Grusons Chilled Cast-Iron Armour 1887 PDF

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UG409.G8 S38 1887
Gruson's chilled cast-iron armour.
3 1924 032 591 749

olin
GRUSON'S
Chilled Cast- Iron Armour.
BY
JULIUS VON SCHUTZ,

Engineer of Grusonworks.
Translated into English
Commander H. H. GRENFELL, R.N.
gonion
PRINTED BY WHITEHEAD, MORRIS & LOWE,
9, Fenchurch Street, E.G.
1887.
PREFACE.
THE question of National Defence is occupying, at the present time, very great
'
attention, not only in England and her Colonies, but also in America. An account
of the experiments made with, and the development attained from, the only system of
armour which has hitherto shown itself capable of resisting the attack of the heaviest
modern guns, and of maintaining the protection given to the artillery and gunners placed
behind it, must necessarily be of interest to all who are professionally engaged on this
important subject.
Armour is acknowledged by all the leading authorities to be a necessity for the

defence of positions of such importance, that the safety of the State would be compromised
by their loss or destruction, and a perusal of the following pages will show that in presence
of the tremendous attack capable of being delivered by the heavy guns now carried by
ships of war, no other system of armour offers a security approaching to that given by
the Gruson Chilled Cast-iron Armour.
Its great merit is that it is capable of meeting fully any projected increase in
the power of the attack, great as this may be, whereas with other systems of armour
it is well known that the limit to their resisting powers is within sight, if it has
not already been reached. It is for this reason that an endeavour is now being
made in certain quarters to forego the use of armour altogether, inasmuch as
penetrable armour is worse than none ; but military engineers know that this is merely
from an admission of the fact of the failure of these other systems of being able to
compete with the guns, and that so long as weapons of the heaviest' nature are carried
afloat, similar guns must be employed for defence, and that in most cases to place
these guns behind efficient armour is the only way in which their full and effective
use can be ensured.
Based on principles which are technically sound, not only from a manufacturing,
but also from a military point of view, the Gruson Armour is the only system which
has been able to maintain its pari passu with the increased development of
position
artillery, and which offers in the future the same guarantee of effective protection which
it has abundantly displayed in the past.
June, 1887.
CONTENTS.
PAttE
Introduction 5
Chapter I.
Description of the chief types of Chilled Cast-iron Armour and Minimum-Port

Carriages 6
I. Protected Batteries 9
II. Armoured Turrets Ii
III. Gruson's Hydraulic Minimum Port-Carriage, C/8o 13
IV. Gruson's Hydraulic Minimum Port-Carriage, C/84 16
Chapter II.
Firing Trials of Gruson Chilled Iron Armour during the years 1869 1874
I. Preliminary Trials of a Chilled Iron Armour Emplacement for n 72-pounder
(8.3 in.) Gun at the Tegel Range, in the years 1869 1871 18
1. Trial against the Embrasure Plate of same, in February, March and December,
1869 21
2. Trial against the Left Side Plate of same, in April, 1870 25
3. Trial against the Right Side Plate of same, in June, 1870 25
4. Trial against the dismounted Roof Plate of same, in October, 1871 ... ... 26
II. Firing Trials against Chilled Cast-iron Armour for Inland Fortification, in the
years 1873 1874 27
1. Trial against the first Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns,
at the Tegel Range, March, 1873 , 27
2. Trial against the second Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two 5-9 in. (15 cm)
Guns, at the Tegel Range, May /July, 1874 ... 29
A . Trial against the Port Plate of the second Chilled Iron Armour Turret for
two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns :
a. Attack of the Port Plate with 193 5.9 in. (15 cm) Long Shells ... 31
*. ,, ,,
10 ,, ,, Chilled Shells ... 32
c. 20 6.7 in. (17 cm) ,, ... 32
d. ,, 65 5.9 in. (is cm) ... 32
B. Trial against the Left Side Plate of the second Chilled Iron Armour Turret,
for two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33
C. Trial against the Right Side Plate of the second Chilled Iron Armour Turret,
for two 5-9 in. (15 cm) Guns ... ... ;.. .. ... ... ... 34
D. Trial against the Roof Plate of the second Chilled Iron Armour Turret,
for two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns 35
III. Firing Trials against Chilled Iron Armour, for Coast Defence, in the years
1873/74 36
1. Trial against the first Port Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery, for 8.3 in.
(21 cm) Guns on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau, 5th December, 1873 ... 36
2. Trial against the second Port Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery, for 8.3 in,
(21 cm) Guns on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau, 27th July and 21st
August, 1874 38
3. Trial against the Roof Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery, for 8. 3 in.
(21 cm) Guns on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau, 21st August, 1874 ... 42
IV. Conclusions ... . ... ... ... .. .- ... ... ... 44
3
Chapter III. page

Piringr Trials against Gruson Chilled Cast-iron Armour during the years 1882 to 1886... 45
I. Firing Trials against Chilled Cast-iron Armour for Inland Fortifications during the
years 1882 to 1885 46
1. Trial against the side Plate of a Chilled Cast-iron Armour Turret for two 4. 7 in.
(12 cm) Guns 267 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau, in
the months of December, 1882, to April, 1883 46
2. Trial against the Port Plate of a Chilled Ii-on Armour Battery for eight 5.9 in.
(15 cm) Guns, 23 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground, l6th July, 1883 ... 54
3. Trial against the Port Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery for six J. 9 in.
(15 cm) Guns, 23 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground, l8th August, 1884 60
4. Trial against the Glacis Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two 4.7 in.
(12 cm) Guns, 23^ calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau,
1 2th February, 1884 5o
5. Trial against the Port Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two 4.7 in.
(12 cm) Guns, 23! calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau,
28th August, 1884 63
6. Trial against the Side Plate of a Chilled IronArmour Turret for two 4.7 in.
(12 cm) Guns, 26 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau,
19th and 20th January, 1885 68
7. Conclusions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7^
II. Firing Trials against Chilled Cast-iron Armour for Coast Defence during the years
1883 1886 79
1. Trial against a Glacis Plate of a Chilled Cast-iron Armour Turret for two
12 in. (30.5 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau,
13th August, 1883 79
2. Trial against a Side Plate of a Chilled Cast-iron Armour Turret for two 12 in.
(30.5 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau^
22nd October, 1883 86
3. Trial against a Half Roof Plate of a Chilled Cast-iron Armour Turret for two
12 in. (30.5 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long, on Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau,
26th and 28th May, 1884 9S
4. Conclusions of the Dutch Committee respecting Trials, i 102
5. Trial against a Side Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two 15.7 in.
(40 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long, on Firing Ground at Spezia, April, 1886 ... 107
6. Second Trial against the Side Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two
15.7 in. (40 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long, on Firing Ground at Spezia,
22nd June, 1886 118
Chapter IV.
Comparative Analysis of the results obtained, and Conclusions 125
1. The proportion between the greatest and least thickness of the Armour 126
2. The proportion of the expanded length of the unprotected part of the Profile
Curve to the greatest expanded breadth of the Armour 128
3. The proportion of the vertical section to the Front Superficies of the Armour Plate 129
4. The proportion of the energy of the attack to the weight of the Armour Plates... 130
;. Empirical Formula for designing Chilled Armour 134
6. Conclusions 138
Table showing the principal data of the Firing Trials against Gruson Armour.
THE extraordinary activity which in the present day is displayed in
improving and developing the materials of war, imposes on every
writer who undertakes to describe its existing condition the necessity of
frequently correcting and supplementing the information he furnishes, so
great are the improvements and progress made in the course of each
year.
Under the title of "The Gruson Chilled Iron Armour," we published

in the year 1878 a short description of the Gruson Armoured Turrets
and Batteries, and an account of the firing tests to which they had been
submitted. We were able at that time to claim for the armour a notable
superiority over the means of attack, a claim which was then fully admitted
by most authorities on the subject. During the following years no further
trials took place, as, notwithstanding the increasing powers of the attack,
the data obtained remained an amply sufficient basis for determining the
form and dimensions to be given to the armour.
In the meantime, however, great progress was made not only in the
construction of guns and manufacture of powder, but also in that of
projectiles. At the close of the last decade Gruson's chilled iron projectiles
were still competing favourably with steel shot, as the problem of making
these latter as hard as glass, and at the same time tough and tenacious, had
not yet been solved. As far as we know, the credit of this improvement is
due to the Krupp Works, whose armour-piercing shells are in the present
day among the best made.

Although the size of guns and the weight of their charges were
increased, so long as the material of which their projectiles were made
remained the same, the proportionate increase of thickness necessary to
be given to the armour could be calculated ; but when a new material for
projectiles was introduced whose effect on the armour was anticipated to
be much greater, but could not be with accuracy determined beforehand,
the resumption of firing trials became an unavoidable necessity.

[ 6 ]
This second series of trials began in the year 1882, and as they may
be considered to have reached a conclusion in the experiments which took
place at Spezia in April and June of 1886, the present time seems favorable
for supplementing the earlier data and conclusions with the most recent
results, and for establishing a comparison between them. We shall
repeat the earlier results so that, following a brief account of the chilled
armour and minimum-port carriages, a complete resume will be presented
of all the trials which have taken place.
CHAPTER I.
Description of the chief types of Chilled Cast-iron
Armour^ and Minimum-Fort Carriages.
toEFORE proceeding to a description of the above-mentioned types, a

' short notice of the material of Gruson's chilled iron and its mode of
manufacture may be desirable.
All armour plating may be placed in two distinct categories :
(a.) Those which by virtue of their hardness of surface deflect

shot which strike them.
(i,) Those into which shot penetrate, but in which the effect is
localized to the part struck.
The first comparatively hard armour was of steel, but the use of this
was given up on account of the brittleness of the plates, which shivered
into pieces under the blpws of the shot.
For a number of years wrought-iron was the only material used for
armour, until, in 1868, Gruson produced and by
his chilled cast-iron armour,
means of a series of trials established the correctness of his system.
The Gruson chilled iron is a mixture of different blends of pig-iron,

cast in chill, to which it owes its hardness.
In accordance with the two chief qualities which he sought to obtain

in his metal, Gruson chose two sorts of pig-iron for his principal materials,
each of which possessed one of the desired qualities a highly carbonised,

steel-hard, white iron, and a soft grey iron.
[ 7 ]
Although it appeared impossible, by the mere mixture of the two

materials, to combine hardness and toughness in the same stratum of iron,
another way of solving the problem, to produce a hard surface on a soft
elastic interior, seemed less difficult, if it were possible to combine the

two different materials together with such a gradual change of their
respective properties that no marked line of separation should occur ; and
this is the solution which Gruson, after years of effort, succeeded in
reaching in such manner that even at the present day his chilled cast-iron
possesses a superiority over that of other makers.
Gruson attained his object by a seemingly simple procedure. By

the use of iron forms or moulds for casting, he prevented, by a rapid
cooling of the surface, the always existing tendency in a fluid casting,
for the carbon to separate off in scales of graphite.
It would be foreign to the scope of this compilation to specify the

details of the manufacture of the chilled iron, and we will only describe
the peculiar structure which characterizes the broken section of a piece

of the Gruson chilled cast iron.
Fig. I.
Section of a Chilled Cast Iron Bar.
It will be noticed in this figure, which shows the section of a chilled

bar, that the exterior layer is of a fine fibrous character, which passes
without visible lines of separation into the granular structure of the

so-called mottled iron, which in turn gradually assumes the character
and fine crystalline structure of the soft grey iron.
This is the great difference which distinguishes Gruson chilled iron

A2
[ 8 ]
from that of other manufacturers in whose iron the line of separation

of the layers is always more or less distinctly marked, and the edge
between the hard and soft metal visibly seen.
The Gruson chilled iron possessed consequently all the properties

which are appropriate as a material for armour plates.
Hard armour was discredited because brittleness was thought to be a

necessary accompaniment of hardness. Gruson's metal offers a hard
surface on a tough interior, combining thus hardness with tenacity.
The attempt to distribute the effect of a shot over a large surface had
to be given up on account of the difficulty of rolling such large plates as
were required for this. Gruson's cast metal permits any required form
and dimensions being given to the plates.
Finally, the curved exterior surface of armour was rejected on account
of the impossibility of giving this form to wrought iron plates. With
Gruson's metal any required external shape can be adopted.
Fully realising the advantages of his metal, Gruson completely

abandoned the views which prevailed in England, and returned in every
respect to the previous course of action. To his plates he gave a curved
form, which in vertical section approached that of a quadrant of an
ellipse. Such a surface, by its hardness, deflected the shot striking it,
and besides it possessed this advantage, that, by reason of their arched

form, the plates supported one another, and retained their position by their
weight, without the necessity of securing them by bolts. Following this
came the reduction of the port to a minimum^ so as to prevent the entry of

splinters of shell, and, as a consequence thereof, the old type of gun
carriage had to be abandoned, and a new one devised in which the pivot
round which the gun turned was placed in the port itself. The port
became considerably reduced in size, and was almost completely closed by
the chace of the gun, so that the port screens in use were no longer
necessary, as there was but small chance of any splinters of projectiles
entering by the small opening reserved between the sides of the port and
the chace of the gun.
As the chilled iron can be made to take any desired form, it is
applicable to every system of fortification, of which, however, the most

usual forms are protected fixed batteries and revolving turrets.
L 9 J
I. Protected Batteries.
Fig. 2 gives an external view of a protected battery for six guns.

The embrasure or port plates form the chief part of the armour, and
stand on the so-called pivot plate, being supported on each side by a pillar
plate {see also Fig. 3).
At each end the battery rests against masonry, which is protected by

earth parapets against shot. In front of the battery is a concrete glacis,
covered with substantial granite blocks.
Defence against curved fire is given by the roof plates which join
in front to the port and pillar plates, and in rear rest on masonry pillars
forming part of the casemates.
Fig 2.
View of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery.
J. t*^ "^ - ' i
The adjoining edges of the several plates are planed to a flat
surface, and each edge is provided with a groove, into which zinc is cast
when the battery is mounted, or iron keys inserted. Owing to the weight
of the plates no further fitting is necessary.
The whole structure lies on foundation plates, provided on their

upper and lower surfaces with two ribs, of which the upper clasp the
armour plates and render dislocation impossible, whilst the under ones
are embedded in the masonry forming the foundation.
The form of the port, pillar, and roof plates is shown in Figs. 2 and 3,
and it only remains to notice the pivot plates, which take their name from
the pivot bars of the carriages which are connected to them. As already
explained, the port pivotting or minimum-embrasure carriages are of special
[ 10 ]
construction, the point round which the gun rotates being situated in the
port itself.
As a large arc of horizontal training is required, the slide is furnished

with four rollers travelling on two curved racers, and the pivot for the
horizontal movement being placed vertically beneath the point in the

port round which the gun works for elevation or depression, admits of any
exact training, and this is effected by simple winch gearing.
Fig. 3-
Section of an Armoured Battery.
As will be seen from this, an armoured battery forms a spacious

structure, which is connected in the rear to the casemates by means of
wide passages.
In the basement of the casemates the magazines are placed, com-
municating with the upper storey by means of lifts and staircases.
L 11 ]
II. Armoured Turrets.
In cases where a greater arc of horizontal fire is necessary than can

be easily obtained from a fixed battery, recourse is had to revolving turrets
whose guns fire through the whole circle of 360. Fig. 4 gives a section
of such a turret, and clearly explains the mode of construction.
Fig. 4.
Section of a Chilled Iron A fmour Turret.
The dome-shaped cupola rests on a wrought iron sub-structure, which

rotates on a live roller ring running on a roller path fixed to the foundation,
and is protected from shot by a glacis armour.
The lower roller path of the turret which is | j in section, is
provided underneath with continuous ribs, which are embedded in the

masonry of the foundation.
On this is the live roller ring, which, being without a central pivot,
[ 12 ]
allows the whole interior space to be utilized, the gun being capable of
being mounted in position through this central space from below.
On the rollers rests the upper roller path which carries the sub-
structure of the turret, built up of iron plates and angles. The sub-
structure carries on its upper surface the ring of cupola plates, whilst
transverse girders fixed at its lower part support the gun carriage.
The cupola has the form of a domCj or flat arch, as already mentioned
(accurately speaking, the shape is that given by the rotation of the
quadrant of an ellipse), and consists of a number of separate plates,
which, as their centre of gravity, in consequence of their construction and
arrangement, passes through the middle point of the cupola, mutually
balance, and, owing to their weight, do not require to be otherwise bound
or tied together. The adjoining edges, moreover, are provided with
grooves, as mentioned in the case of the battery, which grooves are filled
with zinc or iron keys when the cupola is being set up.
The dome shape 'has the following advantages: Attacking projectiles

are deflected ; the blow of impinging shot is distributed over the whole
mass of the plate ; space is economized ; and lastly, there is no need for
bolts or nuts to bind the plates together, and the construction of the
roof is facilitated.
As in the battery, the roof plates lie in simple grooves, the joints
being filled in on mounting the cupola.
The glacis armour, which protects the substructure, consists, as Fig. 4
shows, of a ring of curved plates, which either partly or completely
encircle the cupola, as may be advisable. This is covered by a layer of
concrete, with granite blocks. The cupola is rotated by vertical pinion
gear, working in a circular rack fixed to the upper roller path.
The gear is arranged for working either by hand or power. The

hand-gear consists of a capstan placed in the lower casemate, seen on
the right in Fig. 4, and means are provided for giving either a quick or slow
turning motion.
Heavier cupolas are fitted with both hand and power turning gear, each
of which can be placed in and out of action as required.
If power is used, the engine is either connected directly to the

turning gear, or this latter is actuated by means of a hydraulic motor
and accumulator.
The necessary orders for the turning of the cupola are given through
speaking tubes communicating from the look-out post of the officer in
[ 13 ]
command, who, standing on a step, looks through a sighting hole made in
the roof of the cupola, and directs the position of the gun.
The employment of the various chambers in the turret is seen in

the Fig. 4.
The cartridges are passed from the magazine upi through a tube to the
middle platform. The shell magazine is in the central chamber below the
cupola. A lift takes the projectiles on to the platform under the cupola,
from where they are taken by a crane to the breech of the gun.
III. Gruson's Hydraulic Minimum-Port Carriage C/80.
As already armoured batteries and cupolas are furnished

stated, the
with minimum-port carriages, the special feature of which is that the gun
rotates both vertically and horizontally round a point which lies within the
port.
The upper portion of the carriage, as Fig 5 shows, is formed of steel

plates, and slides on recoil on the lower portion or slide, the recoil being
controlled by two hydraulic buffers. The cylinders of these buffers are
fixed to the slide, the rods of the pistons, which are pierced with holes,
being attached to the upper portion of the carriage. When the carriage
recoils, the piston rods are drawn out, and the passage of the fluid in the
buffer through the holes in the piston checks the motion.
The gun is elevated or depressed by a hydraulic cylinder the ram of

which, by means of a cross-piece, raises or lowers the two trunnion-bearings.
These last slide up and down in circular grooves fixed to the brackets of
the carriage, the centre of motion being the imaginary pivot in the port.
The movement of the gun is controlled by a slide-bar, which, as the Fig. 4
shows, moves on a pivot placed in armoured structures vertically beneath

the port. The gun is connected to this slide-bar by a clip-shaped guide-
piece in such a manner that on recoil it slides on the bar but always
preserves the axis of its bore parallel to the upper surface of the slide-bar.
(The axis of the bore thus remains during the movement of the gun
a tangent to an imaginary circle of which the centre is the pivot of the
slide-bar.)
[ 14 ]
Fig. S-
Gruson's Hydraulic Minimum-Port Carriage C/8o.
In the smaller carriages the hydraulic ram which elevates the gun is
worked by hand-pumps ; with the larger ones accumulators are used.
These consist of long cylinders containing liquid, the pistons of which

are weighted and operated upon either by hand or steam power. These
cylinders communicate with the cylinder of the elevating press in the
carriage. On opening a valve the fluid under pressure passes under the
ram of the press and raises the gun. When the valve is closed the gun
stops^ when the escape valve is opened the fluid flows out of the press and
the gun sinks.
The accumulators thus act as reservoirs and distributors of power.

An important saving of power in the accumulator is effected by using
Gruson's differential piston in the elevating cylinder of the carriage instead
of the ordinary form of piston, but a description of this is unnecessary
here.
The installation of the accumulators can be carried out in different

ways.
In batteries with many guns several accumulators are combined, and

all the guns are worked from one central reservoir of power.
[ 15 ]
In isolated turrets the accumulators are located in the basement, and

can serve also as hydraulic cranes for changing the guns if necessary.
Many carriages are fitted for working both by accumulator and by hand.
Fig. 5 shows a carriage for an armoured battery, which in that case
runs on two racers by means of rollers. The pivot for this is seen in the
figure. In revolving turrets no training movement is required to be given
to the carriage, the latter being as a rule solidly fixed to the sub-structure,
as before explained.
The leading particulars of a number of carriages type C/8o, which have
been completed, are given in the following table. For other carriages,
compare table (page 17), the data there given are approximately correct
for the type C/80.
Gun.
L 16 I
IT. Gruson's Hydraulic Minimum-Port Carriage C/84.

This carriage differs from the type C/8o chiefly in the altered arrange-
ment for lifting the gun. In the latter the elevating press is attached to
the carriage, and moves with it on recoil.
Fig. 6.
Gruson's Hydraulic Minimum-Port Carriage, CJS4.
As seen in this figure, the carriage proper consists merely of bearings

for the gun-trunnions. proper on which the carriage moves in
The slide
and out is surrounded by a frame of plates bolted together, fitted on the

is given
inside with guides for the upward and downward movement, which
to both slide and carriage by a press placed beneath the movement
of the ;
gun is regulated as in the carriage type C/80 by a slide bar, and the guide-
piece is carried round the chace of the gun, as seen in the figure.
The slide-bar rotates round a pivot placed under the port, and the axis
of the gun remains tangential to an imaginary circle, of which this pivot is
the centre during its elevation or depression.
The recoil cylinders are in this type of carriage made fast to the
guide-piece, their pistons being attached to the front part of the slide-bar.
As the carriage runs on its slide by means of four rollers, but little of
the force of the recoil is received on the slide.
The carriage shown in Fig. 6 is intended for an armoured battery, and
runs on two curved racers by means of four rollers. The pivot for the
horizontal training is seen in the figure.

[ 17 1
Horizontal training being unnecessary in the case of a turret carriage,

the frameis dispensed with, or rather is embodied in the substructure of the
turret.These carriages can be adapted for either hand or power working.

The type C/84 has several advantages over the earlier form. It is more
compact, and also simpler, as the elevating cylinder does not take part in
the movement of recoil, and moreover, the recoil cylinders and the slide
being brought close up underneath the gun, the force of recoil acts at the
end of a much shorter lever.
The principal dimensions, &c., of the carriages, type C/84, ^re given
in the following table :
Gun, Carriage.
Extreme
Calibre,
JU ^ -a.
lbs.
No.
(about)
4-1 10.5 30 2,200
4-7 12 30 4,400
5-9 15 30 8,800
6-7 17 30 15,000
8-3 21 30 26,900
9-4 24 30 41,900
10-2 26 30 65,100
11- 28 30 73,900
12- 305. 30 97,000
13-8 35 30 165,400
16-8 40 30 247,000
[ 18 1
CHAPTER II.
Firing Trials of Gruson Chilled Iron Armour during
the years 18691874.
As already stated, trials with the Gruson armour are divided into two
distinct series, those between the years 1869 and 1874, and those between
1882-86. The subject of this chapter is the first series, which we have
already described in a pamphlet, but here again summarise.
In doing so we take as our guide Major Kiister's account in the

" Mittheilungen des Konigl. Preussischen Ingenieur-Comites," part 22.
The quotations which we give from that account are reproduced word for
word.
I.Preliminary Trials of a Chilled-Iron Armour Emplacement for a
72-pounder (8.3 in.) Gun, at the Tegel range in the years 18691871.
Object and Scope of the Trial.
The trial was intended to clearly demonstrate if Gruson's chilled-iron

was suitable for armour, and the programme of the trial did not therefore
proceed on the lines of representing, as in the later ones, the conditions of
attack such as might occur in actual warfare.
The firing was chiefly carried out with 8.3 in. and 9.4 iii. guns, which
were principally used against coast batteries. On the other hand, the
armour was struck far more frequently than is possible with fire from on
board ship. We have for that reason styled this trial a preliminary one.
[ 19 ]
Fig. 7-
Chilled Iron Armour Emplacement for a 'j2-pounder 8.yn. Gun.
Vertical and Horizontal Section through the centre of the embrasure.
THE MEASUREMENTS IN ALL SKETCHES ARE MILLIMETRES.

