USN 14MST41

Fourth Semester M.Tech, Degree Examination, May/June 2016

Plastic Processing
Time: 3 hrs. Max. Marks: 100

Note: Answer any five full questions.

1. (A). Explain basic Principle of Plastic Processing? Explain Its Process Parameters?
(10 Marks)
(B). what is Rheology? Explain Rheology of Ideal Fluids? (10 Marks)

2. (A). With a neat sketch explain the principle and process in injection moulding?
(10 Marks)
(B). Explain briefly:
1. Trouble shooting in injection moulding. (10 Marks)
2. Explain microprocessor controlled injection moulding machine.

3. (A). What is Extrusion? Explain the principle of Extrusion Process? (10 Marks)
(B). Explain briefly:
1. Co-extrusion.
2. Blown film lines. (10 Marks)

4. (A). Explain briefly Compression and Transfer moulding? (10 Marks)

(B). Explain Briefly:
1. Fault causes and Remedies in compression moulding. (10 Marks)
2. Comparison of compression and Transfer moulding?

5. (A). Explain with neat sketch Process Parameters in Blow Moulding? (10 Marks)
(B). Explain Faults and Remedies in Blow moulding Process? (10 Marks)

6. (A). Explain the types of thermoforming? (10 Marks)

(B). with neat sketch Explain the process in Rotational Moulding? (10 Marks)

7. (A). Explain Calendaring Process along with neat sketch? (10 Marks)
 (B). Explain briefly: (10 Marks)
1. Resin Transfer Moulding.
2. Pultrusion Process.

8. (A). Explain the following:

1. Centrifugal Casting. 2. Filament winding. (20 Marks)
3. Hand Lay-up Process 4. Waste Management.

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 Answers for Plastic Processing based on above question paper:
1. (A). Explain basic Principle of Plastic Processing? Explain Its Process Parameters?
(10 Marks)
Those methods used to convert plastics materials in the form of pellets, granules,
powders, sheets, fluids, or preforms intoformed shapes or parts. The plastics materials
may contain a variety of additives which influence the properties as well asthe proces
sability of the plastics. After forming, the part may be subjected to a variety of ancilla
ry operations such aswelding, adhesive bonding, machining, and surface decorating
(painting, metalizing).
(B). what is Rheology? Explain Rheology of Ideal Fluids? (10 Marks)
the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a liquid state, but also as 'soft solids' or solids
under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in
response to an applied force.
2. (A). With a neat sketch explain the principle and process in injection moulding?
(10 Marks)
Injection molding is the one of the most commonly used manufacturing process for the
plastic components. It is used to manufacture thin walled plastic parts for a wide variety of
shapes and sizes. In this process, the plastic material is melted in the injection chamber and
then injected into the mold, where it cools and finally the finished plastic part is ejected.
Working Principle

In this process, the plastic materials usually in the form of powder or pellets are fed from
hopper into the injection chamber. The piston and cylinder arrangement is used to forward
the material inserted from the hopper in to the injection chamber. The plastic material is
heated in the injection chamber with the application of heating elements. The cooling system
is also used to maintain the temperature of the injection chamber. The molten plastic material
is then injected into the mold cavity through a nozzle. The molded part is cooled quickly in
the mold. Thereafter, the final plastic part is removed from the mold cavity. The process
cycle for injection molding is very short, typically between 2 to 60 seconds. The complete
injection molding process is divided into four stages: clamping, injection, cooling and
ejection.

Clamping: The two halves of the mold must be tightly closed, before the molten plastic
material is injected into the mold. One half of the mold is attached to the injection unit
(nozzle) and other half is allowed to slide on the guide ways. The clamping of mold is
operated hydraulically which it pushes the moving half part of the mold towards the fixed
part to make an air tight chamber. The force and the time required to close and open the mold
depends upon the machine capability.

