METAL REINFORCEMENT AND STEEL STRUCTURES

Steel Bar

Steel bar is the most common widely used reinforcing material for most construction of various structures. Steel is
considered as an excellent partner of concrete in resisting both tension and compression forces. Comparatively, steel is
ten times stronger than concrete in carrying compression load and 100 times stronger in resisting tensile stresses.

Types of Deformed Bars

The combination of concrete and steel bars have shown the following satisfactory
performances:

It has negligible difference in thermal expansion co-efficient making it safer

from undue effects of differential thermal deformation.

The concrete that surrounds the reinforcement is an excellent protective

covering to retard steel corrosion.

The strength of steel decreases when exposed to high tensile stresses.

While concrete is weak intension, steel resist high tensile stresses.

A large number of steel bars is more effective in minimizing crack width then a few number of larger bars having
the same total cross sectional area. Likewise, cracks are minimized through the use of deformed bars.

Structurally Steel can be used in two ways:

As reinforcement, it is pre-assembled inside the form followed by pouring pf fresh concrete.

As stressed steel, heavy tension forces are applied to steel before the casting of concrete.

Steel Bars in Metric Measure

Originally, steel bar diameters were standardized from ; 3/8; ; ; 7/8 ; and 1 etc. with length that varies
from 20ft; 25ft; 30ft; and 40 feet. For identification convenience a corresponding number for each diameter size was
assigned.

In order to obtain the right size of steel bars, consider the following recommendations:

In buying steel bars, it must be based on weight per bar length with the aid of Table 10-3 or 10-4.

In ordering steel bars, avoid the use of English measure such as 3/8, 1/2; 5/8 etc. use 10mm, 12mm, 16mm,
etc. if you do now want to be cheated.

Do not insist in asking for bigger discount because you might get steel bars millimeter or much smaller than
what you need.
Steel Bars Identification

N for Billet

A for Axis

R for Rail

Pre-stressed Steel

Pre-stressed Steel is classified into three types:

1. Wire strand

2. Single wire

3. High strength bars

The wire strands are of even wire types where the center wire is enclosed rigidly by hexagonal outer wires with
a pitch of 12 to 16 times the nominal diameter of the strand. The diameter of the strand ranges from to inch. Pre-
stressing wire diameter ranges from .192 to .276 inch made of cold drawn high carbon steel.

High strength alloy steel bars for pre-stressing ranges from to 1-3/8 inches or 20 to 36 mm. diameter.

Bar Splicing, Cutting and Bend Points

A. Tension bars may be spliced by:

1. Welding
2. Tying
3. Sleeves
4. Mechanical devices which provide full positive connection between bars

B. Compression Bars may be spliced by:

1. Lapping
2. Direct end bearing
3. Welding
4. Mechanical device which will provide full positive connections.

Structural Steel

As builders become more aware of the value of time and manpower costs, the use of prefabricated building
parts gained wide acceptance. Some construction companies have diversified investment in mass production of
prefabricated homes relying on the conventional framing methods but applying technique of mass production aimed at
minimizing custom job work without sacrificing the quality of the work.
The recent prefabricated construction of experimental houses sponsored by the National Association of Home
Builders include:

1. Pre-cut steel post beam and foundation system.

2. Combination of sheeting and siding finished with polyvinyl fluoride film.

3. Vinyl finished interior wall board

4. Combination of sub flooring completely assembled at the factory.

5. Reinforced plastic shower stalls and roofing coated with hypalan fastened to rafters by a concealed nailing
strips.

Most Common Shape of Structural Steel Used in Building Constructions

1. Square bar 6. I- beam

2. Round bar 7. T- beam

3. Angular bar 8. H- column

4. Plate bar 9. Wide flange

5. Channels 10. Zee bars

1. Sections or Shapes is the product of rolled mill used as structural members represented by the shapes of their
cross sections.

2. Regular Sections refers to those commonly used with higher demand

3. Special Sections are those frequently used and rolled only upon demand or special arrangement.

4. Plate and Bars are available in various sizes. Flat steel is generally for structural use classified as:

Bars Plates

a) 15 cm. less in width with 0.51 cm. thickness a) Over 20 cm. wide by 6 mm. thick

b) 15 cm. to 20 cm. wide by 6 mm. thick b) Over 120 cm. wide by 4.5 mm. thick or more

Angular Bar

1. Equal Legs <10 x 10 x for angles of equal legs.

2. Unequal Legs <15 x 10 x for angles of unequal legs.

Standard Channel

Standard channel shape is unsymmetrical balance consisting of two flanges on one side. It requires support to
prevent its tendency to buckle. It is generally used as elements of built-up sections for columns suitable for framing
around floor openings, spandrels and lintels attributed to absence of flange on the other side.

