VLCC - Maneuvering Trials
VLCC - Maneuvering Trials
VLCC - Maneuvering Trials
251-283
Esso Osaka during full left rudder turn; medium water depth site, Gulf of Mexico
Maneuvering trials of the 278 000-dwt Esso Osaka were made in two shallow-water and one deep-
water site in the Gulf of Mexico during July/August 1977 as a cooperative effort of the U. S. Maritime
Administration, the U. S. Coast Guard, and the American Institute of Merchant Shipping. A principal
objective of these trials was to develop data for improving the quality of computer simulations of
shiphandling for training shiphandlers and for research and design. Other objectives were to pro-
vide data needed for the development of deepwater port safety zones and to aid in the development
of maneuvering information for mariners aboard ship. The trials satisfied all of the objectives and
demonstrated additionally that a typical VLCC can maneuver reliably and predictably under the real-
istic-type conditions that were tested. They also showed that industry and government, working to-
gether, can produce fruitful results toward improving navigational safety and protecting the environ-
ment.
251
Introduction standing of model scale effects on ship maneuvering predic-
tions.
Background 3. To improve the data upon which the size and configu-
INTEREST in ship controllability has increased sharply in ration of deepwater port safety zones are based.
the past few years. While laymen mainly question the size and 4. To provide data upon which to base shiphandling ma-
controllability of large tankers, experienced operators are neuvering information for ships' watchkeeping officers and
equally concerned with the unique features affecting control- pilots.
lability of large containerships, liquefied gas ships and other
vessels. Summary
During the same few years, special facilities for analyzing The trials were conducted in shallow and deep waters pro-
and predicting ship controllability have been developed which viding 20, 50 and 820 percent bottom clearance, and showed
apply to all types and sizes of vessels. Improvements of the following main results: With 20 percent bottom clearance,
mathematical ship maneuvering models have resulted from turning-circle tactical diameter increased as much as 75 percent
accelerated work on maneuvering theory, captive model tests over the deepwater result. With 50 percent clearance, the
and calculation capabilities. Taking advantage of these de- increase was less than 20 percent, directionally confirming
velopments, real-time shiphandling simulators, such as at earlier model predictions. The ship's checking and count-
Wageningen and Delft in The Netherlands, the Swedish State erturning ability was reduced in intermediate water depth, but
Shipbuilding Experimental Tank (SSPA) and CAORF, 2 have was increased in shallow water.
been built, permitting research studies of the interactions The main shallow-water effect on stopping from slow speed
among the key parts of overall ship/waterway control systems, was an increase in yaw rotation to the right as the ship came to
including human factors. However, most simulators are now a halt (increasing to almost 90 deg, with 20 percent bottom
dedicated to use as training devices for ships' officers and pilots. clearance). As expected, rudder control was eventually lost
In other work, hydraulic models of segments of particular during stopping with sustained astern rpm, although heading
waterways have been built which incorporate manned self- could be controlled to some extent by early rudder action. In
propelled ship models. These also are used in both shiphandler the "controlled" stop, where desired heading had priority over
training and in controllability studies such as at Grenoble, stopping distance, and rpm was controlled, the heading could
France; The Netherlands Ship Model Basin (NSMB); the Uni- be maintained almost constant, although this was at the expense
versity of Michigan, and Vicksberg. With these tools available, of significantly increased stopping distance.
the complex relationships existing between vessel, waterway, Perhaps the principal finding of the trials, in terms of ma-
environment, aids-to-navigation, shipboard navigation aids, neuvering safety, was that steering control could be maintained
operating rules and the shiphandler are now subject to study in all three water depths at speeds as low as 1.5 knots, even with
and better understanding. the engine stopped. This was demonstrated by the coasting
Maneuvering mathematical models are based on Newton's turns and coasting Z-maneuvers; that is, checking and count-
equations of motion, and incorporate such physical factors as erturning ability was preserved down to this slow speed in the
ship's mass and fluid forces acting on hull, propeller and rudder, coasting Z-maneuver. Accelerating turns quantified the ad-
together with wind forces and the influences of shallow water, vantage of "kicking ahead" with the engine to expedite a turn
channel sides and water currents ([ 1-4] 3 and similar sources). from stopped condition. The coasting maneuvers and the
Because several of the complex factors affecting maneuvers are accelerating turns, taken together, confirmed what is already
represented using seale-model data and theories containing known by good shiphandlers, that is, that maneuverability is
assumptions, it is essential that mathematical models be vali- improved when rpm is quickly increased, and reduced when
dated through comparison of predicted results with carefully rpm is rapidly decreased. Because of this, a prudent ship-
planned and executed full-seale maneuvering trials. handler will navigate in tight quarters at the slowest safe speed.