Injection: During this process, the plastic material is melted by the application of heat and
forwarded through the piston towards the nozzle and finally into the mold. The function of
torpedo in the heating zone is to spread the molten plastic into the thin film. The molten
plastic is then injected into the mold cavity quickly. The amount of material that is injected
into the mold is referred to as the shot volume. The injection time can be estimated by the
shot volume, injection power and pressure. The schematic of injection molding process is
shown in figure 1.
Cooling: The injected molten plastic begins to cool as soon as it comes in contact with the
mold surfaces. As the molded part cools, it will solidify into the desired shape of the product.

Ejection: The molded part, which is attached to the rear half of the mold has to be ejected
from the mold. When the mold is opened, an ejector mechanism is used to push the part out
of the mold. Force must be applied to eject the plastic part because during cooling the molded
part shrinks and adheres to the mold surface. A mold release agent should be sprayed onto the
mold surfaces prior to injection of the material. Once the molded part is ejected, the mold will
be closed for the next shot to be injected.
The important process parameters that have to be considered during the injection molding
Process are: injection temperature and pressure, shot volume, mold temperature, cooling
time, Ejection temperature, and cycle time. Some of the common injection molding defects
are flash, blister, warping, bubbles, unfilled sections, jetting, sink and ejector marks. These
defects can be eliminated by optimal selection of the process parameters.

3. (A). What is Extrusion? Explain the principle of Extrusion Process? (10 Marks)
Extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process. The plastic material is melted with the
application of heat and extruded through die into a desired shape. A cylindrical rotating screw
is placed inside the barrel which forces out molten plastic material through a die. The
extruded material takes shape according to the cross-section of die.

Working Principle

In this process, plastic material in the form of pellets or granules is gravity fed from a top
mounted hopper into the barrel. Additives such as colorants and ultraviolet inhibitors (liquid
or pellet form) can be mixed in the hopper. The plastic material enters through the feed throat
and comes into contact with the rotating screw. The rotating screw pushes the plastic beads
forward into the barrel. The barrel is heated using the heating elements up to the melting
temperature of the plastic. The heating elements are used in such ways that gradually increase
the temperature of the barrel from the rear to the front.
There are three possible zones in a rotating screw i.e. feed zone, melting zone, and metering
zone. In the feed zone, the plastic beads melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel.
The plastic material is completely melted in the melting zone. A thermostat is used to
maintain the inside temperature of the barrel. The overheating of plastics should be
minimized which may cause degradation in the material properties. A cooling fan or water
cooling system is used to maintain the temperature of the barrel during the process.
At the front of the barrel, the molten plastic leaves the screw and travels through a screen
pack to remove any contaminants in the molten plastic. The screens are reinforced by a
breaker plate.
The breaker plate assembly also serves to create back pressure in the barrel. The back
pressure gives uniform melting and proper mixing of the molten plastic material into the
barrel. After passing through the breaker plate, molten plastic enters into die. The die gives
the desired shape of plastic product. An uneven flow of molten plastic would produce
unwanted stresses in the plastic product. These stresses can cause warping after solidification
of molten plastic. Plastics are very good thermal insulators and therefore it is very difficult to
cool quickly. The plastic product is cooled by pulling through a set of cooling rolls.
The schematic of extrusion process is shown in figure 1.
 (B). Explain briefly:
1. Co-extrusion.
2. Blown film lines. (10 Marks)
3. Tube Extrusion.

1. Co-extrusion

Co-extrusion is defined as the process in which two or more plastic materials are extruded
through a single die. In this process, two or more orifices are arranged in such a manner that
the conjoint merging and welding of the extrudates takes place and before chilling, a laminar
structure forms. In co-extrusion, a separate extruder is used to fed every material to the die
but the orifices can be arranged in such a manner that each extruder provides two or more
plies of the same material.

Co-extrusion may be employed in the processes of Film Blowing, Extrusion Coating, and
Free Film Extrusion. The general benefit of the co-extrusion process is that every laminate
ply imparts a required characteristic property like heat-sealability, stiffness, &
impermeability, all of which are impossible to attain by using any single material.

