Waveform Generators: Linear and Digital Ic Applcations - Ldica - Unit - Iv

LINEAR AND DIGITAL IC APPLCATIONS LDICA UNIT - IV
WAVEFORM GENERATORS
INTRODUCTION:
The signals to be processed are obtained from Transducers.
Now, we need to discuss Operational Amplifier circuits which generate signals.
The operational amplifier circuits used to generating signals are known as Signal
Generators or Waveform Generators.
Waveform generators produce a time dependent signal of prescribed
characteristics such as frequency, amplitude and shape.
Many times these characteristics are programmable and can be controlled
externally with the help of some control mechanism.
MULTIVIBRATORs using OP AMP:
Definition: The multivibrators are very important regenerative circuits which are
used commonly in timing applications.
Classification:
o The multivibrators are classified as under:
Mono Stable Multivibrators
A Stable Multivibrator etc.,
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
The Astable Multivibrator is also called as Free Running Multivibrator.
It has TWO quasi stable states i.e., no stable state.
The circuit operation oscillates in between these TWO quasi stable states. Hence,
its also known as Free Running Oscillator.
No external signal is required to produce the changes in state.
The values of R and C decide the time of each state.
Due to this it is used to produce a Square Wave.
VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 1

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The below figure shows that the square wave generator circuit diagram.
It looks like a comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger), except that the input
is replaced by a capacitor.
The circuit has a time dependent elements such as resistance and capacitor to set
the frequency of oscillations.
Circuit diagram of A-stable using IC 741

The comparator and positive feedback resistors R1 and R2 from an inverting

Schmitt trigger.
When VOUT is at +VSAT, the feedback voltage is called the Upper Threshold
Voltage VUT and is given by
VUT = {R1 (+VSAT)}/{R1 + R2}
When VOUT is at VSAT, the feedback voltage is called the Lower Threshold
Voltage VUT and is given by
VUT = {R1 (-VSAT)}/{R1 + R2}
When power is turned ON, VOUT automatically swings either to +VSAT (or) to
(-VSAT) since these are the stable states allowed by the Schmitt trigger.
Let us assume VOUT = +VSAT, starts charging towards +VSAT through the feedback
path provided by the resistor RF to the inverting input.
As long as the capacitor voltage VC is less than VUT, the output voltage remains
at +VSAT.
As soon as VC charges to a value slightly greater than VUT, the Negative input
goes positive with respect to the Input.
This switches the output voltage from +VSAT to VSAT and the VP=VLT, which
is negative with respective to ground.
As VOUT switches to VSAT, capacitor starts discharging via RF.
The current I discharges capacitor to 0V and recharges capacitor to VLT, when
VC becomes slightly more negative than the feedback voltage VLT, then the
output voltage VOUT switches back to the +VSAT.
The capacitor discharges from VLT to 0V and then recharge to VUT, and the
process is repeating.
A square wave output waveform is generated if the output of the Operational
Amplifier is forced to swing repetitively between positive and negative saturation

Once the initial cycle is completed then the waveform becomes Periodic.
Derivation of Expression for Frequency of Oscillation:
The frequency of oscillation is determined by the time it takes the capacitor to

charge from VUT to VLT and vice versa.
The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time is given by
VC(t) = VMAX + (VINITIAL - VMAX)(-t/T)

Where VC(t) = The Instantaneous Voltage across capacitor

VINITIAL = Initial Voltage
VMAX = Capacitor charged voltage
Let us consider the charging of capacitor from VLT to VUT, Where VLT = Initial
Voltage and VUT = instantaneous voltage and + VSAT is the maximum voltage.
At t = T1, the voltage across capacitor reaches VUT and therefore
VUT = +VSAT + (VLT (+VSAT)) e(-T1/RFC)
VUT VSAT = (VLT (+VSAT)) e(-T1/RFC)
- (VSAT - VUT) = - (VSAT - VLT). e(-T1/RFC)
(VSAT - VUT) = (VSAT - VLT). e(-T1/RFC)
(VSAT - VUT) / (VSAT - VLT) = e(-T1/RFC)
(-T1 / RFC) = ln {(VSAT - VUT) / (VSAT - VLT)}
-T1 = RF * C * ln {(VSAT - VUT) / (VSAT - VLT)}
T1 = - RF * C * ln {(VSAT - VUT) / (VSAT - VLT)}
T1 = RF * C * ln {(VSAT - VLT) / (VSAT - VUT)}
The time taken by the capacitor to charge from VUT to VLT is as same as time
required for charging capacitor from VLT to VUT.
Therefore the total time required for one oscillation is given as,
T = 2 * T1
T = 2 * RF * C * ln {(VSAT - VLT) / (VSAT - VUT)}
The frequency of oscillation can be determined as f 0 = (1 / T), where T represents
the time required for one oscillation.
f0 = {1 / [T1 = RF * C * ln {(VSAT - VLT) / (VSAT - VUT)}]}

MONO STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

The mono-stable multivibrator is also known as One Shot Multivibrator.
The circuit produces a single pulse of specified duration in response to each
external trigger signal.
For such a circuit, only one stable state exists.
When an external signal is applied, the output changes its state.
The state is called as Quasi Stable State.
The circuit remains in this state for a fixed interval of time.
After some time, it returns back to its original stable state.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The monostable multivibrator using single operational amplifier is as shown
below:
Circuit diagram of Mono-stable using IC 741

The diode D1is a clamping diode connected across C.

