Roger and Messod Sabbah - Secrets of The Exodus

"The Judeo-Christian world w i l l be in upheaval.
The scientific m i l i e u , the

domains of archeologists and historians, w i l l be stunned . . . this remarkable
discovery will reveal the true origins of monotheism." Le Figaro
An immediate best seller when it came out in France, this revolutionary study by
the French-Jewish authors Messod and Roger Sabbah fuels the Exodus debate with
a startling thesis: the Hebrew people of t h e Old Testament were actually
Egyptians and followers of the pharaoh Akhenaten, whose belief in one God
overturned traditional beliefs in Ancient Egypt.
Secrets of the Exodus explains why, after more t h a n two hundred years of
scientific and archeological research, no one has found in the hieroglyphs or other
Egyptian historical sources any evidence of e i t h e r the Biblical Exodus or the
430-year enslavement of t h e Hebrew people so vividly recounted in Hebrew and
Aramaic scripture.
The authors have based their conclusions on two decades of research, in the
course of which they came across striking similarities in practices common to
the Hebrew and Egyptian religions, in t h e Book of Genesis and Egyptian
cosmology, and in the Hebrew alphabet and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Learn what
Tutankhamen's tomb reveals about t h e people of t h e Exodus and why the true
mastermind behind the Exodus, the "Heavenly Fa t h e r " Ay, was repeatedly
glossed over by past researchers and historians. Engagingly written and richly
illustrated with charts, photographs, and maps, t h i s thought provoking volume
will captivate those fascinated by the mysteries behind the H e b r e w Exodus, the
origins of monotheistic worship, and the history of the Hebrew people.
Messod Sabbah and Roger Sabbah are brothers and the descendants of a long line
of rabbis and chief rabbis. Messod has studied the Talmud and Torah extensively,
attending the Brunoy Talmudic School. He helped Roger in his research and in
compiling this book. Roger is a student of the Talmud and Torah, as well as of
biblical and classical studies. Passionate about Egyptology, he interrupted his
medical studies to examine the parallels between hieroglyphics and the Hebrew
alphabet. He has devoted twenty years of research to write this book. The authors
live in Paris, France.
"This is far from all the hair-brained publications that have already appeared
concerning supposed hidden messages in the Bible. This thesis certainly contains
some rather abrupt shortcuts, and some errors. But it is not the work of charlatans.
They launch a passionate path."
Rabbi Marc Alain Ouaknin, interview in Evenement de

France Soir, October 28, 2000
Contents
Translators' Introduction vii

Gods, People, and Places ix
Prologue 1
1 The Tomb and Its Secrets 3

2 The City of Gold and Light 9
3 The Pharaoh of the Exodus 20
4 Pharaoh Ay 33
5 Amun 41
6 The Bible of Ay 46
7 Genesis 52
8 Akhenaten and Adam 56
9 Forbidden Fruit 62
10 The Elohim 74
11 The Flood 78
12 The Tower of Babel 83
13 Abraham the Egyptian 87
14 Joseph and Ay 108
15 The Exodus 120
16 Aaron and Horemheb 127
17 Moses and Ramesses I 139
18 Joshua and Sety I 162
19 The Masai Exodus 169
20 The Pharaoh of Peace 178
21 Hebrew Writing: An Alphabet of Hieroglyphic Origin 191
22 Letters and Hieroglyphs 200
23 Letter Round-up 220
24 Gods and Pharaohs 238
25 The Culture of the Nile 255
26 The Roots of Ritual 268
Conclusion 283
Index 285
Translators' Introduction
Sigmund Freud speculated that Moses was not a Hebrew, but an Egyptian.1 In
Freud's time the idea upset some and outraged others. But, as the decades have
rolled along, Freud's concept has sunk into the consciousness of Western thought,
and at the beginning of the new millennium, it no longer seems outrageous.
Now, sixty years after Freud's thesis, two French-Jewish researchers have
pushed the envelope further. After twenty years of research, they have discovered
not only that Moses was not a Hebrew, but that the Patriarch Abraham wasn't
either. Both, it turns out, were Egyptians. And not just any Egyptians; they were in
fact pharaohs.
In retracing the history of monotheism, the researchers ran into tales of
treachery, murder, fanaticism, duplicity, romance, and statesmanship in that great
kingdom that endured over millennia in the Valley of the Nile. As they dug deeper
into recent archeological and historical discoveries, they found that the Hebrews
never were slaves in Egypt, and that the "Chosen People" were Egyptian
inhabitants of the holy city of Akhet-Aten.
Messod and Roger Sabbah unearthed the origin of the Hebrew alphabet from
Egyptian hieroglyphic sources. They demonstrate that the Book of Genesis
reproduces Egyptian cosmology. They show how the "historic" characters of the
Old Testament - Abraham, Moses, Aaron, Joseph, Sarah, and Laban - represent
Egyptian names and titles. They present evidence that Abraham was the pharaoh
Akhenaten and that Moses was Ramesses I. In their findings, Sarah and Nefertiti
turn out to be one and the same person.
1
Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism, 1939.
viii Secrets of the Exodus
These astounding discoveries were published in French under the title Les
Secrets de l'Exode. It was thus restricted to those who read French. The translators
have attempted to make the findings of the French researchers available to an
English-reading audience. In doing so, we have not only translated the language,
but also the spellings of Egyptian gods and persons. We have also made some
modifications in the dating system of the French original. French Egyptologists
speculate on the dates of the reigns of the pharaohs in a different manner from
their English-speaking colleagues. The differences are a matter of very few years
and the differences are infinitesimal when viewed over the span of more than four
millennia. Nevertheless, for English readers, we have chosen to stick with dates
generally agreed to by English writers on ancient Egypt. The French are
accustomed to seeing Egyptian names spelled one way, English readers another.
We have chosen spellings and terms familiar to the English-speaking world.
The organization of the book has also been modified by the translators. We
have separated historical material from linguistic-cultural studies, which are
presented in the final few chapters.
So, welcome to a whole new view of the Books of Genesis and Exodus. And
to the intriguing story behind the story.
ART AND LOIS BANTA

Gods, People, and Places
Since Egyptian writing did not have vowels, there are alternative spellings for
many of the names of pharaohs, gods, and places. The translators have attempted
to use the spellings most often found in books in English on the subjects covered
in this book. The following listing gives the name the translators have chosen,
sometimes followed by alternative spellings.
Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty (Partial list)

Akhtoy (Achthoes, Khety) III Reigned 2050-2015 BC
Merykare Reigned 2015-2000 BC
Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty (Partial list)

Thutmose (Tuthmosis) III Reigned 1479-1425 BC
Queen Hatshepsut Reigned 1479-1458 BC
Amenhotep (Amenophis) II Reigned 1426-1400 BC
Thutmose (Tuthmosis) IV Reigned 1400-1390 BC
Amenhotep (Amenophis) III Reigned 1390-1353 BC
Amenhotep (Amenophis) IV,
who became Akhenaten Reigned 1353-1336 BC
Smenkhkare Reigned P-1332 BC
Tutankhamun Reigned 1332-1322 BC
Ay (The Divine Father) Reigned 1322-1319 BC
Horemheb Reigned 1319-1292 BC
x Secrets of the Exodus
Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty (Partial list)

Ramesses (Ramses) I Reigned 1292-1290 BC
Sety (Sethos) I Reigned 1290-1279 BC
Egyptian Gods (Partial list)

Amun (Amen, Amon) King of the Gods
Amun-Re (Amon-Ra)
Anubis Dog god
Aten (Aton) The One God; the Solar disk
Atum The god who existed before creation,
together with [or the same as] the
primordial waters
Bes Goddess of childbirth
Hathor The cow that nourishes Egypt
Horus Son of Isis and Osiris
Isis Wife of Osiris and mother of Horus; a
Madonna figure
Maat Goddess of justice and truth
Mut Amun's wife; the vulture
Nut Sky goddess
Osiris God of the dead
Ptah Creator of the world; God of "the
opening of the mouth"; patron of skilled
artisans
Re (Ra) Sun god
Seth (Set) Evil god
Thoth (Toth, Dahuty) God of knowledge
Gods, People, and Places xi
Others Mentioned in this Work

Akhensenamun Wife first of Tutankhamun then of Ay
Champollion Jean Francois (1790-1832); decipherer
of Egyptian hieroglyphics from the
Rosetta Stone, and founder of the
science of Egyptology
Nefertiti Queen of Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty,
wife of Akhenaten
Rashi Born AD 1040 in France. His
Commentaries on Hebrew scriptures
influenced later theologians. Actual
name, Rabbi Shelomoh ben Yishaq.
Teye (Tiy) Wife of Amenhotep III
Yuya Father of Teye; father-in-law of
Amenhotep III
xii Secrets of the Exodus
Hebrews
Aaron Moses' brother
Abraham (Abram) Father Abraham, the first Patriarch
Esau Firstborn son of Isaac
Hagar Abraham's second wife, mother of
Ishmael
Haran Sarah's father
Isaac Abraham's second son
Ishmael Abraham's first son
Jacob (Israel) Son of Isaac, Grandson of Abraham
Jethro Moses' father-in-law
Joseph Son of Jacob and Rachel, became Lord
of Egypt
Joshua General and, after Moses' death, leader
of the Children of Israel into the
Promised Land
Korah Leader of a revolution against Moses
Laban Rebecca's brother, Jacob's uncle
Leah Jacob's first wife, Laban's daughter and
Rachel's older sister, mother of six of the
children of Israel (Reuben, Simeon,
Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun)
Moses Leader of the Exodus
Rachel Laban's daughter, Jacob's second wife,
mother of two of the children of Israel
(Joseph and Benjamin)
Rebecca Isaac's wife
Sarah (Sarai) Abraham's first wife, mother of Isaac
Terah Abraham's father
Zilpah Leah's maid, mother of two children of
Israel (Gad and Asher)
Gods, People, and Places xiii
Hebrew Deities
Adonay Lord, often a substitute word for Yahwe
so the Divine Tetragram does not get
spoken in vain
Elohim The Gods, or Sons of God, or Family of
God (a plural)
Tetragram The four Hebrew letters that spell
Yahwe
Yahwe The One God, the Divine Tetragram,
the Name that must not be taken in vain
Locations
Akhet-Aten Akhenaten's capital
Karnak Temple on east bank of the Nile at
Thebes
Malkata Theban palace of Amenhotep III on
west bank of the Nile
Nun The primordial ocean where the gods
are born
Tell el-Amarna Current name of the location of Akhet-
Aten
Thebes Capital of Egypt during the Eighteenth
and Nineteenth Dynasties (except during
Akhet-Aten period)
Peoples
Apiru Nomadic brigands in the province of
Canaan
Hittites A warlike people from the area of
Anatolia
Prologue1
The second book of the Bible, the Book of Exodus, tells the story of how 600,000
male slaves, accompanied by "a great multitude," including their wives and
children went from Egypt to Canaan. In all, some two million people - men,
women, children, plus another "multitude" - are reported to have made the journey.
That number would represent nearly as many people as the entire population of
Egypt at that time.
The slaves purportedly had been in Egypt for 430 years (Exodus 12:40-41)
before they made the great escape. As a prelude to their escape from slavery, ten
dreadful plagues infested Egypt, including one that killed the firstborn sons of
every Egyptian. The slaves and the "multitude" made their escape by walking right
through the waters of the Red Sea.
As important as such an event would have been to Egypt, there is no record
outside the Bible that an event like this ever occurred. Ancient Egypt left behind a
great written record. Archeologists have brought additional insight to our
knowledge of that cradle of civilization. Yet, try as they might, no researcher has
been able to find any proof of such an exodus. There is not a single reference to
any group of people called "Hebrews."
Is it possible that an enormous horde of people, resident slaves in the country
for so many years, who brought down horrendous plagues on the land, and who
escaped by a parting of the Red Sea, could have left no historical or archeological
trace behind? This puzzle has bothered historians and archeologists ever since the
nineteenth century, when the French
1
This prologue is not a translation from the original French text.
2 Secrets of the Exodus
Egyptologist, Champollion, deciphered the hieroglyphic writing that recorded the

history of Egypt. The question that has persisted for over a hundred years remains:
Is the Hebrew Exodus history or legend?
On the other hand, Egyptian history and archeology do happen to report a
significant exodus, which occurred around 1344 BC. The population of an entire
city - the capital of Egypt at the time, Akhet-Aten -departed from Egypt and settled
in the Egyptian province of Canaan. The people who made this astounding trip
were monotheists, believers in the One God. They left the polytheistic land of
Egypt in an exodus that is well recorded in Egyptian history, and is verified by
modern archeology.
Could the historical exodus have provided the basis for the Book of Exodus?
This is the question posed by this book. For over twenty years the authors have
been studying the evidence that history and archeology present. That research is
presented in the following pages.
CHAPTER 1
The Tomb and Its Secrets
In the fall of 1923, Howard Carter was excavating a site in the Valley of the Kings.
On November 4 of that year, one of his workers made a momentous discovery - a
step leading into the tomb of the "boy pharaoh," King Tutankhamun, who had died
in 1322 BC.
News of the discovery spread across the globe like a lit trail of gunpowder.
The media, scientists, politicians, and men and women in the streets, were all
enraptured by this magnificent archeoiogicai discovery. After months of studying
and classification, all the contents were removed from the tomb except the red
granite sarcophagus in which the king's mummy had lain. The treasures, objects at
least 3,250 years old, were all removed to the Cairo Museum and exposed to the
view of admiring visitors.
The tomb itself was opened to tourists, who were often surprised by its small
size compared to other buried tombs in the Valley of the Kings.
The tomb was studied from top to bottom, but it still withheld many of its
secrets. On the east wall of the funerary chamber, above the figures of twelve
priests bearing the mortuary catafalque, were eight painted columns of religious
inscriptions. The figures and the inscriptions did not excite great interest at the
time. More recently, however, they have been further studied, and have shed new
light on that time in human history when monotheism was invented.
On the north wall of the tomb is an enigmatic figure, wearing the crown of
Egypt. Attached to the crown is the uraeus - a rearing cobra - the ancient symbol
of royalty. The name of this mysterious person appears on two royal cartouches1
placed above his face. He was called The Divine Father Ay Pharaoh Ay. His
name is written in double signed hieroglyphs.
Researchers noted that his name, Ay, is the name of God in the Aramaic Bible,
Yod-Yod , which is our earliest source for the Old Testament.
Researchers noticed that some of the objects found in the tomb bore close
resemblance to articles mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. For instance, at the entry
of the treasure room, seated on a pole-born chest, a statue of the Dog God,
Anubis, guarded Tutankhamun's tomb. The dog and the chest were covered by a
fringed linen shawl, "adorned with a double braid of blue lotuses, recalling the
blue bands of the tallith with the tsitsit,"2 the fringed prayer shawl of the
Hebrews.3
The pole-born chest of sculpted wood, covered inside and out with gold leaf,
recalled, in its form and in its religious conception, the Ark of the Covenant.
The funerary chamber of Tutankhamun held four overlapping containers, one

inside the other. The containers were covered by a large linen cloth, placed on a
wooden frame, giving the whole thing the look of a tent, or tabernacle. This frame
was compared at the time of its discovery with the tabernacle of the Old
Testament, the Holy of Holies, constructed of gilded wood and holding the Ark of
the Covenant.4
The Tomb and Its Secrets 5
Canopic box of calcite-alabaster covered by a linen cloth (Tomb of

Tutankhamun).
When Howard Carter opened the third container, he noticed on one of its lateral
panels two angels with their wings spread high, evoking the angels placed on the
Sacred Ark of the Biblical story. They were reproduced on the two sealed doors of
the fourth and last container, as well as on the lid of the golden body mask.
These and other archeological finds caused researchers, both at the time of
their discovery, and even more so recently, to consider that Egyptian archeology
might shed a great deal of light on Hebrew scripture. In the tomb of King
Tutankhamun there were indications that the Biblical story of the Exodus might
have much closer ties to Egyptian religious beliefs than formerly believed.
The Book of Exodus tells of a people called the "Hebrews." Much is known of
Egyptian history, yet nowhere at all is there a description of a people called the
Hebrews. Nor, indeed, is there an account of any exodus from the country of any
group of slaves. Historians and archeologists have searched in vain for any hint
that the Exodus described in the Bible ever occurred.
In the Biblical story of the Exodus, the pharaoh of Egypt is never mentioned
by name. He is described as "the one who never knew Joseph."5
Panel of the third box container of Tutankhamun. Sculpted wood plated with gold
foil.
He believed that the Hebrew slaves were "more numerous and stronger" than the
Egyptians: "Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, lest they multiply, and, if war
breaks out, they will join our enemies and fight against us and leave the land"
(Hebrew Bible, Exodus 1:106).
The Bible indicates that there were two kinds of people in Egypt at the time:
the Egyptians and the Hebrews (Children of Israel). Pharaoh had no fear of the
Hebrews as long as their numbers remained reasonable. His fear was mainly that
he might lose the workforce he so sorely needed.
Conscious of the demographic danger of the growing slave population, he
decided on a radical measure. He decreed that all the firstborn of the Hebrews be
killed. Fearing God more than they feared Pharaoh, the midwives refused.
Then, Pharaoh ordered the people to throw the firstborn Hebrews into the
river. Here is where the Moses story begins.
The Tomb and Its Secrets 7
Saved from the waters of the Nile by Pharaoh's daughter, "he became her
son."7 One day, Moses killed an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. Another
day, he separated two Hebrews who were fighting. The fear of seeing himself
denounced by one of them provoked his flight into the land of Midian. There, he
married Zipporah, one of the seven daughters of Jethro, the high priest of Midian.
After the miracles of the burning bush, the leprous hand, and the rod that turned
into a serpent, Moses returned to Egypt and joined his brother Aaron.
Together they approached Pharaoh, who refused to let the Hebrews leave. A
deluge of plagues followed. The tenth plague, bringing death to the firstborn of the
Egyptians, overwhelmed Pharaoh. The defeated king of Egypt yielded and
allowed the people to leave. However, he asked Moses and Aaron to bless him
first.8
There then begins the story of the great exodus toward the Promised Land. The
familiar story traces the crossing of the Red Sea, the wandering in the Sinai desert,
the gift to Moses of the Tablets of the Law, the Ark of the Covenant, the
Tabernacle, the episode of the Golden Calf, then the rebellion of the common
people. After forty years of wandering in the desert, and after the deaths of Aaron
and Moses, the conquest, so long awaited by the Hebrew people, finally began
with the capture of Jericho. Thereafter all the Canaanite cities submitted to the
mighty armies of Joshua.
That is the story that is so familiar to Jew, Christian, and Muslim. It is a story
at the heart of the continuing conflict between Israel and Palestine in the year AD
2000. For a different version of the story, it is necessary to turn our attention to
what history and archeology tell us about a city located in Egypt in 1350 BC. To
understand this alternate version of the Exodus story, we need to spend some time
learning about that amazing ancient city.
Notes
1. Cartouche: an oval frame in which the name of the pharaoh is written in hieroglyphics.
2. Howard Carter, The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Pygmalian, 1978. See also Nicolas Reeves, The
Discovery ofTutankharnun. Thames and Hudson, 1990, p. 133.
3. The Israelites wore a prayer shawl called tallith or tsitsit. In the CD Rom of Tutankhamun,
Christiane Desroche-Nobelcourt shows a fringed shawl that closely resembles the prayer
shawls of the Hebrews.
4. See Exodus 26 for a description of the tabernacle. Cf. Richard Friedman, Who Wrote the
Bible? Exerge, 1997, p. 191.
5. Exodus 1:8.
6. Translation from the Hebrew, and all subsequent Hebrew texts, by Art Banta.
7. Exodus 2:10.
8. Exodus 12:32.
CHAPTER 2
The City of Gold and Light
In the Egypt of 1350 BC there existed a "city of gold and light." Akhet-Aten, the
capital of the Egyptian Empire, was considered the most beautiful city in the
world. It was the holy city of Pharaoh Akhenaten and his queen, Nefertiti, a city of
palaces, temples, and obelisks covered with gold as far as the eye could see. It had
luxurious gardens, and a long royal road extending over more than four kilometers.
A royal bridge crossed that road. The art, the beauty, and the refinement of Akhet-
Aten reflected the very height of Egyptian civilization. The most beautiful women
of Egypt, as well as numerous Canaanite, Phoenician, Hittite, Midianite, Nubian
and Babylonian princesses were invited to inhabit this terrestrial paradise.
There were entire neighborhoods of alleyways, where all classes of people
rubbed shoulders: priests, businessmen, vintners, and bakers, who had come there
from every corner of the known world. There was also a large group of artisans,
artists, and intellectuals: sculptors, engravers, goldsmiths, painters, stone workers,
masons, medical embalmers, architects, contractors, surveyors, scribes, and
accountants. There were many people employed to care for the royal palaces and
the temples of the god Aten. This entire population participated in the activities of
the holy city, which teemed with life.
All these people had received from Pharaoh the immense privilege of coming
with their families to live in this sacred city, the Holy City of God Aten. By order
of Pharaoh, they had converted to the new religion, the new cult of the One God,
to monotheism. Those who found favor in the eyes of Pharaoh Akhenaten or
Queen Nefertiti could look forward to the
immense honor of being buried in the necropolis situated on the periphery of the
city, within the sacred territory of Akhet-Aten.
The city was delimited by border stelae, and for the second time in Egyptian
history, Akhenaten had established a difference between a region designated as
"sacred" and the rest of Egypt. His first attempt had been to build a sacred site in
the center of the sanctuary of the god Amun at Karnak, with temples similar to
those he later constructed at Akhet-Aten. The problem there was that the One God,
Aten, would be in the company of the King of the Gods, Amun. At that early point
in his reign, the pharaoh bore his first royal name, Amenhotep IV (meaning
"Amun is in peace"), later known in Greek as Amenophis IV. In the fifth year of
his reign, he changed his name to Akhenaten ("the grace, the light, which is used
by Aten").
From the viewpoint of the old polytheism, Akhenaten was a heretic. He had
forsaken the gods of his father Amenhotep III and embraced the concept of there
being but One God, Aten. Aten was seen as the creator god of the universe, and
was represented by the solar disk, which extended its beams over all terrestrial
creatures.
Amenhotep III had constructed a city called Malkata, containing the royal
palace and administration buildings. Imitating his father, Akhenaten decided to
construct a new capital for Egypt, from which he would conduct the affairs of
state. In the new order, the polytheistic clergy of Amun would be excluded from
power. Akhenaten abandoned the sacred land of Karnak, the religious center of the
ancient religion of Egypt, and established his new "Holy Land," Akhet-Aten. It
was located on the west bank of the Nile, about halfway between Memphis to the
north and Thebes to the south, on a site later called Tell el-Amarna.
The pharaoh proclaimed that he had been led to this new region by the god
Aten himself, with the promise of life and prosperity for him and his descendants
forever. When Akhenaten arrived at the site, he made, as did Abraham in the
Bible, a sacrifice in honor of his God, on the very place where he later built the
great temple of Aten.1 Following these acts, which are confirmed by
Egyptologists, Pharaoh addressed his assembled court. He declared that God had
guided him to the holy land of Akhet-Aten in order for temples to be built for his
worship. He promised that this land would be the capital of Egypt forever.
The City of Gold and Light 11
All the riches of the country flowed toward Akhet-Aten. Sacred food was
offered to the god Aten before being consumed. Consecrated bread and wine were
offered in abundance. Approved animals were consecrated in the Atenian temples
and redistributed across the country, as happened centuries later in the Temple of
Solomon.2
Akhenaten instituted morning and evening prayer, at sunrise and sunset, thus
glorifying the appearance and disappearance of the solar disk Aten. The hymns to
the glory of God, recited and chanted in the temples, are the origin of the later
psalms and prayers. In his capital, as in all Egypt, Akhenaten was worshiped as
Aten. He was proclaimed the "Son of Aten," but in the Egyptian mind, that phrase
did not exclude his being Aten himself. Inside his royal cartouche, the name
"Aten" appeared in translation as "He who is pleasing to Aten." His wife also
changed her original name, and became Nefertiti, "perfect is the beauty of Aten."
Installed in the capital, Akhenaten reigned as absolute master of the city and of all
Egypt, distributing tasks and functions to his intimates.
Ardently desiring to institute one universal religion, Pharaoh had temples built
to the glory of Aten throughout Egypt. The expressions "forever" and "eternally"
occur regularly in the hymns. These proclamations and declarations were written
by Akhenaten himself, and he taught them to his disciples and followers.
If events had developed as planned by the king and queen, the religion of Aten
would have spread over all Egypt from the capital Akhet-Aten, the holy place of
the new belief. The pharaoh was, above all, a teacher. He diffused his knowledge
to the thousands of priests who dwelt in the capital. They had the task of
propagating the new religion throughout Egypt, in the name of the new god Aten,
and of his supreme representative, Akhenaten.
Akhenaten insisted quite particularly on his role of teacher in the sacred

domain, which made him a spiritual teacher. Several texts indicate that
Akhenaten conversed daily with his disciples to whom he attempted to make
known the nature of Aten.3
Akhenaten also bore the title "He who sees the Great God." As High Priest of the
new religion, he was the only intermediary between God and the
Map of Egypt at the time of Amenhotep IV- Akhenaten.
people, the only one with the power to present the great offering in the Temple of
Aten. But, even as High Priest, he could not present the great offering alone. That
ritual required the presence of both Pharaoh and his queen.
This earliest form of monotheism had a strong base of what today are called
"family values." The research carried out at Tell el-Amarna (Akhet-Aten) tells us
much about worship practices in the homes of the people. Each house in the city
was provided with a stone altar, inscribed on two sides. Cyril Aldred describes it
as follows: "All the houses of this kind had a similar trait. They had a sanctuary
placed in one of the main rooms. It had the form of a false door with painted red
posts and a niche to receive a stela portraying the royal family engaged in cult-
based activity."
As a tie-in with the Biblical Exodus story, the red posts are a reminder of the
blood the Hebrews were reported as painting on their doorposts. "Yahwe4 will pass
through to slay the Egyptians. And when he sees the blood on the lintel and on the
two doorposts, Yahwe will pass over the door, and will not allow the destroyer to
enter your houses and slay you" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 12:23).
In his devotion to the new religion of monotheism, Akhenaten had the names
of Amun chiseled away in the temples and on the obelisks. Pushing his heresy
further, he profaned the name of Amun inside the cartouche of his father
Amenhotep III. To suppress the name of a god was considered a true sacrilege by
the inhabitants of ancient Egypt. The Biblical monothe-ists echo this in the words
of their One God: "I will utterly erase the name of Amalek from under heaven."5
In chiseling out the name of Amun, Akhenaten was suppressing the existence
of that god. He went on to have the statues, the objects of the paternal cult, broken.
Akhenaten had committed a sacrilege, something that had never before been done
in ancient Egypt. In the Biblical tradition, Abraham also broke the idols of his
father.
Akhenaten was a powerful and a mystical pharaoh. The entire nation
prostrated itself before him. Kings of other lands came to pay tribute in his capital
and to render him homage. He was the Glory of Aten, and promenaded the length
of the royal road of Akhet-Aten, accompanied by Nefertiti on his gold and silver
carriage, heading for the great temple of Aten.
The pharaoh loved to appear in the company of his wife at the view window of
the palace. It was there that he appeared to the people. And, just as the Moses in
the Bible did, he held up before the people the two stone tablets where the two
cartouches of Aten's name were inscribed. The people prostrated themselves
before the name of God. These tablets,
inscribed on both sides, could be read from either side. The similarity to the
Biblical tablets of Moses is noteworthy. Both were rounded on the perimeter with
writing on both sides. "Moses turned and went down the mountain with the two
tablets of the covenant in his hands, tablets that were written on both sides"
(Hebrew Bible, Exodus 32:15).
Akhenaten and Nefertiti elevating the name of Aten on stone tablets engraved on
both sides. Behind the royal couple the little princesses are shaking the sistra.
As previously mentioned, the new religion emphasized the family. Akhenaten was
particularly fond of the company of his six daughters and his wife, giving the
people an image of a happy couple. In many homes, the inhabitants kept an effigy
of the royal family watched over by the Sun God Aten. The sacred union was
made part of the cult of the new religion. It fused the people to the royal family, so
that the birth of a social model based on the sharing of family values can be seen in
this image.
This social model is even more visible in the homes in the outskirts of Akhet-
Aten. Each house was constructed along the same plan - a prime example of social
planning. There was a living room, where the Pharaoh's cult could be practiced,
plus bedrooms, bathrooms, and toilets.
Everything was pre-planned in that amazing capital, where one could

contemplate God every day. What the inhabitants could not know was that simply
by living in the Sacred City, they were playing out one of the greatest dramas of
Egyptian history, a drama with consequences for all humanity for more than three
thousand years.
Most pharaohs were represented in postures evoking power and strictness.
Akhenaten is shown as the relaxed pharaoh. The royal sculptor represents him
with elongated neck and meditative eyes, a new artistic vision for Egypt, probably
one imposed by Akhenaten himself. There was never a pharaoh like him before or
after.
In the seventeenth year of his reign, Pharaoh Akhenaten died and was buried in the
royal tomb in the valley (wadi) located in the extension of the axis of the Great
Temple of Aten.
The tomb must have harbored even more riches than Tutankhamun's. It must
have contained an ark (without the god Anubis represented on it), a funerary altar,
some "sanctuaries" interlinked with each other, and the "tablets" with the name of
Aten on two cartouches. The God of the Dead, Osiris, certainly would not have
been represented, but the pharaoh would have had his arms crossed in the "Osiris
position," holding the royal scepter in his right hand and the whip in the left. The
goddess Hathor would not have appeared as herself, but as the effigy of Nefertiti.
Pharaoh Smenkhkare, Akhenaten's successor, reigned for barely two years, in
a hazy historical period, before dying at the age of about twenty-five. The cause of
his death is unknown. Murder is one option, particularly with the religious politics
of the time. Since he was faithful to the religion of Aten, Smenkhkare may have
been in the way of the counter-reformation that was brewing at that time.
At the death of Smenkhkare, his half-brother, Tutankhamun, was eight years
old. Since he was too young to reign, it was the "Divine Father," High Priest Ay,
who took over the reins of the kingdom. Ay's father, Yuya, bore the title "Divine
Father" before his son. "Divine Father" also meant "Father of the God." Yuya had
been thus honored by Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who had elevated him to Divine
Father as well as Commandant of
Chariots (Grand Master of Cavalry). In other words, Yuya was the commander-in-
chief of the armies. Yuya bequeathed part of his functions to his son Ay. Later,
when Nefertiti, Ay's daughter, married the future Akhenaten, Ay became the
father-in-law of the new king while he also bore the title of "Divine Father."
Ay was venerated by the population of Akhet-Aten. A carving of the period
shows him standing in the garb of high priest. Before him, the inhabitants prostrate
themselves in worship. Ay's status had already become nearly as high as
pharaoh's.
Divine Father Ay is little known by Egyptologists. Some don't even mention
him when they speak of the Amarnian period, or forget him when they cite the
pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Still others speak of him in a rather succinct
manner, rapidly passing over the subject. Ay didn't leave many traces of himself
when, ten years later, he had become the sacred pharaoh of Egypt. He reigned for
only four years before passing power to General Horemheb. However, as it turns
out, Divine Father Ay is a central figure in the history of Egypt and in the Biblical
story of the Exodus.
Ay was the high priest who, well before becoming pharaoh of Egypt, made the
most important decision of that period. He was to change the destiny of not only
an empire but of the religious history of the Western world.
At the death of Pharaoh Smenkhkare, Ay took over the government of Egypt,

since Tutankhamun was still a youngster. He participated in the coronation, and
decided early on to "transfer" the new pharaoh to either Thebes or Memphis -
Egyptologists disagree as to which city.
Tutankhamun was crowned pharaoh and, under the influence of the Divine
Father Ay, he changed his name from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun. Thus, he
erased the name of the One God Aten from his name and added that of the King of
the Gods, Amun. This change indicated clearly the gravity of the politico-religious
situation in Egypt at the time. It meant the return to Amun by a pharaoh too young
to understand what had been imposed on him.
Tutankhamun was a child naturally obedient to his presumed grand uncle. Ay

was the only man to have the wisdom, intelligence, and experience to lead a
country that he knew inside and out. Smenkhkare's convenient death permitted Ay
to act at last - to put into operation his plan of counter-reformation.
Ay didn't simply want to destroy the work of Akhenaten. He wanted to
obliterate his memory and reduce his spiritual power to nothingness. The image of
the God-Man, whom Ay perceived as detrimental to Egypt, had to disappear from
the land. The temples would have to be destroyed or
A reconstruction of the city of Akhet-Aten. Taken from Pierre Grandet, Hymnes

de la religion d'Aton.6
torn down, thus suffering a fate more dramatic than that of the Amun temples in
the time of Akhet-Aten's splendor.
In order for all the names of Aten engraved on the walls of Egypt to be
obliterated, the names of the king and of Nefertiti had to be effaced as well. The
god Aten, the One God, disappeared as rapidly as he had come, a period of but a
single adventure.
The most important decision, though - the one to toll the knell on the Aten
religion - was to abandon the city of Akhet-Aten, the city that had been the
religious and political capital of the empire. Ay declared that city "cursed land,"
heretical and impure. It was pronounced forever uninhabitable and was to be
erased from memory for evermore.
The abandonment of Akhet-Aten by its inhabitants did not take place naturally
and without obstacles. The abandonment of the most beautiful city in the world,
the terrestrial paradise, had to have been extremely traumatic. The archeologists
and Egyptologists are in accord that the inhabitants actually took away all their
riches. The city had not been conquered nor destroyed, but abandoned. It was
deserted in obedience to the orders of the new power in Egypt, the Divine Father
Ay.
Some inhabitants probably left for Thebes or Memphis, or elsewhere in Egypt.
The others are the subject of the story of the Exodus.
Akhet-Aten became a veritable phantom city. It had to await the reigns of
Horemheb, Ramesses I, Sety I, and Ramesses II to see its temples at first
dismantled, then destroyed, transforming the city into a vast field of ruins.
Today, the sands have completed the work of destruction, entirely covering the
plain of Amarna. It was three thousand years later, in November 1714, that a Jesuit
priest, Claude Sicard, visited this desert region and stumbled upon an unusual
stone. As he approached, he discovered that it had the appearance of a border stela
of an abandoned ancient city. The stela represented a king, a queen, and a princess.
It was the stela of Akhet-Aten, the city that had been built to endure forever.
Notes
1. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Le Seuil, 1997, p. 49.
2. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton. Perrin, 1996, p. 146.
3. Ibid., p. 136.
4. Most translations of the Bible substitute the words "Lord" or "God" where the Hebrew uses the
name "Yahwe." The translators have chosen to use the original Hebrew words to keep the meaning
as close to the original as possible.
5. Exodus 17:14.
6. Pierre Grandet, Hymnes de la religion d'Aton. Le Seuil, 1995.
CHAPTER 3
The Pharaoh of the Exodus
Is it possible that the exodus from Akhet-Aten and the Biblical Exodus are one and
the same story? Sigmund Freud suspected that the origin of the Biblical Hebrews
was related to the story of Akhet-Aten. More recent research indicates that Freud
was correct in his speculation and that much that is written in the books of Genesis
and Exodus is linked to the City of Gold and Light.
Archeologists and historians have spent two centuries looking for evidence of
the Exodus described in the Bible. They have always come up empty-handed.
Champollion, the great French Egyptologist who first deciphered Egyptian
hieroglyphics, insisted that it was necessary to understand the Egyptian experience
in order to bring the Exodus into the field of history. He was on the right track. He
wrote:
The tribes [Hebrews] that had, by a ruse, escaped from a people much more
advanced than they were themselves, could not, just by entering the desert,
simultaneously rid themselves of concepts of order and civil habits. Nor could
they forget the practice of the arts acquired during their prolonged stay on the
banks of the Nile, within an agricultural nation. The Hebrew leader renewed
the most ancient form of Egyptian government, the theocracy, which lent itself
in a most efficient way to the accomplishment of his views. He left the Valley
of Egypt, not to lead the tribes back to their primitive state, to the nomad and
pastoral life of their fathers, but with the preconceived design of placing them
in a limited territory, acquired by conquest, and to establish them, like the
Egyptians, as a sedentary nation
The Pharaoh of the Exodus 21
composed of cities, cultivating the land, and devoting themselves to all the
industrial arts. To the extent that local circumstances allowed, Moses applied
the civil institutions of the Egyptians to the organization of Hebrew society.
He proclaimed religious dogmas essentially distinct from those of Egypt. But,
in the exterior forms of worship, and particularly in the material of the
religious ceremonies, he had to imitate, and actually did imitate Egyptian
practices. Study of Egyptian monuments, whether interior or exterior, in
Moses' time, will give more complete understanding of the original texts of
the Bible.1
Sigmund Freud, in Moses and Monotheism, declared: "We must choose the
interregnum sometime after 1350 as the date of the Exodus. The later periods, up
to the definitive implantation in the land of Canaan, are particularly impenetrable
to investigation."
The era Freud mentions corresponds to the one immediately following the
death of Akhenaten. The era is that of Pharaoh Smenkhkare, who became pharaoh
after Akhenaten. Smenkhkare's brother, Tutankhamun, was "exiled" to Thebes for
his coronation before the abandonment of the city of Akhet-Aten. It is possible to
deduce that the Exodus took place at the beginning of the reign of King
Tutankhamun, coinciding with the desertion of the monotheistic capital. The
Egyptologist Cyril Aldred also places the abandonment of Akhet-Aten during the
first year of Tutankhamun's reign.2
When he was eight years old, Tutankhamun succeeded Smenkhkare. He does
not fit the description of the pharaoh of the Exodus. The eight-year-old would
hardly be the pharaoh who was so evil, obstinate, and pitiless towards the
Hebrews. Besides, the pharaoh of the Bible had a firstborn son, according to the
story. Tutankhamun was eighteen years old when he died, without an heir.
If the Exodus took place at the beginning of King Tutankhamun's reign, we are
led to reconsider the troublesome period Freud discussed, beginning with the
ephemeral reign of Smenkhkare. In the Biblical tale (Exodus 1:22) Pharaoh orders
the death of all the first-born Hebrew sons. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, in
her book Ramesses II, The True Story, says there was never any time in Egyptian
history when a massacre of
infants would have been possible. No document or fresco attests to the historical
reality of any such event, nor to the plagues described in the Book of Exodus.
There is, however, a clue in the Book of Exodus that relates to a situation in
Akhet-Aten. It is the mention of the increase in the birthrate that apparently so
bothered the pharaoh of the Bible. In the ruins of Akhet-Aten, the most recent
research reveals the presence of delivery rooms, which indicates a cult of
midwives.
The great increase in the birthrate in Akhet-Aten was the result of the increase
in the number of women. Beautiful foreign women kept arriving in the city,
princesses who were offered to Pharaoh.
At the beginning of Exodus, the midwives are described as courageous,
disobeying Pharaoh's orders by allowing male new-borns to live.
So the Elohim3 were kind to the midwives. And because the midwives feared
the Elohim they gave them families. Then Pharaoh commanded all his people,
"Every boy that is born to the Hebrews you shall cast into the Nile, but you
shall let every girl live." (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 1:20-22)
Pharaoh was well aware of Egyptian wisdom teachings and was conscious of the
sacred character not only of human life but of animal life as well. He would not
have been able to commit such an abomination. Pharaoh could not have been
Smenkhkare. One of the very rare representations of him shows him to be an
affable man in the company of his wife, Merit-Aten, one of Akhenaten's surviving
daughters. Smenkhkare was a monotheist who practiced the religion of his father
Akhenaten. He was an adept of the philosophy of ancient Egypt. That philosophy
taught respect for human life, love of beauty and of nature, as revealed in the
Hymns to Aten and Amun. In those hymns it is stated that the king must consider
foreigners as human beings created by God.
As Akhenaten's co-regent after Nefertiti's death, Smenkhkare was
indoctrinated with these teachings from his earliest years. He never wished to
return to the polytheistic religion of Amun deliberately, nor did he modify his
name. In Egyptian tradition, just as in the Bible, to change one's name implied a
change of religion or of destiny. His persistent
monotheism is further demonstrated by the double cartouche of Smenkhkare,

bearing the name of the "One God," Aten. Faithful to the religion of his father,
Smenkhkare had to endure enormous pressure from the High Priest Ay to return to
the old religion. His refusal to abandon his One God, Aten, probably cost him his
life.
Ay wanted to deport all of the priests of Akhet-Aten from Egypt. Smenkhkare
was clearly opposed to that exodus. As a monotheistic pharaoh, he does not fit the
description of the pharaoh of the Book of Exodus. Yet, Smenkhkare was the
firstborn son of Akhenaten. The Bible recalls that the Pharaoh was a firstborn son
who asked Moses and Aaron for divine benediction. While Smenkhkare was
chronologically the pharaoh at the time of the Exodus, his actual behavior does not
fit the description of that pharaoh's actions. So, who held the power to cause the
actual exodus?
The ephemeral reign of Smenkhkare and the youth of Tutankhamun make it
obvious that power was held entirely by the one man influential enough to make
all the religious, political, and military decisions. That man was the Divine Father
Ay, High Priest of Akhet-Aten, and regent vizier.
The Divine Father Ay worshipped by the

priests and population of Akhet-Aten after
having been honored by Akhenaten with a
gift of gold necklaces.
Ay's decisions would transform the reign of Tutankhamun into the time of the
return of Amunian orthodoxy and the exile of the monotheistic priests. It was the
Divine Father Ay who succeeded Tutankhamun as pharaoh, and pursued the
policy of restoring the old religion.
During Akhenaten's reign, Ay had an important governmental role. Akhenaten
was thoroughly preoccupied by the cult of Aten that he had instigated. He was
adored by his courtesans and was continually receiving foreign emissaries offering
slaves, women, and material gifts. He was busy distributing gifts and largess to the
people from his view window. With all these concerns, he did not have time to
bother himself with the affairs of Egypt. The affairs of state he left entirely in the
hands of his grand vizier, the Divine Father Ay. It was Ay who traversed all the
country's provinces to attend to the task of governing. Ay was diplomatic and
intelligent, and had a perfect knowledge of Egypt's political situation. As
Akhenaten's reign was approaching its end, Ay found the country in a state of
decay, and its people in distress.
Akhet-Aten - the holy city among all cities, the terrestrial paradise -had as its
corollary the great misery of the rest of Egypt. At Akhenaten's death the unhappy
condition of the land outside the holy city impelled Ay to make his irrevocable
decision. The monotheistic religion, the worship of Aten alone, had proved
catastrophic for the country. Ay concluded that the hardships endured by the
country were caused by the abandonment of the old gods. The monotheistic priests
seemed to be to blame for the wrath of the gods. Like the pharaoh of the Bible, Ay
had a large number of people that he had to dispose of in some manner.
The Bible places the number of Moses' people in the thousands: "The Children
of Israel journeyed from Ramesses to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on
foot, besides women and children. A great multitude also went up with them, as
well as very many cattle, both flocks and herds" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 12:37-
38).
Most of the numbers mentioned in Exodus are contested. Chaim Potock
estimates the numbers to be clearly exaggerated, since it brings the total number of
people to around two million.4 Such a displacement of population was impossible
for the period, since the number represents nearly the whole population of Egypt.
Besides, six hundred thousand men on foot, that is to say, armed, could have held
back the Egyptian force
without any difficulty, even if that force was quite powerful. Finally, these two
million people could never have been able to live in one single region of Egypt -
the region of Goshen mentioned in the Bible - without leaving any trace. The
exaggerated numbers are attributed to scribes who, according to Redford5 and
Friedman,6 wrote the Exodus story about seven hundred years after the event.
According to all the evidence, if the Hebrew people had represented such
power in Egypt, they would have left an imprint on Egyptian writing, art, or
literature. We do know that Amenhotep III organized a census of the population
because of the growth of foreign residents in Egypt.7 The Book of Numbers tells
of a census of the tribes of people who left Egypt. The verse mentions a "great
multitude"8 which accompanied the people of the Exodus. This multitude appears
to be a mixture of converts that followed the monotheists. The Bible does not tell
us anything about those hordes that accompanied the Hebrews, but a mixed
multitude of people had dwelt in Akhet-Aten. John Pendlebury, an Egyptologist at
the beginning of last century, wrote that the city of Akhet-Aten was quite
cosmopolitan. "It was," he said, "during its short existence, the greatest imperial
city in the world. All matters of the kingdom were dealt with there. In its streets all
nations of the known world rubbed elbows, the Minoans, the Mycenaeans, the
Cypriots, the Babylonians, the Jews,9 and many other races."10
When Ay became pharaoh, the Egyptians became, again, worshipers of Amun
and the other gods. They were relentless in effacing all traces of Pharaoh
Akhenaten.11 However, this has not impeded archeologists from reconstructing a
large part of that king's history. Sculptures, names, psalms, prayers, family scenes,
vestiges and objects of all kinds, including bricks, were retrieved from inside the
foundation of the pylons of the Temple of Karnak.
With all this excavation and research, much has been learned about
Akhenaten. But in all that archeological treasure trove there does not exist the least
trace of Hebrews in Egypt.
One theory proposed by historians is that the Hebrews were the Apiru. The
Apiru were a semi-nomadic people who possessed none of the culture, traditions,
or language of the Egyptians, and were dispersed all over Egypt and Canaan. The
temptation to confuse the Hebrews with the Apiru is
quite strong. But the more archeologists have learned about the Apiru, the more
they admit the absence of any connection with the Hebrews of the Bible.
The population of Akhet-Aten consisted essentially of priests, their families
and slaves, and a multitude of workers and peasants. On leaving the city, the
population appeared like nomads, but their vocation was never nomadic, since
they profoundly aspired to establish themselves in the Promised Land. To agree to
leave a city as beautiful as Akhet-Aten, there would have to have been a promise
of "a marvelous land flowing with milk and honey."
Egypt had suffered for the glory of Akhet-Aten. The bulk of the wealth
produced by the country made its way to the capital. The city had not only become
the sacred center of Egypt, but its economic one as well. Christian Jacq notes,
"Everything that the land of Egypt produced had to come to the temple [of Akhet-
Aten] to be consecrated and then redistributed to the population."12 Just as at the
time of Solomon, this redistribution couldn't be made until after an appropriate
percentage was skimmed off for the new capital.
Akhenaten had already levied a sacred tax on the country and had set up
numerous forced labor projects for the construction of the Theban temples as well
as other temples to Aten in the rest of the country. Then he decided that a large
part of the revenues of the old capital of Thebes would be directed to Akhet-Aten.
He doubtless did the same to the other cities of Egypt,13 strangling, bit-by-bit, the
whole country to the profit of the City of Light. All Egypt worked for the grandeur
of its god-king Akhenaten.
The writers of the Bible describe such a situation. "Yahwe said to Moses, 'I
have heard the wailing of my people who are in Egypt. I have heard their cry
because of their taskmasters. I know their sufferings'" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 6:5).
The Biblical scribes have to be describing the afflictions of the Egyptian people,
since the Hebrews have no historical reality in ancient Egypt.
Brickmaking plays an important part in the Biblical tale of the Exodus.
Archeology and history teach us that brickmaking was an essential part of ancient
Egyptian life. The Hebrew Bible tells us the same in Exodus 5:12: "So the people
were scattered throughout all Egypt, to gather stubble for straw [to make adobe
bricks]."
Akhenaten had the idea, still in use today, of replacing the enormous, heavy
cut stones with bricks of smaller size, which could be carried by a single man.
These bricks, called "talatates," allowed the buildings and temples of Aten in
Karnak to be built rapidly. To build Akhet-Aten, however, it was necessary to
redouble the speed of construction, so Pharaoh also used bricks made of straw and
clay, building the capital in record time. Memories of the forced labor, as well as
of the bricks of straw and clay, remained engraved in the memory of the Biblical
scribes: "The same day, Pharaoh ordered the taskmasters of the people and their
foremen, 'You shall no longer supply the people with straw to make bricks, as you
did before'" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 5:6-7).
These verses must indeed deal with the suffering of the Egyptian people who
constructed Akhet-Aten, the magnificent city.
All over Egypt they made bricks (Karnak talatates).
Akhenaten had an interesting strategy to entice the clergy of the polytheistic Amun
religion to the holy city of gold and light. According to the Amarna Letters,14 he
had the most beautiful women of Egypt brought there, as well as numerous
Canaanite, Phoenician, and Mitanite princesses, along with their retinues and their
dowries, offered by subject kings. The priests of Amun were invited to change
their residence and their religion and move into the grandiose city teeming with
beautiful women, leaving behind the cities and temples of their ancestors.
Akhenaten used both sex and material enticements to attract priests and
worshipers to his new monotheistic religion. Princesses, foreign women, and
slaves were waiting for the new adherents. Akhenaten also distributed jewels and
material riches. This extract from one of the El Amarna letters is an example of the
approach Pharaoh took toward his vassals:
To Milkilul, a man of Gazru: Thus speaks the king [Akhenaten]: I send you
this tablet saying, "With this he sends Hanya, a guard of the archery cavalry,
along with all he needs for the purpose of acquiring very beautiful serving-
wenches: money, gold, linen clothing, carnelian, all kinds of stones [precious],
an ebony chair; all of them equally beautiful things: Total value: 160 dibans.15
A total of 40 serving wenches, 40 sides of silver being the price of one serving
wench." (EA 369)
Princesses and women of lesser rank, chosen for their beauty, were installed at
Akhet-Aten to marry royal princes or priests. The train of servants that
accompanied them augmented the female population of the city even more. The
new capital of the Egyptian Empire became, for several years, a veritable paradise,
a Garden of Eden, peopled by the most beautiful women in the world.
In this way, Pharaoh attracted and converted the priests of Amun into priests
of Aten, enticing them into a true "golden trap" - Akhet-Aten.
During this time, the rest of Egypt was ignored and abandoned. The populace
was condemned to forced labor and great suffering. The centralization desired by
Pharaoh was also the cause of that subversion which spread through the cities that
formerly were sacred, like Thebes, Heliopolis, Memphis, and Hermopolis.
This double Egypt, one composed of the beautiful city with the beautiful
people, one composed of the struggling masses, was seen by the pharaohs
following Akhenaten and Smenkhkare as unacceptable. Their successors returned
to the old polytheistic religion of Amun, abandoning the religion of Aten. If the
inhabitants of Akhet-Aten had freely consented to return to the old religion, they
never would have had to abandon the capital. All that would have been needed was
to transform the temples of Aten into temples of Amun, remove Aten's names, and
build new temples (as Akhenaten had done for his reformation).
Egyptian life would then have returned to its normal course. But, the new religion
had taken firm root in the hearts of its converts who lived the good life in the
golden city.
Some partially damaged stone inscriptions provide important clarifications
about the new religion. According to Pierre Grandet's commentary:
The king affirmed that the gods, so far as they were known, were only statues
created by human hands, in a form which immemorial tradition had seemed to
lend a sacred character. But the gold and gems with which they were
ornamented did not manage to hide that they were merely useless objects.16
During his reign, Akhenaten, as teacher to his disciples, preached the new
doctrine, which carried a revolutionary notion concerning the concept of the
divine. This teaching, glorifying One God, later became the basis of the ideology
of an abstract god, invisible, transcendent, omnipresent, and omniscient. This One
God, Aten, incited in his followers the will to eliminate the ancient cult of images
and idols. The concepts of the ancient polytheistic religion were anathema to the
people of Akhet-Aten. The uniqueness and exclusivity of Aten were paramount -
concepts repeated over and over in the psalms and hymns of Akhenaten.
The Little Hymn to Aten, which is found in five tombs of Akhet-Aten, is
distinguished by the notion of a venerable, unique god, who
... was fashioned by himself alone. Who created the earth and all that is found
thereon: all people, herds, and wild beasts, all trees which thrust themselves
from the ground. They live when Thou appearest for them. Thou art the father
and the mother of all that Thou hast created. Thou art the Living Aten, whose
symbol endureth. Thou hast created the far heavens, there to shine forth, to
observe what Thou hast created. Thou art the One in whom is found a million
lives.17
The verses of this hymn contain the foundation of the Biblical religion: the
worship of the One God, the creator of the universe. The Great Hymn to Aten
repeats the same ideas:
One God without equal, Thou didst create the universe according to the
consciousness of Thy heart, so that Thou art One alone. Thou extractest
eternally thousands of forms originating from Thyself. Thou dwellest in Thy
Unity. No being engendered by Thee exists for any reason other than to
contemplate Thyself Alone.
The religion of Aten revealed a truly new form of divinity. The ancient wisdom of
Egypt had already advocated the virtues of the One God before the writers of the
Bible had transcribed it. The Stela of Lyon is an Egyptian monotheistic poem:
Thou art One.

