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Review Article

JulieR. Ingelfinger, M.D., Editor

Viral Bronchiolitis in Children

H.Cody Meissner, M.D.

F
From Tufts University School of Medi- ew diseases have a greater effect on the health of young chil-
cine and the Department of Pediatrics, dren than viral lower respiratory tract illness. Approximately 800,000 chil-
Tufts Medical Center both in Boston.
Address reprint requests to Dr. Meissner dren in the United States, or approximately 20% of the annual birth cohort,
at Tufts Medical Center, 800 Washington require outpatient medical attention during the first year of life because of illness
St., Boston, MA 02111, or at cmeissner@ caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).1 Between 2% and 3% of all children
tuftsmedicalcenter.org.
younger than 12 months of age are hospitalized with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis,
N Engl J Med 2016;374:62-72. which accounts for between 57,000 and 172,000 hospitalizations annually.1-4 Esti-
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1413456
Copyright 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society. mated nationwide hospital charges for care related to bronchiolitis in children
younger than 2 years of age exceeded $1.7 billion in 2009.5 Globally, in 2005, RSV
alone was estimated to cause 66,000 to 199,000 deaths among children younger
than 5 years of age, with a disproportionate number of these deaths occurring in
resource-limited countries.6,7 In the United States, by contrast, bronchiolitis due to
RSV accounts for fewer than 100 deaths in young children annually.8
This review describes the current understanding of bronchiolitis, including the
increasing number of viruses that are known to cause it, the current understand-
ing of its pathogenesis, the importance of environmental and host genetic factors,
and the roles of season, race, and sex in bronchiolitis attack rates and subsequent
episodes of wheezing. In addition, guidelines from the American Academy of Pe-
diatrics regarding the diagnosis, management, and prevention of bronchiolitis are
summarized.9,10

Cl inic a l Fe at ur e s
A young child with bronchiolitis typically presents to a health professional during
the winter months after 2 to 4 days of low-grade fever, nasal congestion, and
rhinorrhea with symptoms of lower respiratory tract illness that include cough,
tachypnea, and increased respiratory effort as manifested by grunting, nasal flar-
ing, and intercostal, subcostal, or supraclavicular retractions.11 Inspiratory crackles
and expiratory wheezing may be heard on auscultation. Various definitions of
bronchiolitis have been proposed, but the term is generally applied to a first epi-
sode of wheezing in infants younger than 12 months of age. Apnea, especially in
preterm infants in the first 2 months of life, may be an early manifestation of
viral bronchiolitis.12 Reported rates of apnea among infants with bronchiolitis
range from 1 to 24%, reflecting differences in the definitions of bronchiolitis and
apnea and the presence of coexisting conditions.
The variable course of bronchiolitis and the inability of medical personnel to
predict whether supportive care will be needed often results in hospital admission
even when symptoms are not severe. A variety of potential clinical markers have
been proposed for use in identifying infants who are at risk for severe disease.
Unfortunately, current scoring systems have low power to predict whether illness
will progress to severe complications that would necessitate intensive care or me-
chanical ventilation.

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 Vir al Bronchiolitis in Children

Table 1. Viruses Detected in Nasopharyngeal Secretions from Hospitalized Children with Bronchiolitis.*

Approximate
Virus Type Frequency Seasonality in North America

%
Respiratory syncytial virus A and B 5080 November through April
Human rhinovirus Groups A, B, and C; 525 Peak activity in spring and autumn
>100 serotypes
Parainfluenza virus Type 3 most common, followed 525 Type 3 is most prominent during
by types 1, 2, and 4 spring, summer, and fall in odd-
numbered years
Human metapneumovirus Subgroups A and B 510 Late winter and early spring;
season typically peaks 12 mo
later than RSV peak
Coronavirus OC43, 229E 510 Winter and spring
NL63, and HKU1
Adenovirus >50 serotypes 510 Year-round, although season for
certain serotypes may be more
restricted
Influenza virus A and B 15 November through April
Enterovirus Echovirus and 15 Generally June through
coxsackievirus October

