Water Resour Manage (2011) 25:33213342

DOI 10.1007/s11269-011-9858-2

Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water

SupplyA Case Study from Shillong, India

Gajanan Kisan Khadse Moromi D. Kalita

S. N. Pimpalkar Pawan K. Labhasetwar

Received: 25 August 2010 / Accepted: 3 June 2011 /

Published online: 5 July 2011
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract To ascertain the quality of drinking water being supplied and maintained, it
is necessary to conduct water quality surveillance for evolving suitable strategy for fu-
ture planning. In the present investigation, water quality was monitored in treatment
plants, service reservoirs, and at consumer ends in three seasons to assess the baseline
water quality status at Shillong in Meghalaya. There are three water treatment plants
at Shillong namely Umkhen, Mawlai and GSWS with design capacities of 1.5, 3.4 and
34 Million liter per day (MLD) respectively. Each treatment plant is having rapid
sand filtration followed by disinfection. The study reveals that the physico-chemical
parameters of water quality at consumer end meets Indian drinking water quality
standards (BIS 1991) after conventional treatment followed by disinfection, whereas
the bacteriological parameters for raw water sources exceed the permissible limit
indicating the treatment need for drinking purposes. Throughout year the average
feacal coliform contamination at service reservoir and to consumer end were found as
44 to 156 CFU/100 ml which may be attributed to the general management practices
for maintenance of service reservoirs and the possibility of en route contamination.

Keywords Surveillance Water quality monitoring Rapid sand filtration

Coliform Disinfection

1 Introduction

Sustainable water management has become an issue of major concern over the past
decade. It has become increasingly clear that the pressing problem in this field have

G. K. Khadse (B) M. D. Kalita S. N. Pimpalkar P. K. Labhasetwar

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, India
e-mail: [email protected]

G. K. Khadse M. D. Kalita S. N. Pimpalkar P. K. Labhasetwar

CSIR, New Delhi, India
3322 G.K. Khadse et al.

to be tackled from an integrated perspective taking into account environmental,

human and technological factors and in particular their interdependence (Claudia
2007). Water supply is one of the key natural resource bases that are inevitable for
sustainability of human and environment health (Marobh et al. 2007). There is strong
and direct link between peoples health and improvement and the development of
communities (Gleick 2000; WHO 2003). The adverse impacts on public health from
poor water supply have long been recognized in both developing and developed
countries and take the form of outbreaks and contribution to background rates of
diseases (Esrey et al. 1991; Ford 1999; Payment and Hunter 2001). A report by
the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
(JMP) confirms that advances continue to be made towards greater access to safe
drinking-water. Eight hundred eighty-four million people in the world still do not
get their drinking-water from improved sources; almost all of them in developing
regions. At the current rate of progress, the world is expected to exceed the MDG
target of halving the proportion of the population without sustainable access to
safe drinking-water. Even so, 672 million people will still lack access to improved
drinking-water sources in 2015 (WHO and UNICEF 2000).
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality (SDWQ) is the continuous and vigilant
public health assessment and overview of the safety and acceptability of drinking
water supplies (WHO 2004). SDWQ is necessary to avoid risk from chemical and
bacteriological pollutants and to assure consumers that drinking water is safe and
can be consumed without any risk (Leeuwen 2000). SDWQ should identify those
interventions that will result in improvements in water supply and protection of
public health (Lloyd and Bartram 1991; Howard 2002), and those communities where
water supply improvements will deliver the greatest health gain (Lloyd et al. 1991).
Given the link between vulnerability to disease and poverty (Payment and Hunter
2001) this indicates the value of including assessment of poverty within surveillance
programmes (Howard 2002). Water supply access in most developing countries is
complex comparable to those in developed countries Howard and Bartram (2005)
results the change in water quality from treatment plant to the distribution system.
The service provider and the consumers shoulder combined responsibility to see
that needed programs and policies are taken up to achieve objectives and missions
of providing safe and sufficient water to one and all at minimum cost in terms
of optimum utilization of available resources, adequate maintenance of existing
infrastructures, self sustenance, reduction and loss due to leakage and environmental
protections from degradation and pollutions (WSSP 2004). Water distribution
systems play a pivotal role in preserving and providing quality water to the public
(Farooq et al. 2008) as drinking water quality deteriorates during collection and
storage (Andrew et al. 2005) and also at distribution networks (Lehtola et al. 2004;
Karavoltsosa et al. 2008). To be operationally sustainable, any system of environmen-
tal management needs to be based on a truly holistic assessment of all of the relevant
factors influencing it. This is of course a daunting task, demanding as it does detailed
and reliable data, not only from both the physical and social sciences, but also in-
corporating some representation of that part of knowledge which could be described
as non-scientific (Sullivan and Meigh 2007).
India in 1981 launched the decade programme to supply safe drinking water
through 100% coverage of urban and rural areas by piped water supply. To achieve
the goals, conservation of water and preservation of water quality in water supply
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3323

