A Hymn of Christ:

Philippians 2:5-11 in Recent Interpretation

and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship by R. P. Martin1

Outlined and Summarized by Lee Irons

Preface to the 1983 edition

Two main approaches to Phil. 2:5-11:

1. The ethical interpretation call to imitate Christs example2
2. The soteriological interpretation drama of Christs descent/ascent

Martin holds to 2. His objections to the ethical view:

The well-known syntactical difficulty of v. 5. It is impossible to treat the two

prepositional phrases as saying the same thing ... The call is for his readers to
adopt a way of life ... in their mutual relations ( ), which is indeed ()
how they should live in Christ Jesus (xiv).
How can we imitate the act of incarnation? How can we be exalted as Christ was?
There is only one Kyrios.

Ksemann was right to object to the ethical interpretation and to propose instead that
the hymn is a recital of the soteriological story of Christ, who is now exalted as Kyrios,
under whose authority the church is summoned to live. The lordship of Christ is central.

Hermeneutical assumption: We should isolate the meaning of the terms in the hymn
from the use which is made of them by Paul in the verses which precede and follow them
... The hymn may well have had one meaning in its original form and yet an altered
meaning in the context of Pauls letter (xvii).

The hymn celebrates the way of Christ (Weglied) how the heavenly one was humbled
but has now returned to his heavenly glory and received cosmic lordship. The lordship of
Christ is the basis of the paraenetic appeal in v. 12 the Philippians should obey
Christs lordship. But since the Lord they obey is the crucified Jesus, they should live out
their life-in-Christ in terms of a theology of the cross. (xviii)

Martin doubts Jeremias thesis that the phrases, form of a servant, emptied himself,
and humbled himself, are allusions to Isaiahs suffering servant. (xxiii)

1
Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1997.
2
Strimple, Phil. 2:5-11 in Recent Studies: Some Exegetical Conclusions, WTJ 41 (1979) 247-68; Hurtado,
Jesus as Lordly Example, ch. 9 in From Jesus to Paul: Studies in Honour of Francis Wright Beare, eds. Hurd and
Richardson (Waterloo, 1983).
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Lohmeyers insight: the phrase obedient to death can only refer to the act of a divine
being. It is the ultimate limit of a freely willed obedience. (xxiv) Later, Martin expands
this thought: As Lohmeyer says in a brilliant insight, only a divine being can accept
death as obedience; for ordinary men it is a necessity, to which they are appointed by
their humanity (217).

Contrast between and . The antithesis of snatching is receiving. The

prize of lordship that he chose not to snatch, has been bestowed upon him by God. (xxxi)

Martins assessment of the opponents at Philippi the same Jewish Christians who
opposed Paul in Corinth. They have an over-realized, triumphalistic eschatology. Paul
responds to their theology of glory with a theology of the cross. He intentionally inserts
the phrase even death on a cross into the hymn. He does so in response to his
opponents whom he later calls enemies of the cross. (xxxvi-xxxix)

Preface to the 1997 edition

Martin accepts the RSVs translation of v. 5: which is yours in Christ Jesus. (xlviii)

Pauls makeover of the earlier hymn. (xlix) Following Jeremias, Martin believes that
the 4 lines Paul added to the hymn are:
Taking the servants form (v. 7)
Even death on a cross (v. 8)
The heavenly, earthly and demonic (v. 10)
To the glory of God the Father (v. 11)
By thus redacting the hymn, Paul sought to correct its triumphalist emphasis on the
victory of Christ.

The heavy theological, ecclesiological and ethical freight contained in the term
(1:27). Martins paraphrase: let your life in the polis of Gods realm be
worthy of your adherence to the good news. (li)

The obedient one is to be obeyed. (lii) The call is not to cultivate the virtues of verses
6-8 but to yield obedience to the obedient one who is now hailed as cosmic Lord (verses
9-11). (lvii-lviii)

Martin says that he is more disposed now (in 1997) than in earlier editions of the book to
see some echoes of Isaiahs Ebed Yahweh.3 (lx, n 35)

Response to N. T. Wrights interpretation.4 (lxv-lxxiv)

3
For a robust defense, see Gundry, Style and Substance, in Crossing the Boundaries: Essays ... in Honour
of Michael D. Goulder, eds. Porter, et al (Leiden, 1994).
4
N. T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Edinburgh, 1992), pp.
56-98. Originally published in NTS 37 (1986) 321-52.

