Concrete Structures For Containment of Hazardous Materials: ACI 350.2R-04

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ACI 350.

2R-04

Concrete Structures for Containment


of Hazardous Materials
Reported by ACI Committee 350

Charles S. Hanskat Lawrence M. Tabat


Chair Secretary

James P. Archibald* William J. Irwin Andrew R. Philip


*
Jon B. Ardahl Keith W. Jacobson Narayan M. Prachand
John W. Baker* Dov Kaminetzky Satish K. Sachdev
Walter N. Bennett Reza M. Kianoush William C. Schnobrich
Steven R. Close* David G. Kittridge John F. Seidensticker
Anthony L. Felder Dennis C. Kohl* William C. Sherman
Carl A. Gentry Nicholas A. Legatos Lawrence J. Valentine*
Clifford Gordon Lawrence G. Mrazek Miroslav F. Vejvoda
Paul Hedli Javeed A. Munshi Paul Zoltanetzky, Jr.
Jerry A. Holland Jerry Parnes

Consulting and associate members who contributed to this report:


John A. Aube Ashok K. Dhingra Clifford T. Early, Jr.*
William H. Backous Robert E. Doyle William J. Hendrickson
Patrick J. Creegan Donald L. Dube David A. Klevete
David A. Crocker

*Members of ACI 350 Hazardous Materials Subcommittee who prepared this report. Lawrence Valentine served as Chair and
Steven R. Close served as Secretary and then took over as chair during the final processing of this revision.
Deceased.

This report presents recommendations for structural design, materials, and


ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
construction of structures commonly used for hazardous materials contain-
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning,
designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This ment, including reinforced concrete tanks, sumps, and other structures that
document is intended for the use of individuals who are require dense, impermeable concrete with high resistance to chemical attack.
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its The report discusses and describes design and spacing of joints, propor-
content and recommendations and who will accept tioning of concrete, placement, curing, and protection against chemicals.
responsibility for the application of the material it contains. Information on liners, secondary containment systems, and leak-detection
The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all systems is also included.
responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not
be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract Keywords: construction joint; joint; joint sealant; precast concrete; pre-
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the stress; water-cementitious material ratio; waterstop.
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by
the Architect/Engineer. CONTENTS
Chapter 1General, p. 350.2R-2
1.1Scope
It is the responsibility of the user of this document to
establish health and safety practices appropriate to the specific 1.2Definitions
circumstances involved with its use. ACI does not make any
representations with regard to health and safety issues and the 1.3Types of materials
use of this document. The user must determine the
applicability of all regulatory limitations before applying the ACI 350.2R-04 supersedes ACI 350.2R-97 and became effective June 28, 2004.
document and must comply with all applicable laws and Copyright 2004, American Concrete Institute.
regulations, including but not limited to, United States All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
health and safety standards. tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.

350.2R-1
350.2R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Chapter 2Concrete design and proportioning, primary or secondary containment of cryogenic liquids,
p. 350.2R-3 nonliquid materials, or to systems containing radioactive
2.1General materials.
2.2Design The use of information in this report does not ensure
2.3Concrete cover compliance with applicable regulations. The recommendations
2.4Exposure in this report were based on the best technical knowledge
2.5Concrete mixture proportions available at the time they were written; however, they may
2.6Fiber-reinforced concrete be supplemented or superseded by applicable local, state,
and national regulations. Therefore, it is important to
Chapter 3Waterstops, sealants, and joints, research such regulations (see Section 8.1) thoroughly.
p. 350.2R-6
3.1Waterstops Guidelines for containment and leakage-detection systems
3.2Joint sealants given in this report involve combinations of materials that
3.3Joints may not be readily available in all areas. Therefore, local
distributors and contractors should be contacted during the
Chapter 4Construction considerations, design process to ensure that materials are available.
p. 350.2R-8 Proper and thorough inspection of construction is essential
4.1Sump construction techniques to ensure a quality final product. The written program for
4.2Curing and protection inspection should be detailed and comprehensive, and
4.3Inspection should be clearly understood by all parties involved. See
Section 4.3 for an inspection checklist. (See ACI 311.4R for
Chapter 5Liners and coatings, p. 350.2R-11 guidance in inspection programs.) A preconstruction confer-
5.1Liners ence to discuss the program in detail is recommended.
5.2Coatings Personnel should be qualified, experienced, and certified as
5.3Selection considerations for liners and coatings applicable to their specialty.
5.4Inspection and testing of liner and coating installations
1.2Definitions
Chapter 6Secondary containment, p. 350.2R-14 The definitions in Sections 1.2.1 through 1.2.11 have been
6.1General correlated with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
6.2Secondary containment system features (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
6.3Secondary containment materials regulations.
1.2.1 Hazardous materialA hazardous material is
Chapter 7Leak-detection systems, p. 350.2R-14 defined as having one or more of the following characteristics:
7.1General ignitable (NFPA 49), corrosive, reactive, or toxic.
7.2Drainage media materials NOTE: EPA-listed wastes are organized into three categories
7.3Design and installation of drainage media under RCRA: source-specific wastes, generic wastes, and
commercial chemical products. Source specific wastes
Chapter 8References, p. 350.2R-16 include sludges and wastewaters from treatment and production
8.1Referenced standards and reports
processes in specific industries such as petroleum refining
8.2Cited references
and wood preserving. The list of generic wastes includes
wastes from common manufacturing and industrial
CHAPTER 1GENERAL
1.1Scope processes such as solvents used in degreasing operations.
This report is intended for use in the structural design and The third list contains specific chemical products such as
construction of hazardous material containment systems. benzene, creosote, mercury, and various pesticides.
Hazardous material containment structures require secondary 1.2.2 TankA tank is a stationary containment structure
containment and, sometimes, leak-detection systems. with self-supporting, watertight walls constructed of
Because of the economic and environmental impact of even nonearthen material.
small amounts of leakage of hazardous materials, both 1.2.3 Environmental tankAn environmental tank is a
primary and secondary containment systems should be virtually tank used to collect, store, or treat hazardous material. An
leak free. Therefore, when primary or secondary containment environmental tank usually provides either primary or
systems involve concrete, special design and construction secondary containment of a hazardous material.
techniques are required. This report supplements and 1.2.4 Tank systemA tank system includes its primary
enhances the requirements of ACI 350, which is intended for and secondary containment systems, leak-detection system,
structures commonly used in water containment, industrial and the ancillary equipment.
and domestic water, and wastewater treatment works. ACI 1.2.5 Ancillary equipmentAncillary equipment includes
350, however, does not give specific guidance on the design piping, fittings, valves, and pumps.
of the double containment systems, leak-detection systems, 1.2.6 SumpA sump can be any structural reservoir,
or the additional recommendations for enhancing liquid- usually below grade, designed for collection of runoff or
tightness covered in this report. This report does not apply to accidental spillage of hazardous material. It often includes
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-3

troughs, trenches, and piping connected to the sump to help Table 2.1Wall thickness and reinforcement
collect and transport runoff liquids. Regulations may not locations based on concrete placement
distinguish between a sump and an underground tank. consideration
1.2.7 Primary containment systemA primary containment Minimum Reinforcement
Description Wall height thickness location
system is the first containment system in contact with the
Over 10 ft 12 in. (300 mm) Both faces
hazardous material. Cast-in-place (3000 mm)
1.2.8 Secondary containment systemA secondary concrete 4 to 10 ft
containment system is a backup system for containment of (1200 to 3000 mm) 10 in. (250 mm) Both faces

hazardous materials in case the primary system leaks or fails Less than 4 ft 6 in. (150 mm) Center of wall
(1200 mm)
for any reason.
4 ft (1200 mm) or
1.2.9 Spill or system failureA spill or system failure is Precast concrete more 8 in. (200 mm) Center of wall
any uncontrolled release of hazardous material from the Less than 4 ft 4 in. (100 mm) Center of wall
primary containment system into the environment or into the (1200 mm)
secondary containment system. It may also be from the Description Minimum wall thickness
secondary containment system into the environment. Tendon prestressed concrete tanks See ACI 350
1.2.10 Spill- or leak-detection systemA spill- or leak- Wrapped prestressed concrete tanks See ACI 350
Note: Placement windows (temporary openings in the forms) or tremies are recom-
detection system detects, monitors, and signals a spill or mended to facilitate concrete placement in cast-in-place walls greater than 6 ft
leakage from the primary containment system. (1800 mm) in height.