;
[ 20 ]
As the first trial of chilled iron armour, it possesses an especial interest

and as the design of the structure had been prepared without any data
derived from earlier trials, and was indeed merely the result of an estimate
of the power of the attack, it is desirable to give a somewhat ample
description of the emplacement.
Fig. 7 shows a vertical and horizontal section through the centre of the
embrasure.
The emplacement was composed of a curved embrasure plate, two

side and two roof plates. The peculiar shape and principal dimensions
are seen in the figure below.
Fig. 8.
Chilled Iron Armour Emplacement for a 'j2-pounder 8.3 in. Gun in
course of erection.
From a Photograph.
The side plates and also the roof plates were tied together by wrought-iron
connecting rods; the edges of the roof plate are shown in the horizontal section
by dotted lines. The emplacement rested against masonry, of which the
[ 21 ]
second plate shown in the figure formed the roof. The whole structure was
covered with earth, as shown in Fig. 9, so that only the embrasure plate
was exposed to the attacking fire.
The peculiar curve at the base of the embrasure plate, seen in Fig. 7,
was formed to receive the pivot of the minimum embrasure carriage, which
was fastened to a ground plate not shown in the figure. All the plates were
cast in a foundry specially erected at Tegel for that purpose.
Fig. 8 shows the emplacement in course of construction.
On the surface of the plates, in Fig. 8, may be seen the square seams
left in the casting, which was then made in several small chill-moulds placed
together, and not in one large mould for each plate, as is now the case.
1.Trial against the Embrasure Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour

Emplacement for a 72-pounder (8.3 in.) Gun.
In February, March, and December, 1869.
The particulars of the attack, as well as the effect of the various

rounds, are tabulated in the following table :
The chief data given in the first edition are completed from the
pamphlet, " Vergleichende Zusammenstellung der neuesten Schiessversuche
gegen Panzer von Otto von Giese."
t 22 1
No.
of
Round
[ 23 ]
[ 24 ]
Fig. 9.
The Port Plate of the Armoured Emplacement

for a 72 pounder (8.3 in.) gun after the 15th round, 1 1/3/69.
From a Photograph.
Fig. 9 shows the armour at the end of the firing with the 9.4 in. gun.
The cracks formed were so fine that they do not appear visible in the
photograph.
To save ammunition, the firing was then continued with the long 8.3 in.
hooped gun at a distance of 166 yards. It should be noted that 8 shots,

rounds 12 and 16 to 22, struck on about the same place, close to the port.
The experiment was intended merely as a test of the material, without
the conditions of actual warfare, but was, nevertheless, a very severe trial
on account of the small thickness of the plates.

The Experimental Committee considered the applicability of chilled
cast-iron as a material for armour to be thoroughly demonstrated, even

though doubts were expressed as to the size and weight of the plates
necessary.
All the shot which struck broke up.

[ 25 1
2. Trial against the Left Side-plate of a Chilled Iron Armour

Emplaement for a 72-pounder (8.3iii.) Gun.
14th and 2 1 St April, 1870.
Gun : Rifled bronze 24 pounder 5.9 in. (15 cm) gun.

Distance : 166 yards (152 m.)
Shot : Solid chilled 76.5 lb. (347 kg.) weight.
Charge
5.5 lb. (2-5 kg.) to 6.6 lb. (3 kg.) P. P.
The plate at the mean point of impact had a thickness of

7.1 10. 2 in. Six rounds struck at angles between So'' and 90.
The three first hits produced no result ; the three last
widened a casting seam, and formed several hair cracks in the
plate.
The trial was resumed on the 21st April with the 5.9 in.
hooped gun.
Gun 24 pounder 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped gun.
:
Distance: 166 yards (152 m.)

Shot : Chilled shell, weighted with sand to 78.3 lb. (35.5 kg.)
Charge : u 13.2 lb. (5 to 6 kg.) P. P
The rounds were aimed at the left, and the least injured,
portion of the plate. Mean angle of impact 70 to 75.
Thickness of plate 10.2 10.6 in.
The first six hitsNos. 7 to 12 caused a number of

cracks through the plate. Rounds 12 to 16 enlarged the
cracks, and broke off flat pieces. No. 17 produced a hole of
II in. diameter in the plate. No. 18 broke off several pieces
of the plate.
3. Trial against the Right Side-plate of a Chilled Iron Armour

Emplacement for a 72-pounder (8.3in.) Gun.
nth June, 1870.
Gun 24-pounder 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped gun.

:
Distance 82 yards (75 m.) :
Shot : Solid chilled 74.9 lb. (34 kg.) with blunt point.
Charge : 13.2 lb. ^6 kg.) P.P.
Angle of impact about 72".
The right plate was of harder character than the left one.
[ 26 ]
Mean thickness of plate 10.2 in. The first five rounds

produced a number of through cracks.
After the sixth shot, a piece of the plate threatened to fall,
but four additional shots on the same place failed to dislodge it.
The cracks showed that the seams formed in casting

injured the strength of the plate.
4. Trial against the Dismounted Roof Plate of a Chilled Iron

Armour Emplacement for a 72-pounder (8.3 in.) Gun.
7th October, 1871.
Gun : 8.3 in. (21 cm) Mortar.

Distance : 41 yards (37.5 m.)
Shot : Weighted Shell, 176.5 lb. (80 kg.) weight.
Charge : 4.4 lb. (2 kg.) with the first, 8.8 lb (4 kg.) with remaining rounds.
Velocity of impact : 229 yards (209 m.)
Energy: 581.5 foot tons (180 mt.)
The plate, of mean thickness of 7.1 in., was so placed against its
supports as to be struck in the centre at an angle of 90.
The four shots which struck produced no effect.

Summary of 2, 3, and 4 : Considering the moderate thickness of these
plates, the resistance of the left side plate must be considered
excellent.
The trial of the right side plate demonstrated the dis-
advantage of making the moulds in pieces, the casting seams
producing cracks.
That against the roof plate showed the effect of mortar fire
against iron constructions to be very slight.

All the projectiles which struck broke up.
[ 27 J
II. Firing Trials against Chilled Cast-Iron Armour for Inland

Fortification in the Tears 187374.
1. Firing Trial against the First Chilled Iron Armour Turret for
two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns.
At the Tegel Range, March, 1873.
Scope and Programme of the Trial.
The trial was intended to form a comparison with the experiments

in 1871 72 against a wrought-iron turret designed by Major Schumann, of
the Royal Prussian Engineers. This turret had a cylindrical cupola, formed
of several plates; the thickness of the port plate was 12.4 in. and the
thickness of the plates decreased to 4.7 in. at the back of the cupola.
Fig. 10. The trial of the Schumann

Profile of the Port Plate of the First Chilled Iron turret had given comparatively
Armour Turret for two 5.9 in. Guns.
favourable results, and as Gruson
Scale 1/40.
had offered to construct at less
cost one of his turrets of

equal resisting powers, it seemed
desirable to adopt not only the
same programme of trial, but also
to follow the thickness given to
the wrought-iron plates. In ac-
cordance with this, the port plate
of the chilled iron turret was
given a maximum radial thickness
of 13.8 in. (see figure 10), which,
both in the two side plates, the back plate, and the roof plate, decreased to
4.7 in. at the back. The maximum radial thickness of the glacis armour was
9.1 in. in front, the height and extension to the front being each 3.28 feet.
The weight was 12.4 tons, of the side plate lo.i

of the port plate
tons, and the was mounted on the same sub-structure which had
turret
served for the Schumann turret.

Guns: Short 5.9 in. (15 cm.) naval hooped gun; 5.9 in. (15 cm.) bronze
gun.
Distance: 412 yards (377m.)

Shot: 5.9 in. (15 cm) filled shell, 61 lb. (27*7 kg.) weight.
5.9 in. (15 cm) chilled shell, both filled and weighted 77.2 lb
(35 kg.) weight.

5.9 in. (15 cm) solid chilled shot, about 79.41b. (36 kg.) weight.

[ 28 ]
Charge: Varying from 3.1 lb. (1.4 kg) cannon powder to 13.21b. (6 kg.)
prismatic.
Velocity and energy : On account of the variety in shot and charges not
separately recorded.
Major Kiister, speaking of the results of this trial, says:
" On the whole, the front plate received 55 hits, of which
about 60 per cent, were chilled projectiles, the right* (left, looking
from the gun) side plate 13 shots, of which 9 were chilled
projectiles ; the glacis plates 23 hits, 19 being chilled projectiles.

" Against the roof of the turret, 2 hits from the il in. rifled
mortar, distant 1,585 yards, with 8.8 lb. charge and long shell
weighted to 441 lb.
"The long or common shell which struck the solid armour

produced no visible effect at the point of impact, on the other
hand the chilled projectiles produced shallow indents and splinter-
ing, for the most part with concentric and also frequently radial
hair cracks, which last, by the vibration of the next hits, were
lengthened and deepened and eventually divided the plate into
several parts. Sometimes also thin pieces of plate were knocked
off the exterior of the armour, but on no occasion was there
any penetration into the latter."
Additional evidence was furnished of the unsuitability of using chilled

iron in plates of small thickness when exposed to mortar fire, the roof plate
of the cupola being fully breached by the second shot of the 1 1 in. mortar
at a distance of 1,585 yards (charge 8.8 lb., shell 441 lb., elevation 30).
By far the best resistance was shown by the glacis armour, which did
not succumb to 23 chilled shots from the 5.9 in, hooped gun striking
together on a small surface.
Summary: The general result of the trial is rightly considered by Major

Kiister as unfavourable. In determining the dimensions of the
chilled iron, it had been forgotten that the radical difference between
chilled iron and wrought iron forbade a similarity in this respect
in the two systems, as was the case in this instance, and in
consequence the advantageous properties of chilled iron for

armour could not be shown.
Even if this trial clearly proved that when the thickness of
* Major Kiister's " right left " means looking from the turret. As during the new trials,
right and left is always taken to mean looking from the attacking guns, we shall adopt this latter
course also.
[ 29 ]
plating is small, wrought iron is preferable to chilled cast iron, it
did not the less give indications that in the case of greater
thicknesses, cast-iron would have the preference.
was noticed that all the projectiles on striking broke up
It
into countless fragments; and, further, it was proved that the

armour could only be destroyed by breaking it into pieces, which,
however, the extreme hardness of the material and its extraordinary
resistance to molecular displacement rendered a very difficult task,
qualities which were greatly assisted by the double curved form,
and likely to be still more strongly displayed with increased
thicknesses of iron.
In accordance with these conclusions, the Committee already,

at the termination of these first trials, recommended the use of
chilled iron for glacis armour, giving, however, a provisional
preference to the use of wrought iron for the turret itself.
was considered desirable to undertake further trials, as

It
the possibility seemed in no way excluded of obtaining a

practically favourable result by giving an improved form and
increased strength to the armour.
2. Firing Trial against the Second Chilled Iron Turret for two
5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns.
At the Tegel Range, May July, 1874.
At the conclusion of the above described trial, Gruson had professed

his readiness to supply, at his own cost, a new turret of increased
dimensions, and more in accordance with the conditions shown to be
essential.
At the suggestion of the Experimental Committee, the War Depart-

ment undertook to supply the ammunition, but directed at the same time
that the trial should proceed in accordance with a definite aspect of the
subject obtained from a consideration of the numerous special necessities
of the case brought to light by the preliminary trial, that the trial should
approach in its conditions as near as possible actual reality, for the

determination of which, use was to be made of the data furnished by siege
operations.
It was assumed that the siege corps would be unprovided with the
heaviest armour-piercing guns, and that the firing would commence with
5.9 in. long shell.

[ 30 ]

'^" " During a thirty days' siege it
Profile of the Port Plate of the Second Chilled
, , , , , r ,
Iron Armour Turret for 2 5.9 in. Guns.

^^^ calculated that the armour of the
Scale 1/40. turret would be struck by from 1,000
to 1,500 shells, and it was considered
entirely sufficient if a quadrant of
the turret under trial withstood 200
long shells from the 5.9 in. hooped
gun at a distance of 1,093 yards.
If this proved to be the case,

then the armour was to be attacked
by the 6.7 hooped gun, a con-
in.
dition accepted with confidence by

Mr. Gruson.
With respect to a further trial being made with heavy siege-guns,
fire would then only be opened on the turret, supposing circumstances
allowed it, when the assailant had advanced as near as possible say
to 1,093 yards from the turret so as to make the utmost use of chilled
iron shell.
The first named series of rounds was therefore to be followed by a

second, of 150 5.9 in. chilled shell, delivered on the second ring plate.
And, lastly, as it was within the bounds of possibility that a heavy coast
battery gun of 4.9 5.9 tons in weight might be brought to a distance of
1,093 yards from the turret, a third plate was to be attacked with 20 chilled
shells from the 6.7 in. hooped gun, and finally, the roof plate with five hits
from the 1 1 in. mortar.
The Armour to be tried consisted of four newly made plates, viz. :
One port plate, two side, and one roof plate, which were placed on the
original sub-structure, and supported in rear by an old port plate rejected
at the first trial on account of faults in casting.
The profile of the port plate is shown in Fig. 11, which exhibits chiefly
an increase in the radial thickness at the centre of the port from 13.8 in. to
21.7 in., and a corresponding thickness was given to both side plates
16.5 in.) The roof plate was also 16,5 in. thick. The glacis armour
remained unaltered and was merely supplemented with an additional plate.
The change in profile between Figs. 10 and 11 of the external curve
of the port plate is at once observable.
The first trial had brought to light the fact that shot striking the upper
part of the curved surface at an acute angle did more damage than those
[ 31 ]
which struck lower down at a greater angle. This curious result was
explained by the fact that the ordinary cast-iron and chilled cast-iron shot
in the first case broke up into large pieces, which made considerable indents
into the surface of the armour, and in the latter case broke up into atoms,
causing visibly less effect. In consequence of this the new plate was
given a more rounded form, as seen in Fig. ii, so that projectiles should
strike at a greater angle. The weights of the port, left side, and right side
plates were respectively 19.7 tons, 16.4 tons, and 16.36 tons.
A. Trial against the Port Plate of the Second Chilled Iron Armour
Turret for two 5.9 In. (15 cm) Gnns.
(a) Attack of the Port Plate with 193 5.9 in. (15 cm) Long Shells.
Guns : Two 5.9 in, (15 cm) hooped guns C/72.

Shot : 5.9 in. (15 cm) long shell, filled, total weight about 61. i lb. (27.7 kg.)
Charge: 9.1 lb. (4.14kg) P.P., equivalent to 13.71b, (6.2kg.) at 1,093
yards (1,000 m.)
Striking velocity : 400 yards (366 m.)
Energy: 612 foot tons (189,46 mt.)
The stipulated 193 hits were obtained in two days with 200 rounds, of
which ^ struck the flatly curved part above the port, and | the part beneath
it, but in general the effort was made to distribute the hits equally over the
whole surface. Major Kiister says on page 20 of his report on the trial
" The result of this first part of the trial was completely
satisfactory, the turret at the end of the firing being practically
uninjured.
" At the 33rd shot a hit on the right edge of the right port (the
left one looking from the gun) broke off apiece about 2 in. wide and
deep, which injury, however, though the same spot was repeatedly
struck, was only increased to a small extent, and that only super-
ficially. The 70th round produced a fine superficial crack, starting
from the injured place and running towards the inside of the port.
" The
effect of the individual rounds was only recognisable on
the by oblique hits, causing indents about 0.08 in. deep

plate
otherwise the hit was unrecognisable except by a discoloration of
the part struck."
In view of this exceptionally favourable behaviour of the plate, it was

decided, before proceeding with the programme, to attack it with 5.9 in.
[ 32 ]
chilled iron shell so as to establish a comparison between it and the slighter

side plate which was to undergo the same ordeal with chilled shell, previous
to inflicting more severe injuries with the 6.7 in. shell.
(b.) Attack of the Port Plate with ten 5. 9in. (15 cm) Chilled Shells.
Gun : As before.
Distance : As before.
Shot: 5.9 in. (15 cm) chilled shell, weighted about 77.2 in. (35 kg) weight.
Charge: 10.6 in, (4.8 kg) P.P.
Striking velocity : 383.6 yards (350 m.)
Energy : 705.98 foot tons (218.57 "^t.)
All 10 rounds struck between the 2 ports.

These hits produced, as Major Kiister says, no visible effect.
was therefore decided to proceed with the programme, and

It firing
re-commenced with the 6.7 in. gun.
(c.) Attack of the Port Plate with twenty 6.7 in. (17 cm)
Chilled Shells.
Gun : Short naval 6.7 in. (17 cm) hooped gun.

Shot : 6.7 in. (17 cm) chilled shell, weighted, about 12 1.5 lb. (54.9 kg) weight.
Charge : 20
(9.10 kg) P.P., equivalent to 26.5
lb. lb. (12 kg) at 1,093 yards
(1,000 m.)
Energy: 1,478.05 foot tons (457.6 mt.)
The first shot struck 7.9 in. above the glacis plate on the middle line,
and produced no result.
Rounds 2 to 6 produced two short cracks running from the upper and
lower edge of the right port.
Rounds 7 and 8 lengthened and deepened these cracks, passing right

through the plate and separating the right corner, attributed by Major
Kiister to the defective condition of the upper girder of the sub-structure.
Rounds 9 to 20 were fairly distributed over the plate, their effect consisted
in a cracking off of the surface 10 in. long and wide and 0.4 in. deep. No
additional cracks were made.
(d.) Attack of the Port Plate with sixty-five 5.9 in. (15 cm)
Chilled Shells.* Details of Attack as under (b.)
The first eleven hits produced a through crack between the two ports,
This part of the firing was only carried out at the conclusion of the whole trial in July, 1874.
[ 33 ]
which ran from the edge of the left port to the lower border of the plate.
Rounds 12 to 47 increased the cracking and disintegration of the plate.
The 49th hit produced a vertical crack, running from the horizontal
crack to the lower edge of the plate. Nos. 50 to 65 increased the damage.
Portions of plate had been shaken loose on the inside, and had fallen down.
Summary The : plate had altogether received :
No. of hits. Projectile. Energy.
193 5-9 ill- (15 cm) Long Shell 611. 96 foot tons (189,46 mt.)
20 67 (17 ) Chilled Shell 1478.05 (457-6o )
75 5-9 (15 ..) .. 705-98 ,, (218,57 )
288 rounds with ... ... 200.615 foot tons (62,110 mt.) energy.
Nevertheless, in the opinion of the Committee, the breaching of the

plate was still far from being arrived at.
Major Kiister sums up (page 24) that the plate had displayed such a
high degree of tenacity that it would doubtless have still resisted a far
greater number of such blows.
" That, in addition, the plate had shown itself to a high degree
capable of resisting 6.7 in. armour piercing shell ; and, beyond
that, a very considerable number of 5.9 in. chilled shell, so that
the front plate seemed not only to have satisfied the programme,
but was capable of withstanding a far severer ordeal, and with
complete success could serve as a basis for future constructions of
this category of armour-plating both as regards form and thickness."
All the shot which hit broke up.
B. Trial against the Left Side Plate of Second Chilled Iron Armour
Turret for two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns.
Gun : Two 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped guns C/72.

Shot: 5.9 in. (15 cm) chilled shell, weighted, about 77.21b. (35 kg weight.)
Charge : 10.6 lb. (4.8 kg) P. P-
Energy : 705.98 foot tons (218,57 i"t.)
The hits were proportionately distributed over the whole plate, and
produced abrasions up to 0.3 in. in depth.
After the 12th shot, hair cracks connecting the points of impact were
:
C 34 J
formed. The 39th hit made a vertical crack from the upper to the lower
edge of the plate, separating the plate into two unequal parts. Hits
40 to 64 were placed on the larger portion and caused other two vertical
and horizontal through cracks. Beyond the cracks no effect was visible
on the inside.
The firing was continued against this plate until the conclusion of the
experiment.
Hits 65 to 103 produced cracks and abrasions up to 3.9 in. in

depth.
No. 104 hit dislodged small pieces of metal on the inside.

Nos. 105 to 133 produced a rapidly increasing disintegration of the
fractured parts of the plate, and at the
134th round, a projecting portion of the armour was raised up,

causing an opening through the plate.
C. Trial against tlie Right Side Plate of the Second Chilled Iron
Armour Turret for two 5.9in. (16 cm) Guns.
Details of attack as under B.
The right plate was harder than the left, and the abrasions in
consequence less.
The first through crack was produced by the 37th hit, and divided the
plate from top to bottom. Hits 38 64 produced two other through cracks,
vertical and horizontal, as well as a number of hair cracks.
The trial was discontinued after the 64th round, as this plate had
behaved under the fire exactly as the left one.
Summary of B and C
Although, in the case of theleft side plate, the number of
hits (150) assigned by the programme had not been reached, but
only 1 34, the Committee considered the behaviour of this plate was
favourable. They reported also that the requirement of 150 hits
was enormously high, and that the plate had received the last 70
hits under peculiarly unfavourable conditions, as, the roof plate
being injured, the proper supports were lacking. It is of interest
to note that the Committee, as the result of their observations,

recommended also for the side plates that the profile should be
made to correspond with that of the port plate, that is, more
[ 35 ]
perpendicular, or rounded at the bottom part and more sloped

towards the upper portion, because the formation of cracks, as
a rule, began with oblique hits.
No difference of behaviour between the softer left and harder

right plate was established.
All the shot broke up on striking.
D. Trial against the Roof Plate of the Second Chilled Iron

Armonr Turret for two 5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns.
Gun : Rifled experimental 1 1 in. (28 cm) mortar.

Elevation : 30.
Distance : 962 yards (880 m)
Shot: II in. (28 cm), long shell of 441 lb. (200 kg) weight, weighted.
Striking velocity : 107.8 yards (98.6 m).
Energy: 319.8 foot-tons (99 mt), equivalent to the energy of the 8.3 in.
(21 cm) shell at 2,732.5 yards (2,500 m).
Five hits were obtained from 45 shots.

Nos. I and 2 struck the sighting hood and had no result.
No. 3 made two through radial cracks to the edges of the plate.
No. 4 as I and 2.
No. 5 made two new radial cracks to the edges of the plate, so that it was
broken into 5 pieces.
Summary : In the opinion of the Committee, the roof plate had not
satisfied the requirements, and they recommended for subsequent
construction the use of wrought iron roof plates should be retained.
The general result of the trial as regards A to C is stated by Major

Kiister to be that not only had it been proved that chilled cast iron was
applicable in the fullest manner as a material for armour for revolving
turrets for land fortifications, but also that sufficient data had been obtained
for determining all the more important details of construction.
[ 36 ]
III Trials against Chilled Iron Armour for Coast Defences
in the Years 18734.
l.-Trial of the first Port Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery

for 8.3 in. (21 cm) Guns.
On Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau,
Sth December, 1873.
Fig. 12.
Already, in accordance
Profile of a Port Plate of the Chilled Iron Armour
with the results of the
Battery for 8.3 in. Guns,
Scale 1/40. preliminary trials in i86g,
the Prussian Government
had ordered from Mr.
Gruson chilled armour for
Langliitjensand. As some
difference of opinion pre-
vailed among engineers on
the subject of these trials,
a condition was attached

to the order that certain
portions of this battery
were to be subjected to
trial under conditions that
they must satisfy certain
tests.
These were that a port plate should be struck by 2 shots, one over the
other, close to the edge of the port, from the 11 in. gun with a charge
corresponding to that of 88. lb. (the service charge) at 820 yards, without
becoming unserviceable thereby, or that cracks formed should involve the
plate being unserviceable.
These trials had an entirely different aspect to the previous ones,

inasmuch as there it was a question of land fortification, for which armour
must be capable of withstanding a very great number of hits from medium
guns, whereas coast fortifications are only liable to be attacked by a small
number of shot, but these of the heaviest guns.
[ 37 ]
The subject o the trial consisted of an armoured battery like that

previously described, and was composed of two port and three pillar plates,
together with the pivot and cover-plates belonging thereto. The con-
struction is shown in Figs. 13 and 16 ; Fig. 12 shows the profile of the port
CO
06
CM
o.
ni
>.
bD
o
+-
-?
o
M .k a.
E
ni
-Si
5
1.
plate, the curve corresponding to that which had been shown to be the best
during the first trials at Tegel. The target was provided with a strong
wooden shield in front, which protected the attacking gun against broken
pieces of shot flying off.
[ 38 ]
The breadth of the port plate was 14.4 ft. below, and 10.8 ft. at the
top. The weight, 42 tons.
Gun : II in. (28 cm) gun.
Distance :
17.5 yards (16 m)'.
Shot : 1 1 in. (28 cm) chilled shell weighted, total weight, 512 lb. (232 kg).
Charge :
75 lb. (34 kg) P.P., equivalent to 88 lb. (40 kg) at 820 yards (750 m).
Velocity of impact: 420 yards (385 m).
Energy : 5,685 foot-tons (1,760 mt).
The effect of the first shot was a small and hardly perceptible indent
and a short hair crack, and exhibited in a surprising manner the extra-
ordinary reacting power of the material.
The effect of the second shot, which struck on exactly the same place,
was cracks a, b, c, about 0.08 in. broad, of which, however, only a was
visible at the back of the plate. Although the port plate had thus complied
with the conditions of the contract, it was decided, on account of the
interest attaching to the question, to place a third shot on the same spot,
which formed, in addition to a fine crack at the point of impact, the
crack e. f.
Summary : The plate had exceeded the conditions of the contract. As

however, the result of the trial had thrown no direct light on the
total resisting power of the material under prolonged attack, it was
decided to have a further trial against the second port plate, and
to represent the conditions of warfare by distributing the hits over
the surface of the plate.
All shot broke-to pieces on impact.
2. Trial of the Second Port Plate for a Chilled Iron Armour Battery
for 8.3 in. (31 cm) Onus, at Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau.
27th July and 21st August, 1874.
Scope and Programme of the Trial,
The trial of the second port plate was, in the strict sense of the word,
to be a test of the material, and the firing to be continued until the plate
was breached, without consideration of the accepted conditions under which

in war the attack of a coast battery would be made. It was, moreover,
arranged to ascertain the result after the loth hit, so as to enable a parallel
to be formed with the earlier trials carried out in England.