Unfortunately, in the case of shallow-water maneuvering, Then, if required to increase speed he will gain control, rather
few data are available for this purpose [5, 6]. In view of this, than risk losing it if required to slow down.
and with the knowledge that the most important maneuvers Other trial data covered the effects of speed of approach,
of large ships such as tankers occur in shallow water, the U. S. propeller asymmetry and water currents. Very precise read-
Maritime Administration (MarAd), the U. S. Coast Guard and ings of selected additional maneuvers were also made for use
the American Institute of Merchant Shipping joined together in researching "systems identification" methods for deter-
to sponsor a comprehensive shallow-water maneuvering trial mining hydrodynamic coefficients of the mathematical ma-
program in the Gulf of Mexico off Freeport, Texas. Appendix neuvering model.
1 lists contributing organizations. The trials were conducted
under the management of Exxon International Company Trial preparations
Tanker Department in late July and early August 1977, using
the 278 000-dwt turbine tanker Esso Osaka. Other organi- Ship selection
zations assisting in the planning, execution and data processing
are also.listed in Appendix 1. A very large crude carrier (VLCC) was selected for the ma-
neuvering trials, recognizing the expected important model-
Objectives to-ship scale effects due to large differences in Reynolds
The objectives of the trials were: numbers (reflecting large differences in ratios of fluid inertial
1. To develop full-scale ship trial data which will provide to viscous forces) and the modern and extensive navigation
a major improvement in the quality of simulaHons of ship equipment found aboard VLCCs, often including double-axis
maneuvering behavior, particularly in shallow water. Doppler sonar speed sensors. The latter was useful as part of
2. To develop information leading to a better under- the trial instrumentation. Other points in favor of selecting a
VLCC were the anticipated construction of deepwater ports
2 Computer Aided Operations Research Facility, located at the in thecoastal waters of the United States, the large worldwide
U. S. Merchant Marine Academyat KingsPoint, New York. population of VLCCs, and the concern within some segments
3 Numbers in brackets designate Referencesat end of paper. of the public over the ability of large single-screw VLCCs to
252 Maneuvering Trials of 278 000-DWT Tanker
maneuver reliably and predictably, especially in shallow Table 1 Trial agenda
water. TYPE OF MANEUVER OR SPEED OF APPROACH TO
Esso Osaka satisfied all these requirements, and had the CALIBRATION RUN MANEUVERS,knots
additional advantage of. being scheduledfor a lightering-type
discharge in the Gulf of Mexico. It also had a hull cleaning and Depth/ Depth/ Depth/
Draft Draft Draft
painting only three riaonths before the trials.: Principal char- 1.2 1.5 4.2
acter~stics and sketches are presented in Appendix 2. 1. Maneuvers Shallow Medium Deep
Turn, port, 35-deg L rudder 51 7 7 7
Trial agenda . Turn, stbd, 35-deg R rudder 5, 7 7 7, 10
Turn, accelerating, 35-deg R rudder 0-1- 0-1- -
The'trial agenda given in Table 1 Was designed to efficiently Turn, coasting, 35-deg R rudder 5 5 5
obtain information on normal operating requirements, ship Z-maneuver, 20/20 7 7 7
response in the event of propulsion breakdgwn,.and model-ship Z-maneuver, 20/20 coasting 5 5 5
Z-maneuver 10/10 7 7 7
scale effects in the linear and nonlinear motionranges. Biased Z-maneuver 7 7 7
Planning discussions were held, among project sponsors and Spiral 7 7 7
hydrodynamic and ship control experts coordinated through Stop, 35-deg L rudder 3.5 3.5
SNAME Panels H-10 and H-5. T h e water depths.that were Stop, 35-deg R rudder 3.5 3.5 3.5
Stop, controlled heading 3.5 - 3.5
chosen provided water depth-to-'draft~rati0s of :1 2 (shal!gw), Stop, steering for constant heading 3.5
1.5 (medium) and greaterthan4.2 (deep). T h e appearance 2. Calibration Runs
of the Esso Osaka's cross section.in .these depths is sketched in Speed/rpm, taken during 3.5, 6, 5, 7.5 7, 10
Fig. 1... : steady runs prior 8.5
to chosen maneuvers
T r i a l site selection
Total runs 17 12 15
Factors entering the selection of the shallow- and medium-
depth maneuvering trial sites included the n ~ l s for acceptable
water depths, depth gradients add bottom smoothness. In
addition, low water currents and high probability of good were provided by the Full Scale Trials Branch of the David W.
weather with low winds, waves and swell were sought, as were Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center
low vessel traffic, fishing effort ~nd naval activity. Finally, a (DTNSRDC). AMETEK, Straza Division, modified the ship's
satisfactory location for trial vessel av~'ilability and logistical existing double-axis sonar Doppler docking and navigation
support was required. -, . , system to obtain precision bottom clearance information.