1.2.11 Membrane slabA membrane slab is a slab-on-


ground designed to be liquid-tight and transmit loads directly
to the subgrade. concrete, concrete mixtures proportioned to reduce
shrinkage, and fiber reinforcement. Additionally, some
1.3Types of materials construction techniques, such as casting floors and walls
This report provides guidance for the design and construction monolithically (Chapter 4), help prevent or reduce cracking
of environmental tanks and sumps of reinforced concrete by eliminating the restraint of shrinkage and temperature
construction. Tanks may be constructed of prestressed or movements of the subsequently placed concrete along the
nonprestressed reinforced concrete, or steel or other materials joint with the previously placed concrete. See ACI 224R and
with concrete foundations, concrete secondary containment ACI 224.3R for additional information on mitigation of
systems, or both. Reinforced concrete is the most widely cracking in concrete structures.
used material for sumps, particularly below grade.
Liners for environmental tanks and sumps are made of stain- 2.2Design
less or coated steel, fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP), various 2.2.1 Design considerationsThe walls, base slabs, and
combinations of esters, epoxy resins, or thermoplastics. other elements of containment systems should be designed
This report outlines and discusses options for construction for pressure due to contained material, lateral earth pressure,
materials and provides recommendations for use, where buoyancy, wind, seismic, and other superimposed loads.
applicable. ACI 350 provides requirements for the design of both
prestressed and nonprestressed tanks and other environ-
CHAPTER 2CONCRETE DESIGN AND mental structures. See ASTM C 913 for additional design
PROPORTIONING provisions relating to factory-precast sumps.
2.1General ACI 372R, AWWA D110, ACI 373R, and AWWA D115
Concrete is particularly suitable for above- and below- provide additional guidance for the design of prestressed
grade environmental primary and secondary containment concrete liquid-containment structures. See ACI 223 for infor-
systems. When properly designed and constructed, concrete mation and guidance on shrinkage-compensating concrete.
containment systems are impermeable and highly resistant to Roofs should be designed for dead loads, including any
failure during fires. See ACI 216R, CRSI (1980), and Zwiers superimposed dead loads (insulation, membranes, mechanical
and Morgan (1989) for information on exposure of concrete equipment, and earth load, if buried) and live loads (snow,
to elevated temperatures. pedestrians, and wheel loads, if applicable).
Concrete is a general-purpose material that is easy to work A minimum slope of 2% should be included in the design
with and is resistant to a wide range of chemicals. It is used in of floors and trench bottoms to prevent ponding and help
construction of both primary and secondary containment drainage. Secondary containment systems for flammable
systems. The addition of pozzolans, latex, and polymer modi- and combustible liquids should have a slope that is in accor-
fiers can increase concretes resistance to chemical attack. dance with NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Measures that should be considered to help prevent Code, or an applicable fire code.
cracking or to control the number and width of cracks 2.2.2 Wall thickness and reinforcementThe minimum
include: prestressing, details that reduce or prevent restraint wall thickness and reinforcing steel location in walls should
of movements due to shrinkage and temperature changes, comply with Table 2.1.
higher than normal amounts of nonprestressed reinforcement, 2.2.3 FootingsFootings should be cast on top of, or
closer spacing of reinforcement, shrinkage-compensating monolithically with, the floor slab to enhance liquid tightness.
350.2R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Upturned footings help reduce restraint of shrinkage and its ment, however, should remain near the center of the slab.
associated cracking. The residual compressive stress in the slab should be at
2.2.4 Slabs-on-ground least 200 psi (1.4 MPa) after deducting strand friction, long-
2.2.4.1 Membrane slabsACI 350 provides requirements term losses, and losses due to friction between the slab and
for the minimum shrinkage and temperature reinforcement the subgrade. Flexural tensile stresses should not exceed
and, if post-tensioned, the residual prestressing requirements 2fc psi (0.167fc MPa) under service loads, unless bonded
for membrane floor slabs. Prestressed membrane slabs reinforcement is provided in the precompressed tensile zone.
should have a minimum thickness of 5 in. (125 mm). Flexure and shear requirements are given in ACI 350,
Nonprestressed membrane slabs should have a minimum Section A.3.2(b) for the various bar sizes, exposure condi-
thickness of 6 in. (150 mm). To enhance liquid-tightness, tions, and grades of reinforcement.
membrane slabs should be placed without construction As with membrane slabs, pavement slabs intended to be
joints. A membrane slab can be reinforced with prestressed liquid-tight should be placed without construction joints
and nonprestressed reinforcement in the same layer in each whenever possible. When joints are unavoidable, they
direction, or with nonprestressed reinforcement only, at or should be designed and detailed according to the other
near the center of the slab. If prestressed, they should have a recommendations of this report.
minimum of 200 psi (1.4 MPa) residual compression after 2.2.5 Mat foundationsMat foundations are usually 12 in.
deducting for all losses, including the effects of friction (300 mm) thick with two layers of nonprestressed reinforcement
between the slab and the subgrade and after allowing for any or 10 in. (250 mm) thick with prestressed reinforcement.
tension tie forces. This amount of prestressing has been Additional concrete thickness can be provided to help resist
found to provide liquid-tightness without excessive cracking buoyancy, if required.
due to gradual differential subgrade settlements, shrinkage
2.2.6 Minimum reinforcement for nonprestressed secondary
and temperature effects, or both, in slabs on properly
containmentThe minimum reinforcement to counter the
prepared subgrade.
effects of shrinkage and temperature changes for concrete
2.2.4.2 Pavement slabsThe term pavement slabs, as used as secondary containment structures should comply
used in this report, denotes the particular case of slabs-on- with ACI 350.
ground designed for drainage capture and primary or
2.2.7 Minimum reinforcement for nonprestressed primary
secondary containment of hazardous materials when vehicle
containmentTo counter the effects of shrinkage and
or other concentrated loads are anticipated. Pavement slabs
temperature changes, the minimum reinforcement content
can be either prestressed or nonprestressed and designed as
for concrete used as primary containment should be 0.5% of
plates on elastic foundations. A qualified geotechnical engineer
the cross-sectional concrete area. To further limit cracking
should determine the properties of the subgrade, including
caused by restraint of free movement due to shrinkage and
soil classification and modulus of subgrade reaction.
temperature dropping, the reinforcement parallel to a
Acceptable analytical techniques include finite element,
construction joint should be increased to 1.0% within the
finite difference, and other techniques that give comparable
first 4 ft (1200 mm) of a construction joint in the subsequent
results. Flexural and punching shear stresses should be used
placement (Fig. 2.1). For crack mitigation, it is preferable to
to design the conventional and prestressed reinforcement.
use several small-diameter bars rather than fewer bars of a
Nonprestressed pavement slabs designed for vehicle loads
larger diameter. The maximum bar spacing should not
of AASHTO H-10 or heavier should be at least 8 in. (200 mm)
exceed 12 in. (300 mm).
thick and should contain two layers of reinforcement in each
direction (AASHTO Standard Specification). The slab 2.2.8 Minimum nonprestressed reinforcement for
thickness for lighter wheel loads may be according to prestressed concreteThe minimum nonprestressed
Section 2.2.4.1. The reinforcement percentage should total reinforcement in prestressed concrete containment structures
at least 0.5% of the cross-sectional area in each orthogonal should be 0.15% for secondary containment and 0.30% for
direction, with at least one-half, but not more than two-thirds, primary containment when movement due to shrinkage is
of this amount in the upper layer. ACI 350 provides require- partially restrained, such as slabs-on-ground. It should be the
ments for the design of flexural reinforcement, including the same as recommended for nonprestressed concrete wherever
additional durability factor, where applicable. movement due to shrinkage is fully restrained, such as when
Prestressed pavement slabs designed for vehicle loads of concrete is placed against and bonded to hardened concrete
AASHTO H-10 or heavier should be at least 6 in. (150 mm) at a construction joint.
thick. When unbonded post-tensioning tendons are used, the 2.2.9 Roofs
nonprestressed reinforcement percentage should total at least 2.2.9.1 Joints in roofsLiquid-tight cast-in-place roofs
0.30% for primary containment and 0.15% for secondary should be placed without construction joints whenever
containment in each orthogonal direction. The reinforcement possible. When joints in cast-in-place roofs are unavoidable,
is usually placed at the mid-depth of the slab when the they should be designed and detailed according to the
prestressed pavement slab is less than 8 in. (200 mm) thick. recommendations of Section 2.2.7. Joints between precast
When the prestressed pavement slab is 8 in. (200 mm) thick, roof members should be designed and detailed for liquid-
or more, the nonprestressed reinforcement is usually divided tightness with requirements provided by ACI 350 and
into two mats, one near each face. The prestressed reinforce- Section 3.2 of this report.
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-5