* Viruses are listed in descending order of frequency as a cause of bronchiolitis. Human bocavirus has been detected as
a copathogen in bronchiolitis, but it is isolated infrequently as a single agent in hospitalized children, leading to specu-
lation that this virus is more likely to be an innocent bystander than a true pathogen. No evidence has been found for a
primary role of bacteria as a cause of bronchiolitis, although Bordetella pertussis, Chlamydia trachomatis, or Mycoplasma
pneumoniae may be included in the differential diagnosis of a lower respiratory tract infection in a young child. Coinfection
with viral and bacterial pathogens such as Haemophilus influenzae type b or Streptococcus pneumoniae is uncommon,
mainly because of the widespread use of conjugate polysaccharide vaccines. RSV denotes respiratory syncytial virus.

V ir a l C ause s coinfection in hospitalized children with bron-

chiolitis is a focus of active research. Rates of
The availability of molecular-detection techniques coinfection vary widely among studies and range
has made it possible to identify a diverse group from 6% to more than 30%.4,13-15 Greater disease
of viruses that are capable of causing bronchiol- severity, defined as a longer length of hospital
itis (Table1). Although the reported proportion stay or more severe hypoxemia, as well as a
of hospitalizations that are attributable to each greater risk of medically attended relapse, have
virus differs according to the geographic area been reported among children with coinfec-
and the year, the most common pathogen is RSV, tion.13,16,17 However, other studies have shown no
followed by human rhinovirus. RSV accounts for difference in disease severity or have shown even
50 to 80% of all hospitalizations for bronchiol- less severe disease in children in whom more
itis during seasonal epidemics in North Amer- than one respiratory virus was isolated. 15,18,19
ica.1-4 Although the clinical features of bronchi- Studies that have used nucleic acid amplification
olitis due to different viruses are generally tests suggest that one or more viral respiratory
indistinguishable, some differences in the sever- pathogens can be isolated from the upper respi-
ity of disease have been reported. For example, ratory tract of as many as 30% of asymptomatic
it has been observed that rhinovirus-associated young children.20,21 It is not fully understood
bronchiolitis may result in a shorter length of whether the detection of a viral genome in
hospitalization than bronchiolitis that is attrib- asymptomatic children represents prolonged

utable to RSV.13 Differences in the response to shedding after an infection has resolved, an
medical intervention have not been identified incubation period before a pending infection, a
consistently among children with bronchiolitis persistent, low-grade infection producing small
caused by different viruses. amounts of virus, or infection by a serotype with
The epidemiologic and clinical importance of limited ability to cause disease.