The selection process was intwo phases,.covering a literature Decca Survey Systems, Inc. separately provided ship position
search Of documented information friJmgovernment, industry information. , -
and academic sour6es, followed by a field confirmation of water Most trial measurements taken }~y DTNSRDC were from
depth, current and sea-floor bathymetry byprecision survey. existing ship's systems in the wheelhouse with careful.calibra-
This work described more fully in Appendix 3, resulted in se- tions, as described in Appendix 4. Test instrumentation in-
lection of very sat!sfactory shallow, medium and deepwater trial stallation commenced six days prior to the trials While the Esso
sites in the Galveston area of the western Gulf of Mexico. The Osaka was discharging Persian Gulf crude oil into'smaller
area is depicted on chart segment's .in ,~ppendix Figs. 23 and lightering vessels at a position about 50 miles south of Galveston,
24. " " " " ' , Texas.
Water current meters were fixed to their moorings bySip-
Measurements pican oceanographer/divers as soon as possible af{er arrival of
Ship instrumentation design, installation and monitoring the Esso Osaka in each tria} area and they were kemoved shortly
I I __
20~/o T = 4 . 4 m ". 4
/ ' . 50% T : 1 0 . 9 m1
~1 32(7'1o T =7 0 m
) .'
Fig. 1 Cross-sectional sketch of Esso Osaka relative to the three water depths of the trials
was reached. The equilibrium rpm was then set using the
feedback control and the "steady" approach commenced.
Speecl through the water was estimated by correcting measured u.I < ~ ~" 45
spee I-over-ground for longitudinal drift using wha. t'ever local
..J
water current data were available at that m0meht.' "
Tile sequence of maneuvering runs was chosen for maximum
efficiency by linking runs together with the help of pretrial
simulations. These pretrial studies were made by Hydronautics
Inc., and sponsored by.SNAME. Other steps taken to avoid
delays included making accelerating turns from dead in the
water as the first trial in the morning after drafts were read and
the anchor heaved in. "Stopping trials usually were made when
coming to anchor at night Except on a few occasions, the ship
was not otherwise stopped.
Conventional turning circle, stopping and Z-maneuver trials
followed well established procedures [10, 11] and will not be L A T E R A , DEVIATION,
~==__ - - L AT C.G.
described in detail here. Definition diagrams of trial maneu-
vers ;are provided in Figs. 8 and 4. However, the accelerating
turn, coasting turn, stopping while steering for constant head-
ing, stopping with controlled heading, coasting Z-maneuver, 5 ' HF' ADR E
' ACH~-~ ~
spiral test and biased Z-maneuver all require some com-
ment.
Accelerating turn--This trial begins from dead in the water. Fig. 3 Definition diagrams of turning circle and stopping maneuvers
The rudder is set to 85 deg and the engine simultaneously or-
derecl to 55 rpm ahead. The result is a turning path tighter
than with the conventional turn. a compromise between 'a direct spiral and the reversed spiral
Coasting turn--The coasting turn is similar to a conventional was used.
turning circle, except that.the engine is ordered stopped at the In the direct spiral test, the rudder is consecutively fixed at
instant the initial rudder execute command is given. Due to predetermined angles, and after sufficient time to achieve
the initially slow approach speed and ship slowdown in the steady turning, the turning rate and ship speed are recorded.