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Wrights view as summarized by Martin:

Wright understands the participle as causal: who, precisely because
he was in the form of God, etc. Thus, the humility of Christ is the revelation of
Gods character.
Following Hoover, Wright interprets to mean something to be used
for his own advantage. Thus, on Wrights view, Christ possessed equality with
God and decided not to take advantage of this possession.
Instead of exploiting his status of equality with God, he reinterpreted it as a
vocation to obedience and death.
Incarnation and crucifixion are therefore appropriate vehicles for the dynamic
self-revelation of God.

Martins critique:
Re. , Martin argues that one can forego the opportunity to use a prize
that is held out in prospect. Christ refused to use what he did possess (being in the
form of God) as an opportunity to advance to what he did not yet possess
(equality with God). This makes sense of the basic idea behind the noun, which
corresponds to the verb , to seize.
It is arbitrary to equate being in the form of God and equality with God.
Wright would even insert the word this: who, being in the form of God, did not
regard this divine equality as something to be used for his own advantage.
Although the article could be anaphoric, Martin argues that there is another
possibility: it functions merely to identify as the direct object of
rather than . (The clause reads:
.)
At the conclusion of his career, the exalted one is accorded a dignity as world-
ruler. He receives a divine equality that in the nature of the case could not be his
as pre-existent (before time and creation). This is the meaning of more-than-
highly exalted (v. 9).
Wright sees in the story of the hymn the revelation of the divine character as
love. In response, Martin says, We are in the realm of a hypothetical meta-story
that floats above the text and is not as closely linked to the text as it professes
to be. The text makes no mention of Gods love or of Christs sacrifice on behalf
of others.

Introduction

Deals with the Pliny reference (singing alternately a hymn [carmen] to Christ as to a
god)

Part I: Background and interpretation

Chapter 1: Traces of carmina in the NT

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Chapter 2: Philippians 2:5-11: Its literary form

Ernst Lohmeyer, Kyrios Jesus: Eine Untersuchung zu Phil. 2,5-11 (1928) seminal study
J. Jeremias (1953) modified Lohmeyers literary analysis

Chapter 3: Philippians 2:5-11: Its authorship

Arguments against Pauline authorship:

Greek text based on a Semitic original; un-Pauline terminology
The language test hapax legomena; absence of Pauline terms (e.g., no reference
to redemptive significance of Christs death )
Ebed Yahweh teaching not attested elsewhere in Paul
Pauls debt to his predecessors (pre-Pauline Hellenistic Christianity in Syria)

Arguments for Pauline authorship:

Hymnic style and content could explain unusual vocabulary
Even adds nothing distinctively Pauline
Pauline doctrine in the hymn (Jesus as lord of glory; two Adams)

Expanding on the two Adams theme as a distinctively Pauline teaching: W. D. Davies

has offered a positive suggestion when he maintains that the teaching about our Lord as
the last Adam is characteristically Pauline. In his discussion of the Second Adam doctrine
he reaches the conclusion that the conception of Christ as the Second Adam was
probably introduced into the Church by Paul himself. If this is so ... our hymn is the
most conspicuous example, along with Romans v and 1 Corinthians xv, of the way his
renewed mind was working in the formulating of the contrast between the first Adam and
the last Man from heaven. (58)

In the end, Martin says that the arguments for and against Pauline authorship are finely
balanced. He postpones decision until after the exegetical section (Part II).

Chapter 4: Philippians 2:5-11: Main lines of 20th century interpretation

The 19th century legacy

1. The dogmatic view (Lutheran)
2. The Kenotic theory (Thomasius)
3. Ethical example supplies was in v. 5; see Martins critique (69-73, 84-88)

20th century hypotheses

1. The background in heterodox Judaism Iranian myth of the primal man
(Lohmeyer)
2. The non-Jewish Hellenistic background (Ksemann) cosmic drama of Gnostic
Urmensch
3. OT background Ebed Yahweh, two Adams

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4. Specific Hellenistic examples divine hero Christology (Knox); fate (E.