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

Patho gene sis Figure 1 (facing page). Pathogenesis of Bronchiolitis

Due to Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV).
The immune response elicited by RSV may be Infection is acquired by inoculation of the nasal or con-
both protective and pathogenic, and there ap- junctival mucosa with contaminated secretions or by
pear to be functional differences between an inhalation of large (>5 m in diameter), virus-containing
initial infection in a seronegative infant and re- respiratory droplets within 2 m of an infectious patient.
After an incubation period of 4 to 6 days, viral replica-
infection in an older child or adult (Fig.1). RSV tion in the nasal epithelium results in congestion, rhi-
reinfections occur throughout life, despite the norrhea, irritability, and poor feeding. Fever occurs in
induction of both antibody and T-cell responses approximately 50% of infected infants. Once in the
after a primary infection and the absence of a lower respiratory tract, the virus infects the ciliated
detectable antigenic change in RSV surface gly- epithelial cells of the mucosa of the bronchioles and
pneumocytes in the alveoli. Two RSV surface glycopro-
coproteins. How RSV evades or inhibits host teins, F and G, mediate viral attachment to the glyco
defenses is not fully understood.22 calyx of the target cell.Viral attachment initiates a
Results from a controlled clinical trial, con- conformational change in F protein to a postfusion
ducted in the 1960s, of a formalin-inactivated structure that facilitates fusion of the viral envelope
RSV vaccine showed that a protective immune and the plasma membrane of the host cell, resulting
in viral entry into the cell.Viral replication initiates an
response did not develop in recipients of the vac- influx of natural killer cells, helper CD4+ and cytotoxic
cine.11 Vaccine recipients who subsequently ac- CD8+ T lymphocytes, and activated granulocytes.Cellu-
quired natural RSV infection had more severe lar infiltration of the peribronchiolar tissue, edema, in-
illness than did control participants. In addition, creased mucous secretion, sloughing of infected epi-
evidence suggests that both the relative balance thelial cells, and impaired ciliary beating cause varying
degrees of intraluminal obstruction.During inspiration,
between type 1 and type 2 helper T cells that negative intrapleural pressure is generated and air flows
respond to antigenic stimulation by the virus past the obstruction.The positive pressure of expiration
and the profile of evoked chemokines and cyto- further narrows the airways, producing greater obstruc-
kines determines the extent of RSV disease ex- tion, which causes wheezing.Innate and adaptive im-
pression.11 On the basis of these observations, mune responses are involved in viral clearance, and
most hospitalized children are discharged after 2 to
most theories regarding the pathogenesis of 3 days. Regeneration of the bronchiolar epithelium
bronchiolitis due to RSV implicate an exagger- begins within 3 to 4 days after the resolution of symp-
ated immune response as well as direct cellular toms. ICU denotes intensive care unit.
damage from viral replication.22
Although neutralizing antibodies to viral sur-
face glycoproteins are important for the preven- T-cell response does not develop in such in-
tion of RSV infection, T-cellmediated responses fants is supported by reports of a direct correla-
appear to be crucial for viral clearance during tion between RSV load, as measured in naso-
infection.23,24 Postmortem studies of lung tissue pharyngeal aspirates obtained from children
obtained from infants who died from RSV infec- who have been hospitalized with bronchiolitis,
tion reveal macrophages and neutrophils and a and more severe disease, defined as a higher
relative absence of cytotoxic T cells, along with risk of apnea, a longer hospital stay, and a
low concentrations of classic T-lymphocyte greater need for intensive care.26,27 However, not
derived cytokines (released by CD4+ and CD8+ all reports are consistent with an association
T cells). These findings are not consistent with between a high viral load in respiratory secre-
a pathologic inflammatory response.25 Rather, tions and greater severity of disease.28-30 A rea-
the presence of abundant viral antigen suggests sonable deduction is that direct cytotoxic injury
active RSV replication and direct virally induced induced by the virus and a robust host inflam-
cytotoxicity.25 matory response both contribute to the patho-
At least in infants who have not had a previous genesis of RSV bronchiolitis, although the rela-
infection, overwhelming RSV disease appears to tive contribution of each remains uncertain.
be related to the lack of an adaptive cytotoxic Resolution of this issue will determine whether
T-cell response in the host; the result is depen- a potent antiviral agent administered early in
dence on the less effective innate immune re- the course of bronchiolitis can reduce the dura-
sponse for the termination of viral replication. tion and severity of illness without the need for
The fact that a more effective, adaptive cytotoxic immune modulation.

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 Vir al Bronchiolitis in Children

A Clinical Progression of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) B Pathogenesis of RSV

Risk factors for severe RSV disease Spread of infection from nasopharynx to lower respiratory tract
Congenital heart disease N A SA L T U RB IN A T E LU ME N B RO N C H IO LE LU ME N
Chronic lung disease of prematurity
History of prematurity RSV virion
Immunodeficiency
Low concentration of maternal antibody

DROPLETS FROM
INFECTED CONTACT H E A LT H Y CHILD 1 2
Child inhales Virus attaches to
droplets
and infects the Nasopharyngeal cells are sloughed
epithelial cells and aspirated, carrying RSV to
E PIT H E LIA L C E LLS lower respiratory tract cells

Healthy bronchiole
Epithelial cells
Abnormal sloughing of epithelial cells
Virus replication results in epithelial-cell sloughing, inflammatory
cell infiltration, edema, increased mucous secretion, and
impaired ciliary action
BRONCHIOLE LU NG S
LU MEN Sloughed cells
MUCUS