It is evident that co-extrusion is a better process than a single layer extrusion. For instance, in
the vinyl fencing industry, co-extrusion process is used for tailoring the layers on the basis of
whether these are exposed to whether or not. Generally, compound's thin layer is extruded
that contains high-priced weather resistant additives. This extrusion is done on the outside,
whereas inside there is an additive package which is more suitable for the structural
performance and impact resistance.
 Fig. co extrusion process

2. Blown film lines.

In the blown film process, the die is like a vertical cylinder with a circular profile. The molten
plastic is pulled upwards from the die by a pair of nip rollers. The compressed air is used to
inflating the tube. Around the die, an air-ring is fitted. The purpose of an air-ring is to cool
the film as it travel upwards. In the center of the die, there is an air inlet from which
compressed air can be forced into the centre of the circular profile, and creating a bubble. The
extruded circular cross section may be increased 2-3 times of the die diameter. The bubbles
are collapsed with the help of collapsing plate. The nip rolls flatten the bubble into double
layer of film which is called layflat. The wall thickness of the film can be controlled by
changing the speed of the nip rollers. The layflat can be spooled in the form of roll or cut into
desired shapes. Bottom side of the layflat is sealed with the application of heat, and cut across
further up to form opening; hence it can be used to make a plastic bag. The die diameter may
vary from 1 to 300 centimeters. Generally, polyurethane plastic is used in this process. The
schematic of blown film extrusion is shown in figure 2.
 4. (A). Explain briefly Compression and Transfer moulding? (10 Marks)
Transfer moulding
Transfer molding process combines the principle of compression and transfer of the
polymer charge. In the transfer molding, polymer charge is transferred from the transfer
pot to the mold. The mold is cooled and molded part is ejected. The schematic of transfer
molding process is shown in figure1.
In this process, the required amount of polymer charge is weighted and inserted into the
transfer pot before the molding process. The transfer pot is heated by the heating element
above the melting temperature of the polymer charge. The liquid charge is gravity filled
through the sprue to the mold cavity. A piston and cylinder arrangement is built in the
transfer pot so that the resin is squirted into the mold cavity through a sprue. The plunger
is also preheated in the transfer pot. The plunger is used to push the liquid polymer charge
from the transfer pot into the mold cavity under pressure. The mold cavity remains closed
as the polymer charge is inserted. The mold cavity is held closed until the resin gets
cured. The mold cavity is opened and the molded part can be removed once it has
hardened with the help of ejector pin. The sprue and gate attached to the molded part have
to be trimmed after the process has been completed.

Compression Molding

Compression molding process is one of the low cost molding methods as compared to
injection molding and transfer molding. It is a high pressure forming process in which the
molten plastic material is squeezed directly into a mould cavity by the application of heat and
pressure to conform to the shape of the mold. The schematic of compression molding process
is shown in figure 2.

Working Principle

In this process, the predetermined amount of charge of plastic material is placed in the lower
half of a heated mold cavity. The plastic material is preheated before inserting into the mold
cavity to reduce the temperature difference between the material and the mold cavity. The
mold cavity is closed with upper movable half mold and pressure is applied to compress the
material in to the mold cavity. This causes the raw material to be squeezed out to take the
shape of the mold cavity. The application of the heat and pressure increases the
polymerization process. Hence, plastic material is cured. The temperature of the mold cavity
is usually in the range of 130- 200C. Generally, the hydraulic pressure is required in the
range of 7-25 MPa to squeeze the plastic material. The mold cavity is then cooled for
sometimes so that molded plastic part gets solidified. The mould cavity is then opened and
the final product is taken out with the help of ejector pin. The molded part may require the
finishing operation. In compression molding, the charge of plastic material may be inserted
into the mold cavity either as a powder, granules or as a preformed. The manufacturing cycle
time (heating, cooling, and part ejection) may be long (about 1-6 minutes). For high
production rate, it is desirable to have multi cavity molds. Compression mold cavity can also
be available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes; therefore plastic products can be
manufactured into different shapes and sizes.