The diode clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7V when the output is at +VSAT.
A narrow negative triggering pulse Vt is applied to the non inverting input
terminal through diode D2.
To understand the operation of the circuit, let us assume that the output voltage
VOUT is at +VSAT i.e., in its stable state.
The diode D1 conducts and the voltage across the capacitor C i.e., VC gets
clamped to 0.7V.
The voltage at the non inverting input terminal is controlled by potentiometric
divider of R1R2 to VSAT i.e., in the stable state.
Now, if Vt, a negative trigger of amplitude Vt is applied to the non inverting
input terminal, so that the effective voltage at this terminal is less than 0.7V.
Then the output of the Operational Amplifier changes its state from +V SAT to
VSAT.
The diode is now reverse biased and the capacitor starts charging exponentially to
VSAT through the resistance R.
The time constant for this charging is = RC.
The voltage at the non inverting input terminal is now VSAT.
When the capacitor voltage VC becomes just slightly more negative than the
VSAT, the output of the operational amplifier changes its state back to +VSAT.
The capacitor now starts charging towards +VSAT through R until VC reaches
0.7V as capacitor gets clamped to the voltage.

Derivation of Expression for Pulse Width T:

For a low pass RC circuit, let us assume
VIN = Initial value of the voltage.
VF = Final Value of the voltage.
Then the general solution is given by
VOUT = VF + (VIN - VF) e( - t / RC)
Now, for the monostable multivibrator discussed above, the values of V F and
VIN are
VF = - VSAT and VIN = VD1 (Diode Forward Voltage)
VOUT = Output = capacitor voltage = VC
VC = - VSAT + (VD1 (- VSAT )) e( - t / RC)

At t= T, VC = - VSAT
- VSAT = - VSAT + (VD1 (- VSAT )) e( - t / RC)
- VSAT + VSAT = (VD1 (- VSAT )) e( - t / RC)
VSAT (1 - ) = (VD1 (- VSAT )) e( - t / RC)
e( - t / RC) = {VSAT (1 - ) / (VD1 (- VSAT ))}
e( - t / RC) = {VSAT (1 - ) / (VD1 +VSAT ))}
e( - t / RC) = { VSAT (1 - ) / VSAT (1 + (VD1/VSAT)}
e( - t / RC) = { (1 - ) / (1 + (VD1/VSAT)}
- t / RC = ln { (1 - ) / (1 + (VD1/VSAT)}
- t = R*C*ln { (1 - ) / (1 + (VD1/VSAT)}
t = R*C* ln {(1 + (VD1/VSAT) / (1 - )}
The potential divider decides the value of is given by,
= {R2 / (R1 + R2)}
If VSAT >>VD1 and R1 = R2 so that = 0.5 then
T = 0.693RC
For monostable operation, the trigger pulse width TP should be much less than
T, the pulse width of the monostable multivibrator.
The diode D2 is not essential but it is used to avoid malfunctioning. (If any
positive noise spikes are present in triggering line).
TRIANGULAR WAVEFORM GENERATOR:
We have observed that the output of an Integrator is a triangular wave if its input
is a square wave.
Means Triangular waveform generator can be formed by simply connecting an
integrator to the square wave generator as shown below:
One way to obtain the triangular wave is to integrate the square wave.

Therefore, triangular waveform generator can be formed by using comparator

and an Integrator.
Basically, triangular waveform generated by alternatively charging and
discharging a capacitor with a constant current.
This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the output of the square wave
generator.
Assume that V is high at +VSAT.
This forces a constant current (+VSAT / R3) through C to drive VO negative
linearly.
When V is low at VSAT, it forces a constant current (- VSAT / R3) through C to
drive VO positive linearly.
The frequency of the triangular wave is as same as square wave.
The amplitude of the triangular wave decreases with an increase in its frequency,
and vice versa.
This is because of the reactance of the capacitor decreases at high frequencies
and increases at low frequencies.
In practical circuits, resistance R4 is connected across C to avoid the saturation
problem at low frequencies.

To obtain the stable triangular waveform as output, it is necessary to have

5R3C2>(T/2).
To easy Understand:
Assume that the output of comparator A is +VSAT.
This forces a constant current (+VSAT / R1) through C to give a negative going
ramp at the output of the Integrator.
Therefore one end of the voltage divider is at a voltage +VSAT and the other end is
negative going ramp.
When the negative going ramp reaches a certain value VRAMP, then the effective
voltage at point P becomes slightly below 0V.
As a result the comparator switches from positive saturation to negative
saturation (+VSAT).
This forces a reverse constant current through C to give a positive going ramp
at the output of the integrator as shown below.

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LINEAR AND DIGITAL IC APPLCATIONS LDICA UNIT - IV

MULTIVIBRATORs using OP AMP:

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 1

Circuit diagram of A-stable using IC 741

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 2

The comparator and positive feedback resistors R1 and R2 from an inverting

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 3

Derivation of Expression for Frequency of Oscillation:

The frequency of oscillation is determined by the time it takes the capacitor to

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 4

Where VC(t) = The Instantaneous Voltage across capacitor

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 5

MONO STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

Circuit diagram of Mono-stable using IC 741

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 6

The diode D1is a clamping diode connected across C.

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 7

Derivation of Expression for Pulse Width T:

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 8

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 9

Therefore, triangular waveform generator can be formed by using comparator

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 10

To obtain the stable triangular waveform as output, it is necessary to have

VIGNANS IIT, ESHWAR PRASAD, M.TECH Page 11

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