maneuver, it. was not practical to continue this maneuver - To expedite the trial, which may take three hours, the reverse
through more than a 'partial turn. Modified performance spiral is sometimes substituted. A skilled helmsman then steers
measures used are discussed under "'Results." using smallest possible rudder angle changes to achieve pre-
Stopping while steering for constant heading. This is a determined turning rates (degrees per second). In thepresent
conventional stopping maneuver with given astern rpm, except trial, preliminary rudder commands were given by the trial
that the helmsman is ordered to hold course as closely as possible director to approach the desired turning rate, after which a
with rudder alone. In general, he will be unsuccessful after an constant rudder anglo, was ordered. When turning rate and
interval as slower speed is reached. This speed depends upon ship speed appeared constant, data were recorded. This
the astern rpm that is ordered. modified procedure was used because most helmsmen are not
St,ypping with controlled heading--In this trial, holding the experienced at steering ordered turning rates, and because long
steadying periods would cause the limited dimensions of t h e
original ship's heading has priority over minimizing stopping
distance. To do this the shiphandler is given freedom to control
both rudder angle and engine rpm as he sees fit. It is a sub-
jective trial depending upon the skill and training of the ship- ADVANCE AT MAXIMUM
ttl
handler. In the absence of external disturbances, rudder angle " LATERAL DEVIATION, METE'RS
alone v~ill not suffice for heading control as the ship loses speed uJ
with constant astern rpm. Therefore, the engine will have to
.be periodically stopped or even run ahead for short intervals
for heading control.
z
to
1 MOM.'ATERA' IDE T'ON'"E'ERs
Coasting Z-maneuver--This trial is similar to the conven- S W E P T PATH I "
tional Z-manewver except that the engine is ordered stopped
at the instant the first rudder execute command is given. The
Z-maneuver is continued until the ship's heading no longer
responds to rudder In the present trials only two or three
rudder commands were made before control was lost at very
slow speed. Therefore, modified performance indices were
RUOOE.
ANG' E HEADING
required for the present trials are discussed here. For example, Fig. 4 Definition diagram of Z-maneuver
1500
T, 02C4
F--
i000
t,u
.d
ADVANCE @ 90';
u3
.z
\ 2z
t
500
f TRANSFER @ 90*
121,5 4r. 2
0 i ,I
Rudder 35* Left
Al~0roach Speed 7 Knots
DEPTH/DRAFT
Fig. 5 Water depth effect on turning circle path. Depth/draft ratios Fig. 6 Changes in turning circle indices with water depth
of 1.2, 1.5, and 4.2
2 by 5-mile trial sites to be exceeded. Even with this procedure, in detail as previously described. Time-history variables in-
it was not possible to do the spiral in a continuous run in the clude rpm, forward speed, lateral speed at center of gravity
shallow-water site. (CG), rudder angle, rate of turn, change of heading and bottom
Biased Z-maneuvers--These maneuvers were ma.de at clearance. Ship speed components were corrected to "through
MarAd's request to provide transient data in the nonlinear the water," by methods described in Appendix 5, together with
turning range as required for systems identification work being the water current measurements.
done at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). MIT Plots showing swept paths of the vessel were also prepared
provided steering procedures in a sequence of rudder angles for all maneuvers except the Z-maneuvers, spiral tests and bi-
and ordered time durations. Path traces approached as circles ased Z-maneuvers. Path plots were initially made as measured
with somewhat flattened segments.on perimeters. Data were relative to ground. They were then corrected for set and drift
provided directly to MIT by DTNSRDC and are not reported to a nominal stillwater condition. Winds and seas were very
here. mild throughout the trials and their effects are assumed neg-
ligible. See Appendix 7 for weather data.
Trial data were printed at 2-sec intervals and are retained
Results by Exxon International. Original magnetic flexible disk records
are retained by the DTNSRDC Full Scale Trials Brancla, and
General those records will be transferred to 8-track magnetic tape
during 1979.
Trial results address the effects of shallow water, engine
maneuvers, approach speed, propeller asymmetry, and water S h a l l o w - w a t e r effects
currents, in that order. Conventional Turning Circles--The large effect of water
Although detailed time-history and path plots of most ma- depth on the Esso Osaka entering a turn is shown in Fig. 5. 4
neuvers were prepared and are included in reference [17], only Turning circles were in most cases made through 540 deg, al-
one pair is shown in Appendix 6 due to paper length limita-
tions. 4 In this paper, depth-to-draft ratio is designated by h/T. Shallow
Time histories were prepared for all trial maneuvers except water was nominally at h/T = 1.2, medium depth at 1.5 and deep
the biased Z-maneuver, which was performed and recorded water at hiT greater than 4.2.
Table 2 Turning circle results versus water depth, expressed using conventional indices
AT 180-DEG HEADING CHANGE
AT 90-DEG HEADING CHANGE Tactical Diameter
^ . A
in shallow water increased by about 17 percent. S}~LLOW 1182 3.6 1616' 5.0 + 37%
TURNIpRN0CI
p::RL~E
~r~"~~/
/ FORCOMPARISON~ ~ SHALL~CW
COASTIWATER
Maximum swept diameter increased by about 16 percent in
medium depth and 61. percent in shallow water.