(B). Explain Briefly:

1. Fault causes and Remedies in compression moulding. (10 Marks)
2. Comparison of compression and Transfer moulding?

1. Fault causes and Remedies in compression moulding.

2. Comparison of compression and Transfer moulding?
5. (A). Explain with neat sketch Process principle of Blow Moulding? (10 Marks)
Blow Molding

Blow molding is a manufacturing process that is used to produce hollow plastic parts by
inflating a heated plastic until it fills a mold and formed the desired shape. The schematic of
blow molding process is shown in figure 2.

Working Principle

In this process, the thermoplastic in the form of small pellets or granules is first heated above
the melting temperature and molded into a preform using injection molding process. These
performs are used to feed into the blow mold. The preform is heated above the glass
transition temperature and formed into a hollow tube which is called parison. The parison is
then clamped between two mold halves and inflated by high air pressure until it conforms to
the inner shape of the mold. The air pressure is required as 60 to 140 psi depending upon the
material used. The preform is always stretched from the center of the part during the process.
This is a single stage process, as both preform manufacturing and bottle blowing are
performed in the same machine. The formed part solidified as it is cooled inside the mold.
The mold halves are separated and the final product is removed. Final part may be trimmed.

Generally, mold can be made of metal. Cycle time depends upon the finished part wall
thickness. If the part wall thickness is 1.5 mm, the cycle time will be 40 to 50 seconds.
(B). Explain Faults and Remedies in Blow moulding Process? (10 Marks)
6. (A). Explain the types of thermoforming? (10 Marks)
Types of thermoforming are:
(a) Vacuum Forming
In this process, the vacuum pressure is used to form the heated thermoplastic sheet into
the desired shape. The thermoplastic sheet is placed on the mold surface and fixed with
the help of clamping unit. The sheet is heated until it is softens and thereafter vacuum
needs to be applied quickly. A surge tank is used to quickly pull the air out between the
mold cavity and the sheet. When the vacuum is created, the sheet conforms to the shape
of the mold cavity. The formed part is cooled and then ejected from the mold cavity. The
schematic of vacuum forming process is shown in figure 1.

(b) Pressure Forming The pressure forming process is closely related to vacuum
forming. In this process, the air pressure required is much higher as compared to the
vacuum forming. The preheated plastic sheet is placed on the mold surface, and then air
pressure is applied quickly above the sheet as shown in figure 2. The high pressure is
developed in between the softened sheet and the pressure box. Due to high pressure, the
preheated plastic sheet can be deformed into the mold cavity in a fraction of a second.
The formed sheet is held in the mold cavity for cooling for a few seconds. The formed
part thereby solidifies and is ejected from mold cavity. Prototype parts can also be made
using pressure forming process.
(c) Matched die Forming Matched die forming is also called mechanical forming. In
this process, mold consists of two parts i.e. die and punch as shown in figure 3. The
thermoplastic sheet is heated with the application of heat until it softenes. The preheated
sheet is placed into the mold surface (that is called die) and through punch pressure is
applied on the hot sheet. The air in between the die and softened sheet is evacuated by
using vacuum pump, and therefore the thermoplastic sheet conforms to the mold shape.
The formed part is cooled and ejected from the mold cavity.
The important process parameters that are considered during the thermoforming process are
heating temperature, heating time, vacuum pressure, air pressure, mechanical pressure,
cooling time and ejection mechanism.
The important process parameters that are considered during the thermoforming process are
heating temperature, heating time, vacuum pressure, air pressure, mechanical pressure,
cooling time and ejection mechanism.
(B). with neat sketch Explain the process in Rotational Moulding? (10 Marks)
Rotational Molding
The rotational molding is a high temperature and low pressure plastic forming process. The
powder is inserted into the closed split mold and rotated in biaxial to produce a hollow part.
The schematic of rotational molding process is shown in figure 1.
Working Principle
The plastic material in the form of powder is inserted into the mold. The mold is heated in an
oven and rotated biaxial until the powder has melted. The molten powder is adhered to the
mold wall and makes a thin layer. The mold is opened and finished part is removed.
The mold is rotated at different speeds in order to avoid the accumulation of molten powder.
The amount of time required to heat the powder at molten temperature in to the oven is
important. If the oven is heated for long time, powder will degrade and it will affect the
mechanical properties. If the mold is heated short time, the powder may not be completely
melted, resulting in large bubbles in the powder. The formed part must be cooled through the
air so that it solidifies slowly. The formed part will shrink on cooling, and facilitating easy
removal of part. The cooling rate must be kept within a certain range. The water cooling
should be avoided, because formed part may shrink and warped after cooling.
A mold release agent should be used to quickly remove the formed part. Mold release can
reduce cycle times and defects of finished product. Three different types of mold release
agent may be used i.e. sacrificial coating (silicones), semi-permanent coating, (polysiloxane),
and permanent coating (polytetrafluoroethylene).