Thou art the being whose manifestation existed before manifestation.
Thou art the creator of the heavens and the earth,
Who offerest ceaselessly the plenitude of all being.18
The scribes who wrote the Books of Genesis and Exodus tell of how the One God
was revealed to the patriarchs. The story is followed by describing the gift of the
Tables or Tablets of the Law on Mount Sinai. The Biblical story was recounted out
of memories engraved in the consciousness of the Jewish people. The oral
tradition, handed down from generation to generation after leaving Egypt, had to
be integrated into a politico-religious context in order to conform to the beliefs of
kings and emperors who dominated the Middle East in their own lifetime.
The hypothesis that the Bible was written in part in Babylonia has been put
forward by numerous historians.19 At the time of the Jewish exile to Babylon, in
the time of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, the Judahite survivors found
themselves in a new land, and they submitted to their new masters. The story of
Esther indicates that this adaptation succeeded and was brought to completion
when some of the exiles returned home under the reign of Cyrus the Great. At that
time, it was the priest and scribe Esdras who, having returned to his homeland,
reassembled with the blessing20 of King Artaxerxes I (486 BC) the Five Books of
the Bible.21 The lands of Canaan, Judah, and Israel were no longer vassals of
Egypt. Babylonia had conquered them, and Pharaoh was a distant memory. By
then Egypt
had become the hereditary enemy of the Hebrews. A hundred years before, at the
beginning of the Babylonian Exile in Nebuchadnezzar's time, the prophet Ezekiel
had composed the Oracles of Condemnation and of Chastisement against the
"seven nations: Ammon, Moab, Edom, the Philistines, Sidon, and particularly
against Tyre and Egypt." He held them responsible for the fall and deportation of
the people from Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple.
It was during the Babylonian Exile, a period of total submission to the Persian
kings (Cyrus was called the Messiah) that the Bible was modified, and that the
story of the Exodus was recast to the detriment of the Kingdom of Egypt, which,
by then, had also submitted to the Persians.
The scribes in Babylon could remake the Exodus story only by conserving the
authentic framework of a minute part of the truth. It is impossible to determine
how long this practice lasted. Rashi22 confirms in his Commentary on Exodus
12:41, "This is one of the passages of the Torah that was modified for King
Ptolemy."
How many passages of the Bible were modified to suit the kings and emperors
who ruled over the Hebrews after the exodus from Egypt, masking the historical
reality?
Notes
1. Grammaire egyptienne, principes generaux de l'ecriture sacree egyptienne appliquie a
representation de la langue parlee. Champollion le Jeune. Reissued as Grammaire egyptienne
de Champollion by Christian Jacq, Solin, 1997.
3. The Hebrew word Elohim is usually translated as God or Lord. However, it is definitely a
plural, and refers to Gods, Sons of God, or the Family of God. The translators have left the
original words, "the Elohim" wherever they appear in quoted Bible verses.
4. Chaim Potock, Une histoire des Juifs. Ramsay, 1996.
5. D. Redford, An Egyptological Perspective on the Exodus Narrative, Egypt, Israel Jnl. 1987.
pp. 137-69.
6. Richard Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? Exerge, 1997.
7. Philipp Vandenberg, Nefertiti. Pierre Belfond, 1987, pp. 117-18.
8. Exodus 12:38.
9. Pendlebury assumes the Biblical evidence of a Jewish people.
10. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton. Perrin, 1996.
11. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten.
12. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton, p. 146.
13. Claude Vanderseyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, Vol. 2. Nouvelle Clio, 1995, p. 435.
14. The El Amarna Letters are clay tables written in cuneiform, discovered in 1887 in the ruins of
the administrative buildings of the capital Akhet-Aten, dating from 1350 BC.
15. The El Amarna Letters, 10 sides = 1 diban = 91 grams of gold.
16. Pierre Grandet, Hymnes de la religion d'Aton. Le Seuil, 1995, p. 17.
17. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton.
18. Christian Jacq, La sagesse vivante de l'Egypte ancienne. Robert Laffont, 1998, p. 35.
19. Richard Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? See also D. Redford, An Egyptological Perspective
on the Exodus Narrative, pp. 13769.
20. Dictionnaire Encyclopidique du judaisme. Le Cerf, 1993, p. 326.
21. Richard Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? D. Redford, An Egyptological Perspective on the
Exodus Narrative, pp. 13769.
22. Rashi (Rabbi Shelomoh ben Yishaq), AD 1040-1105. French-Jewish scholar and commentator
on the oral tradition concerning the Pentateuch. His teaching is one of the most important in
the Jewish tradition. It is based on written and oral traditions and he used the Aramaic Bible as
his reference source.
CHAPTER 4
Pharaoh Ay
The Bible and Egyptian history conceal information about the dispersion of the
priests and notables of Akhet-Aten, yet reveal a great deal about the hidden
pharaoh, the Divine Father Ay.
When the old, polytheistic religion was restored, an official stela was set up,
announcing the re-established order. Archeological evidence of the Biblical and
historical Exodus is engraved on this Stela of Restoration, also known as the Stela
of Tutankhamun. The Stela is in the form of a half table of the law, engraved by
order of the Divine Father Ay. It informed the ancient world (and us, now) about
the tragic and miserable situation that prevailed in Egypt at the time. It reveals the
fact that the Egyptian leaders had made the decision to abandon the monotheistic
religion of Akhenaten and the reasons for the restoration of the previous,
established religion.
The temples of the gods and goddesses, from Elephantine to the marshes of the
Delta, have begun to collapse. Their sanctuaries are falling, little by little, into
ruins in front of piles of rubble covered by weeds. Their homes have been
destroyed. Roads run through their fences. The country has a sick feeling and
the gods have turned their backs on our land.1
Other translations of the Stela tell of the catastrophic state of the rest of the
country.
The temples of the gods have fallen into detestable times. Their courts have
become roads where everyone can pass through. The country has
been exhausted by curses and the gods have been neglected. His Majesty [the
new king, Tutankhamun, guided by Ay] seeks a solution pleasing to Amun.
The gods have turned their backs on the country. The gods do not respond any
more when their counsel is sought.2
John Adams Wilson, in Egypt, Life and Death of a Civilization, analyzes the
inscriptions of the Stela, attested to by Bennet's translations. He takes note of the
vivid reaction of the child-king Tutankhamun. The Stela asks the question, "What
did the repentant pharaoh do?" The engraving on the Stela gives the answer: "He
drove out deceit from one end of the two lands to the other. And Maat [goddess of
justice and truth] was re-established. The lie [monotheistic religion] became an
abomination within the land."
The Stela of the Return (1330 BC), or

the Stela of the Restoration of the cult
of Amun. It can equally be called the
Stela of the Exodus (Cairo Museum).
The expression, "He drove out deceit from one end of the two lands to the other,"
is an historical reality, reaffirmed by the Bible - "They were driven out of Egypt
and could not tarry" (Exodus 12:39).
Only one man could have caused those words to be engraved on the stela - the
Divine Father Ay, a fervent servant of Maat, goddess of truth and justice. Knowing
the suffering of the Egyptian people, he had the ability, will, and power to decide
upon the radical action that had to be
Pharaoh Ay 35
taken. The texts that have come down to us testify to the urgency he felt to re-
establish the ancient gods in order to recover the equilibrium of the country.
The High Priest Ay was the only person assured of the power in Egypt after
Smenkhkare's death. Egyptologists describe him as a great diplomat and an
outstanding strategist, who maintained a certain cohesion in the country during the
second part of Akhenaten's reign, while the pharaoh was cloistered in his capital.
Nicolas Grimal writes, "The return of Amunian orthodoxy probably occurred
under the influence of the Divine Father Ay, who guided the steps of the young
Tutankhamun. Tutankhamun sent out an edict for the restoration of the previous
cults, and described the miserable state into which the errors of Amenhotep IV
[Akhenaten] had reduced the country."3
Ay was the "Father of the God," as well as the perceived father of the
commoners of Egypt. These commoners, the inhabitants of the rest of the country,
did not have the right to travel to the new capital. Men and women suffered from
having lost the religious and spiritual values of their ancestors. Their gods were
struck down and their priests displaced to Akhet-Aten. They were left alone,
without resources, and with the further constraint of conscription into work crews
to carry out the tasks of the new religion.
Ay well understood the foundations of Aten's religion. He had contributed to
its ascension, and had sincerely believed in it. Now, he saw the misery and
suffering of the Egyptian people as a consequence of that religious reformation.
The new monotheistic religion had brought tragedy to Ay personally. During
Akhenaten's reign, he saw his loved ones suffer and die. His parents (Yuya and
Tuya), his brother Anen, and several of his granddaughters died. His sister, Queen
Teye, died soon after her husband Amenhotep III. His adopted daughter, Nefertiti,
died soon, as did two of his great-granddaughters.
The death of Akhenaten must have dealt the ultimate blow to Ay's dream of
the cult of the One God, the Protector. Akhenaten was his son-in-law, a person he
had admired during the glory days of Akhet-Aten. Ay was deeply disappointed in
the One God Aten. This One God had provided no protection to him at all. He had
lost practically his entire
family while Aten's cult grew. And Egypt had sunk into a lamentable state. The
Stela of Tutankhamun demonstrates that the misfortunes that befell the Divine
Father Ay were interpreted by him as punishment from Amun.
Akhenaten had abandoned and desecrated the statues of Amun. He had
forsaken the people of Egypt as well as their ancestral gods. Ay felt that it was
urgently necessary to repair the fault and calm the wrath of Amun. A mere return
to polytheism would not suffice unless it was accompanied by a grandiose action
to regain Amun's confidence. Amun had allowed Aten the privilege of living, and
of expanding until he, Aten, had grown the more powerful of the two. And Aten,
far from expressing his gratitude, tried to destroy Amun. So the law of Talion, a
law well known to the Egyptians,4 would have to be invoked. Genesis 9:6 presents
the law in Biblical terms: "Whoever sheddeth the blood of another person, by that
person shall his blood be shed." It is the ancient law of vengeance.
Ay found himself confronted with the most difficult decision of his life. He
would have to blame the population of Akhet-Aten for the woes of the country.
The cosmopolitan life created by Akhenaten became a pretext for the accusation of
corruption, adultery, and exhibitionism against the city. Akhet-Aten had to be
destroyed, and its monotheistic priests had to be exiled or killed. They had, after
all, been guilty of corruption and of fraternization with foreign women.
Killing priests was certainly not an Egyptian custom. Such an act was
considered the crime of crimes. Besides, Ay himself had been venerated and
deified by the monotheistic priests.
Smenkhkare had opposed exiling the monotheistic priests, which probably
cost him his life. After his death, the Divine Father Ay became the sole initiator of
the restoration of the old religion. He could act freely, since the young pharaoh
Tutankhamun was under his tutelage.
To save Egypt from the misery and scourges described on the Stela, the Divine
Father took his stand against the population of Akhet-Aten. Akhet-Aten's
populace, however, attached to their privileges and to their One God, refused to
abandon their beliefs and their wealth.
The condition of the Egyptian people, exhausted by the scourges of the One
God religion, caused Ay to negotiate a compromise with the monotheistic
population of Akhet-Aten. Ay promised them the Egyptian province of Canaan
(the Promised Land), along with all the wealth of Akhet-Aten.
Pharaoh Ay 37
The venerated Divine Father Ay shooting at a target held by two prisoners. The
population of Akhet-Aten greets the high priest by kneeling. In the center are two
royal cartouches of the pharaoh, who is not wearing the royal uraeus, which leads
one to suppose that these cartouches were added to the engraving later (gold foil
engraving).
The Bible describes the wealth taken from Akhet-Aten in the Book of Exodus:
"The Children of Israel did as Moses told them, and asked the Egyptians for gold
and silver jewelry, and for clothing. Now Yahwe had caused the Egyptians to be
favorably disposed toward them, and the Egyptians gave them what they asked for.
So, they plundered the Egyptians" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 12:35-36).
The monotheistic priests, the Yahuds, took with them the wealth of Akhet-
Aten. The city wasn't abandoned in a disorganized manner; the departure was well
planned.5 Cyril Aldred discovered that the excavations at the city of Thebes were
far more rewarding than the meager loot gleaned from Amarna. Very little was left
behind when Akhet-Aten was deserted, providing slim pickings for the
archeologists millennia later. The latest research indicates that the capital was
dismantled at the beginning of Tutankhamun's reign. And, it was dismantled by
order of the Divine Father Ay.
With the capital of Egypt deserted and abandoned, where would its inhabitants
have gone? Having left the terrestrial paradise, what happened to the priests of
Aten and to the prominent citizens? They were deported to the Egyptian province
of Canaan. Not only were the priests and nobles
deported, but the Egyptian artists and artisans, who were an integral part of the
Yahud class (the Tribe of Judah), went along with them.
The traditional view of what happened to the monotheistic priests is that they
returned to their old cities and resumed the priesthood of the old monotheistic
gods. However, there is strong evidence against this view.
The Stela of the Restoration gives an archeological indication about the
disappearance of the priests of Akhet-Aten. According to Claude Vandersleyen,
the Stela specifies that Egypt, lacking enough priests for the restoration of the cult
of Amun, organized a massive recruitment drive. "The only written indication of
social reorganization of the priests states that from then on, the priesthood would
consist of children of the functionaries of their city."6
The new priests had to be recruited, not from priestly families, but from
families of the bureaucratic class - a very strange course since the priesthood in
Egypt had, from time immemorial, been a truly exclusive caste unto itself.7 In the
same way that Ay succeeded his father Yuya, the ancients transmitted their
traditions, secrets, and teachings to their descendants. The tradition is promulgated
in the Bible. "And the priest who is anointed and consecrated as priest to succeed
his father shall make atonement, wearing the holy linen garments" (Hebrew Bible,
Leviticus 16:32).
If the numerous priests of Akhet-Aten abandoned their God to return to the
old religion of Amun, how could there be a lack of priests? Why did those who
had returned to power feel obligated to recruit priests elsewhere, among the
uninitiated, in disregard of the ancestral traditions?
The answer is that the priests of Aten, the One God, never returned to the
worship of Amun. The leading citizens of Akhet-Aten never returned to
anonymity. The people of Akhet-Aten - priests, nobles, artists, and common
people - disappeared from Egypt to go to the desert of Moab, and later to the
province of Canaan.
By a religious alliance with the monotheistic priests, Ay settled a crucial political

problem at the same time, dealing with the region's equilibrium. He repopulated
the province of Canaan, which had been abandoned by Akhenaten and invaded by
bands of Apirus. Many of the Amarna Letters affirm that Akhenaten had received
many real cries of distress and appeals
Pharaoh Ay 39
for his help. For instance: "Rib-Hadda says to his lord: 'I fall to my lord's feet
seven times seven times. Why dost thou remain thus seated motion-lessly, doing
nothing, so that the Apiru dog takes thy cities? When that dog took Sumur, I wrote
thee, why hast thou done nothing ...?'" (EA 91).
By moving his own Egyptian subjects, who venerated him like a god, to the
land of Canaan, Ay had reached a solution that allowed him to put an end to the
anarchy reigning over the land. By this means, he held back the advance of the
Hittites from the North. The Hittites now became, equally, the enemy of the new
arrivals. The Divine Father created a "buffer zone" protectorate for Lower Egypt
by sending his armies along with the new settlers. The Aramaic Bible frequently
speaks of Ay's armies accompanying the Exodus: "On exactly that day, all the
armies of Ay left the land of Egypt"(Aramaic Bible, Exodus 12:41).
On Tutankhamun's death, the Divine Father Ay assumed the crown of the

Egyptian empire. The succession took place without conflict, and in accordance
with the Egyptian tradition of the immortality of the pharaohs, the cult of
Tutankhamun was replaced by that of the Divine Father Ay (Adon-Ay). Then,
after the death of Ay after a four-year reign, the new pharaoh, Horemheb,
faithfully followed the directives of his predecessor, restoring the worship of
Amun throughout Upper and Lower Egypt. He made a final, decisive rupture with
the religion of Aten, the only truly exclusive monotheism that had ever existed in
ancient Egypt. He established judges in the land, putting an end to the disorder and
corruption that had grown endemic. Enthused by his religious passion, he went so
far as to represent himself as the direct successor of Amenhotep III.
Always following the example of the Divine Father Ay, Horemheb was
accustomed to saying that "he traveled the country far and wide," the better to
know it and provide for its needs.
Horemheb usurped numerous statues and effigies of the monotheistic
pharaohs, effacing their names and their memory by engraving on them his own.
He made no exception of Ay. His rancor towards his monotheistic predecessors
had adequate reason. Under monotheism, Egypt had suffered the loss of the
fundamental symbol of its existence - its clergy. The priests had been the bearers
of Egypt's mysteries, knowledge, and traditions.
Unlike Horemheb, Pharaoh Ay is scarcely represented in sculptural form. The

rare works discovered which do show his image are paintings and bas-relief
murals, or engravings on gold leaf. Ay seems to have accorded slight importance
to images representing himself. For him the emphasis was on Egypt's need to
return to the worship of the polytheistic god Amun. Although he reigned only four
years, Ay had been "pharaoh without a crown" for more than twenty.
During Akhenaten's last ten years, while the pharaoh was cloistered and
worshiped within the capital, and during the reigns of Smenkhkare and
Tutankhamun, Ay was lord of the land, the Divine Father, respected and venerated
throughout Egypt.
It was Ay who presided over the burial of Tutankhamun. And it was Ay who
chose the secret location for Tutankhamun's tomb in the Valley of the Kings,
filling it with treasures found three thousand years later.
Ay is the forgotten pharaoh. The discrete sovereign of Egypt, he is above the
pharaohs. He is the one "whose face is never seen." Ay was the artisan and
sculptor of the Great Exodus. He would impose his seal upon the face of all
consequent Western civilization.
Notes
1. Translation of Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, Vol. 2. Nouvelle Clio,
1995.
2. Translation of Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton. Perrin, 1996, p. 219.
3. Nicolas Grimal, Histoire de l'Ancienne Egypte. Fayard, 1988, p. 294.
4. Elisabeth Laffont, Les livres de sagesse des pharaons. Folio Histoire, Gallimard, 1979, p. 22.
6. Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, p. 476.
7. Lionel Casson, Ancient Egypt, The Great Ages of Man. Time, 1969, p. 79.
CHAPTER 5
Amun
To better understand the relationship between the Bible and ancient Egypt, let us
go back 200 years before the Exodus to the reign of Ahmose, the founder of the
Eighteenth Dynasty, a turning point in the history of ancient Egypt. It was the
Pharaoh Ahmose who drove out the Hyksos, who had conquered the country and
ruled it from about 1630 to 1523 BC.1 These invaders founded Avaris, a garrison
town, as their capital. Manethon, an Egyptian priest of the third century BC,
described Egypt's capture: "Without warning, people of an unknown race, coming
from the East, had the audacity to invade our country [Egypt] and, without diffi-
culty or combat seized it by live force."
In addition to their culture and their philosophy, the Hyksos introduced the use
of the horse, the war chariot, and bronze work, thus definitely making their imprint
on Egypt. In turn the Hyksos adopted the Egyptian gods, their sacred hieroglyphic
writing, and Egyptian traditions. A hundred and fifty years after their conquest of
the country, they became, in their own minds, true Egyptians. The expulsion of the
Hyksos undertaken by Ahmose foreshadowed the events of the Exodus that
occurred two centuries later. The reconquest was bolstered by the retaking of
Avaris, around 1520 BC, and by driving the invaders back towards Asia. The
Hyksos became the "sacred enemy," an appellation that left its mark on future
dynasties century after century.
The Egyptians left us a great deal of information about the Hyksos and their
invasion. Does it not, then, seem strange that they left us not even a footnote about
the Hebrews? Here are "Chosen People," who refused to accept the established
gods and beliefs of Egypt, who, as slaves of Pharaoh,
remained in the country for 430 years, yet who are never mentioned in any way in
the writings that were penned on papyrus, chiseled into temple and tomb walls, or
engraved on gold leaf.
How could the Egyptians ignore the God of the Hebrews who had caused
them so much suffering with ten successive plagues and ruined the kingdom?
Egyptian scribes would, without doubt, have recorded some information, at least a
few traces of such devastation.
The Book of Exodus, chapter five, mentions that Pharaoh himself appeared to
be unaware of the One God of the Children of Israel after 430 years of their
presence, 210 of those years in slavery.2 "Afterward, Moses and Aaron went to
Pharaoh and said, 'Thus saith Yahwe, "Let my people go, that they may hold a
festival to me in the desert."' But Pharaoh said, 'Who is Yahwe that I should obey
him and let Israel go? I do not know Yahwe, and will not let Israel go'" (Hebrew
Bible, Exodus 5:1-2).
There does not exist any kind of Egyptian statement about the Hebrews,
whereas, for the expulsion of the Hyksos,3 the Egyptian scribes show them
belittled, made petty, and driven out of the country.
After their victory over the Hyksos, the Eighteenth Dynasty was founded and
Egypt pursued territorial advances to the South as well as to the North, as far as
the Euphrates. Thanks to Thutmose's conquests, Pharaoh added to his name and to
his title the supposed qualities that had accrued through these conquests: greatness,
power, force (the weaponed arm of pharaoh), and beauty. These were the qualities
that were customarily used either in Pharaoh's throne name or in his royal
cartouche. Pharaoh's attributes are identical to those claimed for the God of the
Bible.
Amenhotep III had the good fortune to possess a veritable empire bequeathed
to him by his forebears. Thutmose III had conquered the Near East as far as the
Euphrates. In the south of Egypt, he annexed Nubia, the Land of Kush, and
extended his kingdom to the third cataract of the Nile (today's Sudan).
At the age of fourteen, Thutmose Ill's great grandson, Amenhotep III, married
Teye, the daughter of Yuya, who came from a tiny village called Akhmin in Upper
Egypt. After the marriage of his daughter to Amenhotep, Prince Yuya was
promoted to the supreme rank of "Father of the God," or father-in-law of the God-
King. He later passed this title on to his son, Ay.
Amun 43
At that time an ancient god, Aten, resurfaced in Egypt. Aten's origin, in all
likelihood, goes back to Atum,4 a primordial Egyptian god of around 2200 BC.
This resurgence of Aten was favored by Amenhotep Ill's in-laws, and most
particularly by Teye, Yuya's daughter, the future high queen of Egypt, and
Akhenaten's mother. The education she gave her son was influenced by Yuya.5
And so both Teye and Yuya played a role in the first stage of the process that led
to the rise in power of the religion of Aten after the coronation of Akhenaten.
Amenhotep III was instructed, as were all the pharaohs, in sacred writing, in
arithmetic, and in science. But, above all, he was initiated into the cults of the main
Egyptian divinities. Among these, the principal god was Amun, whose temple - the
great Temple of Karnak - was located in the capital, Thebes. The origin of this god
is obscure. He may have issued from the metamorphosis of a "primordial serpent"6
that transformed itself into a divine being. During the Old Kingdom (2625-2130
BC), Amun was a god without cachet. His name is mentioned in the Pyramid
Texts, but is not emphasized. Toward the time of the Ninth Dynasty his name
became associated with the god Re, representing the sun (Amun-Re). By the
Eighteenth Dynasty, Amun definitively took the first place in the Egyptian
pantheon. Amun means "the hidden one." As in the Bible, no one could see the
face of God.
Amenhotep III was not a conquering king. He had already inherited an empire,
and now he had to consolidate it with alliances with his powerful neighbors,
mainly Mianni (Mesopotamia), with which he made a pact by marrying Gilheba,
the daughter of King Sutarna. At the death of Sutarna, Amenhotep III sealed a new
pact with his Midianite successor Tushratta (or Dushratta), who gave him his
daughter Taduheba in marriage.
The peace thus established predisposed Amenhotep III to concentrate his
energy on constructing numerous buildings throughout Egypt to encourage the
different cults in the land. Among the most important was the magnificent Temple
of Karnak (Thebes), and its replica in Soleb, in Upper Egypt.
Amenhotep III also had a sumptuous palace built near Thebes, which is now
called Malkata. At that time, ancient Egypt had attained a very high degree of
refinement in its arts and sciences.
The power of Amun's clergy accrued considerably. This supremacy

generalized into the acquisition of real estate, with an increase of bare land,
cultivated land, and vineyards awarded to the priests of Amun, making Thebes the
religious and political capital of the country. Amun was consecrated there as King
of the Gods, next to whom the other divinities seemed to play only a secondary
role. The surface area of the Temple of Karnak was augmented by the addition of
imposing columns, and its facade was enlarged. The pharaohs of the Eighteenth
Dynasty began to inscribe the names of the gods Amun and Thoth inside their
cartouches.
The Eighteenth Dynasty, which included the pharaohs involved in the Exodus,
was extinguished with the death of Pharaoh Horemheb in 1292 BC. The
pharaohships of the Ramesseans established the Nineteenth Dynasty. By then, the
events of the Exodus were old history.
Abraham's sacrifice of the ram is the symbol of a rupture with the god Amun. At
the beginning of the Book of Exodus, the "Hebrews" were asked by Pharaoh to
"sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians." "Moses said [to Pharaoh], 'It would
not be right to do so, for we shall sacrifice offerings abominable to the Egyptians
to our God Ay'" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 8:22; Hebrew Bible, Exodus 8:26). One
of Rashi's most important commentaries follows:
The abomination of the Egyptians. The idol worshiped by the Egyptians cf:
and for Milkom, the abomination of the sons of Amun (II Kings 23:13). With
regard to Israel, the text calls it an abomination. It can still be explained in
another sense: the abomination of the Egyptians would be something detested
by the Egyptians that is the sacrifice we are going to offer, since it is their idol
that we sacrifice.
The text associated with the commentary confirms that it dealt with a religious
conflict between a monotheistic Atenian people, "sacrificing" the Amunian gods
that existed then. This explanation makes it possible to establish a bridge between
the Bible and history, since in all the history of ancient Egypt, the only period
when there was a conflict similar to that in the Bible (the One God Adonay against
Amun's idol) is found, as Freud suspected, just after Akhenaten's death.
Amun 45
Notes
1. The dates are always approximate, cf. Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, Vol.
2. Nouvelle Clio, 1995, p. 663. The translators have chosen dates commonly agreed on in the
English-speaking world.
2. Exodus 12:40. For a stay in Egypt of 210 years, see Rashi, Pentateuch According to Rashi, Exodus.
Samuel and Odette Levy, 1990, p. 89.
3. John Adams Wilson, Egypt. Life and Death of a Civilization. Arthaud, 1961.
4. Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism. Gallimard, 1986.
5. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Le Seuil, 1997, pp. 214-15.
6. Ibid., p. 86.
CHAPTER 6
The Bible of Ay
A study of the Aramaic translation of the Bible reveals that the Hebrews were the
Yahud priests, the Judahites, the followers of Pharaoh Ay. Following their exile
from Akhet-Aten, the "Judahites" (the Yehudim or Yahuds) settled in Judah and
the "Hebrews" (the Children of Israel, the "multitude") were relegated to the
northern territories.
The Aramaic Bible, called the Targum, is a prime reference source because of
its precedence in time. It is a translation of a Hebrew Bible into the Aramaic
language. All extant copies of the Books of Genesis and Exodus in Hebrew were
written after the Aramaic Bible. Aramaic is an ancient Semitic language very close
to Hebrew and Arabic; it was the spoken and written language of Jesus of
Nazareth. By Jesus' time, Hebrew had been a dead language for centuries. The
Aramaic Bible is the one that Jesus would have read.
The Aramaic Bible states the name of God as "Ay." When the Divine Father
Ay granted the Land of Canaan (the Promised Land) to the monotheistic priests,
they deified his name, and used it as one of the names of the One God. The
Aramaic Bible also reveals Ay as a "warrior" or "a man of war." "Ay is a warrior.
Ay is his name" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 15:3). "Yahwe is a warrior" (Hebrew
Bible, Exodus 15:3). This verse illustrates the anthropomorphism of the God of the
Bible. The concept of an abstract god was a later development.
Ay was the god of the Yahuds. It was probably after Akhenaten's and
Smenkhkare's death that Ay's name became Adon-ay - Lord Ay. With this
continuing tradition, much later during the Babylonian exile, God was referred to
as "Adonay," even though the name was written on the page as
The Bible of Ay 47
"Yahwe"; in this way the holy name was avoided, the name "which was never to
be spoken."
The Aramaic Bible reveals the history of the Yahuds, worshipers of Pharaoh
Ay and, by deduction, the other Egyptian pharaohs. The Yahuds were deported by
Ay, but they revered him. Back in Egypt, the Amunian scribes and population saw
the Divine Father Ay as a god of the Egyptian pantheon. As such, he was
worshiped in the subject province of Canaan. A comparison of the Hebrew and
Aramaic Bibles demonstrates that relationship: "And Abram answered, Adonay-
Yahwe'" (Adonay is Yahwe) (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 15:2); "And Abram
answered, Ay Elohim'" (Ay is "the gods") (Aramaic Bible, Genesis 15:2).
Egypt returned to the polytheistic religion of Amun during and after the time
when Ay was Pharaoh. The Amunian artisans engraved Ay's name on temple walls
within many cities in the Kingdom of Judah, which testifies to the persistent
vitality of the worship of Pharaoh Ay, as well as of the Egyptian symbol "Yod-
Yod," one of the more important symbols of "the Creative God" in the ancient
Pyramid Texts. For the Yahud people, Ay's divinity integrated all the gods
(Elohim), including Jehovah (Yahwe). Monotheism still lived within that concept.
A reading of both versions of the Bible reveals that there were two classes of
people who were involved in the Exodus. There were the Yahuds, the priestly
class, and there were the Children of Israel, the commoners, the "multitudes."
Taking into account these texts as well as a study of the African monotheists, we
can deduct that there was another class, the Meses-Ay, the police of Akhet-Aten,
who went south and whose descendants live today in Kenya and Tanzania. This
last group of Masai monotheists took the route south and will be discussed at a
later point in this book (see chapter 19).
The Aramaic Bible makes a clear distinction between the Hebrews (Children
of Israel) and the Yahuds. The Hebrew Bible does not make such a distinction.
The Aramaic version related that it was the Yahuds who went out of Egypt under
the aegis of their god Ay. The Hebrews were assimilated into the Children of
Israel, the Egyptian commoners, the "multitude."1 "Then they [Moses and Aaron]
said, 'The God of the Hebrews has met with us'" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 5:3);
"Then they [Moses and Aaron] said, 'The God of the Yahuds has met with us'"
(Aramaic Bible, Exodus 5:3).
The Moses of the Bible was a Yahud, a son of Levi. The two Bibles deal with
this fact differently. "At that time, Moses had grown up. He went out among his
people and saw them toiling at hard labor. He saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew,
one of his own people" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 2:11); "At that time, Moses had
grown up. He went out among his people and saw them toiling at hard labor. He
saw an Egyptian beating a Yahud, one of his people" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus
2:11).
In the latter case, Moses the Yahud did not defend a Hebrew, but one of his
own Yahud class. It was a Yahud who was being mistreated by an Egyptian. So,
Moses could strike an Egyptian for having humiliated a dignitary of his own rank
and caste. In the episode that follows this, Moses encounters two of his fellow
Yahuds (Aramaic Bible) and not two Hebrews (Hebrew Bible). In the Aramaic
version, Moses intervenes as a judge. It is these passages translated from the
Hebrew Bible that have thrown historians into confusion, as they desperately seek
any trace of Hebrews or Children of Israel in ancient Egypt. If they had researched
the Yahuds, the results would have been strikingly different. This reasoning is
indispensable vis-a-vis the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim communities' other
sense of the Hebrew word "slave": servant of pharaoh.
The Aramaic Bible reveals that the Yahuds were the priests of Egypt, of a
different caste from the Hebrews, the "multitude," in ancient Egypt. "Yahud" (or
"Yahut") is a hieroglyph meaning official or civil servant, an hereditary position of
one charged with serving pharaoh. Hebrews as a distinct and separate people
simply are not to be found in the ancient land. They were an invention of scribes
who wrote centuries later, in a far-off, foreign land.
Rashi first raises the question of "slaves subjugated by Pharaoh." The
commentator affirms that the people who came out of Egypt were "servants of
Pharaoh." As a matter of fact, since they themselves had slaves, and consequently
wealth, they could not be considered slaves.
From a house of bondage. From the house of Pharaoh where you were his slaves.
Does this rather mean: from the house of bondage where you were slaves of other
slaves? Scripture makes it more specific: "And he delivered you from the house of
bondage from the hand of Pharaoh, King of Egypt (Deut. 7:4). Thus you can
conclude they were slaves of a king [servants] and not slaves subject to other
slaves. " (Rashi, Exodus 20.2)
The Bible of Ay 49
According to this explanation, the social status of the Hebrews was located
between the highest rank in the empire, the Egyptian nobility, and the "Egyptian
slaves." The slaves were, more correctly, "servants." Slavery, as we would define
it today, did not exist in Ancient Egypt. From the vizier to the simplest shepherd,
every person was Pharaoh's servant: as Christiane Desroches Noblecourt puts it,
"Everyone in Egypt made bricks." In return, Pharaoh, the symbol of abundance,2
assured the redistribution of wealth and food to the people.
Rashi gives a solution to this puzzle by specifying the other sense of the word
"Avodah" - slave - as "servant of the cult," in the sense of "he who sacrifices in the
temple."
He who sacrifices to the gods. In order to tell you: Just as the sacrifice is a
service practiced toward God within the temple. I would like to add here the
offering of incense or libations that are acts of worship practiced within the
temple.
Only the nobles and priests had the privilege of entering within Egyptian temples
and worshiping there. The Hagada (the traditional story of the leaving of Egypt)
gives an explanation commented upon later in the Treatise of the Fathers. It
teaches that "Pharaoh had excluded the tribe of Levi from Egyptian slavery." The
tribe, composed of priests, nobles, and their families, thus would have escaped the
servitude imposed by the King of Egypt: "It [the Tribe of Levi, the Yahuds] owed
its fortune to the maintenance of noble and extensive ancestral practices, like
circumcision and study of the Law."3
Rashi's commentary on Genesis 18 is also quite specific: "The Midrash states
further that the Tribe of Levi, to which Moses belonged, had never been Pharaoh's
slave."4 These explanations from the oral tradition mention the presence of Levite
priests among the populations of the Biblical Exodus, that could only be
representatives of the Egyptian nobility and clergy of Akhenaten's time. It is
simply impossible to admit a cohabitation between two religions in ancient Egypt -
two clergies and two nobilities coming from different origins. The division
between Amun and Aten was settled by a massive exodus precisely because the
priests of Aten, who were Egyptians, were accused of being "dissidents" by Ay,
and subsequent
pharaohs. In the words of Sety I, the son of Ramesses I, "I drove out for him [i.e.,
for my father the Pharaoh] the dissidents [the monotheistic Yahuds of Akhet-Aten]
into the desert lands."5
In Chapters 8 and 9 of the Book of Jeremiah, the prophet, several times, puts the
people on guard against the "lying Bible" of the scribes: "How can you say, 'We're
the wise ones who have the Law of Yahwe with us?' Behold, the lying pen of the
scribes hath transformed the law into a falsehood" (Hebrew Bible, Jeremiah 8:8).
Jeremiah had escaped to Egypt with part of the Judahite population after the
conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzer. The flight toward the land of the
fathers reveals that the prophet refused to submit to the new masters and did not
consider Egypt an abomination. Paradoxically, in order to save the people,
Jeremiah extolled the subjugation of Judah and Israel to Babylon (Jeremiah 27:7).
The people who could not escape to Egypt were forced into submission to the
new conquerors. The result of that submission was that in Babylon the Biblical
story, which had been fundamentally Egyptian, was transformed into a
Mesopotamian story. Jeremiah was railing against the lies that were being
promulgated by the false prophets at that time.
So do not listen to the words of the prophets who say, "Do not submit
yourselves at all to the king of Babylon. " For they are prophesying lies to you.
"I have not sent them," saith Yahwe. "They prophesy lies in my name.
Therefore I will banish you and those false prophets." Then, I said to the
priests and people, "Thus saith Yahwe, 'Do not listen to the words of the
prophets who say, "The vessels of the House of Yahwe will soon be brought
back from Babylon," for they prophesy a lie to you.' Do not heed them. Serve
the king of Babylon and live." (Hebrew Bible, Jeremiah 27:14-17)
The Yahuds managed to save their own lives, but adopted the Babylonian
superstitions and gods, Murdoch and Ishtar, which are introduced in the Book of
Esther. Mordecai (Mordoch-Ay) is the image of the god Murdoch. Esther
represents the goddess Ishtar. The god to be hated henceforth,
The Bible of Ay 51
Amun, is personified by Haman and his partisans. The battle between Aten and
Amun was perpetuated in Babylonia. And the Biblical version of the history of the
Judahites suffered the twists and turns necessary to satisfy the new Babylonian
rulers.
Notes
1. According to Erman and Ranke, a strong movement of immigration from Canaan toward
Egypt took place in the time of the kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Adolphe Erman and
Hermann Ranke, La civilisation igyptienne. Payot and Rivages, 1994, p. 208. Although the
"multitude" may have left Egypt at the same time as the Yahuds, it is not representative of the
"Chosen People" of Moses, but will serve as a scapegoat after the rebellions in the desert.
2. Pharaoh was identified with the Nile, as is shown by an effigy of Ay as God of the Nile, the
dispenser of the wealth of Egypt.
3. David Berdah, La Hagada de Paque. Editions Alpha Magium, 1986.
4. Rashi, The Pentateuch According to Rashi: Genesis. Samuel and Odette Levy, 1990.
5. Dominique Valbelle, Histoire de l'etat pharaonique. Edition PUF, 1998, p. 288.
CHAPTER 7
Genesis
When the people of the Exodus reached Canaan, the Yahuds established
themselves as the Kingdom of Judah and the multitude formed the Kingdom of
Israel. Over the following centuries, power in the Near East shifted from Egypt to
Chaldea (Babylonia). In 597 BC, Nebuchadnezzar, ruler of Chaldea, attacked and
conquered Judah and razed its capital, Jerusalem. The Yahud classes that ruled
Judah were taken away into exile in Babylon. That exile lasted 58 years.
During the Exile, the Yahud scribes began to compile accounts of Judahite
history and traditions. In doing so, they modified the stories to make them
acceptable to their Babylonian captors. The Book of Genesis is one of the results
of the scribes' retelling of Yahud legends. The first of these legends is the story of
Creation.
The Yahud retelling of the creation story harks back to the Egypt of 4,700
years ago. Memphis was the capital of the kingdom at that time. The god of that
city, who protected the first known great pharaohs, was called Ptah. The theology
surrounding the creation of the universe by Ptah is called Memphite theology.
Memphite doctrine affirms that at the beginning of creation, there existed a
cosmic void, a kind of chaos plunged in darkness, identical to the Biblical "tohu-
bohu': "The earth was formless and void (tohu-bohu), and darkness was over the
surface of the deep; and the Spirit [wind/breath] of the Elohim hovered over the
waters" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:2).
In the Egyptian version, there was a primordial ocean formed of celestial
waters called "Nun." The void was filled by the Nun, the celestial waters, echoing
the Biblical creation. Genesis 1:2 speaks of the Spirit
Genesis 53
(wind/breath) that hovered over the surface of the waters. The Nun, which existed
before the creation of the world, gave birth to rivers and streams, and most
particularly to the Nile. Genesis relates, in the same way, the creation of the primal
rivers from the primordial waters.
The waters eventually lowered, allowing the firm land gradually to appear.
This emergence gave birth to the sacred Nile. The primordial mound, the image of
the pyramid that contains Pharaoh's Ark (Kheops and his Ark), is found in the
Biblical story of Noah's Ark1: "On that day, all the springs of the great deep burst
forth, and the windows of the heavens opened up." Then, later on: "The springs of
the great deep and the windows of the heavens were closed, the rain stopped ... and
the ark came to rest on Mount Ararat."2
The first Divine word in the Bible was addressed to the elements: '"Let there
be light.' And there was light" (Genesis 1:3). This echoes the Memphite theology,
which stipulates that the creation of the world was directed by the sacred word of
the god Ptah. This also foreshadows the Christian doctrine of the Word, found in
John 1:1, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the
Word was God."
Ptah, "the god who opens,"3 had the power to create by pronouncing the
sacred words: "He created all things and caused the gods to be born ... So Ptah was
satisfied after he had created all things so they were in divine order."4
In the Hebrew Bible, it is stated repeatedly that, "God saw that it was good
[Tov]".5
Two thousand years before the appearance of the Bible, the concept of a divine
force prior to creation existed already in Memphis, providing a basis of belief for
the entire Egyptian society.
This religious concept permitted local populations to integrate in an
environment propitious for religious beliefs and contributed to the reinforcement
of the national expression of the country. This common identity led to the
invention of the 365-day Egyptian calendar. This calendar developed around the
annual flooding of the Nile and is the origin of New Year's cerebrations in all
countries and religions of the western world, thus rendering homage to the most
ancient of all the Egyptian traditions: the flood.
Work in the fields depended on the floods of the Nile. When the harvest
season finished, the ancient Egyptians devoted themselves to non-agricultural
tasks: artistic and scientific endeavors and construction work, which necessitated
efficient organization. The alternation of agricultural and collective activities gave
the people the feeling of participating in the life of the nation, in its material and
spiritual domains. This community of labor among the Egyptians produced
strength and optimism, a fervor that we find later among the Yahuds.
From the Fourth through Sixth Dynasties (roughly 2600 to 2100 BC, a period
of some 500 years), the Egyptians undertook the task of controlling the annual
inundation. The drainage and irrigation work contributed to the creation of new
wealth. The people were minions of the pharaohs, who exercised a centralizing
power. The emergence of a new national cohesion, concentrated on the "god-
king," permitted the construction of the cities, temples, and great pyramids -
symbols of the primordial landing of the Axk, akin to the tale of Noah.
Egypt soon saw itself as a holy land. Well before Akhet-Aten and the writing
of the Bible, the notion of a holy land was associated with ancient Egypt, a land
naturally protected by mountains and deserts, and blessed by the Nile. This
advantageous geographic situation, perceived as a gift of the gods, was also the
origin of the concept of a "chosen people."
The people of ancient Egypt were chosen by the gods, and thus were living in
the "holy land." John Adams Wilson writes:
Egypt believed itself chosen among all nations and that its setbacks could only
be temporary. Everyone sensed that life could be enjoyed in familiar simplicity.
This fundamental optimism towards life here below extended to the life
beyond. The blessings of immortality were promised to every good Egyptian.6
The blessings of immortality are the same promises made to those faithful to
Biblical monotheism. Election and sanctity remained always fixed in the hearts of
the people who "came up out of Egypt." Egyptian mythology and memories of life
in Egypt remained with the Yahuds in their new promised land of Judah. The
memories persisted through the exile to Babylon. Among the prized memories
were those of the man who had given them
Genesis 55
the gift of monotheism - Akhenaten - and of the wonderful paradise he had

constructed - Akhet-Aten.
Notes
1. Genesis 7:12.
2. Genesis 8:4.
3. John Adams Wilson, Egypt. Life and Death of a Civilization. Arthaud, 1961, p. 60.
4. K. Serh, Dramatische Texte zur Altagyptischen Mysterienspielen, p. 59. Cited in John Adams
Wilson, Egypt. Life and Death of a Civilization.
5. Genesis 1:12, 1:18, 1:21, 1:25, 1:31.
6. John Adams Wilson, Life and Death of a Civilization, p. 66.
CHAPTER 8
Akhenaten and Adam
Akhenaten was regularly represented on temple walls under the god Aten, who
was symbolized by the divine sun. Aten is shown sending down his rays,
materialized as lines directed toward Pharaoh's face. Most of the rays fall on
Akhenaten's hands. Some beams carry the "Ankh," the symbol of life. Others carry
the symbol of royalty (the Scepter of God).
To be precise, the Ankh appears before Pharaoh's nostrils. This represents the
breath of life, the same breath that God (the Elohim, Adonay) breathes into
Adam's nostrils in the Genesis story. Only those of royal rank could receive this
symbol of life. No ordinary Egyptian had the right to that "divine breath," which
was the prerogative of Pharaoh and his family.
Akhenaten and Nefertiti offer incense to Aten in the temple.