ALV EOLI

1 After 46-day incubation period, fever, congestion,

rhinorrhea, irritability, and poor feeding develop.
E PIT H E LIU M
2 23 days after onset of upper respiratory tract symptoms,
approximately one third of patients have spread of
infection to lower respiratory tract (bronchiolitis).
Intraluminal obstruction and air trapping
3 Cough, tachypnea, wheezing, grunting, nasal flaring, and
thoracic retractions may be present. Hyperinflation of the
lung develops as air is trapped behind occluded bronchioles. Migrating
white cells and Edema
4 Air trapped in the alveoli is absorbed, resulting in localized sloughed cells
atelectasis distal to obstruction.

5 Increased work of breathing and decline in lung function 3 Expanded

occur owing to mismatching of ventilation and perfusion, Obstruction alveoli with
resulting in increasing hypoxemia. trapped air

Bronchiolitis H O S PI T A LIZED Sloughing of RSV-infected epithelial cells into the lumen accelerates
CH I LD viral elimination but also contributes to obstruction of the airway
Bronchiole Debris (mucus,
with narrowed sloughed cells,
lumen fibrin)
Air trapping leading to localized atelectasis

Obstruction 4
LU NG S
Collapsed
Edema, cellular alveoli
infiltration Loss of
compressing integrity
bronchiole of alveoli

Improvement (hospital discharge) Absorption of trapped air in the alveoli distal

to the obstruction leads to localized atelectasis
Worsening (ICU)

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

R isk Fac t or s particularly those with pulmonary hypertension

or congestive heart failure, are at greater risk for
Most infants who are hospitalized with RSV severe bronchiolitis than other infants, because
bronchiolitis were born at full term with no they have limited ability to increase cardiac out-
known risk factors.1,2 Chronologic age is the put in response to a respiratory infection.37 Pul-
single most important predictor of the likeli- monary hypertension shunts relatively unoxy-
hood of severe bronchiolitis, given the observa- genated blood away from the lung into the
tion that approximately two thirds of hospital- systemic circulation, leading to progressive
izations of infants with RSV infection occur in hypoxemia. However, most data defining the
the first 5 months of life.1-3 Hospitalization rates relative risk of bronchiolitis among children
that are attributable to RSV bronchiolitis are born with congenital heart disease are more
highest between 30 and 90 days after birth, a than 10 years old and may not reflect recent
period that corresponds to the declining concen- advances in corrective cardiac surgery that is
tration of transplacentally acquired maternal undergone early in life.
immunoglobulin.3 Efficient transplacental pas- The extent of the possible increase in the risk
sage of RSV neutralizing antibody occurs in in- of severe bronchiolitis that can be attributed to
fants who are born at full term.31,32 Because most other conditions (e.g., cystic fibrosis or Downs
maternal immunoglobulin transfer occurs in the syndrome) has been difficult to quantify because
third trimester, preterm infants may miss the of the low rates of occurrence of bronchiolitis
period of greatest IgG transfer; this fact partly and inconsistent study results. Most reported
explains the higher risk of disease among pre- host and environmental factors are associated
term infants. with only a small increase in the risk of hospi-
Children with certain coexisting conditions, talization for RSV infection and thus have a
including prematurity (delivery at <29 weeks of limited contribution to the overall burden of
gestation), chronic lung disease of prematurity, RSV disease.10 A prospective, population-based
and congenital heart disease, may have more surveillance study sponsored by the Centers for
severe RSV disease than children without such Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) involved
conditions.10,33 Some studies suggest that the 132,000 infants, of whom 2539 were hospital-
risk of severe RSV disease is higher among pre- ized because of an acute viral respiratory infec-
mature infants born before 29 weeks of gesta- tion before 24 months of age.1,3 Multiple logistic-
tion than among those born at 29 weeks of regression analyses of frequently cited risk
gestation or later.1,3,34,35 In contrast, the available factors showed that only younger chronologic
data do not show significantly higher rates of age and prematurity (born at <29 weeks of ges-
hospitalization for RSV infection among pre- tation) were independently associated with RSV
term infants born from 29 to 36 weeks of gesta- illness that required hospitalization.1 Inconsis-
tion who do not have chronic lung disease of tent study results regarding host and environ-
prematurity than among full-term infants (deliv- mental factors may be attributed to variations in
ery at 37 weeks of gestation).3,34,35 practice patterns, living conditions, and climate,
Chronic lung disease of prematurity is char- to differences in the virulence of circulating viral
acterized by alveolar loss, airway injury, inflam- strains, to poorly understood genetic factors,
mation and fibrosis due to mechanical ventila- and to differences in study design.
tion, and high oxygen requirements.36 Such lung In temperate climates in the Northern Hemi-
injury increases the risk of severe bronchiolitis sphere, such as that in the United States, out-
to a greater extent than does prematurity alone. breaks of bronchiolitis typically begin in Novem-
Because of the use of antenatal glucocorticoids ber, peak in January or February, and end by
and surfactant replacement, improvements in early spring.38 Global surveillance data indicate
methods of ventilatory support, and a better that distinct annual epidemics of bronchiolitis
understanding of neonatal nutrition, many pre- occur in all countries, but the peak season and
term infants are healthier at discharge today duration vary.6,7 Maternal RSV antibody concen-
than in the past. trations vary seasonally, with significantly high-
Infants born with certain types of hemody- er serum concentrations being observed later in
namically important congenital heart disease, the RSV season than earlier in the season.39,40

