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Clinical and Epidemiologic Research

Rasch Analysis of the Ocular Surface Disease


Index (OSDI)
Bradley E. Dougherty,1 Jason J. Nichols,2 and Kelly K. Nichols2

PURPOSE. The Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI) is a 12-item item has the same five-category Likert-type response option, and
scale for the assessment of symptoms related to dry eye disease each of the three subscales has its own question type.
and their effect on vision. Its reliability and validity have been Initial investigations of the reliability of the OSDI were con-
investigated within the classical test theory framework and, more ducted using Classical Test Theory methods, that is, using the
recently, using Rasch analysis. The purpose of the present analysis Cronbachs statistic to assess the internal consistency of the
was to more completely investigate the functioning of its re- items.9 There are several excellent references on Classical Test
sponse category structure, the validity of its three subscales, and Theory and its use in survey research.10,11 Schiffman et al.9 found
the unidimensionality of the latent construct it is intended to that Cronbachs for the OSDI was 0.92, and a factor analysis
assess. revealed three subscales (symptoms, environmental triggers, and
METHODS. Responses to the OSDI from 172 females participating vision-related function). They reported acceptable testretest re-
in the Dry Eye in Postmenopause (DEiM) study who had previ- peatability, but found that OSDI scores did not correlate particu-
ously been diagnosed with dry eye or reported significant ocular larly well with clinical tests for dry eye. Specifically, correlations
irritation and dryness were analyzed. Response category structure for all subjects between OSDI score and tear break-up time,
and item fit statistics were evaluated for assessment of model fit. Schirmers test, lissamine green, and fluorescein staining in the
Person separation statistics were used to examine the validity of worse eye ranged from 0.21 to 0.19 and none of the correla-
the subscales. Unidimensionality was assessed by principal com- tions was statistically significant.
ponent analysis (PCA) of model residuals. The use of Classical Test Theory to score survey instruments
RESULTS. The recommended five-category response structure re- and evaluate their reliability has been criticized for several rea-
sulted in disordered response thresholds. A four-category struc- sons. One of these is the treatment of Likert-type survey data as
ture resulted in ordered thresholds. Item infit statistics were ac- continuous, rather than ordinal. Another is the assignment of
ceptable for all 12 items. Person separation with this category equal weight to each survey item in the calculation of an overall
structure was adequate, with a person separation index of 2.16. score, when one could imagine situations in which items may
None of the three subscales demonstrated adequate person sep- require different levels of the underlying trait for endorsement.
aration. PCA showed one other significant factor onto which the For these reasons, the common method of generating an overall
three environmental items loaded significantly. score from an instrumentsumming and averaging the ordinal-
level responsesis open to criticism. Also, the approach of using
CONCLUSIONS. All items demonstrated acceptable fit to the model
Cronbachs to assess reliability does not provide information
after collapsing categories to order the response thresholds. The
regarding the behavior of individual survey items, only the instru-
original subscales did not prove valid, and there is some evidence
ment as a whole.
of multidimensionality and poor targeting. (Invest Ophthalmol
A family of models known collectively as Item Response The-
Vis Sci. 2011;52:8630 8635) DOI:10.1167/iovs.11-8027
ory (IRT) provides an alternative approach to the scoring and
evaluation of survey instruments. The models have roots in edu-