system assume prime significance. The elements of surveillance include water quality
surveillance, study of institutional setup and examination of water for physico-
chemical and bacteriological parameters. This include assessment of availability of
water resources, appropriate treatment, safe storage and equitable safe distribution
of water, the examination of water quality at the beneficiary points periodically
and study of institutional and financial set-up. Systematic periodic monitoring of
microbiological quality of drinking water supplies helps to rapidly identify failures
and initiate actions. Some of these parameters constitute a risk to human health,
others affect the aesthetic quality of the water supplied and others relate to treatment
issues (Ratnayaka et al. 2009). In developing countries about 10% of the illness
associated with domestic water supplies is related to chemical agents and 90% are
due to microbial agents. The transmission of waterborne diseases is direct or indirect
contamination of fecal material of human or animal origin. As compared with the
attention given to the potential for chemical contaminants, which are adverse to
human health in water supplies, little attention has been given to microbial agents
in drinking water as human health hazards (WHO 2004). In the present investigation
the intake water quality of treatment plants, water quality at different treatment
stages and at consumer end was monitored for three different seasons to assess the
drinking water quality status. The paper is aimed to judge the water quality changes
from the source to consumer, which is useful in deciding appropriate remedial
measures for preventing drinking water from contamination and help in safe drinking
water supply to consumers.

2 Study Area

Shillong, the capital of Meghalaya, is situated on East Khasi Hills at an average

altitude of 1510 m and lies between 25 3 and 26 5 North latitude and 8 4 and 85 6
East longitude. The Shillong plateau named after the highest peak of the area i.e.
Shillong peak, is situated slightly on the eastern position of state; where the capital
city of Shillong is situated. Towards the east, the plateau extends across the gorges of
the Umngot river and continues into the highland of Jaintia Hills district. Area of the
city is about 20 km2 . Shillong city has a bracing climate, throughout the year, which
is influenced by the NorthEast winter winds.

2.1 Water Supply in the City and Adequacy

The two main agencies viz. Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) and
Municipal Corporation, Shillong are responsible for organized drinking water supply
in Shillong city using surface water (rivers and streams) and groundwater (springs)
sources respectively. There are three surface water sources viz. Umsohlang stream,
Umkhen river and Umiew river, providing water to Mawlai, Umkhen and GSWS
water treatment plants (WTPs) with design capacities of 1.5, 3.4 and 34 MLD
respectively. There are seven natural springs, viz. Wah Risa, Umjasai, Wah Jalynoh,
Crinoline, Madan Laban, Patta Khana and Wah Dienglieng with different discharge
capacities (Table 1). However, personal and private groundwater sources like dug
well, tube well etc. are also available but not considered for study in water surveil-
3324 G.K. Khadse et al.

Table 1 Capacities of the S.N. Name of the source Capacity (ML)

underground sources of water
Pre monsoon Monsoon
(springs) in Shillong
1 Wah Risa 0.45 0.54
2 Umjasai 0.90 1.13
3 Wah Jalynoh 0.45 0.54
4 Crinoline 0.36 0.50
5 Madan Laban 0.23 0.36
6 Patta Khana 0.11 0.23
7 Wah Dienglieng 0.23 0.29
Total 2.73 3.60

lance as they are not used for organized drinking water supply. The water distribution
system was laid as early as in the year 1930 in old city. In past the system was extended
with additional pipeline added to the original system. The total water supply in the
city is 43.2 MLD, out of which 40.37 MLD supply is through streams and 2.87 MLD is
through springs. The duration of supply is only 4 to 6 hours per day. The water supply
to the city is at 162 lpcd. There are small and large reservoirs in the distribution area
made of RCC or MS with a total water holding capacity of about 4.31 ML, located at
different areas in the city.
The streams are perennial and supposed to fulfill the future demand of water
with normal rainfall, assuming that raw water can be made available and transported
with limited loss to the WTPs. The sustainability of surface water sources are not
assured due to changing development scenario. There is a pressing need to increase
the capacity of many water distribution pipelines to facilitate transport of water to
various water deficient areas.