The channel section is identified as C15 x 20 which means a depth of 20 and weighs 15 kilograms per meter
length.
Wide Flange

Wide flange sections are described as W12 x 21, meaning a depth of 24 and weighs 12 kilograms per meter
length. All wide flange sections are generally parallel face flange except those with 5% slope inside face produced by
Bethlehem Steel Company. Comparatively, wide flange sections are more efficient than the standard I-Beam with
respect to bending resistance.

Standard I-Beam

The standard I-Beam when used as column is uneconomical because the whirl or revolving action of the
structure about an axis through the centroid parallel to the web of the I- beam is comparatively small.

H Bearing Piles

H Bearing Piles is suitable for pile driving on deep excavation, but it is more suitable than I Beam for columns.

Zee and Tee Sections

The Zee Section is another structural steel in a form of letter Z. It is not commonly used in building construction
except in the fabrication of steel windows and other frames.

Structural Tee

Tee

Structural Steel Grade

The early structural steel grade for building constructions was the ASTM A47 that lately super ceded by a new
type of structural steel grade called ASTM-A36. The Code so provides that structural sheet shall conform to the
specifications of any of the following:

1. ASTM A7 for steel bridges and buildings.

2. ASTM A373 structural sheet for welding.

3. ASTM A36 structural sheet.

4. For high strength structural steel see ASTM A440.

5. For high strength low alloy structural manganese vanadium steel specify ASTM A441.

6. For high strength low alloy structural specify ASTM A242.

10-9 Bolts and Rivets

Fastener term used for both rivets and bolts.

Riveting Procedures

1. The steel metal to be connected are drilled and securely held with their holes perfectly aligned.

2. Heated rivets are inserted into the holes and a bucking up tools pressed against the rivet head.

3. The projecting shank is then covered by the power riveter which deliver rapid blows filling the shank and
forming the head.
Rivet Joints may fail under any one of the following:

1. By shearing of the rivets

2. By crushing of rivet or metal on which it bears

3. By tension in the sections of the connected members

4. By tearing at the edge

Gage Line is the line parallel with the length of a member wherein the rivets are placed or the normal distance
between the gage line and the edge of a member.

Pitch of the rivets is from center to center distance between adjacent line. The minimum pitch between the center of
rivet holes shall not be less than 9 centimeters for a 25 mm rivets and Pitch should not be less than 3 times the diameter
of the rivets.

Edge Distance of Rivets

Bolt or Rivets placed too closed to the edge of the

plate has the tendency to tear the adjacent thin metal.
Standard specification requires a minimum edge distance
of holes as presented in Table 10-11. the maximum
distance from the center of rivet or bolt to the nearest
edge should be 12 times the thickness of the plate but
shall not exceed 15 centimeters.

Stick Rivets

Truss members are usually built up to two angles provided with gusset plate that separate the two angles. These
angles act as one unit by the use of rivets connecting the members placed at intervals between the ends of the
members. This is called Stitch Rivets.

Bolts

Bolts used to connect structural steel are either the common bolts or the high strength bolts. Bolts and rivets are
call fasteners. Bolts are called threaded fasteners. Common bolts are not permitted in some Codes for building
construction more than a prescribed height but rather limited to field connection or work less importance not subject to
shock or vibration and not those buildings containing machineries or rolling loads that will cause loosening of nuts which
will substantially reduce the strength of the connection.

High Strength Bolts

High strength bolts are made of ASTM A325 steel used for years in building construction. High strength bolts
provide a resisting force by friction between the containing surfaces of the plates eliminating bending, shearing or
bearing stresses on the bolts.

Friction Type Connection when high strength bolts are used, tensile stresses are set up in the shank of the bolts . The
frictions between the connecting plates resist the tension and compression load.

Bearing Type Connection where the ends of the plates are in bearing against rivets, the shank of the rivets resist the
shear.
Connections of Structural Members

1. The Column Base Plate spreads the column load over the foundation in various sizes where the length is in meter and
the thickness is by increment of 12mm.

The Rolled steel gearing plates should be in absolute contact with each other for proper distribution of load.
Plates more than 5 mm to 10 mm thick may be straightened by pressing or planing. Steel column should be properly
anchored to the foundation by steel bolts that passes through the plates and angles riveted or welded to the flange of
the column. Angles are sometimes used for light columns with the base plate secured to the column by means of fillet
weld.