[ 39 J
The weight of the trial plate was 44 tons.
Gun : 1 1 in. (28 cm) gun.

Distance : 17.5 yards (16 m).
Shot : II in. (28 cm) chilled shell, weighted; total weight, 512 lb. (232 kgj.
a
bo
o
+j
o
JZ
a.
Charge : 75 lb. (34 kg) P.P., equivalent to 88 lb. (40 kg) at 820 yards (750 m)
Velocity on impact : 420 yards (385 m).
Energy : 5,690 foot-tons (1760 mt).
C2
[ 40 ]
The sequence, as well as the points of striking of the various hits, are
shown in fig. 14. The two first shots, which struck the plate at angles of
79'^ and 52, had no effect whatever; the third (at an angle of 36^*) caused
crack a, visible at the back of the plate.
The fourth hit produced crack b, under a, splitting the plate into two
halves, also crack c.
Rounds 5 to 10 made an external crack d, and an abrasion about

3 in. deep near the left upper edge of the port.
The condition of the plate after the loth round was observed. At the
back of the plate cracks a, b and c were visible.
The trial was considered (Kiister, page 47) to be more severe than
that made with a wrought iron plate in England in 1871, which was judged
to have shown a more than needful resistance when it withstood nine rounds
from a 12 inch gun, with a total energy of 43,000 foot tons. In that
trial the two external layers of the English armour were perforated by all
the shot, and the third injured, whilst the chilled armour had received
no material injury on the inside, and had in no way lost its inter-
connexion.
"We," says Major Kiister in conclusion, " may state, without

hesitation, that a port plate of the construction and dimensions
as in the experimental plate, would fulfil all probable require-
ments of actual power of resistance. This
warfare as regards its
favourable judgment," he adds, page 48, " was further confirmed,

and that to a degree beyond all expectation, by the subsequent
trial of the 21st August, 1874."
The conditions of attack were the same as in the first part of the
firing. Round 1 1 (continued from the first part) cracked the plate through
from the point of striking to the under edge of the plate. No. 12 increased
this crack. No. 13 dislodged a small piece on the left upper quarter of the
plate. Nos. 14 and 15 produced cracks on the inside of the plate, mostly
at the lip of the port. No. 16 broke off a narrow strip from the adjoining
pillar plate. 17 to 19 remained without visible effect.
After the 19th, round the firing was suspended at the request of the
Committee, on account of the demolition of the protecting shields, the plate
having withstood nearly double the number of hits which probability

assigned as likely to strike it.
Following this the middle pillar plate was tested, one shot being fired
[ 41 ]
at it without effect, excepting a slight indent. This pillar plate was

subsequently used in the construction of the battery at Langliitjensand, as
the effect of the hit was so slight that the point where it struck was with
difficulty discoverable.
Summary : The plate had withstood nineteen 1 1 in. chilled shells with a
total energy of 108,010 foot-tons, without suffering any material
alteration of form. It is true that the second series of rounds had
dislodged certain portions which had been loosened by cracks.
Nevertheless, the armour must, in its subsequent condition, be
considered to have without question retained its protecting power,
which the Experimental Committee admitted.
The trial was, as already stated, a crucial test of the material

and not a trial under conditions of warfare, and the result may be
summarized that the 8.3 in. battery had shown a considerable
surplus of resisting power against the attacking guns of that
date.
3. Trial of a Roof-plate for a Chilled Iron Armour Battery for
8.3 in. (21 cm) Guns.
2 1 St August, 1874.
Scope and Programnne of the Trial.
Firing against the roof plate was not carried out, as in the Tegel trial,
with a 1 1 in. mortar, but with an in. gun, the attack being arranged to
correspond with the probabilities of hitting armour in coast defences.
2,190 yards was chosen as the attacking distance, and the corresponding
charge and angle of impact determined.
At that distance the angle of descent of the 1 1 in. shell is 5, and the
trial plate was inclined to that extent to the front, the angle of impact on
the curve surface being about 20.
The trial plate was 10.8 ft. wide by 16.4 ft. long. The greatest thick-
ness, which was in front, was i .08 ft., and from the centre to the back the
thickness was uniformly 0.7 ft.
Weight of plate 28.4 tons.

Gun : 1 1 in. (28 cm) gun.
Distance : 17.5 yards (i6 m).
[ 42 ]
Shot : II in. (28 cm) chilled shell, weighted ;

total weight, 51 1.6 lb. (232 kg).
Charge : 57.3 lb. (26 kg) P P., equivalent to 88 lb. (40 kg) at 2,186 yards
(2,000 m).
Velocity of impact : 366.5 yards (335 m).
Energy: 4,306 foot-tons (1,333 mt).
The target made is shown by Fig. 15.
Fig. ij.
Profile and Position of Hits of the Trial Roof Plate of the Chilled
Iron Armour Battery for 8.3 in. (21 cm) Guns. 21/8/74.
Scale: 1.40.
Five hits in all were made ; of these the two first only starred the
surface, the third cracked the plate as shown, the fourth cracked the plate
into two parts, the fifth made no new crack but extended the previous ones
to the under surface, and from crack 4 broke off a piece weighing about
2.2 lb. which fell through.
Summary : The Committee declared the plate to have displayed most

satisfactory powers of resistance, and moreover, considering the
small target exhibited by the roof-plate (-^ of the port plate), it
was improbable that a ship would be able to place so many hits
upon it.
All the shot broke up on striking.

[ 43
.s
[ 44 J
IV. Conclusions.
The Gruson armour had in the above described trials exhibited so
striking a superiority to the guns, of that date that important orders for
turretsand batteries were received from the Prussian Government.
Not only were all those valuable properties attributed by Gruson to his
material shown by the trial to be present, but others were brought to light
which, with respect to the applicability of the metal for armour, were of
not less value. The trial had clearly demonstrated the extreme hardness
of the metal, on which all the impinging shot glanced and broke up, being
thrown off at large or nearly right angles.
From this followed the great advantage that the greater part of the
energy of impact was not given off on the plate, but was expended in
breaking the shot into fragments.

The hoped for effect of the soft layer under the hard surface was also
clearly demonstrated by the fact that only continued firing produced cracks
in the armour. In the same way, the absence of effect of such powerful
blows can only be explained by an unusual elasticity of the armour material,

and, in fact, experiments have shown that the chilled iron does possess this
to a high degree.
Whilst, on the one hand, this elasticity distributes the blow from the
point of impact over the whole mass, so it also absorbs in part the energy
of the projectile, whose effect is in consequence considerably reduced.
The curved form of the plates was shown to be highly advantageous,
for not only did it tend to effect the glancing of the shot, but also in
furtherance of the tendency of the metal only to crack radially, assists in
preventing loospned portions of the plate from being forced through to the
interior ; in fact, it was observed that pieces already loosened were, by
subsequent hits, firmly wedged again into place.
And, finally, the weight and thickness of the plates, which at first were
thought to be defects, were shown to be advantages, as completely
separated pieces of the armour plates, after continued firing, were not
displaced from their positions, and the gunners within the battery remained
in complete security.
As already stated, the trial of the first Tegel turret had disclosed the
remarkable fact that chilled shells striking normally were shivered into
atoms without causing injury of importance; but if the shells struck at an
acute angle they broke up into a few large pieces, which produced surface
abrasions to a greater or less extent. In consequence, the flat profile curve
of the first Tegel turret was abandoned in the second, and as the also here
shown analogous appearance disclosed, the rounded curved profile was
adopted seen in fig. 17 p. 48.
[ 46 1
CHAPTER III.
Firing Trials of G-rusou Chilled Cast Iron Armour

during the years 1882-1886-
TDETWEEN 1874 and 1882 no firing trials were made against Gruson
armour, as the results obtained had furnished sufficient data by
which to determine the necessary dimensions to resist the increasing
gun charges.
These were approximately determined by means of an empirical
formula, derived from the results of previous trials. In the formula
a = 0.294 /y/ foot-tons, d is thickness of armour in ft. and foot-tons the

energy of the shot in foot-tons. The above formula applies to coast fortifi-
cations. In the case of interior fortifications the resulting dimensions for

the various calibres required to be increased 10 %.
Very soon, however, in presence of the entirely altered conditions due
to changesin the velocity and quality of material of the projectiles, it
became a question whether the formula would still be of value. In 1874,

for instance* the heaviest projectile with which coast armour was subject
to attack was the ri in. shell with an energy of 5,685 foot-tons now we ;
had to deal with the 12 in. with 16,150 foot-tons energy, entirely excluding
greater calibres, the employment of which will, probably, always be
limited.
At that time, also, chilled shells were used, as their effect was greater
than that of the soft steel shell ; now, hardened steel shells were employed,
with which chilled shells were no longer able to compete.
As at the close of the last decade, important orders were received

from Austria, Italy, and Holland for armour at the Gruson Factory, renewed
trials of the metal were projected. These trials appeared to be
desirable from another point of view, as after the manufacture of these
heavy armour plates had commenced, it appeared impossible to avoid
[ 46 ]
the formation of shallow fissures on the hard surface during the operation
of casting.
Although it could be anticipated that these cracks, on account of their

slight depth, would have no prejudicial effect on the plate, it seemed not
the less desirable to determine this point by firing trials.
These trials fell into two series : (a) siege guns against inland
fortifications, and {i) heavy naval guns against coast defences.
I. Firing Trials against Chilled Cast Iron Armour for Inland Fortifi-
cations, in the years 1882-1885,
The 5.9 in. hooped gun was used for these trials, being considered, as
in the case of the Tegel experiments, the largest calibre applicable for siege
purposes.
The trials formed a complete series in themselves, and showed how

the chilled armour, by improving the profile given to it, was able to recover
the superiority against shot, endangered by the improvement in steel shell,
without increase of size.
1. Trial of Side-Plate for a Chilled Turret for two 4.7 in. (12cni) Guns
26,7 calibres long, at Gruson's Firing Ground at Buctau.
23rd December, 1882, loth January, and 27th April, 1883.
The object of these trials was to ascertain whether the so-called

chill cracks occasionally to be found in chilled armour had any influence
on its endurance. The firing should therefore be continued until light
be thrown on this point through the formation of fresh cracks.

Target : A side plate of a turret for two 4.7 in. guns, containing chill
cracks of the nature mentioned, and being rejected by one of the

foreign officers inspecting the construction, was selected for trial.
The construction of the turret in question corresponded nearly

to shown in Fig. 4.
that The cupola had an outside diameter of
17 ft., and consisted of a port-plate, four side plates, and a roof -plate
in two halves. These both together were 10.5 ft. in diameter, and at
the joining edge had a sighting embrasure for use with a manhole in
the roof. The height inside of the turret from the upper edge of
the plates to the roller path was 11.8 ft. Below the roller ring the
C 47 ]
space was closed by a masonry arch, differing from the arrangement

shown in Fig. 4. The glacis armour was formed of six plates of
chilled iron. Both guns were placed in minimum port-carriages C/80

(Fig. 5), the axis of the bores being 4.4 ft. apart, 25 elevation,
10 depression, and 3 lateral training could be given to the guns.
Turret and carriages were worked by hand gear, a complete

revolution of the turret being made by four men in one minute.
The trial plate was placed between two strong iron blocks of
nearly similar weight, supported by masonry and concrete, on the
same level as the gun.
A wooden screen with a small aperture for the passag'e of the

shot was placed in front as a protection against shot splinters (compare
Fig. 29). In the plate was a chill crack a about 18 in. long by
0.08 in. wide {see Fig. 17), and this crack was filled in with thin strips of
sheet iron, so as to be able to notice any widening which might be

brought about by the firing.
The plate also contained an irregular chill seam b which arose

from a crack in the mould ; it was 0.06 in. deep and 0.08 in. broad.
Lastly, beneath b was a deeper crack b' about 0.47-0.51 in. deep
and 0.08 in. wide. Before commencing the firing the extremities of
the cracks were marked.
Expanded, the surface of the plate measured 10.5 ft. horizontally
and 6.8 ft. vertical. Its actual perpendicular height was 4.8 ft.
maximum thickness 1.5 ft., 1 3.8 tons weight.
Gun: Short 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped gun 23 calibres long, mounted in
Prussian half-slide carriage.
Distance :
24 yards (22 m).
Shot : Gruson and Ternitz solid shot and steel shell 2,5 to 2,7 calibres long,
empty.
Charge : 17.1 lb. (775 kg) seven channelled P. P.
Velocity of Impact : 488 yards (446 m), with shot weighing 76 lb. (34,5 kg).
Energy: 1,129.5 foot-tons.
Round No. 1
Shot : Gruson's 5.9 in. hardened steel shell 78.3 lb., empty.
Point struck : Centre line of plate, 28 in. above lower edge.
Angle of impact: 81. (By angle of impact is meant the smallest
angle between the shot's trajectory and the tangent to the curve
of the surface of the plate at the point struck.)
: :
[ 48 ]
Effect :
An indent, o.i in. of maximum depth, formed within a bright
round mark in. of about 6
diameter, in which some nearly
concentric circular rings of compression were seen.
The plate was entirely uninjured, the cracks a and 3' being
neither lengthened nor widened.
The shot broke up in numerous large pieces.
Bound No. 2
Shot: As in round No. i.
Point struck : 6.3 in. left from the centre line.
30 in. over the lower plate edge.

Angle of impact: 79 10'.
Effect : Exactly the same as No. i, an indent being formed of maximum
depth of 0.08 in. Crack b^ showed no change, and the plate itself
was in all respects intact.
The shot broke up into numerous pieces.
Bound No. 3
Shot :
Gruson's 5.9 in. hardened steel shell, 78.3 lb., empty.
Point struck : The centre line.
37 in. above the lower edge.
-Angle of impact: 68 40'.
Fig. 17. *
Profile and Position of hits of the Trial Side-Plate of the Chilled Iron
Armour Turret for two 4.7 in. (12 cm) Guns. 23/12/82, lo/i and 27/4/83.
Scale : 1.40.
Effect : The same as in rounds i and 2, an indent 00.8 in. deep, marked
* NOTE. The trial-plate, like all others used later on, was divided into squares by vertical
and horizontal lines. These lines are shown in the sketches as they make our explanations more
easily understood.
The surface of the Plate is shown as if it was perfectly flat.
[ 49 ]
by a bright spot 6 in. in diameter. The compression rings were

again noticeable.
The old cracks were unchanged, and the plate intact.
The shot broke up.
As the crack 5' had been shown to be absolutely without prejudicial

effect on the plate, crack a was subjected to a similar, and even more
severe trial.
Eonnd No. 4.
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 26 in. to left of centre line.
46 in. above lower plate edge.

5 in. under crack a.
Angle of impact, 50" 5'.
Effect : The was an indent 0.06 in. deep and about 3 in.
sole result
in diameter, marked by an oval bright spot which, however, had
no rings of compression, as before noticed. Crack a was

unchanged, the sheet-iron filling-pieces entirely closing the crack
as before the hit.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 5
Shot : as before.
Point struck : 26 in. left of the centre line.

6 in. above lower end of crack a.
Angle of impact : 34 20'.
The centre of the part struck was marked by a scratch on the

iron filling-wedge and edge of the crack about 0.08 in. deep and
0.04 in. long. In addition, a bright spot about 4 in. broad,
going upwards on the plate with an indent about 0.0 1 in. deep.
Crack a entirely unaltered, and still fully closed by the iron wedge.
Round No. 6: loth January, 1883.
Shot : Gruson's soft forged 5.9 in. solid steel shot, 80 lb. in weight.
Point struck : g in. right of centre line.

Angle of impact : 82.
Effect : A bright splash 8 in, in diameter ; no indent and no marks of

compression.
Shot broke up.
:
[ 50 ]
Round No. 7
Shot : Gruson's forged and hardened 5.9 in. solid steel shot, weight
80 lb.
Point struck : 34 in. left of centre line.

3 in. right of crack a.
Angle of impact: 41? 20'.
Effect : A bright splash ; no visible indent ; crack a unaltered.
As it did not seem that crack a would be changed by further

firing, the remaining rounds were placed on the middle line of
the plate.
Round No. 8
Shot : Gruson's 5.9 in. hardened solid steel shot, weight 86.7 lb.
Point struck : 15 in. left of the centre line.

Effect : An indent 6 in. in diameter, and 0.08 in. deep, a few com-
pression rings visible, also a fine hair crack c 6 in. long,
beginning close above the point of impact, and running to that
of round No. 2, [see dotted line in Fig. 17).
Shot broke up.
Round No. 9:
Shot : As in round 8.

Effect: A bright splash, extending to mark 8. No indent or com-
pression marks. Hair crack c unaltered.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 10:

Shot: Gruson's hardened steel shell, weight 81.6 lb., empty.
27.6 in. above lower plate edge.
Effect : Crack c closed up. Impact mark 0.2 in. deep, and a fine hair
crack running into b^ 4 in. long, but not apparently connecting
with c.
Shot broke up.

[ 51 1
Round No. 11:

Shot : Gruson's 5.9 in. hardened steel shot, weight 81.2 lb.
28 in. above lower plate edge on No. 10.
Effect : Crack c unaltered and closed up. Impact mark deepened to

0.3 in.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 12
Shot : Gruson's 5.9 in. hardened steel shot, weight 81 lb.

Angle of impact : 84 30 '.
Effect : A bright splash crack c unchanged. ;
A new fine hair crack ^ 12 in. long, beginning 5 in. left of
the middle line, and in the centre of chill crack b^.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 13:
Shot Gruson's 5.9
: in. hardened steel shot, 81.2 lb.
Point struck 5 in. : left of centre line.

above lower plate edge.
40 in.

Effect : A bright splash ; crack d lengthened about 28 in.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 14:
Shot : Ternitz 5.9 in. steel shell,* empty, weight 82 lb.
Point struck : 18 in. right of the centre line.

Angle of impact: 78-
Effect : Indent 2.3 in. long, 1 in. wide, and 0.2 in. deep. No com-
pression markings were visible.
The shot broke up.
Round No. 15
Shot: Ternitz 5.9 in. steel shell, empty, weight 81.8 lb.
Point struck : 16 in. right of centre line.
* The steel shell of the Ternitz works is the armour-piercing shell adopted in Austria,
and displays superior hardness
Untempered steel shell was not used subsequent to this, so that by the term " steel shell
tempered shell is to be understood.
:
[ 52 ]

Effect : A round mark i in. in diameter and 0.09 in. deep. No
concentric lines.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 16
Shot : Ternitz 5.9 in. steel sheel, empty, weight 82.71b.

Effect: Indent 1.8 in. in diameter, and 0.2 in. deep. No concentric
lines.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 17
Shot : Ternitz 5.9 in. steel shell, empty, weight 83.1 lb.
33 in. above lower edge.

Effect : Impact mark 2 in. in diameter, and 0.2 in. deep, 2 parallel
hair cracks e and f 4 in. long towards mark 2, and one g 3.5 to
4 in. long, towards mark 15.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 18:

Shot : Ternitz 5.9 in. steel shell, empty, weight 83.1 lb.

31 in. above lower edge,
between hits i, 3, and 17.

Effect : A mark 2 in. in diameter and 0.3 in. deep.
The crack made by round 10 was extended to the lower edge
of the plate, and that caused by round 13 extended to the upper
plate edge, thus forming a vertical crack which passed right
through the plate and divided it into two halves. The lengthening
of the crack caused by round 18 is shown in Fig. 1 7 by dotted lines.
The shot broke up.
Summary : With formation of crack d breaking the plate into two halves,
the object of the trial was reached, for as this crack took its
departure from the middle of the chill crack b\ (which was 0.5 in.
deep) it may with certainty be considered that the chill crack was
entirely without influence in determining the formation of d.
[ 53 ]
It is further noticeable that 3 hits fell in close proximity to

the chill crack a without either lengthening or widening it. This
want of influence on the part of the chill cracks which, considering
their very small depth in proportion to the thickness of the plate,
was reasonably to be expected was confirmed by all subsequent
experiments.
As regards the behaviour of the plate the following is to be

noted
By examination of the target it was found that the plate,

through failure of the front supporting struts, had moved about
0.2 in. towards the front and, in consequence, had lost contact with
the lateral supports.
This, probably, had had a very great influence in diminishing

the resisting powers of the plate during the later rounds, a con-
jecture which had all the more weight, inasmuch as the upper
edge of the plate was not supported from the first, and, con-
sequently, finally was quite free to move.
However, notwithstanding this unfavourable condition, the
plate had withstood 18 hits, with an energy of 20,329.6 foot tons,
of which 14, with a total energy of 15,810.9 foot tons, had struck
within a small pentagonal space 2.5 square feet in size, before
a through crack was formed.
The 1 8th round produced the first through crack, but the
plate was in other respects so completely intact that, judging by
the results of the Tegel trial, it would still take a long time to
breach it.
All the shot broke up on impact, but the Ternitz shot showed
considerable superiority to the Gruson shot, as they effected
actual, though small, indents into the plate, which had not
been previously observed either with Gruson steel or chilled
shell.
D
[ 54 ]
2. Trial of a Port-Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery for eight

5.9 in. (15 cm) Guns, 23 calihres in length.

i6th July, 1883.
Object and Programme of the Trial.
Test of the armour-metal by means of five hits concentrated on a

small space on the plate from the 5.9 in. hooped gun, in accordance with
the terms of the government contract.
Target. The armour battery for which the trial-plate was intended
differed chiefly from the construction shown in Figs. 2 and 3,
in that the port plate was divided into two halves {see Fig. 18).
The battery was composed of 16 half port plates, g pillar,
and the necessary foundation, pivot, and roof plates.
The breadth of the port half plates at the level of the centre
of the port was 5.6 ft., that of the pillar plates 2 ft., and of the
roof plate 4.6 ft. The latter had a length of 14. 1 ft.^ and rested
in rear on so-called support plates, borne on one side by iron
columns and on the other by masonry pillars. The space between
led to the casemates. The roof plates were protected by masonry
and earth, and the height of the battery from base to upper edge
of the front was 9.2 ft. The guns were mounted in minimum
port-carriages C/80. The distance between port and port was
13. 1 ft., angle of elevation 25, depression 10, and training 50.
The target was constructed as if part of the battery, and

consisted of two half port plates, a pivot block, two pillar, and
three roof plates, all reposing on both sides against masonry.
In front therewas a concrete glacis up to the port, and a stout
wooden screen in front was placed to catch splinters of shot {see
Fig. 29).
The half port plate subjected to attack had on the curve

a dimension of 5.9 ft. horizontally and 8.9 ft. vertically; the
perpendicular height was 6.2 ft., maximum thickness 1.9 ft., and
weight 10.3 tons.
Gun : Italian 5.9 in., 23 calibre gun, G.C.R, (ret.) in Gruson's minimum
port carriage C/80.
Distance : 42.6 yards (39 m), the gun being directly opposite the centre of
the port.
Charge: 16.3 lbs., Fossano progressive powder, 0.8 I in.
[ 55 ]
Shot: Krupp steel 2.8 calibre shell, weight 85.3 lb. (38.7 kg) filled.
Velocity of impact : about 454.7 yards per second.
Energy of impact : 1 1 14.4 foot-tons.
Round No. 1
Shot : As above, weighted with sand.
Point struck : ig in. from the line OA.
3.5 in. above the line OB.
Effect : Indent 2 in. in diameter, and 0.4 in. deep.
Shot broke up into numerous pieces.
Eonnd No. 2
Shot : As before :
Point struck : 19.7 in. from the line OA.