7. (A). Explain Calendaring Process along with neat sketch? (10 Marks)

Calenders may consist of between two and seven rolls, possibly more. They are characterized
by the number of rolls and their arrangement: I, Z, or inverted L. Most popular are the four-
roll inverted-L calender and the
Z calender. Z calenders have the advantages of lower heat loss in the sheet (because of
shorter travel) and a simpler construction. They are simpler to construct because they need
less compensation for roll bending; this is
because there are no more than two rolls in any vertical line (as opposed to three in a four-roll
inverted-L calender). Other variations in these massive, multimillion-dollar calender lines are
dictated by the very high forces exerted on the rolls to squeeze the plastic melt into a thin
web. High forces can bend the rolls, producing a web thicker in the middle than at the edges. This can
be counteracted by different methods: (1) crowned rolls, which have a greater diameter in the
middle than at the edges; (2) crossing the rolls slightly, thus increasing the nip opening at
either end of the rolls; and (3) roll bending, where a bending moment is applied to the end of
each roll by having a second bearing on each roll neck, which is then loaded by a hydraulic
cylinder. Calenders call for high temperatures, with little variation across the rolls during the
application of high pressures. The high forces are necessary to squeeze the plastic mass into a
very thin film; any unevenness in the forces along the roll is reflected as variations in the film
thickness. One cause of pressure fluctuations is too much clearance in the bearings, which
can be resolved either by pulling back the rolls against one side of the bearing or by using
tapered roller bearings. After forming, through the multiple rolls of the calender, the film or
sheet is cooled by passing through precision-surfaced cooling rolls at precisely controlled
temperatures and/or a cooling tower. Thickness gauges are usually located within this cooling
section of the production line; the feedback they provide makes thickness corrections
automatically.
Gauge controls can also be used in the neckdown section, where the hot plastic leaves the
calender rolls and transfers to the cooling rolls. After cooling, the plastic is trimmed at the
edges and wound. Trim may account for up to 5% of the width, depending on the line's
operating efficiency, and most trim is immediately directed back through a granulator and
blended with the virgin material This is the typical sequence for a calender line, but there are
many variations to suit the end product. Auxiliary equipment can be included, such as
annealing, quench tank, decorating, slitting and heat sealing, and orienting (uniaxial or biaxial
stretching). Calendering was developed over a century ago to produce natural rubber
products; it is now used principally with TPs. A major product is elastomeric tire-fabric
coating. Calendering is a highly developed art, recently elucidated by combining the
complexity of melt behavior with the mechanics of rotating machines. With this
understanding comes the ability to make calenders more productive by increasing their speed,
to produce films with tighter thickness tolerances and greater uniformity, and to handle
thicker sheets more effectively.
(B). Explain briefly: (10 Marks)
1. Resin Transfer Moulding.
2. Pultrusion Process.