T he Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI) is perhaps the most


frequently used survey instrument for the assessment of oc-
ular surface disease severity in dry eye research. It has been used
cation and aptitude testing, and seek to quantify the amount of
some latent trait using survey responses. Rasch analysis, also
sometimes referred to as a one-parameter logistic model, is often
in a variety of studies, both in the assessment of the severity of dry considered as the simplest of the IRT models.12,13 Rasch analysis
eye associated with certain conditions13 and in the investigation was initially developed for educational testing, but is now fre-
of the efficacy of dry eye treatments.4 7 The instrument, intro- quently used in healthcare research to evaluate and score survey
duced in 1997 by the Outcomes Research Group (Allergan Inc., instruments.14 18 It provides interval-level data from survey re-
Irvine, CA),8 consists of 12 items that assess symptoms, functional sponses, including estimates of the amount of the latent trait
limitations, and environmental factors related to dry eye. Each displayed by each subject (person measure) and the amount of
the trait necessary to respond in a certain way to each item (item
measure).12 Moreover, Rasch analysis also provides item fit sta-
From the 1The Ohio State University College of Optometry, Co- tistics that indicate whether the individual item is contributing to
lumbus, Ohio; and the 2University of Houston College of Optometry, the measurement of the latent trait. There are excellent descrip-
Houston, Texas. tions of Rasch analysis and its use with survey instruments pub-
Supported in part by National Eye Institute of the National Insti- lished elsewhere.12,19 21
tutes of Health Grants EY017951 (JJN, KKN), EY015519 (KKN, JJN), Other IRT models include parameters in addition to the item
and 5T32EY013359 (BED). difficulty parameter used in Rasch analysis. For instance, some
Submitted for publication June 10, 2011; revised September 8, models include an item discrimination parameter that allows for
2011; accepted September 16, 2011.
differences in the slope of the curve describing response proba-
Disclosure: B.E. Dougherty, None; J.J. Nichols, None; K.K.
Nichols, None bilities for individual items.22 Rasch models are restrictive in the
Corresponding author: Kelly K. Nichols, University of Houston sense that data that do not conform to the model are not consid-
College of Optometry, 505 J. Davis Armistead Building, Houston, TX ered to be consistent with measurement, and the curves describ-
77204; knichols@optometry.uh.edu. ing response probabilities are not free to vary between items.

Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, November 2011, Vol. 52, No. 12
8630 Copyright 2011 The Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Inc.

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IOVS, November 2011, Vol. 52, No. 12 Rasch Analysis of the OSDI 8631