Schweizer)
5. Historical allusions Caligula and Nero (Bornhuser)
6. Baptismal setting (Jervell)

Part II: An exegetical study of the hymn in the light of recent interpretation

Chapter 5: The Pre-Existent Being (v. 6a)

Three main interpretations:

1. Philosophical (Lightfoot) =
2. Septuagintal (Hering, TWNT, Cullmann, et al) = =
3. Religionsgeschichte (Bultmann, Ksemann) the heavenly man myth

Martin opts for view 2, and goes on to argue that Pauls Two Adams doctrine forms the
conceptual background to the hymn, particularly verse 6 (116-20, 142, 161-64). Other
scholars cited by Martin who see Adamic connections:

C. K. Barrett, From First Adam to Last (1962)

Matthew Black, The Pauline Doctrine of the Second Adam, SJT 7 (1954) 170-9
L. Bouyer, harpagmos, Revue des Sciences Religieuses (Strasbourg) xxxix (1951-2)
in honour of J. Lebreton, 281-88
Cullmann, Christology of the New Testament, pp. 175-77
W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism, pp. 36ff
E. Lohse, Imago Dei bei Paulus, in Libertas Christiana: Festschrift F. Delekat, pp.
124-6
A. E. J. Rawlinson, The NT Doctrine of the Christ, pp. 132f
R. Scroggs, The Last Adam (1966)
D. Somerville, St. Pauls Conception of Christ or the Doctrine of the Second Adam
(Edinburgh, 1897).

Chapter 6: His Choice (v. 6b,c)

Main interpretations:
1. Active sense (an act of robbery or usurpation)
2. Passive sense
a. Res rapta (already possessed, a prize to hold fast)
b. Res rapienda (not yet possessed, a thing to be seized)
c. Mediating view (Jaeger to treat as a piece of good fortune; Hoover
something to be used for his own advantage)

Martin combines res rapta and res rapienda: The is res rapta, for the pre-
existent Christ has His place within the Godhead. He is the Image of the Father. Bound
up with this existing possession is the exercise of cosmic dominion, which the hymn calls
the name and office of Kyrios. This authority constitutes a res rapienda; and the issue
before the pre-incarnate One is whether He will treat His possession of His as a

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vantage-point, ein Vorsprung, from which He will reach out to the exercise of lordship in
His own right and independently of God the Father On the contrary, the hymn declares,
He did not raise Himself up in proud arrogance and independence although He might
have done so but chose by the path of humiliation and obedience (vv. 7 ff.) to come to
His lordship in a way that pleased God (v. 9). (152)

Chapter 7: His Incarnation (v. 7a,b)

Various interpretations of He emptied himself:

1. He exchanged the for a (the Kenotic view)
2. He became poor (Dibelius)
3. He became a member of the slave class (Bornhuser; Maurenbrecher)
4. He became Man (traditional view)
5. He placed Himself under demonic powers (Ksemann, Bornkamm)
6. He took the role of Isaiahs Servant (poured out his life unto death) (Jeremias)
7. He became the righteous sufferer (E. Schweizer)

Martin points out the - contrast: The fact that is found in the text
and it is used only here in the New Testament of Christ is prima facie evidence that
there is an intended contrast with The pre-incarnate Christ refused lordship in
His own right by an act of seizure, but at the end of His career as the humiliated and
obedient He is granted that which might have been His in His pre-
existence. (175) emphasizes obedience to the will of another person, in this
context God Himself; and the obedience of Christ, at length vindicated and
rewarded, is a dominant motif in the entire passage. (176) What is meant by the phrase,
taking the form of a ? It means that He had a lord, and that He had to
subordinate His own will to that of His master. (177)

Does the hymn allude to Isaiahs Servant? If so, why is the term employed, when
the LXX translates ebed with ?
Although the LXX generally translates ebed with (Isa. 42:1; 49:6; 50:10; 52:13),
there are two occasions where is used (Isa. 49:3, 5).
Euler proved by exhaustive examination the interchangeability of and .5
Aquila reads in Isa. 52:13, where the LXX had .
The verb is used in Isa. 53:11 (LXX). (187-89).

Chapter 8: His Abasement (vv. 7c-8)

The reflexive pronoun in the phrase he humbled himself is important because it

emphasizes the fact that Christs action was free and voluntary (199).

