Plastic Processes

Plastic Manufacturing
processes
ALL SURFACES SINGLE SURFACE
  DEFINED DEFINED
Injection Molding Blow Molding
Compression Molding Thermoforming
BATCH PROCESS Transfer Molding Rotational Molding
Extrusion
Calendering
CONTINUOUS PROCESS Pultrusion  

1) Injection Molding:
Advantages:
1. Excellent surface finish
2. Can form complex shapes and fine details
3. Good dimensional accuracy
4. High production rate
5. Low labor cost
6. Scrap can be recycled

Disadvantages:
1. Limited to thin walled parts
2. High tooling and equipment cost
3. Long lead time possible
Economical Volume:

Changes in pressure, velocity, and plastic viscosity – especially as the plastic cools – all
result in a variety of manufacturing problems. Avoiding dramatic changes in these
parameters will obviously keep manufacturing issues to a minimum.

Injection molding is a high-pressure process.

High pressures are needed to force the plastics into intimate contact with all surfaces of
a mold’s cores and cavities

#127 Special Injection Molding Methods

(Two Color Injection Molding Method)
Category : Molding Technology
June15, 2012
Special methods of plastic injection molding are explained starting from this lesson.
Firstly, in this lesson we describe the two color injection molding method.
The two color injection molding method is a method of molding that is recently being
called the "two material injection molding method" or the "different material injection
molding method", etc. Two types of thermoplastic resin are successively injected into the
mold by respectively different injection cylinders, thereby producing a product with two
types of colors.
This is a molding technology that is being used widely in the preparation of key tops for
high end desktop PCs, or the illuminated buttons of car navigation units, etc.
In general, it appears that very often two plastic resin of the same type such as PS
plastic or ABS plastic are used. This is because there is very good adhesion between the
two molded items. Although it is possible to produce molded products from two different
types of plastics resin such as ABS and POM, the adhesion between them is not
necessarily good. (There are different applications when the adhesion is good and when
the adhesion is not good.)
In addition, recently there are some unique combinations that have been realized such
as combinations of thermoplastic plastic material with a thermoplastic elastomer
(rubber-like plastic resin). (Sports goods, etc.)

In order to practically use the two color injection molding method, usually, a special
injection molding machine will be necessary. Such machines are being made by
manufacturers of injection molding machines in Japan as well as in countries like
Switzerland and Germany. The injection molding machine is equipped with two injection
units, which respectively pour the molten material into the interior of the cavity of the
mold via their respective sprues.
In the mold, the female part of the cavity is formed on the fixed side of the respective
plastic material.
On the other hand, two male cores of the same shape are formed on the moving half,
and the space between the male parts can be moved by a rotating mechanism or a
sliding mechanism. (There are several types of patterns of this structure.)

In the two color injection molding method, since a beautiful multi-function molded
product can be produced in one step, it is possible to produce a molded item with high
value addition. It is also possible to have multiple cavities in a single shot in the case of
molded items with small sizes.
However, the design of the molds requires knowledge about the design of wall
thicknesses and know-how about the bonding between different plastic materials. Some
techniques will be necessary regarding the temperature control of molds also.
7.5. Injection Molding
Injection molding is perhaps the most common and important of all plastic processing
processes. The process is extremely versatile, and can produce very complex shaped
parts, with the use of multi-sided molds. Even parts with metal inserts can be produced.
While injection molding dies are expensive to produce, each die can be used to make
tens of thousands of components at very rapid rate, so that per-part cost is very low.
The simplest form of injection molding is shown in the schematic below.
Figure 10 shows the cycle of operations during production of a molded part. The moving
platen puts the mold together; the mold halves are held with large force, and the molten
charge is forced into the cavity; the plastic solidifies, and finally, the moving platen is
retracted, and ejector pins in the mold push the part out.

Just as in die casting, the mold is specially made for each part, and the basic elements of
each mold are the same, including sprue, gates, runners and vents; in addition, the
location of ejection pins is usually specified in the mold design, since there points have
visible marks (therefore ejection is usually done from the core side, and is usually
mounted into the mold half mounted on the moving platen). The cavity is divided
between the two mold halves in such a way that the natural shrinkage of the molding
causes the part to stick to the moving half. When the mold opens, the ejector pins push
the part out of the mold cavity. We look at the details of molds in more detail below.
Two-Plate Mold:
This consists of two halves fastened to the two platens of the molding machine's
clamping unit. When the clamping unit is opened, the mold halves separate. Molds can
contain one multiple cavities to produce one or multiple parts in a single shot (last
example in figure 11 below). The parting surface is the surface shared by the two mold
halves.