4. in. under the line OB.
Effect: An oval indent, 7.4 in. long, about 2 in. broad and 1.2 to 1.4 in.
deep, round which was a flat surface abrasion about 0.2 in. deep,
5 fine cracks, a down to left (2 in. deep) ; d, 3.5 in. long,
1.2 in. deep ; c, hair crack 11 in. long; d, hair crack 6 in. long,
and in the lip of the port a short hair crack /.
Shot broke up.

Fig. 18.
Profile and Diagram of hits of the Trial Port Plate of the Chilled
Iron Armour Battery for Eight 5.9 in. (15 cm^ Guns. 16/7/83.
Scale : 1.40
fl ' " ^1 \
D2
[ 56 ]
Round No. 3:
Shot : Krupp steel 5.9 in. shell, filled, weight 85.3 lbs.
Point of impact : 31.5 in. from line OA

6.8 in. above line OB
Angle of impact : 61 '^ 30'.

Effect : A round indent 2.4 in. in diameter, and 0.6 in. deep. A fine
crack 7.4 in. long and 0.6 in., reaching to hit No. 2. Hair crack
/, 5 in- long.
Shell exploded.
Bound No. 4:
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 30.4 in. from line OA.
4. in. under line OB.
Effect : Indent o.i in. maximum depth. No cracks.
Shell exploded.
Round No. 5:
Shot : Krupp steel shell filled with sand, weight 85.3 lb.
Point struck : 26.8 in. from line O A,

on the line B,
and nearly in the centre of the four previous hits.

Effect : Indent 0.2 in. deep. Hair crack h 4 in. long. Crack /
lengthened about 21.7 in. {g), also a somewhat widened. At
back of plate a crack in the direction a g, which, however,
seemed not to connect on the outside with either a nor i.
Shot broke up.
Summary: The plate had withstood five hits concentrated on the small
space of 0,86 square ft. ; and consequently had fulfilled the
conditions of the contract. All the shot broke up, the base and
cylindrical part in many pieces, the head and point were shivered
in shapeless atoms, coloured blue by the heat.
No superiority in effect of the filled over the weighted shell

could be observed.
[ 57 ]
3. -Trial of a Port Plate of a ChlUed Iron Armour Battery for six
5.9 in. (15 cm) Gnns, 23 calibres long.
1 8th August, 1884.
Proof of the armour metal by five rounds from the 5.9 in. hooped gun
corresponding to the terms of the contract with the government.
Contrary to No. 2 trial, the hits to be distributed over a larger part of

the plate's surface, so as to note the difference of result.
Target : The armour battery for which the trial-plate was intended
was of exactly similar construction to that described under
No. 2, only differing in the number of guns, and was composed
of twelve half port-plates, seven pillar, and the corresponding
foundation pivot and roof-plates. In other respects the des-
cription previously given applies also to this battery.
The target, to be attacked as in actual warfare, was

composed of two half port-plates, one pivot-block, two pillar^
and three roof-plates. It was supported as in No. 2, and

protected by a similar front screen against splinters. The right
half port-plate was attacked. Its dimensions were the same as
under No. 2. Weight 10.3 tons.
The same gun, charge, and distance were employed,
Ronnd No. 1:
Shot: Krupp steel 5.9 in. (15 cm) shell weighted with sand to
85.3 lb.

8.3 in. under line OB.
Effect : A bright splash, 5.5 in. in diameter and 0.4 in. maximum
depth ; a piece of the steel point was found in the metal near
the centre of the splash ; other small portions of the shot were
similarly found near the point of impact.
The shot broke up into numerous minute pieces.

:
[ 58 ]
Fig. 19.
Profile and Diagram of of the Plate under trial for the Chilled
hits
Iron Armour Battery for six 5.9 in. (15 crn) Guns. 1 8/8/84.
Scale : 1.40
Round No. 2
Shot : As before.
4.7 in. underline OB.
Angle of impact : 74" 30'.
Effect Indent 5.9 in. diameter and
: 2.8 in. deep. Round the
same a surface abrasion about 26.4 in. diameter, and maximum
depth 0.8 in. A fine crack a from the point struck to 4 in.
from the right edge.

The back of the plate was intact.
Shot broke up ; the pieces of shell showed very great hard-

ness, exceeding that of the first round.
Bound No 3:
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 60 in. from the OA. line
10 in. above the OB. line
Within the abrasion caused by Round II.

Effect : Indent of 6 in. diameter and 2 in. depth ; round the same
an abrasion of 0.8 in. maximum depth, joining that formed
[ 59 ]
by Round 2. A crack b from impact point to crack a ; a

vertical crack c, stretching to 8 in. from upper edge ; a crack
d in the direction of hit II.
In addition, two radial hair cracks at hit i, and one at the lower edge
of the abrasion formed by Round III.
Back of plate : Crack a was visible, running to 7.4 in. from the
right edge ; under this a fine horizontal crack 14.8 in. long, about
the level of Shot II., but not visible in front [see Fig. 20).
Shot broke up. Hardness about the same as Round I.
Bound No. 4:
Shot : As before, but filled.
Point struck : 18 in. from the line OA.

i8'5 in. above the line OB.
Angle of impact : 42 38
Effect: Mark blackened by powder, 79 in. in diameter, at lower
right part of which a flat indent of 3T in. diameter and 0*4 in.
depth; no abrasion. Two radial hair cracks, e and f, 8'7 in.

and 5'5 in. long. Back of plate unchanged.
Shell exploded.
Fig. 20.
Back of the Trial Plate of the Chilled Iron A rmour Battery for six 5.9 in.
(15 cwi) guns, after the fifth shot, \'&l'iil'&\.
Scale : 1.40
Bound No. 5
Krupp's 5.9 in. (15 cm) steel shell, weight 84.1 lb-, burster 1.3 lb.
Point of impact: 24 in. from the line O A.

13.4 in. above the line O B.
Effect : Flat indent 4 in. in diameter, and 0.5 in. deep.

Hair crack/, lengthened to hit III.
[ 60 ]
A fine crack g, 9.2 in.
Back of plate unaltered.

Shell exploded.
Summary The : plate had complied with the conditions, but no parallel
could be drawn with trial No. 2, although the conditions of attack
were apparently the same. The indents, and also the effects of
the individual hits as for instance, rounds 2 and 3 were
unexpectedly great, so that the suspicion was entertained that the
armour [plate was softer than that tested on the 16/7/83. This,
however, was refuted by the test pieces taken on casting the plate,
and also round No. i, notwithstanding its greater angle of impact,
gave such a less effect that undoubtedly there were differences in
the quality of the shot.

The superior effect of rounds 2 and 3, in comparison with
the trial of the previous year, pointed to a better quality of
projectile. All the projectiles broke up on striking, the filled
shell having less effect than those not charged.
4.Trial of a Glacis Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret for

two 23-2 calibre 4.7 in. Guns.

1 2th February, 1884.
Object and Programme of Trial.
Test of the plate by five shots from the 5.9 in. hooped gun, as also of
the dimensions prescribed for the armour.
Target : The turret for which the plate under trial was destined
corresponded in dimensions and construction to the turret
previously described for two 4.7 in. guns, 26.7 calibres long.
^'"
'^"
The glacis armour was composed of
Profile of the Glacis-Plate for
"
the Chilled Armour Turret for
two 5.9 in. Guns. The maximum diameter of the glacis
armour was 23.9 ft. Each plate had an
extreme breadth of 10.2 ft., measured on
the chord.
The other dimensions are given in the

Fig. 21.
The trial plate was fixed between two

-i- cast-iron supporting-plates resting against
[ 61 ]
masonry, the lower part being protected by granite blocks, and security
against shot splinters was given by the usual wooden screen in front.
The weight of the trial plate was 10.5 tons.
Gun : Italian 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped gun, 23 calibres long G. C. R. (ret)
in a Gruson minimum-port carriage, C/80.

Distance : 49.2 yards.
Shot : Krupp steel sheel, 2.8 calibres, weight about 85.3 lb.
Charge : 16.3 lb. progressive Fossano powder 0.8 in.
Striking velocity :
454.7 yards per second.
Striking energy : 1 1 14.4 foot-tons.
Fig. 22.
The Glacis Plate for an Armour Turret for two 4.7 m. (12 cni) Guns
after the 6th round. 1 2/2/84.
From a Photograph.
Round ]Vo. 1:
Shot: Krupp steel shell, 2.8 calibres, weight about 85.3 lb , weighted
with sand.
Point struck: The shot struck 17.7 in. in front of the armour on the
glacis, glanced, and then grazed the plate 6.3 in. above the
upper edge of the glacis.
Effect : A long splash.

Shot broke up.
Bound No. 3:
Shot As before. :
[ 62 ]
Point struck . 2.4 in. left, near the centre line.
2.4 in. above the glacis edge.

Angle of impact: 41 25'
Effect : The only result was a bright splash of o-2 in. maximum depth.
No hair cracks found.

Shot broke up.
Round No. 3:
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 1 1 in. right, near centre line.
3.2 in. above edge of glacis.
Angle of impact : 38 40'
Effect : A bright splash of 0.4 in. maximum depth ; four star-shaped

hair cracks of 6 in., greatest length round point struck ; also,
after Round No. 3, tvio hair cracks, 4 in. long, showed at Hit 2.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 4:
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 12.6 in. left from the centre line.
Effect : The shot struck the upper edge of the covering glacis, making
a cavity there 2.8 in, deep, also an indent 0.4 in. deep on the plate ;
four short hair cracks, of which one connected with hits IV. and II.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 5:
Shot : As above.
0.8 in. above glacis edge.
Effect: A cavity 3'i in. deep in the upper edge of the covering glacis.
Indent on plate about 0"4 in. greatest depth.
Hair crack formed by hit 3 lengthened, joining hits III. and V.

This was the only crack whose depth could be probed.
Its greatest depth was 1.8 in.
Also two short hair cracks.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 6:
Shot : As before, charged.
r 63 ]
Point struck : 3.5 in. right of the centre line.

5.5 in. above glacis edge,
(between hits II. and III.).
Effect : Indent, in which was a sharp chisel mark 0.3 in. in greatest
depth ; below to the right a slight abrasion 0.2 in. deep. Two
fine hair cracks.
The effect of this hit was evidently somewhat greater than

the previous ones.
Shell burst.
Sumniary : The resistance of the plate had proved amply sufficient.
Of the fine hair cracks formed, only one could be measured

with a fine probe. Its mean depth was 1.2 in., maximum 1.8 in.
The smaller effect of the shot on the armour compared with

the previous trials showed without question that the effect varies
in inverse ratio with the size of the angle of impact.
Trials made at the same time against coast armour confirmed

this, and in consequence the profile shown in Fig. 25 was
adopted, which, departing from the previous experience,
approaches that used in the first plates tried at Tegel.
The shot broke up as in the earlier trials into small pieces,

showing an uncommonly hard material, which could not be
touched with a file.
5. Trial of a Port Plate of a CMUed Iron Armonr Turret for two

4.7 m. (12 cm) Guns, 33.5 Calibres long.

28th August, 1884.
Test of the material by five shots from the 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped
gun.
The plate belonged to the cupola of the same turret, of which a glacis
plate was tried in the last experiment. It was fixed with two
side and a roof-plate, so that the whole target formed nearly a
half turret. At the back the target was supported by masonry
pillars, tied to the plates by three cast-iron struts.
A wooden screen with earth was provided in front to catch shot splinters.
:
[ 64 ]
At the level of the port the plate had a radial thickness of 1.7 ft. Its
greatest expanded width was 10.6 ft.; height, 6.9 ft.; per-
pendicular height, 4.9 ft. ; weight 14.6 tons.
Gun: Italian, 23 calibre, 5.9 in. (15 cm), hooped gun, on Gruson
minimum port-carriage, C/80.
Distance : 49.2 yards, the gun being normally opposite the centre of
the plate.
Shot : Krupp 2.8 calibre steel shell, weight about 85.3 lbs. ; also Gruson
steel shell, and solid steel shot.
Charge: 16.3 lb. progressive powder, Fossano, 0.8 i in.
Striking velocity About 4S4.7 yards per second.

:
Striking energy: About 11 14.4 foot tons.

Round No. 1
Shot : Krupp steel shell, weighted to 85.3 lb.
Point struck : 11.8 in. left of the centre line.
20.5 in. above lower edge of the plate.

Effect : An indent about 8 in. in diameter and 3.5 in. deep. From
this to the port a splintering of the surface 4.3 in. in greatest
depth. No crack visible on the exterior of the plate.

The back of the plate showed a fine horizontal crack 15.7 in.
long, beginning at the level of the part struck at the

port and running to the right {see Fig. 24).
Shot broke up, exhibiting extreme hardness of material.
Fig. 23.
Profile and Diagram of of the trial Port Plate of the Chilled
hits
Armour Turret for two 4.7 in. (12 cvi) Guns. 28/8/84.
Scale : 1.40.
L 65 J
Bound No. 2
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 12.6 in. right of centre line.
34.7 in. over lower plate edge.

Angle of impact: ']0 35'-
Effect : Indent 8 in. in diameter and 1.2 in. deep; from above down
to this an unimportant abrasion, 3 radial hair cracks, of which
one, , stretched 7.1 in. down to the left.
Back of the plate : the horizontal crack was lengthened

about 2 in. in the direction of the lower edge.
Shot broke up.

Ronnd No. 3
Shot : Krupp shell, as before, filled.
Point struck : 7. 1 in. right of centre line.

Angle of impact : 84, 45 '.
Effect : Indent and slight abrasion of 7.1 in. diameter. Point of shell
(1.2 in. diameter) fixed in plate. Radial crack down to right.
Crack a into hit i and running over hit 2 to 7.1 in. from the upper
edge of plate.
Back of plate : crack a showing as a hair crack.

Shell burst.
Bound No. 4
Shot : As in last round.
35.8 in. over lower plate edge.
Effect : Indent and slight abrasion ;
point of shell fixed in plate
cracks b and c; crack a lengthened to upper edge of the plate.
Shell burst.
Bonnd No. 5:
Shot: Krupp flat-headed steel shell 5.9 in,, weighted with sand to
85.3 lb. (flat of head 3 in. diameter).
Point struck : On centre line, 46 in. above lower plate edge.
Angle of impact : .52.
Effect : Indent 8 in. diameter and 2.4 in. deep, slight abrasion from
above downwards to hit.
::
C 66 ]
Crack d from point struck down to hit 3, and upwards

towards and joining crack a; a radial crack e to a.
Back of plate unchanged.
Shot broke up.
The programme was now completed, but as the plate had suffered but
little, it was decided to continue the firing with four shots in hand.
Eonnd No. 6
Krupp 5.9 in. steel shell, weighted to 85.31b.

Effect : Indent 4.7 in. in diameter and 0.8 in. deep ; beneath, a slight
abrasion, and a radial crack in direction of hit 5.
Shot broke up.
Fig. 24.
Back of Trial Plate of Chilled Armour Turret for two \.'în. (12 cni)
Guns after ninth hit, 28/8/84.
Scale : 1.40
Eound No. 7
Shot : As in last round

Effect : A wedge shaped piece, bounded by cracks, b, c and d knocked
put, maximum thickness 4.7 in.
Also a chiselling of surface, 4 in. deep, at point of junction of
cracks a and b.
Shot broke up.
[ 67 ]
Round No. 8:
Shot : Gruson's 5.9 in. steel shell, 79.8 lb., weighted with sand.
Point hit: 13 in. right of centre line.
Effect : Oval indent about 2.8 in. in diameter and 0.4 in. deep. Slight
abrasion around hit ; two radial hair cracks. 6 in. long, down-
wards, and one towards Shot 2. A fine crack, /, from Hit 3
to under edge of the plate.
Back of plate : The two cracks lengthened to edges of the plate ;
crack f visible in rear.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 9:
Shot Gruson's
: solid steel shot, 80 lb.
Point struck : On centre line.
Angle of impact :
82 30'
Effect : Indent 5.9 in. in diameter and 0.8 in. deep.
Back of plate : the piece of plate bounded by cracks a and
/ forced back about 0.04 in.
The cylindrical part of the shot was found close to the plate.
Summary : The plate had shown a satisfactory resistance in every respect.

All the cracks, as far as could be determined, ran across
nearly radially to the rear, and in consequence even the broken
and loosened parts of plate showed a more than sufficient
resistance to the blows of the shot. This was especially seen
by shot 9, which separated a piece of plate without being able
to drive it to the rear.
As seen by the sketch of the back of the plate after the

9th round, the protection was still complete, although these
9
rounds had been concentrated between the ports on a space
6.9 square ft. in superficies.
Of the Krupp shell, the first showed extreme hardness, and

a superiority of effect over the others, which however, was
favoured by the nearness of the port.

[ 68 ]
6.Trial of a Side Plate for a Chilled Iron Armour Turret for
two 4.7 in. (13 cm) Guns, 26.7 calibres long.
19th and 20th January, 1885.
Test of a side plate for the above-mentioned turret by 15 rounds

(eventually increased to 20) of hardened steel shell from the Prussian
short 5.9 in. hooped gun.
The programme ran as follows :
The firing took place with hardened Ternitz steel shell, with a
charge of 15.2 lb., P. P. C/68, the equivalent gun charge for a distance
of 1,039 yards, and was directed, to save ammunition only, on the left
half of the plate.
And the endeavour was to be made by grouping the rounds i to 5, as
shown by hits i, 3 and 5, to make a vertical crack dividing the plate into
nearly two equal parts, so that the following firing should give a result
quite free from objection.
The gun was placed for the first six rounds, as well as for No. 20,
normally opposite the centre of the plate, and for the remainder it was
moved 24 to the left.
And of the intended 20 hits 5 to be with flat-pointed steel shot.
If the plate was not breached after the 15th round (that was about 10
shots per square yard of the vertical projection of the target), and showed
no loosening of parts at the back injurious to the stability of the turret,
the resistance to be considered sufficient.
Five additional steel shells were then to be fired, and the trial concluded.
Target : The turret for which the trial plate was intended corres-
ponded in the main with Fig. 4, but differed in the profile of the
cupola. The turret cupola had a maximum diameter of 19.7 ft.,
and consisted of a port plate, 4 side plates, and a wrought-iron

roof plate of II.2 ft. diameter and 4 in. thick.
The two sights were placed on the roof and were used
through a manhole. The height inside the turret from the
upper edge of the cupola plates to the edge of the roller ring
I.
69 ]
was 1 1.2The arrangement of the lower spaces corresponded

ft.
to that shown in Fig, 4. The ring of glacis armour consisted

of ten chilled iron plates. The two guns were mounted in
minimum-port carriages C/80, their axes being 4.4 ft. apart,
and admitted of 25 elevation, 10 depression, and 3 side
training. Turret and carriage were worked by hand, the former

being worked from an adjoining casemate by a capstan, by
means of which four men turned the turret through 360 in
one minute.
The trial plate differed considerably in form from those
previously tried, being constructed in accordance with the data
established by these previous experiments.
The profile was considerably flattened, so that on level
ground angles of impact superior to 46^ were impossible.
The trial plate was supported between two side and a roof
plate, forming thus together nearly half a cupola. In rear it
rested on masonry pillars supported by cast-iron struts. The

glacis armour was protected as before with concrete blocks to the
level of its upper edge, and a screen was provided in front to
catch splinters of shot.
The thickness and dimensions of the trial plate are shown in
Fig. 25. The greatest width expanded was, at the level of the
glacis 12.5 ft., and at the upper plate edge 7 ft.
The weight was 19.6 tons.
Gun : Prussian short 5.9 in. (15 cm) hooped gun, 23 calibres long.
Distance :
39.4 yards.
For the first seven rounds the gun was placed normally
opposite the centre of the plate ; for the other rounds it was
inclined at an angle to the left of 24.
Shot: Ternitz, 5.9 in. steel shell 2.5 calibres long, weighted with sand to
76 lbs.
Charge: 15.2 lb. P. P. c/68 equivalent to service charge at 1,093 yards.
Velocity: About 431,7 yards.

Energy of impact About 687 : foot tons.
Round No. 1.
Ternitz steel shell, as above.

Point struck : 55 in. left of centre line, 37.4 in. above glacis plate
edge.
[ 70 ]

Effect: Indent 4 in. broad, and 0.3 in. deep.
No cracks.
bo
Shot glanced upwards and split into many small pieces, which
showed, as did also the subsequent rounds, a great
degree of hardness.
[ 71 ]
Bound No. 2:
Shot : Ternitz steel shell, 76 lb. weight.
Point struck :
54.3 in. from left edge of plate.

Effect : Indent 4.3 in. broad and 0.4 in. deep.

No cracks, shot glanced upwards and broke up.
Round No. 3:
Shot : Ternitz steel shell, flat headed, 73 lb in weight. Diameter
of flat 5 in. The flat part was sunk in centre about 0.4 in.
deep, so that it had a sharp cutting edge. The shell was
weighted with lead and sand to 76 lb.
Point struck 46 in. from left edge of plate.
:
Effect: Indent, 3 in. broad and 1.3 in. deep. Upwards and on the
side downwards to point hit surface chiselled to slight depth.
5 short radial hair cracks.

On the back of the plate no crack visible.
Shot glanced upwards and broke up.
Round No. 4:
Shot : Ternitz steel shell, 76 lb., without sand filling.
Point struck :
50'4 in. above edge of glacis.

No cracks.
Shot glanced and broke up as before.
Ronnd No. 5:
Point struck : 68.4 in, from left plate edge.
13.8 in. above glacis plate edge.
Angle of impact : 43" 22 30". '

No cracks.
Shot glanced and broke up.
Round No. 6.
Shot : Ternitz Steel Shell, 77.31b. in weight, without sand filling.

E2
:: .
[ 72 ]
Point struck :
55 in. from left plate edge.
4.7 in. above glacis plate edge.

Angle of impact 46 5 '.
: 1
Effect: Indent 5 in. broad and 0.5 in. deep.
Two short hair cracks downwards to right and left.
Shot deflected upwards and broke up.

Round No. 7:
Shot : As in round No. 4.
In order to avoid bringing the gun back to the initial
position later on, this round was directed on the spot originally
intended by the programme for the 20th round.
Point struck : 55 in. from the left plate edge.
Effect : Indent 5 in. broad and 0.2 in. deep.
A radial hair crack to Hit No. 6.
No crack visible at back of plate.

Shot glanced and brol<e up.
The trial was suspended after Round 7, and continued on the

20th January ; the gun, in the meantime, being moved 24 to the left,
in accordance with the programme. Distance 39.5 yards.
Round No. 8
Shot : As before.
Point struck : 6 in. from the left edge of plate.
13.8 in. above the edge of the glacis.
(Hit No. 7 of the programme.)
Angle of impact : 43" it'.
Effect ; Indent 5 in. broad and 0.2 in. deep.

A hair crack upwards to left, another downwards.
At back of plate no cracks visible.
Round No. 9
Shot : As before, weighted to 76 lb.
Point struck :
1 1 in. above edge of glacis.
Angle of impact : 43, 44,
Effect ; Indent 4.3 in. broad and 0.4 in. deep.
No cracks.
[ 73 ]
Round No. 10
Shot : Flat-headed Ternitz steel shell 73.4 lb., weighted with sand and
lead to 76 lb.
Point struck : 29.2 in. from left edge of plate.

4.7 in. above the edge of glacis.
Effect: Indent 5 in. broad and 1.5 in. deep; abrasions upwards and
downwards.
Two cracks, a and b, about 4 in. deep.
The cracks, to all appearance, did not penetrate the interior
of the plate, but were confined to the surface ; two
vertical hair cracks of small length.
At back of the plate no crack visible.
Shot deflected up and broke up.
Round No, 11
Shot : Flat-headed Ternitz steel shell, 72.8 lb., weighted with sand
and lead to 76 lb.
Point struck : 7.4 in. from the left plate edge.
Angle of Impact: 25 57'.

2 hair cracks, c and d.
No crack visible at back of plate.

Shot deflected and broke up.
Round No. 12:

Point struck : 26 in. from left edge of plate.

Angle of impact : 26" 22 30". '
Effect : An indent 3.5 in. broad and 0.4 in. deep.

A crack e between hits 2 and 4.
No visible crack at back.
Round No. 13:

Shot : Ternitz steel shell, 76 lb., without sand filling.
Point struck : 30. Sin. from left edge of plate.
Angle of impact : 34'^ 45'.

: 1
[ 74 j
Effect ; Indent, 4 in. broad and o.i in. deep.
No cracks.
Round No. 14:
Shot : Flat-headed Ternitz steel shell, 72. 1 lb., weighted with sand and
lead to 76 lb.
Point struck : 13.8 in. above left edge of plate.
Angle of impact: 35^ 30'.
Effect : Indent, 7.1 in. broad and i in. deep.

Irregular chisellings of small depth upwards and to the side.
3 hair cracks /,. g, and h ; a hair crack, i, from hit. No. 1
to the left edge.
No visible crack at back.