Aten sends the breath of life into their nostrils by means of
the Ankh sign (Cairo Museum). Genesis 2:7: Yahwe and
the Elohim fashioned man from the dust of the earth
and breathed the breath of life into his nostrils, and
man became a living being.
Akhenaten and Adam 57
Akhenaten required his people to worship him as the sacred image of the god,
Aten. The god-king of the Eighteenth Dynasty proclaimed himself son of Aten,
then son of Re (another aspect of the sun god). Pharaoh had become the
representative on earth of the One God. He called himself the "first prophet of
Aten." This quality conferred on him the primacy of the new cult. The people
could worship Aten only through Pharaoh. In his capital of Akhet-Aten, as in all of
Egypt, he had magnificent temples built and consecrated to the cult of Aten, his
own cult, since he was the only representative. To worship Aten was to worship
Akhenaten. At the entrance of the temples, before the two monumental pylons
separated by the great central door, colossal statues majestically imposed the
authority of the great pharaoh.
Many of the statues and other representations of Akhenaten show him as both
male and female. Early in the Bible, we have this male-female blend. Genesis 1:27
says: "So the Elohim created humans in their own image, in the image of the
Elohim they created them. They created humans male and female."
Is the image of the Elohim (the gods, the sons of God) the image of man?
Does the verse relate to the anthropomorphism we encounter in Egyptian
imagery? Most of the Egyptian gods are represented by people or animals, or by
people with heads of animals. The expression "male and female" attaches
masculine and feminine characteristics to Adam's person. Representations of
Akhenaton show both masculine and feminine characteristics.
What are the reasons behind Akhenaten's desire to have himself represented as
both male and female? Frolichs' syndrome, an hereditary deformity of the body,
has been advanced as one explanation, making him deformed and incapable of
procreation. However, Akhenaten had six daughters, without counting the many
other children he had by his royal wives or concubines.
It could be that this double representation, male and female, was envisioned as
some peculiarity of Amarnian art characterizing the art of the epochs of
Akhenaten and his father Amenhotep III. Another explanation posits Akhenaten
and Nefertiti as the primordial couple of creation.1
Colossus showing an asexual Akhenaten, male

and female (Cairo Museum). The colossus is
red, which is "Adorn" in Hebrew = Adam -
Atum. "The Elohim created man in their image.
It is in the image of the Elohim that he was
created" (Genesis 1:27). "He will be united with
his wife and they will become one flesh"
(Genesis 2:24).
This last explanation finds its parallel in the Adam and Eve story.
In one of the giant statues of Akhenaten (above) he is shown standing in the
Osiris position (arms crossed). He is asexual, without loincloth the image, like
Adam, of the first human created on earth. Unlike Adam, though, Akhenaten is
shown as both male and female. He had proclaimed himself "the father and mother
of humanity," a notion which applies alle-gorically to Adam,2 and to Abraham3
(Father of Nations).
Aten had fashioned Akhenaten in his own image. Akhenaten and Adam were
both fashioned by the One God in his own image.
In Genesis 2:4, a new and different version is presented of the creation of
man.4 It begins: "This is the description of the creation of the heavens and the
earth. When Yahwe and the Elohim created the earth and the heavens ..."
This second version of Creation contradicts the first. In this new tale the earth
was created before the heavens. Then came man, the plants, the animals, and
woman. Even though the order is different, God breathes the indispensable breath
of life into Adam's nostrils. "Then Yahwe and the Elohim, from the dirt of the
earth, formed man into a living creature by breathing the breath of life into his
nostrils" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 2:7).
In the second creation myth it was no longer a question of man being made in
the image of God, but of creation from dirt. Death was symbolized by a return to
the dirt of the earth. Egyptians covered their bodies with dirt during the mourning
ceremonies, to mark their affliction and as a sign of humility. It was also done by
the many mourners who lamented while following the funeral procession.
Scene of mourning for Princess Maketaten. Akhenaten and Nefertiti spread dust in a sign of
mourning. The princess is mummified, standing inside the kiosk.
In addition to the application of dirt to the body, Egyptian male mourners

abstained from shaving. Pharaoh let his beard grow for 70 days when one of his
daughters died. John Pendlebury5 writes that a sketch of Akhenaten shows him
with several days' beard growth and a child's toy in his hand, possibly to express
his mourning for his daughter Maketaten. A painting of Ramesses II, wearing
several days' growth of beard in mourning for his father Sety I, reminds us that this
tradition, continued by the Yahuds, had an Egyptian origin.
Ramesses II in mourning for his

father, wearing several days' beard
growth.
Crying, wailing mourners, cinders and dust, prayers for the dead and purification
with holy water, incense ritual, beard ritual, blessings over food, funeral meals in
the temples, inscriptions engraved on stone with the name of the departed, the
passage of the soul of the corpse to the Great Beyond, celestial tribunal,
resurrection, fast, and a period of mourning -all these traditions and beliefs which
came out of ancient Egypt were preserved in the Bible, under the aegis of the
priests of Akhet-Aten. These, in turn, have influenced all the subsequent
monotheistic religions.
In the Egyptian notion of creation, there is a reference to Atum, a god who
created himself and who fashioned man by dismembering himself. According to
Freud,6 Atum was a distant ancestor of Aten. Atum, god of Heliopolis (a city
which the Bible calls On) personifies the celestial deep.
Atum was the first god and Adam was the first man of the creation stories.
Eve, the first woman (Isha) is reminiscent of Isis.
Adam, then, came out of remembrance of the Egyptian god Atum, the god
who existed prior to creation, a personification of the celestial deep. And Isha
(Woman, Eve) came out of remembrance of Isis, with whom Nefertiti was
identified.
The roots of Genesis seem to have grown in Egyptian soil.
Notes
2. Genesis 1:27.
3. Genesis 17:4-5.
4. Richard Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible? Exergue, 1997, p. 53.
5. H. Francfort and J.D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, II. Egypt Exploration Society, XL,
1933, pl. XXXI.
6. Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism. Gallimard, 1986.
CHAPTER 9
Forbidden Fruit
In the first version of the creation story, God made a gift of all creation to man. In
Genesis 2:8-11 (Hebrew Bible), we learn about the Garden of Eden and the tree
that bore forbidden fruit:
And now Yahwe and the Elohim planted a garden in Eden, in the East. And
they put the man they had formed in it. Then Yahwe and the Elohim planted all
kinds of trees in the ground, trees that are pleasant to see and good to eat. In the
middle of the Garden, they planted the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and
Evil. A river that watered the garden flowed out of Eden. It divided into four
streams. The first was named Pishon. It is the one that flows through Havilah,
where there is gold. The gold of that land is good.
Rashi claims that the Garden of Eden was located in Egypt. The word Pishon
means the Nile, the primordial river of Creation, which watered the Garden: "That
is the Nile, the Egyptian river called Pishon, because its waters, by the blessing of
God, overflowed and watered the ground."1
The Pyramid Texts report that Pharaoh was responsible for the flooding of the
Nile. Rashi has an interesting commentary on the relationship of the Pharaoh and
the Nile. Genesis 47:7-10 states: "Then Joseph brought in Jacob his father and
presented him to Pharaoh ... and then Jacob blessed Pharaoh." Rashi comments:
"What blessing did he give him? That the waters of the Nile would rise to his feet,
because Egypt does not receive rain water. It is the Nile that waters by its
floodings. But since he had received Jacob's blessing, Pharaoh could approach the
banks of the Nile,
Forbidden Fruit 63
and the waters of the Nile would rise and water the land."
The Nile waters the land of Havilah, linked to the gold deposits in the south of
Egypt. Gold was considered the flesh of the gods - the flesh of Pharaoh.
The second river cited by the Bible is called the Gihon, in the land of Kush,
which is in the south of Egypt. Consequently, it is a branch of the Nile. The other
rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, are in what was then Assyria. So the limits of the
Garden of Eden correspond to the borders of the Egyptian Empire from the reign
of Thutmose to that of Ramesses I, i.e., the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
Strangely, the Bible locates a "Garden of Adonay" in Egypt:
Lot raised his eyes and observed that the entire plain of Jordan was well-
watered, like the garden of Yahwe, like the land of Egypt, toward Zoar. This
was before Yahwe destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah. (Genesis 13:10)
In Genesis 2:16-17 the next reference to the Tree occurs: "And Yahwe said to the
man, 'You may eat the fruit of any tree in the Garden.' But the Elohim
commanded, 'You must not eat from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.
For when you eat that fruit, you shall die'" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 2:16-17).
Then, God created woman from one of Adam's ribs. Along came the crafty
serpent, coaxing Eve to transgress the divine order. She tasted the fruit of the tree
and gave it to Adam, who also ate it. Because of her transgression, the Bible states
that the woman will bear children in pain and be dominated by the man, who must
toil "by the sweat of his brow."2 Following the eating of the fruit, the first couple
was condemned to return to dirt, after having been driven from the Garden of
Eden.
There is historical and archeological data that place the Garden of Eden in Egypt.
Among the numerous temples erected by Akhenaten there is the Great Temple of
Aten, or the "Gem-Pa-Yten" or "Gempa-Aten." It covers an area 200 meters wide
by 800 meters long. Like the other temples of Akhenaten, it was first constructed
at Karnak, where its original foundations
were found. Its exact replica, built afterwards in the capital of Akhet-Aten, was
surrounded by an immense estate, which consisted of basins of purified water,
vineyards, orchards, and green spaces protected by an enclosing wall.
Within the Garden stood the sacred tree, called "Ished." Its fruit was destined
only for Pharaoh. A priest or priestess had to write or engrave on each fruit, within
an oval or cartouche, the name of the king. The fruit thus marked became sacred in
the eyes of the people, and constituted divine food. Christiane Desroches
Noblecourt states that the fruit of the tree of Pharaoh Amenhotep III at the Temple
of Karnak conferred immortality, like the Biblical tree.
The Hebrew Bible alleges that the Garden of Eden {Gan-Ba-Eden),3 like that
of the temple of Akhenaten, faced East, and was also irrigated by the waters of the
Nile.
There is another of Akhenaten's temples, the "Gem-Aten" which also could be
identified as the Garden of Eden, with the Ished Tree. The Hebrew term "Gan-
Eden"4 gets confused with the Egyptian "Gem-Aten." This temple, like Gem-Pa-
Aten, existed both at Karnak and at Akhet-Aten. It was composed of the same
elements: gardens, temples with columns, a sacred tree, vineyards, and a basin of
sweet water fed by the Nile.
Fruit of the divine tree gave power, knowledge, beauty, majesty, intelligence,
and longevity to Pharaoh and his divine wife Nefertiti. The monotheistic priests
tasted the forbidden fruit, and each one who did so then considered himself as
godlike, identifying himself with Pharaoh.
The story or legend of Original Sin is at the base of the Biblical laws governing the
relationship between man and woman. The concept submitted women to religious
constraints. Such constraints are still in force today in many countries. The legend
has allowed men to prevail physically and intellectually over women.
The legend that gave rise to the concept of original sin harkens back to the
earliest days of ancient Egypt. The pharaohs of that period probably associated
their names with primordial Egyptian gods like Atum, who gave birth to Shu and
Tefnut, the divine couple who gave birth to Geb (the earth) and Nut (the heavens).
Geb and Nut engendered four divinities, thus forming the Great Ennead5 of
Heliopolis.
Forbidden Fruit 65
Pharaoh = Re is in peace = Atov = Hotep
The tree "Ished" of Pharaoh, each fruit of which is marked with his name by the
priest and priestess, bears identical symbols to the tree of Creation in the Book of
Genesis. The Tree of Knowledge (Daat) of Good (Tov) and Evil (Ra) (Genesis
2:9).
In Egyptian mythology Osiris was king of Egypt. Isis was his queen. The name
Isis is a Greek translation of the Egyptian root "Isa" or "Isha," which is the Hebrew
root word for woman. Osiris,6 the god of darkness, symbolized the strength and
abundance conferred at Pharaoh's death. Seth, Osiris' brother, jealous of him,
assassinated him. Then Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, challenged Seth in order
to avenge the death of his father. This intrigue is classic in Egyptian thought. It
places the seizure of power at the deepest base of its culture. There follows the
permanent battle between Horus and Seth - between good and evil.
Horus was aided in his battle against Seth by his mother, Isis. The celestial
tribunal finally agreed with Horus and Seth was condemned to submission. Seth
appears in the Bible as Cain, Adam's son who murdered his brother Abel.
Another Seth legend tells how he was called by the sun god Re to be one of the
occupants of the royal boat, to protect it against the incessant attacks of the
serpent, Apophis. In that battle, Isis joined Seth and used her
The battle between Setb and Apophis.
Apophis the serpent finally submits to the god Seth, who is shown transformed
into a fabulous animal.
Forbidden Fruit 67
magic charms to bewitch the serpent, depriving it of its senses, thus facilitating its
annihilation.7 This was the victory of Isis and Seth over Apophis, who incarnated
evil, the demon brought to earth. This legend, much earlier than the Biblical tale,
shows the serpent under the sacred tree, where the fruit, always coveted by the
priests and priestesses, bloomed.
It is the Biblical interpretation of the story of Apophis that results in the
concept of Original Sin. In ancient Egypt, women were somewhat liberated.
Although they did not have the right to perform administrative functions, some
women, like Hatshepsut and Nefertiti, acceded to divine status. Women could
obtain the same basic rights as men. They could dispose of some parts of their
inheritance, they could go to court, etc. Work for women of the lower classes was
difficult, but they were represented among the ranks of artists, artisans, and
goldsmiths. What the Bible considered defeat of man and woman in the face of
urges and desires was seen by the Egyptians to be not defeat, but victory. The
battle of the god Seth and the goddess Isis against the serpent was won because
man and the woman were united heroically against Apophis.
In the Biblical story, Original Sin came into the picture when Adam and Eve
had both eaten the forbidden fruit. They became aware of their nudity. Nudity was
considered natural to them before they ate the fruit. After eating the fruit, they
perceived it as a sin before God. The shame concerning their sexuality on the day
after Creation seems to contradict the stages in which God (or the Gods?) was
"satisfied"8 with His work. The shame the couple felt is intentionally linked to
evil.
In the Biblical telling, evil is tied to sexual urges. From the moment of the
awakening of that desire, the "evil tendency" of sex required strict laws to govern
sexual relations between men and women. These laws broke down later, the Bible
teaches, leading Solomon, Judah, and Israel into transgressions.
The Egyptian case was quite different. The art of Amarna shows Nefertiti and
Akhenaten naked or lightly dressed. A mural shows them in the flesh, embracing
without showing any shame. The carnal act, amorous and consecrated, did not
symbolize decadence, but, on the contrary, an image of the divine couple at its
best, naked before their god. They were in the state described in Genesis 2:25,
before the primordial couple ate the fruit. "The man and his wife were naked, but
were not ashamed."
The royal princesses are often shown naked in their parents' presence (for
example, on Huy's tomb) and sparsely dressed when taking part in some of the
ceremonies of the cult. Cyril Aldred, a specialist on the Amamian period,
describes this situation thus:
The cult of nudity attained its apogee under Akhenaten's reign. This cult was
represented not in the formal attitudes of worship repeated so insistently in
every section of the temple, or even as triumphal conquerors striking the
foreign enemy, but rather in intimate circumstances, full of life, as human
beings engaged in everyday activities: 'while embracing their children,
prancing about in their bare skins ... banqueting in the intimacy of their
palace.'9
Christian Jacq comments on this:
Akhenaten and Nefertiti demonstrated their love by kissing each other, even in
front of the populace ...In several instances, the royal couple is represented
naked as they banquet, as shown in Huy's tomb, and in decorations in Ay's as
well ... That the royal family lived naked in their apartments was quite the way
things were done.10
As in the Bible before the doctrine Original Sin, notions of good and evil in
Pharaoh Akhenaten's capital had nothing at all to do with the sight of one's own
nudity or that of another person. The vision expressed then, by the beauty of the
human body, was divine creation influencing all artistic inspiration, including
sacred art.
Here, a teaching is revealed concerning the meaning of good and evil for the
ancient Egyptians. As in the Bible before Original Sin, good and evil were neither
related nor opposites. Good was deified as Maat, goddess of justice and truth,
qualities that were sacred and religious. These qualities were linked to the God
who created the universe, having nothing to do with knowledge of evil.
Maat has the same root as the Hebrew Emet, meaning truth and justice. In this
state of innocence, good was never the opposite of evil, as it is in the Bible. Evil
was a well-known idea, under the name of Isefet. With the Egyptians, Isefet was a
destructive force.
Forbidden Fruit 69
Isefet, or "evil," was demonstrated by the perversity of the priests of Akhet-

Aten when they transgressed one of the sacred laws of Egypt. They tasted the fruit
of the Divine Tree. By doing so, not only did they identify themselves with
Pharaoh, but worse yet they demystified the ancient legend of the Tree of Life in
the eyes of the Divine Father Ay, as the God of the Aramaic Bible states, "Here
that man has become like one of us, in that he knows good [Tov] and evil [Re]"
(Aramaic Bible, Genesis 3:22).
The serpent, that personification of women's perversity, is dealt with in
Genesis 3:14, where God inflicts a heavy chastisement on the creature: "Yahwe
and the Elohim said to the serpent, 'because you have done this, you are cursed
above all the domestic and wild animals. You shall crawl on your belly and eat dirt
all the days of your life.'"
Rashi11 explains that the serpent was originally provided with legs, and that
these were removed, obliging it to crawl on the ground. However, while the
serpent is the animal cursed at Creation, ancient Egypt considered it a living god:
the eye of Horus, protector of Pharaoh, ready to dispatch anyone looking at his
face. Rashi's commentary gives us the state of the oral tradition about the "legged
serpent," whose origin is purely Egyptian. One legend relates12 "that Seth launched
serpents against his enemy Osiris who was asleep beneath the Tree of Life.
Awakened by the cries of an owl, he gave the order for them to creep on the
earth."
The serpent with legs from the tomb of Amenhotep II.
The Tree of Life is encountered in the Great Hymn to the god Amun. It describes
God as the creator of humanity, the animals, and the plants that nourish the cattle.
In agreement with the Bible, the Tree of Life has the function of conferring
longevity on Pharaoh or on whoever eats its fruit. In
Genesis 3:22, after chastising the primordial couple, Yahwe and the Elohim say,
"Now he must not be allowed to take fruit from the Tree of Life, and eat, and live
forever."
The Adam and Eve story is a remembrance of the expulsion from Akhet-Aten.
This memory remained engraved in the consciousness of the people who were
"driven out of Egypt," in order that they might worship their One God in another
land "flowing with milk and honey." They received a promise in exchange for the
paradise lost.
Genesis 3:23-24 of the Hebrew Bible says, "So Yahwe and the Elohim drove
him [Adam] out of the Garden of Eden, to work the ground [dirt] from which he
had been created. They drove the man out, and on the east of the Garden of Eden,
they placed cherubim and a flaming sword, which flashed back and forth, to guard
the way to the Tree of Life." The picture of the flaming sword, forever guarding
access to the lost paradise recalls that, during and long after the banishment of its
inhabitants, Akhet-Aten was guarded by the army of the Divine Father Ay.
"And He said to Adam, 'Because you listened to your wife, and ate from the
tree I commanded you to avoid, the very dirt under your feet is cursed. You shall
eat of it all the days of your life'" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 3:17).
In the story of Sodom and Gomorrah, there is a similarity to the story of the
expulsion from Eden. The Aramaic Bible describes it in this way:
Ay said, "Because the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah has increased, and
the perversity is very grave, I will go down and I will see for myself. If they
are behaving as the outcries indicate, I will exterminate them. If not, I will warn
them." The men turned from there and went towards Sodom. And Abraham
remained standing before Adon-Ay. (Aramaic Bible, Genesis 18:20-22)
According to these verses, Adon-ay decided to destroy the two cities because of
the perversion reigning there. Although they were located in Canaan, in desert
regions close to the Dead Sea, there exists not a single archeological trace of
Sodom and Gomorrah. Paradoxically, the Bible compares the cities to a "Garden
of Yahwe" in Egypt. "And Lot looked up and saw that the plain of the Jordan was
well watered, like the garden of
Forbidden Fruit 71
Yahwe, like the land of Egypt toward Zoar" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 13:10).
The corruption of Sodom and Gomorrah is similar to Ay's perception of
Akhet-Aten. Ay doubtless wished to destroy the city at first, but finally
compromised in favor of deporting the population to Canaan and dismantling the
buildings.
In the Aramaic Bible, Ay sent messengers to warn Lot and his family: "Lot
went out and said to his sons-in-law, engaged to his daughters, 'Look! Abandon
this place. For Adon-Ay is going to destroy this city.' But he appeared to the eyes
of his sons-in-law to be joking" (Aramaic Bible, Genesis 19:14).
"The sun had risen over the earth when Lot arrived at Zoar. Adon-Ay caused
brimstone and fire to fall from the skies, to rain on Sodom and on Gomorrah. He
destroyed those cities and the whole plain - all the inhabitants of those cities. And
even the vegetation on the ground" (Aramaic Bible, Genesis 19:23-25).
The name Gomorrah, in Hebrew, is Amora, which means "people of Re" or
"people of Pharaoh." The verse can be translated as, "Ay caused it to rain on
Sodom and on his people of Re, the Great God."
Rashi comments as follows on these verses: "The rain fell over Sodom. He
[Lot] arose in the night, as it is written: when dawn broke (Verse 15), the moon
was still in the heavens, at the moment when the sun had just risen. For he was one
who worshiped the sun, and others worshiped the moon."
As at Akhet-Aten, the inhabitants of Sodom had the sun cult. The moon was
considered by them to be Re's second eye. The perverted picture of Sodom is
encountered in Akhet-Aten's cult of nudity. Sodom, considered in the Bible as "a
garden of Adonay in Egypt" could well be the metaphor for Akhet-Aten.
God saved the family of Lot, Abraham's nephew, just as Ay saved the young
pharaoh Tutankhamun and his family before deporting the population. Zoar, the
name of the refuge city, is close to the Hebrew, Shaar, meaning door. Thebes was
called "the city of a hundred doors." The city of the light of Aten, the sun god, the
Garden of Eden, abandoned and destroyed by Ay, is revealed in the written and
oral tradition of the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah.
The Biblical legend of Original Sin, under the cover of the ancient Egyptian
legend, symbolizes, above all, the drama of Akhet-Aten.
The serpent personifies the perversity of the women of Akhet-Aten, who,
succumbing to the desire to taste the fruit of the Tree, gave it to the priests so they
could accede to the throne of Egypt and thus to the eternal life of the pharaohs. In
that way, they destroyed the secular myth of the sacred tree, provoking the wrath
of the Divine Father Ay.
The goddess Nut under the Tree of Life. "The woman saw that the tree was good
for food and that it was attractive to the eyes and could make one wise; she
plucked its fruit and ate. She also gave it to her husband and he ate it" (Genesis
3:6).
Ay made them feel guilty, and cursed the population of the capital for their corrupt
morals and their unbridled sexual lives. He accused the monotheistic priests of
having succumbed to temptation by obeying their wives. This pretext allowed him
to curse forever the sacred land of Akhet-Aten, and to excommunicate the men
and women who had inhabited it. And to drive them out of Egypt.
Forbidden Fruit 73
Notes
1. Rashi, Pentateuch According to Rashi, Genesis 2:11. Samuel and Odette Levy, 1993.
2. Genesis 3:14-20.
3. Genesis 2:8.
4. Genesis 2:15.
5. The Heliopolitan creation story has Atum evolving into a group of nine gods, called the "Ennead":
himself (Atum), Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. Sometimes a tenth god,
Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, is added to the group. Sometimes even Re joins the Ennead.
6. Robert Jacques Thibaud, Dictionnaire de mythologie et symbolique egyptienne. Dervy, 1996, p.
243.
7. Aude Gros de Beler, La mythologie egyptienne. Moliere, 1998.
8. Genesis 1:14.
10. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhinaten, Perrin, 1996, p. 154.
11. Rashi, Pentateuch According to Rashi, Genesis 14:3.
12. Robert Jacques Thibaud, Dictionnaire de mythologie et symbolique egyptienne, p. 322.
CHAPTER 10
The Elohim
The scribes of both the Aramaic and Hebrew Bibles often use the first person
plural to describe God, as in Genesis 1:26: "Let us make man in our own image, in
our own likeness." Rashi explains this plural form for God by saying that God
speaks in the name of his "family," the celestial beings (the Elohim). "Man, being
in the image of the celestial beings, could make the Elohim jealous. God took care
to consult them. And when God judges the kings of the earth, He, in the same
way, takes counsel with his 'family.'"
According to Rashi, the "upper" world is made up of a celestial host, the
angels, sitting on the right and left hand of God, who is seated on His throne. The
divine family is a mirror image of Pharaoh and his assembly. The expression "on
the right (or the left) hand of the king" was included in the titles of the nobility of
ancient Egypt. Ay held the title of "fan bearer seated at the right hand of the king,
responsible for all his majesty's horses, true scribe of the king, father of God."1 For
important decisions, Pharaoh had to seek the counsel of the nobles seated around
him. He also had to consult the gods, those celestial beings with whom he
communicated. The upper world was multiple, in the image of ancient Egypt.
In the expression "as one among us," the Bible reveals Ay's (Adonay's)
membership in the Elohim, the pharaohs of Egypt.
Once Adam and Eve were driven from the Garden of Eden, earth's population
began to increase. By the time of Noah, there were many attractive human women.
"When mankind began to increase in population on earth and daughters were born
to them, the sons of the Elohim saw that the women were beautiful. And they
married those of them that they wanted" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 6:1-2).
The Elohim 75
Rashi offers this explanation about the beings that appear in these verses:
The sons of the Elohim: children of princes and judges. Another explanation of
the Midrash [Hebrew commentary on the Bible]. They were heavenly beings,
accomplishing a divine mission. They were also mixing with the women. In
any case, the word Elohim always carries with it the sense of supremacy. It is
thus that God said to Moses: "Thou shalt be for Aaron one of the Elohim"
(Exodus 4:16). Or again, "Behold, I shall cause you to be one of the Elohim
for Pharaoh. " (Exodus 7:1)
The commentary gives us a better glimpse of the priests of ancient Egypt. The
pharaohs succeeded one another in the course of the different dynasties, and each
one had numerous wives and children. They assured the futures of the princes by
assigning them functions in the government, the army, and, above all, the
priesthood. The priests of Akhet-Aten and the prominent citizens and functionaries
formed the people of the Elohim2 (sons of the gods). These were the children of all
the pharaohs of the past, who were seen as the gods of Egypt. They belonged to
the secular pharaonic royalty (the heavenly beings). Describing the Egyptian
nobility in general, and of Akhet-Aten in particular, Cyril Aldred states:
In Egypt, the aristocrats often had direct ties with the sovereign. They were the
"children of the court, " descendants and relatives more or less close to the
pharaohs, through the pharaohs' secondary wives. And they played an important
role in the government, as for example, Yuya, the commandant of chariots
under Thutmose IV, or Ay, chief of cavalry under Akhenaten.3
The true meaning, then, of the word Elohim is the pharaohs of Egypt. It is thus
that the first verse of the Bible meets the Pyramid Texts, proclaiming loud and
clear that the king of Egypt is a cosmic being, called upon to mount the celestial
ladder or stairs, to sit on a shining throne, nourished by heavenly fruit and reigning
over a celestial world.
"The Nephilim were on the earth in those days and afterward too, when the
sons of the Elohim mixed with the daughters of men. And those daughters bore
children to them. They were the ancient heroes and men of renown" (Hebrew
Bible, Genesis 6:4).
Although the Hellenists translated nephilim as "giants," the sense of the verse
was contested by Fabre d'Olivet:
The simplest things are always those the scholars see least. They go searching
into the beyond, with infinite pains, neglecting the truth right under their
noses. The savants had the Latin word nobilis, under their eyes, which carries
the same root as the Hebrew Nephilim ... and which has to be seen in the
Nephilians of Moses, not as giants or men of colossal height, but the grandees,
distinguished, illustrious men. In short, the nobles.4
This explanation, based on semantics, permits us to reinforce the sense of "sons of

the Elohim" as those belonging to the pharaonic nobility, ambitious and proud of
its past. The new nobility, mentioned by those Egyptologists who are specialists in
the Amarnian reform, represented the majority of the population of Akhet-Aten,
both in the government and the clergy. The power, thus constituted, rapidly
disquieted the old Theban nobility, which had to find an ally in the person of the
Divine Father Ay.
In monotheism, God has several names. This resembles the ancient Egyptian
tradition of regrouping the names of all the pharaohs, representative of the
supreme god. In brief, "Pharaoh is God"5 = "Pharaoh is the gods" "In the
beginning the gods [the Elohim, all the pharaohs of Egypt] created the heavens and
the earth" (Genesis 1:1). Since Pharaoh never dies, he is a plural being,
representing all the gods. He is also a singular being, personifying the oneness of
god. This is the origin of monotheism: unity comes from plurality, e pluribus
unum.
Cyril Aldred6 notes that Akhenaten had forbidden the use in sacred writing of
the plural for the word "God," in order to highlight its oneness unambiguously.
Rashi adds information on this subject: "God (the Elohim) was/were revealed to
him (Genesis 35:7). Since the word Elohim is plural, the verb used here is plural. It
often happens that the word God and Lord are in the plural."
The Elohim 77
The Bible uses the singular and the plural to designate God in accord with the
theological concepts of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
For Yahwe is the great God of Gods, Lord of the Elohim [Eloheh Aelohim,
Adone Adonim], mighty and awesome. He is impartial and does not take
bribes. He defends the fatherless and the widow, and loves the foreigner,
giving him food and clothing. (Hebrew Bible, Deuteronomy 10:17-18; the
words of Moses to the people of Israel)
The plural Elohim, written in the first verse of the Bible, reveals the origin of
monotheism. The Elohim are the many pharaohs, the fathers of Egypt.
Notes
1. Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, Vol. 2. Nouvelle Clio, 1995, p. 479.
2. Deuteronomy 14:1, "You are the sons of Yahwe, your God (Elohekhem)."
4. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restituee. L'Age d'Homme-Delphica, 1991, p. 180.
5. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Egypte ancienne selon les texts des pyramides.
Grasset & Fasquelle, 1998. p. 101.
6. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, p. 271.
CHAPTER 11
The Flood
The story of Noah's Ark reflects the separation between the monotheistic people
living within Akhet-Aten and the rest of polytheistic Egypt. "The earth was
corrupt in the eyes of Adon-Ay, and full of violence. Adon-Ay saw how corrupt
the world had become, because all the people had perverted their ways" (Aramaic
Bible, Genesis 6:11).
The Noah legend cannot be understood literally. The Ark symbolizes Akhet-
Aten, the holy land of the exclusive monotheist inhabitants. The Hebrew word
"tebah" was translated as "ark" by the Hellenists many centuries ago. That ancient
translation was refuted by Fabre d'Olivet. "The Hebrew word never meant vessel
in the sense of a ship, as later understood ... It is rather the symbolic name given
by the Egyptians to their sacred city of Thebes, considered the asylum, the refuge,
the home of the gods."1
The monotheistic ark (sacred city), Akhet-Aten, became a problem for the
Divine Father. So, he began to make plans to get rid of it in order to save the rest
of Egypt. He decided to evacuate the dwellers of the holy land and then destroy the
city.
The Aramaic Bible expresses Ay's thought, as he considered the corruption
that had become prevalent in the capital city. He was angry, and yet felt
compassion for the population. The population, which he wished to save, is
represented by Noah. Let us observe the state of mind of Ay (Adon-Ay), as
revealed in the Aramaic version of the story:
Adon-Ay saw that the wicked thoughts of man had increased, and that all the
thoughts of his heart were evil. And Adon-Ay was sorry that he
The Flood 79
had created man on the earth, and his heart was grieved. And Adon-Ay said, "I
will wipe out from the face of the earth, mankind, whom I have created - men
and beasts, crawling animals, and the birds of the air, for I am sorry I ever
created them." But Noah found favor in the eyes of Adon-Ay. (Aramaic Bible,
Genesis 6:5-8)
There were many things happening in Akhet-Aten (the "Ark") that Ay found
subversive. Among them was the language of the inhabitants. A new language was
developing among the people.
The city was cosmopolitan, composed of people not only from all over Egypt,
but from throughout the known world. There was an urgent problem of
communication. In order to converse with one another, a new language was
adopted by the population.2
The new language of Akhet-Aten was created from the foreign dialects. This
new language incensed the Divine Father Ay. He could not tolerate this insult, this
heresy to the holy language of ancient Egypt. Ay could not speak or understand
the new language. He needed an interpreter in order to be understood in the capital
of his own country; Ay needed an interpreter to communicate with Pharaoh and
the people of Akhet-Aten. This new language was the beginning of Hebrew.
Pharaoh had to hold audience with the many foreign residents in the capital,
and made use of translators or interpreters to teach or to converse. Such is the
origin of the prophets, guardians of the law, intermediaries between men and the
gods, whose language they understand. In an Amarnian fresco kept at Cambridge,
Akhenaten is depicted accompanied by a dignitary bearing the name of "prophet."3
Ay had to negotiate with Pharaoh Smenkhkare who spoke Hebrew, the new
popular language of Akhet-Aten. The pharaoh also, of course, spoke Egyptian.
However, an interpreter was indispensable in dealing with the court, since many of
the courtiers spoke only their own foreign language and the new language,
Hebrew. Thus we find Egyptian words in the Hebrew language. These words come
from the Delta to Lower Egypt. Additionally there are words derived from
Canaanite, Phoenician, Aramaic, Babylonian, and from many roots of the Arabic
language. At the beginning of the last century, the learned linguist Frederic Portal
mentions, in his work on the symbols of the Egyptians:
It cannot be denied that intimate relations exist between the Ethiopian and
Hebrew languages. Wansleben showed the parallels between five hundred
roots that are the same in Ethiopian and Hebrew, independently of the other
Semitic languages. This work is printed in the Dictionnaire Ethiopian de
Ludolf (p. 475 et seq.) ... Hebrew and Ethiopian flow from a common source,
proved by philology.4
This analysis is confirmed by Rashi (Genesis 11:13): "They spoke to each other.
One people to another, Egyptian to Ethiopian, Ethiopian to Put, and Put to
Canaanite."
Consequently, the pronunciation of some Arabic-Hebrew words in the Bible
similar to hieroglyphic Egyptian words (the sacred language) must prevail on
conventional pronunciation. The Dictionary of Jewish Civilization defines Hebrew
as follows:
A Semitic language. In 1887, a group of four hundred clay tablets was found at
Tel El-Amarna in Egypt ... written by scribes who had poorly mastered this
language, they present the "Canaanisms" and marginal glosses which allow a
partial reconstruction of the vocabulary and grammar of a language, Canaanite,
so close to Biblical Hebrew that it can be considered pre-Biblical Hebrew.
The birth of the Hebrew language, then, was another reason for Ay's wrath. That
corrupt city, with its corrupt language, had to be destroyed. Ay even considered
destroying all those who lived within it, but relented. The parallel with the Noah
story is notable.
It is not as though actual arks were not part of Egyptian life. And the flood in
the Noah story certainly has a strong Egyptian basis. Among the models of boats
found in Tutankhamun's tomb, an alabaster one is the most beautiful and
imposing. It is Pharaoh's Ark, with the stern and bow sculpted with gazelle heads.
The annual summer inundation of the Nile began in mid-June and lasted until mid-
October. During the 120 days of the flood (150 days in the
The Flood 81
Bible), Pharaoh enjoyed "visiting" his country with his family and his favorite
animals. Does the Biblical story of the flood carry a remembrance of that
inundation?
The torrential rainy season in the east of the African continent resulted in the
"bursting of the cataracts." For the ancient Egyptians, the bursting of the cataracts
and the rising waters were seen as the birth of the celestial Nile.5 When the
consequent flooding occurred, part of the population lived on boats with their
favorite animals. As the Biblical story suggests, a prolonged flooding, up to 120
days, could be a catastrophe for a large part of the country's population; a
condemnation of the gods.
Ark of Huya, surmounted by a home and a shelter, where a couple of horses are
visible (Tomb of Huya's).
The image of Noah's Ark, with all its animals, remains fixed indelibly in the
popular mind. Could there have been such a vessel on the flooded Nile? Could the
image have a basis in some past reality?
Cyril Aldred, in his book Akhenaten, King of Egypt, mentions the presence of
a strange zoo at Akhet-Aten. Gifts to Pharaoh were sent to Akhet-Aten from the
far reaches of the Empire and beyond. Among them could have been domestic
animals (cattle, sheep, horses, etc.) or wild ones (giraffes, panthers, cheetahs, etc.).
The animals would have been sent to Pharaoh in a boat, having the same
characteristics as Noah's Ark - a boat with a house on the main deck. The roofs of
Egyptian arks were slanted to allow the rainwater to roll off. For the same reasons,
the encasements enclosing Tutankhamun's sarcophagus, as well as much of the
furniture of
his tomb, had their lids in inclined planes. "The Ark's roof came to a point,
diminishing as it rose, until it was only a cubit in width. That was so the waters
would fall to one side and the other" (Rashi's Commentary on Genesis 6:16).
Noah's Ark was a vessel that served as a metaphor for Akhet-Aten. But the
image which the scribes used to represent this city may have been based on actual
arks, sailing the Nile, loaded with exotic animals.
Notes
1. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restitute. L'Age d'Homme-Delphica, 1991, p. 191.
2. A kind of early Egyptian Esperanto seems to have been introduced [Translator].
4. Frederic Portal, Archeologie egyptienne, vol. III. Les symbols egyptiens. La Maisnie, 1985.
5. Robert Jacques Thibaud, Dictionnaire de mythologie et symbolique egyptienne. Dervy, 1996,
p. 220.
CHAPTER 12
The Tower of Babel
Following the story of Noah's Ark, the Bible narrates a description of the building
of the Tower of Babel. In the Temple of Abu Simbel there are engraved the
following words: "The master builder constructed a temple whose summit is as
high as the heavens. The sun rises for love of it." A prototypical tower "reaching
up to the heavens" certainly existed in ancient Egypt. But the legend of the Tower
of Babel goes beyond that simple fact.
Chapter 10 of Genesis lists the generations following Noah, stating that each
one claimed land in accordance with his language, tribe, and people.1 The
statement that there were several languages comes up again in Genesis 10:20:
"These are Ham's [Noah's son's] descendants, by their families, languages,
territories, and people." Noah's families, with their multiplicity of languages, were
dispersed by the God of the Bible, over the earth's surface after the Flood.
The chapter of the Bible following the Noah's Ark story, relating the story of
the Tower of Babel, begins: "The whole world had one language and one dialect."
We have just been told in the previous chapter that there was a multiplicity of
languages. This Biblical contradiction reminds us of the history of Akhet-Aten,
where the mixture of people spoke different languages and finally forged a
common language understandable to all.
The Bible tells of the construction of a tower hiding a city built, like Akhet-
Aten, of rough bricks instead of heavy stones, within a valley,2 by people speaking
the same single language.
They said to each other, "Come, let us make bricks and cure them with fire. "
Instead of stones, they used bricks and instead of mortar they
used tar. Then they said, "Come, let us build a city and a tower that reaches up
into the heavens." Adon-Ay came down to see the city and the tower which
the sons of man were building. And he said, "Behold, they are now a single
people and they are speaking the same language. This is just the beginning of
what they can do. From now on, nothing will be impossible for them to
accomplish. Come, let us go down there and confuse their language so they
cannot understand each other." Adon-Ay scattered them all over the earth, and
they stopped building. That is why it was called Babel, because Adon-Ay
confused the language of the whole world and scattered the people all over the
land. (Aramaic Bible, Genesis 11:3-9)
Rashi cites the different languages spoken in Babel (Genesis 11:3), "To each other:
one people against the other people, Egyptian to Ethiopian. The Ethiopian to Put,
and Put to Canaanite" - all languages spoken in Akhet-Aten before the appearance
of the common language, the holy language. "A same language: this was the holy
language ... they had the advantage of being a single people and of having a single
language, and it was thus that they began to commit evil." This language,
discovered by the archeologists in the Amarna Letters, was called "Pre-Biblical
Hebrew."
Ay was disturbed to see the inhabitants of Akhet-Aten speaking the same
language. He saw it as a threat to Egyptian sovereignty. The city, like the city of
Babel described in the Bible, was constructed of rough bricks and situated in a
valley. Ay made the decision to disperse the inhabitants to other regions of the
land and the abandoned city was never rebuilt.
The process of the building of the Tower of Babel is similar to what happened
at Akhet-Aten. The workers, artisans, builders, and priests came from all over
Egypt, having been brought together previously, during the construction of the
temples to Aten in Karnak. Their languages differed, but that did not keep the
construction from continuing. During the building of Akhet-Aten, necessity caused
the men to "create a new language, that they might understand one another," which
leads to the Bible's statement, "They are speaking the same language."
After Akhenaten's death, the Divine Father Ay observed that the population
continued to multiply and became more and more powerful. The population of
Akhet-Aten could spread the cult of the One God over the
The Tower of Babel 85
rest of the country, exploiting all of Egypt as Aten suppressed the other gods. In
Ay's view, the new religion had already done too much damage to the country. So,
as the Bible story says, Ay "scattered" the inhabitants over all the land.
The story of Babel demonstrates the concerns of the Divine Father Ay in the
face of the population of priests who identified themselves with the One God.
Each priest presided over his own sphere of influence. This multiplicity of little
One Gods, each one seen by his adherents as the very image of Pharaoh,
engendered in Ay the fear of seeing himself dispossessed of his power by the
"sons of the Elohim," the Yahuds of Akhet-Aten.
At the beginning of the Book of Exodus, the Biblical scribes describe
Pharaoh's profound feeling of anguish and disquiet: "A new king who did not
know Joseph came to the throne. He said to his people, 'Behold, the Children of
Israel are more numerous and powerful than us. Come, we must deal ruthlessly
with them or they will become more numerous still. If war breaks out, they could
join the enemy and fight against us and leave the country'"(Hebrew Bible, Exodus
1:8-10).
After Akhenaten's death, a kind of anarchy ruled in his city. The priests,
ambitious and avid for power, pressed by their wives, tasted the fruit of the sacred
mystical tree, which was reserved only for the God-King. The priests, having
defied the original prohibition, could now identify themselves with God and with
Pharaoh, destroying the secular myth of ancient Egypt. This attack on the
thousand-year tradition demystified and discredited Pharaoh both in the eyes of the
priests and of the people. Ay judged the monotheistic priests internally corrupt in
their beliefs, and externally corrupt in their comportment, their language, and their
sexual relationships. Considering the situation irreversible, the Divine Father
decreed that it was urgent to engage in a radical action to save an Egypt already
"exhausted" by the centralization and by the loss of its gods and traditions. Only a
return to the ancient cults could give the country an ultimate chance to survive. A
return to Amun - a return to the ancestral protectors of the pharaohs and the
recovery of the equilibrium and prosperity Egypt had previously enjoyed.
This trouble was brewing when Smenkhkare had become pharaoh of Egypt.
Smenkhkare was still loyal to the new god Aten. Ay was planning to eliminate the
adherents of the new religion. Civil unrest was imminent.
Smenkhkare knew from experience that in a period of internal trouble, it was

necessary to assemble the people and the army by focusing them on the great
construction projects of Egypt. All the people had to be involved, which explains
Smenkhkare's return to Thebes to work out a compromise with the forces seeking
a return to the god Amun. Pharaoh ordered the masters of the workforce to
proceed with great work projects in the cities of Pitom and Ramesses. By this
means, he hoped to reconcile Atenian and Amunian Egypt.
However, Smenkhkare did not know the strategies of the Divine Father. Ay
would have no part in reconciling the two conflicting religious views. Nothing
would stand in his way to save Egypt against the devastation the new religion had
wrought on the holy land. The Divine Father also feared a religious conflict, which
could end in his eviction from power.
First, Smenkhkare had to be taken care of. Then, the Yahud priests and their
adherents had to be sent far away.
Ay, then, accomplished what Yahwe and the Elohim had done in the Genesis
story. He dispersed the inhabitants of Akhet-Aten/Babel; the Yahuds were exiled
to a new "Promised Land," the Egyptian province of Canaan.
Notes
1. Genesis 10:5.
2. Rashi, The Pentateuch According to Rashi: Genesis. Samuel and Odette Levy, 1993. "Lack of
stones, since Babel was in the valley."
CHAPTER 13
Abraham the Egyptian
After the legend of Noah's Ark, the story of Abraham begins. In the Biblical
telling, the patriarch Abraham was the first person to have had the revelation of
the One God (Adonay). This God led him to the holy land of Canaan.
In archeological research no such person as Abraham has ever been found.
Neither in Egypt nor in Mesopotamia does there exist any testimony in the writing
of the period, nor are there any pictorial or sculptural representations referring to
this famous individual.
Historians and archeologists have sought Abraham throughout the Near East,
in vain. In their research through the Biblical texts themselves, they have pursued
him, still without result. Is it possible that a man believed to have introduced
monotheism to the Middle East (Mesopotamia, Canaan, Egypt) could have left
behind no trace whatsoever?
According to the scriptures, Abraham would have lived around four centuries
before the exodus from Egypt (sometime around 1700 BC). In the Bible, he is said
to have testified to the existence of the One God at that time. Why isn't there any
historical evidence of monotheistic teaching at that time in the lands traversed by
Abraham? Did there exist in Mesopotamia, in Canaan, or in Egypt a person
answering to Abraham's description?
Evidence points to the fact that the historical Judahites were the Yehudim who
made the exodus from Akhet-Aten to Judah. A look at the history of Judah has
relevence to our story.
The Judahites (the Yehudim in Hebrew or Yahudaes in Aramaic) settled in

Judah, and the Hebrews (the Children of Israel, the "multitude") in the Northern
territories. Three centuries later the kingdom of Israel seceded from the kingdom
of Judah. The two separated kingdoms then engaged in a lethal war. The Bible
states that there were 500,000 killed in Israel:
The Children of Israel fled before Judah, and the Elohim delivered them into
the hands of the Judahites. Abijah and his men [the Judahites] inflicted great
losses on them. Five hundred thousand elite troops were killed in Israel. The
Children of Israel were humiliated while the men of Judah were victorious
because they were supported by Adon-Ay. (II Chronicles 13:16-18)
The wars of Judah against Israel were a prolongation of a very ancient separation.
The separation was that of the people of Akhet-Aten who had left Egypt,
composed of the Yahud priests (Judahites), worshipers of Aten and of Ay (later
Adon-Ay), and the multitude (Exodus 12:37-38), composed of the common people
(Israel), who, after the Exodus, had suffered and had staged revolts regularly.
In 585 BC, the Egyptian Empire, considerably weakened, was unable to
support the Yahud priests in Judah. Judah was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar's
Chaldean army, and the people of Judah were exiled to Babylonia. The Yahud
scribes carried the memory of their lost paradise with them, along with the
memory of Pharaoh Akhenaten, the true father of monotheism. During the long
exile in Babylon, they transformed their history into legend - the legend of
Abraham.
Egypt was, by then, the sworn enemy of Babylonia. Yet Egypt was the country
of origin of the exiled Judahite priests. In order to preserve the cult of the One
God, they had to transpose Akhenaten in time and space. It was not possible to
represent their hero as an Egyptian. That would make him an abomination to their
new Babylonian masters. Instead, they had to depict him as an individual who had
lived in a distant Mesopotamian period so that they could justify a new,
Babylonian origin of monotheism.
This maneuver allowed the scribes to survive in exile in their enemy's
territory, while still keeping the base of their beliefs. The problem was vital - to
make the monotheistic religion acceptable to the Babylonians, they
Abraham the Egyptian 89
had to delete every Egyptian trace. The Babylonians would never have tolerated an
enemy religion in their own country.
During the troubled period of the Babylonian Exile, the Yahud priests
abandoned their Egyptian god Ay in favor of the god Yahwe. The legend of the
patriarchs had to be woven into the popular traditions and beliefs of the deported
Yahudim. This ploy allowed the scribes and priests to save the most important
parts of their ancestral traditions.
To protect their own lives, the Yahud priests disguised their history by
claiming that Egypt, their land of origin, was the detestable nation responsible for
all their troubles. Egypt became, in the new telling, an abomination - the cursed
land. Breaking with the roots of their previous beliefs, the Judahite scribes created
a new religion. However, they did remain faithful to their past and subtly hid the
imprint of ancient Egypt in their Biblical writings.
Camels often appear in the Bible stories. Early on in the Abraham story, Pharaoh
offers camels to Abraham. Later, they are mentioned again: "Abraham's servant
took ten camels from among those of his master and departed. And he had many
other fine things that belonged to his master. He arose and went to Aram Naharaim
[northwest Mesopotamia], close to the city of Nahor. He caused the camels to
kneel outside the city" (Genesis 24:10).
Camels are there with Isaac (e.g., Genesis 24:61, 64) and Jacob, Abraham's
grandson (e.g., Genesis 30:43; 32:16), as well as in Exodus where the camel is
made part of Pharaoh's wealth.
The Bible places Abraham in time around 1700 BC. At that time, the camel
was unknown in Egypt. It was not until around 1200 BC that the camel was
domesticated in Mesopotamia. It does not appear in the Egyptian murals of the
temples, nor in the tombs or pyramids, nor in the writings. In fact, the camel was
not introduced into Egypt until much later, by the Romans in the second century
BC.1
In the time of Ramesses II (thirteenth century BC), the Egyptians had neither
domesticated the camel, nor did they use war chariots pulled by horses. It would
take several centuries for the Egyptians, surprised by Asiatic invaders fighting
from horseback, to become conscious of the equine revolution.
Ramesses II's Battle of Kadesh, where a soldier mounted on a horse is seen.
Biblical researchers believed that the presence of camels in the story of the
patriarchs was an error of the scribes. However, the scribes went into great detail,
as if they wanted to pass on a message. "He caused the camels to kneel ..."
(Genesis 24:11). "Rebecca looked up and alighted from the camel ..." (Genesis
24:64). Presenting Biblical characters alighting from camels' backs is an
anachronism that the scribes apparently wished to present.
By the sixth century BC, the camel, a symbol of wealth and power, had
already been domesticated in Babylonia. At the time of the exile, the Yahud
priests, led away into slavery, reconstituted the history of Akhenaten to agree with
the values and usages of the times, in order to make themselves acceptable to their
new masters. Had they forgotten that camels did not exist in ancient Egypt?
Couldn't they have presented and described Abraham's power and wealth without
camels? The camels give a Mesopotamian twist to the story, which would have
been pleasing to their captors.
The Yahud priests shifted Abraham's origin to a place far distant from Egypt, to
Ur of the Chaldees, a city located at the eastern boundary of Mesopotamia. This
premeditated maneuver removed him physically and geographically from Egypt.
In that way, they could justify to their new masters their newly devised roots in
the Mesopotamia, or rather Sumeria, of the distant past. In order to establish a
convincing genealogy for Abraham, they introduced into the story the names of
cities close by in the west of Mesopotamia,2 Serug (Genesis 11:22), Nahor
(Genesis 11:24, Haran (Genesis 11:27) and the figure of Terah (Abraham's
father), thus
legitimatizing a Chaldean origin for the patriarch. This procedure allowed the
community of the Yahuds progressively to piece together their story, while
mentioning cities within the Babylonian Empire.
Although the city of Ur existed in Sumeria, the name "Chaldea" (Chaldees)
does not appear until sometime around the sixth century BC. Chaldea has never
yielded any archeological proof of the existence of the great patriarch, Abraham.
In order to survive and for their traditions to survive as well, the Yahuds
introduced anachronisms into the history of the Patriarchs. They made the story
compatible with sixth-century Babylon. They recast a large part of their history at
that time, probably under considerable restrictions. The new text of the story had
no historical reality at all. The Biblical characters were conceived and projected
into the very interior of the newly devised story. Nevertheless, through the
invention of Abraham (as well as through other Biblical characters) the
monotheistic Yahud scribes retained the image of the man who had profoundly
influenced them for eight centuries. In the Bible written by the exiled scribes,
Abraham represented the God-King, the monotheistic pharaoh of the greatest
empire the world had known, Akhenaten.
According to Cyril Aldred, the god Aten guided Amenhotep IV -Akhenaten - to