2.2 Water Treatment

Mawlai WTP, situated in Mawlai area, has a design and working capacities of
3.4 and 2.0 MLD respectively. Treated water is stored in two service reservoirs
with the capacities of 0.55 and 0.025 ML located at Mawlai Nonglum and Mawlai
Motsyiar respectively. The reservoir water is distributed to different areas having
total population of 30,964 as against design capacity for 33,360 people. Umkhen WTP

Table 2 Salient features of the treatment plants in Shillong

S.N. Particular Treatment plant features
1 Location Mawphlang Mawlai Lumdemthring
2 Raw water source Umiew river Umsohlang stream Umkhen stream
3 Capacity (MLD)
Design 34.0 3.4 1.0
Present 34.0 2.0 1.5
4 Population served 223,366 30,964 14,850
5 Type of treatment Conventional
Pre-treatment Alum dosing
Sedimentation Yes
Filtration Rapid sand filter
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3325

Table 3 Zonewise feeding of water to various areas, Shillong

S.N. Description Areas covered Length of distribution
system (m)
1 Zone I Legislative assembly area, 8,593.00
Police bazar, Thana road, Jail
road, Oakland etc.
2 Zone II Lachumiere, Meghalaya secretariat etc. 24,322.00
3 Zone III Laitumkhrah 11,647.00
4 Zone IV Malki 15,767.00
5 Zone V Nongthymmai 25,991.00
6 Zone VI Pasteur institute, Mawroh Pynthorumkhrah 16,571.00
7 Zone VII Mawlai 33,361.00
8 Zone VIII Bishnupur, Kenchs Trace Laban 25,447.00
9 Zone IX Jaiaw, Mawkhar, Mawphrem Barapathar 18,267.12

Table 4 Zonal reservoirs fed from GSWS scheme

S.N. Areas covered Zonal reservoir Capacity of reservoir
(in thousand litres)
1 4.5 Mile Up. Shillong PHE Reservoir 2,724
2 Bara Bazar PHE Reservoir 1,362
3 Bara Bazar Municipal Reservoir 726
4 Bara Bazar Municipal Reservoir 681
5 Mawphrem PHE Reservoir 341
6 Mawphrem Municipal Reservoir 272
7 Barapathar PHE Reservoir 341
8 Lachumiere PHE Reservoir 204
9 Lachumiere Municipal Reservoir 976
10 Upland road Municipal Reservoir 272
11 Pasteur Institue PHE Reservoir 341
12 Assembly complex PHE Reservoir 1,160
13 Mawlai Mawroh PHE Reservoir 681
14 Mawlai Mawroh Investigation Divn. Reservoir 23
15 Mawlai Mawdatbaki Mawlai Zonal Reservoir 55
16 Mawlai Mawdatbaki 21
17 Mawlai Kynton Massar 91
18 Mawlai Phudmawri 113
19 Mawlai Motsyiar 91
20 Mawlai Nonglum 68
21 Mawlai Nonglum 91
22 Mawlai Iewrynghep 45
23 Mawlai Nonglum 91
24 Mawlai Nonglum Investigation Divn. Reservoir 45
25 Mawlai Nonglum Investigation Divn. Reservoir 567
26 Mawlai Iewrynghep Investigation Divn. Reservoir 23
27 St. Edmunds PHE Reservoir 227
28 Nongrimmaw PHE Reservoir 91
Total capacity11.723 ML
3326 G.K. Khadse et al.

Fig. 1 Feeder main for GSWS scheme

is located at Lumdemthring and treats water derived from Umkhen stream. Though
this treatment plant is designed for 1.0 MLD capacity, because of increasing demand
for drinking water due to increase in population, it was working with overloaded
capacity of 1.5 MLD, and supplies water to 14,850 people as against the design
capacity for 12,800 people. Greater Shillong Water Supply (GSWS) scheme located

Fig. 2 Pumping system and treatment plant (GSWS)

Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3327

Fig. 3 Pumping system and treatment plant (MTP)

at Mawphlang village, 22 km from Shillong. The plant works at its full capacity of 34
MLD, and serves a population of 223,366. Alum is added at 50 mg/L during monsoon
and nominal quantity depending on the turbidity of water in other season. In addition
to this, bleaching powder solution is applied as post chlorination for disinfection.
Salient features of the existing WTPs in Shillong are given in Table 2. Water from
natural springs is supplied without any treatment, by gravity flow.

2.3 Water Distribution System and Leak Detection

Water is supplied through nine distribution zones in the city covering 95% of the
population. The details of nine distribution zones with area covered and length of
distribution system are given in Table 3. The details of operational service reservoirs
with their location and capacities are given in Table 4. Through municipal sources
water is daily supplied for 4 to 6 h during 6:308:30 a.m. and 4:006:00 p.m. The water
distribution system is shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The concerned officials carry out
leak detection and wastage prevention in the city as and when required.

