Mobility

Flexible and convenient global personal communication.

Poor environment and conditions:-

Co-channel interference, multi-path(space and time)shadow
effect and delay, power change and other noise.

Multiple MS and channels:-

Interference, near and far effect.

Limit of frequency resources.

Reliability is important
Registration, handoff, switching

50
November 1988
CDMA cellular concept.

November 1989
CDMA open demonstration conducted in San Diego.

1991
QUALCOMM successfully performs large-scale
capacity tests in San Diego.
1992
US West orders the first CDMA network equipment
CDMA soft handoff patent granted.

1993
IS-95A standard complete.

1995
First commercial launch of cdmaOne (Hutchison Telecom,
Hong Kong).
1996
CDMA One is commercially launched in South Korea.

1997
IS-95B standard completed (including 64 kbps data
transmission capability).

1998
TIA endorses CDMA2000 to be 3G solution for International
Telecommunication Union.

CDMA2000 submitted to ITU as part of the IMT-2000

process for global 3G standards.

51
1999
83 CDMA operators in 35 countries.

CDG announces CDMA is fastest growing mobile technology

with nearly 42 million subscribers.

2000
In 2000 the ITU-T was responsible for the IMT-2000
specification, which is meant to be a guideline for every 3G
standard.

2001
More than 100 million CDMA subscribers globally.
CDMA2000 surpasses three million subscribers.

2002
3G CDMA subscribers surpass 27 million.

2003
3G CDMA subscribers surpass 73 million.

18 countries launch commercial CDMA2000 services

(Argentina, Belarus, Bermuda, Brazil, Canada, China,
Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Indonesia, Kazakhstan,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Peru, Puerto Rico, Taiwan,
Thailand, Vietnam).

Universal Mobile Telecommunication Service (UMTS) is the

marketing name for the 3G has two standardization bodies:

1- 3GPP which uses the W-CDMA technology.

2- 3GPP2 which uses the CDMA2000 technology.

W-CDMA as 3G Approach:-
The 3G solution for GSM is called WCDMA
WCDMA requires a new radio spectrum as it operates in
ultra wide 5-MHz radio channels.

WCDMA meets the IMT-2000 requirements of 384 kbps

outdoors and 2 Mbps indoors.

52
CDMA 2000 as 3G Approach:-
CDMA2000 represents a family of technologies that includes:
CDMA2000 1X CDMA2000 1XEV.

CDMA2000 1X can double the voice capacity of CDMAOne

networks and delivers peak packet data speeds of 307 kbps in
mobile environments.

CDMA2000 1xEV includes:

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO delivers peak data speeds of

2.4Mbps and supports applications such as MP3 transfers
and video conferencing.

CDMA2000 1xEV-DV provides integrated voice and

simultaneous high-speed packet data multimedia services
at speeds of up to 3.09 Mbps.

53
54
 Spread Spectrum.
Soft & Softer Handoff.
Rake Receiver.
Variable Rate Vo-coder.
High quality voice.

Power Control.
Coverage.

Simple Network Planning.

Green Handset.

Smooth migration to 3G and the operators benefit is protected at

the most.

55
56
 Consists of the radio transmitters, receivers and the antenna
system required to provide the coverage area for one cell.
Records and passes to the BSC (Signal strength measurements).
Converts the CDMA radio signals into a format that can be
recognized by the BSC.
Channel coding and interleaving.
Spreading and dispreading.
Realization of diversity.
Demodulation.

Manages the Radio Communication with the mobile station over

the air interface.
Supervises the transmission network and the operation of each
BTS.
The BSC is the central node within a BSS and co-ordinates the
actions of Base Stations.
BTS configuration: This involves the allocation of codes to
channel combinations and power levels for each cell according to
available equipment.
Cell Description Data (e.g. cell identity, maximum and minimum
output powers in the cell).
Control the power (control process).

Handling of MS connections :
During Call Set Up
Paging.
Signaling set-up.
Assignment of traffic channel.

During a Call:
Dynamic power control in MS and BTS.
Locating.

57
The primary node in a CDMA network is the MSC. It is the node,
which controls calls both to MSs and from MSs.

The primary functions of an MSC include the following:

Administers its Base Station Controllers BSC(s).
Switches calls to/from mobile subscribers.
Records charging and accounting details
Provides the gateway functionality to other networks.
Service provisioning.
Control of connected BSCs.

The HLR is a centralized network database that stores and

manages all mobile subscriptions belonging to a specific
operator.
It acts as a permanent store for a persons subscription
information until that subscription is cancelled.