2.2.9.2 Roof designACI 350 provides requirements


for the design of domes and post-tensioned roof slabs for
prestressed concrete liquid-containing structures. Roof slabs
can be either prestressed or nonprestressed. Acceptable
analytical techniques include finite element, finite difference,
equivalent frame, and other techniques that give comparable
results. Flexural and punching shear stresses should be used
to design the section thickness and conventional and
prestressed reinforcement.
Flat nonprestressed roof slabs should be at least 6 in.
(150 mm) thick. The reinforcement percentage should total
at least 0.5% of the cross-sectional concrete area in each
orthogonal direction. ACI 350 provides requirements for the
design of flexural reinforcement, including the additional
durability coefficients where applicable. Roof slabs should be
checked for long-term deflection and the potential for ponding.
Flat prestressed roof slabs should be at least 6 in. (150 mm)
thick. When unbonded post-tensioning tendons are used, the
nonprestressed reinforcement ratio should be in accordance
with the requirements of ACI 350. The compressive stress in
the slab should be at least 150 psi (1.0 MPa) after tendon friction
and long-term losses and after considering the restraining
effects of walls. This is less than the minimum compressive Fig. 2.1Recommendations for increased reinforcement
stress recommended for floors and walls because the roof does percentage parallel to bonded joints.
not actually contain the hazardous material.
Flexural tension should be limited to 2fc psi (0.167fc
MPa), unless bonded reinforcement is provided in the content solutions. Coated reinforcement or coated
precompressed tensile zone. This reinforcements design prestressing, stainless steel, or nonmetallic reinforcement
requirements are given in ACI 350 for the various bar sizes, should be considered in corrosive chemical applications.
exposure conditions, and grades of reinforcement. When using coated reinforcement, the reduction in bond
strength, particularly as it may affect cracking, should be
2.3Concrete cover taken into account. Using a greater number of smaller diameter
Reinforcement should have at least the minimum concrete bars or a higher percentage of reinforcing (a higher rein-
cover required by ACI 350. Additional concrete cover or forcing ratio) will reduce these effects. See ACI 201.2R for
coatings on the concrete can be used as needed for supple- other durability considerations.
mental corrosion protection. 2.4.3 Chemical resistanceSome chemicals are so
aggressive to concrete that the only way to provide protection
2.4Exposure for the concrete is to provide a corrosion-protection system,
2.4.1 Freezing and thawingConcrete in a saturated or
such as a coating or covering. The corrosion-protection
near saturated condition is susceptible to damage due to
system should provide not only corrosion protection but, to
freezing-and-thawing cycles. Air entrainment improves
the maximum extent possible, the flexibility to span cracks
freezing-and-thawing resistance and should be specified for
and accommodate the expansion and contraction the concrete
concrete exposed to such conditions. Resistance to freezing-
will experience due to moisture and temperature changes.
and-thawing damage is also improved by measures that
increase the density or reduce the permeability of the concrete.
In severe freezing-and-thawing environments, concrete 2.5Concrete mixture proportions
should be protected from multiple freezing-and-thawing 2.5.1 Water and cementitious materialThe maximum
cycles or from reaching near saturated conditions. External water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) (cement plus
insulation or burial helps limit the number of cycles and pozzolan) should be 0.40 for primary containment and in
severity of the freezing. Also, internal liners or coatings can accordance with ACI 350 for secondary containment.
be used to reduce the moisture saturation of the concrete. Water demand for shrinkage-compensating concrete is
2.4.2. Other durability considerationsFor harsh service higher than for portland-cement concrete. Refer to ACI 223,
conditions, reinforcement cover should be increased and, if Section 4.2, for guidance on shrinkage-compensating
necessary, the concrete should be provided with a corrosion- concrete proportions.
protection system. Harsh service conditions include exposure To reduce permeability, the minimum cementitious materials
of the concrete to chemicals and materials that will have a content should be 700 lb/yd3 (420 kg/m3) for primary
chemical reaction with the concrete. These service conditions containment and 600 lb/yd3 (360 kg/m3) for secondary
include exposure to certain acids and bases and high sulfate containment. When fly ash or other pozzolans exceed 25%
350.2R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

of total cementitious materials content, the designer should


consider their effects on durability and chemical resistance.
2.5.2 AdmixturesWorkability can be increased by the
addition of normal or high-range water-reducing admixtures
and air-entraining admixtures. Calcium chloride or admix-
tures containing chloride from other than incidental impuri-
ties should not be used in concrete for either primary or
secondary hazardous material containment systems. The
admixture should undergo certification, tests, or both, to
confirm this requirement.
2.5.3 Compressive strengthThe minimum cementitious
material contents and maximum w/cm given in Section 2.5.1
should result in compressive strengths of the concrete that
Fig. 3.1Mechanical joint repair at an existing joint.
exceed most structural requirements and the requirements of
ACI 350.
2.5.4 Air entrainmentACI 350 provides requirements prevent the passage of liquid through the joint. Mechanical
for the air entrainment of concrete. joints may be considered for repairing an existing joint. (See
Fig. 3.1 as an example.)
2.6Fiber-reinforced concrete 3.1.2 MaterialsThe chemical resistance of the waterstop
2.6.1 GeneralFiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) uses material, exposure, temperature, and chemical concentration
fibers that are available in lengths ranging from 3/4 to 2 in. of the contained material should be considered when
(20 to 50 mm) long. Mixing these fibers with concrete may selecting the waterstop material. Each situation should be
reduce cracking due to plastic shrinkage. evaluated individually, including concrete placement and
When selecting fibers for use in reinforced concrete, concrete cover recommendations from the manufacturer.
consideration should be given to the fact that some fibers (for 3.1.2.1 PVC waterstopsPVC waterstops are manufac-
example, rayon, acrylic, fiberglass, and polyesters) are tured in various sizes and many special shapes such as dumb-
subject to alkali attack by the cement. Only fibers that are chem- bell, serrated, with or without center bulb, split, and tear web.
ically compatible with the hazardous materials contained When movement across the joint is expected, serrated or
should be used. ribbed profiles with center bulbs should be used. The ribs
Fibers do not replace reinforcement. The same member increase the effective mechanical seal area of the waterstop,
sizes and minimum reinforcement apply for concrete with or while the bulbs accommodate the movement.
without fibers. 3.1.2.2 Expansive rubberExpansive rubber waterstops,
Fibers, together with an epoxy bonding agent, should which expand on contact with water, may be used in joints cast
allow the application of a thinner (2 in. [50 mm] minimum) against previously placed concrete and in new construction.
overlay on existing concrete, such as clarifier topping slabs. Adhesive type expansive rubber waterstops should only be
2.6.2 ProportioningThe fiber ratio should follow the used where joint movement is prevented. Expansive rubber
manufacturers recommendations. The fibers can be added at waterstops expand on contact with water and may contract if
the batch plant or the construction site. In either case, the permitted to dry out. Joints using such waterstops may leak
fibers need a mixing time of at least 7 min (at the mixing until adequate moisture is present to re-expand the waterstop.
speed recommended by the manufacturer) to ensure dispersion Furthermore, the waterstop may not have the same expan-
of the fibers throughout the concrete. sive properties when exposed to chemicals instead of water.
The addition of fibers normally reduces the slump by 1 to 3.1.2.3 Metal waterstopsMetal waterstops should be
2 in. (25 to 50 mm). This should be considered in the mixture stainless steel or other metals compatible with the hazardous
proportioning. The use of high-range water-reducing admix- material. Metal waterstops should not be used in joints
tures should regain the lost workability without the addition subject to movement.
of water. 3.1.2.4 Injectable tube systemsInjectable tube water-
2.6.3 FinishingThe addition of polypropylene fibers to stopping systems can also be used in concrete environmental
concrete makes it more difficult to achieve a smooth steel- structures. The injected material should be compatible with
troweled finish. The fibers will usually protrude from the the hazardous material to be contained.
concrete. The exposed portions of the fibers should degrade 3.1.2.5 Other materialsOther materials can be used,
quickly due to traffic abrasion or UV exposure. provided they are compatible with the hazardous material.
3.1.3 Splicing
CHAPTER 3WATERSTOPS,
SEALANTS, AND JOINTS 3.1.3.1 PVC waterstopsProper splicing of waterstops
3.1Waterstops is extremely important to ensure continuity and liquid-
3.1.1 GeneralWaterstops should be provided at expan- tightness. Splices should be avoided if possible. Splices for
sion/contraction joints and where construction joints cannot corner, tee, and cross junctions made in the factory are also
be avoided. Waterstops are positioned in concrete joints to available for certain types of materials and shapes. The
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-7

