Papeles del Psiclogo, 2006. Vol. 27(1), pp.

3-8 Special Section

http://www.cop.es/papeles

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: A NEW WAY OF

UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY

Beatriz Vera Poseck

Mention of the concept of positive psychology often leads to its interpretation as some new trend of spiritual philosophy, or the
latest miraculous self-help method to add to the many that have already flooded the market. However, it only requires the
slightest interest in the concept to understand how far removed these assumptions are from reality. Positive psychology is noth-
ing less than a branch of psychology which, with the same scientific rigour as the rest of the discipline, focuses on fields of re-
search and interest quite different from those traditionally studied: positive human qualities and characteristics.
Key words: Positive emotions, optimism, humour, resilience.

A menudo, cuando se hace referencia al trmino de psicologa positiva se tiende a interpretar como alguna nueva corriente de fi-
losofa espiritual o un nuevo mtodo milagroso de autoayuda de los tantos que saturan el mercado. Sin embargo, poco hace falta
interesarse en el concepto para comprender cun lejanas se encuentran estas suposiciones de la realidad. La psicologa positiva,
no es sino una rama de la psicologa, que, con la misma rigurosidad cientfica que sta, focaliza su atencin en un campo de in-
vestigacin e inters distinto al adoptado tradicionalmente: las cualidades y caractersticas positivas humanas.
Palabras clave: Emociones positivos, optimismo, humor, adaptabilidad.

f we ask a range of different people of all types the presence of negative emotions, but also the absence
I and from all walks of life about the objective of
psychology and the work of those involved in it,
of positive emotions, and it is essential to take this into
account, for example, in the development of treatments.
we will surely find a predominant response: to treat and In this context, techniques and therapies conceived for
cure mental disorders. fighting depression have traditionally focused on the
Undoubtedly, psychology has for many years focused elimination of negative emotions such as apathy, sadness
exclusively on the pathology and weakness of human be- or helplessness. However, recent research has begun to
ings, indeed becoming identified and even almost con- develop intervention strategies based on the stimulation
fused with psychopathology and psychotherapy. This in the depressed person of positive emotions such as joy,
phenomenon has given rise to a theoretical framework of excited anticipation, hope, and so on.
a pathogenic nature, which has seriously biased the A large part of research and theoretical work in psy-
study of the human mind. The exclusive focus on the neg- chology in recent years has focused on seeking how to
ative that has dominated psychology for so long has led prevent the development of disorders in risk subjects.
to the assumption of a model of human existence that
However, it cannot be denied that, still today, psychology
overlooks or even denies the positive characteristics of
has shown itself unable to provide a solution to this ques-
the human being (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000),
tion. The pathogenic model adopted over many years
and which has contributed to the adoption of a pes-
has proved incapable of even approaching the preven-
simistic view of human nature (Gilham & Seligman,
tion of mental disorders. The key to this failure might per-
1999). Thus, characteristics such as joy, optimism, cre-
haps be found in the fact that prevention has always
ativity, humour, excited anticipation, and so on have
been understood in terms of negative aspects, and that
been ignored or only superficially dealt with.
The limitations of this focus on the negative have begun the focus has been placed on avoiding or eliminating
to attract attention in recent years and in relation to dif- negative emotions.
ferent disorders. Thus, for example, depressive disorders Indeed, the greatest advances in prevention have de-
appear to be insufficiently explained from a model based rived from perspectives based on the systematic construc-
exclusively on negative emotions. Depression is not only tion of competencies (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
2000). In this regard, research has shown the existence
Correspondence: Beatriz Vera Poseck of human strengths that act as cushions against mental
E-mail: [email protected] disorders, and there seems to be sufficient empirical evi-
www.psicologia-positiva.com dence to state that certain positive characteristics and hu-