Fig. 4 Pumping system and treatment plant (UTP)

3328 G.K. Khadse et al.

Fig. 5 Variation in turbility

for Mawphlang water
treatment plant

3 Materials and Methods

Raw water and treated water samples of the existing WTPs at Shillong were collected
and analyzed for physico-chemical parameters and bacteriological quality as per
Standard Methods (APHA, AWWA, WPCF 2001). The raw water was collected
from the inlet point at the plant. The settled water was collected from the over
flow of the clariflocculator/settling tank of the treatment plants and examined for
turbidity and sulphate. The combined filtered water was collected and analyzed
for turbidity, sulphate and bacteriological quality (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8). Final treated
water after chlorination was collected from sumps of the treatment plant. The pH,
conductivity and DO were analyzed at site.
Coliform bacteria are microorganisms of fecal origin. By testing thermotolerent
coliform, one can determine if the water has probably been exposed to fecal conta-

1600 800
Total Coliforms (TC),

Faecal Coliforms (FC),

1400 700
1200 600
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml

1000 500
800 400
600 300
400 200
200 100
0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Settled Water FC Filtered Water TC Filtered Water FC Settled Water

Fig. 6 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at water treatment plant in
winter
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3329

120 20

100

Faecal Coliforms (FC),

16
Total Coliforms (TC),
CFU/100ml 80

CFU/100ml
12
60
8
40
4
20

0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Filtered Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 7 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Mawphlang water treatment
plant in summer

mination. It is important to know this because many disease causing organisms are
transferred from human and animal feces to water, from where they can be ingested
by people and infect them. To assess the en-route bacteriological contamination in
distribution network and at consumer ends, representative samples were collected
from fifteen service reservoirs and distribution network i.e. from consumer ends
for seven consecutive days representing entire city in clean, sterile containers.
The container was fully protected against contamination before, during and after
sampling. Membrane filtration technique was used for bacteriological water analysis.
In this method measured volume of water is filtered through a membrane (pore size
of 0.45 or 0.2 m) which retains the bacteria on its surface; the membrane is then
incubated on suitable selective medium (for coliform bacteria), allowing the bacteria
to multiply and form colonies. The number of colonies counted is directly related to
the bacteriological content of the water sample being analyzed.

240 70

200 60
Faecal Coliforms (FC),
Total Coliforms (TC),

50
160
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml

40
120
30
80
20
40 10
0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Filtered Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 8 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Mawphlang water treatment
in monsoon
Table 5 Water quality of treatment plants at Shillong
3330