The cooling system is made up of passages in the mold that are connected to an
external pump. Water is circulated through them to remove heat from the hot plastic.
The air trapped in the cavity passes through the small ejector pin clearances in the mold,
and through narrow vents that are machined into the parting surface (typically about
0.03 mm deep and 12 to 25 mm wide).
Three-plate mold:
This design (see figure below) has some advantages. The molten plastic flows through a
gate located at the base of the cup-shaped part, rather than at the side. This allows
more even distribution of melt into the sides of the cup. In the side gate design in the
two-plate the plastic must flow around the core and join on the opposite side, possibly
creating a weakness at the weld line. Secondly, the three-plate mold allows more
automatic operation of the molding machine. As the mold opens, the three plates
separate; this forces the runner to break from the parts, which drop by gravity or using
air-blower into collecting containers put under the mold.
Molds with cores/cams: Many injection molded parts have some part of the geometry
that is inaccessible to either of the mold halves. Such regions must be created by means
of extra moving parts in the mold. Figure 13 below shows a cup-shaped part with a
through-hole. One method to mold this part is by the use of a core.
The figure below shows the steps of the mold opening. Figure 14(a) shows a more
complex mold with four side action cams. Typical side-action cam design is shown in
Figure 14(b); the top (red) part is connected with the bolt on top to the moving platen.
As the mold opens, the green part is forced to slide to the right. The mold-piece that
creates the insert geometry is attached to the green piece by the blue bolt.
#131 Compression Molding
Method
Category : Molding Technology
July13, 2012
Compression molding is a method of molding used for molding thermoset plastic resin.
Thermoset plastic resin are liquid at room temperature, but solidify upon heating, and
once solidified, they remain permanently solid. The hardening is considered to be due to
a chemical reaction called cross-linking.
Typical thermoset plastic resin are phenol resin, melamine resin, urea resin, epoxy resin,
etc.
The compression molding method is a classical method of molding which has been in use
ever since plastic resins were invented.
Male and female molds are prepared, the molding resin is loaded inside the female mold,
the male mold is closed, and the set of molds is heated thereby solidifying the plastic
resin and preparing the molded article.
At the time of closing the male mold, excess resin overflows from the parting surface
and becomes burrs. These burrs are removed after molding. (Fig. 1)
Compression molding is being used even now for food utensils such as plates, bowls,
etc., electrical insulating parts, decorative buttons, etc.
Since thermoplastic materials cannot be used in environments where they are heated or
where resistance to chemicals is required, thermoset plastic resin are used in such
situations.
The mold structures of the three types:
1. Positive type mold
2. Flash type mold
3. Semi-positive type mold.
The semi-positive type mold is used most often.

7.4. Compression and Transfer Molding

These two processes are used mostly for thermosetting polymers. In
compression molding, the raw material is placed inside the mold in semi-solid or
solid (i.e. as granules, or a single piece called a plug). The mold is heated and
closed using pressure, and the plastic flows to fills the cavity. Excess material
may leak out from the parting lines creating flash, which must be trimmed away.
If the part shape is more complex, transfer molding may be used. Here, the
charge (thermoset grains) are placed in a heated cylinder till they are soft; a
hole at the bottom of the cylinder is connected to the die cavity by a sprue. A
plunger pushes the semi-solid plastic into the die through the sprue, using high
pressure.
These methods are used to make dishes, handles for cooking pots, skis, housing
for high-voltage switches, some rubber parts like shoe soles, and even
composites such as fiber-reinforced parts. These processes commonly used
with thermosetting polymers, where the initial charge is in semi-solid state
(partial polymerization), and the heating causes the plastic to set as it forms the
shape of the mold.
#128 Special Injection Molding
Methods (Blow Molding Method)
Category : Molding Technology
June22, 2012
Blow molding is a method of injection molding hollow molded items such as PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles
for juice, etc.
This method is being used widely in the world for manufacturing shampoo containers, containers for spices such as
soy sauce, or containers for detergents, etc.
The plastic resin that can be blow molded are polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon,
polycarbonate, etc.

Blow molding is done using a special blow molding machine. And also, the mold used has only a female type cavity
and there is no male type core.
Instead of that, there is a nozzle for blowing air into the mold, a pre-formed balloon shaped molded item called a
parison is blown and made to contact the cavity closely thereby transferring the shape.

In the case of blow molding, usually a relatively soft metal is used for the cavity. While aluminum alloys, bronze, etc.
are commonly used, special steels are also used.
Since very frequently beautiful glossiness is expected in the surface of the molded item, sufficient care has to be taken
about polishing the inside surface of the cavity.

Further, multiple cavities in a mold are common in the blow molding of containers for drinks, and since a high cycle
rate is expected, techniques will be necessary for the function of cooling and adjusting the temperature of the mold.

Since most of the blow molded items are of the disposable variety, it is extremely important that the product design
and planning and the mold design are made considering the recycling of these products.
#132 Transfer Molding Method
Category : Molding Technology
November30, 2012
The transfer molding method is a molding method of thermoset plastic resin. Although the
compression molding method described last time is a typical molding method of thermoset
plastic resin, the applied pressure may become non-uniform when the mold is closed and the
pressure is applied, and as a result, it is possible that thin pins or some parts of the mold get
deformed and damaged.

The transfer molding is a molding method that has been proposed as an improvement that
corrects such weaknesses in the compression molding method.

The injection of the plastic to the interior of the mold is carried out by a plunger. Therefore, it
is possible to inject the plastic to the interior of the mold with a relatively uniform pressure.

The molds for this method can be broadly classified into the following two types.

1.Hot type molds

2.Plunger type molds

The transfer molding method is used very frequently for molding the sealing of
semiconductor MPUs, or for molding electronic components (device components).

