildAccount Load method on page 143.
Dependency is often directional. For example a user interface class may be dependent
on a business object class (if you add new properties to the business object you will
need to up date the user interface). However, it is unlikely that changes to the way that
the user interface works will mean that the business object needs to be altered.

Glossary of Terms Event
Event
An event is some external occurrence which your program may need to respond to.
Events include things like mouse movement, keys being hit, windows being resized,
buttons being pressed, timers going tick etc. Many modern programs work on the basis
of events which are connected to methods. When the event occurs the method is called
to deliver notification. Windows components make use of delegates (a delegate is a
type safe reference to a method) to allow event generators to be informed of the method
to be called when the event takes place.
Functional Design Specification

Large software developments follow a particular path, from the initial meeting right up
to when the product is handed over. The precise path followed depends on the nature of
the job and the techniques in use at the developer; however, all developments must start
with a description of what the system is to do. This is the most crucial item in the whole
project, and is often called the Functional Design Specification, or FDS.
Globally Unique Identifier (GUID)

This is something which is created with the intention of it being unique in the world. It
gives an identifier by which something can be referred to. GUID creation involves the
use of random values and the date and time, amongst other things. GUIDs are used for
things like account references and tags which must be unique. Most operating systems
and programmer libraries provide methods which will create GUIDs.
Hierarchy
A hierarchy is created when a parent class is extended by a child to produce a new class
with all the abilities of the parent plus new and modified behaviours specific to the
requirements of the child. Extending the child produces a further level of hierarchy. The
classes at the top of the hierarchy should be more general and possibly abstract (for
example BankAccount) and the classes at the lower levels will be more specific (for
example ChildBankAccount).
Immutable
An immutable object cannot be changed. If an attempt is made to change the content of
an immutable object a new object is created with the changed content and the "old" one
remains in memory. The string class is immutable. This gives strings a behaviour
similar to value types, which makes them easier to use in programs.
Inheritance
Inheritance is the way in which a class extends a parent to allow it to make use of all the
behaviours and properties the parent but add/customise these for a slightly different
requirement. For more detail see the description of hierarchy.
Interface
An interface defines a set of actions. The actions are defined in terms of a number of
method definitions. A class which implements an interface must contain code for each

Glossary of Terms Library
of the methods. A class which implements an interface can be referenced purely in

terms of that interface. Interfaces make it possible to create components. We don't care
precisely what the component is, as long as it implements the interface it can be thought
of purely in terms of that ability.
Library
A library is a set of classes which are used by other programs. The difference between a
library and a program is that the library file will have the extension .dll (dynamic link
library) and will not contain a main method.
Machine code
Machine Code is the language which the processor of the computer actually
understands. It contains a number of very simple operations, for example move an item
from the processor into memory, or add one to an item in the processor. Each particular
range of computer processors has its own specific machine code, which means that
machine code written for one kind of machine cannot be easily used on another.
Member
A member of a class is declared within that class. It can either do something (a method)
or hold some data (variable). Methods are sometimes called behaviours. Data members
are sometimes called properties.
Metadata
Metadata is data about data. It operates at all kinds of levels. The fact that the age value
is held as an integer is metadata. The fact that it cannot be negative is more metadata.
Metadata must be gathered by the programmer in consultation with the customer when
creating a system.
Method
A method is a block of code preceded by a method signature. The method has a
particular name and may return a value. It may also accept a parameter to work on.
Methods are used to break a large program up into a number of smaller units, each of
which performs one part of the task. They are also used to allow the same piece of
program to be used in lots of places in a large development. If a method is public it can
be called by code other classes. A public method is how an object exposes its
behaviours. A message is delivered to an object by means of a call of a method inside
that object.
Mutator
A mutator is a method which is called to change the value of a member inside an object.
The change will hopefully be managed, in that invalid values will be rejected in some
way. This is implemented in the form of a public method which is supplied with a new
value and may return an error code.