3
 Special Section A NEW WAY OF UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY

man strengths, such as optimism, hope, perseverance or mense quantity of doubtful and quite unreliable self-help
courage, among others, act as barriers against such dis- movements (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
orders. In this quest for the best in the human being, for the
The reductionist perspective has converted psychology good things that allow our potential to flourish, positive
into a science of victimology (Seligman & Csikszentmi- psychology does not trust in pipedreams, utopias, delu-
halyi, 2000). Historically, psychology has conceived the sions, faith or self-deception, bur rather adopts the
human being as a passive subject, who reacts to environ- method of scientific psychology, broadening the tradi-
mental stimuli. The focus of applied psychology has been tional field of activity and distancing itself from the ques-
the cure of suffering, and there has been an explosion in tionable methods of self-help and spiritual philosophies
research on mental disorders and the negative effects of so widespread today.
stressors. Professionals have the task of treating patients According to Martin Seligman, positive psychology
mental disorders within a pathogenic framework in emerged as an attempt to overcome the resistant barrier
which the repair of damage is crucial. However, psychol- of a 65% success rate that none of the psychotherapies
ogy is not only a branch of medicine dealing with mental have been capable of surpassing to date. The techniques
illness-health; it is much more than that. In recent years, developed in research in positive psychology support
voices have been raised which, taking up once more the and complement those already in existence. Thanks to
ideas of humanist psychology about the need to study the theoretical research in this area, the spectrum of inter-
positive side of human existence, have offered solid vention is considerably broadened and enriched. In this
empirical and scientific support to this neglected part of context, the involvement of variables such as optimism,
psychology. humour or positive emotions in physical states of health
The term positive psychology was developed by Mar- emerges as one of the key points of research in positive
tin Seligman, a researcher who, having devoted a large psychology. The hope for the coming years is a large
part of his career to mental disorders and the develop- quantity of empirical results that will allow a new theory
ment of concepts such as learned helplessness, made a of psychology to take shape.
U-turn in his work, developing and promoting a more Positive psychology is not a philosophical or spiritual
positive conception of the human species. movement, nor does it set out to promote spiritual or hu-
The object of positive psychology is to improve quality man growth through methods of questionable founda-
of life and prevent the appearance of mental disorders tion. It is not a form of self-help, nor a magic method for
and pathologies. The current conception of psychology, achieving happiness. Nor does it pretend to be a cloak
centred around the pathological, focuses on correcting for wrapping beliefs and dogmas of faith, or indeed a
defects and repairing what was broken. In contrast, posi- path for anyone to follow. Positive psychology should in
tive psychology insists on the construction of competen- no case be confused with dogmatic movements whose
cies and on prevention. aim is to attract devotees or followers, nor must it ever be
For Seligman, the concept of positive psychology is not considered outside of a rigorous professional context.
new to the discipline, for prior to the Second World War Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that
the main objectives of psychology were three: curing seeks to understand, through scientific research, the
mental disorders, making peoples lives more productive processes underlying the positive qualities and emotions
and fuller, and identifying and developing talent and in- of the human being, for so long ignored by psychology.
telligence. However, after the war, different events and The object of this interest is none other than to con-
circumstances led psychology to forget two of these ob- tribute new knowledge about the human psyche, not only
jectives and focus exclusively on mental disorders and to help solve the mental health problems that affect indi-
human suffering (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). viduals, but also with a view to improving quality of life
Likewise, we can find clear positive tendencies in the and well-being, always in accordance with the rigorous
humanist current of psychology, which flourished in the scientific methodology that must characterize all health
1960s and was represented by such recognized authors sciences.
as Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow or Erich Fromm. Un- Positive psychology represents a new perspective from
fortunately, humanist psychology has not enjoyed a solid which to understand psychology and mental health that
empirical basis, and has indeed given rise to an im- serves as a complement and support for that which al-