Measures for preventing inclusion of gases or bubbles that are generated during molding and
the balancing of the runners in multiple cavity molds are important factors of know-how in
this method of molding.
#133 Vacuum Molding Method,
Compressed Air Molding Method
Category : Molding Technology
December 7, 2012
The vacuum molding method is a method used for molding articles such as egg packages,
pudding cups, packaging containers, etc. that are made of thin plastic sheets.

In the vacuum molding method, melting of raw material pellets such as in extrusion molding
is not made, but a plastic plate formed in advance in the shape of a sheet is deformed by
vacuum suction on to a heated mold (see the figure).

The mold is provided with several holes for vacuum suction. In order to support the
deformation of the plastic sheet, a plug is also sometimes lowered to press down the sheet.
On the other hand, the compressed air molding is a molding method in which the plastic
sheet is deformed by compressed air.

The edges of the items molded using these methods are cut by a press in a succeeding step
or else, they are cut by scissors if such parts are small in quantity.

The plastics that can be molded in this manner are:

-Polystyrene foam
-Hard PVC
-Polypropylene
-Polyethylene terephthalate
-Methyl ester methacrylate (acrylic plastic), etc.

It is only necessary to prepare either the male mold or the female mold.

The materials used for the mold are mainly nonferrous metals such as an aluminum alloy,
duralumin, zinc alloy, brass, etc.

#134 Extrusion Molding

Category : Molding Technology
December14, 2012
Extrusion molding is a method of continuously molding plastic molded articles having the
same cross-sectional shape over its length such as rainwater guttering, gray colored drain
water pipe, etc.
A dedicated extrusion molding machine is required for carrying out extrusion molding. In
addition, dies are also required for obtaining the shape of the molded item. A die for
extrusion molding is generally called an extrusion die.

There are various types of extrusion dies such as the following.

-Straight die
-Cross-head die
-Flat die
-Die for solids
-Die for films
-Die for pipes
-Die for coverings

Extrusion dies are prepared from stainless steel, nickel-chromium steel, or alloy tool steel.
The dies are hard-chrome plated or surface treated so as to withstand corrosion and wear.
The holder part of the die is made of a soft steel such as S50C, etc.

The shape and design of the die are very important factors determining the quality of the
molded item. The processing conditions such as the speed of extrusion are also important
factors.

Extrusion molding is the second most frequently used method of molding plastic molded
articles next only to injection molding. Unlike injection molding, once a die is prepared, a
relatively large quantity can be produced from the die. Therefore, this can be said to be a
molding method that finds a lot of applications in the equipment manufacturing industry.

7.1. Plastic Extrusion

Extrusion can be used for thermoplastics. The raw material is in the form of pellets (~10mm
sized pieces), granules (~5 mm), or powder. Extrusion machines are used to make long
pieces of constant cross-section. The cross-section geometry can be solid or hollow, and may
be quite complex in shape. Usually, extruded parts are used as raw stock for use in
manufacture of other products (e.g. channels on the sides of windows, etc. You can find
plastic extruded parts in many bathroom and kitchen fittings). Figure 1 shows a typical
extrusion machine. Figure 2 shows some examples of extruded shapes.
The main difference from metal extrusion is the mechanism for pumping out the
molten plastic: plastic extrusion uses a large screw in a cylinder, which
simultaneously mixes, and pushes the pellets/granules towards the die; along the way,
the heating chamber melts the plastic. Interesting note: many plastic processes use plastic
pellets as raw material; these pellets are the shape of short cylinders, which are themselves
formed by plastic extrusion.
7.3. Thermoforming

In thermoforming, a sheet of plastic is used to cover a shape (e.g. a die) by

heating the sheet till it is semi-fluid, and then pulling it over the die using
vacuum suction (this method is called vacuum forming). In an alternate form,
called pressure forming, the pressure is applied using high pressure air from
above the plastic sheet. This process is most commonly seen in packaging of
food, toys etc.; it is also used to make appliance housings, etc. The following
schematic shows different types of thermoforming.
The advantage of thermoforming is that the tooling (usually made by
machining Aluminum) is cheap to produce. The vacuum forming process
leaves tiny marks where the mold has holes for vacuuming out the air; these
holes are made small, e.g. 0.5mm. The main quality control issues include non-
uniform thickness of parts, warping of parts when they cool, and tearing of the
sheet. The figure below shows images of parts that can be made using
thermoforming processes
VACUUM FORMING

Vacuum forming, commonly known as vacuuforming, is a simplified

version of thermoforming, whereby a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming
temperature, stretched onto or into a single-surface mold (BrE, mould), and held
against the mold by applying vacuum between the mold surface and the sheet.
The vacuum forming process can be used to make most product packaging,
speaker casings, and even car dashboards. The first commercial
manufacturer of vacuum-formed plastics was Robinson Industries of Coleman,
Michigan.

Normally, draft angles must be present in the design on the mold (a

recommended minimum of 3°).