S. N. Seasons Winter Summer

Treatment plants MTP UTP GSWS MTP UTP GSWS
Parameters Raw Sump Raw Sump Raw Sump Raw Sump Raw Sump Raw Sump
1 pH 6.46.9 6.27.0 6.16.2 5.65.9 7.07.6 7.07.1 6.26.4 6.06.4 5.75.9 5.65.9 6.57.0 6.36.8
2 Temp ( C) 58 57 48 48 36 68 1314 1314 1314 1314 1215 1214
3 Turb (NTU) 0.10.5 0.10.3 0.1 0.21.1 0.30.6 0.20.6 1.22.9 0.20.3 0.80.6 0.20.3 0.80.9 0.10.2
4 Cond (mS/cm) 2536 3362 3544 4574 2122 3143 3053 3366 5677 6383 2426 80119
5 TDS (mg/L) 1523 2037 2126 2745 13 1926 1831 2040 3446 3850 1416 4871
6 T.Alk (mg/L) 812 812 812 1216 8 8 1620 3236 2432 2432 1624 2832
7 T.Hard (mg/L) 1628 1224 1220 2032 1216 2428 1620 2428 1624 2428 1620 3240
8 Ca (mg/L) 56 34 36 58 35 56 35 56 35 68 35 813
9 Mg (mg/L) 13 14 12 13 12 24 12 34 23 2 12 23
10 Cl (mg/L) 68 8 810 1214 68 812 1012 1014 1014 1016 1218 1014
11 SO4 (mg/L) 12 2329 13 58 2 615 915 813 710 1115 810 1217
12 NO3 (mg/L) 5 12 4 2 1 1 613 59 78 58 34 34
13 PO4 (mg/L) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
14 F (mg/L) 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.070.08 0.050.06 0.040.06 0.040.06 0.040.06 0.060.07 0.080.09 0.050.07
15 Na (mg/L) 34 4 68 67 34 3 5 5 45 5 5 5
16 K (mg/L) 1 1 2 13 1 1 12 2 2 2 12 118
17 DO (mg/L) 7.59.9 8.29.7 9.69.9 7.27.5 7.67.8 8.28.6
18 Res.Cl (mg/L) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.55.0 0.20.8 1
19 TC (CFU/100 ml) 15008000 ND 7006600 ND 230011600 ND 260018300 ND 1000048600 ND 230059000 ND
20 FC (CFU/100 ml) 182500 ND 2403000 ND 5005200 ND 60011200 ND 120019600 ND 9405900 ND
G.K. Khadse et al.
Table 5 (continued)
S. N. Seasons Post-Monsoon BIS:10500:1991
Treatment plants MTP UTP GSWS Desirable limit Permissible limit
Parameters Raw Sump Raw Sump Raw Sump
1 pH 6.67.0 6.77.0 6.66.9 6.56.8 7.57.9 7.47.6 6.58.5 No relaxation
2 Temp ( C) 1418 1517 1618 1418 1215 1216
3 Turb (NTU) 1.01.2 0.20.4 0.91.3 0.20.4 1.31.7 0.20.4 5 10
4 Cond (mS/cm) 4245 4664 2024 3238 1822 5075
5 TDS (mg/L) 2527 2838 1215 1923 1113 3045 500 2000
6 T.Alk (mg/L) 1624 2028 1220 1824 2026 2032 200 600
7 T.Hard (mg/L) 2832 2844 1624 2436 2024 2454 300 600
8 Ca (mg/L) 68 611 35 48 46 210 75 200
9 Mg (mg/L) 24 25 14 24 23 27 30 100
10 Cl (mg/L) 2026 1216 1014 1214 1014 2024 250 1000
11 SO4 (mg/L) 46 56 49 59 04 1011 200 400
12 NO3 (mg/L) 1 1 12 12 1 1 45 100
13 PO4 (mg/L) ND ND ND ND ND ND
14 F (mg/L) 0.070.8 0.060.09 0.080.8 0.080.1 0.180.26 0.140.18 1.0 1.5
15 Na (mg/L) 35 56 25 23 25 24
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply

16 K (mg/L) 1 1 1 1 1 1
17 DO (mg/L) 8.38.8 7.98.6 8.48.9
18 Res.Cl (mg/L) 0.52.0 0.20.5 1.52.0 0.2
19 TC (CFU/100 ml) 4802960 ND 4801020 ND 220820 ND Nil Nil
20 FC (CFU/100 ml) 96-925 ND 110910 ND 35180 ND Nil Nil
MTP Mawlai Treatment Plant, UTP Umkhem Treatment Plant, GSWS Greater Shillong Water Supply Scheme, not done, ND not detected
3331
Table 6 Water quality at consumer ends
3332