Transfer at 90-deg heading change increased an average of
G CLE, NTURN
G
19 percent in medium depth and by 88 percent in shallow
water Probably the most obvious water depth effect is on
tactical diameter which, at 180-deg heading change, increased
by 18 percent in medium depth and 74 percent in shallow
water.
Taken together, these results show that normal modest *Deet0water Turn Compared At 45* HeadinChange
g
course-changing maneuvers of a VLCC are not greatly affected Fig. 7 Water depth effect on advance in the coasting turn, with pro-
by water depth, although the infrequent 180-deg course re- pelled turn shown for comparison
versal maneuver is affected substantially.
Table 2 also shows that there is much less reduction of speed
in a turn in shallow water than in medium or deep depths. At increase by only 15 percent, and in shallow water it increased
180-deg heading change, speed loss from approach speed in by 37 percent.
deep water was roughly 57 percent. In the medium depth the Accelerating turns--Accelerating turns were made in both
speed was reduced by 48 percent and in shallow water by 40 medium and shallow water depths by building up from zero
percent. rpm to about 56 ahead, beginning with the ship dead in the
Coasting turns--An interesting characteristic of shallow- water with rudder angle at 35 deg right. As shown in Fig. 8,
water maneuvering is seen in the coasting turn. Results for. the the main water depth effect is seen in the changes in the tactical
coasting turn to the right with 35-deg rudder are presented in and maximum swept diameters. In shallow water the tactical
Fig. 7, which also shows for comparison the conventional diameter increased by 31 percent and the maximum swept
deepwater 35-deg rudder turn. Notice that initial turning is diameter by 26 percent relative to medium-depth water
greatest in the medium water depth and least in deep water. Stopping maneuvers--Water depth effects on stopping from
In the shallow and deep cases, turning is consistently to the right, slow speed are most apparent in trials made with $5-deg right
whereas in medium deep there is a slight reversal toward the rudder and engine ordered to 45 rpm astern. Figures 9 and
end. As a performance measure for the coasting turn, we 10 show that headreach is roughly the same in the deep,.me-
compare in Fig. 7 advance at 90-deg heading change with that dium and shallow water depths at 520; 575 and 550 m (1705,
in the conventionally powered turn. This shows how degra- 1886 and 1804 ft), respectively. And as shown in the table on
dation of turning by coasting varies with water depth. Fig. 9, had the approach speed of the deepwater maneuver
In deep water, coasting caused the advance in the turn at 45 been exactly the (3.8 knots of the medium and shallow maneu-
deg heading change to increase by 170 percent. 6 In medium vers, instead of &5 knots, even closer results would have been
depth, coasting caused advance at 90 deg heading change to obtained. The water depth effect is most- strongly seen in the
large heading change as.the ship comes to a halt. Heading
S'Averagesof right- and left-hand turns. change varied from 18 deg.in deep water to 50 deg in medium
6 Compared at 45-deg heading, since heading change did not reach depth to 88 deg in shallow water, all to the rightl
90 deg in deep water. Lateral deviation of the ship's CG from the extended track-
Table 3 Turning circle results versus water depth, expressed using maximum swept-path indices
Maximum Swept
Maximum Swept Advance Tactical Diameter
Rudder Depth " - * -
Angle + Draft m +L A* m +L A*
35-deg left 4.2 ' 1160 3.6 1040 3.2
35-dug left 1.5 990 3.1 -'1"5"% 1190 3.7 +'1"4"%
35-deg left. 1.2 1270 3.9 +10% 1690 5.2 +63%
35-dug right 4.2 1100 3.4 1025 3.2
35-dug right 1.5 1080 3.3 '-'2"% 1200 3.7 +'1"7"/o
35-deg right 1.2 1280 3.9 +16% 1620 5.0 +58%
NOTES:
. Approach speed 7 knots.
Corrected for set and drift.