Otherwise, release of the formed plastic and the mold will most likely be difficult.
Vacuum forming is usually, but not always, restricted to forming plastic parts
that are rather shallow in depth. A thin sheet is formed into rigid cavities for unit
doses of pharmaceuticals and for loose objects that are carded or presented
as point-of-purchase items. Thick sheet is formed into permanent objects
such as turnpike signs and protective covers.

Relatively deep parts can be formed if the form-able sheet is mechanically or

pneumatically stretched prior to bringing it in contact with the mold surface and
before vacuum is applied. [1]

Suitable materials for use in vacuum forming are conventionally thermoplastics.

The most common and easiest to use thermoplastic is High Impact Polystyrene
Sheeting (HIPS). This is molded around a wood, structural foam or
cast/machined aluminum mold and can form to almost any shape. Vacuum
forming is also appropriate for transparent materials such as acrylic which
are widely used in applications for aerospace such as passenger cabin window
canopies for military fixed wing aircraft and "bubbles" for rotary wing aircraft.

TYPICAL HEAVY GAUGE VACUUM FORMING APPLICATIONS

Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) utilize heavy gauge vacuum

formed components for production quantities in the range of 250 - 3000
annual production volume. Vacuum-formed components can be used in place
of complex fabricated sheet metal, fiberglass, or plastic injection molding.
Typical industry examples include:

 Kiosks and automated teller machines

 Enclosures for medical imaging and diagnostic equipment such as

magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) machines

 Engine covers in a truck cab

 Railcar interior trim and seat components

COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH VACUUM FORMING

 Moisture absorption: absorbed moisture expands forming bubbles within

the plastic's inner layers. This will be solved by drying the plastic for an
extended period at high but sub-melting temperature.

 Webs form around the mold, which is due to overheating the plastic and so
must be carefully monitored. Webbing can also occur when a mold is too large or
parts of the mold are too close together.

 Objects that are formed often stick to the mould, so make sure there is an
angle of 3 degrees or more.

ROTATIONAL MOLDING

Rotational molding, also known as rotomolding, rotocasting or spin

casting, is a molding process for creating many kinds of mostly hollow items,
typically of plastic.

A heated hollow mold is filled with a charge or shot weight of material, it is then
slowly rotated (usually around two perpendicular axes) causing the softened
material to disperse and stick to the walls of the mold. In order to maintain even
thickness throughout the part, the mold continues to rotate at all times during
the heating phase and to avoid sagging or deformation also during the
cooling phase. The process was applied to plastics in the 1940s but in the early
years was little used because it was a slow process restricted to a small number
of plastics. Over the past two decades, improvements in process control and
developments with plastic powders have resulted in a significant increase
in usage.

PRODUCTION PROCESS

The rotational molding process is a high-temperature, low-pressure plastic-

forming process that uses heat and biaxial rotation (i.e., angular rotation on
two axes) to produce hollow, one-piece parts. [7]

Critics of the process point to its long cycle times—only one or two cycles an
hour can typically occur, as opposed to other processes such as injection
molding, where parts can be made in a few seconds. The process does
have distinct advantages. Manufacturing large, hollow parts such as oil tanks is
much easier by rotational molding than any other method. Rotational molds are
significantly cheaper than other types of mold. Very little material is
wasted using this process, and excess material can often be re-used,
making it a very economically and environmentally viable manufacturing
process.

The rotational molding process consists of four distinct phases:

1. Loading a measured quantity of polymer (usually in powder form) into the
mold.

2. Heating the mold in an oven while it rotates, until all the polymer has melted
and adhered to the mold wall. The hollow part should be rotated through
two or more axes, rotating at different speeds, in order to avoid the
accumulation of polymer powder. The length of time the mold spends in the
oven is critical: too long and the polymer will degrade, reducing impact strength.
If the mold spends too little time in the oven, the polymer melt may be
incomplete.

The polymer grains will not have time to fully melt and coalesce on the mold
wall, resulting in large bubbles in the polymer. This has an adverse effect on the
mechanical properties of the finished product.

3. Cooling the mold, usually by fan. This stage of the cycle can be quite lengthy.
The polymer must be cooled so that it solidifies and can be handled safely by the
operator. This typically takes tens of minutes. The part will shrink on
cooling, coming away from the mold, and facilitating easy removal of the
part. The cooling rate must be kept within a certain range. Very rapid cooling
(for example, water spray) would result in cooling and shrinking at an
uncontrolled rate, producing a warped part.

4. Removal of the part.

MATERIALS

More than 80% of all the material used is from the polyethylene family:
cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear
low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and
regrind. Other compounds are PVC plastisols, nylons, and polypropylene.

Order of materials most commonly used by industry:

 Polyethylene

 Polypropylene

 Polyvinyl chloride

 Nylon

 Polycarbonate

These materials are also occasionally used (not in order of most used)-

 Aluminum

 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

 Acetal
 Acrylic

 Epoxy

 Fluorocarbons  Ionomer

 Polybutylene

 Polyester

 Polystyrene

 Polyurethane

 Silicone

 Various foods (especially chocolate)

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Product design

There are many considerations for a designer when designing a part.

Which factors are most important to a client? For instance, a part may
need to be cheap and a certain color. However, if another color is cheaper,
would the client be willing to change colors? Designers are responsible for
considering all the limitations and benefits of using certain plastics. This may
result in a new process being decided upon.