Other IRT models seek to describe the data as best as possible Rasch Analysis
using extra parameters such as item discrimination. Massof23
The OSDI response structure contains five options that relate to the
published a study in which he compared a Rasch model to a
frequency of the effects of ocular surface disease: none of the time,
two-parameter logistic IRT model (the Muraki model) using data
some of the time, half of the time, most of the time, and all the
from visual functioning questionnaires. He demonstrated that the
time. There are three question types: Have you experienced any of the
item discrimination parameter of the Muraki model was inversely
following during the last week? (items 15); Have problems with your
proportional to the item fit statistics of the Rasch model.
eyes limited you in performing any of the following during the last week?
There has been some recent work in the area of evaluation of
(items 6 9); and Have your eyes felt uncomfortable in any of the follow-
dry eye survey instruments with Rasch analysis. Gothwal et al.14
ing situations during the last week? (items 10 12). Rasch analysis was
examined the measurement properties of the McMonnies ques-
performed with a commercial software knowledgebase (WINSTEPS ver-
tionnaire using Rasch analysis. They found that person separation
sion 3.69; Winsteps, Chicago, IL), using a three-level Andrich rating scale
was inadequate for discriminating between more than two strata
model.30 For the response structure to be valid, the category thresholds,
of dry eye severity and, therefore, the McMonnies questionnaire
or the point on the logit scale of ability at which a subject is equally likely
did not function as a valid measure to discriminate across disease
to choose between two adjacent categories, should be ordered. That is,
severity.
these threshold person measures should increase in order with the cate-
Johnson and Murphy24 developed the Ocular Comfort Index
gories so that subjects with increasing amounts of the trait of interest have
(OCI) to measure ocular surface disease symptoms using Rasch
increasing probabilities of selecting higher categories.31 If category thresh-
analysis. The instrument they developed has 12 items and a
olds proved disordered, categories were combined to obtain ordered
seven-category response structure. Person separation was good
thresholds. Once ordered category thresholds were established, instru-
and all 12 of the final items had adequate Rasch fit statistics.
ment and item-level statistics were analyzed. Published guidelines regard-
Simpson et al.25 evaluated the Dry Eye Questionnaire, the
ing acceptable item fit and other Rasch analysis statistics were used to
McMonnies questionnaire, and the OSDI. One purpose of this
guide the analysis.20
study was to evaluate the Rasch item fit statistics of the instru-
Item infit mean square statistics were used to determine whether
ments and use them to determine whether the surveys were
individual items provided useful information for measurement of ocu-
unidimensional. For the OSDI, the authors found that all items had
lar surface disease severity. The infit mean square is an information-
fit statistics within the acceptable range. Other aspects of the
weighted fit statistic that compares observed data with model expec-
analysis, such as the functioning of the category structure and
tations. Items with infit values outside of 0.71.3 were eliminated one
person separation statistics, were not reported.
at a time, beginning with the most misfitting item, and the analysis was
Pesudovs and Noble26 evaluated a single-item faces scale for
repeated until no items misfit.
measuring pain associated with severe ocular surface disease.
The ability of the instrument to discriminate between participants
They applied Rasch analysis to refine the category structure of the
was assessed using the person separation statistic. Person separation is
instrument. The study also used the scale to demonstrate the
a ratio of the variance explained by the measures to the total variance
potential of Rasch analysis to increase sensitivity to changes after
(including error variance).12 A value of 2.0 was considered the mini-
treatment for ocular surface disease, finding an increased effect
mum acceptable value and corresponds to the ability to differentiate
size with Rasch analysis compared with conventional raw
between three levels of a trait. Person separation was also used to
scores.26
evaluate the validity of the three subscales, with the same minimum
In light of this, we hypothesize that the application of Rasch
acceptable criterion.
analysis to responses to the OSDI from patients with dry eye
If an instrument is used to report a single measure, it should
disease might be beneficial in further understanding its psycho-
assess only one latent trait. Principal component analysis (PCA) of
metric properties. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investi-
Rasch residuals (performed using WINSTEPS version 3.69) was used
gate the OSDI using Rasch analysis in a sample of females 50 years
to assess unidimensionality. If an instrument is unidimensional, then
of age and older who were participating in a study of dry eye in
PCA of the model residuals should reveal no structure in those
postmenopause and who had been previously diagnosed with dry
residuals.32 Significant loading onto other factors in the analysis is
eye or reported significant ocular dryness and irritation.
indicative of multidimensionality. Factors with eigenvalues (an in-
dicator of the proportion of the total variation explained by an
METHODS individual factor) 2.0 were considered to be evidence of signifi-
cant multidimensionality.33
Participants
The OSDI was administered to female participants in the Dry Eye in RESULTS
Postmenopause study at the College of Optometry at The Ohio State
University. The OSDI scores of participants were included in the analysis Response Category Functioning
if at least one of two criteria were met. The first of these was that the
Category thresholds with the OSDI five-category response struc-
participant reported having been previously diagnosed with dry eye by an
ture were shown to be disordered (Fig. 1). A four-category re-
eye care provider. The second was that the participant answered often
sponse structure, in which the categories half of the time and
or constantly to both of the following questions: How often do you
most of the time were combined, had ordered thresholds and
experience eye dryness? and How often do your eyes feel irritated?
fairly equal widths over which each category was the most likely
These questions were previously used by Schaumberg and colleagues2729
response, which is desirable26 (Fig. 2). A different four-category
for classification of patients by dry eye status in large-scale epidemiologic
structure in which the categories all the time and most of the
studies of the prevalence of dry eye. The mean age (SD) of participants
time were combined was also tested, but it did not result in
was 63 8 years. Potential participants were excluded from the study if
ordered thresholds. The four-category structure that combines
they were 50 years of age, had worn contact lenses in the past 3 months,
half of the time and most of the time was used for the rest of
were taking eye drops for an ocular condition other than dry eye, had a
the analyses.
history of any eye surgery other than secondary membrane removal after
cataract extraction in the past year, or reported other significant ocular
pathology. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, in accor-
Item Statistics
dance with The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of Of the 172 female participants who completed the OSDI, 7
1996 (HIPAA) regulations and the Declaration of Helsinki. responded none of the time to all 12 items. Data from

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8632 Dougherty et al. IOVS, November 2011, Vol. 52, No. 12

Subscales
The person separation indices for each of the three subscales
are shown in Table 2. None of the subscales met the criterion
of a person separation index of at least 2.0, which indicates
that none of the subscales adequately differentiated between
different levels of the targeted constructs.