4
BEATRIZ VERA POSECK Special Section

ready exists. unique and characteristic facial expressions. Moreover,

at a neurological level, negative emotions trigger differ-
CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE ent responses in the autonomic nervous system, while
Psychology must overcome concepts focused on patholo- positive emotions do not provoke such differentiated re-
gy and create a positive terminology to complement the sponses.
negative expressions so abundant today in traditional Another explanation for the imbalance in scientific in-
psychology. terest between negative and positive emotions resides in
It must also create new assessment instruments, aimed the way their study is approached. Thus, on considering
at identifying the strengths of the individual, so as to positive emotions, researchers have always done so from
guide prevention and treatment and promote personal the theoretical framework used for the study of negative
development. emotions. From this perspective, the emotions are, by de-
Furthermore, it must design intervention programmes finition, associated with action impulses. Negative emo-
and techniques aimed at developing the precious re- tions have obvious adaptive value, representing efficient
sources that people, groups and communities undoubted- solutions to the problems mankind has faced since its ori-
ly possess. The positive effects of these developments will gins. However, the adaptive value of positive emotions is
be evident not only at the individual level, but also at a more difficult to explain, and has been ignored for many
social level in a complex world that is constantly erecting years. But if it were truly the case that they lacked value,
new challenges for its inhabitants. we would have to ask ourselves why they have remained
The intention throughout this special issue is to offer an with us throughout thousands of years of evolution.
overview of some of the areas of interest of positive psy- What, then, is the adaptive value of positive emotions?
chology, and to outline a first approach to the develop- We can answer this question if we abandon the theoreti-
ment of valid and reliable instruments with which to cal framework from which we understand negative emo-
work. tions. Positive emotions resolve problems related to
personal growth and development. Experiencing positive
POSITIVE EMOTIONS emotions leads to mental states and forms of behaviour
The majority of research on emotions has focused exclu- that indirectly prepare the individual to cope successfully
sively on the negative emotions, and this is to some ex- with future adversity (Fredrickson, 2001).
tent logical if we consider that emotions such as fear, Fortunately, in recent years, many experts have begun
sadness or anger are alarm signals which, if systemati- to carry out research and theorize in this field, opening
cally ignored, may generate considerable problems. The up new ways of understanding human psychology. One
natural tendency to study that which threatens the well- of the theories most solidly representative of this trend is
being of humans has led to a concentration on those that developed by Barbara Fredrickson. She highlights
emotions that help them to deal with imminent danger or the importance of positive emotions as a means of resolv-
problems. ing many of the problems generated by negative emo-
Moreover, there are other reasons that explain why tions, stressing how, through them, human beings can
positive emotions have had a lower scientific profile. For succeed in getting through difficult times and come out
example, they are more difficult to study, given that they stronger. According to this model, positive emotions can
are relatively fewer in number and more difficult to dis- be channelled towards prevention, treatment and coping
tinguish. Thus, if we consider the scientific taxonomies of to become authentic arms for dealing with problems
the basic emotions we can identify 3 or 4 negative emo- (Fredrickson, 2000).
tions for each positive one. This negative ratio is indeed
faithfully reflected in everyday language, so that people OPTIMISM
in general have more difficulty naming positive emotions. Optimism is a dispositional psychological characteristic
There are also differences with regard to the expression that refers to positive expectations and future objectives,
of each type of emotion. Thus, negative emotions have and whose relationship with variables such as persever-
been assigned specific facial configurations that make ance, achievement, physical health and well-being (Pe-
possible their universal recognition (Ekman, 1989). In terson & Bossio, 1991; Scheier & Carver, 1993) have
contrast, positive emotions have not been assigned such turned it into one of the central aspects in positive psy-