Round No. 15
Shot Ternitz
: steel shell 76 lb., without sand filling.
Point struck : 29.6 in. from left edge of plate, 26.7 in. above upper
edge of glacis.
Fig. 26.
Back of Trial Side Plate of a Chilled Armour Turret for two 4.7 in.
{12 cm) Guns, after the twentieth round, 20/1/85.

Scale : 1.40.
Effect : Indent 4.7 in. broad, and 0.2 in. deep

Two radial hair cracks.
At' the back of the plate, crack e as a. hair crack visible for
28 in., beginning about 21.3 in. from the upper edge, and running
vertically downwards about 8.7 in. from the centre line.

[ 75 ]
00
s:
a.
ni
L.
bo
o
+->
bo -i^ o
0.
E
o
u.
:: '
[ 76 ]
Round No. 16
Shot : Flat-headed Ternitz steel shell weighted with sand and lead to
76 lbs.
Point struck :
7.4 in. from left plate edge.
4.7 in. above upper glacis edge.

Angle of impact: 46", 6'.
Effect : An indent with surface abrasions.

Shot's head fixed in indent, whose depth could not therefore be
measured.
A crack k to hit 10 with abrasions.
A crack / down to left. Hair crack a widened.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 17
Shot : As round 15.
Point struck : 17.7 in. from left plate edge.

25.2 in. above edge of glacis
Effect : Indent 5 in. broad and o.i in. deep.
No cracks.
Round No. 18:
Shot : As last round.
Point struck : 19 in. from left plate edge.
Angle of impact: 30" 30'.

Effect : Indent, 4.7 in. broad and 0.3 in. deep.
A hair crack m to hit 14.
Round No. 19
Shot : As last round.
Point struck : 28 in. from left edge.
1 1.8 in. above edge of glacis.
Effect : Indent 6.7 in. broad, 0,6 in. deep ; no new cracks ; crack a
widened 0.4 in.

[ 77 ]
Round No. 20:

Shot : Ternitz steel shell, 75.96 lb., weighted with sand to 76 lb.
Point struck : 5.5 in. from left edge,

28.4 in. above glacis.
Angle of impact, 38 23'.

Effect : Indent 4 in. broad, and 0.6 in. deep.
A hair crack n to hit 8, a short hair crack upwards.
Back of plate : Hair crack e lengthened to lower plate edge
(see fig. 26), no other crack visible at back.
The joint of left support opened about 0.08 in.
Summary : The plate had resisted 20 steel shells, each with 887 foot tons
energy; that is 891.5 foot tons per ton weight of plate, or,
reckoning only the half plate attacked, 1,783 foot tons per ton,
without losing any considerable part of the protection offered.
The only effect worthy of note was the crack e at the back, which,
however, did not extend to the upper edge, and had no influence
on the resistance of the plate.
Crack a, after removal of the glacis, was seen to run below

the upper surface, but it did not reach the edge, so that the piece
affected was in firm connexion with the plate.
The effect of the new flattened curve of surface had shown

itself to be extremely favourable, all the shot glancing.
The flat-headed shell had more effect than the pointed ones,
still they did not produce serious injury.
The plate had exceeded the demand made upon it, which
was that it should resist fifteen rounds. Nevertheless, no approxi-
mation could be made as to what further amount of firing would
break it up.
The Ternitz shell exhibited throughout an extremely hard

material, the broken pieces, as with Krupp shell, scratching
glass. No great difference tould be noted between the qualities
of the two kinds of projectiles.
[ 78 1
Conclusions.
There is but little to add to the several summaries of the trials, which
are very explicit.
All the plates had satisfied the demands made upon them, but as
the latter vary greatly, a few remarks are necessary.
The object of the first firing trial was to determine if chill cracks were
injurious or not, the position of which led to a concentration of the shot.
This trial, as well as the following ones, clearly proved that these chill
cracks are without any influence on the power of endurance of the
plate.
In trials 2 5 a concentration of rounds, fired with full charge, took

place on a small surface of the plate, but the number of hits was propor-
tionately small, as the only object intended was to note the behaviour of
the plate under this concentrated fire.
Trials i
5 must therefore be considered under the aspect of a test
of the material, but at the same time the results led to an important
alteration in the construction of the armour, namely a flattening of the
profile.
An armour plate, improved in correspondence therewith, formed the

subject of Trial No. 6, which thus may be considered in distinction from
the previous trials as a test of the design of construction.
The conditions of this trial were in all respects those of actual
warfare.
The number of hits which the plate had to stand was considerably
greater 20 on the half plate, equal to 40 for the whole plate ^but they
were distributed over the surface, and the attacking gun did not fire a full
charge, but only one corresponding to a distance of 1,093 yards.
The result of this trial showed most distinctly that the conclusions on
which the construction of this plate had been based were correct; the
profile had proved itself to be advantageous, and the dimensions selected
appropriate.
We will revert to this subject after describing the trials against coast
defence armour.
[ 79 ]
II.Firing Trials against Chilled Armour for Coast Fortifications in
the years 18831886.
For the purposes of the firing trials against coast armour, a number of
plates for two different chilled were employed, namely

armour turrets :
Three side plates for a turret ordered by the Dutch Government for two
i2in. (30.5 cm) 35 calibre guns, and a side plate for a turret ordered by the
Italian Government for two 35 calibre i5-7 in. (40 cm) guns. The con-
struction of this last followed the experience gained with the trial which
preceded it, and this whole series of trials thus stands complete by itself.
Like those previously described, these trials were originally called for
by the existence of a number of chill cracks in the different plates, of which

it was necessary to demonstrate the absence of injurious influence. This
demonstration could be considered as established by the first trial, and the
subsequent ones treated as tests of material and design. Corresponding
to the selection of armour for coast defence, the attack was made with the
12 (30.5 cm) and 17 in. (43 cm) naval guns.
in. The number of hits,
however, exceeded those which, in all probability, coast armour would be
called upon to withstand in practice, and attention must be paid to this in
forming an opinion on the results, if the trials are to be considered from
the point of view of actual warfare,
1.Trial against a Glacis Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret

for two 12 in. (30.5 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long.
On Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau.
13th August, 1883.
Apart from a general test of the design and dimensions of the plate,
by concentrating several rounds from the 25 calibre J 2 in. (30.5 cm) gun
close to certain chill cracks existing in the plate, to determine whether
these latter influenced its resisting powers.
Target. The turret to which the trial plate belonged corresponded in

the main to the type shown in Fig. 4.
The cupola was formed of 1 1 chilled plates, and had a

diameter of 33.5 ft. The height from the edge of the roller ring
to the upper edge of the ring of cupola plates was 15.7 ft., and
that from the roller ring to the base of the lower storey 19 ft.
[ 80 ]
The glacis armour was also in 1 1 pieces, of which 5 plates

placed in front had a height of 5.7 ft., the others 4.1 ft. The
roof of the cupola, 21 ft. diameter, was in two parts, with the
sights placed in the joining grooves, and used from a covered
man-hole.
The horizontal training of the turret was carried out either

by hand or steam power, a.s convenient, a whole turn being made
by steam in 4 minutes 20 seconds, and j-turn by hand in
4 minutes. The engine was of 26 I.H.P. Ten men worked the
hand gear.
The guns were mounted in Gruson's minimum-port carriage
worked by two accumulators. These were placed in the
C/80,
lower storey of the turret, and served also as hydraulic cranes for
changing the guns. The carriage gave 12 elevation and 6
depression. No provision was made for lateral movement.
In the trial glacis plate there was a chill crack stretching
almost without break from the upper to the lower edge in the
centre line. The plate was built up with four others so as to form
almost half a ring of plates, the ends being supported by masonry
pillars. Before the lower part of the plate (see fig. 28) a
protecting layer of granite was placed ; the other plates were
similarly covered with concrete which terminated at the masonry
pillars.
The chill crack was throughout about 0.4 in. wide and 2.8 in
deep, and is shown in fig. 28 by a dotted line.
The usual wood and earth screen was placed.in front to guard
against splinters of shot.
The thickness of the trial plate is given in Fig. 28. Its
greatest expanded breadth was 13.8 ft., height 8.9 ft., and weight
36.9 tons.
Gun: Krupp's 25 calibre, 12 in. (30.5 cm) gun in Gruson minimum-port

carriage C/80. Gun fired with 6 depression.
Distance :
29.5 yards.
Shot: Krupp steel shell, empty, 12 in. (30.5 cm), 3.5 calibres long, weight
about 981.3 lb.
Charge : 264.6 lb. P.P. C/80.

Striking velocity : About 486.4 yards per sec.
energy: 14,519 foot tons.

[ 81 ]
Round No. 1
Shot : Krupp's shell, as above, weighted with sand and lead to 981.3 lb.

Effect : Chisel cutting 2.4 in. deep, maximum (greatest depth, at left
near hit on chill crack, 1.7 in.)
Surface abrasion in maximum 19.2 in. broad and 20 in. high.
Three short hair cracks a, b and c.
Chill crack unaltered.

Glacis torn up, 6 in. deep at point struck.
Back of plate intact.
General state of target : upper edge of trial plate had dropped

about 0.4 in., due to movement of masonry pillar. Shot broke up.
Round No. 2
Shot : As in i
Point struck : 8 in. left of centre line on upper glacis edge.

Effect: Indent and chiselling of 'point struck 2.4 in. deep. Abrasions
round both hits 20 in. greatest breadth and 22.8 in. high.
Horizontal crack d through centres of both hits, crossing the
chill crack at right angles. Chill crack unchanged.
Back of plate : Crack d visible throughout its whole length,
dividing the plate into two parts.
General state of target: The plate was pushed back 1.4 in.
on the left and 1.2 in. on the
and had dropped about 0.4 in.
right,
The glacis was so torn away by hit 2 that the plate was laid
bare over a breadth of 22.8 in. and 7 in. in depth.
Shot broke up.
Round No. 3:
Shot : As before.
Point struck : On centre line (chill crack) 2.4 in. above original
edge of glacis.
The chilled surface was entirely removed at the point
struck.
Angle of impact : 52
Effect : Indent 5.3 in. deep. Abrasion of surface increased to 30.7 in.
broad and 18.5 in. high.

A vertical through crack e, stretching to the upper edge
[ 82 ]
from a point 8 in. right of centre line ran along 8 in. from
a portion of the chill crack ; leaving this, struck into the chill
crack 6.7 in. below, leaving it again about 10 in. lower down,
and finished downwards to the left. The upper end of the chill
crack was lengthened about 8 in. by a hair crack, but was
otherwise unaltered.
Back of plate : Crack e visible throughout its length, dividing
the plate into four parts.
General state of the Target : On removal of the glacis,
crack e was seen to cross the chill crack and its branches,
reaching the lower plate edge 13.8 in. right from the same.
The crack at lower part of the plate was 1.4 in. wide. The
two upper parts of the plate had dropped about 4 in., and its
upper edge pushed back about 5.5 in. more.

The shot broke up.
Round No. 4:
Shot : As before.
Point struck : About 27.6 in. left of centre line.
8 in. above glacis edge.

Angle of impact : About 40.
Effect The two upper parts of the plate were thrown inwards and a
:
number of pieces knocked off the piece struck.

The plate was thus breached. A new crack /. Chill crack
unchanged.
Back of the plate The back of the portion still standing
:
was no longer visible, being covered by broken parts fallen down.

Later it was seen that the crack e was widened at the lower part.
General state of the target : The whole target had
apparently been moved considerably, as the joints between the
trial and adjacent plates had been opened from 0.4 in to 1.2 in.
The shot broke up.
Siimmai'y : (.) Behaviour of the chill crack. As already noted, the chief
object of the trial was to ascertain the influence of the chill crack,
and for this purpose three rounds were concentrated on a straight

line 15.7 in. long, with a total energy of 43,605 foot tons. To
form a test of the design of the plate, the hits should have
been distributed, in accordance with the conditions of actual
warfare, over the surface, as it is not reasonable to make a plate
stronger, and so dearer, than actual practice requires.
[ 83 ]
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[ 84 ]
On inspection of the glacis, it was seen that crack e, instead

of following, as was supposed, the chill crack, crossed and formed
a branch towards the bottom edge of the plate {see Fig. 28).
In the upper part of the armour plate the crack e followed

twice for a short distance the chill crack ; but it is to be noted
that the plane of fracture was a constant curve, and only joined
superficially the irregular zigzag of the chill crack From this it
was clear that the crack e was in the interior of the plate entirely
independent of the chill crack, as might be expected from the
small depth of the chill crack (2.8 in.) in proportion to the
thickness of the plate (27.6 in.)
Further evidence that the chill crack had no injurious effect

lay in the fact that crack e diagonally crossed, at the under part of
the plate, the four-sided piece, bounded by the chill cracks,
without following either side or running into the lower chill
crack.
That chill cracks do no harm seemed by this sufficiently

proved, and the real object of the trial was in consequence
fulfilled.
(b!) Behaviour of the armour plate and of the structure. A

close examination of the target showed that the foundation under
the trial plate had sunk about 0.8 in., so that the nearest part of
the plates adjoining did not rest upon the foundation.
The inner projection of the bed-plate at the left joining edge

was broken away, and both joints between the four plates not
fired at had opened about 0.2 in. Lastly an opening between
the concrete covering and the masonry pillar showed that the
latter had been pushed back, the right one about 0.4 in., and the
left one 0.3 in., which was accounted for by the fact that the
masonry had not sufficiently set, the mortar being for the most
part still wet.
The state of the target showed that the four unattacked

plates had moved round on the bed-plate in a nearly circular
direction, and had pushed the masonry pillars back. This

backward yielding, together with the sinking of the foundation,
made it possible that the crack e below had opened 1.4 in. without
bringing the lateral joining edges of the plate into contact with
[ 85 ]
those of the adjacent ones, the point of bed-plate breaking as a

result of this separation, as it had alone to resist the tremendous
blows given.
From the sinking of the plate observed after the first round,
it is evident that the movement of the target had already taken
place at this round, and consequently the plate was standing loose
at the next round.
These circumstances explain the falling out of pieces loosened

by cracks, which never would occur with a properly built up
glacis armour.
That the upper half which before the third shot was
of the plate
only loosely resting on the lower half, and had sunk about 1.6 in.,
hanging between the adjoining plates, was not crumbled up by the
3rd shot into numerous pieces, points to an excellent quality of
material.
The following result was observed as worthy of notice :
If a shot struck on a part from which the layer of white

iron had been already removed, it did not cause any very much
greater injury than shots striking on an uninjured part, as the
hardness of surface seemed to extend much deeper than the white
layer. The cutting away of the surface only showed an increased
toughness of material.
Although the stout resistance offered by the plate to con-

centrated fire, even after the foundation had failed, led to the
apparently valid conclusion that, in actual practice, it would be
found amply strong enough when made use of in the construction
of the turret, the Dutch Committee for the Trial decided to make
an alteration in the construction of the front glacis plates, which
chiefly consisted in the provision of pillars on both sides of the
plate, which made it impossible for upper pieces, which might be
broken loose, to fall down.
All the shot broke into pieces, showing an unusually hard
and excellent material.
[ 86 ]
2.Trial against a Side Plate for a Chilled Iron Armour Turret

for two 12 in. (30.5 cm) Guns, 35 calibres long.
On Gruson's Firing Ground at Buckau.
22nd October, 1883.
Test of the armour by 4 shots from the Krupp 12 in. {30.5 cm) gun,
and also to determine by the trial whether
[a) The dimensions selected for the armour of this turret were
appropriate.
{b) The behaviour of chill cracks existing in the plate would confirm
the results of the trial of 13th August, 1883, as regards their lack
of influence on the endurance of the plate.
Fig. 29.
Structure for the Side Plate of the Chilled Iron Armour Turret for
two 12 in. (30.5 cni) Guns,
Scale : 1.40.
Target : The trial plate formed part of the cupola of the turret
by the Dutch Government. It
previously described as ordered
was placed between four other side-plates and a roof-plate, so
as to form half a turret, which rested at the rear against
three strong pillars of masonry, connected with the armour by
three stout specially cast struts.
L 87 ]
The structure is shown in Fig. 29.
Above the roof-plates was a layer of timber baulks as a

screen against splinters of shot. As seen in the figure, the
baulks did not lie on the roof-plate. They were weighted with
three layers of iron rails, and the whole covered with earth
some yards high.
In the inside of the turret, to which a staging led, were

plummets and gauges for measuring any change in the position of
the roof-and ring-plates, an exactly adjusted pendulum hung on

either side of the central masonry pillar from the roof, whilst the
distance of the bottom surface of the trial plate from the centre
pillar was ascertained by three gauges.
In the trial plate were ten chill cracks made in the casting,
of greatest depth 0.6 in., which in the figure are marked in dotted
lines with small numerals i to 10.
The dimensions of the plate are shown by Fig. 30. Its
greatest breadth expanded was 9.5 ft., height 11.5 ft.
Weight 46.7 tons.

Gun : Krupp's 12 in. (30.5 cm) gun, 25 calibres, on Gruson minimum-pt)rt
carriage C/80. The gun fired with a depression of 2*^ 12' 4 30'.
Shot : Krupp's 12 in. (30.5 cm) steel shell, 3.5 calibres, empty, about
981.3 lb. weight.
Charge : 264.6 lb. P.P. C/80.
Velocity of impact : About 486.4 yards.
Energy of impact : About 14,519 foot tons.
Round No. 1
Shot: Krupp's 12 in. steel shell, empty, about 982.6 lb. weight.
Point of impact: 1.6 in. right of the centre line of plate, 35.4 in.
above the lower edge.

Angle of impact: 90.
Effect: An abrasion round the hit 1.4 in. in greatest depth, 19 in.
broad, and 20.5 in. high.
On the point struck, the tip of the shot, which was forced flat,
<was welded on to the plate, and showed as a flat disc about 6 in. in
diameter, with a slight rise in the centre, but no indent was

apparently formed on the plate, only a flat depression, but the
steel held so firmly to the armour that when cut out it brought
away on its point a piece of the chilled metal.
F2
[ 88 ]
Five short radial hair cracks were formed from the point
struck.
A horizontal crack a reached both edges of the plate, on
the left 49.2 in., on the right 35.8 in. Above the lower edge of the
plate, along the crack, to the left of point struck, an abrasion 1.2 in.
broad, and 11.8 in. by 15.7 in. long.

[ 89 1
Back of plate : On inspection of the interior the crack a was

seen to have gone right through and showed as a fine hair crack,
beginning 17.7 in. from left edge of the plate and running to
8.7 in. from the right edge. A crack ^ branched off in the middle
about 17.3 in. long towards the lower edge with a slight bend to
the left, and finishing 6.7 in. above the edge.
General state of the target By means of the plummet it :
was found that the roof-plate had receded about 0.04 in. on the
right and o.i in. on the left hand. Also at the base the plate fired
at had been pushed nearer to the pillar, as was shown by the
fact that the wooden gauges placed between the pillar and the
plate were in part broken.
The joint between the trial-and roof-plate was closed up, and
those between the trial-plate and its plates at the side opened, on
the inner edge of the joint, an average of o.i in. An opening
had been made between the masonry pillars and the struts attached
to them 0.04 in. broad on the right and 0.1 in. on the left.
This condition of the interior showed that the masonry

pillars had not been able to prevent a movement outwards of
the whole structure ; but this was so slight that it did not furnish
a reason for discontinuing the trial.
Shot broke up.

Round No. 2
Shot: Krupp's 12 in. (30.5 cm) steel shell, empty weight, 984 lb.
Point struck : On the centre line :
74.8 in above the lower plate edge.

39.4 in. above Round i.
Angle of impact: 51.

Effect: A long chiselling at the point struck 27.6 in. greatest depth,
19 in. long, and 4.7 in. broad, abrasion around about 21.7 in.
greatest width, as shown in the sketch.
Four hair cracks about 8 in. long.
A crack b, bending upwards to the left from the point struck,

and finishing 19.7 in. from upper plate edge, and 6.7 in. from the
left edge.
A crack c from the hit, curving to the right, and finishing
after a sharp bend at the plate edge.
A vertical crack, d, joining Hits i and 2 ; no prolongation

of this crack below crack a was observable, but the same pro-
:
[ 90 1
bably existed, as a crack in this direction was already formed by

the first round at the back of the plate-
Back of the plate : Horizontal crack a seen to stretch to
both plate edges and opened about 0.04 in. The other cracks,
b, c, d, were not visible there.
General condition of the target : by the plummet the roof-
plate had further receded on both sides about o.i in., whilst the
distance of the pillar from the foot of the plate had not altered.
The roof-plate had also pushed back slightly its supporting

plates.
The joints between the trial and the roof-plates had, in con-
sequence, apparently, of the yielding of the support plates of

the latter, gone back to their original dimensions ; those between
the trial plate and its side plates had closed up about 0.2 in.
This closing of the lateral joints seemed to point to a closing

together and consolidation of the dome or arch of the target
under external blows. As the joints between the masonry pillars
and the supporting struts showed no material widening, the
yielding of the roof plate o.i in. did not seem important.
The shot broke up.
Round No. 3
Shot : As before, weighted with sand and lead to 978.6 lb.
Point struck : 26.8 in. right from the centre line.
53 in. above the lower edge.

33.6 in. from shot i, 35.4 in. from shot 2.
Angle of impact : 72".

Effect : at the point struck a chiselling out 2 in. deep, with abrasions
around, as in Fig. 33.
Eight radial cracks from the hit, e joining hits i and 3,
f joining 2 and 3, and running upwards to the right edge of the

plate ; f did not run into b, but ran parallel to it for a short
distance.
c was lengthened upwards, b widened to about 0.3 in.
Back of the plate : Two additional cracks showed after
round 3, starting from a point on the left edge, one with a nest
of small branches ending in crack a. the second finishing 8 in.
above this. It seemed possible that the larger of these two
cracks connected with crack b on the inside, although on the
outside b reached nearly to the upper edge.
[ 91 ]
The state of the back of the plate after the 3rd round is seen
in Fig. 32. The few through cracks seemed for so heavy a plate
as not of serious moment.
General state of the target : The gauges showed that the roof
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had been pushed back a further 0.08 in., and also that the whole
right edge of the plate had moved inwards some millimetres. On
the left the roof and edge of the plate had apparently not moved.
The joints between the roof- and trial -plates were opened to
[ 92 J
a further considerable extent as also the joints of the trial and

right plate at the side, which showed an opening, on top 0.2 in.,
below 0.4 in.; that with the left plate was 0.2 in. on top and 0.2 in.
below.
The left pillar showed an important change, the joint between
it and the strut having opened 0.2 in. No change was visible on
the right.
It was unmistakeable, that on the left, owing to the yielding
of the plates, the strength of the dome was considerably reduced,

but it seemed nevertheless capable of withstanding a fourth hit.
The shot broke up.
Fig. 32.
Back of the Trial Side Plate of the Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two
12 in. (30.5 cm) Guns after the third round, 22/10/83.
Scale : 1.40.
Bound No. 4:
Shot: Krupp's 12 in. steel shell, 980.31b., weighted with sand and
lead to 981.3 lb.
Point struck : 29.6 in. from the left plate edge.

25.6 in, above the lower plate edge.
33.1 in. from hit No. i.
Angle of impact : About 750.

Effect : The fourth round breached the plate and forced a piece of plate
bounded by cracks a, g and h, inside the turret against the centre

pillar, which caused other pieces of plate on the left to fall down,
so as to partly close the breach again, the separated pieces of
armour remaining therein.
The plate was broken into 6 pieces by cracks a, b, c, d, f, g.

[ 93 ]
Back of the plate : The cracks at back were much widened by

the falling of the parts of the plates in front; but no new cracks were
observed, as the effect of the round had been concentrated on the
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piece bounded by cracks a and g. Several pieces of plating and

of the shot lay on the inside.
General state of the target : The roof plate had not receded
[ 94 ]
further by Round 4, but the opening of the joints between the

pillars and struts had increased to 0,6 in., so that a sideways
yielding of the whole structure was shown to have occurred.
This was confirmed when the earth was removed from the
target. Between the roof and side plates on the left, which
before the firing were placed close together, an opening i.2in.
wide had been formed, and showed that both the left side plates,
with their bed plates, had been pushed outwards.
The shot broke up.
Summary : The plate resisted three rounds, with a total energy of 43,508
foot tons, or 914 foot-tons per ton of armour, without decrease
in the protection afforded to the interior of the turret. After
these rounds the plate was separated into several large pieces
by numerous cracks passing partly from side to side, and through
the thickness of the plate, but no displacement of parts had
occurred.
The surface showed injuries round the points hit, which had
a certain extension, but only a few inches of depth.
No penetration of the shot, or of their points into the plate,
had taken place.
Several obvious circumstances brought about the breaching
of the plate by the fourth round.
Crack g was formed already, before the round, and visible
at the back of the plate. Crack a went right through the plate,
so that the upper small part on the left was already loosened.
Had the other plates and the pillars not moved, the piece would
in all probability have withstood another round, but as it was, the
whole effect of the shot could be expended in dislodging the
piece of plate, which, as a natural consequence, was driven
inwards to the interior of the turret.
The chill cracks in none of the four rounds had shown to

have any injurious influence on the plate.
As seen in the drawings, the cracks set up by the shot took
their course quite independent of the chill cracks, and in no case
was even a lengthening of the latter produced by the blow of a
shot.
The steel shells behaved in this trial as in all previous ones,

viz. : they broke up into numerous pieces of the size df a fist to
that of a pea.
[ 95 ]
3. ^Trial against a Half-roof Plate for a Chilled Iron Armour

Turret for two 12in. (30.5 cm) Guns, 35 caUbres long-
On Grason's Firing Ground at Buckau.
26th and 28th May, 1884.
Proof of the roof for a turret by 4 shots from the Krupp 12 in.
(30.5 cm) gun.