The primary functions of the HLR include:

Stores for each mobile subscriber:
Basic subscriber categories.
Supplementary services.
Current location.
Allowed/barred services.
Authentication data.

Subscription database management.

Controls the routing of mobile terminated calls and SMS.

The VLR contains a complete copy of the necessary subscription

details, including the following information:
Identity numbers for the subscriber.
Supplementary service information (e.g. Does the subscriber
has call waiting activated or not).
Activity of MS (e.g. idle or busy).
Current Location Area of MS.

58
Compared with IS-95, in order for the CDMA2000 user data service
to access, the CDMA2000-1X core network should be added with:
PDSN,
HA (providing Mobile IP service)
AAA;
These three functional entities are the cdma2000-1X access
network should be added with PCF functional entity.
These new devices are required by the packet data service
transmission to provide high-speed access to the Internet, videophone,
and e-commerce to the users in the 3G mobile communication system.

59
As a access gateway , PDSN(packet data service node) provides the
CDMA2000 mobile station with services for Internet access or
Intranet access.

PDSN acts as an interface between Radio Network and Packet

Data Network.

Provides the mobile station with Simple IP access service or

Mobile IP access service.In Simple IP, PDSN acts as a Network
access server, while in Mobile IP, PDSN acts as Foreign
Agent(FA) for Mobile Station.

PDSN acts as a client of AAA server.

AAA authenticates the script file information of the subscribers,

authorizes data services, and Collects accounting information from
PDSN, completes accounting.

Authentication simple IP and mobile IP.

Authorization subscriber configuration information.
Accounting collecting billing data(both radio specific and IP
network specific) for each packet data call.

HA (Home Agent) is responsible to maintain the current

registration of the MS and redirections packets to the PDSN
Performs authentication and authorization uses AAA server.
Assigns MS home IP addresses after authentication by mobile
IP protocol.
Only uses in Mobile IP.

60
 Simple IP Access.
Mobile IP Access.

Simple IP Access:-
Similar to the network access through dialing-up modem on the
fixed telephone. Assigning dynamic IP addresses and accomplishing
the data communication with MS as the calling party.

Mobile IP Access:-
Providing a route mechanism in the internet. Assigning MS fixed
addresses to connect any sub-networks. Accomplishing the data
communication with MS as the calling party or the called party, and
holding data communication when MS handoff between different
PPP link.

Main Interfaces:-
Um interface (air interface)
It is defined as the communication interface between
MS and BTS.
It is physical linking is realized through radio link.

A interface
It is defined as the communication Interface between
NSS and BSS (MSC and BSC).
It is physical liking is realized using standard 2.04
Mbit/s (E1) PCM digital transmission link.

61
Network subsystem Interface:-
B interface:-
It is defined between VLR and MSC.
It is used by MSC to ask VLR for information about
the location of MS, or to update MS location.
C interface:-
It is defined between HLR and MSC.
It is used for route selection and management
information (billing).
D interface:-
It is defined between HLR and VLR.
It is used for exchanging the information about MS
location and Subscriber management.
The VLR is integrated with MSC and HLR is
integrated with AC. So, the physical linking of D-
interface is realizing through the standard 2.048
Mbits/s.
E interface:-
It is defined as the interface among different MSCs of
controlling adjacent areas [Handoff].
it is physical linking is realized through the standard
2.048 Mbits/s PCM digital transmission link.

All CDMA RF carriers are 1.25 MHz. wide

62
 Increased capacity: serve more users.
Reduced capital requirements since fewer media can carry the
traffic.
Decreased per-user expense.
Easier to manage and administer.

FDMA:-
Traffic channels on different frequency bands are allocated to
different users, for example, AMPS and TACS.

TDMA:-
Traffic channels at different points of time are allocated to
different users, for example, DAMPS and GSM.

CDMA:-
Based on codes, all users obtain traffic channels at the same time
and on the same frequency band, for example, WCDMA and
CDMA2000

63
 The core idea that makes CDMA possible was first explained by
Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs research mathematician.
Shannon's work relates amount of information carried, channel
bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio, and detection error probability.

It shows the theoretical upper limit attainable.

In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark paper on

information theory, A Mathematical Theory of Communication.

SHANNONS CAPACITY EQUATION

Bw = bandwidth of the signal in Hertz.

C = channel capacity in bits/second.
S = signal power.
N = noise power.