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 Vir al Bronchiolitis in Children

Lower serum concentrations of maternal RSV Some studies have indicated that boys may be
antibody (resulting from waning maternal immu- at greater risk for severe RSV bronchiolitis than
nity from infection during the previous season) girls; this finding is similar to the sex difference
may account for the more severe disease that is observed with other respiratory viral infec-
observed among infants born early in the RSV tions.2,3 Sex differences in lung and airway devel-
season, as compared with those who are born opment and genetic factors have been suggested
later.39,40 These observations raise the possibility as explanations of these findings.49
that active maternal vaccination against RSV
during gestation could have a beneficial clinical Bronchiol i t is a nd A s thm a
effect on the infant.41
Both environmental and meteorologic factors Severe bronchiolitis early in life is associated
influence the timing of the respiratory-virus with an increased risk of asthma, especially after
season by affecting viral stability, patterns of hu- rhinovirus or RSV bronchiolitis, and an increased
man behavior, and host defenses. Rainy seasons risk of asthma may persist into early adult-
and cold weather prompt indoor crowding, which hood.50-52 An unresolved question is whether
may facilitate viral transmission, especially in bronchiolitis early in life results in injury that
areas with high population density. A complex alters normal lung development and predisposes
interaction has been identified among latitude, the child to subsequent wheezing or whether
temperature, wind, humidity, rainfall, ultraviolet certain infants have a preexisting aberration of
B radiation, cloud cover, and RSV activity.42 Hu- the immune response or of airway function that
man susceptibility to viral infections may be al- predisposes them to both severe bronchiolitis
tered by certain weather-related factors, such as and recurrent wheezing.53
the inhalation of cold, dry air that desiccates Some data support the interesting possibility
airway passages and alters ciliary function, or that premorbid lung function may be abnormal
by the inhibition of temperature-dependent anti- among infants who have severe bronchiolitis in
viral responses in the host.43,44 the first year of life.54-57 Pulmonary-function
Racial and ethnic-group disparities in rates of studies conducted before discharge from the neo-
hospitalization for bronchiolitis have been as- natal unit and then repeated after each childs
sessed in several reports. Rates of hospitaliza- first RSV season show persistent pulmonary
tion for RSV infection among Alaska Native abnormalities in some infants, regardless of
children living in the YukonKuskokwim Delta whether they had bronchiolitis. This finding
in southwestern Alaska and in certain indige- suggests that preexisting pulmonary abnormali-
nous Canadian populations are reported to be ties are separate from bronchiolitis and not a
five times as high as the rate among age- complication of it.57 For example, some infants
matched children in the continental United may have narrow airways when they are well; as
States.45,46 Navajo and White Mountain Apache a result, bronchioles are less likely to remain
children younger than 2 years of age who are patent once they become further narrowed by
living on a reservation have rates of hospitaliza- infection. Confirmation of this possibility would
tion for RSV infection that are up to three times make it possible to identify infants who would
as high as the overall rate among children young- be most likely to benefit from active or passive
er than 2 years of age in the United States.45,47 prophylaxis.
Possible explanations for these disparities include A genetic predisposition to severe bronchiolitis
household crowding, indoor air pollution, lack early in life and to the subsequent development
of running water, and a lower threshold for hos- of asthma is supported by reported associations
pital admission because of residence in a remote between polymorphisms in genes involved in the
village that is distant from health care facilities. innate immune response and genes mediating
Data from several population-based CDC-spon- allergic responses, surfactant proteins, and in-
sored reports indicate no disparity in the rates of flammatory cytokines.58-60 An association be-
hospitalization for RSV infection between black tween rhinovirus infection early in life and an
children and white children.1-3,48 Because of the increased risk of childhood-onset asthma is as-
limited numbers of studies, reliable estimates for sociated with genetic variation at the chromo-
other ethnic and racial groups are not available. some 17q21 locus.52 The fact that this associa-