5
K. Euler, Die Verkndigung von leidenden Gottesknecht aus Jes 53 in der griechischen Bibel (Stuttgart,
1934).

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(becoming in the likeness of men): This word has two meanings in the NT:
1. Identity or equivalence (e.g., Rom. 6:5: we have been united with him in the
same death that he died)
2. Similarity, resemblance (e.g., Rev. 9:7: in appearance the locusts were like
horses)

Which meaning is being used here? Meaning 1 would yield the statement that Christ
became completely and fully man (i.e., a real incarnation). Meaning 2 would imply that
he only appeared in human form but in reality he was a divine being (i.e., a theophany or
divine epiphany).

Various interpretations:
1. Some take the phrase (interpreting = born) as a reference to Christs
virgin birth
2. Some interpret the phrase as similar to Rom. 8:3, the likeness of sin-dominated
flesh (Johannes Weiss); Paul dare not express the complete humanity of Christ in
view of his doctrine of human nature as in the grip of the demonic power of sin;
in this, Paul grazes the later heresy of Docetism (203)
3. Apocalyptic usage (e.g., one like the son of man, Dan. 7:13; Ezek. 1:26; Enoch
31:2; Rev. 1:13) (Otto Michel); the formula expresses sense of hesitancy
as the seer tries to put into human terms a vision of a supra-historical, other-
worldly reality (205-6)

(the appearance of a man): His outward appearance was such that those who
saw him gained the impression that he was a man.

(he humbled himself): Many see here an allusion to the

humiliation of the Isaianic Ebed Yahweh ( , Isa. 53:8 LXX). But if this is
so, Martin asks, why does the hymn omit any reference to the Servants vicarious sin-
bearing on our behalf? (212)

(obedient unto death): Ksemanns arguments for view that

obedience unto death means that Christ submitted to the demonic powers (218-19):
Those agencies which now confess his lordship are those to which he had been
subjected in his humiliation (v. 10)
Christ passed through the three metaphysical states: divine, human, infernal
The hymn uses as its scaffolding the Gnostic myth of the Redeemer who descends
into the created world, escapes the malevolent powers that control the world, and
in this manner opens up a way for his followers to escape as well

Response to Ksemann (219-23):

There is no proof that those under the earth are demonic, hostile powers; the
entire phrase in v. 10 could simply signify the whole cosmos

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There is no explicit reference to a descent into Hades in v. 8; only obedience

unto death, even death on a cross; this remains true even if even death on a
cross is considered to be a Pauline interpolation
There are too many features which set this hymn apart from the Gnostic myth.
Bornkamm writes: There is no place in the act (of the Gnostic Redeemer who
comes down into the fallen world of men and returns to his heavenly sphere with
his redeemed souls) for obedience in humiliation and bodily suffering death
upon the cross. But for our hymn it is just at this point that the Christ-event finds
fulfillment. Indeed, it is the obedience of Jesus which gives coherence to the
whole. His giving up, in His pre-existence, of His equality with God and His
descent into the human state of slavery take on meaning as also does His
exaltation to be Lord which follows only because they are based on His
obedience unto death.6 (223 n1)

Chapter 9: His Exaltation (v. 9)

The controlling factor that binds together the two sections (vv. 6-8 and 9-11) is the
theme of obedience and its vindication. (230) The obedience of Christ is crowned by
this act of Exaltation in which the Father raised Him from the dead, and elevated Him to
the place of honour. (231) Michaelis sees the obedience of Christ as the all-controlling
theme of the hymn.7

The debate over whether Christ merited the reward. Roman Catholic interpreters
traditionally said Yes. But the idea of Christ receiving his exaltation as a reward was
repugnant to Reformed theologians. Calvin translated with quod facto (which
done). Barth also rejects the concept of reward here.

Martin rejects merit as well, and appeals to the verb (< ). The
obedience of Christ did not force the hand of God, as a doctrine of merit implies. (232)
Exaltation was not a reward but an act of grace. (244) It was the by-product of
Christs humility and service, something unsought-after by the disinterested Lord.
(247) The exaltation of Christ is due to the Fathers good pleasure ( , v.
9). (248)

What is the name that Christ received at his exaltation? Cant be Jesus, since he bore
that name from his circumcision. Other options:
1. Kyrios
2. The office of Lordship
3. The self-revelation of God in Christ
4. Unknown

6
Bornkamm, Zum Verstndnis des Christus-hymnus Phil 2.6-11, Gesammelte Aufstze, II, 182.
7
W. Michaelis, Der Brief des Paulus an die Philipper (Theologischer Handkommentar; Leipzig, 1935).