the holy land of Akhet-Aten, the present site of Tell el-Amarna: "As a matter of
fact, this was the place towards which King Akhenaten, visionary and religious
reformer, was directed by divine inspiration in the fifth year of his reign; the site
where his One God, Re Horakhty ... had manifested himself at the time of the
creation of the world."3
Now, let us look at a Biblical text that relates to this matter. "Yahwe said to
Abram, 'Leave, for your own sake, out of your country, away from your native
land, and from your paternal home. Go to the land I will show you. I will make
you into a great nation, I will bless you. I will make your name great, and you will
be a blessing'" (Genesis 12:1-2).
"'It is to your posterity that I will give this country.' He [Abram] built in this
place an altar to Yahwe who had appeared to him. He left from there towards the
mountain with Bethel to the west and Ay to the east. He
set up his tent there and called on the name of Yahwe. Then, he headed toward the
Negev" (Genesis 12:7).
Further on, the Biblical text resumes: "For Abram was very rich in livestock,
in silver, and in gold. He journeyed from the Negev up to Bethel and Ay [Beth-El
= the house of God, analogous to the Pharaoh's great house; City of Ay located in
Judah], to the place where he had pitched his tent in the beginning. To the place
where he had first built the altar. There, Abram called on the name of Yahwe"
(Genesis 13: 2-4).
The place to which Akhenaten was led, Akhet-Aten, was called "a site to the
glory of Aten,"4 home of God on earth for eternity. Akhenaten built an altar on the
spot that his God indicated to him, and declared the land holy for himself and his
posterity.
The parallel between Abraham and Akhenaten becomes clearer.
According to Cyril Aldred, it was always from inside his tent that Akhenaten
supervised the great works of his capital. "The king was, at that moment, resting in
a tent at Akhet-Aten, and it was from there that he left to set the main limits of the
city."
Christian Jacq comments: "The documentation informs us that the king,
during his first stay at el-Amarna (Akhet-Aten), resided under a great tent. It was
there that he himself doubtless oversaw the great works and the activity of the
builders."5
It was at the exact spot where he had pitched his tent that Akhenaten
constructed the Great Temple of Aten. As in the Bible, the tent is a prefig-uration
of the Holy of Holies, the sacred room of the temple.
Rashi's commentary reveals essential details about the relationship between
Abraham and Akhenaten, nine centuries before the Egyptologists did:
Shaveh Valley. The name means the united valley. The Targum [Aramaic]
translates as follows: The open plain, that is to say, free of any trees or other
obstacles. The Valley of the King. The Targum says that it was the racetrack of
the king. There was a track thirty units long, reserved for the king's
amusement. Another Midrash. It is the valley where all nations, united in
common accord, chose Abraham as king, as leader and guide. (Rashi, Genesis
14:17)
So Abraham was the monotheistic king of a city located in a valley, which boasted
a racetrack, and was acclaimed by many "united nations." The representatives of
these nations could only have acclaimed a powerful king, the one whom they had
welcomed in the city. The oral tradition guarded the memory of Akhenaten
parading on the Royal Road before his monotheistic people, who were made up of
different nations, united by the same language, in the valley of Akhet-Aten.
According to Cyril Aldred's description, there was a processional "Royal
Road" 40 meters wide, on which Akhenaten's royal chariot, followed by
Nefertiti's, sped, followed by the chariots of the police and the elite guard. Aldred
insinuates that it was a royal road adapted to racing: "A road so wide, stretched out
like a bowline, suggests more a kind of track planned for chariots than for, say, the
wanderings of pack animals."
Akhenaten and Nefertiti parade between the royal palace and the Great Temple of Akhet-
Aten, on the "Royal Road", followed by the nobility and guards (Tomb of Ay; from
Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt, p. 80-1).
Thus the "racecourse" Rashi discusses was a royal road, probably delimited by the
north and south bridges, with the buildings limiting the cavalcade. King Abraham
and King Akhenaten doubtlessly paraded down the same road.
The Bible identifies "Abraham the Hebrew" as the chief shepherd leading his
flocks across the plains and deserts of Mesopotamia, Canaan, and
Egypt. The picture of a semi-nomadic shepherd coming into Egypt to the Pharaoh
to receive wives and riches is in major contradiction to the customs of ancient
Egypt.
The expression "shepherd of flocks" comes up frequently in the Bible. In
Hebrew it is pronounced "Roeh-Tseh-On." "Eve then bore his brother Abel. Abel
became a shepherd of flocks (Roeh-Tseh-On), and Cain cultivated the earth"
(Genesis 4:2). "Moses became a shepherd of the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law,
priest of Midian" (Exodus 3:1).
Fabre d'Olivet compared the Hebrew expression "Roeh-Tseh-On" with
Chaldean (ancient Aramaic), Samaritan, and Arab equivalents. As a result of his
linguistic explorations, he finds that the expression "'Roeh-Tseh-On' conceals a
king with his army under the symbol of a shepherd and his flock. When the code is
cracked, Abraham is revealed as a royal personage.
The scribes list Abraham's (Akhenaten's) royal lineage in the Hebrew term
"Roeh-Tseh-On" which permitted them to keep a humble attitude before the
Babylonian kings. In the same vein, Joseph asked his brothers to present
themselves before Pharaoh as descendants of generations of shepherds.
Joseph said to his brothers and to his father's family, "I will go and speak to
Pharaoh, and I will tell him, 'My brothers and all my father's family who live
in the land of Canaan have come to see me. These men are shepherds of flocks
(Roeh-Tseh-On), for they have livestock. And they have brought their flocks
and their herds and everything they own.' Now, when Pharaoh asks you, 'What
is your occupation?' answer, 'Thy servants have been tenders of livestock from
their youth even unto now, both us and our ancestors.' So you can live in the
Land of Goshen. Because all shepherds are an abomination to the Egyptians."
(Genesis 46:31-34)
To save their lives, Joseph's brothers humiliated themselves before Pharaoh. The
contradictory verses placing shepherds and kings together hide the alternative
message, however. In order to survive in exile, the Yahuds humiliated themselves
before Nebuchadnezzer, their new god-king, passing themselves off as shepherds
who had come from Egypt, traveling easily from one country to another. To please
the king, they placed their ancestor
Abraham in Mesopotamia, because the Egyptians were an abomination in the eyes

of the Chaldeans.
The tradition of pleasing ruling kings was perpetuated from the time of
Nebuchadnezzer to the reign of Ptolemy. The commentary of Rashi, discussing
Exodus 12:40, shows that this practice was known in the oral tradition. He wrote,
"This is one of the passages of the Torah which was modified to please King
Ptolemy."
These frequent modifications, which were inflicted on the sacred texts to
please Egyptian or Babylonian masters, disrupt the original document and are the
reason for the many contradictions between the Bible and historical fact.
Nebuchadnezzer granted clemency to this population of shepherds, who
traditionally were submissive. The Yahud priests used this recourse to obtain royal
favor. They passed themselves off as a group of Hebrew shepherds, and thus saved
their own skins.
Both in the story of Abraham and in the history of Akhenaten, we have a case of a
dramatic break with the past. In the Jewish oral tradition, it is mentioned that
Abraham broke the idols of his father. We know of a similar situation in Egypt.
In the fourth and twelfth years of his reign, Akhenaten demolished the statues
of the Amunian gods.6 A feeling of desolation swept over all of Egypt.7 During the
time of that iconoclastic reaction, he broke the idols of his father Amenhotep III,
that is, of his ancestors, the Egyptian pharaohs (the Elohim). Akhenaten thus broke
the old commandment of respect for "the fathers," creating a rupture in the very
core of the traditional ancestral monarchy. Later, Horemheb and the Ramessides
purposely omitted engraving Akhenatens name and those of his sons Smenkhkare
and Tutankhamun, and even that of the Divine Father Ay, on the wall of the
Temple of Abydos. The names of the other ancestral pharaonic fathers appear on
that wall.8 Horemheb declared himself "the direct son of Amenhotep III,"
definitively wiping out the names of the heretic Amarnian kings from the list of
the "Elohim."
Akhenaten glorified and proclaimed his name as well as that of Aten at Akhet-
Aten. Here is an extract of Akhenatens proclamation on one of the border stelae of
the future capital.
The King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Living Example of Truth, Lord of the
Double Country, Beautiful as the Forms of Re, the Son of Re, who is also the
Living Example of Truth, Lord of the Two Crowns, Akhenaten [the glorified
spirit of Aten], Great during his Duration, living forever and ever.
The Perfect God, the Only One of Re, from whom Aten created Beauty,
truly excellent for his creator, who satisfies him with whatsoever his soul
desires, his servant whom he hath engendered, and administrator of the country
for which he has placed him on the throne, supplying his home with very
numerous possessions, sustaining Aten and magnifying his name, causing them
to belong to Him who created it.9 Behold, proclaimeth Akhenaten. Lt is Aten
who wanted this city so that it would be created to commemorate his name. It
is Aten, my father, who governs the city.10
The king's words raise the following question. By excluding Amun, did Akhenaten
completely reject his father, Amenhotep III, or, quite to the contrary, did he
identify his father as Aten? The terms "son of Aten," "father who governs the
city," "Aten, the father," which appear in Akhenaten's proclamations indicate a
compromise between father and son. In the Temple of Soleb, Amenhotep IV is
shown worshiping his father Amenhotep III, who was known as "Radiant Aten."11
The cult of Aten would be crowned by an "alliance" proclaiming Aten the father
and Akhenaten the son.
The suggestion of a schism between Amenhotep III and his son does seem
plausible. At the time of Akhenaton's breaking of his father's idols, Amenhotep III
was still alive. A co-regency between the two monarchs must have existed. A
compromise between father and son allowed the new monotheistic religion to live
and thrive within the borders of the new holy city. Peace was thus assured for
Egypt at least until the death of Amenhotep III.
If, for purposes of Near Eastern politics, Akhenaten was transformed into the
legendary personage of Father Abraham, might we not surmise that his wife,
Sarah, was also an historical character in the drama of the holy city of Akhet-
Aten?
Abraham's wealth, his wives (princesses), his servants and slaves, and the
submission to him of foreign nations and kings, all confer on him the stature of a
monarch.
"Abram learned that his brother had been taken captive. Then, he had his well-
trained men pass in review, 318 slaves, born in his house, and he set out in pursuit
of the kings as far as Dan" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 14:14). This verse shows that
Abraham owned a mansion with 318 slaves (or servants), not counting the women.
That shows that he had charge of enough personnel for a palace.
The number is also remarkably close to the 317 servants and ladies in waiting
who accompanied Amenhotep III at his marriage with Princess Giluheba.12 In
these subtle ways, the Yahud priests and scribes hid in their texts the appearance
of the immense Egyptian civilization.
The Bible insists on Sarah's great beauty. That beauty led to difficulties with
Pharaoh and with others. Abraham's first wife was Sarai, whose name was
subsequently changed to Sarah. Genesis 12:11 tells of her beauty: "When he
[Abraham]13 was about to arrive in Egypt, he said to Sarah, his wife, 'Look, I know
thou art a woman fair of face.'" Taking his beautiful wife into a foreign country
seemed to Abraham to be fraught with danger. He feared for his own life at the
hands of the Egyptians whom, he was sure, would kill him so that Sarah would be
an available widow. For this reason, he asked Sarah to pretend to be his sister and
not his wife.
When they arrived in Egypt Sarah was, indeed, noticed by the men of the
country:
The Egyptians noticed that the woman [Sarah] was very beautiful. When the
palace officials saw her they praised her to Pharaoh. And the woman was taken
to Pharaoh's palace [Pharaoh married Sarah]. Pharaoh dealt well with
Abraham, giving him sheep, oxen, asses, slaves, and camels in return for his
[Pharaoh's] new wife. But Yahwe inflicted grievous diseases on Pharaoh
because of Abrahams wife. When Pharaoh discovered that Sarah was
Abrahams wife, not his sister, he confronted Abraham. "Why did you say 'She
is my sister,' so that I took her to wife? Now, then, here is your wife. Take her
and go!" And Pharaoh ordered his men to send him on his way. (Genesis
12:14-19)
For Sarah's sake, Pharaoh treated Abraham well, bringing him wealth. The scribes,
in telling the Biblical story, were able to show Abraham as a rich and powerful
person.
When we compare Abraham's wife, Sarah, with Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti,
we note some parallels. Nefertiti also was admired by the Egyptians for her
perfection. Abraham referred to Sarah as his sister. Joyce Tyldesley notes that the
expression "my sister" was customary among the princes and princesses of Egypt.
"During a whole dynastic period, the expression 'sister' was employed in its widest
sense. Consequently it could also equally designate a sister, a sister-in-law or a
foster sister."
Erman and Ranke report a similar conviction.
In ancient Egypt, the word "sister" served to designate loved-one, exactly as in

Egypt today the term "cousin" is used. In Egyptian lyric poetry, lovers always
say "my brother" and "my sister," and there is no doubt that, in most cases, "his
sister" cannot mean anything other than "his mistress," his concubine.14
Sarah was the wife of both Pharaoh and Abraham concurrently. Nefertiti was
married to Akhenaten's father, Amenhotep III. Thus, Nefertiti was married to two
pharaohs. This marriage triangle parallels the marriage triangle in the Bible.
Nefertiti, Akhenaten's half-sister,15 didn't have children by Amenhotep III, to
whom she was married for a short time. The same was true for Sarah, temporary
wife of the king of Egypt. The oral tradition claims that God plagued Pharaoh with
impotence so that he would give Sarah back to Abraham. Amenhotep III, senile
and sick at the end of his life, had more than seven hundred female statues made,
each with the head of a lioness (Sekhmet),16 in order to heal his impotence and the
other illnesses that afflicted him.
The Bible claims that Sarah was the wife of a pharaoh, who historically would
have been Amenhotep III, Akhenaten's father. Nefertiti was also Amenhotep IV's
wife. The Biblical scribes retained in their memory the picture of Nefertiti to
describe Sarah.
Later in the Biblical story, new parallels are brought into the Sarah-Nefertiti
question. Years after Abraham's sojourn in Egypt, Sarah
had remained childless. The question of an heir was at stake.

In Genesis 16:3, when Abraham had been in the land of Canaan for ten years,
Sarah, not having born a male child, offered her servant Hagar to Abraham. He lay
with Hagar and she conceived. When Hagar was aware that she had conceived, her
mistress became an object of disdain to her. Sarah said to Abraham, "Send that
slave woman [Hagar] and her son away" (Genesis 21:10).
Rashi clarifies the subject of Hagar the Egyptian (Rashi, Genesis 16:1): "It
was Pharaohs daughter. When he saw the miracles of which Sarai was the object,
he said, 'It would be better for my daughter to be the servant [of Abraham] in such
a house than his mistress in another house.'"
If Hagar is Pharaoh's daughter, she could only have been given, for the same
reasons as Sarah, to a prince or co-regent belonging to the royal family, and must
have dwelt in Egypt. Egyptian princesses were not allowed to leave their country.
If Abraham had done so, he would have accomplished the impossible - leaving the
country in the company of Sarah and Hagar, queen and princess of Egypt.
Nefertiti was the mother of six daughters. She did not produce a male child to
assure the royal lineage. Akhenaten had a first-born son, Smenkhkare, with
another wife, probably Queen Kiya, one of Amenhotep Ill's many daughters.
Historical data indicate that Nefertiti sent away Queen Kiya.17
Like Nefertiti, Sarah was buried in a cave at the end of a field, recalling the
valley and tombs hollowed out in the cliffs of Akhet-Aten. "So Abraham acquired
the field of Ephron in Machpelah which was across from Mamre. The field and the
cave which is there, and all the trees that are on the field, throughout the whole
area were turned over to him in the presence of the sons of Heth, who had come to
the city gates" (Genesis 23:17-18).
"Heth's children answered Abraham saying 'Hear us, Lord [Adoni]! Thou art a
dignitary of God among us [Elohim]' ... Abraham arose and prostrated himself
before the people of the land [Am Aarets], before the children of Heth."
Abraham is designated by Heth's children as Adon, "a dignitary of the Elohim
among us," belonging to their family. Consequently, Heth's sons, before whom
Abraham prostrates himself, are dignitaries adoring the
Elohim, the One God. Hence the Biblical city of Heth is monotheistic, "worthy" to
allot to Abraham a tomb located at its gate.18
In the last verse of Chapter 27 of Genesis there is a problem concerning
"Heth," the city where Abraham and Sarah were buried. Heth is mysteriously
transformed into "Canaan" in the following verse (28:1).
Rebecca said to Isaac, "I am weary of my life because of the daughters of

Heth. If Jacob marries one of the daughters of Heth, such as these are, from
among the women of this land [Aretz], what will my life be worth to me?"
Isaac called Jacob and blessed him, and charged him "Do not marry one of the
daughters of Canaan." (Genesis 27:46-28:1)
Heth is the phonetic name of Akhet, the holy city of Akhenaten. This name is
written in two hieroglyphs HT, as in Hebrew. Heth-Adon is similar to the sound
Akhet-Aten, which would be read as Khet-Aton, and Akhet-Aten is where
Akhenaten and Nefertiti were buried. Thus this curious transformation could be
symbolic of the transformation by the scribes of Heth, the city of Akhenaten into
Heth, the city of Abraham and Canaan, the Holy Land of Abraham.
The Biblical account of Rebeccas betrothal to Isaac confirms her status as an

Egyptian princess, crowned queen of Egypt. Genesis 24: 45-48 relates how
Eleazar, Abraham's servant, brings Rebecca to Abraham and tells her story:
Before I had begun speaking to myself, behold, Rebecca came out, her water jar
on her shoulder. She went down to the spring, and drew. And I said to her:
"Please give me to drink." Quickly she let down her jar from her shoulder, and
said, "Drink. And I will give your camels drink also." I asked her, saying
"Whose daughter are you?" She said, "The daughter of Bethuel, Nahor's son,
whom Milcah bore to him." Then 1 put a ring on her nose and the bracelets on
her arms.
According to Rashi (Genesis 15:2) the Midrash says that Eleazar had followed the
kings to Damascus. So Abrahams servant must have had the
power of a general who spread his master's teaching. The story is followed with
the distribution of royal gifts.
Verse 47 describes the customs of Akhet-Aten, shown in the Amarna Letters,
involved in reclaiming the princesses for Egypt's vassals. The ring passed through
Rebecca's nose is the image of enthronement - a sign of royalty. It forms the sign
of life, "Ankh," offered to her nose by Aten, and attributed to the kings and queens
of the Amarnan period.
Rebecca's two bracelets share the same meaning as the ring. "And two
bracelets. An allusion to the two double Tablets" (Rashi, Genesis 24:22). Rashi's
explanation compares the bracelets to the Tablets of the Law. Going back to the
oral tradition, he establishes the convergence of the word tsemidym (bracelets) and
the stone Tablets (mitsomedot), similar to the two cartouches of Aten - the same
golden cartouches in the form of bracelets that Akhenaten and Nefertiti are
depicted as wearing.
Jacob, Abraham's grandson, Isaac's son, is legendary for his dream in which a
celestial ladder was erected between heaven and earth. "He reached a spot and
spent the night there, since the sun had set. He took one of the stones from the
place, put it under his head, and lay down in that place" (Genesis 28:11). Rashi
relates that in the oral tradition, this passage is explaining that the stone was a
headrest.
Several stone headrests were found in Tutankhamun's tomb. The alabaster
funerary headrest on which the "boy pharaoh" reposed, like many objects in the
tomb, had belonged to Akhenaten. Erman and Ranke19 mention that several
headrests were found in the homes of Amarna, adapted with cushions for comfort.
This fact shows that the Hebrew oral tradition had kept a precise memory of
objects in use from the Egyptian origin of the people.
Once Jacob settled down to sleep, with his head propped on the stone
headrest, he dreamed: "Jacob had the following dream. A ladder was placed on the
earth and its summit reached up into Heaven. And the messengers of the Elohim
were ascending and descending the length of the ladder" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis
28:12).
The Pyramid Texts20 speak clearly about a ladder, and a ladder with wings,
recalling Jacob's ladder with its angels climbing towards the light.
Tutankhamun's alabaster headrest (Cairo Museum).
Each step of the ladder represented a trial for Pharaoh to undertake.

On the walls of the pyramid of the Sixth Dynasty Pharaoh Pepy I (2300 BC)
are some of the first hieroglyphics relating to the life of that king. A ladder with
six steps, probably representing the six trials of Pharaoh, are engraved there. For
the Egyptians, as for the Yahuds, life was but a passage to reach the celestial
world. In the same way, the pyramid of Djoser, a building of six steps, recalls the
"works" of Pharaoh. Jacob's ladder, then, harks back to Pharaoh's ladder. Jacob,
like Pharaoh, had tests or "works" ahead of him.
Symbol of the celestial ladder in the pyramid of Pepy I.

The Biblical legend of the rock and of Jacob's ladder are reflections of the trials
that Pharaoh had to undergo after death. The scribes wanted to preserve a tradition
profoundly anchored in ancient Egypt: Pharaoh's last voyage.
After wrestling with an angel, God told Jacob that henceforth his name would be
Israel. "Israel" was considered an honorific title, linked to his triumph over the
messenger of God, who is here identified with the Elohim. "He [the messenger of
God or the Gods] said, 'Thy name will no longer be Jacob, but instead, Israel,21 for
thou hast struggled with the Elohim, and thou hast triumphed'" (Hebrew Bible,
Genesis 32:29).22
The story repeats itself later in Genesis 35:10, when the Elohim appear to
Jacob to say, "Thy name is Jacob.23 But thy name, henceforth, will no longer be
Jacob. Thy name shall be Israel."
Jacob's victory over the Elohim is a reflection of Amenhotep IV's victory over
his father, for which he too changed his name. Akhenaten had engaged himself
against men and the gods. He caused Aten to triumph over the other gods (Elohim)
of the Empire, the gods of his father. He had seduced the priests and princes of
Egypt (the sons of the Elohim) by attracting them to his capital. There, he had
himself acclaimed by all the people on the royal avenue of Akhet-Aten. He was
the Father of Nations, the Son of Re, the Living God.
Early in the story of Jacob he cheated his brother Esau out of his birthright and
fled from his home country. Years later, when Jacob and his family returned to the
home country, he anticipated his meeting with his brother Esau, from whom he
had been separated for many years. He was concerned that Esau would wish him
harm. "Jacob, raising his eyes, saw Esau, who was coming accompanied by four
hundred men. Jacob divided his children among Leah, Rachel, and the two maid
servants. He placed the maids with their children in the first row, Leah and her
children behind, and Rachel and Joseph last. As for himself, he stepped in front of
them and prostrated himself seven times before approaching his brother" (Hebrew
Bible, Genesis 33, 1-3).
Prostration before Pharaoh was customary in Akhet-Aten. Letters from El

Amarna mention this practice frequently. Here is a call of distress from Rib-
Hadda, Prince of Gubla:
Rib-Hadda says to his Lord, the great king, king of all countries, "I fall to the
feet of my Lord, the king, seven times and seven times. Gubla, since ancient
times, has been a city loyal to my lord, the Sun of all countries, and I am a
footstool for the feet of the king, my lord, and his loyal servant. Now, as for
Sumur, the war against it is very rough, and it is rough against me. Sumur has
now made raids even to thy gate. They have been able to raid, but have not
been able to capture it." (EA 141)24
The seven-fold prostration before the God-King was probably instituted by

Akhenaten. The Amarna Letters employ the formula of politeness, "I fall to the
feet of my Sun, seven times and seven times." Jacob's ritual is a recollection of the
Atenian tradition. In this case Jacob's older brother is a substitution for
Akhenaten's father.
"Jacob lived in the land of Egypt seventeen years. The days of Jacob, the years of
his life, were a hundred forty-seven years" (Genesis 47:28). The 17 years of
Jacob's life mentioned here correspond to the 17 years of Akhenaten's reign.23 The
number 17 also appears in the 175 years of Abraham (Genesis 25:7).
The exaggerations in the longevity of Biblical characters stretch over the entire
story. Adam is claimed to have lived for 930 years (Genesis 5:5), Noah 950 years
(Genesis 9:29), Terah, Abraham's father, for 205 years (Genesis 11:32), Sarah 127
years (Genesis 23:1), and Moses 120 years (Deuteronomy 34:7). This
immoderation allowed the scribes to establish the book of the generations in the
Biblical tale, and thus spread the story of Akhenaten and the exodus from Egypt
over several hundred years.
"These are the generations of the heavens and the earth at their creation (Beh-
heh-baram)" (Genesis 2:4). Albert Soued shows the relationship between the
generations and Abraham:
"Behibaram" is a word in the verse written in a strange manner. The character

Heh is miniaturized: by an inversion of the letters Aleph and Heh, the sense of
"in Abraham" is obtained. Thus the generations were created within the word
Abram thanks to the Heh.26
As is demonstrated in more detail in chapter 22, the Hebrew letter Heh is the
analog of the hieroglyph "the Great God" (i.e., the creator of the heavens and the
earth).
Akhenaten engraved a vow to his god Aten on some 14 border stelae of Akhet-
Aten. This vow may be a territorial and religious compromise between him and his
father Amenhotep III, between Atenian and Amunian Egypt. Thus, the two co-
regent rivals promised that each would not broach the limits of their respective
territories.
This truly is my oath, that my heart pronounces and that I will never betray.
The South stela, that is on the mountain east of Akhet-Aten, is the Stela of
Akhet-Aten that I shall establish in its place. I will never trespass this southern
limit.27
Subsequently, Akhenaten solemnly swore by his god Aten never to go beyond the
limits of the stelae to the south, west, east, and north of the new capital. The oath
was marked by sacrifices and an immense banquet. The parallels with Akhenaten's
actions here and the compromise between Jacob and his father-in-law Laban are
striking:
Laban said to Jacob, "Behold this heap [this stela]. I have set up this pillar
between thee and me. May this heap and this pillar be witness that I will not
go beyond them to thy side to do thee harm, nor wilt thou go beyond them to
my side to do me harm. May the God of Abraham, and the God of Nahor, the
God of thy father, judge between the two of us. " So Jacob swore in the name
of his father Isaac. He slit the throats of animals as a sacrifice there in the hill
country and invited his relatives to the feast. After they had partaken, they
spent the night on the mountain. (Genesis 31:51)
The Bible insists that the conflict between Laban and Jacob was of a politico-
religious character. The 14 stelae erected delimit the territory of Akhet-Aten,
separating Atenian Egypt and Amunian Egypt. Rashi (Genesis 32:3) mentions two
camps separating Jacob and Laban. "Mahanaim. Two camps [two sacred
territories, but of different callings], those of the stranger who had accompanied
him there and those of the Holy Land that he had happened upon."
The seven-times prostration, the seventeen years Jacob was in Egypt, the
omnipresence of Abraham from the creation of the world, the solar worship of
Jacob, and especially the oath never to trespass the limits of his sacred territory, all
show a strict relationship between the Bible and Egyptian history at the time of
Akhenaten.
Notes
1. Maurice Bucaille, Moise et Pharaon. Seghers, 1995. See also Henri Lhote, Le chameau et le
dromadaire en Afrique du nord, Sahara. Groupe Media International, Paris.
2. Richard Lebeau, Une histoire des Hebreux. Tallandier, 1998.
6. In Year Four according to Gabolde, in Year Twelve according to Aldred. History allows the
supposition that Akhenaten's iconoclasm took place in Year Four, but was renewed in Year
Twelve. Marc Gabolde, DAkhenaton a Toutankhamon. Institut d'Archeologie et d'Histoire de
l'Antiquite, Universite Lumiere-Lyon 2-CNRS, 1998.
7. Pierre Grandet, Hymnes de la religion dAton. Le Seuil, 1995, p. 13.
9. Translation from Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, p. 58.
10. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton, p. 81.
11. Marc Gabolde, D'Akhenaton a Toutankhamon, p. 24.
12. Joyce Tyldesley, Nefertiti. Le Rocher, 1998. p. 39.
13. While the two individuals were known as Abram and Sarai early in the Biblical story, the
translators have consistently referred to them as Abraham and Sarah to avoid confusion.
14. Adolphe Erman and Hermann Ranke, La civilisation egyptienne. Paris, 1948-1994, p. 210.
15. According to Phillip Vandenberg, Nefertiti would have been Taduheba, daughter of Tushratta, king
of the Mittani. The king gave her to Amenhotep III, which provoked the jealousy of Amenhotep IV
Akhenaten.
16. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, pp. 155-6. Sekhmet was the goddess of plagues.
17. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton, p. 160. Also, for Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun, see Joyce
Tyldesley, Nefertiti, p. 150: "There are strong reasons to believe that Kiya bore at least two sons to
Akhenaten," and
p. 184: "More than Nefertiti, it is Kiya who seems to have been the mother of the two princes."
Gabolde has demonstrated that Tutankhamun was Nefertiti's seventh child.
18. Adam and Hava (Eve) are buried in the same site (Makpela) as Abraham and Sarah.
19. Adolphe Erman and Hermann Ranke, La civilisation egyptienne, p. 244.
20. Christian Jacq, Tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte selon les textes des pyramides. Grasset
and Fasquelle, 1998, pp. 125, 166, 292.
21. Israel means "he struggles with God."
22. There is a one-verse discrepancy between the Hebrew Bible and English Bible in this chapter. The
English numeration is given here.
23. Jacob means "grabs the heel" in Hebrew, which is an expression for "betrays or deceives."
24. According to the Amarna Letters, one prostated oneself seven times on one's stomach and seven
times on one's back.
25. Joyce Tyldesley, Nefertiti, p. 196.
26. Albert Soued, Les symbols dans la Bible. Jacques Grancher, 1995, p.236.
27. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton, pp. 82, 83.
CHAPTER 14
Joseph and Ay
Joseph was Jacob's second youngest son. When he was still young, he was sold by
his older brothers to Ishmaelites passing through on their way to Egypt.
Joseph was brought down to Egypt [by the slave traders]. Potiphar, one of
Pharaoh's officers, captain of the guards, a man of Egypt, bought him from the
Ishmaelites and put him in charge of his domestic staff. Yahwe was with
Joseph and he fared well, when he was admitted into the house of his Egyptian
master ... Yahwe blessed the house of the Egyptian. (Genesis 39:1, 5)
While in Potiphar's service, Joseph had an experience that landed him in prison.
His master's wife attempted to seduce him. Joseph rejected her advances (Genesis
39:9), with the pretext that he did not want to sin before the Elohim, and found
himself imprisoned as a result of Potiphar's wife's denunciation of him.
While Joseph was in prison, Pharaoh became displeased with his major-domo
and sent him to prison. Happily, it was to the prison where Joseph was
languishing. When he was in jail, the major-domo had a dream, which he did not
understand. In Genesis 40:11, he described his dream to Joseph: "I had Pharaoh's
cup in my hand. I gathered the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup and
placed the cup in the king's hand." Joseph was a soothsayer who interpreted the
dream correctly. The royal baker was also in prison at the same time; Joseph
correctly interpreted his dream too.
Joseph and Ay 109
The cup of Pharaoh. Akhenaten, standing, engaged in the ritual of the fruit of the vine.
Akhenaten's cup (Karnak talatate).

The bread and wine introduced in these verses are reminders that the
consecration of these foods had its roots in ancient Egypt. Research on the
talatates (bricks) of Karnak shows an engraved picture of Akhenaten holding his
cup towards Aten as a wine offering. The monotheistic prayer over the fruit of the
vine has its origin in ancient Egypt, the first country to consecrate the "drink of the
gods," and Judaism and Christianity employ bread and wine as essentials in
religious ceremonies to this day.
Two years later, the pharaoh of Egypt was having nightmares. His dreams
were about seven fat cows that were eaten by seven thin cows, and about seven
ears of good grain that were swallowed by seven ears of bad grain. The major-
domo had been restored to the palace by then, and told Pharaoh about Joseph.
Pharaoh sent for Joseph to interpret the dreams.
Joseph came to the royal palace and interpreted the dreams to mean that there
would be seven years of good harvests followed by seven years of famine. In
Egyptian terms, those would be seven years of a beneficent Nile and seven years
of the holy river withholding its blessings. Pharaoh was impressed by Joseph's
interpretation, and by Joseph himself.
Modern research casts doubt upon the likelihood that Pharaoh would be so
impressed by Joseph's soothsaying. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt1 reveals that
the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty knew perfectly well the myth of the seven
fat cows. They were known and represented in the tomb of Nefertari, the first wife
of Ramesses II. Seven "good Niles" followed by seven "bad Niles." Pharaoh had
no need of Joseph to interpret his dream.
Wall painting from the Tomb of Nefertari, first wife of Ramesses II.
Joseph and Ay 111
Desroches Noblecourt goes on to say:
So Pharaoh could be unaware of some things, but he could not be unaware of

the meaning of the seven thin cows and the seven fat cows. If one goes to the
Cairo or Louvre Museums and is permitted to open The Book of the Dead, the
book of magical formulas that would allow the dead person to pass to the
"other side" without meeting too many demons or obstacles, one would find
there illustrations among which are the seven fat cows.
The story of the dream interpretation appears to be a literary device to get Joseph
out of his prison and into the position of power where he historically belonged.
Joseph, who had been major-domo in Potiphar's house became major-domo in
Pharaoh's house as well. He now held a position of great power in Egypt. Pharaoh
gave him Asenath in marriage (Genesis 41:45). She is identified as the daughter of
Poti-Phera (or Potiphar). Since Potiphar translates as "powerful pharaoh" there is
reason to believe the scribes are referring to Pharaoh's daughter. Asenath, in
Hebrew, is rendered by four letters that are the traditional contraction for
Ankhensenamun,2 Akhenaten's daughter, wife of Tutankhamun and Ay.
Rashi's interpretation of this verse is interesting: "Poti-Phera is Potiphar. He
was called Poti-Phera because he was castrated for having conceived an impure
desire for Joseph." Since Rashi indicates that the two Biblical names (Potiphar and
Poti-Phera) belong to a single person, it demonstrates that, before the
archeological discoveries confirmed it, it was known that there was a unique
pharaoh represented as both male and female: Akhenaten.
Reading between the lines, the scribes, in writing the story of Joseph, are
engaged in telling about the hero of the Yahuds - Ay. Philipp Vandenberg3
reported that Ay married Ankhensenamun twice, the first time in Akhenaten's
reign, and a second in order to succeed Tutankhamun. A ring4 on which are
inscribed the names of both Ay and Ankhensenamun, attests to the link between
the two of them in marriage. At first, Ankhensenamun refused to marry for the
second time a man she considered a servant, and too old. She wrote a letter to
Suppiluliuma, king of the
Asnat (Josephs wife) and Ankh-Sen-Aton (Ay's

wife).
Hittites, to send her his son Zananza. "My husband is dead and I have no son. It is
reported that you have many sons. You could give me one of your sons, who
would become my husband. I wouldn't want to take one of my servants as a
husband."5
Prince Zananza was killed in an ambush, which is attributed to General
Horemheb. It would seem that the Divine Father Ay, the primary beneficiary of
the intrigue, had manipulated Queen Ankhensenamun to attain his own ends.
Taking Joseph as representing Ay, we see him take as his wife Pharaoh's
daughter Ankhensenamun/Asenath. Although not yet a pharaoh himself, he was
well on his way by marrying into the royal family.
Years later, Joseph's brothers all came to Egypt because famine had hit their land
and they had heard that there was grain in Egypt. Joseph, now in charge of the
Egyptian economy, had set up storehouses for Pharaoh during the seven good
harvest years and saved the excess grain for the bad years to come. Joseph's
brothers came to Joseph, but did not recognize him as the brother whom they had
sold into slavery. He revealed to them that he was their brother. They expected
him to take vengeance on them for their perfidy.
Joseph and Ay 113
His [Joseph's] brothers came to prostrate themselves before him saying, "Behold,
we are thy slaves. "Joseph answered them, "Fear not. Am I in the place of the
Elohim? As for you, you planned evil against me. But, the Elohim brought it all
together for good so that what has happened today would come about, that many
people should be kept alive. So, now, fear not. I shall provide for you and for
your families." (Genesis 50:18-21)
Joseph pardoned his brothers, making them understand that evil had been
transformed into good, permitting the saving of the Egyptian people. He did not
seek vengeance.
Ay also pardoned the priests who had fraternized with foreign women. He
allowed them to continue their worship of the One God outside of Egypt, carrying
with them all the wealth of the capital. The teaching of these verses is that Joseph,
the ruler of Egypt under Pharaoh, represents Ay, the holder of the same position.
That the Biblical Joseph is a representation of the historical ruler Ay is confirmed

when we examine Pharaoh Ay's cartouche, which contains the two Yods, shown as
reeds. In the engraving shown below, the hand of Ay takes the place of the Yod
lacking in his name. He raises his hand (Yad in Hebrew), and identical to the
"Yod," symbol of oneness. This is confirmed not only by the royal cartouche, but
also by the Aramaic Bible: "Ay is the God of the Yahuds" (Exodus 3:18). He is the
hidden pharaoh, uncontested master of Egypt.
The deified Ay takes the The ritual striking of Ankensamun,

place of Amun (or of Re). Egypt's enemy by Tutankhamun's wife, and
His raised hand takes the Tutankhamun. later the wife of Ay.
place of the Yod.
Yod hieroglyph and sign of God of the Yad (hand) or the Hebrew
name of the Divine Father Ay. Yod.
The two reeds are nothing more than the symbol of the powerful hand of Joseph.
Joseph, or Yosseph in Hebrew, is composed of a first Yod, the powerful hand
(Yad) of God. The second part of the name is an anagram of reed - "suf". Yosseph
can thus be interpreted as "the hand is the reed." Therefore, "Joseph" (Yosseph)
conceals the double Yods of the name of the Divine Father Ay - Yod-Yod.
Like Joseph, Ay was recompensed by Pharaoh. Akhenaten gave Ay golden

necklaces, linen vestments, gloves, probably a golden ring, and a striped coat. One
engraving shows Ay, represented as the "Father of the God," on a royal chariot. In
another depiction, acclaimed by the jubilant crowd, he holds out his gloved hands
to the priests who are praying towards him.
A scratch on the glove could represent the royal ring, which would have been
placed on Ay's hand after he put on the gloves, like the golden finger ornaments on
the hand of Tutankhamun's mummy. To wear a golden ring on a gloved hand was
traditional for kings and religious dignitaries. So, it is quite probable that the
Divine Father Ay showed to the people the ring that had been given to him by
Pharaoh, as shown on the engraving on gold foil. The priests prostrated
themselves, as if Ay had the status of Pharaoh.
In effect, whether seen as Joseph or Ay, the personage depicted was, in fact
although not in title, the king of Egypt.
Pharaoh said to Joseph: "Behold! I put thee in charge of the whole of the land
of Egypt. "And Pharaoh took his signet ring from his hand and placed it on
Joseph's finger. He dressed him in robes of fine linen and placed the gold chain
around his neck. He had him ride in a chariot as his second-in-command. Men
shouted before him, "Abrek, "
Joseph and Ay 115
"Make way." And he installed him in charge of the entire land of Egypt.
Pharaoh said to Joseph: "I am Pharaoh. But unless you order it, no one will lift
hand or foot in all Egypt. " (Genesis 41:41)
An effigy engraved on Ay's tomb clearly illustrates the Biblical story. After being
decorated by Akhenaten with seven gold chains, the Divine Father Ay took his
leave and was acclaimed by the masses. He wore the "striped tunic" (linen robes),
the royal gloves, as well as many presents (chariots, other necklaces, and fine
jewelry, etc.).
Ay honored by Akhenaten.
Since Joseph had no actual historical reality, the Biblical scribes revealed through
him the most extraordinary figure of ancient Egypt - the Divine Father Ay, the
forgotten pharaoh.
"Now Joseph was thirty years old when he appeared before Pharaoh, king of
Egypt. Joseph went out from Pharaoh's presence and traveled over the
entire country of Egypt. The earth during those seven fertile years produced
abundant harvests" (Genesis 41:45-47).
Joseph's age - 30 - corresponds to the approximate age of Ay when he was
decorated by Pharaoh. During Akhenaten's reign, Ay traveled all over the land of
Egypt, and the wealth and produce of the country flowed toward Akhet-Aten, the
holy capital.
When all the country was famished, the people cried out to Pharaoh for bread.
And Pharaoh answered the people, "Go to Joseph. Do whatever he tells you. "
As the famine reigned over the whole face of the earth, Joseph opened all the
warehouses, and sold the wheat to the Egyptians. From every country, they
came to Egypt to purchase wheat from Joseph, because the famine was severe
everywhere. (Genesis 41:55-57)
These verses indicate that the Egyptian economy was centralized in the capital, as
during Akhenaten's reign. Having become governor of Egypt, Ay visited the
country ceaselessly, taking account of the miserable state of the population. Ay
could scarcely recognize his country, afflicted by the monotheistic megalomania
and consequent catastrophe. The dramatic situation of the rest of Egypt contrasted
with the enormous wealth of Akhet-Aten and Akhenaten's passivity concerning the
distress of his vassals (highlighted in the Amarna Letters). These were the factors
that influenced the Divine Father in the actions he took to save Egypt. According
to Claire Lalouette, "Ay possessed a complete authority which is notably figured
on a stela mentioning a gift of real estate, discovered near the Pyramid of Cheops
(Khufu). Then Ay stayed at Memphis."6 The Divine Father crisscrossed Egypt,
redistributing lands and property, and relocating the population, in actions similar
to Joseph's. "Joseph, having left Pharaoh, traveled throughout Egypt. During the
seven abundant years, the land produced plentifully" (Genesis 41:45). "And he
[Joseph] moved the peoples of the cities from one end to the other of the borders
of the land of Egypt" (Genesis 47:21).
The degree of power exercised by Joseph is exemplified in Genesis 47:23-26:
Joseph and Ay 117
And Joseph said to the people, "Behold! This day I have bought you and your
land for Pharaoh. Here is grain for you. Sow the land with it. After the harvest,
you will give one-fifth to Pharaoh. The other four-fifths will serve you for re-
seeding the fields and for your nourishment, and for that of your homes and for
the nourishment of your children."
The people of Egypt thanked Joseph for his compassion, and offered themselves as
slaves for Pharaoh. This troubling verse shows the extent to which they had
elevated him, since they called him, Adon-Ay, identifying Joseph with Pharaoh.
Gratefully, they proclaimed, "We offer ourselves as Pharaoh's slaves."
The common people of Egypt who were not part of the new religion were
sorely afflicted, as the story of Joseph demonstrates. The story agrees with the
historical facts about Ay and with the Stela of Restoration. Joseph, wearing
Pharaohs ring, was considered as Father of the King in the territories outside the
sacred capital, which was most of the country of Egypt. In exactly the same way,
Ay was welcomed as liberating the people from their afflictions. Joseph and Ay
are one and the same person.
As the Book of Genesis draws toward its end, Jacob (Israel) dies in Egypt:
Joseph rushed to his father's face, and cried over him and embraced him.
Joseph ordered his servants, the physicians, to embalm Israel. It lasted forty
days, for that is how long it takes to embalm. The Egyptians wept for him for
seventy days. Joseph went up to bury his father. All of Pharaoh's servants, all
the elders of his house and all the elders of the land of Egypt went up with him.
Also all of Joseph's house, his brothers' and his father's house went up. Only
their children with their flocks and herds remained in the Land of Goshen.
There also went up with him chariots and horsemen. The convoy was quite
large. (Genesis 50:1-9)
The Bible describes an immense Egyptian crowd, accompanied by the army, going
to bury an important personality in the land of Canaan. The
scribes reconstituted the story of the historical exodus in relation to Jacob's burial.
The story may be dealing with information about Akhenaten's sarcophagus, which
was never found, and which was probably carried with the people of Akhet-Aten
during the exodus. That would explain the Biblical mourning of seventy days,
corresponding exactly to the mourning period for the pharaohs of Egypt. In
addition, in Hebrew, the word "Aron," sarcophagus, also means ark (Genesis
50:26). This double meaning raises the following questions. Did the Ark carried
by the Yahuds contain the Tablets of the Law or Akhenaten's mummy? Were there
several arks?
Most of the mummies of Akhet-Aten have never been found. Some
Egyptologists deduce that the nobles simply returned to anonymity. Rashi explains
that the people of the Exodus bore away with them not only Joseph's body, but
also the bodies of the nobles: "And you shall bear my bones from here with you. It
was concerning his brothers that he made the oath. We deduce that they bore away
with them the remains of the heads of all the tribes, since he said 'with you' (at the
same time as yours)" (Rashi, Exodus 13:19).
According to the Bible, Joseph (like Ay) was buried as "Pharaoh of Egypt."
"Joseph died at the age of a hundred and ten years; he was embalmed and placed
in a sarcophagus in Egypt" (Genesis 50:26).
Genesis ends with Joseph and his grandchildren. In Genesis 50:23, it states
that they were born on his knees, meaning he was dandling them on his knees.
This image recalls the classical pictures of Akhenaten, dandling his children on his
knees.
Joseph makes an appearance again in the Book of Exodus, Chapter 13, Verse
19. "And Moses took Joseph's bones with him [on the Exodus out of Egypt]. For
Joseph had exacted a promise from the people. He said, 'The Elohim will come to
help you. Then, you must bear my bones away from here."'
"Joseph" had no historical reality. But the Biblical scribes revealed through him
the most extraordinary figure of ancient Egypt - the Divine Father Ay, the
forgotten pharaoh.
Joseph and Ay 119
Akhenaten and Nefertiti dandling their children "on their knees."
Notes
1. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, Amours et fureurs de La Lointaine. Stock-Pernoud, 1997,
pp. 67-77.
2. Akhensen-Aten is also called Ankhensen-Pa-Aten. "Pa" is the article.
3. Philipp Vandenberg, Nefertiti. Pierre Belfond, 1987, p. 274.
4. Anneau Blanchart, note 535, in Marc Gabolde, DAkhenaton a Toutankhamon. Institut
dArcheologie et d'Histoire de l'Antiquite, University Lumiere-Lyon 2-CNRS, 1998, p. 60.
5. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt, Le Seuil, 1997, p. 224. Marc Gabolde, DAkhenaton
a Toutankhamon, pp. 206-26.
6. Claire Lalouette, Thebes ou la naissance d'un empire. Flammarion, 1995, p. 571.
CHAPTER 15
The Exodus
In the Book of Exodus, Yahwe inflicted plague after plague upon Egypt because
Pharaoh's heart was hardened against letting the Hebrews leave the country. Just
before the last and most dreadful plague, Pharaoh became enraged at Moses.
Pharaoh said [to Moses], "Leave from before my face! Take care! Do not seek
to see my face [panay in Hebrew] again. For on the day thou seest my face
thou wilt die." To which Moses said, "I will never again seek to see thy face."
(Exodus 10:28-30)
Twenty-three chapters later, in the Aramaic version of Exodus, we read of Adon-