Glossary of Terms Namespace
Namespace
A namespace is an area within which a particular name has a particular meaning.
Namespaces let you reuse names. A programmer creating a namespace can use any
name in that namespace. A fully qualified name of a resource is prefixed by the
namespace in which the name exists. A namespace can contain another namespace,
allowing hierarchies to be set up. Note that a namespace is purely logical in that it does
not reflect where in the system the items are physically located, it just gives the names
by which they are known. C# provides the using keyword to allow namespaces to be
"imported" into a program.
Overload
A method is overloaded when one with the same name but a different set of parameters
is declared in the same class. Methods are overloaded when there is more than one way
of providing information for a particular action, for example a date can be set by
providing day, month, year information or by a text string or by a single integer which
is the number of days since 1st Jan. Three different, overloaded, methods could be
provided to set the date, each with the same name. In that case the SetDate method
could be said to have been overloaded.
Override
Sometimes you may want to make a more specialized version of an existing class. This
may entail providing updated versions of methods in the class. You do this by creating
a child class which extends the parent and then overriding the methods which need to
be changed. When the method is called on instances of the child class, the new method
is called, not the overridden one in the parent. You can use the base keyword to get
access to the overridden method if you need to.
Portable
When applied to computer software, the more portable something is the easier it is to
move it onto a different type of computer. Computers contain different kinds of
processors and operating systems which can only run programs specifically written for
them. A portable application is one which can be transferred to a new processor or
operating system with relative ease. High Level languages tend to be portable, machine
code is much harder to transfer.
Private
A private member of a class is only visible to code in methods inside that class. It is
conventional to make data members of a class private so that they cannot be changed by
code outside the class. The programmer can then provide methods or C# properties to
manage the values which may be assigned to the private members. The only reason for
not making a data member private is to remove the performance hit of using a method
to access the data.
Property
A property is an item of data which is held in an object. An example of a property of a
BankAccount class would be the balance of the account. Another would be the name of

Glossary of Terms Protected
the account holder. The C# language has a special construction to make the
management of properties easy for programmers.
Protected
A protected member of a class is visible to methods in the class and to methods in
classes which extend this class. It is kind of a half way house between private (no
access to methods outside this class) and public (everyone has access). It lets you
designate members in parent classes as being visible in the child classes.
Public
A public member of a class is visible to methods outside the class. It is conventional to
make the method members of a class public so that they can be used by code in other
class. A public method is how a class provides services to other classes.
Reference
A reference is a bit like a tag which can be attached to an instance of a class. The
reference has a particular name. C# uses a reference to find its way to the instance of
the class and use its methods and data. One reference can be assigned to another. If you
do this the result is that there are now two tags which refer to a single object in
memory.
Signature
A given C# method has a particular signature which allows it to be uniquely identified
in a program. The signature is the name of the method and the type and order of the
parameters to that method:
void Silly(int a, int b) – has the signature of the name Silly and two int
parameters.
void Silly(float a, int b) – has the signature of the name Silly and an
float parameter followed by an integer parameter. This means that the code:
Silly(1, 2) ;
- would call the first method, whereas:
Silly(1.0f, 2) ;
- would call the second.
Note that the type of the method has no effect on the signature.
Source file
You prepare a source file with a text editor of some kind. It is text which you want to
pass through a compiler to produce a program file for execution.
Static
In the context of C# the keyword static makes a member of a class part of a class
rather than part of an instance of the class. This means that you don’t need to create an
instance of a class to make use of a static member. It also means that static members are

Glossary of Terms Stream
accessed by means of the name of their class rather than a reference to an instance.
Static members are useful for creating class members which are to be shared with all
the instances, for example interest rates for all the accounts in your bank.
Stream
A stream is an object which represents a connection to something which is going to
move data for us. The movement might be to a disk file, to a network port or even to
the system console. Streams remove the need to modify a program depending on where
the output is to be sent or input received from.
Structure
A structure is a collection of data items. It is not managed by reference, and structures
are copied on assignment. Structures are also passed by value into methods. Structures
are useful for holding chunks of related data in single units. They are not as flexible as
objects managed by reference, but they are more efficient to use in that accessing
structure items does not require a reference to be followed in the same way as for an
object.
Subscript
This is a value which is used to identify the element in an array. It must be an integer
value. Subscripts in C# always start at 0 (this locates, confusingly, the first element of
the array) and extend up to the size of the array minus 1. This means that if you create a
four element array you get hold of elements in the array by subscript values of 0,1,2 or
3. The best way to regard a subscript is the distance down the array you are going to
move to get the element that you want. This means that the first element in the array
must have a subscript value of 0.
Test harness
The test harness will contain simulations of those portions of the input and output
which the system being tested will use. You put your program into a test harness and
then the program thinks it is in the completed system. A test harness is very useful when
debugging as it removes the need for the complete system (for example a trawler!)
when testing.
This
this is a C# keyword which has different meanings depending on the context in which
it is given. It is used in a constructor of a class to call another constructor. It is also used
as a reference to the current instance, for use in non-static methods running inside that
instance.
Typesafe
We have seen that C# is quite fussy about combining things that should not be
combined. Try to put a float value into an int variable and the compiler will get cross at
this point. The reason for this is that the designers of the language have noticed a few
common programming mistakes and have designed it so that these mistakes are
detected before the program runs, not afterwards when it has crashed. One of these
mistakes is the use of values or items in contexts where it is either not meaningful to do