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

tion was not found to extend to young children possible care for a young child with this illness
with severe RSV infection indicates that there is because of the lack of curative therapy. No
a complex interaction between genetic and envi- available treatment shortens the course of
ronmental factors in the development of asthma. bronchiolitis or hastens the resolution of symp-
Results from a Danish study involving twins toms. Therapy is supportive, and the vast ma-
suggested that severe RSV bronchiolitis is an jority of children with bronchiolitis do well re-
indicator of a genetic predisposition to asthma gardless of how it is managed. The intensity of
and that, in the absence of this predisposition, therapy among hospitalized children has been
asthma is less likely to develop even if they had shown to have little relationship to the severity
previously had bronchiolitis.61 of illness.64,65
Whether the prevention of severe RSV bron- To improve the standardization of the diag-
chiolitis will reduce the number of episodes of nosis and management of bronchiolitis in chil-
recurrent wheezing has been studied, but the dren, the American Academy of Pediatrics pub-
answer remains elusive. A randomized, double- lished a clinical practice guideline, which was
blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted in the based on a Grading of Recommendations, Assess-
Netherlands involving preterm infants born at ment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE)
33 to 35 weeks of gestation addressed the pos- analysis, to clarify the level of evidence required
sible benefit of prophylaxis with palivizumab for diagnosis and to assess the relationship of
(ahumanized anti-RSV antibody) in preventing benefit to harm and the strength of recommen-
wheezing during the first year of life.62 Recipi- dations regarding various aspects of the diag-
ents of RSV immunoprophylaxis had a signifi- nosis, treatment, and prevention of bronchiol-
cant relative reduction of 61% in the number of itis.9,10,66 The evidence-based guidelines emphasize
days of wheezing; this difference resulted in that a diagnosis of bronchiolitis should be based
their having 2.7 fewer days of wheezing per 100 on the history and physical examination and
patient-days than did participants who received that radiographic and laboratory studies should
placebo. Because the viral cause of wheezing not be obtained routinely (Table2). Short-acting
episodes was determined inconsistently and the 2-agonists, epinephrine, and systemic glucocor-
primary end point of the study was audible ticoids are not recommended for the treatment
wheezing as reported by a parent, rather than a of children with bronchiolitis. Clinicians may
medically verified event, the small reduction in elect not to administer supplemental oxygen
the number of days with wheezing is of uncer- when oxyhemoglobin saturation exceeds 90%.
tain clinical significance. Intravenous or nasogastric fluids may be used
A prospective randomized, placebo-controlled for children with bronchiolitis who cannot main-
trial with motavizumab (a second-generation tain hydration orally. A complete discussion
monoclonal antibody with greater potency against regarding the management of bronchiolitis is
RSV than palivizumab) that involved 2696 healthy, available in the clinical practice guidelines.9
full-term Native American infants showed a sig-
nificant between-group difference (in favor of
Im munoproph y l a x is
motavizumab) in both inpatient and outpatient
medically attended RSV lower tract disease.63 Palivizumab, a humanized mouse IgG1 mono-
However, no reduction in wheezing occurred clonal antibody directed against a conserved
among prophylaxis recipients during 3 years of epitope on the surface fusion protein of RSV,
careful follow-up. This result is consistent with was licensed by the Food and Drug Administra-
the concept that prevention of RSV infection tion in June 1998 for monthly prophylaxis for
with immunoprophylaxis does not have a measur- infants at high risk for RSV infection.10 Licen-
able effect on subsequent episodes of wheezing. sure was based largely on the results of a ran-
domized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
conducted during the 19961997 RSV season,
Supp or t i v e M a nagemen t
which showed a reduction of 5.8% in the rate of
Despite the high burden of disease due to bron- hospitalization attributable to RSV among pre-
chiolitis, it has been difficult to define the best term infants (10.6% in the placebo group vs.