S. N. Location Summer Post- monsoon Winter

Res.Cl (mg/L) TC FC Res.Cl (mg/L) TC FC Res.Cl (mg/L) TC FC
(CFU/100 ml) (CFU/100 ml) (CFU/100 ml)
1 PHE, Mawphrem Mpl. ND 241160 10120 ND1 ND64 ND10 ND 300430 86120
(Mixed water)
2 Barapathar Overhead Tank ND 20800 8180 ND0.6 ND40 ND ND ND ND
(PHE only)
3 Twin Reservoir, Bada Bazar ND 52356 230 ND0.8 ND192 ND92 ND 820460 100200
(PHE)
4 PHE + Mpl. Mixed water ND 80840 8240 0.10.5 ND ND ND 400560 4074
(Main Reservoir) Bada Bazar
5 Assembly Hall (Pure PHE) ND 4060 1222 ND1 ND18 ND6 ND 7698 26
6 4.5 Miles from Mawphlang ND 92812 24216 0.51.0 ND ND ND 2048 610
7 Umkhem Reservoir (RCC) ND 16124 24 ND1.0 ND16 ND ND 2636 48
Nongrim Hills
8 Wahrisa Spring Water ND 136816 3092 ND 48248 1642 ND 248404 98120
Reservoir
9 Wahjalynoh Source, Near Raid ND 16560 4120 ND 40204 1244 ND 150190 4056
Labon College
10 Umjasai Source Badabazar ND 76264 2292 ND 32152 836 ND 160200 5688
Mpl. Reservoir
11 Nongminsen Reservoir ND 40360 4104 ND 64144 3690 ND 98110 2038
BSF gate
12 Motsyior Reservoir Supply ND 24176 4304 ND0.5 ND88 ND28 ND ND ND
from Mawlai T.P.
13 Mr. K. Khonglah Lum ND 321676 12880 ND0.5 ND124 ND64 ND 20003880 10001600
"Sonphoh G.I. Tank
14 Dawalama (Source: Barapathar ) ND 844680 20820 ND0.2 ND84 ND118 ND ND ND
Grave yard GI Tank
15 Smt. Vida C. War (PHE Supply) ND 802688 161200 ND0.2 ND332 ND118 ND 8401010 200360
Mawphrem Main Road-1
G.K. Khadse et al.
Table 6 (continued)
S. N. Location Summer Post- monsoon Winter
Res.Cl (mg/L) TC FC Res.Cl (mg/L) TC FC Res.Cl (mg/L) TC FC
(CFU/100 ml) (CFU/100 ml) (CFU/100 ml)
16 Smt.Vida C. War (Mixed) ND 1441520 38800 ND0.2 ND144 ND64 ND 688740 100200
Mawphrem Main Road
17 Mr. B.Chakraborthi (PHE) ND 92812 24216 ND0.2 ND52 ND10 ND 120188 816
Headman, Oakland
18 Smt. Syiemniang (GSWS Water) ND 200440 28162 ND0.5 ND24 ND8 ND 250420 100168
Holy Ground Road, Laitmukhara
19 Umkhem Reservoir (RCC) ND 801100 4200 ND0.5 ND128 ND44 ND 180260 2032
Nongrim Hills
20 PDENG Shong, Malki, ND 6004500 214608 ND0.5 ND48 ND16 ND 500620 160210
Near Smt. Umkhems Shop
21 Sh. Jeri Warjri, Madan Laban ND 1801900 10360 ND 152336 836 ND 248320 100120
22 Umjasai source, ND 76264 2292 ND 96224 36128 ND 260302 100148
Umsahsum park public tap
23 Nongminsen area ND 801088 26430 ND 172336 28122 ND 240302 3858
24 Mawalai Phudmauri ND 88600 30102 ND 48192 28102 ND 1636 ND
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply

BIS limits for Res. Cl, TC, and FC are given in Table 5
3333
3334 G.K. Khadse et al.

Fig. 9 Variation in turbidity

for Mawlai treatment plant

4 Results and Discussion

The results of physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses are depicted in Tables 5

and 6 for winter, summer and monsoon seasons. Water quality of WTPs is summa-
rized below:

4.1 Mawlai WTP

The plant was working with the capacity of 2.0 MLD. Bleaching powder was used for
disinfection of filtered water. Residual chlorine was recorded in the range of 0.2 to
2.0 mg/L in the treated water. The raw water turbidity during winter was found in the
range of 0.1 to 0.5 NTU while in sump water it was 0.1 to 0.3 NTU. During summer
the raw water turbidity was found in the range of 1.2 to 2.9 NTU, whereas in sump
water it was 0.2 to 0.3 NTU. During post-monsoon the raw water turbidity was found
in the range of 1.0 to 1.2 NTU and in sump water it was 0.2 to 0.4 NTU (Fig. 9). The
finished water quality meets BIS (1991) standard for potability.

1400 250
Total Coliforms (TC),

1200
Faecal Coliforms (FC),

200
1000
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml

800 150

600 100
400
50
200
0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Settled Water TC Filtered Water FC Settled Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 10 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages Mawlai treatment plant in
winter
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3335

500 250

Faecal Coliforms(FC),
Total Coliforms(TC),
400 200
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml
300 150

200 100

100 50

0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Filtered Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 11 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Mawlai treatment plant in
summer

Filtered water is disinfected with chlorination with residual chlorine of 0.2 to

2.0 mg/L in sump water. Residual chlorine was not found in the service reservoir
in winter and summer seasons during study period. While residual chlorine was
observed in some service reservoirs in monsoon. During winter the TC and FC
counts ranged from 400 to 1,400 CFU/100 ml and 50 to 240 CFU/100 ml in settled
water while in filtered water these counts were 150 to 250 CFU/100 ml and 20 to
167 CFU/100 ml respectively (Fig. 10). During summer the TC and FC counts were
in the range of 40 to 432 CFU/100 ml and 4 to 240 CFU/100 ml respectively in filtered
water (Fig. 11) while during monsoon these counts were 100 to 640 CFU/100 ml and
20 to 184 CFU/100 ml (Fig. 12) respectively and may be attributed insufficient pre-
chlorination.