1. Resin Transfer Moulding.

Resin transfer molding
Resin transfer molding is a closed molding process. In this technique, as the name
indicates, resin is transferred over the already placed reinforcement. Reinforcement in
terms of either woven mat or strand mat form is placed on the surface of lower half
mold. A release gel is applied on the mold surface for easy removal of the composite.
The mold is properly closed and clamped. The clamping can be done either perimeter
clamping or press clamping mechanism. The resin is pumped into the mold through
ports and air is displaced through other vents. The uniformity of resin flow can be
enhanced by using a catalyst as an accelerator and vacuum application. After curing, the
mold is opened and composite product is taken out. The schematic of resin transfer
molding process is shown in figure 1. Resin transfer molding can incorporate soft or
hard mold depending upon the expected duration of run. For soft mold, thermosetting
polymers like epoxy and polyester can be used for molding material. For hard mold,
materials like steel and aluminium can be used. The cost of mold varies from very low to
high cost mold with short to long life molds. The process can be automated to reduce
cycle time. For complex shapes to be produced, preformed fiber reinforcements are
used. The viscosity of the resin plays an important role in resin transfer molding process
because injection time depends upon viscosity of the resin. If viscosity of resin is high,
high pressure is required which may cause displacement of fibers, known as fiber wash.
The raw materials used in resin transfer molding are given in table 1.
 2. Pultrusion Process.

Pultrusion:

Pultruded FRP sections are usually made by pultrusion process. This process creates
continuous composite profile by pulling raw composites through a heated die. Pultrusion
combines words pull and extrusion where extrusion is pulling of material such as
fiberglass and resin, through a shaping die. Many resin types can be used in pultrusion
including polyester, polyurethane and vinyl ester epoxy resins etc. Fiber is wetted or
impregnated with resin and is organized and then removed of excess resin. After that the
composite is passed through a heated steel die. Precisely machined and often chromed, the
die is heated to a constant temperature, and may have several zones of temperature through-
out its length, which will cure the thermosetting resin. The profile that exits the die is now a
cured Pultruded Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) composite. This FRP profile is pinched and
pulled by a gripper system. At the end of the pultrusion machine there is a
cut-off saw. Pultruded profiles are cut to the specific length and stacked for delivery.

Pultrusion combines words Pull and Extrusion. Extrusion is pulling of material such
as Fiberglass and Resin, through a shaped and heated die.
Process begins with the Fibers coming from the Rovings
Then there is wetting by Resins called as Resin Impregnation
Impregnated Fibers and Mattings are passed through Preformers and Guidance Devices
Emerging profile is preheated and passed through heated die
Through heated dies polymerizing and curing takes place
Meanwhile pulling of the formed section
Pultrusion process is automated and Pultruded FRP sections of desired length are obtained
by cutting at desired length.
Generally it is produced in sections of various profiles like I, C, H etc. Beams, Angles,
Tubes, Hollow Square, solid Rods of various profiles.

8. (A). Explain the following:

1. Centrifugal Casting. 2. Filament winding. (20 Marks)
3. Hand Lay-up Process 4. Waste Management.

1. Centrifugal Casting.

Centrifugal Casting

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it.
Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it
solidifies. The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal
and segregate towards the center. This process is normally used for the making of hollow
pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a concentric hole. Since the
metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for
making the concentric hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an
inclined axis or about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside
diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by
the amount of molten metal poured into the mold.
The centrifugal casting is very suitable for axisymmetric parts. Very high strength of the

casting can be obtained. Since the molten metal is fed by the centrifugal action, the need for

complex metal feeding system is eliminated. Both horizontal and vertical centrifugal

castings are widely used in the industry. Figure 3.2.8 schematically shows a set-up for

horizontal centrifugal casting process. Figure 3.2.9 typically shows large pipes that are made

using centrifugal casting process.