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 Vir al Bronchiolitis in Children

Table 2. American Academy of Pediatrics Guidance for Diagnosis and Management of Bronchiolitis.*

Intervention Recommendation Comment

Diagnostic Test
Chest radiography Not recommended for routine use Poor correlation with severity of disease or risk of pro-
gression; studies show increase in inappropriate
use of antimicrobial therapy owing to similar radio-
graphic appearance of atelectasis and infiltrate
Testing for viral cause Not recommended for routine use May influence isolation of symptomatic patients, but
infection-control procedures are similar for most
respiratory viruses
Treatment
Bronchodilator therapy Not recommended Randomized trials have not shown a consistent benefi-
cial effect on disease resolution, need for hospital-
ization, or length of stay
Epinephrine Not recommended Large, multicenter, randomized trials have not shown
improvement in outcome among outpatients with
bronchiolitis or hospitalized children
Glucocorticoid therapy Not recommended Large, multicenter, randomized trials provide clear evi-
dence of lack of benefit
Nebulized hypertonic saline May be considered Nebulized 3% saline may improve symptoms of mild-
to-moderate bronchiolitis if length of stay is >3
days (most hospitalizations are <72 hr)
Supplemental oxygen Routine use not recommended if oxyhemoglo- Transient episodes of hypoxemia are not associated
bin saturation is >90% in the absence of with complications; such episodes occur commonly
acidosis in healthy children
Pulse oximetry Not recommended for patients who do not Oxygen saturation is a poor predictor of respiratory
require supplemental oxygen or if oxygen distress; routine use correlates with prolonged
saturation is >90% stays in the emergency department and hospital
Chest physiotherapy Not recommended Deep suctioning is associated with a prolonged hospi-
tal stay; removal of obstructive secretions by suc-
tioning the nasopharynx may provide temporary
relief
Antimicrobial therapy Not recommended for routine use Risk of serious bacterial infection is low; routine
screening is not warranted, especially among
infants 30 to 90 days of age
Nutrition and hydration Hospitalization for observation of hydration Intravenous or nasogastric hydration may be used
and nutritional status may be needed for
infants with respiratory distress

* Adapted from the clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of bronchiolitis in children 1 through 23 months of age.9

4.8% in the prophylaxis group, P<0.001).23 Rec- F u t ur e Dir ec t ions

ommendations for more restrictive use of pas-
sive immunoprophylaxis have evolved since RSV is one of the last viruses to cause annual
palivizumab was licensed as additional informa- worldwide outbreaks of disease against which
tion has become available regarding the epide- no safe and effective vaccine is available. Several
miology of RSV and the limited benefit of pro- approaches to vaccine development are being
phylaxis. Guidance from the American Academy investigated.68 A live attenuated vaccine for intra-
of Pediatrics regarding the use of palivizumab is nasal administration would stimulate both topi-
stratified according to risk, targeting the infants cal and systemic immunity; such a vaccine is
who are most likely to benefit from prophylax- being developed with the use of reverse genetics
is.9,10 Table3 presents an overview of the current to modify specific genes. Efforts to date have
guidelines regarding immunoprophylaxis. been hampered by the difficulty of achieving