DESIGNING FOR ROTATIONAL MOLDING

Another consideration is in the draft angles. These are required to remove the
piece from the mold.

On the outside walls, a draft angle of 1° may work (assuming no rough surface
or holes). On inside walls, such as the inside of a boat hull, a draft angle of 5°
may be required. This is due to shrinkage and possible part warping.

Another consideration is of structural support ribs. While solid ribs may be

desirable and achievable in injection molding and other processes, a hollow rib is
the best solution in rotational molding. A solid rib may be achieved through
inserting a finished piece in the mold but this adds cost. Rotational molding
excels at producing hollow parts. However, care must be taken when this is
done. When the depth of the recess is greater than the width there may be
problems with even heating and cooling. Additionally, enough room must be left
between the parallel walls to allow for the melt-flow to properly move
throughout the mold. Otherwise webbing may occur. A desirable parallel wall
scenario would have a gap at least three times the nominal wall thickness, with
five times the nominal wall thickness being optimal. Sharp corners for parallel
walls must also be considered. With angles of less than 45° bridging, webbing,
and voids may occur.

MATERIAL LIMITATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS

Another consideration is the melt-flow of materials. Certain materials,

such as nylon, will require larger radii than other materials. Additionally, the
stiffness of the set material may be a factor. More structural and strengthening
measures may be required when a flimsy material is used

WALL THICKNESS

One benefit of rotational molding is the ability to experiment, particularly with

wall thicknesses. Cost is entirely dependent on wall thickness, with thicker walls
being costlier and more time consuming to produce. While the wall thickness can
be nearly any thickness, designers must remember that the thicker the wall, the
more material and time will be required, increasing costs. In some cases, the
plastics may significantly degrade due to extended periods at high
temperature. Also, different materials have different thermal conductivity,
meaning they require different times in the heating chamber and cooling
chamber. Ideally, the part will be tested to use the minimum thickness required
for the application. This minimum will then be established as a nominal
thickness.

For the designer, while variable thicknesses are possible, a process called stop
rotation is required.

This process is limited in that only one side of the mold may be thicker than the
others. After the mold is rotated and all the surfaces are sufficiently coated with
the melt-flow, the rotation stops and the melt-flow is allowed to pool at the
bottom of the mold cavity.

Wall thickness is important for corner radii as well. Large outside radii are
preferable to small radii.

Large inside radii are also preferable to small inside radii. This allows for a more
even flow of material

and a more even wall thickness. However, an outside corner is generally

stronger than an inside corner.

PROCESS: ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS, AND MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

ADVANTAGES

Rotational molding offers design advantages over other molding processes. With
proper design, parts assembled from several pieces can be molded as one part,
eliminating high fabrication costs. The process also has inherent design
strengths, such as consistent wall thickness and strong outside corners
that are virtually stress free. For additional strength, reinforcing ribs can be
designed into the part. Along with being designed into the part, they can be
added to the mold.

The ability to add prefinished pieces to the mold alone is a large advantage.
Metal threads, internal pipes and structures, and even different colored plastics
can all be added to the mold prior to the addition of plastic pellets. However,
care must be taken to ensure that minimal shrinkage while cooling will not
damage the part. This shrinking allows for mild undercuts and negates the need
for ejection mechanisms (in most pieces).

In some cases rotational molding can be used as a feasible alternative to blow

molding, this is due to the similarity in product outputs, with products such as
plastic bottles and cylindrical containers, this is only effective on a smaller scale
as it much more costly to blow mold regarding a small output, and with fewer
resulting products rotational molding is much cheaper, due to blow
molding relying on economies of scale regarding efficiency.

Another advantage lies in the molds themselves. Since they require less
tooling, they can be manufactured and put into production much more
quickly than other molding processes. This is especially true for complex
parts, which may require large amounts of tooling for other molding
processes. Rotational molding is also the desired process for short runs
and rush deliveries. The molds can be swapped quickly or different colors can
be used without purging the mold. With other processes, purging may be
required to swap colors.

Due to the uniform thicknesses achieved, large stretched sections are

nonexistent, which makes large thin panels possible (although warping may
occur). Also, there is little flow of plastic (stretching)

but rather a placing of the material within the part. These thin walls also
limit cost and production time.

Another cost limiting factor is the amount of material wasted in production.

There are no sprues or runners (as in injection molding), no off-cuts
(thermoforming), or pinch off scrap (blow molding). What material is wasted,
through scrap or failed part testing, can usually be recycled.

LIMITATIONS

Rotationally molded parts have to follow some restrictions that are

different from other plastic processes. As it is a low pressure process,
sometimes designers face hard to reach areas in the mold. Good quality
powder may help overcome some situations, but usually the designers have to
keep in mind that it is not possible to make some sharp threads used
in injection molded goods.
Some products based on polyethylene can be put in the mold before filling it
with the main material. This can help to avoid holes that otherwise would appear
in some areas. This could also be achieved using molds with movable sections.
Another limitation lies in the molds themselves. Unlike other processes where
only the product needs to be cooled before being removed, with rotational
molding the entire mold must be cooled. While water cooling processes are
possible, there is still a significant down time of the mold. Additionally, this
increases both financial and environmental costs. Some plastics will
degrade with the long heating cycles or in the process of turning them into a
powder to be melted.