The major concern in Wireless is digital communication is

efficient use of Bandwidth and power. But there are scenarios where
it is necessary to sacrifice the efficient use for design considerations.
One such scenario is secure communication in hostile environment.
This design objective is met using a modulation technique called as
Spread Spectrum (SS).

A complete definition to Spread Spectrum is in two parts:-

Spread Spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data

sequences occupy a bandwidth in excess of the minimum
bandwidth necessary to send it.

Spread Spectrum is accomplished before transmission through

the use of a code that is independent of data sequences .The same
code is used at the receiver to despread the received signal so that
the original data sequence may be recovered.

64
 By a small amount of analysis in Shannon equation we can see that
the: bandwidth of the signal (Bw) is inversely proportional to the
signal power.

This result can be used to serve more than one user by the same
frequency in the same time by generating a new dimension to
discriminate between the different users and make the spreading
process.

In CDMA each user is assigned a unique code sequence it uses to

encode its information-bearing signal. The receiver, knowing the
code sequences of the user, decodes a received signal after
reception and recovers the original data. This is possible since the
cross correlations between the code of the desired user and the
codes of the other users are small. Since the bandwidth of the
code signal is chosen to be much larger than the bandwidth of the
information-bearing signal, the encoding process enlarges
(spreads) the spectrum of the signal and is therefore also known
as spread-spectrum modulation.

A spread-spectrum modulation technique must be fulfill two

criteria:

The ratio of transmitted bandwidth to information bandwidth is

called the processing gain, Gp, of the spread-spectrum system;
the receiver correlates the received signal with a synchronously
generated replica of the spreading code to recover the original
information bearing signal. This implies that the receiver must
know the code used to modulate the data.

65
 Multiple Access Capability:-
If multiple users transmit a spread-spectrum signal at the same
time, the receiver will still be able to distinguish between the
users provided each user has a unique code that has a sufficiently
low cross-correlation with the other codes.

Protection Against Multipath Interference:-

The signals of the different paths are all copies of the same
transmitted signal but with different amplitudes, phases, delays,
and arrival angles. Adding these signals at the receiver will be
constructive at some of the frequencies and destructive at others.
In the time domain, this results in a dispersed signal. Spread-
spectrum modulation can combat this multipath interference.

Privacy & Interference Rejection:-

The transmitted signal can only be despread and the data
recovered if the receiver knows the code. Cross-correlating the
code signal with a narrowband signal will spread the power of the
narrowband signal thereby reducing the interfering power in the
information bandwidth.

Anti-Jamming capability:-
This is more or less the same as interference rejection except the
interference is now willfully inflicted on the system. It is this
property, together with the next one, that makes spread-spectrum
modulation attractive for military applications.

Low Propability of Interception:-

Because of its low power density, the spread-spectrum signal is
difficult to detect and intercept by a hostile listener.

66
 Frequency- Hopping:-
Each users narrowband signal hops among discrete
frequencies, and the receiver follows in sequence.
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) CDMA is NOT
currently used in wireless systems, although used by the
military.

Disadvantages of FH-SS:
A highly sophisticated frequency synthesizer is necessary.
An abrupt change of the signal when changing frequency

Timing Hopping Spread Spectrum:-

In time hopping CDMA the data signal is transmitted in rapid
bursts at time intervals determined by the code assigned to the user.
The time axis is divided into frames, and each frame is divided into
M time slots. During each frame the user will transmit in one of the
M time slots.

67
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum:-
In DS-CDMA the modulated information bearing signal (the data
signal) is directly modulated by a digital, discrete-time, discrete-
valued code signal. The data modulation is often omitted and the data
signal is directly multiplied by the code signal and the resulting signal
modulates the wideband carrier. It is from this direct multiplication
that the direct sequence CDMA gets its name.
After transmission of the signal, the receiver uses coherent
demodulation to despread the SS signal, using a locally generated
code sequence. To be able to perform the dispreading operation, the
receiver must not only know the code sequence used to spread the
signal, but the codes of the received signal and the locally generated
code must also be synchronized. After despreading a data modulated
signal results, and after demodulation the original data can be
recovered.

Advantages of DS-SS:-
The generation of the coded signal is easy. It can be
performed by a simple multiplication.
Since only one carrier frequency has to be generated, the
frequency synthesizer (carrier generator) is simple.
Coherent demodulation of the DS signal is possible.
No synchronization among the users is necessary.

Disadvantages of DS-SS:-
It is difficult to acquire and maintain the synchronization of
the locally generated code signal and the received signal.
The power received from users close to the base station is
much higher than that received from users further away

68
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) CDMA IS the method used
in IS-95 commercial systems.

DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View:-

At Originating Site:
Input A: Users Data @ 19,200 bits/second
Input B: Walsh Code #23@ 1.2288 Mcps Output: Spread
spectrum Signal.

At Destination Site:
Input A: Received spread spectrum signal
Input B: Walsh Code #23 @ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Users Data @ 19,200 bits/second just as originally
sent.

69
DSSS Spreading: Frequency-Domain View:-
The improvement of time-domain information rate means that the
bandwidth of spectrum-domain information is spread.

CDMA Channel or CDMA Frequency:-

Duplex channel made of two 1.25 MHz-wide bands of
electromagnetic spectrum, one for Base Station to Mobile
Station communication (called the FORWARD LINK or the
DOWNLINK) and another for Mobile Station to Base
Station communication (called the REVERSE LINK or the
UPLINK).

70
 In 800 Cellular these two simplex 1.25 MHz bands are 45
MHz apart.
In 1900 MHz PCS they are 80 MHz apart.

CDMA Forward & Reverse Channel

1.25 MHz Forward / Reverse Link.

CDMA Code Channel

Each individual stream of 0s and 1s contained in either the
CDMA Forward Channel or in the CDMA Reverse Channel.
Code Channels are characterized (made unique) by
mathematical codes.
Code channels in the forward link: Pilot, Sync, Paging and
Forward Traffic channels.
Code channels in the reverse link: Access and Reverse
Traffic channels

Pseudo-random noise sequences or PN sequences are known

sequences that exhibit the properties or characteristics of random
sequences. They can be used to logically isolate users on the same
frequency channel. They can also be used to perform scrambling as
well as spreading and despreading functions. The reason we need to
use PN sequences is that if the code sequences were deterministic,
then everybody could access the channel. If the code sequences were
truly random on the other hand, then nobody, including the intended
receiver, would be able to access the channel. Thus, using a pseudo-
random sequence makes the signal look like random noise to
everybody except to the transmitter and the intended receiver.

71
In CDMA system, user information is encrypted by means of
scrambling. The scramble code used here is M-sequence.

Shown in the figure is an M-sequence generator made up of a

shifting register sequence with certain feed back..

The period of the output sequence is 2N-1 (N being the number

of shifting registers). That is to say, the shifting register
sequence resumes to the initial status when every 2N-1 pieces
of codes are output.

There are two different types of PN codes and one output of

Hadamard Matrix used in IS-95 CDMA Technology:

Short PN code.
Long PN code.
Walsh codes.

In 1923, J.L. Walsh introduced a complete set of orthogonal codes,

based on rearranging the Rademacher code. These codes are also
binary valued codes. The Walsh code, also known as the Hadamard
code, is a set of 64 orthogonal codes, there purpose is to provide:

Forward channel spreading over the 1.2288MHz band.

Unique identification to a mobile.
The chip rate (code rate) of a Walsh code is 1.2288 Mchips per second
(Mcps). The four different types of forward channels are designated as
follows:
Pilot channel: W0 (Walsh code 0).

72
 Paging channel: W1 to W7 (unused paging codes can be used for
traffic).
Sync channel: W32.
Traffic channel: W8 to W31 and W33 to W63.

Each Walsh Code is Orthogonal to all other Walsh Codes:-

This means that it is possible to recognize and therefore extract a
particular Walsh code from a mixture of other Walsh codes which
are filtered out in the process.
Two same-length binary strings are orthogonal if the result of
XORing them has the same number of 0s as 1s.

Variable Walsh Codes:-

Enhancements of CDMA2000 include the use of Walsh spreading
factor to attain high data rates on the forward link.
Variable Walsh spreading uses the tree structure for recursively
constructing Walsh codes of the longer lengths.
Higher data rates for the user can be obtained by using the shorter
Walsh code.

73
A 15-stage linear shift register generates the short PN code.
Therefore, the maximum length of the Short PN Code is
L = 2^N-1 = 2^15-1 = 32,768-1 chips.
By implementation, an extra chip is inserted at the end of the
sequence, yielding a sequence of length L=32,768 chips. The short PN
code runs at a speed of 1,228,800 chips per second. This yields a
repetition cycle of 32,768/1,228,800=26.67 ms.
The short PN code consist of two PN Sequences I and Q each 32,768
chips long generated in similar but differently tapped 15 bit shift
register, the two sequences scramble the information on the I and Q
phase channels.
These codes are used for cell identification in a reused cell.
The chip rate of the short PN code is 1.2288 Mcps.
Minimum PN sequence offset used is 64 chips, that is to say, 512
PN offsets are available to identify the CDMA sectors (215
/64=512).