procedures for splicing vary with the type of material and the
manufacturers recommendations for proper splicing.
3.1.3.2 Metal waterstopsMetal waterstops should be
spliced as recommended by the engineer or manufacturer.
3.1.4 Installation
3.1.4.1 GeneralImproperly installed waterstops can
create leaky joints. The waterstop should be clean and free of
dirt and splattered concrete. Intimate contact with clean,
sound concrete is essential over the entire surface of the
waterstop. Entrapped air and honeycombing near the joint
could compromise the effectiveness of the waterstop. The
waterstop should be placed and located accurately with the
center bulb directly at the centerline of expansion and
contraction joints. Otherwise, the functionality of the center
bulb is lost.
3.1.4.2 Horizontal PVC waterstops Joints in floor
slabs are vulnerable to leakage and difficult to inspect, under
service conditions, due to their location. Therefore, joints
that require waterstops should not be used if at all possible.
If joints must be used, care should be taken to place concrete
without voids or honeycombing under horizontal PVC
waterstops. Horizontal PVC waterstops should be supported
in such a way as to be able to be lifted as the concrete is Fig. 3.2Typical expansion joints.
placed underneath (Fig. 2.1 and 3.2). Any dowels through
the joints should not interfere with the edges of the water-
stops when they are lifted. The concrete under the lifted
waterstop should be vibrated, the PVC waterstop laid into
the concrete placed on top of the waterstop, and the entire
joint vibrated again.
Continuous inspection of concrete placement around
horizontal PVC waterstops in floor slabs is necessary.
3.1.4.3 Vertical PVC waterstopsVertical PVC water-
stops should be braced or lashed firmly to the reinforcement
at no more than 12 in. (300 mm) centers to prevent movement
during placing of the concrete (Fig. 3.2 and 3.3).
3.1.4.4 Metal waterstopsMetal waterstops should be
installed in accordance with the contract documents and the
manufacturers recommendations, and the concrete under
horizontal metal waterstops properly placed and consolidated.
3.1.4.5 Expansive rubber and injectable tube systems
Expansive rubber and injectable tube systems should be Fig. 3.3Base slab to wall starter joint.
installed in accordance with the contract documents and the
manufacturers recommendations. Adequate concrete cover is
necessary to avoid spalling at the joint due to expansive forces. 2. Be deformable to adapt to the expected joint movement;
3. Recover its original properties and shape after cyclical
3.2Joint sealants deformations;
3.2.1 General Provide joints with chemically resistant 4. Remain bonded to joint faces. The sealant should only
sealants. See ACI 504R for additional information on be bonded to the sides of expansion and contraction joints to
sealing joints. spread the movement over the full width of the sealant;
Sealants are generally applied in liquid or semiliquid form, 5. Remain pliable and not become brittle at higher or lower
and are thus formed into the required shape within the mold service temperatures;
provided at the joint opening. 6. Be resistant to weather, sunlight, aging, continuous
The manufacturers recommendations and applications for immersion (when applicable), and other service factors; and
use should be thoroughly explored for each specific application 7. Be resistant to chemical breakdown when exposed to
of a sealant. ACI 504R provides additional information on the contained material.
joint sealants. Generally, the elastomeric sealants, according to ASTM C
For satisfactory performance, a sealant should: 920, are preferable to oil-based mastic or bituminous
1. Be impermeable; compounds.
350.2R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Although initially more expensive, thermosetting, chemical- Tooling may be required to ensure contact with joint faces,
curing sealants have a generally longer service life and remove trapped air, consolidate material, and provide a neat
should withstand greater movements. The sealants in this appearance, following the manufacturers recommendations.
class are either one- or two-component systems that cure by 3.2.4 Sealant inspection and maintenanceJoints should
chemical reaction. Sealants in this category include polysul- be inspected during construction and at scheduled periods
fides, silicones, and urethanes. following construction to ensure sealant integrity. The
Some sealants require primers to be applied to joint faces frequency of inspection should be established considering
before sealant installation. If the manufacturer specifies the the resistance of the sealant to chemical attack from the
use of a primer as optional, it should be used for hazardous contained materials, with frequency increasing as the
material containment systems. expected life is approached.
Backup materials limit the depth of sealants, support them Immediate repairs of defective joints and sealants in hazardous
against sagging and fluid pressure, and help tooling. They material containment structures and sumps is required.
may also serve as a bond breaker to prevent the sealant from Repairs of small gaps and soft or hard spots in sealants can
bonding to the back of the joint. usually be made with the same material. When the repair is
Backup materials are typically made of expanded poly- extensive, it is usually necessary to remove the sealant, prop-
ethylene, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, and flexible erly prepare the surfaces, and replace the sealant.
polypropylene foams. The sealant manufacturers recom-
mendations should be followed to ensure compatibility with 3.3Joints
backup materials. Joints in primary and secondary containment applications
Polyethylene tape, urethane backer rods, coated papers, should be avoided wherever possible. Joints should be
metal foils, or other suitable materials can be used if a separate provided only where shown and detailed on the drawings or
bond breaker is necessary. permitted by the engineer.
3.2.2 Joint preparationJoint faces should be clean and Construction joints should only be used when absolutely
free from defects that would impair bond with field-molded necessary for construction. Because liquid tightness is of
sealants. Sandblasting is the best method to clean joint faces primary concern in environmental systems, the design drawings
on existing structures. Sandblasting should be used if a and specifications should show the location of acceptable
membrane curing compound is used and does not dissipate construction joints and specify waterstops and sealants.
before the installation of the sealant, particularly with chem-
ically cured thermosetting sealants. Solvents should not be CHAPTER 4CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
used to clean joint faces. Final cleanup to dry and remove 4.1Sump construction techniques
dust from the joint may be accomplished by oil-free 4.1.1 Precasting sumps in a single unitThere are three
compressed air or vacuum cleaner. major advantages of precasting concrete sumps in a single
Inspection of each joint is essential to ensure that it is clean unit. First, it eliminates construction joints, which can be a
and dry before placing backup materials, primers, or sealant. major source of leakage and cracking. Second, it gives better
Primers need the required time to dry before sealant installation. control of the concrete placement when the sump is precast
Failure to allow this may lead to adhesion failure. Primers in the upside-down position. Third, it results in lower
can be brushed or sprayed on. The manufacturers specifica- construction cost and more efficient job scheduling. Precast
tions and recommendations should be followed. sumps may be fabricated at the contractors convenience.
3.2.3 Sealant installationBackup materials require Also, with proper scheduling the precast units can cure as
proper positioning before the sealant is installed. Backup long as required before installation. The unit can be set and
materials should be set at the correct depths and contamination backfilled the same day. In contrast, when sumps are cast-in-
of the cleaned joint faces avoided. The correct width and place, the excavation for the sump will be open for several
shape of backup material should be selected so that, after days or weeks to build the forms and cast the concrete. To
installation, it is approximately 50% compressed, and prevent damage to the sump walls, it takes additional time to
stretching, braiding, or twisting rod stock should be avoided. cure the concrete and strip the forms before backfilling.
Backup materials containing bitumen should only be used The size of a precast concrete sump is limited by the size
in combination with compatible oil-based or bituminous of lifting and hauling equipment.
sealants. Oils absorbed into joint surfaces may impair adhesion An optional secondary containment slab, sloped in the
of other sealants. form of a bowl below a precast sump, will help reduce the
Sealants with two or more components require full and inti- dispersion of potential leakage. Refer to Fig. 4.1 for an illus-
mate mixing if the material is to cure with uniform properties. tration of this setting technique.
If the sealant is applied with a gun, the gun nozzle should 4.1.2 Monolithic placement of cast-in-place sumpsLike
be held at a 45-degree angle. The gun should be moved the precast sumps, monolithic placement of concrete in slabs
steadily along a joint to apply a uniform bead by pushing the and walls eliminates joints and associated shrinkage cracks.
sealant in front of the nozzle without dragging, tearing, or One of two conditions is needed to place concrete in walls
leaving unfilled spaces. In large joints, the sealant should be monolithically with slabs:
built up in several passes, applying a triangular wedge on Walls less than 4 ft (1200 mm) high; and
each pass. A base slab width less than 4 ft (1200 mm).
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-9