The test in this case had less reference to chill cracks, as the previous
trials had sufficiently shown their want of injurious effect, but was rather
directed to discover if the dimensions of the plate were sufficient to
withstand the attack of the Krupp 12 in. gun.
Target : The trial plate formed one half of the roof of the turret
described under trial No. i. The shape is seen in Figures 34
and 35, as also the rib on its straight edge, which rested on a
corresponding rib in the other plate when placed on the turret.
The manhole in the centre, as well as the sighting holes, are
mentioned in the previous description.
The trial plate was, corresponding to its position in the

turret, supported by three cast-iron plates of 39.1 tons weight
"
placed in a half ring and keyed together. The other " half plate
was replaced-by three similar cast-iron plates resting against three
masonry pillars. The cast-iron ring plates were fixed by means
of ribs to a base plate, and also the centre ring plates were
bolted together with two bolts.
In order to obtain increased angles of impact the trial plate
was not placed horizontally, but at an angle of 5, that is, the
imaginary plane of its location made an angle of 5 with the
horizon.
A
number of small chill cracks existed in the trial plate,
which were closed with steel wedges, and there were further in
the plate three holes 4.7 in. in diameter for use in placing the
plate in position on the turret.
The usual wood and earth screen against shot splinters was
provided.
The chief dimensions of the trial plate are given in Fig. 34.
Its weight was 46.7 tons.
Gun: Krupp's 25 calibre I2in. (30.5 cm) gun in Gruson's minimum-port
carriage C/80.
The gun was fired with a depression of from 3'' 44' to 5 6'.
[ ]
Distance: 31.7 yards.

Shot Krupp's 12 in. 3.5 calibre steel shell empty, weight about 981.3
: lb.
Charge : 176.4 lb. P.P. C/80.

Velocity of impact : 392 yards per sec*
Energy of impact : About 9,503 foot-tons.
Kound No. 1:
Shot: Krupp's 12 in. steel shell, 978.61b. weighted with sand and
lead to 981.3 lb.
Point struck : 19.7 in. left of the centre line.

13.4 in. from the round edge of the plate.
Fig 34-
Profile and Diagram of Hits of the Trial Roof-plate of a Chilled

Iron Armour Turret for two 12 in. (^30.5 cm) Guns. 26 ak^ 28/5/84.
Scale : 1.60.
-910 >, 6400
Effect : Chiselling out of surface 0.9 in. deep, with abrasions of

23 by 1 1.4 in. greatest extension.
A radial crack a from the point struck, and finishing 24.4 in.
from the straight edge of the plate.
3 hair cracks h, c, d.
Back of plate : crack a was visible throughout its entire
length.

* NOTE. This figure is taken from the Official Reports of the Dutch Commission, and is
probably more correct than the figure 377 yards previously given.
[ 97 1
General state of the target : The position of the plate in

the structure of the target was apparently unaltered, the joints
between the ring plates showing no change.
The shot broke up.
Bonnd No. 2:
Shot : Krupp's i2 in. steel shell; weight 984.5 lb., empty.
Point struck : On centre line, 49.6 in. from the round edge.

Effect : The made
shot struck the central hole for lifting the plate and
a chisel mark on the upper half 4 in. deep with abrasions of
1 1.8 in. by 19.7 in. greatest extension and small depth. Crack b
was lengthened to the round edge of the plate. A new crack e
from the point struck ran upwards to the right, finishing 25.2 in.
under the straight edge. Hair crack f 15.7 in. long, ^ crossing
crack a at a. sharp angle, h 12.6 in. long.
Back of plate Crack a extended from edge to edge, e began

:
at theback 25.2 in. below the straight edge, passed through the
centre mounting hole and stretched in zig zag to the round edge.
Crack y ran nearly radially from the centre mounting hole to the
straight plate edge 38.2 in. in length, the direction differing con-
siderably to that on the front of the plate. Crack g was visible at
back as far as crack a (see fig. 35).
General state of the target : The radial crack in the central

plate of the base ring had widened, and the plate sunk about
0.06 in., but the joints of the ring plates were unaltered.
The shot broke up.
Bound No. 3
Shot : Krupp's 12 in. steel shell, 980.3 lb., weighted with sand and
lead to 981.31b.
27.6 in. from the round edge.

Effect : A long indent without abrasions. A crack / from the point

struck running to crack e, three short cracks, k, I, m, the last
reaching the round edge. Crack a extended upwards to the left,
ending 4 in. from the straight edge.

Back of plate : Crack i visible throughout its length, / con-
necting with d, separating, as seen in the figure, a piece of the
plate. Crack m visible, apparently connecting with k.
[ 98 ]
General state of the target : The crack in the centre supporting

plate was somewhat widened and the right half of the plate sunk
0.08 in. to 0.1 in.
The shot broke up.
Bound No. 4:
Shot : Krupp's steel sheel 981.5 lb. in weight, empty.
Point struck : 11 in. right of centre line, 17.8 in. from the round edge
between hits i and 3.
Angle of impact : 23^ 25 '.
Effect : The shot hit the piece of plate loosened by cracks b, h and /,
and, in addition to an indent, caused abrasions upwards like

rounds i and 3, as shown in Fig. 34.
Fig. 3S-
Back of the Trial Roof Plate of the Chilled Iron Armour Turret for
two 12 in. (30.5 cni) Guns after the sixth round, 28/5/84.
r edits
New cracks n, 0, p, d to the edge of the plate, h lengthened
to hit I. The piece of plate bounded by crack b was thrust up

about 1.4 in.
Anexamination of crack b showed that it ran in the metal

close, to the round edge of the plate, but was
not visible at the
back of the plate.
Back of plate : the 4th round had not produced any new
crack, but had caused the sinking of the piece bounded by
cracks
[ 99 ]
/ and d. This was 6 in. on the left, 0.6 in. in the centre, and
0.4 in. on the right. The separated part remained fixed in the
cracks.
The general condition of the target was apparently unaltered.

Shot broke up.
The plate had thus fulfilled the terms of the contract, but as it seemed
yet completely able to afford protection, the trial was continued on the
28th May.
Round No. 5:
Shot: Krupp's flat-headed 12 in. steel shell, empty, weight 981.31b.
Diameter of flat part, 5.4 in.
Point struck : 41.7 in. left of centre line, 23.6 in. above the straight edge.
Effect : A long indent 0.4 in. deep without abrasions.

3 cracks, q, r, s, which were all visible at the back of the
plate.
General state of the target : The piece separated by cracks

/ and d had further sunk about i in., but still remained fast in the
plate. The crack in the central supporting plate was widened

to 0,4 in.
Shot broke up.
fionnd No. 6
Shot As : in round 5.
Point struck : On centre line of plate 33 in. under the straight edge.
Effect : A long indent without surface abrasions. Two fine cracks

t and u. Crack / lengthened.
Back of plate :
/ lengthened to the edges of the plate,
and u visible. No further drop in part broken loose.
General state of the target : The trial had to be stopped

after the sixth round, as the butt for stopping the shot was so
much injured as to offer no further guarantee for arresting
subsequent rounds.
Moreover, as the official report of the Trial Committee stated,
itwas not to be expected that a few more hits on the plate would
effect any great change in its condition.
The shot broke up.

[ 100 J
-1
1^1
k 00
a
bo
is.
o
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o
ba
JS
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S
o
t-1
s
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[ 101 ]
Snmmary: The plate had withstood six rounds with a total energy of
57,016 foot tons, that is, 1 198.3 foot tons per ton of material of
the armour, and thus displayed an endurance beyond the
necessities of actual service, as in this case the shot could never
strike at so great an angle. The dimensions selected had proved
appropriate, and the advantage of the arched form had been clearly
demonstrated, as, for instance, round 4 struck a piece of plate
completely loosened, but was unable to drive this piece into the
interior of the turret, although the resistance of the arch, owing
to the cracking of the bed plate, had been considerably reduced.
The 6th round, also, struck an already loosened piece without
being able to dislodge it towards the interior.
The chill cracks proved, as before, to have no effect on the

endurance of the plate, as the cracks produced by the hits com-
menced and ran quite independent of the former.
The great effect of the angle of impact on the injuries

resulting from the hits was of interest. The effect of the rounds
directed against the lower part of the plate was disproportionately
greater than that of rounds 5 and 6, although these, when they
struck the plate, found it already weakened. To all appearance,
after the ogival head of the shot had hit the plate, a second blow
was struck by the base of the shot, and this blow, to which it
seemed that most of the shot's effect was due, was heavier in
proportion as the angle of impact increased. The greater angle
of impact obtained by depressing the gun and inclining the
platemay be considered, in view of actual service, to have
more than balanced the higher powder charge. Moreover, this
heavy blow of the base of the shell may explain why they all
broke to pieces on impact, which, considering the quality of
Krupp's steel, would have been a matter of surprise on the
assumption of a mere twisting of the ogival part.

[ 102 ]
4. Conclusions of the Dutch Commission respecting Trials 1 to 3.
As already mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, the Trials i
to 3 were undertaken at the instance of the Dutch Government, who

appointed a Commission to carry them out, consisting of Lieut.-Colonel
Voorduin, of the Engineers, Captain Scherer, of the Artillery, and Captain
Snyders, of the Engineers.
report of this commission was subsequently published by the

The
Dutch Ministry of War, entitled " Verslagen omtrent schietproeven tegen
pantseringen, 1884."
The report contains, in pages 149 157, the conclusions on the results
obtained, which we now reproduce verbatim.
Conclusions and Decisions arising tlierefrom.
As regards the first trial, the glacis armour plate exhibited a

tendency to crack through under the blows of the hits, independent of the
chill cracks existing in the upper surface of the plate, or of their direction,
but exactly in the direction of a plane in respect to which the moment of
the part of the plate which hung over, and was separated by fracture, must
be nearly a maximum. If it followed from this circumstance that -the
section of the plate at the point attacked was too small to offer an
adequate resistance to fracture, on the other hand, it was clearly shown
that, in consequence of its unfavourable profile, the plate, in whose section
a considerable arching existed, was thereby in a measure already prepared
for fracture.
Moreover, this first trial clearly showed that the side connection
between the plates placed together in the glacis was too slight to prevent
the pushing away of separated portions, so that if in the actual structure
these defects cannot be avoided, the free movement of the cupola placed
inside of the ring of glacis armour can very soon be compromised.

In opposition to these serious defects, the glacis armour showed the
following good properties during the trial :
{a) An appropriate degree of hardness on the surface, which

apparently renders penetration by the shot impossible.
(b.) Great resistance against such penetration also in the so-called

transition layer, and, within certain limits also, in the interior of
soft metal.
[ 108 ]
{c.) Complete homogeneity of the so-called " Gruson metal " in the
different layers, with great fineness of crystals and entire absence
of internal casting faults.
[d.) Non-injuriousness, within certain limits, of faults in the chill
casting, as cracks or projections on the upper surface, which

sometimes arise in the manufacture.
On the ground of these considerations, the manufacturer was informed
at the close of the trial that, subject to the approval of the War
Minister, the glacis armour, on account of its slight dimensions and the
inappropriate proportions of its sections, was not satisfactory, and that
a request would be made to replace it by other of improved construction,
and that also measures should be taken to increase the connection, both
of the plates forming the ring, as well as of parts of the same loosened
by blows.
The second trial against a cnpola plate made it appear likely that,
under the influence of such hard shot as those used in this trial, the armour
in question would break up into large pieces sooner than any part of the
plate would be penetrated or loosened.

These plates certainly soon showed through cracks, which, as in the
glacis armour, all ran in the plane of the least section, but with the great
difference, that so long as the parts of the plate were not so cracked as to
lose all connection between themselves, no displacement worthy of note took
place, and not once the slightest dislodgement of these parts occurred.
As good properties of the Gruson armour system, the following were

disclosed by the trial : -
{a.) The degree of hardness of the surface was sufficient to prevent
penetration into the plate, even of normally striking shot, and

the system offers consequently complete resistance to perforation,
or anything like it.
{&.) The so-called chill cracks or similar defects on the hard part of
the plate, which were the cause of the trial, occasioned no special
disadvantage.
{c.) Lastly, it appeared that after three rounds with such great energy,
and so large angles of impact, as in this case, not even the
smallest piece of plate was dislodged from the inside of the
armour or thrown inwards, so that this armour offers a protection
apart from the advantages of the simple construction and
advantageous external form peculiar to this system superior to
that of any other system in existence or in construction.
02

[ 104 ]
The forcing through of a comparatively loosened piece of the plate by

the fourth round, which was necessarily followed by the pushing to the
rear of the upper part of the plate, was nowise, as in the case of the
glacis armour, a necessary result of the form, but must chiefly, if not
exclusively, be explained by the failure of lateral connection between the
armour plates, principally at the lower edge, as also by the fact that one
shot struck a very small piece of the plate already entirely separated by
cracks. This pointed to the necessity of providing against this defective
condition as far as possible in the actual structure of a turret.
Further, the effect of the different hits showed ^greatly against the
original view of the manufacturer, who, however, later on, entirely agreed
with this opinion that it was desirable so to construct the external curve
of the armour (as far as this could be done), that normal hits should be
almost impossible.
With regard to the decisions arising from these considerations,

it may be remarked :
1. The trial was made under the very severe conditions of the
contract, which had been accepted by the manufacturer on the

ground of the experience gained in former trials, conditions which
on our part were maintained, although used in a manner
unfavourable to the plates. For instance, the first shot was
aimed at such a point that the part of the plate, below an
imaginary horizontal line through the point of impact, had a
relatively small mass, by which, perhaps, the cracking of the
plate by the first hit can be completely accounted for.
2. The two following shots were placed close to the first hit, but,
notwithstanding these three rounds which were close together,

and struck almost normally, not the slightest change of form was
produced on the inner side of the cupola, nor had a single piece
been loosened either from the plate struck or those adjoining, so
that in reality the working of the guns could have been carried
on within the cupola without any interruption, a result which must
truly be termed astonishing. The expectations which, at the
conclusion of the trial against the glacis armour were somewhat
diminished, were by this result after the 3rd shot considerably
surpassed.
3. The 4th shot was directed against a portion of the armour, which
was not only completely separated from the plate by cracks, but
also was of very small dimensions. Moreover, through the yielding
[ 105 1
of the incompletely fixed plates, had acquired a certain amount

it
of play, and became in consequence the piece of the plate most

incapable of withstanding a blow. Without doubt it is to the
mass and the immovable locking together of parts to which this
nature of armour owes in particular its powers of resistance.
4. Had not, following what is stated under 3, a part of the separated

piece hit by round 4 been completely forced out of the armour,
there would naturally have been no consequent falling down of
the parts lying above it ; so that the plate, after the 4th round,
although injured and cracked, might have been expected to remain
nearly, if not entirely, in its original state.
5. The m.ode of determining the resisting power of the plates

previously employed, by adding the total energies developed by
the different rounds, without taking into consideration the angle
at which the shot struck, is of but little value.
The energy of the individual rounds, the quality of the shot
used, and above all, the part of the energy thrown on the plate, due
to the greater or less approach to striking normally, compose the
proper measure for determining the above-named resisting power.
In this respect the demand made on was considerably
the plate
greater in the trial than is actually to be feared in war time.
In the usually very short duration of an action between ships
and coast batteries, in which the former are limited in their supply
of ammunition, both as regards number and kind, it is hardly to be
expected that four of the same kind should hit close together on
one plate at nearly go with such an energy as occurred in this trial.
6. The circumstance that in this trial really less favourable factors

had play, forbade coming to the unreserved conclusion that all
the other cupola plates as well would be reduced by four shots to
the same condition as the trial plate, so that a condemnation of
all the other plates on the ground of the result obtained did not
appear justifiable.
To reach entire security in this respect, further trials against several

plates would have been necessary.
As, however, the trial had shown already that apparent defects in the
plate could not rightly be treated as such, although the value of the plate
as armour had been called in question thereby, the contract afforded no
ground for demanding a trial of the other plates, entirely or partly, at the
cost of the maker.
[ 106 ]
To reject lightly at our own

what was ready for use and paid for
cost
for the most and then replace it by similar material without security
part,
of having for the probably trebled expenditure an armour offering a pro-
portionate increase of resistance, would have been a useless waste of money.

This was all the more so because if the armour did not satisfy all the
extremely stringent terms of the contract, which the manufacturer had

bound himself to accomplish, still the armour in question did constitute the
really best possible material for coast defences available at the time.
Moreover, it appeared very probable that the resisting power of the

armour already delivered could be considerably increased by very simple
means.
On all these grounds the manufacturer was informed, the day after the
trial, that, subject to approval of the War Minister, and irrespective of all
considerations as to the issue of this test, as well as of the consequent
estimate of the value of the cupola plates now made as armour, these would
provisionally be accepted according to the terms of the contract. The
condition was added that, as far as possible, without sacrificing work
already completed, use was to be made of the experience gained in the
trial to improve the said armour in respect to fixing it on the wrought-iron
substructure, and also as touching the danger of the forcing through of
pieces broken loose.
For the armour of the forts at Ymuiden, the improvements in the
whole arrangement and in the erection of the armour must apply.

It was shown also in the three firing trials against the cupola roof plate
even more clearly, that a probably general feature of the chilled iron plates
was that they soon cracked through and separated into numerous pieces
of different sizes and weights by the impact of hardened forged steel shell
such as those delivered by Krupp. At the same time it was irrefutably
shown that even in this case no failure of protection ensued, so long as a
displacement and corresponding yielding of the different parts into
which the plate is divided, does not occur.
The claim of the manufacturer that his system of armour owes the
greater part, if not the whole, of its value to the dome or arched form,
which only can be used in this manner, received a striking confirmation
in this trial. The trial gave, therefore, no reason for demanding any
change in the roof plates already cast or those to be made, but warranted,
on the contrary, the very valuable assurance that a means of protection
had been found in the plates which offers a sufficient cover for the safety
of the interior of the cupola against direct and other fire, as well as the
greatest security to the turret motor and mechanism for laying the guns."
[ 107 ]
In conclusion, the report of the Trial Committee mentions the changes

recommended in the glacis and cupola armour plates.
These were, for the glacis plates^ an increase in weight and thickness,
decreasing and supporting the overhanging part by means of brackets,
and improving the connection between the plates by means of wrought
iron keys.
For future cupola plates, a flattening of the profile curve, increase of

weight, and adoption of wrought-iron connecting keys.
To briefly sum up what has been said : The glacis plate had not
satisfied the requirements, the cupola plate had done so, but for future
construction changes were desirable, whilst the roof plate had surpassed
the tests arranged and had shown a considerable excess of strength.
5.Trial against a Side Plate of a Chilled Iron Armour Turret

for two 15.7 in. (40 cm) Guns 35 calibres long.
On the Firing Ground at Seno della Castagna, near Spezia.
2oth, 24th, and 29th April, 1886.
Test of a cupola plate of a coast turret for two 35 calibre long 15.7 in.
guns, ordered by the Italian Government, by 3 shots from the 100 ton
Armstrong i6.9in. gun (Type Lepanto).
The points of impact to be separated at least i metre, or 39 inches.
Target : The turret to which the trial plate belonged corresponded in
its chief points to the type Fig. 4. The armoured cupola consists
of 15 plates in a ring, and has an extreme diameter outside

of 46.6 ft.
The roof, which is provided with a manhole and sighting

opening, is put together in two parts, like the Dutch turret, and
has a diameter of 21.7 ft. The ring of glacis armour has 15
plates, which have on the side of the turret exposed to attack a
height of 6.6 ft. ; on the others 4.3 ft. The extreme diameter of
the glacis armour ring is 64.6 ft. The guns lie in Armstrong
hydraulic minimum-port carriages.
The trial plate was made in accordance with the experience

gained in the previous trials, and, in correspondence therewith, had
so flat a profile, that angles of impact of shot of more than 50
seemed excluded.
[ 108 ]
The plate was built into the limestone rock on the shore
of the Seno della Castagna, near Spezia (See Fig. 37), and
rested on a bed plate let into the rock, weighing 40.8 tons.
Fig. 37-
Structure for the Side Plate of the Chilled Iron Armour Turret
for two 15.7 (40 cm) Guns.
Scale : 1.200.
-" '-Vj
.'>ll'*.-'*i
The side connection to the rock was obtained by means of
two specially cast plates, each 44.1 tons in weight, with masonry
work. The trial plate was connected to its two side-supporting
plates, as in the construction of the turret, by means of tongues
and grooves. On the left side a tongue was cast on to the plate,
which entered a groove formed in the side plate, whilst on the
right the tongue was and the groove in the trial
in the side plate
plate. In the groove on the upper edge of the trial plate, and in
[ 109 ]
the corresponding recesses in the supporting plates was placed a

traverse, representing the roof plate of the turret, 5.2 tons in
weight, which rested sideways, like a wedge, against the masonry.
This left a free opening, by which access could be had to the
inside of the armour.
The rock above the target was removed to a height of

about 10 feet. This space before each round was filled with
wood to diminish the injury to the overhanging rock and to
partially protect the target.
The gun was protected against splinters of shot by a strong

wooden screen in front.
The upper part of glacis armour in front of the trial-plate
was represented by a glacis of concrete.
In the trial plate there were a number of cracks formed in
casting in chill, shown by dotted lines in the figures, which also
give the dimensions of the plate.
The breadth at the level of the upper edge of the glacis

was 9.8 ft., at that of the armour plate 6.2 ft., and its weight
86.5 tons.
Gun: Armstrong, 16.9 in. (43 cm), 100 ton gun, 27 calibres long
(Type Lepanto), in Armstrong hydraulic minimum port
carriage.*
In order to increase the angle of impact, the base of
the platewas inclined 1 29' to the front, and the axis of
the gun was at such a level as to point, with 1 depression,
at the base of the plate at a spot 8 in. above the upper edge
of the glacis.

Shot: Krupp 2.8 calibre 16.9 in. (43 cm) steel shell, empty, about 2,205 'bs.
in weight.
Charge : 827.5 lb. brown P. P (one hole) from the Rhenish- Westphalian
Powder Factory.
Striking velocity (mean) :
587 yards per second.
energy ( ): 47,481 foot tons.
Round No. 1 : 20th April, 1886.

Shot : Krupp shell as above, weighted with sand and lead to 2,205 'b.
* The gun was placed in a pontoon anchored to the shore. A good description of the carriage
is found in the Mittheilungen Tiber Gegenstande des Artillerie und Genie Wesens 18S3, page 34.
A further description is given in the "Italia Militare" and Engineer 1883, page 73.
[ 110 ]
Velocity : At the muzzle, 591.5 yards.*

93 yards from the muzzle :
588.7 yards.
At the target: 587.1 yards.
<u
[ 111 J
Point struck : 8 in. right of centre line. {See Fig. 38.)

46.4 in. above upper glacis edge.
Effect: A chiselling of the surface 18 in. long, 13.4 in. broad, and
2 in. deep.
Also the following :
A crack a 0.2 in. wide from the points of impact to the right
edge of the plate. A hair crack b to the right plate edge. A
crack c 0.3 in. wide running downwards to the right. A crack d
and one horizontally e, and finally some short hair cracks.
At the point struck there were some insignificant abrasions

of the surface. A scaling off of the surface at the lower part of
crack c, which ran close below the upper layer of the surface,
and separated a piece therefrom of 4 in. greatest thickness was

more important.
Back of the plate : At the back of the plate {see Fig. 42)
only one crack was found proceeding from the right edge of the
plate, and ending about 1 1.8 in. above the lower plate edge.
From the position of the crack, it was assumed that it con-
nected with the crack in front marked a.
General condition of the target. An examination of the

target showed that it had moved slightly, as openings about 0.04
in. wide had been formed between the armour plate and its two
side supporting plates which, however, could in no way prevent
the continuation of the trial. This, however, had to be suspended
owing to the destruction by the blast from the gun of the wooden
stage to which the pontoon was moored.
The shot broke up.
Round No. 2: 24th April, 1886.