4.2 Umkhen WTP

The designed capacity of the plant is 1.5 MLD. Alum dosing is done for coagulation
followed by flash mixing, flocculation, settling, filtration and chlorination. Disinfec-
tion of filtered water is achieved using bleaching powder. Residual chlorine was

700 200
600
Faecal Coliforms (FC),
Total Coliforms (TC),

160
500
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml

400 120

300 80
200
40
100
0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Filtered Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 12 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Mawlai treatment plant in
monsoon
3336 G.K. Khadse et al.

Fig. 13 Variation in turbidity

for Umkhem treatment plant

found in the range of 0.2 to 0.8 mg/L in the finished water. The raw water turbidity
recorded during winter season was 0.1 NTU, while in sump water it was 0.2 to 1.1
NTU. During summer the raw water turbidity was found in the range of 0.8 to 1.6
NTU, whereas in sump water it was 0.2 to 0.3 NTU. During post-monsoon the raw
water turbidity was 0.9 to 1.3 NTU, whereas in sump water it was 0.2 to 0.4 NTU
(Fig. 13). The finished water quality meets BIS:10500-1991 standard for potability.
Filtered water was disinfected with chlorination with residual chlorine of 0.2 to
0.5 mg/L in sump water. Residual chlorine was not observed in the service reservoir
samples during study period. During winter the TC and FC counts ranged from 270
to 2200 CFU/100 ml and 20 to 1020 CFU/100 ml in settled water while in filtered
water these counts were 25 to 360 CFU/100 ml and 1 to 120 CFU/100 ml respectively
(Fig. 14). During summer the TC and FC counts ranged from 52 to 1400 CFU/100 ml
and 10 to 480 CFU/100 ml respectively in filtered water (Fig. 15). During monsoon
the TC and FC counts were in the range of 60 to 200 CFU/100 ml and 10 to
60 CFU/100 ml respectively in filtered water (Fig. 16).

2500 1200

1000
FaecalColiforms(FC),
Total Coliforms (TC),

2000 TC Settled Water TC Filtered Water

FC Settled Water FC Filtered Water 800
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml

1500
600
1000
400
500 200

0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days

Fig. 14 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Umkhem treatment plant
in winter
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3337

1400 500

Total Coliforms (TC),

1200

Faecal Coliforms (FC),

400
1000
CFU/100ml

CFU/100ml
300
800

600 200
400
100
200

0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days
TC Filtered Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 15 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Umkhem treatment plant
in summer

4.3 GSWS WTP

No significant change was observed in raw water quality on day to day basis. Dis-
infection of filtered water was achieved using bleaching powder. Residual chlorine
was recorded in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 mg/L in the finished water. Alum dosing is
done for coagulation followed by flash mixing, flocculation, settling, filtration and
chlorination. The raw water turbidity during winter was found in the range of 0.3 to
0.6 NTU while in sump water it was 0.2 to 0.6 NTU. During summer the raw water
turbidity was in the range of 0.8 to 0.9 NTU while in sump water it was 0.1 to 0.2
NTU. During post-monsoon the raw water turbidity was 1.3 to 1.7 NTU, whereas
in sump water it was 0.2 to 0.4 NTU (Fig. 5). The treated water quality meets BIS:
10500-1991 standards for potability.
Filtered water was disinfected with chlorination with residual chlorine range of 1
to 2 mg/L in sump water. Residual chlorine was not found in the service reservoir
during study period, which may be due to insufficient contact time or chlorine

1400 500

1200
400
Faecal Coliforms(FC),
Total Coliforms (TC),

1000
CFU/100ml
CFU/100ml

800 300

600 200
400
100
200

0 0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th
Days

TC Filtered Water FC Filtered Water

Fig. 16 Reduction of bacterial contamination during treatment stages at Umkhem treatment plant
in monsoon
3338 G.K. Khadse et al.

Fig. 17 Bacteriological water quality in whole year

evaporation during resident period. Only during monsoon residual chlorine was
found in eight out of 12 service reservoirs. During winter the total coliform (TC)
and faecal coliform (FC) counts were found in the range of 100 to 1500 CFU/100 ml
and 40 to 70 CFU/100 ml respectively in settled water, while in filtered water this
count was 16 to 500 CFU/100 ml and 4 to 48 CFU/100 ml respectively (Fig. 6).
During summer the TC and FC counts in filtered water were 20 to 104 CFU/100 ml
and 4 to 16 CFU/100 ml respectively (Fig. 7), which might be due to insufficient
pre-chlorination. During monsoon the respective TC and FC counts were 6 to
280 CFU/100 ml and 8 to 70 CFU/100 ml in filtered water (Fig. 8), which can be
attributed to contamination of raw water source with run-off water from catchment.