Fig. 4.1Precast sump installation.

Fig. 4.3Monolithic concrete placement for sumps with


floor span of 4 ft or less.

Fig. 4.2Monolithic concrete placement for wall heights of


4 ft or less.

The following paragraphs discuss each of these condi-


tions. Monolithic placement is limited by the shape and size
of the sump.
4.1.2.1 Walls less than 4 ft (1200 mm) highForm walls
less than 4 ft (1200 mm) high, as shown in Fig. 4.2. This
includes placing an approximately 6 in. (150 mm) high lift of
the wall concrete shortly after placing the base slab concrete.
This starter wall segment should be placed after the slab
concrete starts to stiffen, but before a cold joint forms Fig. 4.4Trench bottom or floor slab joint to sump wall.
between the starter wall segment and the base slab. The
remaining portion of the wall needs to be placed before a
cold joint forms at the top of starter wall segment but after
the slab concrete has set sufficiently to prevent a blowout. If should help ensure the slab concrete is placed without
high-range water-reducing admixtures are used in the slab honeycombing. High-range water-reducing admixtures may
concrete, their plasticizing effects have to dissipate before be beneficial in this mixture. Visual inspections of the
placing the starter wall segment. To help prevent a possible concrete protruding through these holes during placement
blowout of the slab concrete, hand rodding (not a vibrator) will help ensure that the concrete in the floor is being properly
initially can be used to ensure a bond between the first wall placed (consolidated).
lift and the starter wall segment. Then vibrators are used to 4.1.3 Traditional constructionWhen joints cannot be
consolidate the wall concrete, including the first lifts; avoided, a starter section is recommended for walls. This
however, the vibrators should not be allowed to penetrate facilitates wall forming, leak detection, and repair, if needed.
into the slab concrete. Trench bottoms and tank floor slabs should be cast over
4.1.2.2 Base widths less than 4 ft (1200 mm)In sumps the top of a pit or sump wall instead of butting up against the
that have deep walls but bottom slabs less than 4 ft (1200 mm) wall (Fig. 4.4).
wide, a plywood form with 3/8 in. (10 mm) holes spaced at Wall ties should have a welded cutoff collar to act as a
12 in. (300 mm) on center each way should form the top waterstop. Also, they should be broken off 1 in. (25 mm)
surface of the base slab (Fig. 4.3). The holes in the plywood from the face of the wall in a cone-shaped depression. Epoxy
350.2R-10 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Fig. 4.7Typical floor penetration detail.

additional bars placed at 45 degrees to the orthogonal


reinforcement.
4.1.5 BackfillingWhen a below-grade sump is part of
Fig. 4.5Steel pipe penetration detail. or attached to a tank floor, the backfill around and beneath
the sump should be thoroughly compacted and tested or be
made of controlled low-strength material. This should
prevent excessive differential settlement of the floor slab
around the sump.

4.2Curing and protection


4.2.1 CuringCuring is one of the most important
operations in reinforced concrete construction. Without
proper curing, even the best-designed reinforced concrete
develops surface cracks. Refer to ACI 308R and ACI 308.1
for a complete description of curing procedures.
The primary purposes of curing are to maintain the moisture
content of the green concrete at satisfactory levels and protect
the concrete against rapid temperature changes. Inadequate
curing may cause excessive cracking or crazing in the
concrete and seriously reduce the liquid-tightness of the
structure. For concrete placed during cold weather, curing
Fig. 4.6Pipe penetration detail at a lined containment may also provide protection against freezing.
structures. Dampening the subgrade or the use of plastic sheeting
should be considered before placing cast-in-place concrete for
or dry-packed shrinkage-compensating grouts with an epoxy sump bottoms and slabs-on-ground. This helps prevent loss of
bonding agent should be used to fill the resulting holes. moisture from fresh concrete and provides reserve moisture
Form materials should provide a smooth form finish, for curing. Standing water, however, should not be allowed.
according to ACI 301. Base slabs should have a power- Curing procedures should start when placing and finishing
float finish. operations allow. The surface of the concrete placed early in
4.1.4 Pipe penetrationsPipe penetrations below the the placing operation should not be allowed to dry out while
liquid level should be avoided when possible. If penetrations placing subsequent concrete. The materials and equipment
are necessary, they should be through walls (Fig. 4.5 and 4.6) needed for curing should be available and ready for use
or through the sides of bottom slabs at the outer perimeter of before the concrete arrives.
the floor (Fig. 4.7) to permit visual inspection. Mechanical While there are many methods of curing concrete, there
protection (from differential settlement) of pipes coming out are two main approaches:
of bottom slabs should be considered. Dual containment Apply water or cover with materials saturated with
pipes and flexible couplings are two means of providing this water; and
protection. Prevent loss of water by impervious covers (membranes),
Additional reinforcement should be provided around pipe or membrane-forming curing compounds.
penetrations that interrupt other reinforcing bars. Generally, One or more of the methods described in Sections 4.2.1.1
additional reinforcement should at least replace the area of through 4.2.1.7 can be used.
reinforcing bars cut to accommodate the opening in every 4.2.1.1 PondingPonding is one of the best methods of
applicable direction. Some designers also recommend curing concrete slabs-on-ground, especially for slabs using
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-11