Ay saying something remarkably similar: "He [Adon-Ay] said, 'Thou shalt not see
my face. For no one can see my face and live.'"
The similarity of these verses is revealing. It demonstrates one of the
fundamental attributes of Pharaoh. The king's face, protected by the uraeus (and
the vulture) could not be seen by the people. The Hebrew word panay, "my face,"
is a homonym for fear (pen). The face of a powerful person inspires respect and,
above all, fear. To stare at Pharaoh without his permission constituted a grave
offense.
This tradition is found again in the clergy and nobility of ancient Egypt,
following Ptahotep's teaching:
If thou art called to sit at the table of a grandee, take [only] what is offered
thee [and] when it is placed under thy nose. Thou shalt look at what is in front
of thee. Do not look all over the place. Because that
The Exodus 121
kind of offense is an abomination to the host. Let thy face remain lowered
until he addresses thee. Only then shalt thou speak. Laugh after he, himself
shall have laughed. And that which thou mightest do will be agreeable to his
heart.1
Pharaoh's heart had been hardened after each of nine dreadful plagues were
imposed on Egypt. Moses and Aaron were sent away from before Pharaohs face.
After the death of all the firstborn of the Egyptians, Pharaoh did allow Moses
and Aaron to see his face again. He called them in the middle of the night and
urged them to lead their people out of Egypt. "Arise, go away from my people.
Take your flocks and herds, and leave. And bless me, also" (Exodus 12:30-33).
So the Hebrews made their escape in the middle of the night. There was total
chaos.
The Biblical Exodus is a masked narrative of the actual exodus of the monotheists.
In the capital of the Egyptian empire, in the middle of the night, chaos reigned.
The whole population, urged by the Egyptian army under the orders of Generals
Horemheb and Ramesses, prepared to evacuate the sacred city, the eternal city. In
the numerous common bakeries that served the Great Temple of Aten, bakers
bustled about preparing loaves. Urgency prevailed. The army was pressing them to
get under way. The sacred bread destined for the temple would not have time to
leaven. It was necessary to bake the dough and join the rest of the crowd. (Note
Exodus 12:39: "They baked unleavened bread for they were thrust out of Egypt
and could not tarry.") The cries of the women, the dazed children, and the
bewilderment of the elderly plunged the population into a nightmare. How does
one resign oneself to leave the Egypt of one's ancestors, to abandon the holy city,
the homes, the way of life, the past? The Divine Father had cursed this land that
had previously been sacred. The exiles would have to leave the terrestrial paradise
forever. They were aware of the presence of the army, an army driving them out.
The Biblical scribes state it in Exodus 12:39, "Because they were thrust out of
Egypt..."
In the trek from Akhet-Aten, the people proceeded northward, along the Nile
in the direction of Ramesses, a city for re-provisioning cited in the Bible. Egyptian
logistics required that the itinerary begin in such a manner to insure the survival of
such a large group of both civilians and soldiers. It was necessary to provision
everyone.
The exodus of the monotheists toward the northern provinces was part of Ay's
political and military strategy. His political ambition was to repop-ulate the new
holy land of Canaan with a subject people, assuring a security zone between Egypt
and the enemy to the north.
His military objective was a punitive campaign against the Hittites and
Philistines who were occupying the province of Canaan.
The itinerary taken by the Egyptian monotheists was identical to the
description in the Bible of the path of the Exodus. The following Bible verses
describe the route: "The Children of Israel journeyed from Ramesses to Succoth"
(Hebrew Bible, Exodus 12:37), and "Adon-Ay spoke to Moses, saying, 'Speak to
the Children of Israel, telling them to turn back and camp before Pihahiroth,
between Migdol and the sea - in front of Baal-zephon [an Egyptian fortresses], on
the opposite side make your encampment'" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 14:1).
Pharaoh's army was not pursuing the people as the Bible reports. It
accompanied the exiles. During Tutankhamun's reign, Ay, generalissimo and
uncontested master of Egypt, ordered his army to accompany the deportees, as is
detailed in the Aramaic Bible. The route took the large migrating group past
various forts, from where they could acquire fresh provisions and thus avoid
certain death in the arid desert of Sinai.
The Bible story has the exiles wandering in the Sinai desert for forty years.
"And the anger of Yahwe burned against Israel, and he caused them to wander in
the desert for forty years" (Hebrew Bible, Numbers 32:13).
Historically, the exiles from Akhet-Aten were not able to colonize Canaan
immediately. A letter from Rib-Hadda imploring aid from Akhenaten shows the
seriousness of the situation. The Egyptian army had first to clear the way.
Behold, I am a loyal servant of the king, and the king has no servant equal to
me. Previously, at the sight of an Egyptian, the Canaanite kings fled before
him. But now, the sons of Ahdi-Ashirta [king of
The Exodus 123
Amuru, whose son, Aziru, had ties to the Apiru] give the Egyptians the
runaround.
The army had to engage the nomadic Apiru in battle. The campaign was a success,
and it was easy for Ay's armies, cited several times in the Bible, to recapture the
Canaanite cities occupied by the Apiru. The Amarna Letters2 sent to Akhenaten
tell that a hundred Egyptian soldiers and fifty chariots were sufficient to cause the
terrorized Apiru enemy to flee.
"Any one of you men can rout a thousand, because it is Adon-Ay, your god,
who fights for you, as he promised you" (Aramaic Bible, Joshua 23:10).
Behind the defeated Apiru were two mighty military forces, the Hittites and
the Philistines. The Hittite presence had held back the Egyptian army, although it
had moved up as far as Qadesh. Ay was far-sighted enough to avoid an open war
with the Hittites at that time. The Bible (Exodus 13:17) indicates that the
Philistines were also close, and that war against them would not be successful.
The setbacks of Moses at the outset of the exodus correspond to the historical
reverses of the Egyptian army commanded by Generals Horemheb and Ramesses
during the first year of Tutankhamun's reign. Cyril Aldred explains that the foreign
military expeditions had failed. As to the prayers and supplications, they remained
without any response.
On the Stela of Restoration is written: "If an army is sent into Phoenicia to
enlarge Egypt's frontiers, it does not bring any success. If we pray to a god to
obtain anything, he does not answer at all."3
Since the military campaign had failed, the exiles had to wait in the Land of
Moab until an Egyptian army would come along strong enough to conquer the
Promised Land.
An intriguing story is told in the Bible about the Parting of the Waters of the Red
Sea.
Moses extended his hand over the sea, and Adon-Ay forced back the sea. The
Children of Israel entered into the middle of the sea dry, and the waters were for
them a wall to their right and to their left" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 14:21-22).
Hieroglyph of the waters. The waters are

separated by the two Yods, symbol of the
creative force.
The Red Sea is a name given by the Hellenists in their translation of the Hebrew
Bible. In the Bible, the body of water is called the Sea of Reeds (yam suf). The
story of the crossing is a message of the scribes to restore one of the basic
teachings of ancient Egypt. The Pyramid Texts relate that Pharaoh had the power
to separate the waters, forming a space between them, in order to allow the light to
illuminate the land.4
The Sea of Reeds in Egyptian mythology was the ocean of the pharaohs, the
Nun. It was the primordial waters of Creation. Just as the god Amun separated the
waters of that Sea of Reeds, the Divine Father Ay triumphed over Akhenaten and
Smenkhkare, the monotheistic pharaohs. The separation of the waters represented
the rupture between Amun and Aten, between Egypt and its priests.
The Bible, in agreement with the Pyramid Texts, says that the event happened
during the night. Several expressions that are present in the Creation of the World
(Genesis 1) are found in the Red Sea episode:
And a cloud and darkness stood between them [the Hebrews and the Egyptian
army pursuing them], and the column of light lit up the night, so that all night
the one group could not approach the other. Moses extended his hand over the
sea and Yahwe drove back the waters of the sea, all night long, with a strong
east wind, and it turned it to dry land, and the waters were divided. (Exodus
14:20-21)
The separation of the waters of the Red Sea or Sea of Reeds, added to the different
symbols (war, darkness, sea, tempest, night, light), recalls the Creation story,
where there is found the tohu-bohu, the Divine Breath, the light, the separation of
the waters (Genesis 1). The miracle of the Sea of Reeds symbolizes a new creation
of the world, a new start, the beginning toward another life, the passage from an
old world towards a new one.
A second message contained in the Biblical episode concerns the nocturnal
rivalry that permitted God to be the conqueror in broad
The Exodus 125
daylight. The Egyptians believed that during the darkness of night, after the god
Re died (as he did at sunset each day), Pharaoh journeyed through the dark,
fighting the malignant forces of darkness. In the conflict between the two
divinities of darkness and light, the Egyptians knew that Pharaoh was sailing over
the celestial waters, combating the forces of evil for them, all night long. This
image is visible in the tomb of Ramesses I. Sunrise was interpreted as a rebirth of
the victorious pharaoh. Light had triumphed over darkness, as life shall triumph
over death.
The mythological meaning of the Exodus was that the death of the God of
Light was followed by rebirth. And, on the earthly plane, death of the old pharaoh
was followed by the enthronement of a new king of Egypt, Tutankhamun, the
symbolic son of Ay, as the tomb of the young king confirms. Ay, who crowned the
new king, became the first divinity of Egypt, repeating the miracle of Amun by
separating the waters and creating the heavens and the earth.
Those are the symbolic or mythological interpretations of the Exodus story. But
behind them was the remembrance of an historical exodus, which developed in
two phases.
In the first phase, there was the reconquest of part of the Canaanite and
Moabite territories situated away from Phoenician influence, three days' march
from the Biblical city of Ramesses.5 A limited victory over the Apiru made it
possible to avoid a confrontation with the Hittites. Egypt, in a period of complete
political and religious reorganization, could not risk conflict with the powerful
forces of the Hittites backed by the Philistines. At the end of the Amarnian period,
at the beginning of Tutankhamun's reign, the weakness of the Egyptian army was
confirmed historically.6 A Hittite victory would have probably meant an eventual
return of the monotheists. Ay was strategist enough to know that the best course
would be to avoid hostilities and hold the exiles in the Land of Moab until Egypt
could launch a successful campaign in Canaan. It took forty years before such a
campaign could be successfully waged.
In the second phase of the exodus, forty years later, the period in which the
scribes projected in the scriptures the long wait in the desert, Sety I undertook the
second campaign into Canaan at the beginning of his reign.
His victories allowed the repopulation of the north of the country and the recapture
of the citadel of Qadesh from the Hittites.
The Biblical Exodus took place during the forty-year wandering of the
Children of Israel in the desert between Egypt and Canaan. The forty years
actually represent the time between the military campaigns waged by Egypt to
regain control of its province of Canaan. With the victories of Sety I, the Exodus
was over, and the monotheistic Yahuds entered triumphantly into their Promised
Land.
Notes
1. John Adams Wilson, Egypt. Life and Death of a Civilization. Arthaud, 1961.
2. Les letters dEl Amarna. Le Cerf, 1987, EA 132.
4. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte selon les textes des Pyramides.
Grasset and Fasquelle, 1998, pp. 46, 107: "Pharaoh takes what belongs to Atum, for whom he
separates the heavens from the earth and primordial energy [the "Nun", the celestial ocean]."
5. Exodus 8:23.
6. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, Vie et mort d'un pharaoh. Hachette, 1963, pp. 205-6.
CHAPTER 16
Aaron and Horemheb
Moses is clearly the central hero of the Book of Exodus. He is portrayed as the
leader of the Children of Israel in their struggle for liberation from slavery and as
their guide into the Promised Land. We are told that he had an older brother,
Aaron, who was second-in-command of the operation. Since the Exodus story is
based on an event in Egyptian history, Moses' brother Aaron presumably is an
historical character.
The Hebrew Bible contains enough hints to allow us to determine whom the
scribes were masking in the character they called Aaron. The Aaron who acts as
the person second-in-command in the Exodus, historically, was General
Horemheb, a son-in-law of the Divine Father Ay and, later, a pharaoh of Egypt.
A major discovery concerning three names inscribed in Horemheb's cartouche
- those of the three Biblical characters Aaron, Miriam, his sister, and Hor,
Miriam's son, confirm that Aaron was indeed Pharaoh Horemheb.
Part of this discovery was that the name of Horus, the falcon god, the bird of
light, was of Greek rather than Egyptian origin. According to Pierre Grandet, the
true Egyptian pronunciation of Horus is "Hor": "Several intermediary examples
are known of the name of Aten, where Horus' name (Hor) is written phonetically,
thus avoiding writing it by means of the picture of a falcon."1
According to Claude Vandersleyen, Horus (Hor) was Horemheb's proper
name. "His will to pursue concrete reforms reveals itself in his name - Horus
(Hor): In effective plans (Hornung, 1971, 49, 50)."2
So, Horus is pronounced Hor, like Aaron's nephew in the Bible, and like
Aaron himself (A-Horon). These various phonetic coincidences are not
due to chance, because the scribes provided other elements that unveil Aaron's true
identity. Aaron's sister was named Miriam.3 The name of Miriam also figures in
Horemheb's cartouche in the form of the hieroglyph Meri-Amun (beloved of
Amun). Miriam is a contraction, according to strict Biblical and Egyptian
traditions, marking Horemheb's affiliation with Amun. As with Abraham, whom
the Bible scribes composed from Ab-Rah-Amun, Father of Rah's and Amun's
people (Exodus 17:4-5), Miriam is the contraction of Meri-Amun. Miriam, the
mother of the people, the metaphor for Isis.
The right side of Pharaoh Horemheb's cartouche (shown below) contains by
itself the names "Aaron," "Miriam," and "Hor," associated with the theme of the
festival that is none other than the festival of the Golden Calf.
Horemheb's cartouche. (Left) Sacred are Re's transformations (Right) Horus is

celebrating, beloved of Amun.
The phonetic writing of the right-hand side of the cartouche is pronounced Hor-on-
m-heb. The sense of the name Horemheb, in Egyptian Hor-n-m-heb, recalls the
Biblical story of the Golden Calf. The crown (N) is the symbol of gold, and
Horemheb's coronation name is "Golden Horus, the powerful bull."
In the Bible, the god Hor is hidden under various names: Nahor and Haran
(Abraham's brothers), Naharim, Horeb, Horma, etc. According to Rashi,4 Hor
would be Miriam's son. He appears briefly in the Bible, disappearing after the
episode of the Golden Calf. The relationship "Aaron, brother of Miriam who is the
mother of Hor" is illustrated by an effigy in Horemheb's tomb: Pharaoh is placed
between Isis and Hor (Horus). Isis, "the sister of Horemheb," is the mother of
Hor.5
Aaron and Horemheb 129
Horemheb and Horus, son of Isis

(Tomb of Horemheb).
According to the Book of Exodus Aaron bore the responsibility of tax collection
and of combating corruption. During the reigns of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun,
the Divine Father Ay placed Horemheb in charge of overseeing the fiscal
administration of Egypt. Claude Vandersleyen describes this: "By Horemheb's
decree, it is known that corruption prevailed among the tax collectors and the
judges. Horemheb emphasizes that he traveled all over the country to know it to its
depths. Akhenaten, himself, doubtlessly did not travel about. So it is reasonable to
expect that he neglected the general management of his nation."6
We see Aaron in the same role in the Bible. "Adon-Ay said to Aaron, 'Behold!
Here I have given thee the keeping of the contributions which have been made to
me, all the holy goods of the Children of Israel. I have given them to thee and to
thy sons, as assigned to thee for all time to come'" (Numbers 18:8).
Vizier Ay entrusted his general and tax collector with the responsibility of
escorting the Yahuds out of Egypt and into the provinces. Horemheb had a fellow
officer who shared the responsibility, a general by the name of Harnesses.
With the historical Egyptian drama in mind, let us look at the way the scribes of
the Bible relate the story.
When the Children of Israel arrived in the desert, they became disgruntled
with conditions and with the leadership. Some of their revolts
were more open than others. But, the going was not easy for either the people or
for their leaders, Moses and Aaron.
The first revolt of the people driven out of Egypt was against Moses. They
reproached him for having led them into the desert without hope of return. The
Children of Israel had been participants in a great miracle - the parting of the Red
Sea or Sea of Reeds. The revolt took place despite that miracle. The awesome
parting of the waters did not seem to have much impressed the exiles. They were
more concerned with their discomfort:
The entire community of the Children of Israel began to murmur against

Moses and against Aaron in the desert. And the Children of Israel said to them:
"We wish we had died by the hand of Adon-Ay in the land of Egypt, seated by
the meat kettles and eating bread to the full. Because you have brought us out
into this desert to kill all the people by starvation." (Aramaic Bible, Exodus
16:2)
This incipient revolt was solved by the miraculous appearance of food. Manna fell
on them from heaven, and game birds appeared on the desert along with other
meat. But, all was not well yet in the wilderness.
In the next chapter in the Book of Exodus (17:3), a new revolt was brewing:
"The people were there, thirsty, and they murmured against Moses and said, 'Why
hast thou brought us out of Egypt to die of thirst, me, my children, and my herds?"'
Moses caused water to flow from a rock and the complaints stopped.
In the Aramaic version of the Bible, in Numbers 21:5, the people have a new
complaint, which they direct to Moses: "And the people complained to Adon-Ay
and to Moses, 'Why did you drag us out of Egypt to cause us to die in the desert?
Because here there is no bread, no water, and we are tired of this miserable food.'
So Adon-Ay sent out fiery serpents who bit the people, and a multitude perished."
The snakes who attacked the complaining Children of Israel put a finishing
touch to the revolt about the terrible food and living conditions. Yet, there were
more revolts in store. There were problems concerning the leadership. People were
complaining that Moses had become too dictatorial. The person who spearheaded
this revolt over Moses' leadership was Korah.
The episode of the revolt of Korah (Numbers 16:1), of the tribe of Levi
(Yahuds), reveals the spirit of rebellion that grew progressively among the priests
and the nobility during the sojourn in the desert. The Yahuds reproached Moses
for wanting to keep power without sharing it. Their words are angry, ironic, and
inflammatory:
We do not want to come up [to the land of Canaan]. Is it such a small matter
that you have caused us to come up from a country which flows with milk and
honey [Egypt] to kill us in the desert, and that you still want to make yourself
prince over us, completely? This land into which you have led us really is
scarcely one flowing with milk and honey, and has not given us a heritage of
fields and vineyards. Do you want to put out the eyes of these men? We do not
want to come up! (Hebrew Bible, Numbers 16:12-14)
These people were no longer in favor of going to a promised land. They wanted to
return home to Egypt. The people then reproached Moses and Aaron mightily:
"The next day, the Children of Israel began to murmur against Moses and Aaron,
saying, 'You are the ones who have caused the people of Adon-Ay to die'"
(Aramaic Bible, Numbers 16:41).
Moses quelled the revolt by ordering a massacre of 250 of Korah's priests.
"And the earth opened its mouth and swallowed them, they and their households,
as well as all the people who were part of Korah's group, and all their belongings.
And they went down alive to Sheol [Hell], they and all that they owned, so that
they disappeared from the midst of the congregation" (Numbers 16:32).
Tomb of Sety I. The wells of

Hell where the damned
descend.
Following the execution of the priests of Korah, the exiles suffered a terrible
chastisement: "Those who died from the plague mounted up to 14,700 plus those
who died because of Korah [the 250 priests]. When Aaron finally returned to
Moses, at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the plague had ceased" (Numbers
16:49-50).
The scribes here let us know that Aaron had been on the side of Korah's rebels.
It was Aaron who finally put an end to the revolt. Since he ended the troubles he
must have been part of the dissident group. There was a leadership crisis in the
Exodus. The question was whether Moses or Aaron would be in charge of the
people. However, both Moses and Aaron realized that open conflict would be
counterproductive. A compromise had to be reached between the two brothers
(generals). They shared power until the exiles reached Mount Sinai. It was there
that events took a new turn, with the matter of the Golden Calf.
After the many complaints and rebellions of the people, the group arrived at the
foot of Mount Sinai. The events that occurred at that point in the story are among
the most dramatic in the Bible - the receiving of the Ten Commandments and the
worship of the Golden Calf.
The episode of the Golden Calf is a critical point in the battle for leadership of
the people of the Exodus. When Moses was gone from the people for forty days,
having gone up Mount Sinai, Aaron constructed a golden calf for the people to
worship. When Moses returned, he was enraged. The relationship between the two
brother leaders had reached critical mass.
At this dramatic point in the Bible story, let us consider the historical situation
it was reflecting.
The Divine Father Ay was the actual ruler of Egypt. King Tutankhamun had
died aged 18. There was no direct blood-line leading to a new pharaoh for the
Eighteenth Dynasty. The Divine Father, Vizier Ay, assumed the crown. Before
becoming pharaoh, he had sent generals Horemheb and Ramesses north to lead the
monotheists to the province of Canaan. While the deportees were languishing in
Moab, waiting for the Egyptian army to liberate Canaan for them, Pharaoh Ay
died.
Again, there was no lineal descendant of Ahmose, the founder of the
Eighteenth Dynasty. It was unclear who would become pharaoh of Egypt.
Ramose, a powerful vizier, was a possible claimant for the throne. Horemheb, who
had control of the army, returned to Thebes to claim the throne for himself. He
was as successful a politician as a general and bureaucrat and easily edged out the
competition for the crown, and became pharaoh of Egypt. As such, he was
intermediary between the people and Amun. Horemheb had now become both
pharaoh and priest.
Now, back to the Bible story, in which Moses and Aaron are still in contention
for leadership of the people.
At the foot of Mount Sinai, we are told that Moses went away, up the
mountain. "Moses went inside the cloud and went up the mountain. And Moses
remained on the mountain forty days and forty nights" (Exodus 24:18).
Does this verse refer to the mourning period for an important person?
Remember, Pharaoh Ay, a person who was of great importance to the leaders of
the Exodus, had just died. Forty days is the time period required to embalm a
person in the Egyptian manner, as revealed earlier in Genesis: "Forty days elapsed.
For it takes that many days for a person to be embalmed. The Egyptians cried [for
Jacob] for seventy days" (Genesis 50:3). Moses would have been absent to fulfill
his religious obligations for the death of Pharaoh Ay.
The Bible tells us that during Moses' absence, Aaron collected gold from the
people and cast it into an idol, a golden calf: "Aaron told the people, 'Remove the
earrings from your wives, from your sons and daughters, and bring them to me'"
(Exodus 32:2).
He [Aaron] took it [the gold] from their hands, formed a cast, and made a metal
calf. And they said, "Here are thy gods, O Israel, which have brought you out of
the land of Egypt. "Aaron saw it [the golden calf] and set an altar before it. And
Aaron proclaimed, "Tomorrow there shall be a feast for Ay [Adon-Ay]." They
arose early the next day and presented burnt offerings and brought peace
offerings. The people sat to eat and drink, and then arose to carouse. (Aramaic
Bible, Exodus 32:4-6)
Aaron here is showing his sympathy for the return to the gods of Egypt. He is
displaying his agreement with the Yahuds who wish to return to Egypt. Aaron's
commitment is not to carrying monotheism into the
promised land, but to reverting to the worship of Amun and allowing the people to
return to Egypt. The people celebrate Aaron's leadership and readily worship the
Golden Calf and engage in a feast in honor of Amun, Aten, Ay, and the Elohim,
pharaohs of Egypt, as we shall now see.
According to Christian Jacq's translation, the Pyramid Texts attest that the
Golden Calf symbolizes the birth of Pharaoh merged with the sun-Re. It is the
ancient Egyptians themselves that give us the secret of the great enigma of the
Golden Calf.
The king's mother is the celestial cow who rises towards the heavens and who
does not leave him behind on earth. Pharaoh joins himself to her, the great
wild cow in the heavens. She suckles him and does not leave him without
strength. After having conceived him and placed him on earth, she places him
within her wing that she may cause him to cross over a lake and a canal. And
it is in the form of a Golden Calf that Re is born in the heavens.7
Thus, the Golden Calf symbolizes the birth and coronation of a new pharaoh.
Aaron is celebrating - Horemheb is celebrating. The celebration symbolizes
the return of the Yahud people to the freedom of the previous cult, the return to
Amun, materialized in the feast of the Golden Calf.
The episode of the Golden Calf is a representation of the attempt of
Horemheb, who had just become the new pharaoh of Egypt, to finally resolve the
Amarnian crisis. He granted amnesty to those who had gone out of Egypt by
allowing them to worship the ancient gods. In contrast, Ramesses' commitment
was to settle the land of Canaan with the monotheists.
When Moses returned from his forty days' sojourn, he was mightily displeased
at the turn matters had taken. Surprised by the coronation of Horemheb (Aaron),
Moses attacked the people directly. He ordered a bloodbath.
Moses addressed the Levites (the army of the priests): "He said to them, 'Thus
spoke Adon-Ay, God of Israel. "Let each man strap on his sword, go back and
forth from gate to gate in the camp, and let each one slay his brother, his friend,
relative"''" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 32:27).
Three thousand were killed.

The return of Moses from Sinai provoked a conflict that menaced Aaron's
power. The two brothers arrived at a compromise, condemning and chastising the
innocent people. The three thousand who were killed satisfied Moses, and Aaron
backed down in order to keep the peace.
Now, let us look at what history tells us about this period.
At the beginning of his reign Horemheb continued the policy of his father-in-
law, Ay, re-establishing the old gods in the whole land. Horemheb had numerous
golden statues sculpted all over Egypt,8 and reintegrated into their respective
temples, as well as many altars.
Although crowned more than ten years after the exodus from Akhet-Aten,
Horemheb was angry at the departure of the priests and sages of Egypt. The Stela
of the Return indicates that the land needed priests. The new pharaoh did not want
to deprive himself of the intellectual elite. He had to give the deported clergy a
chance to reintegrate into their fatherland and participate in the process of
restoration.
The refusal of General Ramesses to let the people return to Egypt shows his
radical determination to repopulate Canaan, in accord with the mission entrusted to
him by Pharaoh Ay. So Ramesses had the ability to oppose Horemheb without
being sanctioned. A civil war seemed imminent. A compromise was reached
between Ramesses and Horemheb after a series of massacres. Horemheb
understood that the Yahud priests, with their ancient traditions, represented a
potential vital resource for Egypt. However, the only possibility left, then, for the
new pharaoh was to recruit future priests from the families of the class of nobles.
Horemheb's retreat from his previous position could explain his consequent
hostile behavior towards the memory of his father-in-law Ay because of the
dismissal of the priests. He usurped his name on some statues. He did the same on
monuments and stelae (for example the Stela of the Restoration) engraved in
Tutankhamun's name. On the list of the names of the pharaohs of Egypt he
banished the name of the Amarnian kings (Akhenaten, Smenkhkare,
Tutankhamun, and Ay), making it appear that he himself was the true son of
Amenhotep III.
Horemheb's action created a novel situation for Egypt - the problem of Akhet-
Aten and monotheism being sent towards the desert of Moab, near Canaan. Upper
and Lower Egypt returned to the old traditional
Amunian gods. However, in the wilderness the Yahuds and the erev-rav (the
common people) were committed to the monotheistic cult that was held
responsible for Egypt's decline. They deified Ay as the "symbol of the name" of
the One God in place of Aten. Horemheb took care to annihilate the Atenian cult,
and tried hard to neutralize every form of the cult of the Divine Father Ay in the
two lands.
Horemheb had been promoted to governor of the kingdom by Tutankhamun

(under Ay's aegis); he was depicted in the vestments of High Priest, carrying the
vase of the oil of unction. He received the golden necklaces, the shawl or sacred
vestment, as well as another vase of holy oil. The priests acclaimed him and
prostrated themselves before him.
In like manner the Bible depicts Aaron as high priest of the Children of Israel:
Aaron said all the words that Adon-Ay had addressed to Moses, and he worked
marvels before the eyes of the people. And the people had faith in him. They
understood that Adon-Ay remembered the Children of Israel, that he had taken
consideration of their misery, and they bowed their heads and prostrated
themselves. (Exodus 4:30-32)
The status of High Priest attributed to Aaron allows us to understand why Moses
never punishes him in the Bible story. The description of Aaron's sacred vestments
and his priestly function place him above Moses in any hierarchy.
Horemheb was Ay's interpreter and scribe. He was also a man committed to
reconciliation and desirous of bringing back the Yahud priests to Egypt.
The policy of extreme centralization in Akhet-Aten, associated with the
abandonment of traditional values, had caused dysfunction, anarchy, and
corruption at all levels of the administration. The desire to re-establish order was
an urgent necessity at Akhenaten's death. The Divine Father Ay, an effective
politician and precursor of the return of the ancient religion, was the person who
inspired the reform. Horemheb usurped his paternity, as he did on most of the
monuments and stelae. He saw himself as the
champion of the return of Amun, mercilessly eliminating the memory of his

adversaries, mainly Ay, venerated and then detested. Claude Vandersleyen9
recognized in Horemheb the author of the malfeasances perpetrated in Ay's name
in the Temple of Karnak:
From Horemheb's attitude when he succeeded Ay, it can be deduced that those
four years [of Ay's reign] were not lacking in tension. The temple raised at
Karnak by Ay in memory of the young dead king [Tutankhamun] bore both
their names. Tutankhamun's was respected everywhere, whereas Ay's names
were most often destroyed and the surface prepared to receive a new
inscription (Schaden 1984, 4648, Eaton-Krauss, 1988, 4-5, 10-11). Only
Horemheb or Ramesses could have ordered these mutilations since these
blocks were finally buried in the second pylon needed for the building.
Afterwards, Horemheb and Ramesses usurped some monuments and statues that
were attributed to Tutankhamun. At the foot of the tenth pylon of the hypostyle
room of the Temple of Karnak, there is a stela decreeing the return of order in the
land, like the edict of restoration of the Stela of Tutankhamun. Nicolas Grimal
believes Horemheb is at the heart of the reform:
He [Horemheb] put judges and regional tribunals in place, and reintroduced

local religious authorities. The juridical power was divided between Upper and
Lower Egypt, between the vizier of Thebes and the vizier of Memphis. The
duality of the country is found again in the army where the military units were
recast and dispersed into two military districts, one in the north, the other in
the south.I0
Another vizier, Ramesses, had charge of the eastern territories (Canaan and
Moab), applying Pharaoh's laws and organizing the settlement of displaced
populations. The vizier who administered these provinces was quite separate from
Upper and Lower Egypt, but powerful enough to accede naturally to the throne
after Horemheb's death.
Notes
1.
See J. Samson, Mrna, City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. Aris & Phillips, 1978, pp.101-3.
2.
Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, Vol. 2. Nouvelle Clio, 1995, p. 488.
3.
Cf. Exodus 15:20; Numbers 12:1, 20:1, 26:59.
4.
Exodus 17:6, 17:12
5.
Alberto Siliotti, The Valley of the Kings. Grund, 1996, p. 47.
6.
Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, p. 436.
7.
Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte selon les texts des Pyramides.
Grasset and Fasquelle, 1998, p. 264.
8. For the gold statues and their altars, cf. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Le Seuil,
1997, p. 288.
9. Claude Vandersleyen, Egypt and the Valley of the Nile, p. 483.
CHAPTER 17
Moses and Ramesses I
In his tomb Ramesses I, under the watchful eye of Atum, brandishes his rod over
Apophis. Apophis is a twelve-coil serpent surging out of the primordial ocean.
This is a sketch of the nocturnal combat between Pharaoh and the forces of evil. A
bit further along is an unusual picture representing the ocean, the Nun, separated
into two parts. Apophis is pressing back the waters, and twelve goddesses
represent the hours of the night. These elements are at the origin of the legend of
the nocturnal expulsion of the twelve tribes of Israel and the crossing of the Red
Sea, the Sea of Reeds.
Ramesses I hunts the serpent Apophis

(Tomb of Ramesses I).
Apophis flees to the middle of the open

sea. The dozen goddesses of the night
extend their hands towards the sea.
"Moses extended his hand over the sea, and Adon-Ay drove back the sea, all night
long, with an east wind drawing them back. And he made the sea dry, and the
waters were divided" (Exodus 14:27).
The legend of Moses, a prince saved from the waters, was borrowed, like so
many others, from Mesopotamia,1 and Egypt.2 It was necessary for the story to
have Moses be born a Hebrew and miraculously become an Egyptian, raised by
Pharaoh's daughter. Moses then became the head of Pharaoh's house and a student
of all the wisdom of Egypt. Later, to affirm before the king his pride in belonging
to the Hebrew people, Moses revolts against the supreme authority.
The Hebrew Bible states in Exodus 2:6: "She [Pharaoh's daughter] had pity on
him and said, 'It is a child of the Hebrews.'" In the Aramaic Bible, the same verse
says: "She had pity on him and said, 'It is a child of the Yahuds (yehudaeh).'" So
Moses was a Yahud by birth, a son of the Elohim, belonging to the Egyptian
nobility, probably the son of one of Pharaoh's daughters.
"This woman conceived, and bore a son [Moses]. She saw that he was
beautiful, and kept him hidden for three months" (Exodus 2:2). The reference to
keeping Moses hidden in a cradle for three months appears to be taken from the
Egyptian temple service where the priests hid Amun (the hidden god) within the
sanctuary to have him reborn into the light every three months.3
"Not being able to hide him any longer, she prepared for him [Moses] a cradle
of bulrushes [ Teva]. She placed the child in it and set him among the reeds on the
bank of the river" (Exodus 2:3). In the same way the Pyramid Texts place
Pharaoh's birth in the Lake of Reeds. "In the Lake of the Reeds, Re, Shu, and
Pharaoh purified themselves. This place of water and light is similar to the
celestial paradise that is shown in the form of the 'fields' that Pharaoh crosses."4
Etymologically, in Hebrew the Nile is written as the river of light. So Moses is
depicted as a prince, luminous, sailing on an ark among the reeds in a river of
light, which conforms to the Pharaoh in the Pyramid Texts. Moses' birth,
combined with the appearance of divine light, is associated with the waters of the
Nile, the River of Light. Rashi's commentary states: "How beautiful he was. When
he was born, the entire house was filled with light."
Moses and Ramesses I 141
Although the legend of Moses saved from the waters had been assumed, the
symbol of the "divine child" saved from the Nile was an integral part of Egyptian
religion. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt confirms this. "Every New Year's Day,
the flood brings back the divine child, the solar child who is associated with the
young king who, apparently, renews himself every year."5
The following two points are of interest. The divine child, Pharaoh's son,
mentioned by Christiane Noblecourt is called "Mes" or "Messess" in Egyptian,
because symbolically it derives from "slave of the world." In the Bible, the
Hebrew word "Teva" designates both "the cradle of Moses" and Noah's Ark. Since
Pharaoh, Moses, Mosheh, the Messiah, arrive on an Egyptian Ark to save the
Hebrews from slavery, the "Teva" is the Divine Ark in which God's emissary
saves humanity.
"Now Pharaoh's daughter went down to the river (Yeor) to bathe, with her
companions following her. She saw the basket among the reeds" (Exodus 2:5).
According to the following illustration, and Plutarch,6 Isis, like Miriam, hid her
son Horus (the symbol of light) among the reeds.
Isis, bearing the Re-disk, gives life to the divine child in the papyrus marsh (sea of
reeds), assisted by Amun and Thoth, as well as by the two foster mothers who hold
the "serpent rod, "symbol of life and power.
The child grew, and she [the nurse] brought him to Pharaoh's daughter. And he
became her son [Leben]. She named [ Vaykra] him Moses, saying, 'Because I
drew him [Masheti-oo] forth from the waters [Min A-Maim]'" (Exodus 2:10).
This is surely the most important message in the Bible: Pharaoh's
daughter, the image of Isis, pronouncing the sentence justifying Moses' name. An
attentive examination of the above verse, in parallel with the Egyptian, makes the
attributes of the cartouche of Ramesses I opposite crystal clear; since the
cartouche is in Egyptian, the true honorific name of the pharaoh becomes
apparent: "Because from the waters [Min-A-Maim] I drew him forth [Masheti-
oo]."
"Min" symbolizes the divine emanation, corresponding with the "Mem" and
the "Nun" contained in the cartouche of the throne name of Ramesses I. Min (or
Mnevis) recalls the "powerful bull" inscribed in the name of Horus of Amenhotep
III.
Min (who emanates from).
"Maim" ("the waters") corresponds to the "Nun," the primordial waters

where the pharaohs were born. In the Pyramid Texts, Pharaoh is "made flesh"
from the waters of the heavens and of the earth. "Thy water and thy cool water are
the abundance that emanate from you." Min and Nun form the principal
component of Amun, the hidden god who surges from the primordial waters.
Hieroglyph of the primordial waters.
"Masheti-ou" ("I drew him forth"), contains the Egyptian root MST,
7
that Pierre Grandet translates as "giving birth," "child bearing," "delivery." The
root SWT in Egyptian means bullrush, emblem of the king of Upper and Lower
Egypt, as the cartouche of Ramesses I indicates. The last part, "Oo" ("he"), is
depicted below by the bird hieroglyph - "oo."
Hieroglyph for Moses, Moseh, or Mosheh, born by God or by Isis.
Sut or Nesut (symbol of the king of

Egypt).
Hieroglyph "oo"
(he).
Cartouche of Ramesses I.
This parallel allows us to make clear the actual Egyptian words of Pharaoh's
daughter: He became for her the son of Amun, and she named him '"divine child,'
because with Amun, the celestial waters, I bore him." Thus she admits being
Moses' mother and that he was born through the god Amun. Moses is Yahud
(heir), son of Levi (lion) and the future Ramesses I, one of the pharaohs of Amun's
return. In the historical context, Moses would be the son of a secondary wife of
Amenhotep III, perhaps from the harem of Min.
Sety I, acting under order of his father Ramesses I, affirms having sent the
"dissidents" into the desert, pursuing the mission that Ramesses had undertaken
under Tutankhamun's reign and following Ay's orders. During the period of
reorganization of Pharaoh Horemheb, Ramesses, who was both a general and the
governor of the North, reigned as absolute master over his territory. The words of
Sety I, son and co-regent of Ramesses I, according to the translation of Dominique
Valbelle,8 mentions the duties of which he was in charge prior to his coronation.
The figure of Moses is realized in this description of the deeds of Ramesses I:
I speak of what I did [what I became] until I was the master of the two shores.
I came from the womb [of my mother] like the Bull of Maat [Emet in
Hebrew], impregnated by good counsel and teachings.
When he [Ramesses I] was Re, I was with him as a star at his side [...]. I
[subjugated] the lands of the Fenekhu, I drove out for him the dissidents [the
Yahud monotheists of Akhet-Aten] into the desert country. I organized his
monarchy like Horus on the throne of Unennefer. I chose Maat for him every
day, and I bore him on my bosom [...] in his name Mehenyt. I assembled his
army and gave him a single heart [Lev in Hebrew: the army of the Levites]. I
sought for him the subsistence of the double land and I placed my arm in the
service of his close protection in the foreign lands the names of which were
[still] unknown. I was a courageous hero in his presence in order that he might
open his eyes upon my perfection.
If Ramesses I and Moses represent the same person, the Ten Commandments
originated in ancient Egypt. Apart from the prohibition against having many gods,
of fashioning graven images, and of rest on the Sabbath, Egyptian writings show
that the commandments existed in Egyptian wisdom literature. The "forty-two
proclamations of Osiris' death" contained in the Book of the Dead were considered
as commandments before the celestial tribunal. An Egyptian had to justify his
irreproachable conduct, which included upholding seven of the ten Biblical
commandments (called the "seven laws of Noah" or "Noah's laws" in the oral
tradition).
Ramesses I and his son, Sety, accompanied the "dissidents" with the symbols
of the monotheistic religion, as well as the name of Akhenaten engraved on a
double stone tablet. The first and last word on these tablets (now in Turin
Museum, and reproduced on page 145) form "Ankh Aten," the living Aten or
Anokh Aten, Akhenaten's name, in perfect accord with the first Biblical
commandment "Anokhi Adonay." Before naming the "ten" commandments, the
Bible speaks of "the" commandment:
"Yahweh said to Moses: 'Come up to me, on the mountain, and stay here. I
will give you the stone tablets, the law and the commandment that I have written
for their instruction'" (Exodus 24:12).
Rashi explains that the "six hundred and thirteen commandments are included
in the Ten Commandments," they themselves are contained in the first. Thus the
commandment could correspond to the stone tablets of
Akhenaten consisting of a single commandment: the name of Aten, or Adonay in

the Bible. The commandment given to Moses would then be a transmission of the
pharaonic power of the sacred name. It signifies the heritage of the pharaonic
monarchy, a heritage that had to be due to Moses and not to Aaron.
The "divine characters" are hieroglyphs, since written Hebrew did not exist at
the time of the Exodus. The inscriptions of the Amarnian period, particularly the
name of Aten, are read in two ways. Rashi, Exodus 32:15: "From one side to the
other. The letters could be read from both sides. It was a miraculous work."
Stone cartouches representing the name of Aten (Turin Museum).
In the cartouche of Ramesses I, a lion is depicted (see the illustration on page 143).
Biblically the lion is the symbol of Judah: the Lion of Judah. The tribe of Judah
was Moses' army (the Levites), who had the same objectives as the leaders of
Egypt, the submission of the Canaanite territories. In Hebrew, lion is pronounced
"lavi." Moses was the son of Levi, or son of the lion, "Ben-Levi." This symbol of
power is found in the royal cartouche of Ramesses I and in the family name of
Moses.
The Lion of Judah first appears when Jacob/Israel was foretelling the future of
his sons. He had the following to say about Judah: "Thou art a
young lion, Judah, my son, who returneth with thy prey. He croucheth as a lion.
Who dares to rouse him?" (Genesis 49:9).
When Moses became an adult, he had an experience that was to change his life:
"A messenger from Adon-Ay appeared to him in a flame of fire, from the middle
of a bush. And behold the bush (seneh) was on fire. However, the bush was not
consumed" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 3:2). Did the scribes want to hide Re, the sun
god represented by the luminous disk, by the image of the burning bush? The
verse can be translated: "The fire was within the luminous sphere of Re, the sphere
(seneh) was on fire, however, it was not consumed." Moses' bush is translated by
seneh, and Fabre d'Olivet gives the following explanation: "The symbol of the
visual sphere (seneh), and of everything that is luminous."9
Ay is represented in the scribes' retelling of the story both by Joseph and
Jethro. Moses hid himself at Jethro's (Ay's) house after the murder of an Egyptian.
Then, according to Fabre d'Olivet, Moses came upon the luminous sphere (Re).
According to the Aramaic Bible, he met a messenger from Ay. After the miracle
of the bush, the words of God, addressed to Moses, were the following: "Ay spoke
to Moses saying unto him: 'I am Ay. I appeared to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as
an all powerful [El Shaday] God, and by my name of Ay. I was not known by
them" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 6:2-4). Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, that is the
monotheistic pharaohs, had not known that Ay, the Divine Father, was scheming
to become pharaoh himself. Ay was upset that his way to the throne was blocked
by the royal lineage.
Rashi's commentary on this passage deserves close attention: "I have not made
it known, but I have not been known. I have not been recognized by them in my
attribute of truth, for which reason my name is called The Eternal. That is to say,
faithful in making my words true. Because I have made promises to them, and I
have not yet fulfilled them."
The two attributes of "truth" and "fidelity in making my words true,'
correspond exactly to the symbols described in the cartouche of Pharaoh Ay: the
sign of Maat, and that of the kneeling man, dispensing the sacred word.
The royal cartouche of Ay containing the figures of Maat (Truth) as well as the symbol
meaning "fidelity in making my words true. "
The indicative "Father of the God" or "Father of the King" is written as Ytro in
Egyptian. Ay must actually have had the name Ytro, for Ytro is the Hebrew name
of Moses' father-in-law, Jethro. That is Jethro's secret. Thus, Ay's cartouches
contain simultaneously the attributes of Joseph (called Abrekh, or Father of the
King by the people) and Jethro. Following this reasoning, it seems most likely that
Joseph and Jethro were one and the same person: Pharaoh Ay.
"Adon-Ay said to Moses: 'Go to Pharaoh. For I have hardened his heart and the
hearts of his officials, so that I may place my signs [Cheteh otot] in their midst'"
In this verse, cheteh and tot mean two. "I place my signs," "cheteh otot" can
thus be translated as "my two signs." These could be the uraeus and the vulture
that Tutankhamun would wear under Ay's supervision, or equally the two
attributes of the word and the truth belonging to the Divine Father.
The Biblical texts describe the magic that Moses and Aaron performed before
Pharaoh and the royal magicians. The text refers to ancient beliefs about the power
of Pharaoh. In the Pyramid Texts the rod is a symbol of power and eternal life.10
The rod, represented by the scepter, incarnates unity, authority, the justice of Maat,
and the wisdom of Thoth.
Thoth gives life to the dead Sety I (Temple of Sety I).
When Moses appeared before Pharaoh and his magicians, his rod turned into a
serpent. Even by itself the rod inspired fear and discipline, as well as representing
transformative magic. The Egyptians believed that magic came directly from
God,11 assuring Pharaoh protection and the power of divination. The serpent,
according to the Pyramid Texts, was the intermediary between the world here
below and the heavenly world. It is the god Horus' eye of light, which, by
incorporating and sublimating itself into Pharaoh's likeness, made him truly a
divine being having power over life and death. The story of Moses' brass serpent,
which healed the rebels in the desert who were bitten by the venomous snakes
(Numbers 21:5-9), represents Pharaoh's serpent, associated with the concept of
punishment and its consequences. "Adon-Ay said to Moses: 'Make for thyself a
brass serpent, and place it on a pole. Whosoever shall have been bitten, when he
beholds it, he shall live!'" (Numbers 21:8).
The legend of the rod turning into a serpent makes sense in this way: it is a
sign of defiance toward the authority of Pharaoh. Equipped with the
same powers as Pharaoh's, Moses' rod swallowing up Pharaoh's serpents -

represents the historic victory of Ay, Horemheb and Ramesses I over the
monotheistic pharaohs.
The serpent-rod of Moses and Aaron figures in the tombs of both Ramesses I
and Horemheb. Pharaoh on Re's boat is painted with the head of a ram surmounted
by the luminous solar disk. All the functions attributed to the rod are related to the
power of Pharaoh.
Tomb of Ramesses I. The dead pharaoh shown with the head of a ram and holding his rod
is facing the serpent Mehen (an identical picture is shown in Horemheb's tomb).
The Pyramid Texts tie the rod to Pharaoh's word. Moses and Aaron present
themselves before Pharaoh with the sacred rod, the power allowing Ay to
negotiate: "Adon-Ay said to him, 'What hast thou in thy hand?' He said, 'A rod.'
He said, 'Cast it to the ground!' He cast it to the ground and it became a serpent"
There is another clue tying Moses to Pharaoh: "And the Children of Israel saw
the face of Moses, because the skin of Moses' face shone [he had horns], then
Moses replaced the veil over his face" (Exodus 34:35). Moses' shining face is a
sign of one of Pharaoh's major attributes, a being of light.
Pharaoh Sety I described his father Ramesses I as a shining being of light:
"While he was Re, the sun shining at dawn, I was at his side like a star from the
earth."12
The Yahud priests transposed into the Bible the memories of the serpent, the
rod, the horns, and the rays of light (Re), which are found in the tombs of
Horemheb and Ramesses I. Moses' veil recalls Amun, the ram god hidden under
the sacred shawl during the processions. His face hidden, shining and provided
with horns, reveals that at the end of his life, he had become Ramesses I, pharaoh
of Egypt, as shown in the mural in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
In the Aramaic Bible, Ay, desiring to assume power, was careful to validate his
authority before the people. He sent two generals to negotiate with Pharaoh to let
the monotheistic people go. "And I will harden the heart of the Egyptians and they
will enter after them [in the Sea of Reeds]; And then I shall be glorified above
Pharaoh and his entire army and his chariots and his cavalry" (Aramaic Bible,
Exodus 14:17). "The Egyptians shall know that I am Adon-Ay when I am glorified
above Pharaoh and his chariots and his horsemen" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 14:18).
By the repetition introduced in these two verses, the scribes show their real
motivations, as well as the personality of Ay. The expression "I shall be glorified
above Pharaoh" employs the Hebrew word kevod and should be read, "I shall
receive honors from Pharaoh, from his cavalry and his army, and I shall be
recognized [as God] by all of Egypt."
The second meaning of these two verses is the following: Either the Egyptians
recognize in Ay the Atenian One God and accept monotheism, in which case the
exodus is useless. Or, instead, they remain Amunians and recognize the Divine
Father Ay as the one who brought back the old gods. If the old gods were to be
brought back, Ay would have to organize an exodus of the monotheists.
The message of the Biblical scribes was that Ay, clever politician that he was,
played both sides, the Amunians and the Atenians, against each other.
When he could deport the inhabitants of Akhet-Aten, he would finally be
recognized by the Egyptian people as Pharaoh, and by the Yahuds as the One God.
Even though the child Tutankhamun reigned at the beginning of the Exodus, Ay
was still revered and glorified as a god after Akhenaten.
"Adon-Ay had found favor for the people among the Egyptians. That
man, Moses, also, was very highly considered in the land of Egypt, in the eyes of
Pharaoh's servants and in the eyes of the people" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 11:3).
The text placed between the ninth and tenth plague of Egypt shows that the
first objective of Ay and Moses was to increase their own standing with the
Egyptian people, who apparently were not very much affected by the ten plagues.
Quite to the contrary, it was the monotheists who were called "stiff-necked
people," restive and obstinate (Exodus 32:9; 33:3-5; 34:9). This expression recalls
the Amarnian art showing popular or royal people with stiff, elongated necks. The
sacred art of ancient Egypt is always present in the subconscious of the Biblical
scribes.
In history, as in the Aramaic Bible, Ay sought consideration, recognition and
honor from the servants of Pharaoh, from the army, the cavalry, the charioteers,
the whole of Egypt. The expression, "I shall be glorified above Pharaoh" (Exodus
14:17-18) reveals the intention of the Divine Father to manipulate the pharaohs
Smenkhkare and then the child Tutankhaten (Tutankhamun). He was determined
to be recognized as God by both Amunian and Atenian Egypt. Claire Lalouette
mentions that there appears to have been a co-regency of Tutankhamun and Ay, as
shown in the royal cartouches in the Temple of Karnak.13
With the death of Tutankhamun, the Eighteenth Dynasty was extinct. Pharaoh
Ay prefigured the Nineteenth Dynasty. He was associated with the return of the
Amunian orthodoxy and with the accession of Horemheb and Ramesses I.
Upon Akhenaten's death, his son Smenkhkare ascended the throne. Smenkhkare
was opposed to exiling the people of Akhet-Aten. Ay's objective was to drive the
monotheistic priests out of Egypt. In the Biblical telling of this matter we read,
"Adon-Ay said to Moses, 'Now you will see what I am going to do to Pharaoh
[Smenkhkare]. Because with a strong hand he will let them leave, and with a
strong hand he will drive them from his land" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 6:1).
Later, after Pharaohs refusal, Ay shows the strength of his authority to Moses
and Aaron: "Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh and said to him, 'Thus saith Adon-
Ay, god of the Yahuds [Yahudaeh], "How long wilt thou
refuse to humiliate thyself before me? Let my people go that they may worship
me"'" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 10:3).
The story is dealing with a power struggle between the Divine Father Ay,
governor of Egypt, and Pharaoh Smenkhkare, enthroned then at Thebes. For the
health of Egypt, and to avoid a war between Amun and Aten, the Exodus was
inevitable.
According to the Bible, Moses and Aaron did not enter the Land of Canaan. The
location of their tombs remains unknown (Deuteronomy 34:6). In Deuteronomy,
God tells Moses he will die on Mount Nebo. "Thou shalt die on the mountain
where you will be reunited with thy people, just as thy brother Aaron died on
Mount Hor and was reunited with his people" (Deuteronomy 32:50). Outside of
the Sinai (Desert of Sin,14 symbol of the moon, and of Ay), the archeologists have
never been able to locate Mounts Hor, Horeb, and Nebo.15
Did Moses and Aaron really die on the sacred mountain, "united with their
people"? Why did they disappear?
Pharaoh Horemheb (Aaron) died about two years before Ramesses I (Moses).
This coincidence between Bible and history shows why the Yahud scribes could
not go any further without revealing the true identity of Aaron and Moses.
Aaron, the older brother of Moses, died on Mount "Hor," which was
Horemheb's name (Deuteronomy 32:49-50). Shortly afterwards, Moses followed
him in death on a mountain called "Abarim" and Mount Nebo. "Abarim" has as its
root "ever," meaning "passed over to the other side." Translating it all then, we
arrive at: "Moses and Aaron returned to their past."
The Egyptian word Neb, "Lord," accompanies most of the titles of the
pharaohs of Egypt. Moses would have died on the mountain of Nebo, "his
Lordship." Hor16 (Horus) and Nebo are names attributed to Pharaoh. Mountain in
Hebrew, "Har," is pronounced phonetically "Or," light.17
To say that Moses and Aaron "died on the mountain" should be translated as a
symbolic ascension toward the light of eternity.
The Pyramid Texts affirm that Pharaoh is a being of light. The expression used
at the time, "Pharaoh mounts and rises towards the heavens,"18
explains the importance of this theme in ancient Egypt. Moses acceded to the light
of Adon-Ay, and Aaron to the light of Horus.
At the death of a pharaoh, there was a funeral chant dating back to the Old Empire
that began this way:
To navigate on the waters

In the most beautiful of all lands
To climb the mountain of the field of rest.
The mountain theme is taken up in the Bible, as we have observed before: "Moses
went inside the cloud and went up the mountain. And Moses remained on the
mountain forty days and forty nights" (Exodus 24:18).
Our previous speculation was that the verse alludes to the mourning period of
an important person: "Forty days elapsed. It takes that many days for a person to
be embalmed. The Egyptians cried [for Jacob] for seventy days" (Genesis 50:3).
At Ay's death, Ramesses and Horemheb were both pretenders to the throne of
Egypt. In the Bible, Moses accompanies Aaron and the seventy elders of Israel:
Moses and Aaron went up, accompanied by Nadab, Abihu, and the seventy
elders of Israel. They beheld the Elohim of Israel. Under their feet was a
pavement of sapphire, like the sky in appearance and in clearness. And against
the leaders of the Children of Israel, Yahwe did not raise his hand. They
contemplated Adon-Ay, and they ate and drank. (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 24:9-
10)
Are the scribes describing a traditional funeral dinner? The seventy elders and the
forty days' absence of Moses correspond to the ritual of embalming19 in ancient
Egypt. The pavement that looks like the heavens corresponds to the stone pedestal
described by Cyril Aldred, on which the mummy of the Pharaoh is "admired"
before being placed in the sarcophagus and the ceremony of the opening of the
mouth20 made by his successor.
Mummy of Makhetaten on a brick pedestal.
As the story proceeds, Moses stays with Joshua and sends Aaron and the seventy
elders back. Then he climbs Mount Sinai, symbol of royal mourning. Did Moses
(Ramesses) commit a fatal error when he sent Aaron and the seventy elders back?
Could it have cost him the kingdom? "And to the elders he said, 'Wait here until
we return to you. Here are Aaron and Hor with you. Whoever of you has problems
with another, let him go to them.' Then Moses went up on the mountain and a
cloud covered the mountain. The majesty of Adon-Ay settled on Mount Sinai"
(Aramaic Bible, Exodus 24:14-16).
The same sequence occurred historically. Ramesses remained for Ay's burial
in order to proceed to the rite of the opening of the mouth after Horemheb left.
That would explain the absence of Moses (Ramesses) among the Children of
Israel, because of his religious obligations at the death of Pharaoh Ay. Moses,
honored by his involvement in the opening of the mouth, nourished the legitimate
hope of succeeding the dead pharaoh. That hope was thwarted by Aaron
(Horemheb), who took over power with the episode of the Golden Calf. The need
for priests in the Amunian temples occasioned by the desertion of Akhet-Aten
convinced the priests to crown Horemheb. These priests are represented by the
seventy elders of the Bible. Ramesses had to wait 25 more years to become
Pharaoh Ramesses I.
The entrance to Ay's tomb.
Pictures in Pharaoh Ay's tomb make clear that when the Bible speaks of Mount
Sinai, it is, in fact referring to that tomb. In one of these pictures, Ay is hunting
quail. A papyrus bush is in front of him. The double cartouches of his name, in the
form of tablets, are broken.
Claire Lalouette reports that hunting scenes in the tombs of the kings have a
high symbolic value:
But in Egypt, hunting and fishing do not have only athletic value. They are
magic actions destined to kill in all wildlife the malevolent forces that reside
there. For the king, hunting is also an exploit that affirms his strength and
invincibility. The wild animals being assimilated into the enemies of the
empire. So it is an act of salvation, which contributes to the maintenance of the
order of the world, and the cohesion of the country.21
On the wall of the "holy of holies" in Ay's tomb, the twelve quail flying in the
same direction,22 symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel driven out of Egypt.
Consequently, the papyrus bush would symbolize Moses' bush.
Adon-Ay spoke to Moses, saying, "I have heard the murmurs of the Children
of Israel. Speak to them, saying 'In the evening, you will eat
Pharaoh Ay in a basket hunts the twelve Nile Quail with his boomerang. Fleeing the
papyrus bush, they fly in order in the same direction.
meat [quail], in the morning, you will sit down to bread. And you will know
that I am Adon-Ay, your God.'" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 16:12)
The message of the scribes is: the twelve quail will be a sign of recognition that
Ay, the God of the Aramaic Bible and in the Hebrew tradition, is the God of the
exodus from Egypt.
Was Moses' anger and his breaking the Tablets of the Law a great offence against
Adon-Ay? Was this a message from the scribes? Was Ramesses I responsible for
breaking up the double cartouches of Ay inside the funerary chamber, the holy of
holies of his tomb?
"And Moses' anger flared up. He threw from his hands the tablets [of Adon-Ay],
and broke them at the foot [tahat] of the mountain" (Exodus 32:19).
Aaron, as high priest, became a favorite of Jethro (Ay) (Aramaic Bible,
Exodus 18:12) and succeeded him, inciting Moses' anger. In the same way, in the
history of ancient Egypt, Horemheb succeeded Ay, preceding Ramesses I on the
throne. This would give Ramesses I a stronger motive to destroy Ay's cartouches
than Horemheb: Horemheb hadn't any reason to
Ay's tomb. The king's cartouches are broken.
destroy them, since he had been favored, designated as regent of the kingdom in
Tutankhamun's time, he succeeded Pharaoh Ay. Consequently, Ramesses I
chiseled out the cartouches bearing Ay's name. Hence Exodus 32:19 - Moses
broke the tablets "under" (tahat) the mountain.
Hathor (Re), Ay's fiancee, and Ay's rod (Tomb of Ay).