Shot : As in Round I.
Velocity at the muzzle : 592.3 yards per second.

,, at 93 yards from the muzzle : 589.4 yards.
at the target : 588 yards.
Energy of impact : 47.632.8 foot tons.
Point struck : 19.7 in. left of centre line.
31.5 in. from hit No. I.
Angle of impact: 48
[ 112 ]
UiHlHIHIHHii' >
:A
Ss.
^ s
s
[ 113 1
Effect: Surface excision 15. 8 in. long, 13.8 in. broad, and 4 in.
maximum depth, surrounded by irregular abrasions of the upper

layer, also running radially from the point struck to the edge.
Cracky 0.3 in. mean width, g 0.6 in., h 0.2 to 0.6 in., i 0.4 in.,
and k I in. width, as also several short hair cracks.
The cracks a and c were widened on an average to 0.4 in.,
and the former extended to hit 2. Deserving of mention was an

abrasion between hits i and 2, which, running obliquely on both
sides to crack a, had a depth of 1.2 in. to 1.6 in.
At the upper edge of the glacis a small three-cornered piece,

0.8 to 1.2 in. large, was knocked out (marked x' in Fig. 38), as
also a four-sided piece ^ under hit i.
The greatest number of cracks ran with the strong projecting
lower part of the plate, but, on account of the glacis covering, it
could not be seen whether they reached the lower edge of the
plate or not. Cracks h and i apparently ran under the upper
layer and joined in the interior with d, as the piece of plate
bounded by these and crack k was pushed out about 0.8 in., and
k had a width of i in. or a depth of 1.6 in. Thii supposition was
confirmed by the fact that cracks h and / notwithstanding a M'idth
of 0.4 in. to 0.6 in. were not visible at the back of the plate.
Back of the plate (Fig. 42) : crack a formed by the first
round was extended to the lower edge of the plate, breaking

off a small three-cornered piece 8 in. high, 2.4 in. wide at
bottom, and i in. thick.
Also about 19.7 in. above the lower edge appeared a nearly
horizontal zigzag crack, 0.06 in. to o.i in. wide, with a branch to
the left and another to the right, running into crack a, connect-
ing apparently with exterior cracks, f, g and k, and conse-
quently marked with these letters in Fig. 42.
In other respects, the back of the plate was quite intact.
General state of the target : On examination, the joint

between the armour plate and its right supporting plate was
found widened o.i in., whilst the left joint remained 0.4 in. wide,
also the left supporting plate was cracked at a level of 27.6 in.
above the glacis edge which crack however was not discoverable
inside the target.
[ 114 J
a
bo
o
o
s:
CL

o
[ 115 ]
In presence of this general loosening of the structure of the

target, the manufacturer had the right, by the terms of the
contract, to postpone the third round until the structure was
again consolidated. As this would have occupied a long time,
and the plate by its excess of resisting power seemed able to
bear the 3rd round without additional support, the manufacturer
waived his right, and the 3rd shot was delivered without repairing
the structure further than to replace the wooden pier broken
previously.
The shot broke up.
Round No. 3: 29 April, 1886.

Shot : As in Rounds I and II.
Velocity at the muzzle :

S90.3 yards.
,, at 93 yards from the muzzle :
587.5 yards.
at the target 586 yards. :
Energy at impact: 47,322.7 foot tons.
Point struck f 4 in. right of centre line.

44 in. from Round No. I.

Effect: Excision 15.7 in. long, 11. 8 in. broad, and 1.6 in. deep^ with
surrounding abrasions also running radially from the point struck
to the edges hair-cracks /, m, n, 0, p, and a vertical crack q 0.2 in.
wide. want of lateral support the upper

In consequence of the
part of the plate was forced downwards a little, so that the under
parts stood out along crack a about 0.4 in. and along crack e
about 0.2 in., and, in consequence, at the right edge a large piece
of plate, seen in Fig. 38, had broken away and was pushed out.
The greatest thickness of this fracture was 10 in., the other
dimensions are seen in the Fig.
No widening of cracks formed by the previous rounds had

occurred.
[ 116 J
o
[ 117 ]
^'^' ^' A new

,
Back of the plate :
Back of the Trial Side Plate after the third round.
Scale: 1.60.
crack running upwards -and to
29/4/86.
the left from the centre line was
seen apparently in connection
with the hair crack / on the
front surface ; k was lengthened
to the lower edge of the plate,
and between k and b a nest of

several small cracks had appeared
owing to which a small wedge-
links
rechlsi shaped piece weighing about
4.4 lb., shown in dotted lines, had
fallen from the inner surface. It
measured 3.5 by 4.3 by 3.2 in.
Close to this there was a

small surface abrasion about 0.4 in. deep.
The sinking of the upper part of the plate was also
observable on the interior of the plate, the upper part of which

stood outwards along cracks a, k and /, about 0.6 in. to 0.9 in.,
0.8 in., and 0.2 in. respectively.
General condition of the target : The openings in the joints
between the armour plate and its side supports formed by the
two first rounds had, by the sinking of the former, closed up again,
on the left completely, on the right to 0.4 in. wide.
As the 3rd round completed the stipulations of the contract,

the trial was stopped, although the plate doubtless would have
withstood further shot.
The shot broke up.
Sumniary : The plate under trial had in every respect complied with the
conditions of the programme. These maybe considered extremely
severe, as the energy which the gun used in the trial displays
under normal conditions, at the same distance, is only 44,251 foot-
tons (charge 772 lbs. Italian powder; shot, weight 1,841.2 lbs.),
but in this case was increased by using a heavier charge. Further,

the small distance between gun and target, which alone rendered
possible the development of so high an energy, must be con-
sidered ; and lastly, the number of rounds must be looked upon
as very large, in respect of the fact that the gun is one of the
most powerful in existence, and that the cupola, of which the trial
[ 118 ]
plate was a section, consists of 15 similar plates; and, moreover,

it may be added that the points of impact were proportionately
very near each other.
The three rounds which struck the armour represented an

energy of 142,465.6 foot tons, or 1,618.2 foot tons per ton weight
of plate. The plate, however, did not suffer to such an extent as
to appear incapable of withstanding further shot of the same
calibre, and it has to be added that the third round was received
under very unfavourable conditions, as the lateral support had
failed. Nevertheless, the cracks caused after the third round
were of very small dimensions, and only in the slightest degree
visible at the back of the plate.
The chill cracks previously existing in the plate proved

themselves to be, as in all previous trials, absolutely without effect
on the endurance of the plate. The cracks formed in the firing
crossed the former in all directions without once following their
course.
The profile of the plate as selected was proved to be correct.

The penetration of the shot was proportionately very slight, and
the cracks formed were neither so numerous or so serious as
might have been expected from the severity of the attack.
Krupp's steel shell showed the same excellence of material
as is usual with the smaller shells of this firm. Naturally, they

broke in pieces on striking ; no shot having ever yet remained
whole after striking chilled armour obliquely.
6. Second Trial against the Side Plate tested in April, 1886, for a
Chilled Iron Armour Turret for two 15.7 in. (40 cm) Guns,
35 calibres long.
On the Firing Ground at Seno della Castagna, near Spezia.
22nd June, 1886.
To supplement the results obtained in April, 1886, by testing the

behaviour of shot of different calibres and manufacture on striking the
chilled armour already tried.
The new firing trial was occasioned by the circumstance that the three
16.9 in. steel shells had broken up on striking the chilled armour into small
pieces, whereas in earlier trials Krupp's 5.9 in. shell had perforated wrought
iron plates without showing the least deformation.
[ 119 ]
Doubts had in consequence arisen whether Krupp's 16.9 in, shells were
of the same good quality as the shells of smaller calibre, and, at the
suggestion of the Trial Commission, the Italian War Minister decided to
continue the trials with several Krupp 5.9 in. shells. First, a 16.9 in.
steel shot of St. Chamond make (France) was to be fired at the upper and
still intact part of the plate, so as to compare its effect with those of the
Krupp shell.
The trial was, therefore, chiefly as a test of projectiles, for which the
Gruson chilled plate, already definitively accepted by the Italian War
Minister, served as a target.
Target : The structure shown in Fig. 42, and previously described,

had seriously suffered by the preceding trial, so that between
the armour plate and its lateral supports, as well as between the
latter and the masonry, openings had been formed at the joints.
In order to restore as far as possible, the lateral support, these
openings were now filled with steel wedges, and zinc was also
poured in.
Weight of the trial plate : 86.5 tons, kg.
Gun: I, Armstrong's 5.9 in. (15 cm) gun, 28 calibres long, in Albini
carriage.
2. Armstrong's 16. 9 in. (43 cm) 100 ton gun, as in last trial.
Both guns in the pontoon moored to the shore.

Distance : 146.5 yards (134 metres).
Shot: Krupp 5.9 in. steel shell, 2.5 calibres, weight 79.4 lbs. (36 kg.), and
a St. Chamond 16.9 in. steel shot 2.5 calibres long, weight 2,205 'bs.
(1,000 kg.)
To facilitate reference in the following account, the numbering
of the shots and the lettering of the cracks follow those of the
last trial. (See Fig, 38).
Round No. 4:
Shot : Krupp's steel 5.9 in. shell, empty, 2.5 calibres, weight 79.4 lbs.
Charge : 32.2 lbs. progressive Fossano powder (0.8 to 0.9 in )
Velocity at impact :
546.5 yards per sec.
Energy 1482.6 foot tons.
Point struck 34: in. right of the centre line, 52 in. above the glacis edge.
Angle of impact : 44
Effect : Unimportant abrasion of the surface at the point struck.
Shot broke up.
H2
[ 120 ]
^
[ 121 ]
Ronnd No. 5:
Shot : As before.
Charge : 39.7 lbs. progressive Fossano powder (0.8 to 0.9 in.)
Striking velocity : 616.4 yards per sec.

energy: 1886,3 foot-fons.
Point struck : 40 in. right of the centre line, 9 in. above the glacis
edge.
Effect: Abrasion of surface 2 to 4 in. deep between cracks b and c.
It appeared that cracks b and c ran superficially under the upper
layer of the armour, as the plane of fracture of the abrasion was

covered with a layer of rust.

Shot broke up.
As both the 5.9 in. shells had broken up on striking the armour, the
Committee considered the first part of the programme was satisfied, and
proceeded with the firing of the Armstrong 100 ton gun.
Round No. 6
Shot: St. Chamond 16.9 in. steel shot, 2.5 calibres long; weight
2,205 ^^
Charge : 827 lbs., one-hole brown P. P. (Rhenish-Westphalian

Powder Factory).
Velocity at the muzzle :

589 yards.
at the target :
584.7 yards.
Energy of the shot on impact :
47,167.7 foot tons.
Point struck : Aim was taken on the upper and still intact part of
the plate.
20 in. left of the middle line.
89 in. above the glacis edge.

(See the cross in the diagram of hits). In consequence of the
movement of the pontoon by the waves, the shot struck too low,
exactly on hit No. 2 of April 24.
20 in. left of the centre line, and

27.6 in. above the upper glacis edge.
Angle of impact : The shot struck a much injured point, where the
surface presented a nearly vertical plane.
[ 122 ]
to
00"
bo
s 5^
[i, g
k^ 'SI
Co
[ 123 ]
The angle of impact was therefore apparently between 80''
and 90.
Effect : The shot struck out of the plate between cracks e and g
already existing, a number of pieces of different thickness (in
maximum 20 in.)
Crack p was lengthened to e, which pushed the piece y,

thrust outwards by the previous shooting, to the right.
Back of the plate : Two fresh cracks, probably connecting

with cracks m and n, visible on the front of the plate, and are,
therefore, marked with the same letters. Also a short crack r in
the left pillar.
Between cracks k and b appeared a wedge-shaped splitting
out of the surface 27.6 in. broad, 8 in. high, and 6.3 in. deep. The
loosened pieces had fallen perpendicularly and so were not dis-
lodged. Between crack a and the right edge of the plate a small
three-cornered piece, 8 in. long in the side, was pushed out
about 2.4 in.
The lower part of the plate was forced inwards by the shot
along crack d about 1.4 in.
1) )i J >> 2.4 ))
r 1.6 ,, beyond the upper part.
The displacement of the left pillar took place along the previous
crack k, whose under part appeared to connect with cracks i or h
visible on the front surface, but the displacement was not
observable on the front.
General condition of the target : The left supporting plate,

whose front surface had suffered considerably from glancing pieces
of broken shot, showed a through crack opening 0.4 in. to 0.8 in,,
as also the upper traverse which took the place of a roof-plate of
a turret.
The upper part of the plate was, notwithstanding, in close

contact with the supporting plates, and still possessed adequate
power of resisting other shot from the same gun, but the trial had
tobe discontinued as no further 16.9 in. shot were at hand.
It is to be noted that the heated pieces of the shot at the
last round set fire to the timber baulks of the screen in front,
which was speedily consumed.
The shot broke up.
t 124 ]
Back of the Trial Side Plate of the Chilled Iron Armour Summary :
The first part
Turret for two \t,-T ifi-(\o cm) guns after the sixth round. O^ the trial had showed once
22/6/86. Scale : 1.60. more that steel shot of small
calibre break up on striking

an oblique surface of armour,
in the same way as the
16.9 in. shell fired in April.
The second part of the pro-

gramme produced no tangible
result, as the St. Chamond
shot struck the cracks on the

most injured part of the plate
redds linlcs
and a comparison of its effect
with that of the Krupp shell

was in consequence excluded.
This shot was, nevertheless,
of great interest, showing how
little the time of breaching a plate can be judged by cracks
already formed. whose point of striking was marked by
The shot,
a circular and on the right and below, sharply edged erosion of
the surface, hit a part of the plate already much injured by
round 2, and its angle of impact must have been between 80
and 90'^, which was proved by the fact that the broken pieces of
the shot were not deflected upward on the curve of the plate,
but were thrown directly at right angles to the left, where they
injured the projecting part of the side supporting plate. Not-
withstanding this, the armour withstood also this round, or an
attack in total of 192^970 foot tons, that is, 2,196.5 foot tons
per ton of plate. The dislocation of the left pillar, visible at the
back of the plate, must, in consideration of the weakened support
of the same by the earlier rounds, be reckoned as inconsiderable.
Without doubt the whole upper part of the armour would

have been equal to further shots from the same gun, and it may
be consequently affirmed that the trial plate possessed a resisting
capacity considerably in excess of what was necessary against
the attack of even the loo-ton gun.
Any difference between the material of the Krupp and St.
Chamond steel shell could not be determined on account of the

facts previously stated.
[ 125 ]
CHAPTER IV.
Comparative Analysis of the results obtained, and
Conclusions.
THE result of the series of trials is best shown by the profile and
dimensions of the armour which were finally designed in consequence
thereof.
The firing trials against armour for inland fortifications, and those
against coast defence armour, described on pages 45 and 76, afford this
information. From the former arose the armour profile, shown in Fig. 25,
and from the latter the profile of the plate tried at Spezia, given in Fig. 38.
Both profiles proved at the trials to be correct, and both agree in regard
to the external curve.
Comparing the last neglecting the dimensions for the moment with
the profile of the first Tegel turret (Fig. 10), we find that, as already
mentioned, the later trials brought them back to a profile similar to that
which Gruson, by the results of the preliminary experiments, had chosen
for the first Tegel turret.
We have before stated the reasons which seemed to necessitate a

change in this profile, and shall later on have occasion to give them more
in detail.
To form an opinion of the results of the trials it is indispensable to

compare them together, and we have consequently drawn up the Table of
data of the trials to be found at the end.
The Table contains, in the columns 3 to 9, the guns and charges used
in the attack at the different trials, the figures being extracted directly from
the reports of the trials.
The columns 10 to 21 contain the chief dimensions and weights of the

plates tried, either taken from the drawings or calculated from them, and
for the most part left out in the official reports, as each figure is only of
value when it can be compared with the corresponding figures of
other material tried.
[ 126 ]
It may be asked if beyond the thickness and the profile of a plate there
are other proportions requiring consideration.
In the literature of chilled cast-iron armour these are not given, and even
the empirical formula for finding the thickness of chilled armour follows by
analogy the formula for determining wrought-iron armour, and neglects
the other dimensions. If we reflect that the destruction of chilled armour
takes place not by perforation, but only by breaking up, then all the
dimensions seem more or less to be of value, as it must without doubt be
easier within certain limits to break up a small plate by cracks into
numerous pieces than a large plate of the same thickness.
We say within certain limits, for a limit doubtless exists, and indeed
has been always felt and respected by the Constructor. We should
promise too much if we presumed, from the i8 firing trials, to exactly
define the most favourable dimensions to give to an armour plate, but it
nevertheless seems well worth while, in so entirely empirical a subject, to

closely examine the results of the trials, so as to obtain a clear view, if
possible, of what these dimensions should be.

We now proceed to an examination of the Table, and remark, in
passing, that the figures given for the first Tegel turrets are merely to
complete the Table, and are not made use of, as a rule, in our comparative
analysis.
1. The Proportions between the Greatest and Least Thickness of the
Armour.
In columns lo and 1 1 of the Table we have placed together the greatest

and least thicknesses of the plates of armour tried. A comparison with
the profiles shows that the greatest thickness is throughout found at the
level of the centre of the port, and the least at the upper edge. The few
variations are given in the Table.
Column 12 contains the proportion of the smallest to the greatest

radial thickness, a proportion which has the greatest influence on the
endurance of the plate.
In the Tegel turrets for land fortification, these figures vary between
I : 2.3 and I : 2.5, and in the later plates, for the same class of fortification,
between i : 1.3 and i : I.7
In the earlier plates, coast batteries, the proportion was i : 2.6
(excluding the roof plates); in the later plates between i : 1.4 and i ; 1.7
(excepting the glacis armour plates).

[ 127 ]
The decrease in the thickness of the upper part of the plates in the
recent types is so small that the respective figures point the way to a
comparison between the behaviour of older and newer armour plates.

As already stated in the commencement of this chapter, the later trials
led to the same profile as that chosen for the first Tegel turret. This early
profilehad been g^ven up because chilled iron shell used against the upper
oblique portion of the plates had a greater effect than those hitting the
lower and more perpendicular part.
This fact was made apparent at the trial of both the first and second
Tegel turrets, and is confirmed in the " Proceedings of the Engineer
Committee," so that there can be no doubt about it.
A second question is, whether the explanation commonly given, and

adopted by ourselves, of the circumstance that chilled iron projectiles shiver
into atoms on striking normally, but break up into large pieces when
striking obliquely, which pieces injure the upper part of the plate, is
correct. In presence of the figures of column 12, we incline rather to the
opinion that the earlier plates were too weak in their upper portions, and
that the greater effect of the oblique hits was entirely due to this fact, and
not to the material of the projectiles used.
Major Kiister remarks, on page 28 of the Proceedings, that the

Experimental Committee recommended that the thickness of the plate,
from the roof downwards, should decrease less rapidly. They proposed at
the same time to give, by means of a sharper curve, a more perpendicular
profile to the lower part and a more oblique one to the upper, and stated
that the cracks had, generally, originated with glancing shot. The demand
for a more perpendicular lower section apparently rested on the assumption
that normal hits had less effect than glancing ones, and this demand was
perhaps the cause of the frequently given explanation of the varying
behaviour of the projectiles.
The figures of column 12 seem to us to show that this explanation

is not correct, inasmuch as no solid reasoning can be adduced why a
shot hitting normally should have less effect than a glancing hit. Also,
the explanation that the larger pieces of chilled projectiles did more harm
to the upper part of the armour than the smaller pieces did to the lower
seems to us incorrect, as the earlier reports of trials expressly state that
the cracks began with the glancing hits, but the cracking of the plate
must be independent of the greater or less injury to the surface, and
be chiefly proportional to the strength of the blow in relation to the
thickness of the armour.

;
[ 128 ]
We, therefore, are of opinion that the profile of the first Tegel Turret
was discarded in consequence of erroneous assumptions, that the success
of the second Tegel turret was not due to its steeper profile, but was,
in spite of it, due to the dissimilar greater thickness of the plates
and lastly, that the cracking noted in the upper part of the second
Tegel turret was due to the still too rapid decrease in thickness of
this part.
2.The Proportion of the Expanded Length of the Unprotected

Part of the Profile Curye to the Greatest Expanded
Breadth of the Armour Plates.
Before mentioning this proportion, given in column 13 of the Table, a _
word may be said as to the reason for calculating this ratio. It is under-
stood at once that a narrow plate will not resist shot so well as a broad
plate of the same profile, and for this reason it would seem desirable to
establish a proportion between the total length and the breadth. This,
however, was found to be impossible, as the profile curve at the base of the
plate makes a sharp bend^ and if the whole curve from top to bottom were
taken into consideration it would lead, owing to the different character of
the profiles, to a false estimate ; but on the upper part of the plates the
curve throughout is fairly regular, and can be well made use of in obtaining
a ratio with the breadth.

In column 13 the ratio of length to breadth in the Tegel turrets is
given as 1:2; in the later armour for coast batteries, VI. to XL, this
becomes (excepting the glacis armour) i : 1.8 to i : 2.3, and only the two
half-port plates of the batteries show a ratio of i : 0.9. In the last, too,
the length was greater than the breadth, which is still more apparent when
the part of the plate's profile covered by the glacis armour is reckoned.
This ratio, which differs from the others, had its own special reason.
In the battery plates the port occupies a large proportion of the external
surface, and in consequence, in the relatively slight parts above and below
the port, the metal is left by the casting in a state of tension, which
facilitates the early formation of cracks. For example, in the trials of the
8.3 in. battery in 1873 74, cracks of this nature were formed, and for this
reason it appeared preferable to divide the plates down the centre, and to
obtain the accurate connection of them by keys placed therein, submitting
in this alteration to the undoubtedly unfavourable loss of weight and mass.
We find greater differences in the coast armour (XII. to XVIII.) than
in that for inland forts.

[ 129 1
For instance, comparing the rdof plates (XIV., XVII.) and the glacis
plates (XV.), we find in the older battery plates a ratio of length to

breadth of i : 1. 4, and in the later turret plates it is from i : 0.9 to i : 0.6.
These varying figures have also their special reason. The form as
well as the weight of the heavy armour plates is governed
by the
conditions of transport. The form by the size of the railway truck and
the weight by the carrying capacity of the bridges and other railway
structures. All Gruson armour plates are transported on special wagons,
that for the Spezia plate having 12 axles, and as the length of the plate
profile cannot be diminished, the breadth must be kept down. In coast

battery armour this is not of great importance, as they are called upon
to withstand only a relatively small number of shot. The fact is
characteristic that in the Dutch as well as the Spezia plate only horizontal
or oblique cracks were formed and not vertical ones, as observed in the
higher plates, which is natural, as the vertical section is very large in
proportion to the horizontal section.
3.The Proportion of the Tertical Section to the Front Superficies

of the Armour Plate.
The ratio of the vertical section to the expanded front superficies of

the plate is given in columns 14 to 19 in two forms. Columns 14 to 16
give the amount and ratio of the total superficies and total vertical section,
whilst columns 17 to 19 exhibit only the ratio of the part of the surface
exposed to shot to the corresponding vertical section. The cause of this
two-fold ratio is again the fact that only the part of the profile exposed to
shot possesses a uniform curve, the rest making a sharp bend under the
glacis armour, but the figures in columns 16 and 19 show so little difference
that we may confine our analysis of them to those in column 16.
In the second Tegel turret we find the ratio to be i : 11 and i : 12.2,

which falls in the newer turrets for inland fortification (excepting the glacis
armour) to i : 7.6 to i : 6.8, and in battery plates to i : 3.8.
The reasons for dividing the battery plates have already been explained,
and we leave it to be gathered from them whether the plane of section,
preserving nearly the normal weight, might not have been increased.
As regards the newer turret plates (VI., X. and XI.), the proportions,
notwithstanding the decrease of superficies in relation to the Tegel plates,

was, without doubt, more correct, as horizontal cracks, in particular, were
not formed in them.
[ 130 ]
That, with the same vertical section, a broader and heavier plate
possesses a greater proportion of resisting power than a narrower and
lighter plate is, we think, a certainty, if a state of tension is avoided in
casting the former. It would, however, be of great interest to establish by-
trial what is the best ratio of the vertical section to the superficies for a
given constant weight. Such trials, however, would be very costly, as they
would only give reliable results if conducted on a large scale. In consequence,
it is fortunate that such trials, though interesting, are not absolutely
necessary, as the proportions of the plates tried (VI., X., and XI.) proved
generally favourable. In particular, the last named plate of new profile
displayed such resisting power, that practically it is really not in question

whether the same endurance would have been reached had a small
reduction in weight been made.
We consider the ratio of i : 7.4 between the vertical section and the
superficies to be correct, as it seems to offer a guarantee against the pro-
duction of a state of tension in the casting.
In the earlier coast armour the ratio was i : 6.9 ; with the two new
turret plates in question it was i : 1.3 and i : 2.2. As already stated, the
form of these plates was governed by the necessities of transport, and as
the Spezia plate showed a considerable excess of resisting power, it becomes
a matter of little moment whether, with the same vertical section, the
resisting power would have increased to a certain extent with the breadth
or not.
4.The Proportion of the Energy of the Attack to the Weight

of the Armour Plates.
As already mentioned, we consider the weight of a plate to be

the most important factor in its resisting power, which makes it
desirable to establish a ratio between this weight and the energy of

the attack expressed in foot-tons. We obtain thereby a sort of measure
of the amount of the unit of attack in relation to the size of the plate,
and though this measure may not be of great accuracy, the figures are of
interest as completing the data relating to the trials made.