Glossary of Terms Unit test
this (put a string into a bool) or could result in loss of data or accuracy (put a double
into a byte). This kind of fussiness is called type safety and C# is very big on it. Some
other languages are much more relaxed when it comes to combining things, and work
on the basis that the programmer knows best. They assume that just because code has
been written to do something, that thing must be the right thing.
C# is very keen on this (as am I). I think it is important that developers get all the help
they can to stop them doing stupid things, and a language that stops you from
combining things in a way that might not be sensible is a good thing in my book.
Of course, if you really want to impose your will on the compiler and force it to
compile your code in spite of any type safety issues you can do this by using casting.
Unit test
A unit test is a small test which exercises a component and ensures that it performs a
particular function correctly. Unit tests should be written alongside the development
process so that they can be applied to code just after (or in test drive development just
before) the code is written.
Value type
A value type holds a simple value. Value types are passed as values into method calls
and their values are copied upon assignment; i.e. x = y causes the value in y to be
copied into x. Changes to the value in x will not affect the value of y. Note that this is in
contrast to reference types where the result of the assignment would make x and y refer
to the same instance.
Virtual Method
A method is a member of a class. I can call the method to do a job. Sometimes I may
want to extend a class to produce a child class which is a more specialized version of
that class. In that case I may want to replace (override) the method in the parent with a
new one in the child class. For this to take place the method in the parent class must
have been marked as virtual. Only virtual methods can be overridden. Making a
method virtual slightly slows down access to it, in that the program must look for any
overrides of the method before calling it. This is why not all methods are made virtual
initially.

Index
case 123
tests 123
class 25
Index class members 86
code reuse 106
color 149
column printing 58
comments 45
( compiler 21
() 25, 27 component properties 148
components 100, 148
computer 12
/ data processing 13
/* 45 embedded system 14
hardware & software 12
program 13
; programming 15
; 26 condition 46
Console 27
constants 49
{ constructor 94
{ 26 chaining 111
custom 95
default 95
+
failure 98
+ 29 management 97
overloading 96
parameters 96
A
context 30
abstract continue 54
classes and interfaces 113 custom constructors 95
methods 112
references to abstract classes 115 D
accessor 89, 124
arrays 66 data 13, 32
elements 67 data protection 108
subscripts 67 default 71
two dimensional 69 default constructor 95
assignment 27 delegates 156
assignments 56 pointers 156
double 26
B
E
base method 109, 117
block 48 edit form 153
boolean 37 elements 67
brace 26 enumerated types 72
break 53 Equals method 118
button 150 escape sequence 35
button events 151 event management 152
events 156
exception 158
C
class 158
C 20 multiple catches 160
camel case 38 throwing 159
case 71 type 158
casting 41 expressions 39
chain saw 20 data types 42
char 35, 121 operands 39
Index  187
Index
operators 39 MessageBox 155

metadata 17
F methods 23, 59
base method 109
files Main 23
streams 134 overriding 107
foreach 136 replace 110
Form 147, 153 sealed 110
Dispose 155 stopping overriding 110
modal 155 virtual 108
fridge 12 mutator 87, 124
G N
global namespace 165 namespace 24, 164
gozzinta 27 global 165
graphical user interface 147 nesting 166
GUID 106 separate files 167
using 166
H narrowing 40
nested blocks 65
hash table 130 nesting namespaces 166
Hashtable 130 new 80, 94
I O
identifier 23, 38 object class 116
if 46 object oriented 21
immutable 122 objects 78, 85, 111
information 13 container 127
inheritance 106 equals 118
integers 33 factory method 134
interface key 131
abstraction 100 properties 124
design 105 this 119
implementing 102 operands 39
implementing multiple 104 operating system 13
reference 103 operators 39
combining logical 48
K priority 40
relational 46
keyword 23 unary 55
out parameters 63
L overflow 33
overloading
label 148 constructors 96
Length 123 overriding 107
library 162
literal values 32, 42
loops 50 P
break 53 parameters 28, 60
continue 54 parenthesis 29
do - while 51 Parse 28
for 52 plumber 15
while 51 pointers 156
print formatting 57
M print placeholders 57
priority 40
member protection 86 private 87, 88
Index  188
Index
program There is only so much you can do 134