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

Due to the nature of the process, materials selection must take into account the
following:

 Due to high temperatures within the mold the plastic must have a
high resistance to permanent change in properties caused by heat (high
thermal stability).

 The molten plastic will come into contact with the oxygen inside the mold—
this can potentially lead to oxidation of the melted plastic and deterioration of
the material's properties. Therefore, the chosen plastic must have a
sufficient amount of antioxidant molecules to prevent such degradation in
its liquid state.

 Because there is no pressure to push the plastic into the mold, the chosen
plastic must be able to flow easily through the cavities of the mold. The
parts design must also take into account the flow characteristics of the
particular plastic chosen.

ULTRASONIC WELDING

Ultrasonic welding is an industrial technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic

acoustic vibrations are locally applied to workpieces being held together under
pressure to create a solid-state weld. It is commonly used for plastics, and
especially for joining dissimilar materials. In ultrasonic welding, there are no
connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or adhesives necessary to bind
the materials together.

PROCESS

For joining complex injection molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic welding

equipment can be easily customized to fit the exact specifications of the
parts being welded. The parts are sandwiched between a fixed shaped nest
(anvil) and a sonotrode (horn) connected to a transducer, and a ~20 kHz low-
amplitude acoustic vibration is emitted. (Note: Common frequencies used
in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are 15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz, 40
kHz and 70 kHz). When welding plastics, the interface of the two parts is
specially designed to concentrate the melting process. One of the materials
usually has a spiked energy director which contacts the second plastic
part. The ultrasonic energy melts the point contact between the parts, creating
a joint. This process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit
designs. It is typically used with small parts (e.g. cell phones, consumer
electronics, disposable medical tools, toys, etc.) but it can be used on parts as
large as a small automotive instrument cluster. Ultrasonics can also be used to
weld metals, but are typically limited to small welds of thin, malleable metals,
e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel. Ultrasonics would not be used in welding the
chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of a bicycle together, due to the
power levels required.

Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic due to

absorption of vibration energy. The vibrations are introduced across the
joint to be welded. In metals, Ultrasonic welding occurs due to high-
pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local motion of the materials. Although
there is heating, it is not enough to melt the base materials. Vibrations are
introduced along the joint being welded.

Practical application of ultrasonic welding for rigid plastics was completed in the
1960s. At this point only hard plastics could be welded. The patent for the
ultrasonic method for welding rigid thermoplastic parts was awarded to
Robert Soloff and Seymour Linsley in 1965. Soloff, the founder of Sonics &
Materials Inc., was a lab manager at Branson Instruments where thin
plastic films were welded into bags and tubes using ultrasonic probes. He
unintentionally moved the probe close to a plastic tape dispenser and the halves
of the dispenser welded together. He realized that the probe did not need to be
manually moved around the part but that the ultrasonic energy could travel
through and around rigid plastics and weld an entire joint. He went on to
develop the first ultrasonic press.

The first application of this new technology was in the toy industry.

The first car made entirely out of plastic was assembled using ultrasonic
welding in 1969. Even though plastic cars did not catch on, ultrasonic
welding did. The automotive industry has used it regularly since the 1980s.
It is now used for a multitude of applications.

Ultrasonic welding can be used for both hard and soft plastics, such as
semicrystalline plastics, and metals. Ultrasonic welding machines also have
much more power now. The understanding of ultrasonic welding has
increased with research and testing. The invention of more sophisticated and
inexpensive equipment and increased demand for plastic and electronic
components has led to a growing knowledge of the fundamental process.
However, many aspects of ultrasonic welding still require more study, such
as relating weld quality to process parameters. Ultrasonic welding continues
to be a rapidly developing field.

Scientists from the Institute of Materials Science and Engineering (WKK)

of University of Kaiserslautern, with the support from the German
Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft), have succeeded in
proving that using ultrasonic welding processes can lead to highly durable
bonds between light metals and Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP)
sheets.

The benefits of ultrasonic welding are that it is much faster than conventional
adhesives or solvents.

The drying time is very quick, and the pieces do not need to remain in a jig for
long periods of time waiting for the joint to dry or cure. The welding can easily
be automated, making clean and precise joints; the site of the weld is very
clean and rarely requires any touch-up work. The low thermal impact on
the materials involved enables a greater number of materials to be welded
together.

COMPONENTS

All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of the same basic elements:

 A press to put the two parts to be assembled under pressure

 A nest or anvil where the parts are placed and allowing the high
frequency vibration to be directed to the interfaces

 An ultrasonic stack composed of a converter or piezoelectric transducer, an

optional booster and a sonotrode (US: Horn). All three elements of the stack are
specifically tuned to resonate at the same exact ultrasonic frequency (Typically
20, 30, 35 or 40 kHz)

o Converter: Converts the electrical signal into a mechanical vibration

o Booster: Modifies the amplitude of the vibration. It is also used in standard

systems to clamp the stack in the press.

o Sonotrode: Applies the mechanical vibration to the parts to be welded.