2. Filament winding.

In filament winding method, fiber strands are unwind and passed continuously to the resin
tank. In resin tank, fiber strand are impregnated completely with the resin. Now, these resin
impregnated strands are passed onto a rotating mandrel. These strands are wound around the
mandrel in a controlled manner and in a specific fiber orientation. The schematic of filament
winding is shown in figure 1. Fiber tension is critical in filament winding because
compaction is achieved through the fiber tension. The fiber tension affects the percentage of
fiber reinforcement and porosity content in the composite which in turn affects the properties
of the processed composite product. The fiber tension depends upon the type of fiber, its
geometry and the winding pattern required on the rotating mandrel. The fiber tension should
be at optimal level because too high fiber tension may break the fiber completely or initiate
fiber fracture at the surface. Curing of the composite is done with heat, generally in an oven
and final composite product is taken out of the mandrel. To remove the metallic mandrel
from the composite part, hydraulic rams may be used. For complex geometry of composite
part, the mandrel used may be of soluble plaster which can be washed out after processing or
it may be a collapsible rubber and materials having low melting point. The profile of the
mandrel is exactly the same as that of the final product is required. In some cases, mandrel
becomes the integral part of the assembly. A carriage is used to keep the roving in place and
to direct them to the mandrel. A high fiber volume fraction can be achieved in the composite
with this processing technique. Cores may be used in this method but normally, product is in
single skin. Now a days, computer controlled machines are used which independently monitor
every movement of the whole process.

3. Hand Lay-up Process

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The infrastructural
requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are quite simple. First of
all, a release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of polymer to the
surface. Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good
surface finish of the product. Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand
mats are cut as per the mold size and placed at the surface of mold after perspex sheet. Then
thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion with a
prescribed hardner (curing agent) and poured onto the surface of mat already placed in the
mold. The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush. Second layer of mat is then
placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer
layer to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present. The process is repeated
for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After placing the
plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mold plate which is then
kept on the stacked layers and the pressure is applied. After curing either at room temperature
or at some specific temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken
out and further processed. The schematic of hand lay-up is shown in figure 1. The time of
curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy
based system, normal curing time at room temperatur is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly
suitable for thermosetting polymer based composites. Capital and infrastructural reuirement
is less as compared to other methods. Production rate is less and high volume fraction of
reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the processed composites. Hand lay-up method finds
application in many areas like aircraft components, automotive parts, boat hulls, diase board,
deck etc. Generally, the materials used to develop composites through hand lay-up method
are given in table 1.

4. Waste Management
Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined residential,
industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorised according to its
origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional); according to its
contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc); or according to hazard potential
(toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc). Management of solid waste reduces
or eliminates adverse impacts on the environment and human health and supports economic
development and improved quality of life. A number of processes are involved in effectively
managing waste for a municipality. These include monitoring, collection, transport,
processing, recycling and disposal.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when
managing waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the use of
these methods. They reduce or prevent green house gas emissions, reduce the release of
pollutants, conserve resources, save energy and reduce the demand for waste treatment
technology and landfill space. Therefore it is advisable that these methods be adopted and
incorporated as part of the waste management plan.

Waste reduction and reuse

Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste prevention. They eliminate
the production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the demands for large
scale treatment and disposal facilities. Methods of waste reduction include manufacturing
products with less packaging, encouraging customers to bring their own reusable bags for
packaging, encouraging the public to choose reusable products such as cloth napkins and
reusable plastic and glass containers, backyard composting and sharing and donating any
unwanted items rather than discarding them. All of the methods of waste prevention
mentioned require public participation. In order to get the public onboard, training and
educational programmes need to be undertaken to educate the public about their role in the
process. Also the government may need to regulate the types and amount of packaging used
by manufacturers and make the reuse of shopping bags mandatory.
Waste Collection
Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular waste
collection, or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates such as that of the
Caribbean the waste should be collected at least twice a week to control fly breeding, and the
harbouring of other pests in the community. Other factors to consider when deciding on
frequency of collection are the odours caused by decomposition and the accumulated
quantities. Descriptions of the main types of collection systems are given in the table below.
Recycling
Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw materials in
the manufacture of new products. Thus from this definition recycling occurs in three phases:
first the waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the recyclables are used to create raw
materials. These raw materials are then used in the production of new products.

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