Main 25 Try to avoid the garbage man 83
program flow 45 Use break With Care 53
programmer 12 Use Numbers Not Messages 144
Programmers Point Use Simple Variable Types 35
Always provide an equals behaviour 121 Users have strong opinions about the user interface
Avoid Many Dimensions 69 156
Block Copy is Evil 107 Version Control and Change Management 164, 168,
Break Down Your Conditions 48 170
Bug fixes cause bugs 170 programming languages 19
Casts Add Clarity 43 properties 86, 124
Check your maths 33 in interfaces 126
Choose Variable Types Carefully 37 public 88
Clever is not always Clever 53 punctuation 31
Construction Should Be Planned 98, 99
Data Structures are Important 84 R
Delegates are strong magic 158
Design wth Methods 61 ReadLine 27
Design Your Class Construction Process 112 recipie 22
Design your error exceptions yourself 160 reference 80, 81, 83
Design your fault reporting 168 parameters 62
Document your Side Effects 63 to abstract class 115
Don’t use new fangled stuff just because it is there replacing methods 110
127 return 60
Don't Replace Methods 110
Enums are Good 74 S
Every Message Counts 147
Flipping Conditions 54 scope 72, 82
Fully Qualified Names are Good 167 sealed 110
Give Your Variables Sensible Names 38 searching 129
Good Communicators 19 semicolon 26
Great Programmers 22 source files 161
Importance of Hardware 14 Star Trek 12
Importance of Specification 16 statement 23
Interfaces are just promises 105 returning values 56
Internationalise your code 100 static 25, 90
Know Your Data Source 26 data 91
Langauges do Help 63 methods 92
Make sure you use the right equals 119 story telling 44
Metadata 17 streams 134
Metadata members Members and Methods 88 string 35, 121
Not everything should be possible 86 comparison 122
Pace Your Comments 45 editing 122
Plan for Failure 64 immutable 122
Plan Your Variables 66 Length 123
private data and public methods 88 literal 29
Production Code 141 StringBuilder 124
Program Layout 31 structures 75
Programming Languages 20 accessing 76
Programs often fail in the error handlers 161 defining 76
Static Data Members are Useful and Dangerous 92 subscripts 67
Static Method Members can be used to make switch 70, 71
libraries 94 case 71
Streams are wonderful 135 System namespace 24
Strive for Simplicity 57
Structures are Crucial 77 T
Stupid Computers 21
Switches are Good 72 text based editing 146
Test Driven Development Rocks 90 TextBox 149
Index  189
Index
this 119
ToString 116
ToUpper 123
Trim 123
U
unicode 36
user 12
using 24
V
value parameters 62
variable scope 64
variables 23, 32
arrays 66
assignment 39
bool 37
char 35
declaring 33
double 26
float 34
list 26
string 36
structures 75
text 35
types 32
verbatim 37
virtual methods 108
void 25
W
widening 40
WriteLine 29
Index  190

C# Development

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#

Department of Computer Science

Our Case Study: Friendly Bank 72

Objects, Structures and References 78

Designing With Objects 85

The Construction of Objects 94

From Object to Component 100

Object Etiquette 116

The power of strings and chars 121

Building a Bank 127

Generics and Collections 131

Business Objects and Editing 146

A Graphical User Interface 152

Using Delegates 161

Structured Error Handling 163

Program Organisation 166

The End? 175

Glossary of Terms 177

© Rob Miles 2009 Department of Computer Science, The University of Hull.

The Department of Computer Science,

Reading the notes

Getting a copy of the notes

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 11

A device which processes information according

Hardware and Software

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 12

Data and Information

Data Computer Data

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 13

Programmer’s Point:At the bottom there is always hardware

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 14

From Problem to Program

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 15

Solving the Wrong Problem

Programmer’s Point:The specification must always be there

Specifying the Problem

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 16

Information coming out

Programmer’s Point:metadata is important

What the program actually does

Putting in more detail

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 17

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 18

Programmer’s Point:Good programmers are good communicators

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 19

1. Computers are too stupid to understand English.

Programmer’s Point:The language is not that important

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 20

Programmer’s Point:Computers are always stupid

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 21

mistake somewhere. An example of a warning situation is where you create something

The Human Computer

Programmer’s Point:Great programmers debug less

What Comprises a C# Program?

C# Programming © Rob Miles 2009 22

 instructions to the compiler

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