The PN chips from the long code are used to provide several
randomizing functions in the IS-95 system. These include providing
chips for message-scrambling on the forward and reverse links, for
identifying individual mobiles and access channels on the reverse
links by using unique offsets for each entity and for randomizing the
location of the power control bits on the forward traffic channels. A
42-stage linear shift register generates the long PN code. Therefore,
the maximum length of the long PN code is
L = 2^N-1 = 2^42-1 = 4.4 x 1012 = 4.4 trillion chips.
The Long PN Code also runs at a speed of 1,228,800 chips per second.
This yields a repetition cycle of 4.4 x 1012/1,228,800 = 41-42 days.
The long PN code is generated in a 42-stage linear shift register
generator with the output of the 42nd stage input into the first stage
and modulo-2 added with the outputs of stages 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 16,

74
17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 31, 33, and 35. The output of the long
code generator is taken after the output of each flip-flop in the
generator has been added with a corresponding bit in a 42-bit mask,
which is unique to each user, access, and paging channel.
Base band data scrambling in the forward link.
Base band data spreading in the reverse link.

Long PN Code:-

75
 Auto-Correlation function R, provides the degree of similarity
between a random variable x(t) and a time-shifted version of x(t).

Cross-correlation function provides the degree of likeness

between a random variable x(t) and time-shifted version of another
random variable y(t).

The auto-correlation function of PN codes is a two-value

function. Its maximum value occurs when the time-shift parameter
is zero. For all other values equal to or greater than one chip, the
correlation function is -1.
Auto Correlation of PN Codes:-

Path Loss.
As shown completely in GSM Transmission Problems.
Fading.
Fast Fading Solution is The Rake Receiver as shown in Page.
Doppler Frequency Shift.

Channel Impairments.
Channel Coding.
Interleaving.

B.W Limitations.

76
Doppler Frequency Shift:-
The Doppler frequency shift means that the multi-path effect not only
can cause changes in the amplitude of the transmitted signals, but also
can cause changes in the frequency structure of the transmitted
signals. Thus, the phase fluctuates, which causes incorrect receiving of
data signals. The Doppler frequency shifts value can be calculated
with the formula below:
Doppler frequency shift = (movement speed/wavelength) COS (the
included angle between the incidence wave and the movement
direction)

Channel Impairments:-
Channel coding:-
Convolution code or TURBO code is used in channel.
encoding
Constraint length=shift register number+1.
Encoding efficiency= (total input bits / total output symbols).

Turbo code is used during the transmission of large data packet.

Characteristics of the Turbo code:

The input information is encoded twice and the two
output codes can exchange information with each other
during decoding.
The symbol is protected not only by the neighborhood
check bits, but also by the separate Check Bits.

77
 Interleaving:-
It can be seen from the figure that the data are read row by row into
an interleaver at the transmit end, read column by column out (this
process is called interleaving) and propagated after other
modulation process.
Then, the data enter the interleaver at the receive end row by row
and are read out column by column (this process is called de-
interleaving).

B.W Limitations:-
From The Equation of the Processing Gain = Gp = Fc/Fb, when The
Gp increase Then The S/N will Increase , so the number of users will
increase also , Then our aim is to decrease the bit rate Fb and this is
the limitation.

Speech Coding:-

Vocoder:
8K QCELP.
13K QCELP.
EVRC.

Characteristics
Support voice activity

To achieve better capacity and low power consumption, base station

reduces its transmission power.

78
 The forward channel modulated by means of QPSK.
The reverse channel by means of OQPSK can reduce the
fluctuation range of modulated signals.

So we can describe the CDMA System Model as shown:-

79
Channel structure in IS-95A:-

Forward channel:-
Forward Pilot Channel.
Forward Sync Channel.
Forward Paging Channel.
Forward Traffic Channel (including power control subchannel).

Reverse channel
Access Channel.
Reverse Traffic Channel.

Used for the transmission of user and signaling information to a

specific mobile station during a call.

Maximum number of traffic channels: 64 minus one Pilot channel,

one Sync channel, and 1 - 7 Paging channel.

80
 This leaves each CDMA frequency with at least 55 traffic channels.
Unused paging channels can provide up to 6 additional channels.