Had the various plates been fired at until they were breached, it
would have been best to establish a proportion between the total energy
exerted by the whole number of hits and the weight of the plates.
This breaching was only effected in particular cases, so that it only
remains to proceed on the assumption that armour of the same character
that is, for inland or coast defences is intended to withstand approxi-
[ 131 ]
mately the same number of hits. (This assumption is only conditionally

correct, as the number of rounds to which a turret may be expected
to be exposed must vary with its position. Among the turret plates
tried, however, no such great differences arose as to need special con-
sideration in this respect). Our ratio only gives a measure of the
attack which a plate had to expect, whilst the manner in which it
withstood it can only be ascertained from a comparison of the firing

results.
We now pass to a consideration of columns 20 and 21 of the Table,

in which are given the weights of the plates with reference to the energy
per ton of plate.
For the port plate of the second Tegel turret this ratio cannot be
simply expressed, as a change was made from the 5.9 in. to the 6.7 in. gun,
and ordinary cast-iron as well as chilled iron shells were used. For the
side plates of the same turret we have the figures 43 and 43.2 foot-tons
per ton of plate, which in the later trials {VI. to X.) become 76.3, 81.9 and
108.2 foot-tons, falling again in trial XL to 35 foot-tons.
It appears from this that the work thrown on the metal of the plates
in the trials VI. to X. of the Table, was extremely high in comparison with
that of the Tegel trials, even excluding the difference in the quality of the
shot.
The ratio between the weight of the plate and the attack is for the
first time restored in trial XL, the favourable issue of which was due not
only to the good profile adopted, but also to the greater weight of the
plate. The total performance of the plate in comparison with the two
Tegel side plates is therefore of interest.
In the latter the first through crack from edge to edge of the plate
was produced by rounds 37 to 39. The new plate (XL) received 20 hits
on its half section from steel shell, equal to 40 shots distributed on the
whole plate. No crack through from edge to edge was formed, and
although the formation of such a crack may not be considered as an
unconditional measure of the resistance of the plate, we think we may
state that the total endurance of the later plate in respect to that of the
older one, showed that its construction and material had more than
exceeded the superiority of the steel shell over the chilled iron
projectiles used in the respective trials.
It is evident that the ratio of the attack, in the case bf the heavy
armour for coast defences, to the unit of weight can be carried much
higher, as these plates are only liable to be struck by a few projectiles.
[ 132 1
With the older sort of coast defence plates, the attack, as seen in our
Table, increases from 128.9 to 1354, and 151.6 foot-tons. These figures,
however, are small to those of the later trials, XV. to XVIII., which vary
between 205.6 and 548.9 foot-tons per ton of plate.
If our ratio is accurate, which may be called in question, then the

attack of 548.9 foot tons per ton of plate, as was the case in the Spezia
armour, is enormous. Several points, however, have to be considered in
this respect before attaching value to our ratio.
Speaking exactly, it cannot be said that, in the trial of inclined

armour, a plate has withstood so many foot-tons of energy, but only that
a vertical plate in the place of the one fired at would have resisted such a
number of foot-tons. This advantage applies to all chilled armour,
according to their curve of profile, in greater or less degree, and can,
consequently, be neglected in comparing different forms of this nature of
armour.
On the other hand there is a factor which cannot be neglected : every

projectile shivers to pieces on striking chilled cast iron armour, and, con-
sequently, cannot deliver a greater blow thereon than that which is necessary
to break up the projectile into the pieces into which it separates. The
difference in the effect of two shots of the same size and quality which
strike an inclined plate, as well as the different energies due to different
charges of powder, would, consequently, be proportionately small, supposing
each shot broke up in the same way into small pieces ; but it is a matter of
no doubt that with shot fired with increased energies, the breaking up
or similar deformation is more complete, and the blow delivered on the
plate is also greater, but this last in no way increases directly with the
energy of impact, but after passing a certain limit increases more slowly the
higher the energy may be.
An increase in the power of the attack consequently seems to follow

an increase in the energy of impact only in a secondary degree ; a larger
calibre and a better quality of shot that is toughness and hardness ^being
the principal influencing factors in augmenting the power of the
attack.
If we examine the Spezia trials from this point of view we understand

why the Gruson factory confidently exposed the plate to the enorm'ous
attack of 548.9 foot-tons per ton of plate, as, in reality, only that part of
the blow would be borne by the plate which was necessary to break up the
shot. How great that part was could neither be assumed nor calculated,
but in no case could it be equal to the total energy.
[ 133 J
A third factor to be mentioned in this connection, to which lately

considerable importance seems to be attached, as regards the effect of the
attack, is the form of the shot.
In technical papers it is frequently stated that cylindrical armour

cannot be considered as absolutely inferior to inclined armour, seeing the
latter can probably be overcome with flat-headed projectiles.
We have carefully examined the trials with this kind of shot, and do
not deny that flat-headed shot have a greater effect on inclined armour
than pointed ones, and we admit at the same time that by placing a point
of soft metal on a flat-headed shot, accuracy of flight can be obtained
without interfering with its efficacy on striking, but we cannot hold the
superiority of the flat-headed projectiles to be so great as to make us
believe that this superiority is sufficient to call for a change of any
importance in the present relationship between gun and armour. Even
flat-headed shot are always broken up on striking chilled armour, and
consequently only give out on the plate that portion of their energy which
corresponds to their power of resisting fracture. This portion will
probably be greater than in the case of pointed projectiles, as the flat-
headed shot bite better into the surface of the plate, but the increased
effect will probably be shown in greater injury to the surface of the armour
and not have great influence in forming cracks, which mainly arise from
the weight of the blow inflicted.
Certainly, the effective component of the total energy, as regards

inclined armour, must only remain a fraction of that energy, and the relation
betwêen flat-headed shot and inclined armour will consequently never equal
that of pointed projectiles against vertical armour. A certain excess of
resistingpower being always provided for in the construction of the chilled
armour, as was shown to be the case in the various firing trials, we
do not think that the employment of flat headed shot would render any
increase in the weight and thickness of the armour necessary, even if no
technical difficulty stood in the way.
Reverting now to the main point of our argument, it appears that,

as that portion of the energy delivered on the plate by the projectile can
neither be estimated nor calculated, so the relation between the energy and
the weight of plate can be used as an approximate measure only in the case
of trials where shot of the same quality and calibre are used.
This condition is not fulfilled when comparing the earlier and later
trials, as the chilled iron projectiles used in the former were far inferior to
I
[ 134 ]
the steel shell employed in the latter, and the demand on the metal's
endurance was all the greater in the later trials, as, corresponding to the
dissimilarity of the projectiles, the amount of the energy delivered by the
chilled shot on the plate was much less than that exerted by the steel
projectiles.
Naturally the Gruson Factory thoroughly noted this relation in the
construction of the later type of armour, but they could with confidence
submit to the increased severity of the tests in presence of the great
improvements effected in these later types of plates. As we have seen,
the Factory went so far as to make but little provision by an increase in
the size of the plates against the nature of the attacking projectiles, and
even considerably reduced them in proportion to the attack.
5. Empirical Formula for Designing Chilled Armour.
We have made frequent reference, in the previous sections, to the

relation of the dimensions and weight of the chilled armour, both in con-
nection with the question of resisting power, as also as completing our
review of the results of the trials.
It is obvious that a formula for calculating the design of armour plates

in harmony with this relation will, in proportion to its accuracy, be of much
utility.
Should a plate, for instance, for some reason have to be made narrow,
it would appear desirable to cast it same
thicker in order to reach the
weight than, would be convenient, but the sole
in other circumstances,
existing formula proposed by the Gruson Factory only takes notice of the
maximum thickness of the plates. The difficulty consists in bringing into
the formula a number of different factors, without an exact knowledge of
the particular influence of each ; and, on the other hand, as we shall see, a
formula based on correct data would give results incapable of being used
in practice.
The Gruson formula, as we say, only refers to the maximum thickness,

and leaves it to the constructor to estimate the other dimensions according
to his judgment.
The formula gives the maximum thickness of the armour in proportion

to the fourth root of the number of foot-tons of the energy of the
attacking shot, and applies, in the first instance, to coast defence armour.
[ 135 ]
For such armour this formula is :
1. For port plates d ^ 0.29 V foot-tons.

4
2. For side plates d = 0.27 'y foot-tons.

4
3. For glacis plates with earth in front . d = 0.22 'y foot -tons.
4
4. For glacis plates with granite in front d ^ 0.2 -y foot-tons.
These dimensions are increased ten per cent, in the case of armour
for inland fortifications, the formula becoming :
1. For port plates d ^ 0.32 V foot-tons.

4
2. For side plates d = 0.29 -Y foot-tons.

4
3. For glacis plates with earth in front . d =^ 0.24 'y foot-tons.

4
4. For glacis plates with granite in front d = 0.22 V foot-tons.

Before discussing these formulae it will be of interest to compare the
actual maximum thickness of all the plates with the thickness given by the
formula. The following Table gives this, the reference number being the
same as in the Table at the end.

[ 136 ]
It will be seen that the difference between the actual and calculated
armour thicknesses in trials III. to XI. is very slight. Trial VI. shows a
difference of 2.9 in. in favour of the calculated thickness, and trial XI.
4.1 in. in favour of the thickness actually given.
In the coast defence armour the differences are greater. In the two
earlier battery plates XIII. and XIV. the actual thickness is 4.8 in. in excess
of calculation; in the turret plate XVI., 6.3 in., whilst in the Spezia plate,
XVIII., the figures are approximately the same.
On the whole we may say that the actual and calculated thicknesses
agree fairly well, and though not in entire accordance throughout, the
dimensions given to the later plates approximately agree with calculation.
The formula was originally based on the results obtained with chilled
iron projectiles, and armour plates of nearly vertical profile in the lower por-
tion (Fig. 30). The chilled shots were superseded by steel projectiles, which
latter proved that the dimensions calculated for plates of the above profile
were proportionately too weak, but as this profile was abandoned for a
more sloping one, the formula again regained its correctness, so that the
Spezia plate could be calculated by it, the formula obtained with chilled
projectiles serving thus for steel shell as well.
The Gruson formulae, since their first publication in the year 1882, have
been repeatedly discussed by the technical press. The most comprehensive
examination of them is found in the recent essay of Engineer Josef
Schwartz of the Imperial Austrian Marine Artillery, entitled " Ueber die
Panzerwirkung der Geschosse. Pola, 1886."
Mr. Schwartz, on page 54 of his pamphlet, gives a graphic illustration

of 14 armour thicknesses obtained by the formula varying from o to 41.990
foot tons, the foot tons being shown as abscisse and the calculated thick-
nesses as ordinates in his diagram. He remarks (page 53) :
"The curve itself follows a somewhat curious course, increasing at

first very quickly, but soon an increase of 3,230 foot tons energy requires
only a very slight addition of thickness in the armour." " Suppose, for
instance," he adds, "that an 11 in. steel shell, with 12,920 foot tons
energy is an exact match for a chilled plate of 37.6 in maximum thickness,
it is impossible to understand why a 12 in. steel shell with 19,380 foot tons
energy should not be more than a match for a plate 41.5 in. in greatest
number of normal hits (angle
thickness " and he concludes later that the
;
of impact 90) will be always very small* in proportion to the total and
* Mr. Schwartz proceeds on the assumption that the armour is always hit at an angle of 90",
which, however, as Column 9 of our Table shows, is not the case, even with armour of the pld
profile.
[ 137 ]
equally small number of hits, from which it may be assumed that the
formula gives good results up to 19.380 foot-tons of energy.
Mr. Schwartz's deductions seem at first sight convincing in all respects,

but we rely, notwithstanding, on the subsequent Spezia trial, which gave
proof that the formula, when a correct profile is adopted for the plates,
gives accurate results, even for the highest energies (47,481 foot-tons).
To explain this apparent contradiction we must refer again to the
conclusions of the last section, where we saw that only that portion of the
shot's energy took effect on the plate which was requisite to break the
shot to pieces. Consequently, the greater the energy of the shot becomes,
the farther does its effective its nominal energy, and
energy differ from
the increase of 6,460 foot-tons, by Mr. Schwartz, has in
referred to
consequence probably hardly any noticeable effect on the armour.
The nature of the curve, calculated from the formula, which at first
increases quickly and then more slowly, seems to us to show that this
formula though somewhat arbitrarily constructed from among the numerous
relations between the dimensions of the plates, does for the present
correspond very well to the actual conditions, and that no reason has been
shown on the ground of those relations to construct a new formula, but
that on the contrary the simplest and most correct plan is for the
constructor of the armour to continue as before to calculate its maximum
thickness, and to determine all the other dimensions in accordance with
his experience and the results obtained from the trials made with the
plates.
Should the breadth of the plate, then, for other reasons, be decreased
to an unusual extent, it becomes necessary to restore, as far as possible,
the normal weight by increasing the thickness.
[ 138 ]
6. Conclusions.
It was natural that the enquiries which we undertook in the previous

sections should be based throughout on a comparison of the earlier and
later plates tried, and their results, as after the earlier series of trials the
superiority of the armour over the gun was generally admitted.
In the interval, between the series, the attack had made very great
progress, and was necessary to determine whether the armour had
it
similarly advanced or had been left behind. It was shown by the trials that
the form of the older type of plates was not the most favourable, even for
the shot of those days, the thickness having been too much reduced at the
upper edge of the plate.
It was shown also that the ratio of the superficies to the vertical section
was correct both in the old and new plates, and in the latter always
remained within admissible limits.
In comparing the weights of the armour with the energy of the shot,
we arrived at a very important difference. The ratio in the case of the
earlier armour was so much more favourable
to the plate than in the more
recent trials, shown by the latter to the improved shot

that the endurance
and heavier charges could only be explained by an important improvement
in the armour.
In the concluding trial against armour for inland fortifications, it was

shown that armour of improved profile, in which the proportion of weight
to the power of the attack was nearly restored to that which was established
in the case of the Tegel plates, gave entirely analogous if not still better
results as regards resistance than the Tegel plates, so that the armour had
entirely kept pace with the notable progress in artillery.
The trial at Spezia against a plate of recent and improved profile gave
the same indication as regards coast defence armour, so that we may affirm,
without exaggeration, that the superiority of the armour to the attack shown
in the earlier trials has been maintained, practically without change, to the
present day ; and this is proved to be the case both by the results of the
trials that is by the behaviour of the new plates under fire as well as by
the fact that the thickness of these recent plates corresponds almost exactly
to that given by the formula which was obtained from the results of the
earlier trials.
[ 139 ]
Of all the recent trials those carried at Spezia in April and June
naturally have a claim to chief attention.
For a long time previous to the trial it had been much discussed
in professional circles whether an armour plate could withstand three
rounds from the lOO-ton gun with an energy of 47.481 foot-tons, the
opinion being generally against such a possibility. In consequence of
which it was natural that numerous representatives of foreign governments
availed themselves of the permission granted by the Italian War Office
to attend the trials.
As a matter of fact, it was not the private interests of the Gruson

Factory which were at stake in this trial, but in great measure the whole
future of armour. Had
the plate failed, it is more than 'probable that
armour would have been given up, to which the opinion
for coast defence
of many was already tending, and the proof of the disproportionate
severity of the test of the plate, which we still maintain to have been
demonstrated, would hardly have received its due attention in presence
of such a result, and have averted this conclusion.
A correct estimate of the severity of the test applied to the Spezia

plate is only obtained by a review of the earlier trials made with guns of
the heaviest calibre against compound and steel plates.
made at Spezia with the Armstrong

In the year 1876 trials were
gun against wrought-iron plates manufactured by
l6.g in. muzzle-loading
Brown, Cammell, and Marrel, and a forged steel plate by Schneider.
All the plates had a thickness of 21.7 in. Gregorini chilled cast-iron
shells were used, weighing 2,002 lbs., maximum charge 341. 8 lb., giving a
velocity of 492.7 yards, and an energy of 30,058.4 foot-tons. The targets
were in all cases perforated by the shot. In trials which took place in
December of the same year the charge was increased to 396.9 lbs. of
Fossano powder, but without marked increase in the velocity.
Heavier charges were employed in the trials made at Spezia in 1882

with the Armstrong 17.7 in. muzzle-loader. The plates tried were two
compound by Cammell and Brown, and a steel
plates plate by Schneider.
All three plates had a thickness of 10.8 ft., a height of 8.5 ft., and a breadth
of 1.6 ft. (For further details see " Mittheilungen fiber Gegenstande des
Artillerie und Geniewesens," 1883, p. 241).
The compound plates had a facing of steel about 6 in. thick; the
Schneider plate was of forged steel. All three plates were fixed to a wood
backing 47.2 in. thick.

[ 140 ]
The following Table gives the chief data of the trials :
Experiments against Armour-Plates with the Armstrong

17.7 in. M. L. Gun in the year 1882.
=1
[ 141 ]
The following Table gives the principal data :
Experiments against Armour Plates with the 16.9 in.
Armstrong B. L. Gun, in the year 1884.
Target.

[ 142 ]
three rounds, and also withstood apart from the two 5.9 in. shells
a fourth hit from the loo-ton gun, striking on the most unfavourable and
most injured spot at an angle of 80'^ to 90, the lateral support being
at the time entirely insufficient.
A glance at Fig 45 shows that the plate, even after this round,
would have given every security to the gun detachment behind it,
and the large and almost uninjured part of the upper half of the plate
proved that it was still capable of withstanding further rounds from the
same gun.
The more unfavourable the anticipations were before the trial as to

the endurance of the plate, they only gave additional point to the result
as it turned out, and the technical journals did not fail to recognise, as far
as we have seen them, the striking and exceptional issue of the trial.
Our own opinion that the terms of the trial were beyond those to
which coast defence armour can ever be called upon to resist, did not affect
this favourable issue.
We do not mean to affirm that artillery may already have reached the
limit of its development, although it is certain the velocity of the 16.9 in.
shot used at Spezia was only reached by means of an exceptionally heavy
charge; we prefer to point more to the short range of 148.5 yards, at
which the firing was conducted.
Assuming that in the future guns are employed which are able to
develop the energy of the Spezia trial from a fighting range, we ask : How
many rounds could such a ship's gun place on a single one of the 15 cupola
plates
? Any one who had noted how great was the difficulty of laying
the gun from the pontoon, when the motion was very slight, comes
necessarily to the conclusion that it would be an entire impossibility to
systematically place three rounds on one and the same plate from a heavy
gun on board ship an opinion repeatedly expressed by naval officers at
Spezia.
Even supposing that still more powerful guns are in future mounted
on board ships, how many of such guns will a fleet possess ?
We consider the object of coast defence armour to be to defend

the guns and gunners against hostile shell fire, and to withstand
being breached by casual single hits. This object would, however,
be fulfilled by a much slighter armour, and we therefore do not think
that the dimensions of the plate tried at Spezia will constitute a
[ 143 1
measure for all the subsequent armour to be constructed, which opinion

does not, however, detract from the high value of the issue of the Spezia
trial.
The small penetration of the shot into the chilled armour (in
maximum 4 in. on the parts not already injured) shows how small a
portion of their total energy was delivered on the plate. The deeper
the penetration, the greater is the blow on the plate, and in the
diminishing of the effective blow, we see the special advantage of the
system of chilled iron armour over armour of wrought iron.
Quite apart from cylindrical wrought-iron armour, inclined armour of

the same nature invariably suffers much injury in partial penetration from
the fire of heavy guns, and the blows of the striking shot are so heavy that
we seriously doubt whether the ports of a turret carrying such armour
which effect or give scope for the revolving movement, could be made
strong enough to withstand them.
The case is more favourable as regards steel and compound armour

still we do not believe that in the present condition of manufacture these
last can have given to them the same hardness as chilled iron armour
without at least its having serious influence on their tenacity.
Moreover, with armour of this class the smaller amount of weight,
which contributes so much to compensate the blows received, always acts

unfavourably in the presence of the heavy projectiles used in the attack.
It indeed may be possible to make wrought-iron or steel plates of equal
weight to that of the Spezia plates, but for practical purposes such a pro-
ceeding would involve too great an expenditure. We are consequently
of opinion that the chilled iron armour is in the present day in a
more favourable position as regards the guns for the attack than the other
systems of armour, in which as yet, so far as we know, no attempt has been
made to construct turrets and batteries to protect 15.7 in. guns.
Although accustomed to radical changes and improvements in
technical matters, we do not think that this superiority of chilled iron
armour will be disturbed in the near future, as it is based upon two
qualities which distinguish this system from all others, namely, its
hardness and weight.
Whether those who, like ourselves, hold the above opinion as to

the object of coast-defence armour are right or not, or whether the future
will bring about a great increase in the precision of the fire from ships'
guns, which formed the basis of the programme of the firing trials at
[ 144 ]
Spezia, can with as little certainty be decided as tlie question whether

in the future the power of the attacking guns will receive a great
increase, but we believe we may assume with confidence that, even in
the latter case, no important increase will be necessary in the dimensions
of the armour plate tried at Spezia, inasmuch as the whole energy, of a
shot never takes effect on the armour. Should we, however, be also
mistaken in this respect, the superiority of the chilled cast-iron armour in
relation to the weapons of attack could hardly be affected, as no technical

difficulty, as we have shown above, exists to increasing the strength of the
chilled iron plates.
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K

(0bert pttt;jj ltttt;;st0tt

AUbooks not in use

Graduates and sen-

Cornell University Library

3 1924 032 591 749

JULIUS VON SCHUTZ,

Translated into English

Commander H. H. GRENFELL, R.N.

Armour is acknowledged by all the leading authorities to be a necessity for the

Description of the chief types of Chilled Cast-iron Armour and Minimum-Port

Chapter III. page

Under the title of "The Gruson Chilled Iron Armour," we published

construction of guns and manufacture of powder, but also in that of

day among the best made.

Description of the chief types of Chilled Cast-iron

Armour^ and Minimum-Fort Carriages.

toEFORE proceeding to a description of the above-mentioned types, a

All armour plating may be placed in two distinct categories :

(a.) Those which by virtue of their hardness of surface deflect

localized to the part struck.

means of a series of trials established the correctness of his system.

The Gruson chilled iron is a mixture of different blends of pig-iron,

In accordance with the two chief qualities which he sought to obtain

each of which possessed one of the desired qualities a highly carbonised,

Although it appeared impossible, by the mere mixture of the two

another way of solving the problem, to produce a hard surface on a soft

elastic interior, seemed less difficult, if it were possible to combine the

Gruson attained his object by a seemingly simple procedure. By

It would be foreign to the scope of this compilation to specify the

the peculiar structure which characterizes the broken section of a piece

Section of a Chilled Cast Iron Bar.

It will be noticed in this figure, which shows the section of a chilled

without visible lines of separation into the granular structure of the

This is the great difference which distinguishes Gruson chilled iron

from that of other manufacturers in whose iron the line of separation

The Gruson chilled iron possessed consequently all the properties

Hard armour was discredited because brittleness was thought to be a

Fully realising the advantages of his metal, Gruson completely

and besides it possessed this advantage, that, by reason of their arched

came the reduction of the port to a minimum^ so as to prevent the entry of

As the chilled iron can be made to take any desired form, it is

applicable to every system of fortification, of which, however, the most

Fig. 2 gives an external view of a protected battery for six guns.

At each end the battery rests against masonry, which is protected by

View of a Chilled Iron Armour Battery.

J. t*^ "^ - ' i

The adjoining edges of the several plates are planed to a flat

The whole structure lies on foundation plates, provided on their

As a large arc of horizontal training is required, the slide is furnished

horizontal movement being placed vertically beneath the point in the

Section of an Armoured Battery.

As will be seen from this, an armoured battery forms a spacious

II. Armoured Turrets.

In cases where a greater arc of horizontal fire is necessary than can

of such a turret, and clearly explains the mode of construction.

Section of a Chilled Iron A fmour Turret.

The dome-shaped cupola rests on a wrought iron sub-structure, which

The lower roller path of the turret which is | j in section, is