shrinkage-compensating concrete. The concrete is covered 4.3Inspection


with water, and the water level is maintained to make up for Key items to be inspected during construction are listed in
evaporation during the curing period. Preferably, the water Sections 4.3.1 through 4.3.12. See ACI 311.1R for guidance
curing is kept in place until the structure is complete and on inspection, ACI 311.4R for guidance on the set up and
ready to be cleaned up before being placed in service. content of the inspection program, and ACI 311.5R for
4.2.1.2 Running waterSprinklers or soaker hoses are guidance on concrete plant and field testing. A preconstruction
used whenever a continuous flow of water is available, and conference should be a mandatory requirement. Inspections
the runoff does not cause any harm to the surrounding area. should preferably be by an ACI Certified Concrete Inspector.
Fog spraying during finishing and curing is also effective, 4.3.1 Subgrade preparationBearing capacity and compac-
especially in hot weather. tion should be checked, and proper grade should be verified.
With any methods involving running water, the pressure 4.3.2 Reinforcing steelReinforcement size, bends,
and flow of water should be kept low enough to avoid grade, spacing, minimum concrete cover, proper location
washing away the surface of the newly placed concrete (8 h, and height of supports, splices, cleanliness, and condition of
more or less, after initial set). Also, for ponding or running any protective coatings should be inspected.
water, the temperature of the curing water should not be 4.3.3 Post-tensioning tendonsSize, spacing, profile, and
more than 10 C (20 F) cooler than the surface temperature condition of sheathing of unbonded tendons and location and
of the concrete at the time the water and the concrete come condition of ducts, strand, and grouting of bonded tendons
in contact. should be checked.
4.2.1.3 Absorptive coveringsConcrete may also be 4.3.4 WaterstopsProper placement of waterstops,
cured by covering it with wet burlap, blankets, or cotton mats. including alignment, should be checked. The ties of PVC
These coverings can be hung to cover vertical surfaces and water-stops (when used) to supports should be inspected for
placed on horizontal surfaces. These materials should be kept adequacy to maintain proper alignment of the waterstop
wet during the entire curing period. Burlap should be heavy- during concrete placement. Also, the splices of waterstops
weight and thoroughly rinsed before use. The strips of burlap should be checked when used.
should overlap half their width to provide a double layer. 4.3.5 JointsBefore placing new concrete against previ-
4.2.1.4 SteamSteam curing is a suitable method of ously placed or existing concrete, the completion of joint
curing for precast concrete, especially in cold weather. preparation should be verified.
Atmospheric pressure procedures are used. 4.3.6 FormworkLine and grade, cleanliness, width,
4.2.1.5 Plastic filmsConcrete slabs-on-ground and depth, and length should be checked.
walls may be cured by covering them with 6 mil (0.15 mm)
4.3.7 InsertsCondition and location of penetrations and
plastic sheets securely anchored at the edges and overlaps.
inserts, including their sealants and waterstops, should be
4.2.1.6 Curing compoundsCuring compounds should
verified.
be used only when the other methods described in this report
4.3.8 ConcreteMixture proportions, including admixture
are either impossible or economically impractical. Curing
dosages (at the batch plant), and time from plant to site
compounds should be sprayable, with a high solids content
should be checked.
(18% minimum), and placed at twice the manufacturers
recommended rate in two coats applied in directions perpen- 4.3.9 Concrete placementPlacing techniques and
dicular to each other. A fugitive dye should be used to consolidation, including placement around waterstops and
confirm complete coverage. They should not be applied on embedded items, should be inspected.
surfaces expected to bond with subsequently placed concrete 4.3.10 CuringCuring requirements and conditions
or with other materials such as coatings or sealants. should be met.
4.2.1.7 DurationConcrete should be cured for at least 4.3.11 MiscellaneousSpecial requirements for placing
seven days. should be met.
4.2.2 Cold-weather concretingIn cold weather, concrete 4.3.12 Concrete testingConcrete testing should be
should be cured and protected from freezing as recommended according to the requirements of ACI 301 and performed by
by ACI 306R. ACI 306.1 should be used for specifying cold an agency accredited to ASTM E 329.
weather curing and protection. ACI 306.1 also provides guid-
ance on minimum durations for maintaining the protection. CHAPTER 5LINERS AND COATINGS
Calcium chloride should not be used as a concrete admixture. 5.1Liners
Excessive chloride quantities promote corrosion of the Liners can function as either the primary or secondary
reinforcing steel. See ACI 350 for chloride limits. containment, depending upon the type of installation and the
4.2.3 Hot weather concretingIn hot weather, cure and location of the liner within the installation.
protect concrete as recommended by ACI 305R. Wood or A liner should exhibit good chemical resistance to deteri-
metal forms remaining in place are not a satisfactory means oration and compatibility with the hazardous material.
of curing; forms should be covered and kept moist. It is Many different types of liner materials can be used. In
desirable to loosen the forms as soon as possible without some cases, the material has been specifically developed for
damaging the concrete and to run curing water down the an application. In others, the material has been adopted due
inside of the forms. to its specific mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties.
350.2R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

polypropylene filaments. The materials are manufactured in


large sheets or panels and are joined or seamed together using
heat fusion, heat extrusion, or chemical welding techniques.
Other specialty products are made of polyethylene. These
include sheets ranging from 50 mils (1.3 mm) to 2 in. (50 mm)
thick. Thick sheets are joined at the seams by extrusion
welding. These materials work well for lining the interior of
concrete sumps or pipes.
The most widely used types of geomembranes include
polyethylene (PE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), poly-
vinyl chloride (PVC), and chlorosulfonated polyethylene
(CSPE).
Thermosets include polyester, vinylester, derakane, furan,
and epoxy resins made into FRP sheets, preformed sections, or
applied in place. These materials are generally best in high-
temperature, aggressive acid service. They can be relatively
brittle and have high thermal expansion coefficients compared
with steel and concrete. Their use as liners for concrete instal-
lations may be limited due to the difficulties of fastening.
Fig. 5.1Internal liner construction details.
Therefore, they are often used as bonded coatings.

5.2Coatings
When the material contained in the primary system is
aggressive to concrete, a coating is appropriate. Secondary
containment systems can also require a coating in areas
where piping connections and disconnections are frequently
made or when required by the applicable environmental
authority. Coating systems include materials such as paints,
mortars, liquefied rubbers, and resins. Some coating systems
incorporate reinforcing scrims applied in multiple layers.
Other coating systems include vitrified clay tile and acid-
proof and chemical-resistant mortar. Concrete to be coated
should be tested for moisture to determine compatibility with
Fig. 5.2Internal liner attachment details. the coating manufacturers requirements.
Application methods include brushing, spraying, rolling,
In general, all liner materials that can be used for primary troweling, and shotcreting. These depend on the material and
containment are also suitable for secondary containment. As the type of installation. In coating systems, the bond to the
with primary liners, each use is project specific. Additional concrete (ASTM C 811) and the curing conditions are critical.
discussion of liners used as secondary containment and as Manufacturers recommendations should be fully understood
part of a leak-detection system is given in Chapters 6 and 7, and followed. See ACI 515.1R for additional information on
respectively. Liner materials may be categorized as either coatings.
metallic or geomembrane materials.
5.1.1 MetallicMetal plate liners are suitable for many 5.3Selection considerations for liners and
applications, with a wide range of metals available. For coatings
example, carbon steel may be used to line caustic tanks, 5.3.1 Testing for compatibilityCompatibility of the liner
trenches, and sumps. Because the liner is usually thin for or coating material with the contents is the primary design
economic reasons and cannot support itself, it is fastened to consideration. Compatibility tests between the contents and
the concrete walls (Fig. 5.1 and 5.2) for support. The details of liner or coating materials, including fabricated seams, should
fastening should be designed carefully to prevent leakage and be performed. These tests should simulate the actual opera-
to account for all stresses, including thermal effects. Corrosion tional conditions, pH, temperature, pressure, and other
protection of metallic liners should also be considered. service conditions as closely as possible. Vendor literature
5.1.2 Geomembrane materialsThis group of liner and past case histories are for information, but actual testing
materials includes geomembranes consisting of flexible is highly recommended. Testing may take up to six months
thermoplastic polymeric materials. Many types of geomem- to complete; therefore, the testing should be initiated as early
branes are available. They range in thickness from 30 to in the design process as possible. Accelerated testing
100 mils (0.75 to 2.5 mm). Some geomembranes have a procedures may be available, but caution should be exercised in
reinforcing scrim (grid) made of woven polyester or use and interpretation of the results.
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-13