2. Column Splices is normally designed at 60 cm or more above the floor level. Generally, splices are made by riveting
of welding splice plates of 10 to 12 mm thick to the flanges of the column. The splice plates however does not resist
compression load but only serves to hold the column sections in the right position. Where the upper column is smaller in
width than the supporting column, filler plates are used. If the difference in width is so big, a horizontal plate is used
instead.

Beam Bearing Plate is provided for any beam or girder that rest on masonry wall or pier in order to provide an angle
bearing area and to attain a uniform distribution of the beam load. The bearing plate is not riveted nor welded to the
beam flange.

Beam Connection to Column has great variety of conditions using rivets or weld anchorage. For large beam, seat
connection with stiffeners are employed consisting of shelf angle and single or double angles. The filler should have the
same thickness as the shelf angle. The top angle or clip angle is used only to hold the beam in its right position but not to
resist in transferring the beam load to the column.

Seated Connection are used without stiffeners for beam with smaller reactions.

Beam to Girder Connection beam is connected to the girder by using two angles attached to the web of the beam
fastened either by rivets, bolts or weld.

Riveted Framing the different types of riveted framings are:

a) A beam is supported by a girder using rivets or bolts just to hold the beam.

b) Frame connection using connecting angles used for beams and girders.

c) A seated connection is without stiffener angles but only top or side angles are used.

d) Flush top refers to the connections of two beams where the upper surfaces of the top are of the same
level. This is done by cutting a portion of the upper flange known as coping or blocking.

e) Coping or blocking method is not a good practice. It involves additional expenses aside from the
reduction of the material that may affect the strength of the beam.

Plate Girder

A Plate Girder is a beam made up of steel plates and angles either riveted or welded together forming an I section.
When the web of I section consists of two separated steel plates, it is called Box Girder.

the axial vertical plate is called the web plate. Flange angles are placed at the top and at the bottom of the web plate
secured by rivets. One or more plates are riveted to the outstanding legs of the flange angle called cover plates and a
stiffener made of angle section is riveted to its side to prevent buckling of the web plate.

In welded plate girder, the flange angles are omitted because the cover plate is connected directly to the vertical plate.
Built-up Girder

The principles behind a built up plate are:

1. Web plate resist shearing stresses.

2. The flange made up angles cover plates and 1/6 of the web area resist tension and compression due to bending.

3. The stiffness prevents buckling of the web plates.

Web Plates and Intermediate Stiffeners

Open Web Steel Joint is considered lightweight structure to support floor and panel between main support.

Open Web Steel Joist is a lightweight structure to support floor and panel between main supports.

Roof Trusses

Roof trusses are the most economical structure to cover a building having a wide span of supporting columns or
walls. A truss is a structural frame generally supported only at both ends of columns, beams or walls.

Various Types of Trusses

1. King Post Truss 7. Single Fink Truss

2. Simple Fink Truss 8. Clipped Truss

3. Fink Truss 9. Rigid Frame Clear Span

4. Howe Truss 10. Single Span Slope Beam

5. Pratt Truss 11. Continuous Beam

6. Fan Truss 12. Rigid Frame Open-Web Clear Span Beam

Purlin is a beam placed on top of the rafters or top chord that

extends from truss to truss which carry and transfer roof load to
the truss at the panel points.

Roof Panel refers to the roof portion that lies between two
adjacent joints to the upper chord. In short, roof panel is that
portion of the roof supported by each purlin.

Sag Rod refers to a steel bar usually 16 mm or 20 mm diameter

rod attached at the center or end points of the span of purlins.
Welded Connections

Types of Welded Joints

1. Square groove joint 6. Double bevel groove

2. Single vee groove joint 7. Single fillet lap joint
3. Double vee groove joint 8. Double fillet lap joint
4. Single Bevel Groove 9. Single U groove joint
5. Square tee joint
Welded joints are classified into the following: Advantages of Welded Connections

1. Butt joint 1. Minimal noise in the erection of structure.

2. Tee joint 2. Big savings in labor and materials.

3. Lap joint 3. Rigidity of frame.

4. Easy to correct and repair old and new work.

5. Simplicity of design.

Arc Welding is the most acceptable and preferred connection for structural steel members.

Penetration is the term used to indicate depth from the original surface of the base metal to the point at which fusion
ceases.

Shop Weld is the term used when the structural members are welded in a shop and delivered to the construction site.

Plug and Slot Weld in connecting two overlapping plates by means of weld, holes are made in one of the two plates
then plugged and finally, slot welds are made at the entire area of the hole or slot. The minimum and maximum
diameter of the plug and slots are shown in the following figure.

Basic Welding Symbols