 An electronic ultrasonic generator (US: Power supply) delivering a high power

AC signal with frequency matching the resonance frequency of the stack.

 A controller controlling the movement of the press and the delivery of the
ultrasonic energy.

APPLICATIONS

The applications of ultrasonic welding are extensive are found in these industries

1. electrical and computer,

2. automotive and aerospace,

3. medical, and

4. Packaging.

Whether two items can be ultrasonically welded is determined by their thickness.

If they are too thick this process will not join them. This is the main obstacle in
the welding of metals. However, wires, microcircuit connections, sheet metal,
foils, ribbons and meshes are often joined using ultrasonic welding.
Ultrasonic welding is a very popular technique for bonding thermoplastics.
It is fast and easily automated with weld times often below one second and
there is no ventilation system required to remove heat or exhaust. This type of
welding is often used to build assemblies that are too small, too complex, or too
delicate for more common welding techniques.

THE HOT STAMPING PROCESS

Hot stamping is a permanent marking process used to label plastic parts. The
hot stamping process utilizes a heated metal or silicon die that brands the part
with an image or a flat silicon pad that simply presses an image on the raised
surface of a part. Color is added to the brand with the use of a
marking foil which is sandwiched between the die and the plastic part during
stamping.

One advantage of using hot stamping over other labeling processes is that it is a
dry process. This greatly simplifies the process of applying the image and allows
for high repeatability of the image. To create the initial image, it's best to have a
high quality photo/print to work from. This will allow the engraver to supply a
more detailed die. When choosing the type of die to use, it's important
to consider the part that is to be stamped and purpose of the application. Metal
dies will typically create sharper images, last longer and will not deform like a
silicon die can. Yet, this deformation will allow a silicon die to mark a part that
has some contour to it. In either case, the die will need to be supported
underneath with fixturing.

Fixturing is a necessary and important requirement with hot stamping. The part
will need to be able to support the necessary level of pressure needed for
labeling. A good rule of thumb is to ensure the part is fixtured in such a way to
handle 500 psi (pounds per square inch).

Steinwall has hot stamped plastic parts for over 20 years. If there's an
application where a label is needed on a part, hot stamping can be a cost
effective method in providing it.
 Plastic Processes
 

There are many processes for plastics. Selection of a process

depends on many factors including:

Quantity and production rate

Dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Form and detail of the product
Nature of material
Size of final product

In general, plastics processes have three phases:

Heating - To soften or melt the plastic

Shaping / Forming - Under constraint of some kind
Cooling - So that it retains its shape

Thermoplastics start as regular pellets or granules and can be remelted.

Thermosetting materials start as liquids/syrups, often called "resins", as

powders or partially cured products ("preforms") which need heat for the
shaping phase. The shaping is accompanied by a chemical reaction, which
means that the material does not soften on reheating. The reaction may
be exothermic (giving heat out), in which case cooling is required.

Thermoplastic Processes

Process     Applications

Injection Most thermoplastics can be processed by Injection Moulding.

Moulding
Injection Enhanced quality, reduced cycle times and component
Moulding (Gas weight reductions can be achieved by gas assisted
Assisted ) injection moulding.

Injection Blow Injection blow moulding is used for the production of

Moulding hollow objects in large quantities. The main applications
 are bottles, jars and other containers. The Injection
blow moulding process produces bottles of superior
visual and dimensional quality compared to extrusion
blow moulding.

Injection Injection stretch blow moulding is used for the

Stretch Blow production of high quality containers.
Moulding
-under construction-

Thermoforming has close similarities with Vacuum

Forming except that greater use is made of air pressure
Thermoforming
and plug assisted forming of the softened sheet. Only
thermoplastics sheet can be processed by this method.

-under construction-
Used for the production of hollow objects in large
Extrusion Blow quantities. Obvious application are bottles and similar
Moulding containers.

  Inserts can either be incorporated at the time of the

moulding process, or be inserted as a post moulding
Insert Moulding operation

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used for the production

Moulding
of a number of applications. However its major
Expanded
Polystyrene application is as a protective packaging for consumer
(EPS) electronic products and white goods.

Vacuum formed products are all around us and play a major

Vacuum part in our daily lives. Virtually all thermoplastics can be
Forming supplied as sheet and vacuum formed. 

The process involves extrusion of a plastic through a circular

Blown Film die, followed by "bubble-like" expansion.

Structural Foam is a term commonly used to describe

thermoplastic injection moulding components made by the
Structural Foam
injection moulding process which have a cellular core.
 Rotational moulding differs from all other processing
methods in that the heating, melting, shaping, and
Rotational cooling stages all occur after the polymer is placed in
Moulding the mould, and no external pressure is applied during
forming.

Extrusion
Currently no information
Profiles & Sheet
Cast Film Currently no information
Post Processing
Currently no information
Operations
Various other extrusion processes not mentioned
Other Extrusion
above:EXTRUSION OF CAST FILM, CALENDERING OF
Processes
THIN SHEET/FILM, COEXTRUSION/LAMINATING

Thermoset Processes

Process                  Applications                   
The materials are widely known as Dough or Bulk Moulding
SMC / DMC
Compounds (DMC or BMC). In sheet form they are known as
Moulding
Sheet Moulding Compound (SMC).