Liner or coating immersion and other tests should be 5.4.2 Nondestructive test methodsThere were no ASTM
performed in accordance with ASTM C 868, D 1474, D 1973, standards for the following tests known to ACI Committee
D 2197, D 2370, D 2485, D 3456, D 4060, D 5402, and D 5322, 350 at the time of publication of this report.
with the hazardous material to be contained when using the 5.4.2.1 Hydrostatic testHydrostatic test is mainly used to
liner or coating for primary containment. test the integrity and liquid-tightness of the concrete structure.
When using a liner or coating for secondary containment, The structure should be hydrostatically tested before the
liner or coating immersion and other tests (Chapter 8) can be application of liners or coatings. Hydrostatic testing is also
performed with the sump contents, and when a liner is to be used to test the liner material, when applicable. The lined
used below grade, testing of the liner, for long-term compat- structure is filled with water and the level drop measured
ibility with the substrate it is in contact with, should be over a specified period to detect if any leakage has occurred.
performed. The effects of evaporation should be included. See ACI
350.1/350.1R for additional guidance on hydrostatic testing,
5.3.2 Thermal effectsLiner or coating materials may
which can take several days.
have a much different coefficient of thermal expansion than
5.4.2.2 Electric current testsThese tests use an elec-
the concrete support structure or substrate on which they are
trical current to verify continuity of the liner. These types of
installed. The amount of the potential expansion/contraction
test systems can also be used as leak-detection systems while
differential movement between the liner or coating and the the structure is in service. In spark testing, an electric current
support structure or substrate should be considered. This is passed through the liner. A spark should be seen wherever
affects the design of the liner fastening or anchorage system, holes are present. This technique is used on thermosets,
the liner joints or seams, and the integrity of the bond thermoplastics, and coating systems.
between the coating and the concrete. 5.4.2.3 X-ray testingX-ray testing is most effective on
5.3.3 Fasteners and jointsFastening points and joints metals but may also be used with some success on thermosets
are typically the weak links in the integrity of a lining and thermoplastics.
system. Every fastening device that penetrates the liner and 5.4.2.4 Ultrasonic testingUltrasonic testing may be
every liner joint is a potential leak point. This includes metal used for metal, thermoset, and thermoplastic materials
batten strips that mechanically anchor the liner to the support and joints.
structure. Each of these potential leak points needs to be 5.4.2.5 Vacuum testingVacuum testing can be done on
sealed. For geomembranes, cap strips of the liner material joints or seams to evaluate their integrity. Vacuum testing
are welded over the penetrating fasteners or the nonwelded may be used on metals, thermosets, and thermoplastic liners.
joints. When possible, concrete inserts made of liner material 5.4.2.6 Air-pressure testingAir-pressure testing is
should be used to fasten the liner to the concrete (Fig. 5.1). done on systems intended to be air-tight by pressurizing the
5.3.4 Ultraviolet light resistanceUltraviolet (UV) light structure, or a portion of it, and checking for a loss in pressure
may attack or degrade the thermoplastic and thermoset liners over a specified period. Low air pressure is used and the test
unless UV light stabilizers were added during the liner manu- performed with extreme caution. The structural design
facture. If the liner is going to be covered after installation, UV should consider the test pressure.
light protection is not as critical; however, protection may be 5.4.2.7 Air-lance testingThe air-lance testing method
required during construction. ASTM D 1435, D 4355, and uses a high-pressure air stream directed at the seam in the
D 5970 are tests for determining UV degradation of liners. liner to detect loose edges. This test is used on some types of
geomembrane installations.
5.4.3 Destructive test methodsDestructive testing of
5.4Inspection and testing of liner and coating
installations liners involves cutting test coupons from the joints or seams
5.4.1 GeneralInspection and testing of the liner or coating and the liner material. These coupons may be subjected to a
material should start right after the selection of the manufacturer variety of tests as in Sections 5.4.3.1 through 5.4.3.3.
of the product and continue through its installation. 5.4.3.1 Tensile testTensile tests are used to check
tensile strength of the joints, seams, and the material. This
Written certification of the manufacturers inspection and
test is used on metals, thermosets, and thermoplastics.
testing should ensure that the liner or coating meets the
ASTM D 638, D 882, and D 751 are the recommended test
project specifications. Similar certification should also be
methods for liners.
required from anyone who works on or adds to the product
5.4.3.2 Tear testTear tests are used to check the tear
before shipping it to the end user. The engineer will usually
strength of the material, especially thermoplastics. The
want to inspect the manufacturer or fabrication plant.
measurement of tear resistance of liners can be done in a
Inspection and testing during installation should include, number of ways. ASTM D 751, D 1004, D 1424, D 1938,
but not be limited to, the following: substrate condition, the and D 2261 all cover the general topic.
condition of the liner, joints or seams, and fastenings or 5.4.3.3 Peel testThe peel (or bond) test is used to check
anchorages. the peel strength of the joints or seams and bond strength of
Nondestructive and destructive testing methods are coating systems to the substrate. This test is used on thermo-
available, where applicable, both at the factory and on-site, sets, thermoplastics, and coating systems. ASTM D 413 and
during and after installation is complete. D 4437 are the recommended test methods for liner seams.
350.2R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

stringent than those for primary containment (Sections


2.2.4.2, 2.2.6, and 2.2.7). If the secondary containment struc-
ture is required to have the same reliability and performance
as the primary containment structure, then the design recom-
mendations for primary containment structures should be
used for the design of the secondary containment structure.

6.2Secondary containment system features


Chemical compatibilityChemical compatibility is
required to prevent failure of the secondary containment
system due to physical contact with both the materials
contained and with the substrate on which they are installed.
The secondary containment system does not necessarily need to
be suitable for prolonged contact with the hazardous material,
Fig. 6.1Tank with exterior liner and environmental chamber.
because the hazardous material can be removed and the leak in
the primary containment system located and repaired.
Secondary containment systems should also not fail due to
climatic conditions, settlement, or stress of daily activity
such as cleaning, flushing, or pedestrian or vehicular traffic.
IFC and Federal Regulations for secondary containment of
hazardous materials and other applicable codes, such as
NFPA 30 and the UFC for secondary containment of
flammable and combustible materials should be consulted
for containment requirements.

6.3Secondary containment materials


Fig. 6.2Tank with interior liner. The secondary containment system may be constructed of
the same material as the environmental tank or sump, such as
concrete inside concrete, or constructed of different materials,
such as concrete inside polyethylene (Fig. 6.1).
Secondary containment materials include concrete,
metals, thermoplastics, thermosets, composites and native
soils, compacted clays, bentonite, or other soil mixtures with
low permeability (3.28 109 ft/s [1 107 cm/s]). The
secondary containment system should be designed to the
structural criteria given in this report; however, it may not
require long-term compatibility with the contents if a spill or
Fig. 6.3Tank with exterior liner. leak will be cleaned up within a short time. Because leakage
of the secondary containment system may lead to a costly
environmental clean up, design and construction techniques
CHAPTER 6SECONDARY CONTAINMENT should make liquid tightness a key consideration.
6.1General When small sumps are required, commercially available
A secondary containment system should prevent any prefabricated metal sumps or precast manholes may be
primary containment leak from escaping to the environment. applicable (Fig. 6.2). The prefabricated shapes can also be
The secondary containment system should either retain such a used to retrofit an existing sump or manhole.
leak until it is removed or should direct the leaked material to Flexible membrane liners, also known as geomembranes,
a predetermined and controllable drainage channel or sump. can be used on the outside of the tank or sump as the
Secondary containment systems are normally dry in secondary containment (Fig. 6.3). External liners may need
service. These systems include chemical tank farms, truck protection from damage by backfilling or from UV rays.
unloading stations, sumps, drumming rooms, apron slabs,
trenches, and other areas where hazardous materials are CHAPTER 7LEAK-DETECTION SYSTEMS
handled or transferred. 7.1General
Secondary containment, even if not required by regula- Leak-detection systems are recommended for tanks and
tion, is also recommended for environmental tanks, sumps, sumps that contain a hazardous material or that may do so in
and underground piping systems that store, treat, or transport the future. A leak-detection system should be far less expensive
hazardous materials. to install during the construction of a new facility than during
The design recommendations for secondary containment the retrofit of an existing facility. It can also help save the
structures constructed of reinforced concrete are usually less costs of environmental cleanup and regulatory penalties.
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-15