If Mount Sinai and Ay's tomb are one and the same place, where did the historical
episode of the Golden Calf occur? We have seen that that event occurred just prior
to Horemheb's coronation. History relates that he was consecrated king of Egypt
at Thebes, by Horus of Hutnesut23 and Amun-Re, and not in the desert. Claire
Lalouette mentions the words engraved in the temple of Montu at Karnak: "I have
been installed king [Horemheb], God bowed his head, we see face to face before
the entire earth. That was ordered in the heavens and heard in Karnak."24
Funerary chamber with the broken sarcophagus of Ay (Tomb of Ay).
Aaron (Horemheb) and Moses (Ramesses) would have returned to Egypt,

accompanied by the artist-priest caste in order to create the funerary articles
needed for the royal burial. These were the ark, tabernacle, planks, horned incense
altar, chandelier or sema-tauy, the golden altar, offering table, tent, curtain, purple
and scarlet materials of fine linen, the sacred vestments, the oil lamps, the offering
bread, the golden pectoral, the sacred diadem, gold rings, and the robe of the High
Priest. These objects are depicted in the second part of the Book of Exodus and
agree precisely with the treasures discovered in Tutankhamun's tomb. The Bible
even tells of "the basin and its stand" (Exodus 40:11), recalling the granite coffin
of the pharaohs.
Horemheb was crowned Pharaoh. Ramesses was named Vizier and High
Priest of Egypt. The power struggle was over.
After all these explanations, it would be as well to examine the hypothesis of the
murder of the Egyptian by Moses and Moses' flight to Jethro, as well as the
Burning Bush. The line of reasoning that follows is one recognized by the
Cabalists.
The turning point in the life of the young Moses, Prince of Egypt, took place
at the murder of the Egyptian. The Biblical tradition suggests that it was a conflict
with a foreman who had struck a Hebrew that caused Moses to kill him. Exodus
2:11: "He [Moses] struck the Egyptian." Later, the Bible announces the death of
the "King of Egypt": "In the course of those many years the King of Egypt died"
(Exodus 2:23).
It is not the same account that is given in the long rabbinical oral tradition,
which affirms that it was not a case of just any Egyptian being killed by Moses,
but rather of a very important person, perhaps even the pharaoh of Egypt.
Moreover, it was because of this murder that Moses did not have the right to enter
the Promised Land.
Was Akhenaten the Egyptian struck by Moses?
The Book of the Zohar affirms that the Egyptian killed by Moses was, in fact,
an "important man";25 Moses, called "he who was fetched forth from the waters,"
seized the Egyptian's spear. The Egyptian was "that important man who was the
splendor of the light that illuminateth Israel." Rashi (Exodus 2:14) teaches that
Moses struck the Egyptian while pronouncing the Divine Name.26 It is the only
case in the Bible where Moses uses the Divine Name, since he had not yet
encountered the revelation of God (Adon-Ay) in the desert. What is the nature of
the name formulated by Moses?
According the Midrash,27 Moses pronounced "the name of the One," (in
Hebrew, Shem Ameyuhad). This is the attribute inscribed inside the royal
cartouche of Akhenaten, "the Oneness of Re."
Although all the monotheistic pharaohs were dead at the time of the
mysterious circumstances, only Pharaoh Akhenaten, having Smenkhkare as his co-
regent, could be considered the one who "was killed" by the hand of Moses.
Consequently, the verses "the pharaoh who did not know Joseph" and "the King of
Egypt died" do not speak of the same pharaoh. These verses are the Biblical
confirmation of the historical co-regency between
Akhenaten and Smenkhkare - a co-regency which was not approved of by the

Divine Father. According to the Biblical tale, Ay's objective was to convince the
new pharaoh, Smenkhkare, by tentative complicity, that the only course of action
was to drive the monotheistic priests out of Egypt.
Ay said to Moses: "Now wilt thou see what I will do to Pharaoh. For with a
strong hand, he will let them leave. And with a strong hand he will drive them
out of his land. " (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 6:1)
An emissary from Adon-Ay appeared to him in a flame of fire, in the middle

of a bush. And he beheld that the bush [seneh] was on fire, yet the bush was
not consumed. (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 3:2)
Moses' "bush" is translated from seneh - "sun" in English. Fabre d'Olivet

gives the following explanation. "The symbol of the visual sphere [seneh], and of
every luminous influence."28
Did the scribes wish to hide the sun god Re through the image of the Burning
Bush? The verse can be translated: "The fire was inside the luminous sphere of Re,
the sphere was on fire, yet it was not consumed."
Moses took refuge in the house of Jethro (Ay) after the murder of the
Egyptian. Then, according to the Hebrew Bible and Fabre d'Olivet, he entered into
a relationship with the "luminous sphere (Re)" and according to the Aramaic
Bible, he encountered "Ay's emissary."
In historical terms, General Ramesses fled to the house of the Divine Father
Ay, after the murder of an Egyptian of very great importance. Would that person
have been Akhenaten?
The statement God gave to Moses, "I shall be who I shall be" "Ehieh Asher
Ehieh" (Exodus 3:14), invoked by Ay in the Aramaic, translates the Divine
Father's political and religious determination: I shall be a god of Egypt.
Notes
1. Mainly the legend of Sargon of Akkadia, but also of Gilgamesh, Cyrus, etc.
2. The Egyptian legend of Sinuheh.
3. Lionel Casson, Ancient Egypt, The Great Ages of Man. Time, 1969, p. 79.
Grasset and Fasquelle, 1998, p. 257.
5. Nicole Maya Malet, Moise hebreu, Moise egyptien. Revue d'ethique et de theologie morale. Le
Cerf, 1997, p. 143.
6. Plutarch, Isis and Osiris. Translated by Jean Meunier. La Maisnie, 1992.
7. Pierre Grander, Cours d'Egyptien hieroglyphique. Kheops, 1997, p. 764.
8. Dominique Valbelle, Histoire de l'Etat Pharaonique. PUF, 1998, p. 288.
9. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restituee. L'Age d'Homme-Delphica, 1991, p.92.
10. Translation by Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte, pp. 102-17, 146.
11. Albert Soued, Les symboles dans la Bible. Jacques Grancher, 1995, pp. 174-6.
12. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, Ramses II la veritable histoire. Pygmalion, 1996, p. 68 (notes):
"This text was engraved on the pedestal of a statue of Ramesses I dedicated in the temple of
Medamud (south of Luxor)."
14. The Egyptian root "Sn" means uncle or relative, among other meanings. Ay would be the father or
father-in-law of Moses and Horemheb. According to Fabre d'Olivet, "Sn" is also the luminous disk,
symbol of Re, "sun" in English. Consequently, Moses' bush (seneh in Hebrew) would be the sphere
of the sun that burns without being consumed.
15. These words are all Egyptian: Hor = Horus; Horeb = "Horus is celebrating"; Nebo = "His Lord."
Mount Nebo is located in the Land of Moab (present-day Jordan).
16. Horus is actually read as Hor in Egyptian. Christian Jacq, Grammaire igyptienne de Champollion.
Solin, 1997, p. 39.
17. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restituee, p. 39.
18. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de I'Ancienne Egypte, p. 78.
20. The successor to a dead pharaoh approached his mummified body and inserted an instrument into
the pharaoh's mouth, which transferred power from the dead pharaoh to his successor.
21. Claire Lalouette, Thebes ou la naissance d'un empire, p. 471.
22. Classical hunting scenes of the Middle and New Empire, as well as in the royal tombs, represent a
variety of birds flying in all directions, never in order as in the example in Ay's tomb.
23. Claire Lalouette, Thebes ou la naissance d'un empire, p. 574. Hutnesut is formed from Hoten,
meaning father-in-law, and from Sut, king of Egypt. Jethro was the "hoten" of Moses.
24. Ibid.
25. The Book of the Zohar, Ten Collected Stories, Vol. 1. Verdier, 1981.
26. Rashi, The Pentateuch According to Rashi, Exodus. Samuel and Odette Levy, 1990, Appendix
p.11.
27. Ibid., p.353.
28. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restituee, p.92.
CHAPTER 18
Joshua and Sety
In Chapter 33 of the Book of Exodus, we meet a young man who becomes one of
the great warriors of the Bible. "And Adon-Ay [God] spoke with Moses face to
face, as one man speaks with another. And Moses returned to the camp. But
Joshua, son of Nun, his young aide, did not leave the inside of the tent" (Aramaic
Bible, Exodus 33:11).
Joshua ben-Nun appears to be the character devised by the scribes to tell the
story of the Egyptian Pharaoh Sety I. The word "Nun" ties the pharaoh in with the
Egyptian creation story.
In earlier chapters dealing with the Egyptian creation story, we encountered
the word Nun. The Egyptian meaning of the word is found in the Pyramid Texts.1
It is the primordial ocean, the original place which gave birth to everything, and
the cradle where each pharaoh was born: "Pharaoh was conceived in the
primordial energy [Nun], before the existence of the heavens and the earth." Like
the God of the Bible, Pharaoh existed before the creation of the universe.
Pharaoh Sety Is name also reads as "Seth." The words "Seth" and "Sety" are
identical in the Egyptian language. Seth means "great in strength."2
Joshua and Sety I 163
Double cartouche of Pharaoh Sety I = Shad-Ay (Sety) loved by Ptah and Nun: Men
(emanation of) Maat and of Re.
The Biblical scribes give hints here that Joshua son of Nun was in fact a powerful
pharaoh, the great Egyptian military hero Sety I.
Yahu-Shua, son of Nun. The Great God Shaday, beloved of Ptah and Nun.
Yahu-Shua ben Nun (Joshua son of Nun).
The Bible presents Joshua as Moses' young, loyal aide (Exodus 33:11), having the
right to enter the sacred tent, a privilege reserved for Moses and Aaron. Joshua
must have had a status superior to that of "just an aide," eved, meaning slave in the
sense of being dedicated to a cult. Who was Joshua that he could enter the sacred
tent? The scribes are indicating that Joshua was Moses' son.
Ramesses I was the father of Sety I. When the scribes described Joshua as the
"aide, son of Nun", they were hiding the fact that he was Moses' son. The father-
son relationship holds in the historical and Biblical reports.
The Bible relates that Joshua conquered 31 fortified cities (in Canaan and
Phoenicia), one of which was named Kedesh (Joshua 12:22). In fact the Bible
mentions a number of other cities, indicating that Joshua had the power to conquer
the entire region. The cities he defeated were distributed among the twelve tribes
of Israel, Judah being granted the "lion's share." The territories of Judah adjoined
Egypt, which gave them assurance of Pharaoh's protection.
The campaign undertaken by Joshua after Moses' death corresponds with the
historical conquests of Pharaoh Sety I in Canaan and in Phoenicia after the death
of Ramesses I. According to Claude Vandersleyen, Sety I, with his son Ramesses
II as co-regent, began his Asian Campaign right after his coronation.3 As reported
for Joshua, Sety I attacked Kedesh, a former Egyptian fortress north of Galilee that
had been captured by the Hittites. The city was liberated and once more came
under Egyptian domination. In the Bible the city was consecrated after its re-
capture (Joshua 20:7).
The many cities taken by Sety I during his campaign - Megiddo, Lachish,
Beth-Shean, Yenoam, Geder, Tyre, etc. correspond to those reportedly taken by
Joshua.4 The Book of Joshua declares that until that time, the Hittites were present
in the region. According to Claude Vandersleyen, "The kings of Jerusalem, of
Hebron, of Jarmuth, of Lachish, and of Eglon were Amorites (Joshua 10:5);
Hittites and Amorites are found in the hill country of Judah (Numbers 13:29). This
area corresponds to the lands traversed by Sety I and is confirmed by the texts at
Karnak."5 The battle campaigns of Joshua would never have been permitted by the
Egyptians unless he was an ally, at the very least.
According to John Adams Wilson, Sety I had to confront a coalition of Canaanite

kings in the course of his military campaign:
He knew that the princes of Upper Jordan had formed a coalition. Sety's
answer was worthy of Egypt's military reputation. "His Majesty
dispatched towards Hamath the first division of Amun, powerful bowmen; the
second division of Re, valorous men all, left from the city of Beishan [Beth-
Shean], and towards Jenoam, he dispatched the first division of Seth, strong in
bows."6
Four of the cities are found close to the Jordan, south of the Sea of Galilee. Sety
attacked them before taking Kedesh, thus holding back the Hittite advance.
The campaign led by Joshua was similar. He crossed the Jordan in order to
take the neighboring cities from behind. The Bible relates a coalition of the
Canaanite kings comparable to the coalition against Sety I: "Adonizedek, King of
Jerusalem sent to Hoham, King of Hebron, to Piram, King of Jarmuth, to Jalphira,
King of Lachish, and to Debir, King of Eglan, to tell them, 'Come to me and lend
me a hand, that we may attack Gibeon, because it has made peace with Joshua and
the Israelites'" (Joshua 10:3).
It can be seen that the strength and organization of Joshua's armies were like
the Egyptian armies. Joshua, like Sety I, took the city of Kedesh, north of Galilee,
using an identical strategy.
Sety I had his great military exploits portrayed on a wall of the hypostyle room of
Karnak. His exploits are detailed as well on stelae. Two stelae discovered at Beth-
Shean confirm his triumph over Canaan.
Joshua also set up stelae; history and the Bible appear to be describing the
same person. When Joshua, "separating the waters," led the Children of Israel
through the River Jordan, he ordered a memorial of twelve stones to be erected: "If
your sons ask you in the future, saying, 'Why are these stones here?' you are to say
to them, 'The waters of the Jordan were rolled back before the Ark of the Covenant
of Adonay. These stones shall serve as a memorial of this event for the sons of
Israel forever" (Joshua 4:6).
At the end of his campaign, before his return to Egypt, Joshua/Sety had a stela
engraved:
Then Joshua wrote these words in the Book of the Law of the Elohim. He took
a large stone and set it up there, under the great tree which is
near the sanctuary of Adonay. Joshua said to the people, "Behold! This stone
shall serve as a witness against you if you renounce the Elohim." Then Joshua
sent the people away, each to his own inheritance. (Joshua 24:26-28)
Whether reading the history book or the Bible, we learn that, either by the military
campaigns of Sety I or of Joshua, Egypt extended its borders, with the land of
Judah buffering the middle. There was not any war between Egypt and Judah after
the settlement of the Yahud priests and the Erev-rav (Israel), in the northern
territories, in the "Security Zone" against the Hittites, a common enemy. Judah and
Israel then were certainly under Egyptian protection.
If the Egyptians were upset with the slaves who had escaped into the northern
territories, they could quite easily have avenged themselves by fighting and
conquering the people who had miraculously crossed the Red Sea. History
demonstrates that the Judahite priests still remained Egyptian subjects. The
successors of the Aten pharaohs, the Ramessides, honored the alliances of Ay and
Ramesses I, distributing the provinces to the south to Judah (Yahuday) and those
to the north to Israel (Erev-rav).
After the death of Sety I, his son, Ramesses II, followed his pacification
mission in Canaan as far as Kedesh. He also conquered other cities for the Yahuds.
An archeological indication found on a pylon of the Temple of Luxor describes
how Ramesses II delivered citadels to the Judahites. Christiane Desroches
Noblecourt comments on the meaning:
And these were the citadels which, according to the Bible, refused passage to
the Hebrews. It is interesting to think that Ramesses appeared to attack citadels
which did not want to open their doors to the Hebrews, at least, to the so-called
Hebrews. So he [Ramesses II] was very interested in having the Hebrews in
these citadels. He had allies there who spoke Egyptian.7
(In actual fact, the Yahud priests spoke Egyptian, but the common people, the
Erev-rav, used the new language, the holy language of the monotheists, Hebrew.)
The story of Joshua is always associated with the Battle of Jericho, where the walls
came tumbling down when the trumpets were sounded. Trumpets or bugles were
part of the military paraphernalia of the Canaan Campaign. "Then Adon-Ay spoke
to Moses saying, 'Have two silver trumpets made. Thou shalt have them made of
hammered work, and they shall serve thee to summon the assembly and to break
[military] camp" (Numbers 10:1).
The Biblical description recalls Tutankhamun's silver trumpets described by
Nicolas Reeves: "In the antechamber Tutankhamun's military trumpets were
placed: the first one of hammered silver except for the mouthpiece and for the trim
of the bell which were made of curved gold leaf."8
Silver military trumpets found in Tutankhamun's tomb.
The trumpets, the military conquests, and the bloodthirsty battles described in the
Bible are confirmed by archeology and history. The name of the general, however,
turns out to be not Joshua, but Sety I.
Notes
Grasset and Fasquelle, 1998.
2. Robert Thibaud, Dictionnaire de mythologie et symbolique egyptienne. Dervy, 1966, p. 320.
3. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Ramses II, la veritable histoire. Pygmalion, 1996.
4. Joshua 12:21.
7. Nicole Maya Malet, Moise hebreu, Mo'ise egyptien. Revue d'ethique et de theologie morale.
Le Cerf, 1997, p. 143.
8. Nicolas Reeves, The Discovery of Tutankhamun. Thames and Hudson, 1990, p. 164.
CHAPTER 19
The Masai Exodus
A commentary of Rashi regarding the city of Babel tells us: "The language was
confounded, the people were dispersed from the valley and were spread out across
the entire world."
Was the drama of the city of Akhet-Aten, which was bound to the cult of the
One God, an event limited to the Biblical Exodus, or was it a phenomenon with
worldwide repercussions? Does archeological data exist which sketches an outline
of another exodus? When considering the pyramids of Central America and the
sacred writing of the Incas, scholars have hypothesized a migration of people who
came from Egypt. They point to the aptitude of the Egyptian sailors at the end of
the Eighteenth Dynasty to confront the oceans.
There is a people with traditions going back thousands of years, living in
Kenya and Tanzania, who have engraved in their past a story analogous to that of
the Bible - the Masai. How did the Masai come to espouse a Biblical monotheism
with divine names analogous to those of the Egyptian gods? Are they the forgotten
Africans, monotheists driven out of Egypt by the Divine Father Ay? Was there a
Masai Exodus?
On the Stela of the Return of Amun it is written: "He [Tutankhamun, directed
by Ay] drove out deceit from one end of the two lands to the other. And Maat was
re-established; the deceit became an abomination in the land, as it was before."
The Stela indicates that the Divine Father directed one exodus to the north and one
to the south.
When the venerable Masai priests are asked about the origin of their people,
they enter into a kind of trance, looking into the distance, frozen in an ancestral
past transmitted from the earliest times. Looking toward
the north, they recount how God one day had "driven them out of the Garden of
Eden," the paradise lost, the land of the white bird (the sacred ibis) for having
eaten the forbidden fruit. God pointed his finger toward the south, designating the
Holy Land, and gave them an inheritance of all the cows in the land. The Masai
say, "God gave us cattle and grass. Without grass, there are no cattle, and without
cattle there are no Masai."1
God promised them a land flowing with milk and honey. At the time of that
exodus, the people remember having resolutely crossed the cataracts of the Nile.
Their legend relates that they climbed up a "sacred ladder" before discovering the
holy land and the pastures promised by God. Seeing the fertile lands of East
Africa, they sent out scouts, as in the Bible story. The land that flows with milk
and honey was there; the divine promise was realized. That legend is revealed by
Tepilit Ole Saitoti, an English author of Masai origin:
It is believed that the Masai originated from the north and emigrated along the
Nile to East Africa, to arrive in Kenya near Lake Turkana (previously Lake
Rudolph) around the fifteenth century. The story of their arrival and the
extreme difficulties which they encountered doubtlessly constitute the oldest
memory that the oral tradition has transmitted through the mouths of the
elders.
In fact, the Masai oral tradition goes back quite a bit further. It is, in every point,
comparable to that of the Yahuds. They had to worship their One God, Enkay or
Ankh-Ay, in exchange for his protection and blessing. The master of the heavens
and the earth, he is not pictured in any drawing or sculpture. Another name for
their god is "Motoni," the god who is "male and female,"2 containing the root
Aten. "Aamon" or "Naamoni" appear equally in the Masai language, meaning "I
pray." In the Egyptian language "Naamoni" is the symbol for Thebes.
As in the Bible story of Jacob and Esau, the Masai have in their religious
stories the tale of the inheritance going to the younger son who was loved by his
mother. The younger son received his father's blessing first, to the detriment of the
elder brother. Relics of the oral tradition are jealously conserved, since the Masai
have no scripture or sacred book.
The Masai Exodus 171
Amenhotep IV's Medzay police Masai warriors with

(talatate from Karnak). lances.
The Masai people have always called themselves "The Elect of God" (or the
Chosen People), proudly preserving their heritage and resisting, like the Yahuds,
all assaults of other beliefs. They use the Egyptian name of Mess-Ay, "Sons of
Ay," which is close to the word Medzay, the name of African police of Akhet-
Aten. These police assured the maintenance of order in the capital, obedient to
their god-king Akhenaten, and forming a monotheistic army feared to the limits of
the empire. The Amarna Letters3 attest to the efficacy of the Nubian troops and of
the Kashi soldiers (from the Land of Kush in the south of Egypt) under
Amenhotep III and Akhenaten:
May my Lord [Akhenaten] send me 100 men and 100 Kashi soldiers and
thirty chariots, that I might guard my Lord's land until an important force of
bowmen arrive, in order that my Lord can recapture the land of Amuru for
himself, and that the people here may be safe. (EA 127)
The sacred plain where the Masai have established themselves has the name
Massay Mara -"beloved sons of Ay," "son of Ay who resides in Ra
(Re)." In Egyptian, the root masha means troop or army,4 which is related to
Hebrew "mass" head of an army (Exodus 1:11: the sareh-missim were the princes
in charge of forced labor for Pharaoh). On Mount Lengay, a mountain sacred to
God located in Tanzania, in a territory reserved for the priests, the One God of the
Masai resides. At the base of the mountain the people come, as in the Bible, to
sacrifice a lamb.
The name of the Masai god, Engay or Enkay, comes from the Egyptian Anok-
Ay, "I am Ay," translated as Ana Ay by the Aramaic Bible. Nan-Ay, which is in
the Masai prayers, means "the Great God" and "the Great Ay" in Egyptian. The
common expression of the different names for the name of the god of the Masai,
then, is the god of ancient Egypt, the Divine Father Ay.
Following the example of the Yahuds and Egyptians, the Masai are organized
into twelve tribes, each one living in its own territory with a chief and a high
priest. Their principal nourishment is based on milk and honey. Like the ancient
Egyptian priests they have a horror of fish, and do not mix milk and meat.5 The
young men are circumcised at thirteen. The circumcision and the piercing of the
ears have a religious meaning, coming from the ancestral tradition of Egypt. The
passage to the age of adulthood, including the rights of maturity and
responsibilities before God, is accompanied by a new name given by the priest. It
is associated with the intensive development of the Masai warrior. After seven
years, he shaves his hair (like the Egyptian priests), putting an end to the active
period of his youth. He is consecrated from then on to a contemplative and
religious life, that of the elders, who are made strong by their wisdom and
experience, and will later become the Laibon - Masai priests. The oldest of them
receives, again, a new name, parallel with the history of Akhenaten. The
meditative ardor of the priests is a source of harmony between the Masai men and
the African flora and fauna. This perfect symbiosis between a people and nature
finds its origin in the principles of Egyptian wisdom and in the Hymns to Aten.
Red, a color sacred to the Masai, recalls the "red cloth of Upper Egypt"
described in the Pyramid Texts,6 and the red of the crown of Lower Egypt. Visible
from afar, it is a symbol of divine protection. Although the Masai warriors are
known all over Africa for the fear which they inspire, they are also known for the
nobility of heart extended to their guests. Their clothing
and jewelry have a practical and religious meaning in relation with Egyptian
symbols. The Masai headband is frequently arranged with ornaments in the form
of a serpent, like the uraeus of Pharaoh. It is remarkable to observe on most of
their ornaments, diadems, and other jewelry, a symbol in the form of a circle
pierced in its center, an analog of the hieroglyphic sign of Re. A serpent decorated
by pearls and a spread-winged bird sometimes emerges from the circle. The
symbolic value of this bird insignia, a sign of Re, recalls the Egyptian god Re
Horakhty (represented by a falcon surmounted by the sign of Re). The Masai god
has the same name, "bird of prey," in the prayer "God, protect me by thy wings."
Masai woman laden with sacred

ornaments. On the headband and the
pectoral are symbols of the Egyptian
gods. The earrings are in the form of a Masai hairstyle, ending in a point
royal cartouche. like Pharaoh's shawl.
Bracelets are worn in the Egyptian manner on the arms and forearms. The Masai
pectoral, made up of various multicolored parts, is reminiscent of Pharaoh's
pectoral. The hair of the warriors, carefully braided with a Nubian look, is
analogous to that of the police of Akhet-Aten. The hair comes to a point in the
back, evoking Pharaoh's shawl. The arms, the lance, the bow, the dagger, the
shield of animal skin, the round-edged bludgeon, the Masai sandals, the tools of
wood and forged iron are identical to those found in Tutankhamun's tomb.
Medzay warriors and police in Akhenaten's time (talatate of Karnak). Their

hairstyle recalls that of the Masai warriors.
An ancient legend relates that the god Engay had three sons. To the first, he made
the gift of a bow to hunt (like Abel) and he offered to the second a hoe to work the
earth (Cain). To his third son, called Natero-Kop (Neter = God; Kop = Khof =
serpent), he gave the sacred rod of the shepherd. Natero-Kop became the Father of
the Masai.
There is a tradition concerning the sacrifice of a ram at the time of a birth. The
midwives pray a psalm in honor of the new-born, beginning with "Na-Amoni
Aaay-Ay," "I pray for whom I pray" (Amon-Ay). This custom is similar to the
ritual of birthing practiced in the workers' village of Akhet-Aten. As in ancient
Egypt and among the Hebrews, red cows are sacred and their sacrifice is reserved
for ancestral ceremonies.
The Masai have retained the morning and evening prayer glorifying the
morning and evening star. According to tradition, the Masai follow the sun's
course. While the officiant presides at the prayer, the assembly listens in silence. It
answers with one voice at the end of each blessing, by the sound of "Heh," the
Egyptian and Hebrew symbol for the divine breath. The prayer consists of
thanking God for the benefits received on earth, and in asking for material goods.
But, above all, it is a homage to the beauty of nature and its delight. It is very
similar to many contemplative themes in the Hymns to Aten.
The Masai follow an oral set of ethics comparable to the Biblical Ten
Commandments. It is forbidden to worship other gods, to kill, to commit adultery,
to steal and covet the belongings of others. False testimony and
lying are regarded as abominations. Love of truth and respect due to parents are
two of the most ancient traditions. The divine presence watches over the elders,
particularly over the Laibon priest.
One of the first English explorers of the Masai country, Sidney Hind, reports
in his book, The Last of the Masais (1910): "The Masai learn very rapidly. Their
race is intelligent and can be trusted. And an adult Masai will never steal or lie. He
may refuse to answer a question, but once he has given you his word, you can trust
it."
The Festival of Eunoto is a ceremony resembling some Biblical traditions,
where the warrior must produce a particular trumpet sound on the horn of a kudu.
This sound, along with that of bells hanging on the officiant's thigh, produce an
effect of exaltation on the assembly. The High Priest of the Jerusalem Temple who
sounds the ram's horn or Shofar, wears bells sewed to his vestments.
Although the hieroglyphs conserved by the Masai are rare, they still do exist.
Other than the Re glyph traditionally worn on the forehead, there are others in
symbolic form. For example, a crossed circle is applied to the cattle as a sign of
ownership. This is like the Egyptian pictogram designating a city or a country.
Some Masai wear above the Re sign the double line, the symbol of the two lands
of ancient Egypt.
The warriors wear a headband displaying the sign of Re and of the two lands.
Protective sign of the Masai warrior.

A protective symbol, identical to the Egyptian royal cartouches, is worn by the
warriors at kidney level. The form of this symbol recalls the Tablets of the Law.
The name of God is very important among the Masai, as it was among the Yahud
monotheists. The two cartouches associated with the belief in a single god come
from an ancient memory, that of the two cartouches of the name of Aten.
There are still other symbols on the animal skin shields. The most frequent
one is the broken line, the image of the primordial ocean.
As in ancient Egypt, the death of a Masai is considered a great voyage. The
dead person carries with him his shepherd staff and his personal effects. As in the
Bible, the children mourn for thirty days. The Laibon is buried after the sacrifice
of a bull or sheep. His tomb is covered over with stones piled in a pyramid.
Tradition teaches that the chief's soul reappears a while after death, in the form of
a sacred serpent.
The Laibon High Priest, guarantor of the oral tradition, has the duty of
transmitting the teaching of the fathers. Every day, the elders instruct the
youngsters, and it is the school of life and of nature that forms the curriculum. The
Laibon, like the Egyptian high priest, is dressed in an animal skin attesting to his
social status (like Ay in Tutankhamun's tomb). The rod and the fly-whisk, proudly
born by the Laibon, are the two principal signs of his authority. They correspond
to the fly-whisks and sacred scepter of Pharaoh. A cylinder represents the royal
seal of Pharaoh.
Laibon carrying the fly-whisk and sacred rod

of the Masai.
Laibon, which is close to the name Laban, the Biblical name of Amenhotep III, is
composed of El (God), Ay, and Amun. Since these elements show an Egyptian
origin for the Masai, an in-depth linguistic study would certainly provide
additional proofs of the similarities to the ancient Egyptian language.
The Masai, a people not known in the Biblical Exodus, are nonetheless an
integral part of the historical exodus. They were present in Akhet-Aten and, like
the Yahud priests, had to accept a territorial compromise with the reigning god-
king, the Divine Father Ay. The powerful clergy of Akhet-Aten, with its army,
would never have accepted leaving the Holy Land. The Divine Father had the idea
of separating the people from its police and from its army by a second exodus
toward Africa. The new king, Smenkhkare, could not stop the greatest human
drama in Egyptian history - the exodus of the monotheists.
Notes
1. Carole Beckwith, Les Massai's, Tepilit Ole Saitoti. Le Chene, 1980, p. 29.
2. Ibid., p. 20.
3. Les lettres d'ElAmarna, EA 95. Le Cerf, 1987, pp. 127, 131.
4. Pierre Grandet and Bernard Mathieu, Cours d'egyptien hieroglyphique. Kheops, 1997, p. 764.
5. Carole Beckwith, Les Massai's, Tepilit Ole Saitoti, p. 20.
6. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte, selon les textes des pyramides.
Grasset & Fasquelle, 1998, p. 162.
CHAPTER 20
The Pharaoh of Peace
The pharaoh of the Bible is called only "the pharaoh who had not known Joseph."
The first words of this pharaoh merit close attention:
He said to his people: "Behold! The people of the Children of Israel are more
numerous and stronger than we are. Come, let us strive against them, for fear
that they will multiply more, and if war should come, they would join our
enemies and fight us, and they would leave the land. " (Aramaic Bible,
Exodus 1:9)
According to Rashi, Pharaoh feared being driven out of Egypt himself. Pharaoh, in
the situation of being in a minority, wanted to preserve himself and his people
from an exodus. The expression "they would leave the land," veala min aarets, was
translated by the sages of the Jewish Midrash as "we will leave Aretz." This meant
we, the minority, the marginal ones, the monotheists, will be driven out of Akhet-
Aten. Consequently, Pharaoh warned his subjects, the inhabitants of Akhet-Aten,
about the growth of power of another people of the empire, designated in the Bible
as "the Children of Israel" (the sons of the god Re).
The majority of the rest of Amunian Egypt was governed by the Divine Father
Ay. These Children of Israel were disturbed by the intentions of Pharaoh and the
monotheists. The interpretation of the end of the verse above shows that Amunian
Egypt began to ally itself with Pharaoh's enemies. The people outside the sacred
city were favorably disposed toward the poly-theist armies of Ay. Archeological
studies show that Pharaoh Smenkhkare, caught in a trap, searched out a
compromise with Ay and Amunian Egypt.
The Pharaoh of Peace 179
"The servants of Pharaoh said to him, 'How many times will he [Moses] be a
trap to us? Let these people go, that they may serve Adon-Ay their God. Do you
not yet know that Egypt is lost?'" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 10:7).
The many similarities between the Bible, the oral tradition, the commentaries of
the sages, and Egyptian history, testify to the existence of a first Hebrew Torah,
now lost. It revealed the history of the Yahuds. The Yahuds, so as not to lose the
memory of their past, wrote down in their sacred book the tale of the exodus from
Egypt as they had lived it in the latter days of Akhet-Aten. Modified from century
to century, depending on the dominant kings and gods, the Torah became
progressively a Mesopotamian history of the Hebrews.
There were those who complained about this practice: "How can you say, 'We
are sages and the Torah of Yahwe is with us?' Yes, but the false pen of the scribes
has made a lie of it!" (Jeremiah 8:8).
The original Torah was the history of ancient Egypt, reported by the Yahuds.
Relying on the writings in the Theban tomb of Pauah, a priest of Amun and a
contemporary of Smenkhkare, Philipp Vandenberg describes that Smenkhkare
began to have a temple built in honor of Amun. "It is possible, also, that the
pharaoh [Smenkhkare] had recognized how difficult it was to convert the Egyptian
people to a single, unique god. They had been offering sacrifices to their local
gods for thousands of years."1
Smenkhkare, wanting to perpetuate the monotheistic tradition, was opposed to
the departure of the Yahud priests. He ardently searched for a compromise with
Amunian Egypt. For that reason, he left his capital, Akhet-Aten, where he lived in
security. He made himself vulnerable by going to Thebes, a fiefdom of the Divine
Father Ay. Smenkhkare was unaware of the ambitions of the Divine Father and of
his "nephews," Generals Horemheb (Aaron) and Ramesses (Moses). Outside
Akhet-Aten, political power had for a long time belonged to the family of the
Divine Father Ay.
In the Book of Exodus, Pharaoh refuses to let the Yahud priests go, in spite of
nine plagues, which symbolize the catastrophic state of Amunian
Egypt left behind by Akhenaten. This situation is described in the Stela of the
Return. The tenth plague, which relates to the death of Smenkhkare, the firstborn
of Akhenaten, reveals the existence of the plot that was brewing.
Scholars concluded that the journey to Thebes was a sign of appeasement for
all the Egyptian people. In the Bible, Pharaoh undertook to regain national
cohesion by great construction projects. Amenhotep III is reported to have said, "It
is my heart that has inspired me to execute work projects with the best men of my
army."2 Pharaoh's words here sound like the order the Biblical pharaoh gave to
Moses and Aaron, telling them to continue the work projects: "Pharaoh said to
them, 'Why did you lay the people off from their work? Get back to work!'"
(Exodus 5:4).
Egyptologists discovered in Tutankhamun's tomb some headbands that came
from Smenkhkare's tomb, from which Smenkhkare's name had been scraped off.
Christiane Desroches Noblecourt writes: "Several specialists agree in thinking that
his [Smenkhkare's] sepulcher was, a few years later, pillaged by Ay, to
Tutankhamun's benefit."3
According to Pierre Grandet, Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun were pressured
to return to the ancient polytheistic religion,4 and Howard Carter was intrigued by
the subject also: "It appears that the return of Tutankhamun to the old faith was not
entirely dictated by conviction."5
Since Tutankhamun was around eight years old at this time, it is certain that
the intrigue to seize power related to the return of Amunian orthodoxy, could only
have been fomented by Ay and his family.
Smenkhkare's cartouche always carries the name of Aten, even though the
compromise with Amun had already been concluded. After Akhenaten's death
conflict erupted between his successor Smenkhkare and the Divine Father Ay.
This conflict was described in the Book of Exodus. The compromise is attested to
by Tutankhamun's mummy, which displays the principal symbols of both the
Amunian and Atenian religions.
"A new king arose over Egypt, one who did not know Joseph" (Exodus 1:8).
Rashi's commentary, as brief as it is surprising, is nonetheless evocative of
historical memories. "He pretended he did not know him." Tradition affirms that
Joseph was still living in this pharaoh's time, which does suggest that there was
conflict between Joseph and Pharaoh.
When the new pharaoh came to the throne, Ay was still considered to be a
servant and not a divine being superior to pharaoh. Historically, the
deified Ay corresponded with Smenkhkare by way of intermediaries: Generals

Horemheb and Ramesses. The conflict broke out when Pharaoh refused to
recognize Ay as a divinity of Egypt: "But Pharaoh said, 'Who is Ay that I should
be obedient to his voice and send Israel away? I do not know Ay at all. Moreover,
I will not let Israel go.' They answered, 'The god of the Yahuds is manifested in
us"' (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 5:2).
According to the Aramaic Bible, Moses and Aaron were letting Pharaoh know
that Ay was the god of the Yahuds, publicly disavowing the authority of the king
of Egypt. After this disavowal, Pharaoh let Moses and Aaron leave again. Why
didn't the king of Egypt react to that humiliation?
Did Smenkhkare fall into a trap by going to Thebes?
"Moses said to him [Pharaoh], 'As soon as I leave the city I will extend my hands
towards Ay. The thunder will cease and there will be no more hail, that thou
mightst know that the land [Aretz = Akhet] belongs to Ay'" (Aramaic Bible,
Exodus 9:29).
Ay ordered Moses and Aaron to claim possession of Aretz (Akhet). In which
city were the negotiations taking place? Was it in Akhet-Aten or in Thebes? Here
is Rashi's commentary: "As soon as I have left the city (Exodus 9:29) ... And why
was the word of God [to Moses] not given inside of the city? Because the city was
full of idols."
Only Thebes, the ancient polytheistic capital of the kingdom, fits in with
historic reality. The Theban city had been Ay's fiefdom for a long time, and
nothing could stop him from pressuring Smenkhkare to yield and adhere to his
cause. Rashi (Exodus 8:17) emphasizes "The Hagada gives a reason for each
plague, why there was this one and why another. God attacked them following the
tactical plan of a king laying siege to a city. First, destroy the water sources. Then
sound the trumpets with loud blasts to frighten them and sow terror."
According to different commentaries, it is probable that, historically, the army
of the Divine Father Ay laid siege to Thebes, exercising blackmail and
intimidation against Smenkhkare, keeping him hostage. Smenkhkare was unable to
act in any way against the generals.
In taking the initiative of going to Thebes, Smenkhkare was an heroic
pharaoh, animated by the desire for a permanent peace between Aten and
Amun. It would be beneficial for the people of Akhet-Aten as well as for the rest
of Egypt.
The sarcophagus in Tomb Number 55 containing Smenkhkare's mummy has
the following inscription at the level of his feet. It is addressed to Akhenaten:
Words spoken by [name chiseled out]. May I breathe the sweet breath which
comes from thy mouth, may I see thy beauty every day. My wish is to hear thy
sweet voice, like the breeze, and that my members might be regenerated to
life, thanks to my love for thee. Would that thou shouldst extend towards me
thy arms bearing thy spiritual strength, that I might receive it and that I might
live therein. Would that thou couldst call me by my name forever and ever! ...
Thou who art ... Living eternally, as the solar disk ... The king of Upper and
Lower Egypt, living in justice, the master of the two lands ... Thou, the perfect
child of Aten, who shalt live eternally.
Misled several times by the words of Aaron and Moses, Smenkhkare perceived
too late the trap into which he had fallen. Moses and Aaron addressed Pharaoh:
"It is three days journey in the desert that we wish to go, and we will sacrifice
to Adon-Ay our God, as he has commanded us." Pharaoh said, "I shall let you
go to sacrifice to Adon-Ay your God in the desert. But be careful not to go too
far away. Intercede for me." (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 8:23)
Why did Moses and Aaron hide the truth from Pharaoh? Why didn't they declare
that they were accompanying the people to Canaan?
Pharaoh knew the anarchic situation in the Canaanite territories (testified to by
the Amarna Letters). He would not have allowed himself to be duped by Moses
and Aaron, who gave the pretext of a sacrifice three days' march away. In Thebes,
which was under siege, it was impossible for Smenkhkare to send an emissary to
warn his army in Akhet-Aten. That's how the strands of the intrigue and the coup
d'etat fomented by Ay came together, followed by the exodus of the monotheist
population.
The image of the evil pharaoh is contradicted by a verse where he accepts the
departure of the Children of Israel, but refuses to let the women and children
leave:
He [Pharaoh] replied, "May Adon-Ay be with you if I let you go, you and your
children. Look how evil [raha] is before you [= against you]! It will not be
thus! ... Go then, you men, and serve Adon-Ay, since you desire to go there."
And they were driven away from Pharaoh's presence. (Aramaic Bible, Exodus
10:10)
The verse employs the word neged, which means either "with" or "against."
Pharaoh is saying that "raha is against you." Smenkhkare was opposed to the
exodus, predicting a catastrophe. Rashi's commentary confirms that the pharaoh of
the Biblical Exodus fought desperately to avoid just such an outcome:
Behold how evil is before us. To translate it like the Targum: The evil that you
intended to do comes back against you. Here is an interpretation of the Hagada:
There is a star that bears the name ra'ha (evil). Pharaoh said to them, "I study
astrology and I see this star approaching to meet you in the desert. It
announces blood and slaughter."
Smenkhkare's prediction was realized in the desert, but also within the Egyptian
empire, in which a slow and irreversible decline began with the Amarnian heresy.
The decline continued for centuries. By refusing a compromise with Aten, Ay had
broken the eternal alliance between Egypt and its priests. During the Babylonian
exile, the empire collapsed, dragging down in its fall the Kingdom of Judah, the
province of the Yahuds, worshipers of Pharaoh. The last Yahud survivors melted
into the Erev-rav and were called the Hebrews, preserving through the Biblical
tradition the essence of the Egyptian religion.
The Holy of Holies of Tutankhamun's tomb comprises three containers that cover
the red granite sarcophagus enclosing the royal casket, layered within each other.
The first two were in gold-covered wood, while the
third was made of solid gold. Nine centuries before the discovery of the tomb,
Rashi6 gives particulars about the Ark of the Covenant, which only an oral
tradition based in the depths of the ages and jealously conserved by the people
who went out of Egypt could reveal:
In the interior and on the exterior wilt thou cover it. Betsalel7 had made three
chests. Two in gold and one in wood, each one having the four walls and the
base, but open above. Then he placed the wooden chest inside the golden one,
then the other golden chest inside the wooden one, and he covered the top with
gold. The result was that the Ark was covered inside and outside.
The description compares with Tutankhamun's sarcophagus. The Hebrew word

Aron used in the Bible (Exodus 25:10) is the same as the word for coffin in the
stories of Jacob and Joseph (Genesis 50:26). Was the Ark of the Covenant a
sarcophagus?
On the lid of each of the three caskets of Tutankhamun were carved two large
wings directed towards his head. On the lid of the last sarcophagus, in solid gold,
there are two angels, facing each other, wings deployed above and below, like the
two angels of the Ark of the Covenant.
After having taken the mummy out of the golden sarcophagus, the
archeologists delicately removed the cloth strips to extricate from the young king's
body the many precious objects, knives, amulets, golden collars, and the golden
pectoral. The left forearm of the mummy wore six golden bracelets, with a single
one at the biceps8 and two rings on the left hand; one on the middle finger and the
other on the ring finger. The bracelets and rings placed in this way correspond to
the position of the phylacteries or tefillin9 of the Hebrew tradition, encircling the
left forearm and the two fingers of the hand.
The golden headband10 on Pharaoh's head displays the uraeus on the front, the
vulture and serpent, insignia of Upper and Lower Egypt. It ends by two straps
falling on the back of the neck. It evokes both the "tefillin of the head," and the
phylacteries, formed of a case bearing the divine name," a frontal band and two
straps.
"Thou shalt attach [the sacred words] as a symbol on thy arm, and thou shalt
wear them on thy forehead between thy eyes" (Deuteronomy 6:8).
In a letter addressed to Akhenaten, the King of Tyre, Abimalich, informs him

that he wears him on his forehead between his eyes.
When the king, my Lord, saith, "Be ready before the arrival of a great army,"
then the servant says to his Lord, "ia-a-ia-a [Yah, the same name of God as in
the Bible], in my forehead and in my back I wear the word of the king. " (EA
147)
The head of Tutankhamun's mummy, wearing a skullcap adorned with golden

seals engraved with the name of Aten, seems to be the ancestor of the kippa worn
by practicing Jews.
The ornaments of Egyptian royalty, worn by Tutankhamun, Pharaoh of Egypt,
and the symbols of Biblical monotheism: the tefillin, the kippa, and the tallith, are
analogous.
Representation of Tutankhamun's mummy. By removing the "pictures of the gods,

"the principal symbols of the Hebrew religion appear.
Shawl (or tallith,) and phylacteries (or tefillin,) of the Hebrew tradition.
The following verse is from the wisdom of Merykare:
Venerate God on thy way, Whatever form he may manifest, Be he made of

rare stones Or incarnated in a copper statue, One form will replace another
form, As one inundation followeth another. Give thy love to the entire land.12
Notes
1. Philipp Vandenberg, Nefertiti. Pierre Belfond, 1987, p. 258.
2. Ibid., p. 87.
3. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, Vie et mort d'un Pharaon. Hachette, 1963, p. 220.
5. Howard Carter, The Tomb of Tutankhamun. Pygmalion, 1978, p. 86.
6. Pvashi, The Pentateuch according to Rashi, Exodus. Samuel and Odette Levy, 1990.
7. One responsible for artistic works.
8. Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, Vie et mort d'un pharaoh, p. 232. The bracelet was a golden band
placed just above his elbow.
9. In the Hebrew tradition, for morning prayers the faithful wear (every day except Saturday) leather
straps around their left arm (phylacteries in Greek), tefillin in Hebrew. This cultural ornament
surrounds at the level of the biceps, and continues with seven twists around the forearm. The strap
ends by tightly hugging the palm of the hand, then one or two fingers: the middle and the ring. The
phylactery or tefiline of the head circles the head and divides into two straps, which fall to the back
of the neck. The two containers located in front of the head and against the biceps contain the
sacred words. The ritual of the embalmers requires that the right hand wear the golden finger
ornament and the fist hold gold: "Then thou embalmest thy God. Submerge his left hand so that the
fist is in the oil ... Place a golden ring on his fingers, and put the gold in his fist." Philipp
Vandenberg, Nefertiti, p. 141.
10. Called seshed in Egyptian. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, CD Rom Tutankhamon. Syrinx,
1997.
11. Scholars of the Hebrew tradition wear two containers instead of one. Two signs (Tot in Hebrew);
Rashi explains that Tot means "two" in Coptic.
12. Translated by Christian Jacq, La sagesse vivante de l'Ancienne Egypte. Robert Laffont, 1998, p.
41.
The preceding chapters are a narrative description of the thesis that the Biblical
Book of Exodus is derived from the historical events that occurred in the
Eighteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt.
The remaining chapters explore in detail the linguistic and cultural evidence of
the relationship between the Biblical and the historical records.
CHAPTER 21
Hebrew Writing: An Alphabet of Hieroglyphic Origin
Hieroglyphic texts generally read from right to left, like Hebrew texts. No vowels
exist in either language. In Hebrew, no sacred text is permitted to contain vowels;
only the oral Hebraic tradition, through memory of the language, allows their
introduction among the consonants as you read.
It is the same situation for hieroglyphic texts. Vowels were introduced by
Egyptologists in order to facilitate pronunciation and comprehension. Champollion
hardly ever placed vowels in his transcriptions1 due to his concern for honesty and
probably in order to leave a bit of mystery intact. Thus, the true language of the
ancient Egyptians can never be discovered because their oral tradition has
disappeared. The purely conventional translation has to be different from the
actual pronunciation of the pharaohs.
Today's pronunciation of the hieroglyphs uses a number of analogies to
Coptic, Greek, and Latin (particularly for the names of the Egyptian gods).
However, a "Hebrew-Hieroglyphic" analogy has never before been detailed.
If one believes that the Hebrews inhabited Egypt for a period of 430 years, as
the texts indicate, it is inconceivable for their language not to hold affinities with
that of the pharaohs. The similarities, correspondences, and analogies between the
two languages are in fact numerous, and quite often flagrant: the common words,
the articles, the prepositions, the grammatical formulas, the prefixes and suffixes,
the proper names, the numbers, the names of kings, gods, etc. We have to
remember that the longest period of Biblical history took place in ancient Egypt,
during the age of the New Kingdom - Pharaoh is an important actor in the Bible,
even if his name is
never divulged. Considering the number of references to Egypt, the Bible should
be considered a work of Egyptology. Consequently, it would be useful to take
advantage of the numerous cases of ancient Semitic pronunciation (Arabic-
Hebrew) of at least two thousand years ago, and compare them with current
pronunciation.
A comparative study of Hebrew letters and hieroglyphic characters confirms
that the people who left Egypt during the Exodus were inculcated with Canaanite
and Phoenician culture. The people of the Exodus returned to the principle of an
alphabet, which simplified the immense problem of writing, while still conserving
the sacred character of the hieroglyphic form. The Phoenician alphabet comprises
22 letters, while hieroglyphic writing has around three thousand characters. It took
ten years of study to learn hieroglyphics, while a few weeks were enough to learn
to read and write the Phoenician alphabet.
After making comparisons between the Hebrew and Phoenician alphabets,

researchers hastily concluded that Hebrew writing was derived directly from
Phoenician. But, while it is certain that the number of letters (22) is the same for
each of the alphabets,2 it is difficult to perceive a similarity of forms between
them, other than to a very limited degree, as the following table shows:
Hebrew Writing: An Alphabet of Hieroglyphic Origin 193
An evolutionary theory that states that during the "archaic" period of Phoenician
writing, the letters developed, bit by bit, into Hebrew, has never really been
proven. The Phoenician symbols and the Hebrew have only a very limited
correspondence.3
On the other hand, the evidence of direct analogy between Hebrew letters and
hieroglyphs shows in their phonology, their form, and often in the symbolic value
associated with Egyptian numbers, divinities, and beliefs. Each of these analogies
is important and reveals direct relations between the people called "the Hebrews"
and the civilization of ancient
Egypt. Hebrew writing is an adaptation of Egyptian writing. It is an "Hebraic-
hieroglyphic" alphabet, in which certain letters were never transformed from their
true hieroglyphs.
The Hebrew Alphabet and Egyptian Hieroglyphs
Aleph is an image of Aten and Amun.
Beth represents the interior action of God in the world.
Gimel is a reed with two feet, symbol of Pharaoh.
Daleth is the hieroglyph of God (Adonay).