4.4 Water Quality at Distribution System

Customers rightly expect that the water they drink is safe and wholesome (Bates
2000). Chlorine residuals of drinking water have long been recognized as an excellent
indicator for studying water quality in the distribution network (Lienyao et al. 2004;
Hashmi et al. 2009). To assess the water quality at consumer end with respect to
residual chlorine and bacterial quality and enroute contamination in the distribution
network thirteen representative sampling points were selected. Bacteriological qual-

Fig. 18 Bacteriological water quality in winter season

Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3339

Fig. 19 Bacteriological water quality in summer season

ity and residual chlorine of water samples at the distribution system were examined.
The water quality in terms of bacterial contamination varies from place to place and
also during different seasons.
During winter thermotolerent TC counts were ranged between Nil to
3880 CFU/100 ml and thermotolerent FC counts were ranged between ND to
1600 CFU/100 ml at consumer end. During summer the thermotolerent TC counts
were observed in the range of 16 to 4680 CFU/100 ml and thermotolerent FC counts
were ranged between 2 to 1200 CFU/100 ml at consumer end sampling location.
During post-monsoon the thermotolerent TC and FC counts ranges between ND to
336 CFU/100 ml and ND to 128 CFU/100 ml respectively (Table 6). It was observed
that the bacterial counts increased during post-monsoon. There was variation in
bacterial counts among the different service reservoirs and consumer ends, which
may be attributed to the general management practices for maintenance of service
reservoirs and the possibility of en route contamination.
Throughout year the average FC contamination at service reservoir and to
consumer end were found as 44 to 156 CFU/100 ml. The outcome of FCs from
service reservoir, during treatment stages of the WTPs, reservoirs and finally from
the consumer end proves that bacteriological water quality deteriorates during
supply of water from service reservoir to consumer end (Fig. 17). This trend was

Fig. 20 Bacteriological water quality in monsoon season

3340 G.K. Khadse et al.

observed during all the three seasons (Figs. 18, 19, and 20). This may be attributed
to the improper chlorination and monitoring at distribution system and at consumer
ends. The presence of coliform in these samples may be attributed to inadequate
chlorination, insufficient contact time and poor maintenance of service reservoirs
(NEERI 2005). The maintenance of residual chlorine is needed at all points in the
distribution system supplied with chlorine as disinfectant (Kitazawa 2006).

5 Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) Survey

The general survey carried out at Shillong city revealed that 4555% respondents
considered the state of water quality supplied in Shillong as good. This might be
due to regular check by PHED on treated water of WTPs for residual chlorine
and microbial contamination. Awareness about the drinking water quality standards
is almost lowest among general public (15%) followed by health agencies (50%)
and water works personnel (55%). The respondents among general public who
indicated the use of private water supply through tube wells to fulfill their own water
demand were 50%. About 85% of the respondents among water works personnel
have indicated 99% supply efficiency and effective delivery of finished water. A
total of 25% of the respondents among general public do not have knowledge
about individuals/institutions with water supply agency services. However, awareness
is highest (75%) among the respondents from educated class. About 63% of the
respondents among water works personnel indicated the immediate measure for
the handling of the reported complaints against water quality. About 78% of the
respondents among general public are aware of cleaning practices and health aspects
related to sanitary conditions. About 65% respondents among general public are
aware of the preventive measures due to water borne diseases. The awareness is
higher in literate/educated people than in illiterate people.

6 Conclusion

From the present study, it is concluded that water supplied through the distrib-
ution network meets BIS drinking water quality standards for physico-chemical
and bacterial quality. No significant change in physico-chemical parameters of raw
water quality was observed on day-to-day basis. Observed bacterial contamination
at consumer end demands the proper maintenance of the distribution network,
awareness about the hygienic and sanitary conditions around the public taps and
proper storage of water, which will definitely help in maintaining water quality within
the limits of potable water standards. The awareness about drinking water quality is
highest among water works personnel followed by educated people and least among
illiterate people. Thus, the surveillance of water supply and in time measures to
control the contamination along with peoples participation will lead to safety and
better health of the community. This is an essential input towards the efficient water
management with following recommendations.
The places where the feacal contamination was present at the consumer end, the
necessary precautionary measures need to be undertaken to avoid any adverse
impact on health.
Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality for Safe Water Supply 3341

The proper maintenance of the distribution network, awareness about the

hygienic and sanitary conditions around the public taps and proper storage of
water will definitely help in maintaining water quality within the limits of potable
water standards.
Surveillance of water supply and in time measures to control the contamination
along with peoples participation will lead to safety and better health of the
community.

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