Unidimensionality
Principal component analysis of the standardized model resid-
uals indicated that there was one additional factor onto which
items were loading significantly. The first contrast had an

FIGURE 1. Category probability curves for the five-category instru-


ment showing underutilization of category 3 and disordered thresh-
olds. Curves for items 15, 6 9, and 10 12 are shown in (a), (b), and
(c), respectively. Blue: none of the time; red: some of the time; green:
half of the time; purple: most of the time; light blue: all the time.

these subjects were not included in the analysis, leaving 165


subjects who were included. When the four-category re-
sponse structure was used, all 12 items had infit mean
square statistics within the acceptable range of 0.7 to 1.3.
The item measures and infit statistics are shown in Table 1.

Person Separation FIGURE 2. Category probability curves for the four-category instru-
ment show ordered thresholds. Curves for items 15, 6 9, and 10 12
The person separation index for the 12-item instrument was are shown in (a), (b), and (c), respectively. Blue: none of the time; red:
2.16, which indicates that the OSDI can adequately discrimi- some of the time; green: half of the time or most of the time; purple:
nate between patients. all the time.

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IOVS, November 2011, Vol. 52, No. 12 Rasch Analysis of the OSDI 8633

TABLE 1. Item Measures and Infit Mean Square Fit Statistics for the al.25 Our study explored additional aspects of the Rasch anal-
12 OSDI Items Using a Four-Category Response Structure, Collapsing ysis and explored unidimensionality in another way. We found
Half of the Time and Most of the Time that the instrument does not meet the standard of unidimen-
sionality when tested using PCA of the model residuals. This is
Item Item Measure (SE) Infit Mean Square
an important requirement for the use of summary scoring, in
1. Light Sensitivity 0.75 (0.12) 1.29 that a summary score implies that all the items assess the same
2. Gritty 0.81 (0.12) 1.10 construct.
3. Painful/Sore 0.42 (0.13) 1.18 Previous analyses of the unidimensionality of the OSDI and
4. Blurred Vision 0.27 (0.13) 0.93 the Ocular Comfort Index (OCI) were performed using item fit
5. Poor Vision 0.55 (0.13) 1.12 statistics but not PCA. Although the fit of the items to the
6. Reading 0.26 (0.13) 1.02 model is one indicator of the unidimensionality of an instru-
7. Driving at Night 0.12 (0.13) 1.14
ment, PCA is another useful tool for the detection of multiple
8. Computer/ATM 0.47 (0.14) 0.71
9. Television 1.10 (0.15) 0.77 dimensions and may reveal evidence of multidimensionality
10. Windy 0.69 (0.12) 0.97 not detected with item fit statistics alone.21 Our PCA indicates
11. Low Humidity 0.78 (0.13) 0.80 that there is evidence of multidimensionality in the OSDI.
12. Air Conditioning 0.17 (0.13) 0.85 Specifically, the first contrast of the analysis showed unex-
plained variance of 2.6 eigenvalue units. Additionally, an anal-
ysis of the remaining nine items of the OSDI (not including the
eigenvalue of 2.6 (11.1% of the total variance), which is more environmental triggers items) showed that they do not have
than can be attributed to random data. Items that loaded adequate person separation to function as a separate scale.
significantly (0.4) onto this factor included the three envi- The presence of multidimensionality in survey instruments
ronmental triggers items (windy conditions, low humidity, is problematic, in that if more than one latent trait is being
and air conditioned) and one other item (gritty). The sec- assessed by an instrument it becomes impossible to interpret a
ond contrast had an eigenvalue of 1.6, or 6.6% of the total single score from that instrument as a measure of any one trait.
variance. We are not aware of any survey instrument specific to ocular
Because of the evidence of multidimensionality, we inves- surface disease that has been demonstrated to be unidimen-
tigated whether a shorter instrument that does not contain the sional using PCA. Because dry eye is a multifactorial disease,
environmental triggers items might function as a valid instru- investigators may have a desire to investigate the multiple
ment on its own. To investigate this question, we performed an aspects of the disease, such as symptoms and effects on visual