Heh represents the Divine Breath, the number five, and the five names of
Pharaoh.
Vav is the horned viper and the fiery door of the temple.
Zain is the scepter of Ptah.
Het is the symbol of Akhet, the holy city of Aten.

Tet is the sacred ibis. The white bird is the image of Thoth, god of
knowledge (Thoth = Daat = knowledge in Hebrew).
Yod appears in the pyramids of the kings from the earliest times. It is the
image of the creative energy of the universe. It is a reed, the image of
the king of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Khaf is the symbol of vital power.
The Final Khaf is one of Osiris' curved royal scepters.

Lamed is the uraeus and the headband of Pharaoh.
Mem is a vulture, the goddess Mut, Amun's wife.
Nun is the primordial ocean or birthplace of the gods.
Samekh is a serpent, the cycle of day and night.

Ayin is the image of Ptah holding his scepter.
Peh is the mouth of Ptah, where the sacred word emerges.
Tsadeh is the image of Akhenaten kneeling or standing in prayer.
Qof (Kof) is the primordial serpent, an image of God.

Resh, like Daleth, is the sign of God. It is a caricature of Re, the sun,
from whom life on earth emanates.
Shin is the field of reeds, linked to the creation of trees and plants.
Tav is the image of Hathor, the cow that nourishes Egypt.
Notes
1. Christian Jacq, Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion. Solin, 1997.
2. L'aventure des ecritures, Naissances. Bibliotheque nationale de France, 1997, pp. 90-5.
3. See the Dead Sea papyrus containing the tetragram Yahwe in archaic letters; Miller Burrows,
The Dead Sea Scrolls. Robert Laffont, 1973, p. 256.
CHAPTER 22
Letters and Hieroglyphs
The Mystery of the Aleph
Aleph is the most enigmatic letter of the Hebrew alphabet. It has contained a
secret for more than three thousand years.
According to linguists, the Hebrew Aleph represents the head of a bull, the
first letter of the Phoenician alphabet. However, when the Dead Sea Scrolls are
examined, the Hebrew Aleph seems more like a combination of hieroglyphic
signs:
The hieroglyphs were transcribed into hieratic writing, "which permitted rapid
writing on papyrus or shell with brush and ink ... a writing with many abbreviated
marks which can be traced in a single sweep of a brush."1
It is mainly in the hieratic writing used in the Eighteenth Dynasty, in the time
of Akhenaten, that the correspondence between Egyptian and Hebraic writing
should be researched. The similarity between the two forms of writing - the
Hebrew square manuscript and Egyptian writing -is evident.
The Aleph logically corresponds to the hieratic union of the four hieroglyphic
signs forming the word Aten:
Letters and Hieroglyphs 201
In the Hebrew tradition, Aleph represents divine unity (numerical value = I). Yod
represents the return to unity (value - 10), as in the numerology of the Pyramid Texts.2
In order to represent the name of their god Aten, the Yahuds who fled Egypt
fashioned the Aleph in Aten's image, giving it the first place in the Hebrew
alphabet. They created a symbol of divine unity, with the numerical value of one.
Its form, with its solid base, gives it those attributes of power and stability that are
found in Akhenaten and Aten. Note the commentary of Fabre d'Olivet concerning
the Aleph:
As a symbolic image, it (the Aleph,) represents universal man, the human

race. The dominant being of the earth [Akhenaten = Aten]. In its hieroglyphic
sense, it characterizes unity, the central point, the abstract principle of one
thing [Re, the Sun God]. Employed as a sign, it expresses power, stability,
continuity.3
The lower part of the Aleph is generally rounded, forming a foot.

In some verses of the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 16:2) and the Aramaic one
(Genesis 14:18), the Aleph, lacking its base, reads as "El," meaning God. For
example, the word "Israel" is normally written . But it can also be
written in the following manner (Exodus 7:2): .
The Lamed has disappeared and the median part of the Aleph, stretched up, is
pronounced "L." The Yod above is read "E" - giving the final pronunciation "El."
This phenomenon, frequent in the Hebrew and Aramaic Bibles, shows that the
Hebrew Yod has several values of pronunciation, as was true for the Egyptian
Yod, according to Champollion's table.4 The illustration below is from the temple
of Kalbasha in Upper Egypt, where the tail of the serpent takes the form of the
Aleph at the interior of the Re circle. Thus, the Aleph is the figure of Re.
Additionally, the Hebrew "El" , like the Aramaic (Chaldean) "Elah" ,

contains the Aleph , the sign of Aten, and the Lamed , representing the uraeus
or sacred asp, and the headband of Pharaoh.
Aleph = Re = El
The Samaritans followed a religion nearly identical to that of the Hebrews.
Their writing consisted of 22 letters of Phoenician origin, and the Samaritan Aleph
has a form similar to the Hebrew Aleph - except that it carries two Yods instead of
one, recalling the name of Ay, the word for God in the Aramaic Bible:
Samaritan Aleph with its two Yods = Unity = Adon-Ay.
These similarities provide evidence that words of the ancient Egyptian language
have affinities with numerous Hebrew words, both in sense and in pronunciation.
Such words presage the Hebrew language, despite the tendency of time to make
changes. This concept would support the idea of a hidden hieroglyphic language
that has concealed the true history behind Biblical legend.
Fabre d'Olivet has made this a principal theme in his book La langue
hebraique restituee. Hebrew writing gives direct proof of its basic Egyptian origin,
thus opening up a whole new approach to understanding the historical reality that
was dissimulated in the Biblical story. This hieratic writing is both the language of
the Bible and the language of the Biblical pharaohs. Consequently, it is necessary
to look again at the sacred texts and explain them in the light of archeological
discoveries associated with the history of ancient Egypt.
The Aleph and Ankh
The true origin of the Aleph relates to the Ankh. Aten offers the breath of life to
Akhenaten in the oblique position of the Aleph. Aten's hand is symbolized by the
Yod (Yad in Hebrew means hand). The oblique bar and the foot of the Aleph
correspond exactly to the hieratic form of the Ankh, formed from the Nun and the
Okh.
A hand, Yad, borne by Aten's ray, is the breath of life, and the origin of Aleph.
The Aleph and Amun
The form of the Aleph also evokes the hieroglyph "Amun" when it is accompanied
by the sun Re, present in most of the names of the pharaohs. The Hebrew words
Adon and Amun both begin with an Aleph. The Daleth has the
5
form of the hieroglyph "only one God," and the Mem represents the goddess
Mut, Amun's wife, mother of the gods. Both of these words ends with a Nun, a
sign also present in Aten. The Nun is the primordial ocean where divinities and
Egypt's pharaohs were born. The Aleph thus symbolizes Amun, the Multiple God,
or Aten, the One God.
In this case, El would signify Amun-Re. The Hebrew Lamed is the figure of the
uraeus of the god. In Egyptian, L and R are the same letters. This Hebraic-
hieroglyphic rapprochement allows us to discern through the symbols inscribed in
the cartouches of certain pharaohs, the Biblical Hebrew names of Abraham,
Aaron, and Moses, and thus discover the true identity of the Hebrew patriarchs.
Beth
The letter Beth has not been transformed from its Egyptian homologue. Its form is
identical in ancient Egyptian and Hebrew. Its perfect analogy is found in the
double cartouche of Aten, in which it figures four times, after the Re sign (shown
six times). These two signs express the preposition "in," and, by extension,
"inside," "within," "of."
For Fabre d'Olivet, the Beth is the hieroglyph of interior action. The Beth
accompanied by Aleph (Ba), is a symbol of power, an image of continuity at
the root of the verb "to come," or "to come to a central point." The Egyptian Ba
evokes life after death, the departure of the soul toward the other world in the form
of "the Ba bird," which the Hebrews call the Olam Aba - the
world to come.
Hieroglyph "in" (M). Agreement in form and grammatical

function.6
There is another analogy with the letter Beth: the first letter of the first verse of the
Bible concerns the creation of the world, "In the beginning [bereshit
] the Elohim created the heavens and the earth."
The Beth is a sign binding the heavens and the earth.
As the Egyptian symbol defines and as it shows in its form, the squared Beth
can represent the elements of creation separated by divine will.
The hieroglyph represents the sacred land, Akhet-Aten, inundated by divine
light. The similarity to the Hebrew word Aretz brings out the Hebrew root
7
Or , the first word of God in the Bible, and equivalent to the Egyptian root
Akh, also meaning light.8 The last letter, the Tsadeh , evokes Akhenaten
standing, glorifying the sun, a form equivalent to the hieroglyph Ts.
All this gives us, in Egyptian, Hay-me-Aket: he who rejoices in the sacred
land.9
In Hebrew, this is Hai-Ba-Aretz : he who lives in the sacred land.
Gimel
The Gimel, making the sound of hard "G," is not directly affiliated with an
Egyptian god. However, there is a hieroglyphic symbol approaching it that appears
in Aten's name. In his cartouche there is a symbol pronounced "yi" in the form of a
Yod provided with two legs. It is used in the expression "he who comes from the
light of Aten," or "he who resides in the light of Aten."
In Hebrew, the verb "to reside" or "to inhabit" is Gar . The two letters of
this word find their analogy in the expression "who resides" included in Aten's
title. The Egyptian symbol expresses the idea of movement, since it employs two
legs. It emanates light and dwells within the solar disk. This concept - stemming
from the very heart of Egypt and found in The Pyramid Texts - emphasizes that
God and man come from the light and go toward the light.10
An analogy of form and symbol.

Daleth and Resh
The Daleth (D) and the Resh (R) symbolize Pharaoh's headband in their horizontal
elements. The point that appears on the upper left side is an evocation of the royal
uraeus or sacred asp, and the downstroke part the tail of the protector serpent. In
the most ancient parchments, the uraeus symbol is always evident. The Resh
signifies rosh (head), evoking the head of Pharaoh. The hieroglyph corresponding
to it represents the divine serpent united with Pharaoh.
The uraeus, an emblem of power and fear, and a fixed part of the band which
surrounded Tutankhamun's head (see page 209), terminates with two vertical
straps, like the phylacteries of the Hebrews, which are worn to this day: "And this
shall be as a sign upon thine arm and as a frontlet (totaphot) between thine eyes,
because with a strong hand Yahwe brought us out of Egypt" (Exodus 13:16).
In Egyptian, the royal headband is called Seshed or Seshad, and is written
phonetically as S-Sh-D. The hieroglyph Seshed transcribes phonetically into
Hebrew with three letters Shin-Shin-Daleth , visible on the phylacteries or
tefillin (when worn on the head) of the Hebrews. On the left side of the case is the
Shin with four branches, and on the right side, the classical Shin. The Daleth is
represented by the knot at the back of the head.
Hebrew headband (tefillin).
Resh is the first letter of the name of Re (or Raha) , the king of the gods
in ancient Egypt, the supreme principle of creation. That explains why the Resh is
found in Biblical names like Sarah, Rachel, Abraham, Ruel, Par'oo (Pharaoh),
Ytro, Deborah, Rebecca, and in words like Kapara (offering), Barakha (blessing),
etc. As in Egyptian names, it introduces the presence of the god Re.
The symbolic analogy is described by Fabre d'Olivet:
We saw the principal movement acting from the center to the circumference,
modify itself bit by bit in light, in fire, in water, in air, in ethereal fluid,
according to the roots : but, the same movement
coming from the root and degenerating more and more towards the
material meaning, to become in the root Re the emblem of everything
terrestrial, opaque, and evil. It is worth noting seriously.12
Hieroglyph for God.

The letters Qof, Daleth, Resh, Lamed, and Heh contain in their form the
hieroglyph for God.
Tutankhamuns headband.
Heh
The Hebrew Heh , the fifth letter of the alphabet, is pronounced by breathing
from the depth of the throat. Its original meaning is "breath."
In its abstract form the Hebrew serves to write the name of God (Hashem),
which the faithful are forbidden to utter. Genesis 2:4 reads: "This is the description
of the creation of the heavens and the earth. When Yahwe and the Elohim created
..." Rashi comments on the meaning of the : "It is with the Heh that the heavens
and the earth were created," which is to say by the breath of God.
It was the same in ancient Egypt, according to Christian Jacq: "The Texts of
the Pyramids affirm in clear fashion the reality of a unique divine power,
inaccessible to the human spirit. 'Great God, whose name is unknown...'."13
The hieroglyphic sign is graphically identical. Its translation, "the Great
God,"14 is extremely close to the symbolism of the Hebrew "Heh."
Hieroglyph meaning "the Great God, "showing the correspondence of form and
meaning with the Hebrew Heh.
The Heh has a numerical value of five, which corresponds to the five books of the
Torah (Old Testament), as well as to the five chapters of "The Great Harris
Papyrus."15 It also recalls the five Great Names of the royal titles of the pharaohs
from the time of the New Kingdom.
In the El Amarna Letters from Akhet-Aten, Pharaoh Akhenaten is called "the
breath" by his vassals, the Canaanite and the Phoenician kings: "My country and
my brothers, servants of the king, my lord, and servants of Tutu, my lord, are
delighted when the breath of the king, my lord, arrives." (Extract of a letter from
Aziru, Chief of the Amorites, EA 164.)
The Heh , a divine sign, is found in Tutankhamun's tomb:
Hieroglyph meaning "the Great God," identical to the

Hebrew Heh, meaning "the breath of God. "
The sacred writing situated on the east wall of the funerary chamber calls upon the
dead king to accede to life eternal. The translation of the three columns of text
above is as follows:
Column 1: "O, Nebkeperureh" (Tutankhamun's throne name)

Column 2: "Come in peace"
Column 3: "O, Great God, protector of the earth!"
Twelve priests pulling the cord of the sleigh of King Tutankhamun's mummy.
Below the Heh hieroglyph, high dignitaries pull the sleigh of the king. They are
the twelve viziers of Upper and Lower Egypt, regional governors. They are
distinguished among each other by their tunics and hairstyles. The two viziers with
shaved heads are priests; the ten others, noblemen.
These twelve people represent all the provinces of Egypt, and it is a number
which one finds again in the Biblical story of the twelve tribes of Israel, composed
also of priests and noblemen, and the twelve sons of Jacob transporting the
embalmed remains of their father (Genesis 50:12-13).
Rashi's commentary on this is as follows:
Jacob had arranged a place for each one, three on the East side and similarly
for each of the other sides. Levi [the High Priest] did not need to carry [the
sarcophagus] because he was destined to carry the Sacred Ark. Joseph also
didn't have to carry because he was king [of Egypt]. In their places, there were
Manassus and Ephraim [two sons of Joseph]. (Rashi, Genesis 50:12-13)
The separation of the twelve bearers of Jacob's sarcophagus into "ten, plus two,"
mentioned by Rashi, is found in the depiction of the twelve viziers in
Tutankhamun's tomb (above). This arrangement can be seen again in the
processions of the Ark of Amun, which the king of Egypt and his high priests are
involved in carrying.
Twelve priests arranged in four groups of three, bearing the Ark of Amun.
Pharaoh and the two central high priests do not carry it, conforming with Rashi's
Commentary (From the Temple of Karnak).
From the time of the Old Kingdom, the priests participated in the principal
religious ceremonies:
It was God they served, everywhere in the North and South, the length of the
river, the priests celebrated a morning rite with strict forms which varied
hardly at all during all of the Old Kingdom. After a purifying bath in a sacred
pond, at dawn, a group of some twelve priests passed through the doors of the
temple's enclosure, crossed the open-air court in single file and entered into the
actual temple.'6
Another hieroglyph closely recalls the Hebrew Heh in this form and sound with
five sides.
It corresponds to the partitive article "of" in the translation of the

Egyptian word Yahudadaha-Malek discovered by Champollion, and
rendered in Hebrew Yehuda-hamalkhut.18 They both mean "the Kingdom of

Judah." The Heh is also present in the name Yahu inscribed on a column of the
temple of Amenophis III at Soleb.
Vav
The Hebrew letter Vav , with sounds of "V," "U," and "O," is analogous in form
with the hieroglyph representing the horned viper, which conventionally is the
sound of "F."
According to Champollion's Treatise on Grammar, the third person singular

possessive - his, her, its - is represented by the horned viper. In Hebrew as well,
the third person singular possessive is represented by the Vav .
The horned viper is shown standing, like the Hebrew Vav .
The Hebrew Vav doesn't have the same pronunciation as its corresponding
hieroglyph, although they are employed in an identical fashion in both languages.
However, according to Fabre d'Olivet, the "V" has the same phonetic value as the
"F." Thus Vav demonstrates a triple analogy of sound, form, and meaning.
Zain
Zain recalls the scepter "Uaz" or "Uzer" of the god Ptah, the symbol of creative
power and of the divine breath. The hieroglyph represents the letter Z, as does the
Hebrew letter Zain. The Egyptian Z is found in the Little Hymn to Aten:
The Egyptian noun Uzer, "strength," has the same root as "strength" "Ozer"
and "Oz" in Hebrew. "He is my strength and my song" (Exodus 15:2).
In the tombs of the Valley of the Kings, the gods represent the ancestors or
fathers of the pharaohs. On one of the posts of the tomb of Sety I, the god Ptah
holds his scepter "Uaz" facing Pharaoh. On another, Atum symbolizes Ramesses I;
the father receiving the son into the Garden of Eternity. Atum places his hand on
Sety I's shoulder and supports his arm with the other hand.
Moses did as Adon-ay had commanded: He took Joshua and placed him
before Eleazar the priest [El-Uzer = Ptah] and all the congregation. He [Moses]
placed his hands on him [Joshua] and gave him orders as Adon-ay had said,
through the organ [the hand] of Moses. (Numbers 27:22-3)
Ptah = El Uzer = Sety I

(God Uzer) = Eleazar
Sety I
Atum
Ramesses I (Moses) identified with Atum,
Ptah, facing Sety I, holds the scepter Uaz welcomes Sety I and places his hands on
(from the tomb of Sety I). him (from the tomb of Sety I).
Het
The Het is pronounced like an over-exaggerated "H," and its corresponding

hieroglyph is evident in Champollion's table:
Hieroglyphic Hieratic (lower case)

Het Het
Analogy of sound, form, and meaning: the Hebrew Het and the hieroglyphic Het bear the
same name.
The Het represents the door of a house or entrance to a temple with its two
doorposts and its lintel, just like its Egyptian counterpart.
Tet
Fabre d'Olivet19 states that there is a connection between the Hebrew letters D and
T. Both the name and the form of the Tet make one think of the Egyptian Thoth,
the god of knowledge and writing, represented by an ibis. The Hebrew Tet seen
here is certainly a caricature of a fowl.
Hebrew Tet compared to the sacred ibis. The ibis represents the god Thoth before the
goddess Maat, coijfed with a feather. Note the tail of the ibis pointing up like the Hebrew
Tet.
The Hebrew word knowledge (science) is pronounced Dahat , which is

20
phonetically very close to Thoth (Dahuty). Thus there is an analogy of name,
sound, form, and symbol.
Yod
Identical to the Egyptian Yod in Tutankhamun's tomb, the Hebrew Yod has the
sound "Ye," and can be joined to many vowels (Ya, Yo, Yi ...). It is as frequently
used in the Hebrew language as it is in hieroglyphic writing.
Many of the Ancient Egyptian words using the Yod are close to the Hebrew, but
scholars have always given priority to Greco-Latin sounds, rather than to the
sounds of the Semitic languages. Therefore in conventional pronunciation, it is
given only the sound "yi." This distorts the language of Ancient Egypt, where it
loses meaning in words with yo, yu, and ye, and particularly in ya and ay (the "A"
being a majority vowel in Semitic languages). Champollion assimilated the Yod
into the letters A, E, Y, AY, and EY. For the great Egyptologist, then, the Yod had
an understood value, a bit like the Hebrew Aleph.
The Yod is the image of the creative faculty, the manifestation of divine
power, eternity, etc.21 Like its hieroglyphic homologue (in Hymns to Aten, for
example) it is tied to the concept of God and His creation. Its numerical value, 10,
is a symbol both of multiplicity and of unity.
The Hebrew Yod, like the Egyptian one, serves to designate the possessive
pronouns "mine" and "thine," as well as "my" and "thy."
Fragment of parchment from the Dead

Fragment of the Psalm of Sea Scrolls.
Akhenaten.
The illustration above shows a Hebrew Yod from a fragment of the Dead Sea
Scrolls; the ancient Hebrew writing is very like the Egyptian characters.
Kaf (or Khaf)
The Kaf , with the sound of "K" or Khaf with the sound of "ch" (as in the
Scottish loch), is a letter with a double pronunciation. It is called Kaf or Khaf
depending on how the word is read. It looks like a bowl turned on its side. At the
end of a word it is called the final Khaf and has its base elongated downward.
The Kaf, like all Hebrew letters, has an upward pointing sweep (resembling the
uraeus of the king of Egypt). The scepter of Pharaoh - Kheka - has a pronunciation
that brings to mind the two sounds of the Hebrew Kaf.
In Hebrew cursive writing, the Khaf is identical to Pharaoh's scepter.

Many Hebrew words symbolizing royalty are written with the final Khaf .
For example Melekh , meaning king, Abrekh , meaning father of
the king, and Yerekh , meaning royal lineage.
The Hebrew Khaf serves as a possessive pronoun designating the second
person singular, like the Egyptian "K," which is represented by a kitchen utensil or
a plate with a handle. The grammatical correspondences between Hebrew and
Egyptian writing constitutes a fundamental base in the concordance of the two
languages.
In this example, "thy light" is Akhek, which is very like Orekha . Along
the same lines, "I am thy son" - in Egyptian Anok i shk [Anok i shak] - is close to
the Hebrew Anokhi (I am), Ish (man), kha (of thine) [Anokhi Ishkha].
The Kaf is also like the hieroglyph Kha, or "vital energy," represented by
two arms stretched toward heaven, exalting God.
Analogy of sound, form, and meaning. Notes

1. Guy Rachet, Dictionnaire de la civilization Egyptienne. Larousse Bordas, 1998, p. 122.
3. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hibrdique restituee. L'Age d'Homme-Delphica, 1991, p. 7.
4. Christian Jacq, Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion. Solin, 1997, p. 35.
5. Ibid., pp. 10 and 115.
6. Ibid., pp. 115, 189, and 210.
8. Pierre Grandet, Hymnes de la religion d'Aton. Le Seuil, 1995, p. 137. A phonetic translation
of the Great Hymn to Aten.
9. Ibid.
10. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte, 1998.
11. Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion, p. 173.
12. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restitute, p. 123.
13. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de lAncienne Egypte, p. 98.
15. Adolph Erman and Hermann Ranke, La civilisation egyptienne. Payot and Rivages, 1994, pp.
380-1.
16. Lionel Casson, Ancient Egypt, The Great Ages of Man. Time, 1969, pp. 78-9.
18. The "kh" in Hebrew is pronounced like the Spanish Jota "J." When this phonetic sound is
applied (for example, to Akhet-Aten), the similarities with Hebrew are intriguing.
20. Pierre Grandet and Bernard Mathieu, Cours d'Egyptien hierogliphique. Kheops, 1997, p. 816
21. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hibrdique restitute, p. 39.
CHAPTER 23
Letter Round-up
Lamed
The Lamed ("L" sound) is a slithery letter, like the Qof or Kof (see page 230). Its
form is that of a half-raised serpent, ready to bite. This is the uraeus, which writhes
in front of Pharaoh's head, protecting him from his enemies.
The Egyptian sign of the royal uraeus compared to

Hebrew letters.
There are two hieroglyphs similar to the Lamed. The first is a serpent in hieratic
form (lowercase), given by Champollion for the "L" sound. The "mouth"
designates the sounds "L" and "R."
Letter Round-up 221
The second is a hieroglyph taking the form of the uraeus (serpent) of Pharaoh, and
is graphically identical to the Lamed:
Hebrew Lamed (taken from the Bible)
Symbol of the serpent on the left exterior door of the second chapel of the funerary
chamber of Tutankhamun.
In the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Lamed represents an elongated cobra, upright and
swollen at head level.
The Hebrew Lamed on a

fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls
The serpent, to which convention has

given the "D" or "Dj" sound, is found in
the expression "forever," which occurs in
many religious Egyptian texts. This is
Dataneheh in Egyptian, and in Hebrew
Lanetsah.
Figurative sign for eternity (Neheh) in the light (god Re)
FOREVER
Hieroglyph "forever" (Dataneheh)
and "forever" in Hebrew (Lanetsah).
There again, taking account of a Semitic approach (Arabo-Hebraic), and following

the lead of Christian Jacq,1 the word Neheh tends to be translated as "luminous
eternity." Neheh, like Netshah, carries the suffix "Ah," meaning light in Egyptian.
Besides this, the Hebrew Netsah (eternal) is close to the Egyptian Netsher,2
which means God. These words are at the root of the Biblical translation for
"Eternal."
The god holds in his Hand the Ankh, symbol of eternal life
God in Egyptian: Netsher, equivalent to Hebrew Netsah
(eternal).
Mem or
The glyph Mem or (final Mem), pronounced "M," is apparent in the

hieroglyphic form of the goddess Mut, wife of Amun, represented by a vulture.
This figures in the word Em (mother) in Hebrew, like its Egyptian homologue Mut
(mother).
Champollion in his Treatise on Grammar gives an insight into the analogy.
Letter Round-up 223
Comparison between the Hebrew "Mem" and the Egyptian "Mem" by analogy in the form
of a vulture or owl.
Paleographic studies undertaken on the Dead Sea Scrolls show the evolution of the
Mem, and let us understand the transformation of the hieroglyphic character and
the Hebrew letter, a true caricature of the vulture Mut.
Analogy of sound and of form.

The rectangular Egyptian M is in the Biblical texts in the form of the final
elongated Mem.
Hebrew final Mem

squared or rectangular
recalls the Egyptian M in
the Grand Hymn
Fragment of the Bible in

Hebrew.
Another comparison concerns the word "Truth," which sounds out as Maat
according the conventional pronunciation, and which is represented by a
goddess wearing a feather in her hair. The root of this hieroglyph is Mt, like
the Hebrew word "Truth," Emet . In the Biblical tradition, Emet is
one of the most important words associated with Amen in rapport with
truth, justice and faith.
The god Aten was called "he who is satisfied by Maat."3 Because of the
importance of this religious concept, employed regularly in the psalms and
prayers, the priests of Akhet-Aten suppressed the image of the goddess.
They adapted a phoneme for this indispensable word, present in the Great
Hymn to Aten.
Here is an example of the analogy between the Great Hymn and a
Hebrew prayer recited every day, "Anokhi Adon-Ay Eloekhem Emet,"
meaning "I am Adon-Ay your God [living in] truth."
Every Hebrew term finds its mate in the Hymn:
Letter Round-up 225
"Nefer-keperu-Re, son of Re, he who lives in truth, the lord of the two crowns,
Akhenaten. " Third column of the Great Hymn to Aten. "Akhenaten, living in
truth."
The Hebrew Mem, in its elongated form, recalls the hieroglyph of the two lands,
or "the heavens and the earth." Fabre d'Olivet defines it as "universal expression."
The final Hebrew Mem represents the elements of creation separated by

Divine Will, as does the Beth (see page 205).
Nun Final Nun
The letter Nun is written in Hebrew . When it is placed inside a word, it doesn't
seem to correspond with any hieroglyph. However, when it is at the end of a
word, it takes the elongated form , identical both in writing and in pronunciation
with Nun in Egyptian. Champollion's design demonstrates this:
Hieroglyph unot4 (hour). Analogy of sound and form.
For Fabre d'Olivet, the final Nun is a symbol conferring an extensive meaning:
"All that prolongs abundantly, all that extends itself and proliferates."5
In the Pyramid Texts, as well as in classical writing, the Nun in the form of a
broken line represents things that can extend out to infinity: the
primordial ocean, source of all energy and the cradle of Pharaoh. Joshua is called
"the son of Nun" (Joshua 1:1). In its hieratic form, the broken line takes the form
of a simple horizontal stroke.
Samekh
The Samekh6 has the value of "S." It is an oval form, recalling a serpent biting its
tail. The point at the top is a raised serpent's head. Like Pharaoh's uraeus, the
Samekh is based on the hieroglyph for the cycle "day and night."
Champollion's Treatise on Grammar shows the Egyptian "S" sign in the form
of an oval.
The Egyptian serpent showing the cycle of day and night is present on the north side of the
second chapel of Tutankhamun.
Letter Round-up 227
Ayin
The Ayin is a guttural sonority deeper than the Heh, originating from a deep
breath. This articulation, common to Semitic languages, is naturally found in the
language of ancient Egypt in the sign of an extended arm, which Egyptologists
compare to the Hebrew Ayin.7
Correspondence of sound.
The Ayin seems to represent the god Ptah kneeling and holding the scepter Uaz,
the scepter of the gods, in his hands.
Correspondence of form
Peh or Feh
The first letter of the Hebrew word Par'oo (Pharaoh) is the letter Peh
, which signifies, respectively, "P" or "F." It has the form of a human head with
the uraeus on the forehead. The sacred asp symbolically permits air to penetrate
inside the skull, whence it is exhaled and made holy. Fabre
d'Olivet says on this subject: "As a symbolic image, it represents the mouth of the
man, of whom it paints the most beautiful attribute, that of rending his thoughts."8
For the Egyptians, the organ of speech became sacred, since it dealt with pharaoh.
The word of Pharaoh was the word of God. Inspired, he received the teaching in
his mouth and repeated it to mankind.
Peh , which means mouth, is written with the letter Peh and the letter
Heh, representing the divine breath. There existed in ancient Egypt a mythical city
called Peh, located in the delta of the Nile and cited in the Pyramid Texts in
connection with Pharaoh's coronation.9
Tsadeh , Final Tsadeh
The Hebraic letter Tsadeh is a double consonant, which is pronounced "Ts." It's
the only letter in the Hebrew alphabet having this peculiarity. The question is why
did the scribes adopt it, since they already had the
Letter Round-up 229
sounds of "T" and "S" in the same alphabet? Could there have been a reason of a
mystical nature?
The hieroglyphic letter corresponding to the Tsadeh "Ts" in the Little Hymn of
Akhenaten holds exactly the same phonetic value10 as the Hebrew "Ts."
The Hebrew Tsadeh can represent a person in a state of exaltation, standing or

kneeling, his arms raised towards the heavens, which is its hieroglyphic
homologue. In this case, the person's feet go in reverse, as in the Hebrew Tsadeh.11
Analogy with the Hebrew Tsadeh.
Christian Jacq states in his book, Nefertiti and Akhenaten: "There also exist
statuettes representing Akhenaten with a pedestal in the form of an L. In this last
case, the king seems to be kneeling and holding his hands in front of him in
adoration of Aten at his rising."
The final Tsadeh is the analog of the man standing in a state of exaltation.
Figurative symbol of exaltation Hebrew final Tsadeh

The Heh, the Shin and the Tsadeh, as well as the Yod, the Beth, the Gimel, and the
Vav (compared earlier, see pp. 205-13), are found in the first tomb of Ay, and are
archeological evidence that Hebrew is of Egyptian and Amarnian origin.
Qof or Kof
The Qof has a unique sound, which has its equivalent in hieroglyphic writing. The
Egyptian serpent is called "Qof," which leaves no doubt about the origin of the
Hebrew letter.
Analogy of
form and
sound
Hebrew Qof on a
Dead Sea Scroll
According to Champollion's table, the Qof is also represented by a man raising his
arms, or by two arms extended towards the heavens, forming a square. The serpent
is the radiating and joyous spirit of Pharaoh, the heir of the vital strength that
issues from Re, called the Ka. The Qof ("K" sound) is present in Ytshak
(Isaac, Abraham's heir), Yaakov (Jacob), Cain, Cabal
(Ka-ba-la, transmission of the divine heritage), as wellas in theformula used for the
pharaoh of the Exodus, vaykra Par'oo containing Ka
and Re, symbols included in Smenkhkare'scartouche.

Letter Round-up 231
Shin or Sin
The Hebrew Shin expresses the two sonorities of "sh" or "s."

It's worth noting that the sign figuring in the Great Hymn of Akhenaten has
exactly the same form as in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the most ancient texts known in
Hebrew.
Hebrew Shin
The Shin
Hieroglyphic "Sh" Coptic "Sh"
Fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls showing

the "Sh" sound in Coptic Treatise of
Champollion.
According to Champollion, there is an analogy of form and sound between the

hieroglyphic "sh" and the Coptic "sh."
On the other hand, when we consider the Hebrew "sh" which figures in the
Dead Sea Scrolls, it is evident that there's an absolute analogy of sound and of
form between it and the hieroglyphic "sh" and the Psalm of Akhenaten.
Sekhet hieroglyph: the field, pasture.12

The hieroglyphic "sh" (blade of grass) is classified by Champollion as a figure

representing the potential growth of vegetation. It symbolizes one of the elements
of vegetation. It is found three times in the Hymn to Aten with the translation of
pasture, trees, and plants. Just as in the Biblical story of creation bereshit ("in the
beginning") figures as the first word in the Bible, Christian Jacq emphasizes that
the sign Sha (three reeds) serves to give the notion of "commencement," by
reference to the first manifestation of life, springing forth from the primordial
waters.13 The Shin is employed in the words pasturage, vegetation, trees and
plants, the grass of the fields: "When no vegetation was yet in the earth and no
plants bearing seeds" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:5).
The expression "plants bearing seeds," esseve asade , means
pasturage. "And the Elohim said, 'Let the earth produce plants yielding seed'"
(Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:11). The word "vegetation" is written deshe. And so
each of the Hebrew words meaning pasturage contains the Shin.
Column 5 of the Great Hymn of Aten. This passage speaks of pastures, trees, and plants
(Pierre Grandet's translation).
An analogy between the name of Pharaoh Shishak in the Bible and the name
Shechonq I, which is shown below, confirms the value of the hieroglyphic Sh.
Letter Round-up 233
Cartouche of Sheshonq I The name of Shishak, the Pharaoh of the

Bible
Tav
Tav, like the letter Tet , represents the Hebrew "T." It is like the Egyptian Tep,
the heavens. With the Tav, the scribes included a new divine symbol, perhaps of
the goddess Hathor or the goddess Nut - Egyptian divinities symbolizing the
celestial vault - in an alphabet containing 22 letters.
The Tav has its analogy in the hieroglyphic and hieratic name of Hathor, the
sacred cow that nourishes Egypt, and the image of perfection and abundance. The
following hymn is dedicated to the goddess:
How beautiful it is
Thy journey, starting from the horizon
Thou floatest to the heavens joyfully.
Hathor, Lady of Dendara, Eye of Re,
Lady of the sovereign heavens of all the gods,
Who travels the beautiful way without enemies.14
Analogy between the Tav and the Hathor hieroglyph.
The Egyptian word for goddess15 written in hieratic writing recalls the Hebrew
Tav (as drawn by Champollion).
The sistrum, an Egyptian instrument used in the temples, is related to Hathor in its
shape (the head of a woman with ears of a cow). In the Great Temple of Akhet-
Aten, Nefertiti and her daughters shake sistra in honor of Aten. In Tutankhamun's
tomb, the cow Hathor was discovered in a linen vestment, similar to the vestments
covering the divinities, the chapels, and the sarcophagus of the king. In ancient
Egypt, Hathor wore the solar disk Re between her horns. Hathor, wife of Horus,
means "domain (Hath) of Horus (Hor)." By extension, she is Pharaoh's wife.
Queen Nefertiti, deified as Goddess Hathor, symbolized the living presence of the
goddess of love and fertility.
Hathor resided in the sacred domain of the Theban mountains, with the charge
of accompanying the dead pharaoh on the celestial road and of nourishing him.
The Book of the Sacred Cow was discovered in one of the chapels of the funerary
chamber of Tutankhamun.16 Like the Book of the Dead or the Book of the Doors,
it contains funeral incantations as
Letter Round-up 235
well as the legend of the flight into the desert of those accused of plotting against
Re.17
The Aramaic word for cow is synonymous with mountain, Tora or Turn.
The Tav is the first letter of the word Torah. It exists in many analogies
between Hathor and Torah. As the Hathoric pillars sustain the Egyptian temples,
the Torah symbolizes one of the three pillars of the world.
The goddess Hathor, symbol of joy and love, was the protector of the sacred
mountain of Thebes. The Torah is intimately linked with that same sacred
mountain. The scriptures relate that the Torah was revealed on Mount Sinai after
the Exodus from Egypt. The two rolls of the Torah enveloped in a linen cloth are
placed in a case holding sistra, which are shaken during the ceremony of Simha-
Torah (joy of the Torah). After the ceremony, it is placed in a box shaped like the
courtyard of an Egyptian temple.
According to Fabre d'Olivet, the word Torah is formed by "T" Tav, whose
root To is a hieroglyphic symbol: " The whole idea of a hiero-glypic sign,
symbol, or character: a fable, a tale, a description, a book, a monument, etc."18 The
second part, Re , recalls the great solar god Re, figured in the representations
of Hathor wearing the solar disk Re above her head. The Bible is also called the
"Torah of Light," a teaching permitting us to surmount the trials of life.
The goddess Hathor, surmounted by the Sun

God Re.
The Images of the Gods
The image of the vulture, the symbol of royalty in Upper Egypt, inspired the
monotheistic scribes in their transcription of the Hebrew Mem. The female vulture
protects her young to the death, as Mut and the uraeus (vulture and serpent), above
Pharaoh's head, protect him. The two symbols inspire fear of the divinity. The
Egyptian people were not able to see the face of Amun, the hidden god, just as in
the Bible one cannot "see the face of God and live."
The Hebrew letters fit in perfectly with the Egyptian gods. When the
monotheistic scribes arrived in Canaan, they were proud of having come from
Egypt. They introduced the divinities into the Hebrew alphabet, despite the
Second Commandment forbidding the representation of images of the Amunian
gods Mut (Mem), Thoth (Tet), Ptah (Ayin and Peh), and Hathor (Tav). The
Egyptians considered their writing to be formed by images of the gods: terrestrial
symbols invaded by the waters of the flood and celestial symbols accompanying
Pharaoh into the heavens. They never were to go beyond the limits of the Nile.
Before leaving the sacred land of Egypt, Pharaoh's letters were translated into
cuneiform. Subsequently, the Second Commandment's prohibition concerning the
"images of the gods," came down as a prohibition to the Yahuds, deported to
Canaan, against using the sacred hieroglyphic writing.
Thou shalt not have any other Elohim than us. Thou shalt not make any idol,
nor the image of anything at all that is above in the heavens or below under
the earth or in the waters beneath the earth. (Exodus 20:3)
In several places, the Bible alludes to the "gods of your fathers," recalling and
blaming the people for having worshiped idols and images representing their
culture and ancestral past. That is why they introduced these symbols in the
alphabet of the priests and scribes of Judah (Yahuds), which was then called the
Hebrew alphabet.
Letter Round-up 237
Notes
2. Jacques Champollion, Lecture illustree des hieroglyphs. Le Rocher, 1998, p. 277.
4. Christian Jacq, Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion. Solin, 1997, p. 98.
6. The kh is pronounced like the "ch" in Scottish loch or German buch.
7. L'aventure des ecritures, Naissances, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 1997, p. 37.
9. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte, p. 145.
12. Christian Jacq, Le petit Champollion illustre. Robert Laffont, 1994, p. 84.
13. Ibid.
14. John Adams Wilson, Egypt. Life and Death of a Civilization, p. 205.
16. Nicolas Reeves, The Discovery of Tutankhamun. Thames and Hudson, 1990, p. 101.
17. Adolphe Erman and Hermann Rank, La civilisation Egyptienne. Payot and Rivages, 1994, p. 101.
CHAPTER 24
Gods and Pharaohs
The God Ptah
Ptah is the god of the creation. He created the heavens and the earth by the divine
word. He is the creator of the animals, the plants, and all that the earth can
produce - everything is created through his commands. Ptah is also the god of "the
opening of the mouth," the ceremony designed to render to the dead pharaoh the
god's power and his word. In the names of the kings of Egypt, Ptah is represented
as a kneeling man, in a meditative state, holding in his hands the scepter Uaz, the
symbol of power.
Hieratic Ptah
Ptah's hieroglyphic phonetic name (Treatise of Champollion).1
The root Ptah in Hebrew means precisely "to open," Poteah, an extension toward
space, or that which is extended, beginning with the letter Peh .
Gods and Pharaohs 239
The god Ptah holding

his scepter Uaz before
Pharaoh Sety I.
Pharaoh
The name "Pharaoh" has always fascinated mankind. The name's origin has known
many interpretations. The interpretation most often assumed by science is that it
was derived from the hieroglyphics Per-Aa, which means "the great house."
That house would be Pharaoh's domain, his holy place. The Bible speaks of
the holy place where the Divine dwells, the Makom
.
Then Jacob awoke from his sleep and thought, "Surely Yahwe is in this place;
and I did not know it. " And he was afraid, and said, "How awesome is this
place! This is none other than the house of the Elohim, and this is Heaven's
Gate. " (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 28:16-17)
In Hebrew, the word "Pharaoh" is identical with its Egyptian homologue. Only the
pronunciation, Par'oo , is slightly different, taking the vowels into
account.
The letter Peh represents Pharaohs head and mouth. The Resh , Re or
Reh, the sun, king of the gods. The Ayin recalls Ptah, the primordial god of the
creative word. Finally, the Heh (Great God), introduces the divine breath of
creation.
The Egyptian word for "sun," written in its hieratic form, is close to "Pharaoh"
in Hebrew: PER-AA = PAR'OO.
Comparative reading of Pharaoh: The Great God issued from the mouths of Re and Ptah.
The true meaning of the name Par'oo is associated with several pharaohs.
Consequently, the Biblical scribes usually used the term Par'oo to designate
Akhenaten (Anoki-Aten), and also to designate Amenhotep III and Smenkhkare.
Par'oo means the sacred place where the king resides (Ha-melekh).
In Judaism, the One God is called Hamelekh (the king) or Hamakom (the
place).
Bill Manley affirms that the true origin of Par'oo or Per-aa (Pharaoh) is found
at Akhet-Aten: "The king [Akhenaten] and the court were so intimately linked that
the word designating the entire royal institution, Per-Aa, (the great domain),
became a synonym for king and, through the influence of the Bible, this word
came into the modern world in the form Pharaoh."2
Akhenaten's Name
In the cartouche of Amenhotep IV, as Akhenaten was originally called, the name
carries the notion of good (Hotep), peace, or integrity.3 "Hotep" is close to the
Hebrew hatov , "good".4 In the Bible, God acts for good and peace. Hotep
is reunited with Re, the divine. The good is located in the divine dimension, where
there is no opposition to it. Tov = Salom = Shel Amon, the peace of Amun.
The first cartouche of Amenhotep IV (Amun is in peace), symbolizing the good,

peace, satisfaction, and oneness of Re, the king of the Egyptian gods.
Akhenaten's name derives from "Ankh Aton," which is composed of five figures
and means "The living Aten" - Anokhi Aton.
An'kh Aten, pronounced "Anokh-i Aten."