Electrical switch and fuse boxes. Domestic electrical equipment

Compression
microwave containers and tableware. Business machine
Moulding
housings. Gas and electricity meter housing. Dish aerials.

Usually involves impregnation of glass fibre mat with a liquid

GRP
polyester mix. 'Gel Coat' provides a good surface on the mould
Moulding
side. Large mouldings e.g. boat hulls, lorry cabs.

 
Currently no information
Lamination
 
Currently no information
Pultrusion
 
Currently no information
Rim
 

Foam Currently no information

Production

Preparatory & Finishing Processes

Process                Applications                     
Design and tooling constraints sometimes make it more
Welding economical and/or advantageous to tool the product as two
or more pieces. Post moulding joining of the parts provides a
means of achieving an end solution.
 

Product
Currently no information
Decoration
 

Recycling Processes
Process Applications
All plastics can be recycled. The extent to which they are
Recycling recycled depends upon both economic and logistic factors.
LAMINATE
A laminate is a material that can be constructed by uniting two or more layers
of material together.

The process of creating a laminate is lamination, which in common parlance

refers to the placing of something between layers of plastic and gluing them
with heat, pressure, and an adhesive.

Laminate film is generally categorized into these five categories:

 Standard thermal laminating films

 Low-temperature thermal laminating films

 Heatset (or heat-assisted) laminating films

 Pressure-sensitive films

 Liquid laminate

FIBERGLASS MOLDING

The fiberglass mold process begins with an object known as the plug or
buck. This is an exact representation of the object to be made, and can
be made from a variety of different materials.

Certain types of foam are commonly used.

After the plug has been formed, it is sprayed with a mold release agent. The
release agent will allow the mold to be separated from the plug once it is
finished. The mold release agent is a special wax, and/or PVA (Polyvinyl
alcohol). Polyvinyl Alcohol, however, is said to have negative effects on the
final mold's surface finish.

Once the plug has its release agent applied, gelcoat is applied with a
roller, brush or specially-designed spray gun. The gelcoat is pigmented
resin, and gives the mold surface a harder, more durable finish.

Once the release agent and gelcoat are applied, layers of fiberglass and resin
are laid-up onto the surface. The fiberglass used will typically be identical to
that which will be used in the final product.
In the laying-up process, a layer of fiberglass mat is applied, and resin is
applied over it. A special roller is then used to remove air bubbles. If left
in the curing resin, air bubbles would significantly reduce the strength of
the finished mold. The fiberglass spray lay-up process is also used to produce
molds, and can provide good filling of corners and cavities where a glass mat or
weave may prove to be too stiff. Once the final layers of fiberglass are applied
to the mold, the resin is allowed to set up and cure. Wedges are then driven
between the plug and the mold in order to separate the two.

Advanced techniques such as Resin Transfer Molding are also used.

MAKING A COMPONENT

The component-making process involves building up a component on the

fiberglass mold. The mold is a negative image of the component to be made,
so the fiberglass will be applied inside the mold, rather than around it.

As in the mold-making process, release agent is first applied to the mold.

Colored gelcoat is then applied. Layers of fiberglass are then applied, using
the same procedure as before. Once completed and cured, the component is
separated from the mold using wedges, compressed air or both.
FILAMENT WINDING

Filament winding is a fabrication technique for manufacturing composite

material, usually in the form of cylindrical structures. The process involves
winding filaments under varying amounts of tension over a male mould or
mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a carriage moves horizontally, laying down
fibers in the desired pattern. The most common filaments are carbon or glass
fiber and are coated with synthetic resin as they are wound. Once the
mandrel is completely covered to the desired thickness, the mandrel is
placed in an oven to solidify (set) the resin. Once the resin has cured, the
mandrel is removed, leaving the hollow final product.

Filament winding is well suited to automation, where the tension on the

filaments can be carefully controlled. Filaments that are applied with high
tension results in a final product with higher rigidity and strength; lower
tension results in more flexibility. The orientation of the filaments can
also be carefully controlled so that successive layers are plied or oriented
differently from the previous layer.

The angle at which the fiber is laid down will determine the properties of the
final product. A high angle "hoop" will provide crush strength, while a lower
angle pattern (known as a closed or helical) will provide greater tensile
strength.

Products currently being produced using this technique range from golf
clubs, pipes, oars, bicycle forks, power and transmission poles, pressure
vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht masts.

MATERIALS

Glass fibre is the fibre most frequently used for filament winding, carbon and
aramid fibres are also used. Most high strength critical aerospace structures
are produced with epoxy resins, with either epoxy or cheaper polyester
resins being specified for most other applications. The ability to use
continuous reinforcement without any breaks or joins is a definite
advantage, as is the high fibre volume fraction that is obtainable, about
60% to 80%. Only the inner surface of a filament wound structure will be
smooth unless a secondary operation is performed on the outer surface.
The component is normally cured at high temperature before removing the
mandrel. Finishing operations such as machining or grinding are not normally
necessary