Leak-detection systems should detect leakage out of the


primary containment system as soon as feasible after the
initiation of a leak. The detection should occur no later than
24 h after initiation of the leakage but before a breach or
overflow occurs in the secondary containment system.
Recommended leak-detection systems are those that rely on
visual inspection of the system and gravity flow of the leakage.
Other leak-detection systems use monitoring instruments to
detect and can sometimes pinpoint the location of leaks. These
instruments range from gas monitors to single probes or
installed grid systems. The probes and grids measure thermal
or electrical conductivity or electrical resistivity.
Any leak-detection system using drainage media should Fig. 7.1Granular material and leak detection system.
be compatible with the hazardous material contained. Long-
term compatibility of the drainage medium may not be
required if the hazardous material can be removed from
medium contact shortly after the leakage occurs. This may
allow for the use of a less-expensive drainage medium
material. If leakage enters the drainage medium, the system
should be thoroughly flushed and cleaned before returning
the medium to service. If cleaning the system is very diffi-
cult or economically impractical, replacement of the
drainage medium or conversion to a leak-collection system
should be considered.
Leak-detection systems are only as good as their general
design and the location of the actual leak-detection points or
devices. The designer should take great care in providing a path
of travel through drainage media, or along slabs or trenches, for
the contained material to travel to the point of detection. The
Fig. 7.2Double-walled sump with leak detection system.
applicable fire codes for flammable or combustible liquids
should be consulted. Finally, cathodic protection, if used, can
affect the design of the leak-detection system.
Geotextiles should not be used alone due to the compress-
ibility of these materials under sustained loads.
7.2Drainage media materials
Drainage netting, or drainage cell (usually called geonet or 7.3Design and installation of drainage media
geocell, respectively), is a highly permeable net or 7.3.1 Under tanks and sumpsGeonet, geocell, or granular
cellular material, typically made from polyethylene. material under tanks and sumps should slope to one or more
Drainage netting may be installed in single or multiple layers low points for collection of any leakage. A minimum slope
outside of a concrete tank or sump (refer to Fig. 7.1). of 3% is recommended for earthen or flexible membrane
A geotextile is placed above the net or cells to act as a filter. surfaces and 2% for concrete surfaces (Fig. 7.1).
This keeps out soil particles or other debris. Nonwoven 7.3.2 Collection pipesWhere a granular material
geotextiles (typically made from polypropylene or polyester) drainage medium is used for a tank or large sump, perforated
of either the heat bonded or needle-punched variety are collection pipes are recommended if leaked material must
typically used. The heat-bonded materials are stiffer and travel more than 50 ft (15 m). The pipes should be 4 to 6 in.
impinge less on the geonet or geocell flow channels. The (100 to 150 mm) in diameter and installed radiating from low
needle-punched materials are typically more permeable and points. The pipes are covered with a granular envelope. The
less susceptible to clogging. Some nets and cells come with gradation of the granular material should be such that the
the geotextile attached to one or both sides and are called a ratio D85/Dp 2, where D85 is the sieve opening dimension
composite or double composite, respectively. smaller than 85% of the sample, and Dp is the diameter or
A granular material with high permeability, such as least dimension of the pipe perforation. If the drainage
coarse-graded sand (size No. 1, ASTM C 404), pea gravel medium includes sand or other fine material, the pea gravel
(size No. 8, ASTM C 33), or a mixture of both, can be an envelope can be wrapped with a geotextile filter to further
effective drainage medium. These materials are typically protect the pipe from clogging. The geotextile should be the
placed in layers 6 to 12 in. (150 to 300 mm) thick. A well- same as those described in Section 7.2.
graded mixture is more stable underfoot and less affected by Where geonets or geocells are used, collection pipes may
washout than sand or ungraded gravel alone. Not more than not be needed due to the good flow characteristics of the
5% should pass the No. 200 sieve. geonet or geocell.
350.2R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

On small sumps, where sand or pea gravel is used as the ASTM International
drainage medium, the collection pipes may be eliminated C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
due to the short flow distances involved. C 404 Specification for Aggregates for Masonry
7.3.3 RisersManholes or perforated riser pipes should Grout
be installed at the low point(s) of the drainage medium or C 811 Specification for Preparation of Concrete
collection pipes (Fig. 7.2). Using a manhole or riser allows for Application of Chemical-Resistant
for periodic sampling of any liquid or gas that may collect in Resin Monolithic Surfacings
the system. The riser should be large enough to allow for the C 868 Test Method for Chemical Resistance of
monitoring and sampling device or recovery pumping. Protective Linings
C 913 Specification for Precast Concrete Water
CHAPTER 8REFERENCES and Wastewater Structures
8.1Referenced standards and reports C 920 Specification for Elastomeric Joint Sealants
The standards and reports listed below were the latest
D 413 Standard Test Methods for Rubber Property-
editions at the time this document was prepared. Because
Adhesion to Flexible Substrate
these documents are revised frequently, the reader is advised
D 638 Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties
to contact the proper sponsoring group if the latest version is
of Plastics
desired.
D 751 Standard Test Method for Coated Fabrics
D 882 Standard Test Method for Tensile Proper-
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
ties of Thin Plastic Sheeting
Officials (AASHTO)
D 1004 Standard Test Method for Initial Tear Resis-
Standard Specification for Highway Bridges
tance of Plastic Film and Sheeting
D 1424 Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength
American Concrete Institute (ACI)
of Fabrics by Falling-Pendulum Type
201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
(Elmendorf) Apparatus
216R Determining the Fire Endurance of
D 1435 Standard Practice for Outdoor Weathering
Concrete Elements
of Plastics
223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-
D 1474 Test Methods for Indentation Hardness for
Compensating Concrete
Organic Coatings
224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures
D 1938 Standard Test Method for Tear-Propagation
224.3R Joints in Concrete Construction Resistance of Plastic Film and Thin
301 Specifications for Structural Concrete Sheeting by a Single Tear Method
305R Hot Weather Concreting D 1973 Guide for Design of a Liner System for
306.1 Standard Specification for Cold Weather Containment of Wastes
Concreting D 2197 Test Method for Adhesion of Organic Coat-
306R Cold Weather Concreting ings by Scrape Adhesion
308R Standard Practice for Curing Concrete D 2261 Standard Test Method for Tearing Strength of
308.1 Standard Specification for Curing Concrete. Fabrics by the Tongue (Single Rib) Procedure
311.1R SP-2: ACI Manual of Concrete Inspection (Constant-Rate-of-Expansion Tensile Testing
311.4R Guide for Concrete Inspection Machine)
311.5R Guide for Concrete Plant Inspection and D 2370 Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Testing of Ready-Mixed Concrete Organic Coatings
350/350R Code Requirements for Environmental D 2485 Test Method for Evaluating Coatings for
Engineering Concrete Structures and High Temperature Service
Commentary D 3456 Practice for Determining by Exterior Expo-
350.1/350.1R Tightness Testing of Environmental Engi- sure Tests the Susceptibility of Paint Films
neering Concrete Structures and Commentary to Microbiological Attack
372R Design and Construction of Circular Wire- D 4060 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of
and Strand-Wrapped Prestressed Concrete Organic Coatings by Taber Abraser
Structures D 4355 Standard Test Method for Deterioration of
373R Design and Construction of Circular Geotextiles from Exposure to Ultraviolet
Prestressed Concrete Structures with Lights and Water
Circumferential Tendons D 4437 Standard Practice for Determining the
504R Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Integrity of Field Seams Used in Joining
Structures Flexible Polymeric Sheet Geomembranes
515.1R Guide To The Use of Waterproofing, D 5402 Practice for Assessing the Solvent Resis-
Dampproofing, Protective and Decorative tance of Organic Coatings Using Solvent
Barrier Systems For Concrete Rubs
CONCRETE STRUCTURES FOR CONTAINMENT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 350.2R-17

D 5322 Practice for Immersion Procedures for American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Evaluating the Chemical Resistance of P.O. Box 9094
Geosynthetics to Liquids Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
D 5970 Standard Practice for Deterioration of
Geotextiles from Outdoor Exposure
E 329 Standard Specification for Agencies ASTM International
Engaged in the Testing and/or Inspection of 100 Barr Harbor Drive
Materials Used In Construction West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959

American Water Works Association (AWWA)


D110 AWWA Standard for Wire and Strand American Water Works Association (AWWA)
Wrapped Circular Prestressed Concrete 6666 West Quincy Ave.
Water Tanks Denver, CO 80235
D115 AWWA Standard for Circular Prestressed
Concrete Water Tanks With Circumferen- National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
tial Tendons
Batterymarch Park
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) P.O. Box 9101
NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code Quincy, MA 02269-9959
NFPA 49 Hazardous Chemical Data
8.2Cited references
The above publications may be obtained from the CRSI, 1980, Reinforced Concrete Fire Resistance, First
following organizations: Edition, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Ill., 256 pp.
Officials (AASHTO) Zwiers, R. I., and Morgan, B. J., 1989, Performance of
444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249 Concrete Members Subjected to Large Hydrocarbon Pool
Washington, D.C. 20001 Fires, PCI Journal, V. 34, No. 1, Jan.-Feb., pp. 120-135.

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