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 The n e w e ng l a n d j o u r na l of m e dic i n e

Table 3. American Academy of Pediatrics Guidance for Palivizumab Immunoprophylaxis.*

Category Prophylaxis Recommendation Comment

Preterm infants without chronic lung disease
of prematurity or congenital heart
disease and <12 mo of age at start
of RSV season
Born at <29 wk of gestation Maximum five monthly doses or Rate of hospitalization for RSV infection is higher than
until end of RSV season, which- among infants born at 29 wk of gestation3,34,35
ever comes first
Born at 29 wk of gestation Not recommended No significant difference, as compared with full-term in-
fants, in rate of hospitalization for bronchiolitis3,34,35
Infants born at <32 wk of gestation with Maximum five monthly doses or Palivizumab prophylaxis reduced rates of hospitalization
chronic lung disease of prematurity until end of RSV season, which- for RSV by 4.9% among 762 preterm infants with
and requirement for supplemental ever comes first chronic lung disease (12.8% in the control group vs.
oxygen for first 28 days of life 7.9% in the prophylaxis group, P=0.04)23
Infants born with congenital heart disease
Cyanotic disease Not recommended routinely No significant reduction in rates of hospitalization for
RSV (7.9% in the placebo group vs. 5.6% in the palivi-
zumab group, P=0.28)
Acyanotic disease Five monthly doses or until end of Prophylaxis associated with a 6.8% reduction in rate of
RSV season, whichever comes hospitalization for RSV (11.8% in the placebo group
first vs. 5.0% in the palivizumab group, P=0.003)37
Children >12 mo of age Not recommended except for chil- Except for children with chronic lung disease, RSV hos
dren with chronic lung disease pitalization rates in second year of life are less than
who continue to require supple- rates for first 6 mo of life among healthy, full-term
mental oxygen or diuretic or infants for whom prophylaxis is not recommended34
glucocorticoid therapy

* Guidance for the use of palivizumab for immunoprophylaxis was first provided in 1998.67 It has been revised periodically to reflect ongoing
assessments of peer-reviewed studies regarding the minimal benefit of palivizumab prophylaxis on the hospitalization rate among preterm
infants, the absence of a significant reduction in mortality or the need for mechanical ventilation among RSV-infected children who received
palivizumab as compared with those who received placebo, the enhanced understanding of the pharmacokinetics of palivizumab, the sea-
sonality of RSV circulation in the United States (as shown in data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention38), the declining inci-
dence of hospitalization for all-cause bronchiolitis, decreasing mortality among children hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed RSV infec-
tion, and data showing clinically minimal or no reduction in wheezing episodes among children who received prophylaxis.62,64

adequate attenuation of the vaccine strain, so proach would circumvent the need for vaccina-
that symptoms do not develop in the vaccine tion in the first weeks of life, when an infants
recipient, while at the same time maintaining immune response is limited.
adequate immunogenicity so that immunity is Until safe and effective vaccines are available,
conferred. Subunit vaccines are being explored reduction of the burden of disease due to bron-
and may be appropriate for seropositive patients; chiolitis will focus on education about the im-
concern about possible enhancement of disease portance of decreasing exposure to and trans-
in seronegative vaccine recipients (particularly mission of respiratory viruses. The application
seronegative infants) must be resolved, however, of new forms of technology to the development
before trials can proceed. A third approach in- of vaccines and antiviral therapies such as fusion
volves maternal immunization during pregnancy inhibitors and nucleoside analogues may im-
with use of a nonreplicating vaccine. Results prove the prevention of RSV infection and the
from a trial with an RSV recombinant fusion treatment of children with bronchiolitis through-
protein nanoparticle vaccine indicate safety and out the world.68,69
immunogenicity in women of childbearing age.69
If neutralizing antibodies undergo transplacen- No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was
reported.
tal passage, protection may be provided for the Disclosure forms provided by the author are available with the
infant during the first months of life. This ap- full text of this article at NEJM.org.

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 Vir al Bronchiolitis in Children

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