Data Scrambling:-

Power Control Sub-channel:-

A power control sub-channel is transmitted continuously every

1.25ms (or 800HZ).
BTS instruct MS to change its power level by +1dB. A 0 power
control bit requests the MS to increase its power. A 1 power
control bit instruct the MS to decrease its power.

81
 Orthogonal Spreading:-

Each symbol output from the Mux is exclusive ORd by the

assigned Walsh function.
Walsh function has fixed chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps.

Quadrature Spreading & Baseband Filtering:-

The forward traffic channel is combined with two different PN

sequences: I and Q.
Base band filtering ensures the waveforms are contained within the
1.25 MHz frequency range.

Quadrature Phase Shift Key (QPSK) Modulation:-

82
 Used by the mobile station for initial system acquisition.
Transmitted constantly by the base station.
The same Short PN sequences are shared by all base stations.
Each base station is differentiated by a phase offset of 64 bits.
Provides tracking of:
Timing reference.
Phase reference.

Facilitates mobile station-assisted handoffs:-

Used to identify handoff candidates.
Key factor in performing soft handoffs.

Used to provide essential system parameters.

It used Walsh function number 32.
Used during system acquisition stage.
Bit rate is 1200 bps.
Simplifies the acquisition of the Sync Channel once the Pilot
Channel has been acquired.

Sync. Message Parameters:-

Provide of System Time.
Provide The System ID.
Provide Network ID.
Provide Pilot PN Offset.
Provide Long Code State.
Provide Paging Channel Data Rate.

83
 The Paging Channel uses Walsh function 1.
Two rates are supported: 9600 and 4800 bps.
The functions of a paging channel:
Paging mobile stations.
Assigning traffic channel.

Used by the mobile station to:

Initiate communication with the base station.
Respond to Paging Channel messages.
Has a fixed data rate of 4800 bps.

84
 Used when a call is in progress to send:-
Voice traffic from the subscriber.
Response to commands/queries from the base station.
Requests to the base station.
Supports variable data rate operation for: 8 Kbps vocoder
Rate Set 1 - 9600, 4800, 2400 and 1200 bps 13 Kbps
vocoder.
Rate Set 2 - 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps.

85
Diversity.
Soft Handoff.
Rake Receiver.
Power Control.

Time diversity.
Block interleaving, error-correction.

Frequency diversity
The CDMA signal energy is distributed on the whole 1.23MHZ
bandwidth.

Space diversity
The introduction of twin receive antennas .
The RAKE receivers of the mobile station and the base station
can combine the signals of different time delay.
During a handoff, the mobile station contacts multiple base
stations and searches for the strongest frame

Soft handoff
It is a process of establishing a link with a target sector before
breaking the link with the serving sector.

Softer handoff
Like the soft handoff, but the handoff is occurred between multi-
sectors in the same base station.

86
 Hard handoff
Hard handoff occurs when the two sectors are not synchronized or
are not on the same frequency. Interruption in voice or data
communication occurs but this interruption does not effect the user
communication.

RAKE antennas help to overcome on the multi-path fading and

enhance the receive performance of the system.

Handset uses combined outputs of the three traffic correlators

rake fingers.

87
 Each finger can independently recover a particular PN offset and
Walsh code.
Fingers can targeted on delayed multipath reflections, or even on
different BTSs.
Searcher continuously checks pilots.

Transmit power on all users must be tightly controlled so their signals

reach the base station at the same signal level and at the absolute
minimum power level necessary to ensure acceptable service quality.

Reverse Open Loop Power Control:-

The mobile station makes a coarse initial estimation of the
required transmit power, based upon the total received power.
Problems with Reverse Open Loop Power Control:
Assumes same exact path loss in both directions; therefore,
cannot account for asymmetrical path loss.
Estimates are based on total power received; therefore the
power received from other cell sites by mobile station
introduces inaccuracies.

Reverse Closed Loop Power Control:-

Consists of power up (0) & power down (1) commands
sent to the mobile stations, based upon their signal
strength measured at the Base Station and compared to
a specified threshold.

88
 Each command requests a 1dB increase or decrease of
the mobile station transmit power.

Reverse Outer Loop Power Control:-

Most gradual form of reverse link power control.
Setpoint is varied according to the FER on the Reverse
Traffic Channel (determined at the Base Station
Controller).

Forward Traffic Channel Power Control:-

The base station slowly decreases power to each mobile
station.
As the FER (determined at the mobile station) increases,
the mobile station requests a Forward Traffic Channel
power increase.

89
90