5
 Special Section A NEW WAY OF UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY

chology. this conception. Scientific research has shown that laugh-

The modern interest in optimism emerges from findings ter is capable of reducing stress and anxiety and thus im-
on the role of pessimism in depression (Beck, 1967). proving the individuals quality of life and health.
Since then, many studies have shown optimism to have Humour serves as an internal safety valve that permits
predictive value in relation to health and well-being, as us to release tensions, dispel worries, relax and forget
well as acting as a modulator of stressful events, palliat- everything, asserts Dr. Lee Berk, Associate Professor of
ing the problems of those who are suffering or stressed, Pathology at Loma Linda University in California, and
or have serious illnesses (Peterson, Seligman & Vaillant, one of the principal researchers in the world of health
1988). Optimism can also act as a strengthener of well- and good humour. In a series of studies he examined
being and health in those who, though free from disor- participants blood samples before and after they
ders, wish to improve their quality of life (Seligman, watched comedy videos and compared them with those
2002). From an evolutionary point of view, moreover, of a group who did not watch the videos. Berk discov-
optimism is considered as a characteristic of the human ered considerable reductions in the concentrations of ten-
species selected through evolution for its survival-related sion-related hormones and an increase in the immune
advantages (Taylor, 1989). response of those who watched the videos.
Common sense tells us that it is positive to look to the fu-
ture with optimism, and numerous empirical works sup- RESILIENCE AND POST-TRAUMATIC GROWTH
port this idea. Thus, for example, studies with the general Experiencing a traumatic event is perhaps one of the situ-
population show a clear tendency to overestimate ones ations most likely to transform a persons life. Without in
degree of control over situations (Langer, 1975), while any way belittling the seriousness and horror of such ex-
depressed people would estimate highly accurately their periences, it should be underlined that it is in extreme sit-
true degree of control (Alloy & Abramson, 1979). This il- uations that human beings have the opportunity to
lusion of control, together with other mechanisms, con- reconstruct their way of understanding the world and
tributes to explaining why some people do not become their system of values, to reconsider their conception of
depressed and others do. the world and to modify their beliefs, so that in this re-
What distinguishes an optimistic person from a pes- construction there can (and often does) occur a process
simistic one? Is it good to see life as a little better than it of learning and personal growth (Janoff-Bulman, 1992;
really is? Are pessimists realists while optimists live on il- Calhoun & Tedeschi, 1999). However, traditional psy-
lusions? It is these and other questions that scientific study chology has tended to assume that all traumatic events
in this field aims to resolve. Thus, optimism promises to leave people with psychological wounds, and to ignore
be one of the most important topics in research on posi- the study of phenomena such as resilience and post-trau-
tive psychology. matic growth, based on the capacity of human beings to
resist and recover from lifes onslaughts and build on
HUMOUR their effects.
The book Anatomy of an Illness, published in 1979 by Resilience and post-traumatic growth emerge as re-
the late magazine editor Norman Cousins, was the first search concepts in positive psychology, through which it
work that dealt openly with the correlation between hu- is aimed to determine why some people succeed in
mour and health. Cousins describes how he recovered learning from their experiences and even extract benefits
from a disease (ankylosing spondylitis) that is usually ir- from them. Resilience is situated within a positive and dy-
reversible through a treatment that included, among oth- namic current of psychology that promotes mental health,
er therapies, watching comedy films by the Marx and would seem to be a reality confirmed by the testi-
brothers. monies of many people who, despite having gone
Humour and its commonest external manifestation, through a traumatic situation, have managed to get over
laughter, constitute an important pillar of research in it and get on with life even on an improved level, as
positive psychology. Although the idea that laughter and though having experienced the trauma and come to
humour are good for the health is not a new one, it is terms with it had enabled them to develop latent and un-
only the last few decades that have seen the gradual pro- expected resources. Although for a long time responses
liferation of therapies and clinical interventions based on of resilience have been considered as unusual (and even