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What is the force of the prefix - in the verb ? Two views:

1. Comparative force: Christ was exalted to a position which he did not previously
possess
2. Superlative force: God exalted him to the highest station (Beare), without any
suggestion that he was raised to a higher position than he had in his pre-existent
state (cp. the usage of the same verb in Psalm 97:9 [96:9] LXX).

Chapter 10: The Universal Homage (vv. 10-11a)

The phrase can be interpreted as follows:

1. All creatures bow the knee and confess the Lordship of Christ as they call upon
his name.
2. When the name of Jesus is proclaimed every knee should bow. This view suggests
that Jesus was the object of worship in the early church.

Allusion to Isaiah 45:23: What God had announced as a future promise is now, for this
hymn, a reality, with the difference that whereas Isaiah expected all the nations to turn
to Yahweh, the hymn expands the scope to all sentient beings throughout the cosmos.
(256)

Various interpretations of the threefold division of the cosmos:

1. Angels in heaven, men on earth, departed dead in Sheol (Clement of Alexandria,
Theodoret)
2. Angels in heaven, men on earth, demons under the earth (Chrysostom, Lohmeyer)
3. Hostile spirit-forces (i.e., demons) that used to control the inhabitants in heaven,
on earth, and in the underworld but which are now subjected to Christ (E.
Peterson, Cullmann, Ksemann)

In support of view 3, many scholars argue that the verb does not
necessarily mean to confess with faith and can mean to admit, acknowledge,
recognize even by an unwilling foe.

Textual problem: (aorist subjunctive) or (future

indicative)? The witnesses are evenly divided. A related question: Is the universal
homage occurring now in this age, or will it only occur at the parousia? The already/not-
yet pattern of NT eschatology would suggest a both/and answer. Christ is already
victorious over his foes, yet the foes are still in opposition (as evidenced by the
persecution of the church militant), and so we await their final subjugation at the
parousia.

The Christ-hymn enables the Church to see beyond the present in which the Head of the
Church reigns invisibly and powerfully but known only to faith to that full proof of
His reign in the heavenly sphere in which all the powers are veritably subject to Him and
His dominion is manifestly confessed. (270)

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Chapter 11: The Christological Confession (v. 11b-c)

: The Christ-hymn reaches its climax in the utterance of the

whole cosmos: Jesus Christ is Lord. The accent falls on the last word which is placed
first in the Greek phrase [], and thereby given special force. (271)

(to the glory of God the Father). Various views:

1. The phrase is part of the confession itself (Vincent, Meinertz, Prat)
2. Its a Pauline addition:
a. Jeremias it just doesnt fit into his metrical analysis
b. Added in order to safeguard the unity of the Godhead; Jesus is not a
second god; the homage paid to Christ in no way detracts from the
worship of God the Father (Ksemann, Bonnard, Beare)
c. It reiterates the Leitmotiv of the entire hymn that the exalted Lord does not
exercise his authority in any selfish manner but at the Fathers behest
(Martin)

Of whom is God the Father here? Is he is the Father of Jesus, or of believers? Martin
follows Ksemann here and sees it as both. The hymn is concerned with the interrelation
of two worlds, the divine and the human. (278)

The Bousset-Lohmeyer controversy:8

1. Bousset interpreted the Lordship of Christ in cultic terms Christ is here
confessed as Lord of the church.
2. Lohmeyer disagreed with Bousset and acutely saw that Christ is here
proclaimed as Lord of the entire universe. There is no mention of a confessing
church.