Anokhi Aton is close to Anokhi Adonay, the First Commandment of the Bible.
Akhenaten's cartouche, below, contains seven elements (seven is Akhenaten's
number), written from bottom to top - unlike Amenhotep, which is read from top
to bottom.
The divine hieroglyphic sign Ankh is present in Akhenaten's name ("the breath of
life," Ankh-Aten), in the Amarna Letters,5 as well as in the First Commandment:
"I am your Anokhi Yahwe, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of bondage" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 20:2).
Anokhi is a juxtaposition of Ani (the Biblical word "I"), the Egyptian Okh
(the Hebrew Or), meaning light, and the Hai , representing life (that which
springs forth): "I am the light of life."
Biblical writing:
ANOKHI YAHWEH:
Biblical pronunciation:
ANOKHI ADONAI:
The pronunciation "Akhen-Yaten" proposed by Egyptologists agrees with the
holy Biblical name Anokh-i Adon-Ay, which is close to Anok-i Aten.
The Egyptian Anokh or Anok means "I am," like the Hebrew Anokhi.
Egyptologists have translated the phrase as "Living disk" or "Living Sun" -I am
Aten = I am the (living) Sun.
This sentence from Akhenaten's psalm is apparent in the First Commandment:
Anokhi Adonai Eloeka: I am Adonay thy God.
The expression Ankh Aten is contained in the royal cartouches of the god
Aten. Ankh is the first word and Aten the last. Conventionally, the
two signs mean "Aten, the living," but the Biblical parallel favors the following
interpretation, "I am Aten."
Akhenaten's royal cartouche confirms the direct relationship between the
Hebrew Anokhi and Akhenaten's name.
The expression Anokh Aten, several times engraved in the Hymns to Aten,
represents the uniqueness of the living god, symbol of the god-king Akhenaten,
the exclusive pharaoh, and Akhenaten's name, "I am Aten," remembered by the
Yahud priests and scribes, was introduced into the First Commandment of the
Bible.
After Ay's rise to power, first as the Divine Father, next as vizier of the empire,
then Pharaoh of Egypt, following the ancient tradition, Aten became Aten-Ay
(later Adon-Ay in the Bible) for the inhabitants of Akhet-Aten and particularly for
the priests. This tradition is largely confirmed by the addition of Ay's name to that
of the god Seth (Shad in Hebrew), becoming Shad-Ay, designated as one of the
names of God in the Bible.
Shad-Ay corresponds to the actual pronunciation of Sety I (Seth + Yod-Yod),
Pharaoh of Egypt, and Cyril Aldred confirms in his book Akhenaten, King of
Egypt
King Ay reigned briefly, about four or five years, and followed a policy which
he had no doubt would have been adopted by his predecessor [Tutankhamun].
The rehabilitation of Amun and the abandonment of the most extreme aspects
of the Aten religion were pursued relentlessly. Ay continued his projects in the
construction of Karnak, adding his own names to those of his predecessor,
without usurping that predecessor's work.
Maybe Tutankhamun was the son of Ay. Cyril Aldred found the name of the
Divine Father Ay near Tutankhamun's name. In the Bible, Ay is associated with
different divinities, expressions, or geographic names: Adon-Ay, Shad-Ay,
Mordekh-Ai, Sin-Ai ...
Amun
The god Amun, seated on his throne and wearing the double feather on his head,
dominates the cartouches of the Amenhotep pharaohs up to Amenhotep IV. In the
fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten and Amun's
name disappeared from the cartouche. It reappeared when Tutankhaten became
Tutankhamun.
Amun is the origin of the Hebrew words Amen and Ma Amin, which mean "to
believe," and Emuna, meaning faith, or belief. Amun is the emanation of the Nun,
the primordial ocean. According to Fabre d'Olivet, the root "mun" or "bun" is
associated with that which emanates from the divine.6
Name of the god Amun in the cartouche to the left of that of Tutankhamun (North facade
of Tutankhamun's funeral chamber).
In the illustration above, the rectangle represents the "M" of Amun; the lower
waves the "N," and the reed on the right, the Yod, represents "A" in the majority
of Semitic languages. Ancient Egyptian, a chanted, psalmodic language, had a
sound comparable to Semitic languages and dialects like Arabic, Hebrew, and
Aramaic.
The presence of the Yod (reed) poses a problem in pronouncing the word
"Amun." Some researchers have suggested placing the Yod in front of Amun.
With a single value of "Y," this would give a pronunciation of "Ymun." However,
this new pronunciation doesn't take into account Champollion's indications giving
the Egyptian Yod different values (A, IA, E, I, Y).7 Thus, in the Semitic
pronunciation of the Yod, the sound "A" isn't hidden. It can be said "Amun" or
even "Amen."
Amen
In the Bible, Moses orders the people to answer "Amen" at each of the twelve
curses written in Deuteronomy: "Cursed is the man who sculpts an image or casts
a statue, a thing Yahwe (Adonay) detests, the work of a woodworker or metal
worker, who puts it in a hidden place. Then all the people must answer and say:
'Amen!'" (Hebrew Bible, Deuteronomy 27:15).
The proclamation of Amun by a monotheistic people reveals a major Biblical
contradiction. But it was later sidelined by the scribes, who attributed to the word
Amun (Amen) the traditional meaning that it still has today. The pronunciation
"Amen," meaning "truly," was generalized in the curses and blessings, and then
into all the monotheistic prayers.
Aten Sacrifices Amun
The pharaohs identified themselves with Amun, a man with a ram's head. This
ancient tradition is revealed in the story of Abraham, sacrificing a ram in place of
his son Isaac. It is the ram Amun who was sacrificed in Isaac's place. The shofar,
an instrument formed from a ram's horn used in certain religious ceremonies,
symbolizes liberation from the idea that Amun should be considered as an
abomination.
The sacrifice of the ram (Amun) is generally interpreted as the end of human
sacrifices. However, they continue in the Bible, thus: "'Seize the prophets of Baal.'8
Elijah had them brought down into the valley of Kishon and slaughtered there"
(Hebrew Bible, I Kings 18:40).
Aten's Name
Before becoming Akhenaten's god, Aten was written in Egyptian in a brief form,
with the figure of the sun, as in Amun's name. This corresponded to the old
phonetic writing.
Double cartouche of Akhenaten bearing the (short) name ofAten. The half circle or
half-loaf designating the "T" sound; the waves, the "N" sound; the reed to the left,
Yod A (Biblical pronunciation: Adon); and the complete circle (sun) is the symbol
which must not be spoken. As explained by Champollion in his Treatise on
Egyptian Grammar.
Linguists are convinced that no relationship between Adon, Adonay, and the sun
exists. However, the Egyptian word Aten is like the Hebrew Adon. As a matter of
fact, the Book of Zohar confirms that "Adon is the sun that lights up and floods the
earth."10
The letter Yod is at the beginning of Aten's name, which gives it the
pronunciation "Yten" (the Egyptian and the Hebrew Yods are similar letters). The
Egyptian names Aten and Amun begin with a Yod just as the Hebrew words Adon
and Amun begin with an Aleph (A).
Champollion states in his Treatise of Egyptian Grammar that the Yod has the
values A, E, Y, Ay, Ei, and O. Hieroglyphic writing, like Hebrew, has no vowels.
Consequently the Egyptian Yod should be considered like the Hebrew Aleph,11
since it represents several vowels.
According to its sense, Aten may mean Lord, God, or Sun, all words that are
often used in the El Amarna Letters.12
Values in Coptic
Letters Voice Signs
Extract from Champollion's Treatise of Egyptian Grammar. The Egyptian Yod can
have several phonetic values (here in Coptic letters).
In the Bible, the Tetragram Yahwe is read as Adon-Ay , because it

is forbidden to pronounce the name of God. In the Hebrew liturgy, as in the
Aramaic Bible, Adon-Ay is also represented by two Yods , which generally are
absorbed into the Tetragram Yahwe .
Yahwe as Yod-Yod is read as Adon-Ay too. The prohibition on uttering
the name of God is written in the Second Commandment (Exodus 20:7): "Thou
shalt not take the name of Yahwe in vain." Tradition however tolerates the
pronunciation of the word "Adon-Ay" while forbidding Yahwe and Yod-Yod.
What is the origin of the "Adon-Ay" name?
According to Sigmund Freud, there had been an abandonment of the Adon-Ay
name in favor of Yahwe. Later, there was a reversal toward the Egyptian roots of
the monotheistic religion, reintroducing Adon-Ay as a compromise for Yahwe.
According to the Freudian thesis of "The Return to the Father" (Adon-Ay) it
occurred in one or two generations. The scribes did not want the name Adon-Ay to
be forgotten, so it was understood that it was the name of the original god, the God
of the Exodus from Egypt, and the God of the compromise of Aten and Ay.
As Freud said: "If Moses was an Egyptian and if he transmitted his own
religion to the Jews, it was Akhenaten's, the religion of Aten." If, according to
Freud, the religion of the Hebrews was related to the religion
of Aten, the pronunciation of the name of the god Aten could be the origin of the
name Adon.
Since many Egyptian names are read with the letter "D" or the letter "T"
(Tushratta, Dushratta, Taphne, Daphne, etc.), one can surely affirm that the
original pronunciation of Aten was "Adon." The names of gods of Greek origin
are generally written with a D: Zeus was pronounced Dzeus, Deu, Adonis, etc.,
and in the Coptic alphabet,13 the letter D (Dau) is pronounced "D" or "T." From all
the evidence, it seems that the Yahud priests, in order to please the Ptolemaic
pharaohs (cf. Rashi, Exodus 12:40), adopted the names "Adon" and "Adon-Ay"
for their god; names close to those of the Greek god Adonis. In this, they
conformed to the old tradition of accepting the god of the conquerors.
As in the case of Akhenaten's name, Aten's didactic name also underwent
changes. Engraved on two stone tablets (or cartouches), there is a first naming:
"Re Horakhty, who lives and rejoices in the Region of Light (Akhet-Aten), in his
name of Shu, which is in the solar disk Aten."
First didactic form of Aten's name.
The title of the god Aten, or his didactic name, has numerous variants according to
the translations of the Egyptologists. But it is never separated from its global
context, placing Aten as the Sun god, reigning over the universe and inhabiting the
sacred land of Akhet-Aten.
It is interesting that each of the words inscribed in the divine cartouche has its
correspondence with Hebrew:
The Ankh, symbol of life or the breath of life.
In the Torah (Bible), when Pharaoh speaks, he says "Anokhi," , "I am."
14
The Talmud says that Anokhi is the "word of words," "the summary of
the Decalogue" (the Ten Commandments engraved on the Tablets of the Law),
whose origin is Egyptian.
In Egyptian, "I am" is said as Anok, a word close in sound to Ankh, Life. "I
am Life." That attribute conferring to the king the power to radiate light and life
about himself, conforms to the usage in the Pyramid Texts.15
He who rejoices (Hay).
The indicative "he who rejoices" reads as Hay in Egyptian. In Hebrew, "life" reads
as Hay - a synonym for rejoicing, and with the symbolic meaning of
"rejoicing in the holy land."
Akhet
This figure represents the holy land, flooded by divine light, Akhet-Aten. The
similarity with the Hebrew word Aretz is shown in the Hebrew
root Or : light - the first word of God in the Bible,16 and equivalent to the
Egyptian root Akh, also meaning light.17 The last letter, the Tsadeh evokes
Akhenaten standing, exalting the sun, a form equivalent to the hieroglyph TS.
In Egyptian this gives Hay meh-Ahet: "who is delighted in the holy land,"18
and in Hebrew, Hai Ba-aretz : "who lives in the holy land."
Shem
The expression "in his name," composed of four hieroglyphic signs, approaches
the Hebrew besemo , "in his name," formed by four letters. The horned
viper recalls the Hebrew Vav , "his/her/its," the third person singular possessive,
like the identical Beth.
The word "name" in Hebrew is Shem , and it is made up of two
characters, as is the equivalent Egyptian word Ren. Its origin could derive from the
Egyptian Shen, the little cartouche to the right of the hieroglyph below, meaning
"the name."
Hieroglyphic Shen.
Shu
Shu, the solar fire.
Shu, the luminous fire, is represented by an ostrich plume and is composed of the
same root as the Hebrew Esh , also meaning fire.
In Hebrew, Shemesh , "sun," is always broken down into two parts: Shem
, "name," and Esh , "fire." The "name of Esh" designates the sun,
Shemesh, just as in Egyptian "the name of Shu" is included in the title of the sun
god Aten.
Furthermore, Sham translates as "over there." The Egyptians, like the
Hebrews, thought that "over there" - in the heavens - fire (sham-esh) and water
(sham-mayim)19 were to be found.
The analogy surrounding the name of Aten allows us to present a case for a
concordance between the Hebrew and Egyptian languages. It would, then, be
useful to base our argument on Biblical pronunciation, at least for certain words
and religious names, if the Bible is to be considered a book of Egyptology.
Aten's name was first used from Year One to Year Nine of Akhenaten's reign,
overlapping the Theban and the Amarnian periods. Akhenaten then proceeded to
change the didactic form of Aten's name. More precisely, he deleted from the
name all images or caricatures referring to the ancient Egyptian gods. The falcon,
Re-Horakhty, disappeared from Aten's name, as well as the plume of Shu. Both
these were replaced by the circle, the phonetic symbol of the god Re, who is
without image, and still present in the first didactic name of Aten.
The change in the god's name is fundamental for an understanding of the

evolution of the religion of Aten. For the first time in Egypt's history, a pharaoh
banned the worship of the gods as images and idols. The act recalls the Second
Commandment in the Bible: "Thou shalt not make for yourself a graven image,
nor the likeness of anything that is in the heavens above, or in the earth beneath, or
in the waters under the earth" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 20:4).
In the second form of Aten's name the images of Shu and Horus have been replaced by Re
(e.g. p. 248).
The Resident Father
The verb to reside, to inhabit, is written in Hebrew with two letters, Gimel and
Resh : Gar. The hieroglyph for "reside"20 (shown above), according to Pierre
Grandet, is very like the Hebrew Gimel followed by the symbol for Re (circle). In
the Hebrew language, the verb Gar means both "stranger/foreigner" and
"inhabitant." So, Exodus 23:9 could be transcribed as: "Thou shalt not oppress an
inhabitant, because thou knowest how inhabitants feel, for ye were once
inhabitants in Egypt" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 23:9).
The scribes used the term "inhabitant" to describe the people. The word came
to mean "stranger" only after the Exodus from Egypt, probably in the time of
Nebuchadnezzar.
The word for father, Yt, which figures as an element in Aten's name, is found in
the names of Ytro (Jethro, Moses' father-in-law), and Ytshak (Isaac, "the smile of
Father Abraham").
Notes
1. Jean Francois Champollion, decipherer of the Rosetta Stone.
2. Bill Manley, Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Autrement, Collection Atlas/Memores, 1998,
p. 76.
3. Cf. Fabre d'Olivet for the root TB or TV : "All ideas of conservation, of central integrity;
this is the symbol of healthy fruitfulness, of a force capable of holding off all corruption."
Fabre d'Olivet, La Langue hebraique restituee. L'Age d'Homme-Delphica, 1991.
4. Hatov is close to Hotep symbolically, as in its pronunciation, because of the absence of
vowels in the two languages. The Hebrew "V" is pronounced the same as "B," a letter
analogous to the "P," requiring the same articulation in the mouth. Compare the Hebrew Beth,
symbolizing the heavens, which is the same as Beth and Pet in Egyptian.
5. Les lettres d'El Amarna. Le Cerf, 1987, EA 382; EA 403.
6. Fabre d'Olivet, La Langue hebraique restitute, p. 20.
7. For the Yod, cf. Christian Jacq, Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion. Solin, 1997, p. 35.
8. Baal is a god of Canaanite origin associated with human fertility. The son of El and brother of
Anath, together they form a triad.
9. Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion, p. 22: "These characters express precisely the object
which they present to the eye, an image more or less true and more or less detailed."
10. The Book of Zohar, Vol l.Verdier, 1981, p. 189.
11. Franz Rosenthal, Grammaire dArameen biblique, translated by Paul Hebert. Beauchesne,
1988, p. 48 and the following chapter. The Hebrew Aleph is written with a Yod on its upper
right part.
12. Les lettres d'El Amarna.
14. Rabbi Chelomo de Lubavicch, Reflexions sur la vie juive, vol. 3, pp. 892-5, 2nd edition, 1987,
Merkos l'Inoynei Chinuch, Anoki, the "word of words," source likoute-si-hot.
15. Christian Jacq, La tradition primordiale de l'Ancienne Egypte selon les textes des Pyramides,
Grasset & Fasquelle, 1998.
16. Genesis 1:3
17. Cf. Christian Jacq, Nefertiti et Akhenaton. Perrin, 1996, p. 78.
18. Pierre Grandet, Hymnes a la religion d'Aton. Le Seuil, 1995, p. 137.
19. Genesis 1:1.
20. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt. Le Seuil, 1997.
CHAPTER 25
The Culture of the Nile
Music
The musicians of the Eighteenth Dynasty comprised groups of two, three, or four
instruments. The harp, double flute, and lyre were accompanied by tambourine.
This implies a tradition incorporating tempo, arpeggio, rhythm, and harmony.
The Bible recalls the music of ancient Egypt. "His brother's name was Jubal.
He was the father of all who play the lyre and flute" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 4:21).
"... So I could send you away with joy and singing to the tambourine and lyre"
(Hebrew Bible, Genesis 31:27).
Three musicians play the double flute,

the lute and the harp (painting from the
Eighteenth Dynasty).
Slaves or Servants?
"They worked them unmercifully, and made their lives bitter with hard labor, in
mortar and brick; and in all kinds of fieldwork; in all their work the Egyptians
used them unmercifully" (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 1:13-14).
The commentary in the Maxims of the Fathers concerning these verses teaches
that Pharaoh excluded from slavery the tribe of Levi. This tribe, composed of
priests and nobles and their families, would have escaped the servitude imposed
by the king of Egypt. The Hagadah (the story of the Exodus from Egypt) gives this
explanation: "It [the tribe of Levi, the Yahuds] owed its safe standing to the care
of the nobles and to ancestral practices, like circumcision and the study of the
law."1
Rashi's commentary is just as explicit: "The Midrash [Commentary] still says
that the tribe of Levi, to which Moses belonged, was never enslaved by Pharaoh."2
These explanations, issuing from the oral tradition, mention the presence of
Levite priests among the populations of the Biblical Exodus. They could only be
representatives of Egyptian nobility and clergy from Akhenaten's era. It simply
isn't possible to admit in ancient Egypt a cohabitation between two separate
clergies and two nobilities of different origins. Foreigners who entered Egypt had
to give allegiance to Pharaoh. As in the case of the Hyksos conquerors, the
archeological traces of such an exception to ancestral traditions would have been
discovered. Consequently, the monotheistic priests exiled to the land of Canaan
carried with them the religion of Akhenaten. Therefore that is how we find in the
Bible the agreements and the straight connections with the religious wisdom and
traditions leading back to the cradle of Egyptian civilization.
The Yahud priests formed the tribe of Judah, the most important and powerful
of the exiled people. It was entrusted with the majority of the Canaan territories
(Judah), leaving the remaining people, the multitudes, to colonize the frontiers.
Rashi (Exodus 12:37) explains as follows: "A mixture of the converted nations,
forming a great multitude." Following
The Culture of the Nile 257
the example of Pharaoh Ay, the tribe of Judah created a second buffer zone
peopled by the great multitude, the humble people who formed Israel (I Kings
12:19): "Israel has been in rebellion against the house of David ever since."
Rashi affirms that the people of the Exodus from Egypt were the "servants of
Pharaoh." The servants of Pharaoh owned slaves themselves (and therefore
wealth), and could only be nobles and priests. The Erev-rav who followed them
out of Egypt formed the multitude.
The Levites were the priests of Akhet-Aten. Not only were they not slaves,
they were privileged people of the capital. The oral tradition taught by Rashi
makes clear here the true sense of the word eved, which means "servant," but also
"to offer worship to Pharaoh." This ambiguity in the meaning of certain Hebrew
words permitted the scribes to hide the truth within the Biblical tale.
This is how the name of the god Re, the king of the Egyptian gods, is
synonymous with the word ra meaning "evil" in Hebrew.
"Sin" in Hebrew is Hatat (Genesis 4:7), formed by Het (phonetically "Akhet") and
At (the first two letters of Aten). Akhet-Aten is the "City of Sin."
The Egyptian God of gods was demonized by the Biblical scribes, in the same
way as the pharaohs of Egypt.
Hieroglyph "STN," a reed designating the king of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The origin of the word "Satan" probably derived from the root "STN" according to
Champollion, the representation of a reed used by the Egyptians to designate the
king of Egypt.3 Frederic Portal declares that
the white crown and the red crown became the crown of the impious pharaohs,
and a crown soiled with blood. The scarab was the apocalyptic symbol of the
grasshoppers who issued from the wells of the abyss; in short, not only would the
pharaohs have been impious, but the gods would be transformed into Satan.4
The common people of the capital weren't subjected to slavery, as they proved
later by revolting against Moses several times, because they missed Egypt, the
land "flowing with milk and honey."
Why did the Biblical scribes use the expression "the Children of Israel?" It
appears that the Bible uses the expression in order to designate either the Egyptian
people (they were dispersed all over Egypt to make bricks), or the monotheists
who left Egypt (priests and nobles of Goshen, the region spared from the plagues).
Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, in a discussion on this subject, recalls that
"everyone in Egypt made bricks."5 The scribes' message unveils the origins of the
people of the Exodus from ancient Egypt, and thus confirms the Egyptian meaning
of the word "Israel" - son of Re and of God.
The Light of Akhenaten
About sixty years after the abandonment of Akhet-Aten, Pharaoh Ramesses II

managed to have what remained of the cursed city dismantled and destroyed.
Some hymns to Amun name Pharaoh Akhenaten as a criminal, celebrating his
defeat before the polytheistic god Amun: "The criminal has been rejected from
Thebes, 'Misfortune to the one who attacked thee! Thy city thrives [Thebes], but
he who attacked thee has fallen! The light of the one who knew thee not has gone
away, but the light of the one who is with thee riseth over the temple square.'"
However, Akhenaten was never expelled from Egypt. He was never rejected
from Thebes. He reigned as absolute master of the empire. What's more, he was
buried in the family crypt of the royal family of Akhet-Aten.
Later, when the city was abandoned, his mummy disappeared, as did that of
Nefertiti and their daughters. Did Akhenaten's sarcophagus accompany the
monotheistic population into exile?
As to that "light" that had gone away, the text makes allusion to the priests
who "know Amun not." After their departure, Akhet-Aten, the cursed city, was
abandoned to the darkness of Aten's monotheistic cult, which had been responsible
for Egypt's decline.
If the Stela of the Restoration of the cult of Amun (engraved on the orders of
Ay during the reign of Tutankhamun) does not overtly speak of a massive exodus
out of Egypt, the information engraved by the scribes stated it implicitly. There
also, one must read between the lines to discover a message over 3,500 years old,
one of the oldest coded messages: that of the scribes of the Stela of the Exodus.
Fortunately for future generations, over the centuries the scribes remained the
bearers of Egyptian culture. They jealously preserved the feeling of a "chosen
people," the Egyptian nation. With subtlety, they impregnated the verses of the
Bible with their attachment to ancient Egypt, to the terrestrial paradise.
The historical truth hidden in the Bible must be revealed by "holy exegesis,"
as Champollion recommended.
Yahud and Yahwe
The name Yahud came out of ancient Egypt.

"She [Leah, Jacob's wife] conceived again and bore a son. Then she said, 'This
time, I will praise [Hodah ] Yahwe.' So she called him Judah [Yehuda
]" (Hebrew Bible, Genesis 29:35).
Judah is the one who praises, who adores. His name contains the root Hodah
, praise, and Yahu , God. Yahu-Hodah are the roots from the names
Judah and Judea (Yehudah or Yahudah), Yehudi (an inhabitant of Judea), Yehuds
or Yahuds (monotheistic priests) and Yahu.
According to Isha Schwaller of Lubicz,6 the root Yahu-Daeh is found in the
Egyptian words Yahu-Dueh, meaning adoration, prayer, homage, and
giving praise. The Yahuds of the Aramaic Bible, the monotheistic priests who left
Egypt, rendered homage to the dawning light. The Great and Little Hymns to Aten
begin with the word dua (or dueh): "Adoration of Re-Horarty ... "7 The Yahu-
Dueh, the priests of ancient Egypt, are the Yehu-Daeh of the Aramaic Bible,
worshipers of the Divine Father Ay, Pharaoh of Egypt and the future Adon-Ay,
identified with Re.
The origin of Jehovah, Yahwe, or Yod-Heh-Vav-Heh , is Egyptian.
The tetragram can be read as Yahu. The third letter, the Vav, reads as a "U," the
Heh, the fourth letter, being mute. The true pronunciation of the tetragram,
consequently, is Yahu-Heh. The monotheistic Yahuds adore Yabu-Heh, the divine
breath.
There is a hieroglyphic pictogram Yakut (or Yahud):8
Hieroglyphs for Yaut, which means "divine heritage," "function," "mission. "
Fabre d'Olivet emphasizes that the Hebrew Yahud relates to "the heir" :
"Divine emanation, God-given: that is the name of the Jewish people or the ones
from Judah, from which it derives."9 So, it follows that the Yahud priests are the
heirs of the Egyptian tradition. The Yahud symbol is found on the hand of the first
of the Yahuds, the high priest, Pharaoh.10
The Dead Sea Scrolls, in their commentary on Habakkuk, reveal that the
Tetragram Yahwe (Jehovah) was not initially accepted by all the Yahud
priests. The scribes of the Babylonian period decided to give Yahwe's name an
inferior or provisional dimension in the sacred writings. The Yahwe name was
written in archaic, not representative writing. As Freud explains it, Yahwe was
only made acceptable bit by bit, as a compromise. But Yahwe did not replace
Elohim, as is generally believed.
In Column 10 of the Commentary on Habakkuk, Yahwe's name is written in

archaic or Phoenician letters (The Dead Sea Scrolls, William Burrows, Robert
Laffont), although the rest of the manuscript is written in Sacred Hebrew
characters.
Is Yahwe's name, inscribed on one of the columns of the Temple of Soleb" in

Upper Egypt, the origin of Yahwe? The inscription reads: "The house of Yahu in
Shasu land."12 Shasu is located in the country of Edom, in the south of Canaan, an
Egyptian province. Constructed by Amenhotep III, Soleb is a smaller version of
the Temple of Karnak. The Shasus, a pastoral, semi-nomadic people of Asiatic
(Mid-Eastern) origin, entered Egypt as prisoners of war under Thutmose II. Here,
they are represented as worshipers of Yahu. The Amarna Letters show that the
Canaanite kings worshiped Pharaoh. Thus, the Shasus, subjugated by the
Canaanite kings, could not help but worship Pharaoh. Ahmose, an Egyptian
officer, affirms in an inscription to have "brought back from the land of the Shasus
innumerable prisoners."13 Pardoned by Pharaoh, they rapidly adapted to
Egyptian life and thus formed an indispensable workforce for the great work
projects of the country.
The presence of the god Yahu among the Shasus and their influence on Egypt,
gave rise to the supposition that perhaps they were the people of the Exodus. The
evidence supporting this hypothesis - the three letters forming the word Yahu,
YHW, and the way the Shasus dressed - is insufficient. On the other hand, it is
quite possible that they were part of the common people of Akhet-Aten (Erev-rav),
the multitude that had converted to monotheism. According to Claude
Vandersleyen, Amenhotep III had built Soleb in order to establish a cult to
himself, "the king doth here worship the king."14 The Shasus, then, worshiped
Amenhotep III there, under the name of Yahu. This can easily be demonstrated by
observation of the YHW cartouche.
The name of Yahu on the columns of the Temple of Soleb (Amenhotep III).
Several elements indicate that the name Yahu designates Amenhotep III, King of
Egypt, who, quite naturally, was deified and worshiped in his Temple of Soleb by
his subject Shasus.
The "STN" diagram (or conventionally, Nesut ) is the symbol of the king of
Egypt. The falcon symbol, Hor, is the name of Amenhotep III. The double
cartouche enclosing the name Yahu, destined exclusively for the king,
indicates that the name engraved within is of a divine and royal nature.
Hieroglyph for Yahu.'6 The Culture of the Nile 263
His son, Amenhotep IV - Akhenaten - is represented there in the temple

venerating his father.
On the line in the middle of the cartouche above is the Yah name,
comparable to the Yah of the Bible: "Ya is my strength and my
song..." (Hebrew Bible, Exodus 15:2). Only the Yahud priests had the authority
to write a name like that on the temple columns. The Shasus did not have the
right to practice sacred writing. Consequently, Yahu is one of the divine names
of the god-king Amenhotep III. Yah is written on the two lions of Soleb.
The three hieroglyphs of the nation, discovered by Champollion, Ya-Hu-
Da-Ha Malek, are present in the cartouche of Amenhotep III at Soleb. Yahu is
formed of three hieroglyphs, YHW15 . Does this word have any
connection with the Biblical name Yahwe (YHWH) (Jehovah)?
The Tetragram Yahwe is composed of the root Yahu , Pharaoh's

name, and of Heh, the divine breath.
Concerning the pictograph expressing worship, Daeh or Dua, Isha Schwaller of

Lubicz emphasizes, "He extends his two arms towards thee in Iau."17 This
allows us to understand the interpretation of the name of Yehuda, son of Leah.
"Then she said, 'This time, I will praise Yahu-Heh
.' So she called him Yehu-Da ' (Genesis 29:35).

Consequently, the meaning of the hieroglyph above is a representation of the
Yahu-Daeh of the Aramaic Bible, the monotheistic priests who left Egypt. The
pictogram is the representation of the priest (Dua or Daeh) offering adoration to
Yahu.
The Yahuds certainly couldn't worship the Midianite god of the volcanos,
Jehovah, a stranger to the Egyptian pantheon. They were worshipers of the great
god Heh, or Yahu-Heh, the One God represented successively by Amenhotep III,
Akhenaten (Aten), Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun, and Ay: the Elohim or "individual
gods" who are none other than the pharaohs of Egypt.
Yahu is found in many Biblical names: Yehushua, Yasheyaku, Yehuda,
Yeremiahu, Matatyahu, etc. Several centuries after the Exodus, the scribes in
Babylon separated the Yahu god from the Ay god, thus rendering separate the
Hebrew and Aramaic Bibles. Here again, to mask their Egyptian origin and to
hide Ay's name, they added to the name of Yahu the divine letter Heh , as
Abram became Abraham (Genesis 17:5). The actual Egyptian pronunciation of the
Tetragram , then, is "Yahu-Heh".
Adoration of the great god Heh took place through pharaoh's picture: "And God
(Yahu-Heh) created man in his own image ..." is sung in the hymn of Amun of
Amenhotep III himself.
The Nile and Mitsraim (Egypt)
Below is the written word "Nile," which Egyptology translates in part by Ytru.
However, the Semitic pronunciation of this hieroglyph is very close to Mitsraim
(Egypt in Hebrew).
Nile Hieroglyph.
The Nile, the river that nourishes Egypt, in

conventional hieroglyphic pronunciation has
the phonetic value ytru or ytro. In the Bible,
Ytro is the Hebrew name of Jethro, the father-
in-law of Moses. Ytro is also the symbolic
name of Pharaoh Ay, represented as the god
of the Nile.
Ay deified as the God of the Nile = Ytru = Ytro

(Museum of Fine Arts, Boston).
In Hebrew, "Nile" is Mitsraim . It

is composed of three parts: Mits , which
means to spill or spread out, the Resh , which is the name of Re, and Yam ,
water. The final Mem represents the waters of the Nile: "The god Re has spread
out the waters of the river." Egypt is a gift of the Nile, which overflows, mixes
itself with the earth and waters the earth, creating a harmony among the
elements.18
This new meaning teaches us that the people "who came out from Mitsraim"
were only expelled from the sacred territory delimited by the Nile, with the
obligation to remain in the Egyptian provinces of Moab and Canaan. The "coming
out from the Nile," then, would be considered as an internal politico-religious
solution.
Hebrew Letters and Pharaoh's Uraeus
Five Hebrew letters have the cabalistic function of looking upward toward the
heavens. The zenith is represented by the uraeus of Pharaoh, the sacred
Picture on the north side of the funerary chamber of Tutankhamun. The king is lost
in admiration before the beauty of Nut, goddess of the heavens, equivalent to the
Canaanite goddess Anat ;19 his right hand holds the traditional rod and his left
hand the sign of power and life, the "Ankh." He wears the headband symbolized
by the five Hebrew letters.
serpent he wears on his forehead. The five letters include the hieroglyph for God,
or . Together, the Heh, Lamed, Resh, Daleth, and Kof , and
, symbolize the uraeus, the headband, and the two straps located behind
Pharaoh's head.
Notes
1. David Berdah, La Hagada de Paque. Alpha Magium, 1986.
2. Rashi, The Pentateuch according to Rashi, Genesis. Samuel and Odette LeVy, 1990, p. 368, Chapter
XVIII.
3. Christian Jacq, Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion. Solin, 1997. The origins of Satan
derive equally from the Egyptian god Seth, who was loathed by the Ptolemaic pharaohs.
4. Frederic Portal, Archeologie egyptienne, vol. III, Les symbols egyptiens. Editions de la Maisnie,
1985.
5. Nicole Maya Malet, Moise Hibreu, Moise Egyptien. Cerf, 1997, p. 143.
6. Isha Schwaller de Lubicz, Ehr-Bak disciple. Flammarion, 1956, p. 347.
7. Pierre Grandet, Hymnes de la religion d'Aton. Seuil, 1995, pp. 23, 99. Phonetic transcription
pp. 136, 153.
8. Champollion, Lecture illustree des hierglyphes. Le Rocher, 1998.

9. Fabre d'Olivet, La langue hebraique restituee. L'Age d'Homme Delphica, 1991, p. 60.
10. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Toutankhamon. CD Rom, Syrinx, 1997.
11. Guy Rachet, Dictionnaire de la civilisation Egyptienne, Larousse Bordas, 1998, p. 244.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid. Grammaire egyptienne de Champollion, p. 66.
15. Pierre Grandet and Bernard Mathieu, Cours d'egyptienne hieroglyphique. Kheops, 1997, p. 748.
16. Ibid.
17. Schwaller de Lubicz, Ehr-Bak disciple, p. 347.
18. Rashi, Pentateuch, Genesis 2:11.
19. Andre Dupon-Sommer and Paul Geuthner, extract from the magazine Syria, XXXIII, 1956. Sety I
established a cult to Anat at Beth-Shean.
CHAPTER 26
The Roots of Ritual
Aten, Atum, and Eth
The first verse of the Bible reads "Bereshit bara Elohim Eth Hashamaim (heavens)
veEt Aarets (earth)." The word Eth (or At), formed from the first and last
letter of the Hebrew alphabet, defines everything that unifies the power that exists
between God and his creation.1 In the Bible Eth is not only a preposition, but it
holds a high symbolic value as well. The first part of the names of Atum and Aten,
Eth has the Aleph (a hieroglyph
corresponding to Aten = Akhenaten), and the Tav symbol of the perfection relating
to Hathor (= Nefertiti). , the divine word, as used in the Bible, means
"between the eyes," or "symbol" in general.2 The Zohar3 defines Eth as "my
sovereign" (Adon-Ay).
Rashi (Exodus 12:16) explains that Tot, "between the eyes," in Hebrew means
"two symbols" in Catpi (Coptic). Therefore, the two Eth of the first verse of
the Bible tie together the creation of the heavens and the earth, which brings back
the image of the vulture hovering in the sky and the serpent crawling on the earth -
sacred symbols placed on the headband between Pharaoh's eyes.
The Roots of Ritual 269
The Earth: Aretz and Akhet
Earth, Arets,4 is phonetically identical to the Egyptian Akhet, meaning the

"land of light,"5 a metaphor found regularly in the Pyramid Texts: "Sacred Land,"
inundated by "Sacred light." "Holy Land" in Hebrew (Aretz ) contains the
root of the word "light," Or , in the same way the Egyptian word Akhet
contains Akh, which means light. The last letter, the Tsadeh , represents a
standing person making an offering. So Akhet-Aten, the land sacred to the god
Aten, is like the Hebrew Aretz Adon-Ay , the land sacred to the
Lord Adon-Ay.
The written Hebraic-hieroglyphic Aretz approaches the name of Aten,
"Re, sovereign of the two lands, who is exalted at the horizon of Akhet, in his
name of Re, the father who resides in Aten."
"He who is exalted, Re Aten." Hebraic-hieroglyphic reading of Aretz.
The Creation of Man
Genesis 1:27 says, "The Elohim created man in their image. It is in the image of
the Elohim that they created. Male and female they created him." Is the image of
the Elohim the image of man? Does this verse fit in with notions of
anthropomorphism encountered in Egyptian imagery? Most of the Egyptian gods
are represented as humans or as people with animal heads. The expression "male
and female" in Hebrew is zakhar unekeva , which expresses the
joining together of masculine
and feminine characteristics in Adam's person, as they are in representations of

Akhenaten.
In Genesis 2:4, we read, "This is the description of the creation of the heavens
and the earth. When Yahwe and the Elohim created ..." (Beheh-baram
). Rashi6 said about this, "It was with the letter Heh that the
heavens and the earth were created." Beheh-baram is translated by
"created by the Heh" which is to say by the Divine Breath. The Hebrew Heh is
similar to the hieroglyphic Heh (the Great God).
Beheh-baram is an anagram for Beh-Abraham , which
ties Abraham into the creation of the world.7 "Then Yahwe and the Elohim, from
the dirt of the earth, formed the man into a living creature by breathing the breath
of life into his nostrils" (Genesis 2:7).
The God of Thy Father
"He said [Adon-Ay said to Moses], 'I am the Elohim of thy Father, the Elohim of
Abraham, the Elohim of Isaac and of Jacob'" (Aramaic Bible, Exodus 3:6).
The expression "thy father," in Hebrew Abikha , represents the triad of
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as one individual. The expression "thy fathers" in
Hebrew would be Abotkha . Since the plural is not used here, the
message of the scribes is, "Thy father is, at the same time, Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob. The three patriarchs form a single person." Rashi comments, "I shall make
of thee [Abraham] a great people. That is why in the Amida [Hebrew prayer] you
say: God of Abraham. And I will bless you. That is why you say: God of Isaac.
And I shall magnify thy name. That is why you say: God of Jacob" (Rashi, Exodus
3:6).
The three patriarchs of the Bible are the image of Akhenaten, the father of
monotheism.
The Jerusalem Temple
The Jerusalem Temple is reminiscent of the temples the Yahuds had left behind in
Egypt.
In Deuteronomy, Moses gives indications how the temple should be built once
the Yahuds get to Jerusalem. He did not want the temple to be a duplicate of the
Egyptian temples, although the people did recall vestiges of the temples of Akhet-
Aten. Because of Moses' commandment that the new temple not be identical to the
ones in Egypt, the Temple of Jerusalem had neither post nor obelisk. These were
replaced by two bronze pillars, placed at each side of the porch. Moses' words
were, "Thou shalt not plant for thyself any kind of tree as a sacred post next to the
altar of Jehovah thy God. Thou shalt not set up a sacred pillar, a thing which
Jehovah thy God truly hateth" (Deuteronomy 16:21).
Yet, the Jerusalem Temple did have the style of Egypt in its overall structure,
and it had some similarities to the temples in Thebes. It had a copper bowl borne
by a dozen oxen (or a dozen cows) for the holy water, as well as many small
basins for the purification of the priests, as in the Egyptian temples. According to
the architectural description of the Second Temple, reconstructed with Cyrus'
approval, the rectangular form, the common room, the sections, and the Holy of
Holies recall the structure and organization of Egyptian temples. The animal
sacrifice to God of a "red cow" in Solomon's Temple reminds of the sacrifices of
"red oxen" in the Great Temple of Amun. One of the seven fattened cows in the
tomb of Nefertari, wife of Ramesses II, was called "the red one."
Temple of Horus (Edfu).
* The vestiges of a step altar and abattoirs have been discovered in the ruins of
Akhet-Aten at Amarna.
** The columns of the Temple of Jerusalem have not been shown.
Why was Jerusalem chosen by the Yahud priests as the holy city? Letter EA 287
of the El Amarna Letters, in which Abdi-heba, Governor of Jerusalem, complains
about the attacks of the Apiru, says that Akhenaten had placed his name in
Jerusalem: "For your information. Since the king placed his name in Jerusalem
forever, he must not abandon the country of Jerusalem."
Akhenaten made Jerusalem sacred, conferring on it a status superior to that of
other cities. Thebes was called "the city of one hundred doors," which is translated
into Hebrew as "Mea Chearim," a name given to the religious neighborhood of
Jerusalem.
The worship of Pharaoh continued in Judea as well as within the Temple of
Solomon, King of Judah. The Bible mentions the excellence of relations between
Egypt and Solomon, who married Pharaoh's daughter. In the course of his reign,
Solomon continued to worship the Egyptian gods, building altars to them, so that
he was as powerful and respected as a pharaoh. The kings succeeding him
followed his example, in the "temple of the sun" which was the house of Jehovah:
"Yet the High-Places were not taken away ..." (I Kings 22:43).
"He destroyed the houses of the sacred prostitutes which were in the house of
Jehovah ..." (II Kings 23:7).
"He removed the horses that the Kings of Judah had dedicated to the sun at
the entrance of the house of Jehovah" (II Kings 23:11).
The Candelabra
He [Joseph] said to them, "Please listen to this dream I had. We were binding
sheaves in the field. Suddenly, my sheaf arose and remained standing. Yours
gathered around it and bowed down before mine." His brothers said to him,
"What! Art thou to reign over us? Art thou to become our master?" (Genesis
37:6-8)
Joseph's first dream brings in an essential theme of Egyptian society called Sema-
Tauy,8 the unity of the two lands. The twelve bowing sheaves of the Bible,
symbolizing the twelve viziers of Egypt, stand for Pharaoh's coronation. The
Sema-Tauy represents the enthronement by the gods tying the sheaf of papyrus
(Lower Egypt) to the sheaf of lilies (Upper Egypt), bowing down before Pharaoh.
Is the Sema-Tauy the origin of the candelabra that plays such an important
part in Jewish ritual? Egyptian iconography corresponds with the Biblical
description of the candelabra in the second part of the Book of Exodus.
And he made a candelabra of pure gold. From one single stone, he made the
candelabra. Its base and its shaft, its capitals, its knobs and flowers came out of
it. Six branches came up from its sides, three branches on one side and three
on the other. Three cups made like almond flowers, each with capital and
flower, and three cups also made like almond flowers, each with capital and
flower on the other branch. Thus for the six branches that go out from the
candelabra. (Exodus 37:17-19)
The sheaves bowing before Pharaoh.
In Hebrew, "candelabra" is Menorah , having Amun and Re for a base: the

emanation/illumination of Amun-Re. The central light is called Shamash, the sun.
Composed of seven or eight branches, it recalls the luminous serpents, surmounted
by the solar disk Re, which Pharaoh wears in front of his loincloth. The central
serpent wears the name of "Re."
Tutankhamun's loincloth with nine lights. The central light bears the name Re, the
sun god. Temple of Luxor.
The candelabra is a symbol of unity,9 and also of victory. It celebrates the triumph
of Judas Maccabeus over Antiochus Epiphanus (167 BC). On the Arch of Titus,
the Romans are shown exhibiting the candelabra (70 BC). Tutankhamun's
ceremonial chariot represents the Sema-Tauy, sign of victory over Egypt's
enemies.
Tutankhamun's throne. Symbols of Amun-Re (Menorah).
If the Biblical description of the candelabra represents an apparent symmetry, it

depicts an emblem of unity and of duality, rejoining the image of the Sema-Tauy.
Along the same lines, this symbol is omnipresent in the Cobra Crowns and the
Hem-hem Crown worn by Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. The cobras adorned with
the light of Re and the double feather of Shu recall Amun-Re.
He had still another dream, and he told it to his brothers, saying, "I had another
dream where I saw the sun, the moon, and eleven stars prostrate themselves
before me. " He told his father and his brothers. His father reprimanded him,
and said to him, "What kind of a dream is that? Indeed! That I and thy mother
and thy brothers will come prostrate ourselves to the ground at your feet?"
(Genesis 37:9-10)
Interior panel of one of the ceremonial chariots of Tutankhamun. The Sema-Tauy is

exhibited with Nubian and Asiatic captives (Cairo Museum).
The second dream hides Akhenaten (the sun), Nefertiti (the moon) and eleven stars
that prostrate themselves before him and recalls the twelve viziers, governors of
Egypt. Christina Reiche'0 defines Akhet-Aten in this way: "Amarna is,
simultaneously, the exact point where the heavens and the earth meet and the
privileged place where the 'here and now' meets the 'out there.' So it's the whole
cosmos, in which the stars are the sun in the heavens and the royal family on
earth."
Pharaoh's Cup
The entourage of Pharaoh - his master cupbearer, his master baker, and ten
officers, called Rav-reveh Par'oo - are all described in the Biblical account of
Joseph's dream interpretations.
In Genesis 40:11, the master cupbearer describes his dream: "I had Pharaoh's
cup in my hand. I gathered the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup and
placed the cup in the king's hand."
Research on the talatates of Karnak show a graven image of Akhenaten,
holding up his cup towards Aten as a wine offering. The monotheistic prayer over
the fruit of the vine has its origin in ancient Egypt, the first country to consecrate
the "drink of the gods."
Pharaoh's cup. Akhenaten, standing, practices the ritual of the fruit of the vine. Talatates of
Karnak.
The Washing of the Hands
The tradition of the washing of the hands (in Hebrew, netilat-yadayim

) was practiced by the Judahite priests (Yahuds) and it
continues up to the present day in all monotheistic traditions. One hand pours
water over the other, each playing the role of servant. The talatates of Karnak
demonstrate this ritual. They show a servant pouring water over the hands of
Akhenaten.
The puzzle formed by the three bricks show a servant (left) pouring water on the hands
that Akhenaten extends under the hands of the pourer. Talatates of Karnak.
The Washing of the Feet
He [Abraham] lifted his eyes, and behold, three men stood before him. On
seeing them, he ran from the entrance of his tent and prostrated himself on the
ground. And he said, "Lord, if I have found favor in thy eyes, do not pass by
thus before thy servant! Let a little water be brought, and wash your feet, and rest
under the tree. " (Genesis 18:2-4)
Rashi comments on this verse. "And wash your feet. He [Abraham] thought that
they were Arabs who prostrated themselves before the dust of his feet, and he took
care not to enter into his home the object of an idolatrous cult."
Rashi was the heir of the oral tradition, and mentions Arab visitors (or Erev-
rav) in Abraham's time. Thus the word "Arab" refers to the many kinds of people
from Akhet-Aten, newly converted to monotheism, and called Erev-rav in the
Bible (Exodus 12:38). After studying the roots in Hebrew, Arabic, Samaritan,
Syrian, and Chaldean, Fabre d'Olivet confirmed the common origin of the words
"Hebrew" and "Arab":
Everyone knows that both people [Hebrews and Arabs] trace their origin to
the patriarch Heber. But the name of this claimed patriarch means nothing
more than "what is placed somewhere else, that is far away, hidden,
dissembled, deprived of daylight; what passes by, what ends, what is off in the
West, etc. " The Hebrews derived from it hebri, the Arabs harbi, by a
transposition of letters which is quite ordinary in such a case. But whether it is
pronounced hebri or harbi, both words always express that the people who are
called by it always are found "over there" or "far out," or at the western end of
a country. So, from the most ancient times, the Hebrews or the Arabs, relative
to Asia, were on the western end, what they termed the Land of God.
Rashi gives another explanation of the word "Hebrew." "Abram the Hebrew. He who
comes from the other side (Heber) of the River"11 (Rashi, Genesis 14:13). The
image of Abraham welcoming the visitors resembles Akhenaten receiving the
heads of foreign lands in the capital at the annual Jubilee.The vassals prostrate
themselves at the feet of the one they call their Lord, their God, their Sun.
Princes and foreign kings prostrate themselves before Akhenaten (Talatates of Karnak).
According to Christiane Desroches Noblecourt, there existed in the living room of

the houses of Akhet-Aten (especially in those of the priests and nobles) a slab on
which the feet were placed when arriving: "A large slab with a slight incline was
fastened to the wall. It was there that the purifying fresh water was poured on the
feet and hands of the masters and their guests."
Notes
2. Ibid, p. 17.
3. Zohar, Vol. 1, translated by Charles Mopsik. Verdier, 1981, p. 95.
4. The word Aarets is also given in the text as Arets and Aretz. All mean "earth" or "land," and
are transliterated into Roman letters according to the pronunciation used in spoken Hebrew.
5. Akhet can also be translated as "horizon."
6. Rashi, The Pentateuch according to Rashi, Genesis. Samuel and Odette Levy, 1990 (Genesis
4:2).
7. See Genesis 17:4-5.
8. Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Amours et fureurs de La Lointaine. Stock-Pernoud, 1997,
pp. 67-77.
9. Albert Soued, Les symboles dans la Bible. Jacques Grancher, 1995, p. 33.
10. Christina Reiche, 1996, in Marc Gabolde, D'Akhenaton a Toutankhamon. Institut
d'Archeologie et d'Histoire de l'Antiquite, Universite Lumiere-Lyon 2-CNRS, 1998, p. 19.
11. Rashi, Genesis.
Conclusion
In El Amarna Letter EA4, Kadashman Enlil, King of Babylon, asks for one of
Amenhotep III's daughters as his wife. Amenhotep refused, citing the long
Egyptian tradition of never giving a princess in marriage to a foreigner, even to a
king. After many exchanges, Kadshman Enlil, assisted by his counselors, would
have been able to invoke the Biblical past and argue that Abraham, the Hebrew
king born in Ur-Kasdim, a Babylonian city, had married an Egyptian queen and
princess. The letter testifies that neither the king of Egypt, nor the Babylonian king
knew the Biblical legend of Abraham in the fourteenth century BC.
Before Akhenaten's One God, relationships among the Egyptians were
fraternal. With the appearance of the "Amarnian monotheistic heresy," the notion
of intolerance and of election by a Single God began to take hold in their souls.
Akhenaten had promoted his God to the summit of the initiation of the secrets of
Egypt, supplanting most of the other Egyptian gods. His father, Amenhotep III,
had ordered the separation of the followers of Amun and Aten, a separation that
was transposed much later in the Torah, where Egypt was dissimulated through
numerous Biblical metaphors. By order of Ay and his successors, the tragedy of
the exodus from Akhet-Aten caused a monotheistic movement, certainly hidden,
but nevertheless inseparable from long Egyptian tradition.
All through its history, Judea enjoyed its alliance with God, "the support of the
reed," that is, the protection of Pharaoh and Egypt. However, the attempts to
resolve the Amarnian crises by a massive exodus of the monothiest population are
the origins of che religious wars and conflicts that appear to be human destiny.
According to the words of Moses (Aramaic Bible, Deuteronomy 10:17), "The

Eternal One [Ay], your God, is God of the Gods."
The Wisdom of Merykare teaches that God is observable through the
multiplicity of His creation. This manifestation takes place in everyday life, where
the Creator, not distinct from His creation, arouses respect and compassion
through the gods present in Nature.
Whether this God is one or many, visible or invisible, He is the same
manifestation in the Bible as in ancient Egypt. The Universal God does not
concern Himself with rivalries. At the origin of Creation he has stood for
goodness, for love among humanity. By invoking His name, Pharaoh had the duty
to establish peace among the people over the land of Egypt. As Erik Hornung1
demonstrates, the many was the one, the one was many.
Thus, the hypothesis of the Egyptian origin of the Hebrews is only at a
beginning. Studies will permit other treasures hidden in the immense Jewish
culture to become unveiled in the near future. Even if many scholars are strongly
attached to it, the complex discrepancies between the Old Testament and its many
commentaries and Egyptology calls for serious study and application. As the
philosopher Simone Weil2 affirms, conclusions from a comparative re-reading of
the Old Testament and ancient Egyptian history and texts could result in true
revelations, since a number of passages in the Bible were adopted by other
civilizations, Egypt remaining at the base.
Notes
1. Erik Hornung, Les dieux de l'Egypt. Le un et le multiple. Rocher, 1986, p. 227.
2. Papers of Simone Weil (1909-1943), edited by Marie-Eve Colin. Vol. 7, No. 1, 1984.

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"The Judeo-Christian world w i l l be in upheaval.

The scientific m i l i e u , the

Rabbi Marc Alain Ouaknin, interview in Evenement de

Translators' Introduction vii

1 The Tomb and Its Secrets 3

ART AND LOIS BANTA

Pharaohs of the Tenth Dynasty (Partial list)

Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty (Partial list)

Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty (Partial list)

Egyptian Gods (Partial list)

Others Mentioned in this Work

Egyptologist, Champollion, deciphered the hieroglyphic writing that recorded the

The Tomb and Its Secrets

The funerary chamber of Tutankhamun held four overlapping containers, one

Canopic box of calcite-alabaster covered by a linen cloth (Tomb of

The City of Gold and Light

Akhenaten insisted quite particularly on his role of teacher in the sacred

Map of Egypt at the time of Amenhotep IV- Akhenaten.

Everything was pre-planned in that amazing capital, where one could

At the death of Pharaoh Smenkhkare, Ay took over the government of Egypt,

Tutankhamun was a child naturally obedient to his presumed grand uncle. Ay

A reconstruction of the city of Akhet-Aten. Taken from Pierre Grandet, Hymnes

The Pharaoh of the Exodus

monotheism is further demonstrated by the double cartouche of Smenkhkare,

The Divine Father Ay worshipped by the

All over Egypt they made bricks (Karnak talatates).

Thou art One.

The Stela of the Return (1330 BC), or

By a religious alliance with the monotheistic priests, Ay settled a crucial political

On Tutankhamun's death, the Divine Father Ay assumed the crown of the

Unlike Horemheb, Pharaoh Ay is scarcely represented in sculptural form. The

The power of Amun's clergy accrued considerably. This supremacy

the gift of monotheism - Akhenaten - and of the wonderful paradise he had

Akhenaten and Adam

Akhenaten and Nefertiti offer incense to Aten in the temple.

Colossus showing an asexual Akhenaten, male

In addition to the application of dirt to the body, Egyptian male mourners

Ramesses II in mourning for his

Pharaoh = Re is in peace = Atov = Hotep

The battle between Setb and Apophis.

Christian Jacq comments on this:

Isefet, or "evil," was demonstrated by the perversity of the priests of Akhet-

The serpent with legs from the tomb of Amenhotep II.

This explanation, based on semantics, permits us to reinforce the sense of "sons of

The Tower of Babel

Smenkhkare knew from experience that in a period of internal trouble, it was

Abraham the Egyptian

The Judahites (the Yehudim in Hebrew or Yahudaes in Aramaic) settled in

Ramesses II's Battle of Kadesh, where a soldier mounted on a horse is seen.

According to Cyril Aldred, the god Aten guided Amenhotep IV -Akhenaten - to

Abraham in Mesopotamia, because the Egyptians were an abomination in the eyes

In ancient Egypt, the word "sister" served to designate loved-one, exactly as in

had remained childless. The question of an heir was at stake.

Rebecca said to Isaac, "I am weary of my life because of the daughters of

The Biblical account of Rebeccas betrothal to Isaac confirms her status as an

Tutankhamun's alabaster headrest (Cairo Museum).

Each step of the ladder represented a trial for Pharaoh to undertake.

Symbol of the celestial ladder in the pyramid of Pepy I.