6
BEATRIZ VERA POSECK Special Section

pathological) by experts, the current scientific literature resource available for coping with adverse circum-
shows clearly that resilience is a common response, and stances. Anybody, moreover, can develop their creative
that its appearance, far from indicating pathology, sug- potential and improve the quality of their everyday life,
gests a healthy adjustment to adversity. even if the final result is not earth-shattering discoveries
Events such as the recent terrorist attacks in New York for humanity or universally valued creations.
and in Madrid can provide a good scientific basis for the
analysis of these phenomena, and although there is an MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS
enormous preponderance of studies devoted to post-trau- One of the challenges for positive psychology is the de-
matic stress disorder, there is also a small body of work velopment of valid and reliable measurement instruments
on positive emotions, coping and resilience. capable of measuring and delimiting the variables in-
volved in the field.
CREATIVITY Traditional assessment and the models deriving from it
Creativity is the capacity to create, to produce new have clarified aspects of human illness and weakness.
things. It is the ability of the human brain to reach con- What is necessary now is the creation of instruments that
clusions, to conceive ideas and to solve problems in an permit the assessment of positive resources and emo-
original way. The form it adopts can be artistic, literary, tions, with a view to developing more functional, more
scientific, and so on, and it can also be employed in dynamic and healthier models.
everyday life, improving its quality. This last-mentioned Pioneering in this regard are the efforts of Martin Selig-
expression of creativity probably does not leave its mark man and Christopher Peterson, who have designed a
on the history of mankind, but it is in essence what measurement instrument based on a classification of the
makes life worth living (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). individuals positive resources.
Creativity is considered, therefore, as a key process in The VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) is a 240-item
personal development and social progress, and hence questionnaire that uses 5-point Likert-style items to mea-
falls squarely within the field of interest of positive psy- sure the degree to which respondents possess each of the
chology. Nevertheless, the potential this suggests is 24 strengths and virtues in the classification developed at
weakened by the widespread assumption that creativity the Values in Action Institute under the direction of Mar-
is a dichotomic differential characteristic possessed by tin Seligman and Christopher Peterson.
some and not by others. Research on creativity has con- The 24 strengths measured by the VIA-IS, and which
tributed to the promotion of this belief, focusing as it has form the basis of the Character Strengths and Virtues
done for many years on traits, that is, on the identifica- Handbook classification, are grouped in 6 sections: wis-
tion of the personality characteristics (stable and scarcely dom and knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temper-
modifiable) of creative people. As a result, some other ance and transcendence.
important research areas have been neglected, such as The VIA study with more than 4000 participants reveals
the physical and social contexts in which creative people that, of the 24 qualities or strengths assessed through the
have developed their creations, or the specific skills they VIA-IS, five are consistently related to life satisfaction to a
have learned. Furthermore, it has been assumed that cre- far greater extent than the remaining 19. These are:
ativity cannot be altered, and that creative persons can gratitude, optimism, enthusiasm, curiosity and the capac-
produce creative work at any time and in any field. ity to love and be loved.
In the light of current research, neither of these assump-
tions appears to be completely true. Today we under- REFERENCES
stand that creativity does not depend exclusively on Amabile, T. M. (1983). The Social Psychology of Creativ-
stable personality traits, but is rather the result of a spe- ity: A Componential Conceptualization. Journal of
cific constellation of personal characteristics, cognitive Personality and Social Psychology, 45(2), 357-376.
abilities, technical knowledge, social and cultural circum- Alloy, L. B. & Abramson, L.Y. (1979). Judgment of con-
stances, material resources, and even luck (Amabile, tingency in depressed and nondepressed students:
1983; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Sternberg & Lubart, Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psycholo-
1995). Creativity can be developed and encouraged in gy: General, 108, 441-485.
all areas of life, and can also be considered as another Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental,

7
 Special Section A NEW WAY OF UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY

and theoretical aspects. New York: Hoeber. Press Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Jour-
Calhoun L.G., Tedeschi R.G. (1999). Facilitating Post- nal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 311-
traumatic Growth: A Clinicians Guide. Mahwah, 328.
N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Peterson, C., & Bossio, L.M. (1991). Health and opti-
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity. Flow and the mism. New York: Oxford University Press.
psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Peterson, C., Seligman, M.E.P. and Vaillant, G. (1988).
HarperCollins Publishers. Pessimistic explanatory style as a risk factor for physi-
Ekman, P. (1989). The argument and evidence about cal illness: A thirty-five year longitudinal study. Journal
universals in facial expressions of emotion. In H. of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 23-27.
Wagner & A. Manstead (Eds.), Handbook of psy- Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (1993). On the power of
chophysiology: Emotion and social behavior (pp. 143- positive thinking: the benefits of being optimistic. Psy-
164). New York: Wiley. chological Science, 2, 26-30
Fredrickson, B.L. (2000). Cultivating Positive Emotions to Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M.(2000). Positive
Optimize Health and Well-Being. Prevention & Treat- Psychology: An Introduction. American Psychologist,
ment, vol.3 55 (1), 5-14.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotion in Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the
positive psychology: The broaden and build theory of New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for
positive emotion. American Psychologist, 56, 218- Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Free Press/Simon and
226. Schuster.
Gillham, J.E. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1999). Footsteps on Sternberg, R. J. & Lubart, T.I. (1995). Defying the
the road to a positive psychology. Behavior Research Crowd. Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of Conformi-
and Therapy, vol.37:163-173 ty. The Free Press, New York
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: To- Taylor, S. E. (1989). Positive illusions. New York: Basic
wards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Books.