Ksemann and Martin side with Lohmeyer. It is not religious worship which is offered
to the regnant Christ, but cosmic acclamation of Him as Lord. It is not the song of the
redeemed, but the cry of the subjugated The formula runs Lord, not our Lord.
(279) It is set in a framework which has little connection with the Churchs worship;
rather the primary application of the lordship is to the cosmic spirit-powers which admit
their subservience to the enthroned Christ. They utter the cry: He is Lord. The Church
overhears this and identifies herself with it, thereby committing herself to His sovereign
rule. She thus confesses that she too belongs to the Regnum Christi (282)

Part III: Philippians 2:5-11 in its first century setting

These verses, cast in lyrical and liturgical form, portray a soteriological drama. They are
not a piece of Christological speculation which answers our question who Christ was, but
the record of a series of events of saving significance ... The drama of verses 6ff. tells

8
See G. Vos, The Kyrios-Christos Controversy, Princeton Theological Review XII (1914) 636ff; XV
(1917) 21-89.

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how it came about that Christ has received a cosmocracy and why He is now installed as
the heavenly Kyrios, with all creation under His control. As befits a drama, the language
is picturesque and set in the form of a story ... The plot is told in spatial terms and by
the use of a kinetic imagery thus we read of a divine being, who is not identified with
God, but is on a par with Him. He is faced with a choice, which He makes. The
consequence of this momentous decision is an epiphany, as He who was above came
down. His appearance is marked by self-humbling and obedience to the farthest point,
to death. The imagery of movement is continued in the thought that God lifted Him up
and bestowed upon Him a kingly name and office, before which angelic powers and the
entire cosmos bend down in submission. The epiphany is thus completed; and the
incarnate One resumes a place in the celestial sphere. In so doing He has joined together
heaven and earth; and brought under His authority those cosmic powers which up to that
point had had control in the realms of creation. In this sense they are reconciled and
brought into unity and harmony with the divine will. For the hymn, this is the soteriology
which is important; and it is Christs present Rule that is of supreme moment. (295-96)

Martins description of the first century background: Hellenistic man lived in fear of the
astral deities, blind fate, astrology, and magic. In this hymn, Christ the Cosmocrator is set
forth as the answer. (306-11; cp. 281)

Appendix 1: The key questions concerning Phil. 2:5-119

Literary questions:
1. Is the pericope pre-Pauline or Pauline?
2. If pre-Pauline, was it originally composed in a Semitic language or in Greek?
3. Did it originate from Palestinian or Hellenistic Christianity?
4. Is the conceptual background Gnostic (Urmensch) or Scriptural (Ebed Yahweh or
Adam)?
5. What is the literary structure of the hymn (division of lines & stanzas)?
6. If pre-Pauline, which lines were added by Paul?
7. What was the original Sitz im Leben of the hymn eucharist, baptism, creed, etc.?

Exegetical questions:
8. What word or words should be supplied to fill in the ellipsis (v. 5)?
9. What does (v. 6) mean?
10. How should (v. 6) be translated?
11. What does (v. 7) mean?
12. Are there allusions (e.g., ) to Isaiahs Ebed Yahweh in the hymn?
13. Why did Paul add (v. 8)?
14. What is the significance of the prefix - in the verb (v. 9)?
15. In view of and (v. 9), was Christs exaltation a reward or a gift?
16. What is that Jesus received (v. 9)?

9
Martin nowhere formally lists these as the key questions, but they are the main interpretive questions he
addresses throughout his volume.

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17. What do - - (v. 10) refer to?

18. Why did Paul add (v. 11)?

Theological questions:
19. Is there an Adam Christology here?
20. Does the hymn teach the pre-existence of Christ?
21. Is the kenotic theory of the incarnation valid?
22. Did Christ receive something (vv. 9-11) that he did not have before (v. 6)?
23. Do we have Christological monotheism here?
24. Is the universal confession of Jesus as Lord past or future? Cultic or cosmic?
25. How does the hymn function in the context of Pauls paraenesis (1:27-2:18)?

Appendix 2: Proposed Poetic Structures for Philippians 2:6-11

Ernst Lohmeyer (1928)

6 stanzas of 3 lines each

I (a)
(b)
(c)
II (a)
(b)
(c)
III (a)
(b)
(c) [ ]
IV (a)
(b)
(c)
V (a)
(b)
(c)
VI (a)
(b)
(c)

Joachim Jeremias (1953)

3 stanzas of 4 lines (2 couplets) each

Pre-existence
I (a)
(b) ,
(c)
(d)

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Incarnation
II (a)
(b)
(c)
(d) [ ]

Exaltation
III (a)
(b)
(c)
[ ]
(d)
[ ]

R. P. Martin (1967)
6 stanzas composed of couplets

A (a)
(b)
B (a)
(b)
C (a)
(b)
D (a)
(b) [ ]
E (a)
(b)
F (a)
[ ]
(b)
[ ]

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