analysis using items 1 to 9 with only a two-level Andrich rating functioning. One approach to managing this problem is to use
scale model. The person separation index for this 9-item in- multiple subscales, each of which is capable of assessing a
strument was 1.82, which does not meet the criteria for ade- single trait of interest in a valid manner. This would require
quate discrimination. subscales that have adequate discriminative ability, have items
with acceptable fit statistics, and that are unidimensional. This
approach would also require that scores from individual sub-
DISCUSSION scales, each of which is an indicator of a distinct latent trait
Our analyses indicate that the response category structure related to ocular surface disease, not be combined into a single
recommended for the OSDI responses currently is not ideal score for a larger instrument.
and can be optimized using Rasch analysis. We found that the The need for more work in the area of patient-reported
categories should be collapsed to get them to work properly. outcome measures in the area of dry eye and ocular surface
Specifically, we found that combining the categories half of disease was recently highlighted in the report on meibomian
the time and most of the time was necessary. Once this gland dysfunction from the International Workshop on Meibo-
change to the category structure was made, the categories mian Gland Dysfunction.34,35 Future work in instrument devel-
functioned better. opment should seek to create unidimensional scales, rather
Regarding the fit of the items to the Rasch model, we found than multidimensional scales that capture multiple aspects of
results similar to Simpson et al.25 The fit of the items was the disease and report a single, difficult to interpret, score.
generally good, with fit statistics falling within the recom- The targeting of the OSDI how well the difficulty of the
mended range of Pesudovs et al.20 for all items. items matches the ability of the subjects taking the survey
The person separation index for the OSDI was acceptable, was not ideal. This is shown in Figure 3, which indicates that
at 2.16. This demonstrates that the full 12-item OSDI is a useful many of the participants had an ability level higher than the
instrument for discriminating between people with varying level of most or all the items contained in the instrument. The
levels of ocular surface disease. We also found that none of the average person measure for the participants in this study, all of
three subscales had adequate person separation indices to whom reported previous dry eye diagnoses or significant ocu-
function acceptably on its own. lar irritation, was 1.51. Ideally, the average item measure (set
Unidimensionality and Rasch analysis in general have been to 0 in the analysis) would be close to the average person
previously described for the OSDI only once, by Simpson et measure and the range of ability covered by the set of items

TABLE 2. Rasch Summary Statistics for the OSDI and Its Subscales Using a Four-Category Response Structure, Collapsing Half of the Time and
Most of the Time

Mean Rasch Person Mean Rasch Item Person Separation Item Separation Mean Item Infit
Item Set Measure (SE) Measure (SE) Index Index Mean Square

OSDI 1.51 (0.12) 0.00 (0.18) 2.16 4.31 0.99


Subscale 1 1.42 (0.11) 0.00 (0.31) 1.28 4.49 1.00
Subscale 2 1.64 (0.17) 0.00 (0.35) 1.29 2.99 0.99
Subscale 3 1.74 (0.27) 0.00 (0.49) 1.50 3.07 0.97

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8634 Dougherty et al. IOVS, November 2011, Vol. 52, No. 12

FIGURE 3. Person-item chart, which


demonstrates nonideal targeting. The
x-axis is the measure in logits, and
the y-axis is the number of subjects
or items located at that measurement
location. Ideally, the average person
measure would be closer to the aver-
age item measure, which is set to 0.
The subjects represented by the bars
to the left of 0 are not well-targeted
by the instrument.

would be wide enough to adequately assess all the subjects. come measures for dry eye and ocular surface disease should
Johnson and Murphy24 reported similar targeting for the OCI. address these issues.
However, in that study participants had not necessarily been
diagnosed with dry eye or reported significant symptoms as References
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