* Percentage change from deepwater results.
ikm
INITIAL HEADING
.J
~E
c::~ 0
i.-t~
I.LI ,'~
I--0
}2' c
Fig. 8 "Water depth effect on the accelerating turn; shallow:water versus medium-
MEDIUMDEPTH
SHALLOW WATER
-L )
h/T=
h/T=
1.5
1.2
line was small, varying from 20 m (65.6 ft) starboard to 50 m ershoots in the 20/20-deg maneuver varied from 9.5 deg in
(164 ft) port to 85 m (115 ft) port for deep, medium and'shallow deep water to 11.2 deg in medium depth to 7.8 deg in shallow
depths, respectively. Obviously, maximum swept-path de- water. The maximum swept-path lateral deviation from
viations are more pronounced, with the bow 90 m (295 ft) to trackline varied from 460 m (1509 ft) deep to 590 m (1985 ft)
starboard in deep water, and the stern 200 m (656 ft) to port in medium to 505 m (1656 ft) shallow.
medium depth and 205 m (672 ft) to port in shallow depth. In the 10-deg/deg Z-maneuvers the first yaw angle over-
Z-maneuvers--Z-maneuvers describe relative checking and shoots varied from 8.6 deg in deep water to 7.9 deg in medium
counterturning ability in maneuvers about an initial heading. depth to 6.2 deg in shallow water; there was some drift of
Table 4 and Fig. 11 provide values in the three water depths rudder angles, however, as apparent from the time histories in
for the 20/20-deg Z-maneuver with initial 7-knot speed. Appendix 6.
For port entry-type maneuvers, the first yaw angle overshoot Coasting Z-maneuvers--The effeci of water depth on a
and the resulting maximum lateral deviation (swept path away ship's ability to continue maneuvering without propulsion
from original trackline) are significant. First yaw angle ov- power is shown by the coasting Z-maneuver. It is also useful
1 km
Fig. 9 Water depth effect on stopping path, with approach speed 3.8 knots, 35-deg right
rudder and 45 rpm astern (about 50 percent of available astern power)
The present spiral tests show interesting characteristics. ~ 1oo WHEN' STOPPED
From the records of turning rate in degrees per second (example O ~ AT CG
o.
segment in Fig. 30 of Appendix 8) together with working ~ o 0
tn
summary plots, Appendix 8 Figs. 31-33, smoothed summary o z
l.-u~
dimensionless plots were prepared. These are shown com- u~ ~ 100
positely in Fig. 13.. Comments are as follows: MAXIMUM DEVIATION (AT %0~/)
m
Deepwater spiral test: Turning rate versus rudder angle .7,
20O I I I 0 . 5
results of Fig. 13 and Appendix 8 suggest that the Esso Osaka 2 3 4
is marginally dynamically stable in deep water; that is, no DEPTH/DRAFT RATIO
definite "loop" resulted, even though a very minor loop might
have appeired if this particular trial was prolonged beyond the Fig. 10 Stoppedposition of ship as affected by water depth, with
approach speed 3.8 knots, 35-deg right rudder and 45 rpm astern
2 hr-30 min used.
Medium-depth spiral test: Results in Fig. 13 and Ap-
pendix 8 suggest that a narrow loop of perhaps 1-deg width P r o p e l l e r r p m e f f e c t s o n h e a d i n g c o n t r o l
exists, with a dimensionless height of about 0.4.
. Shallow-water spiral test: Results in Fig. 13 and Appendix The effects of the use of propeller rpm on maneuvering are
8suggest that the vessel is probably dynamically stable, and shown by certain turning, stopping and Z-maneuver trials.
probably has no loop. This interpretation ignores some of the Rpm effects.on turning--Turning of a single-serew sin-
plotted points and is based upon gle-rudder ship is strongly affected by use of propeller rpm.
(a) Suspicion of points just to the left of the origin in Ap-
pendix 8 Fig. 33 because of the limited time they could ESSO OSAKA, 278 k DWT
be held for steady results. This was because of the re-
(FOR DEFINITION DIAGRAM, SEE FIGURE 3 . )
stricted size of the 2 by 5-mile surveyed "safe" trial
area.
(b) Problems incurred in obtaining the points near the origin 2000
20
in piecewise fashion for the same reason as just given.
(c' The tendency suggested by all points except those just
to the upper left of the origin. A dashed line for the
expected actual curve has been added to Fig. 33.
Ts,ken together, the spiral test data in,the three water depths
suggest marginal dynamic stability in deep water, probable
ud
15 ~ T MAX. LATERAL DEVIATION
1500
r,
2
(approach speed 7 knots)
>>.5
~ .___.._._~.~MUM LATERAL DEVIATION
500
Deep Medium Change* Shallow Change*
tst yaw angle
overshoot, deg
Maximum lateral
deviation, m
Advance, at
maximum lateral
deviation, m
9.5
460
1540
11.2
590
1650
+18%
+28%
+7%
505
7.8 -18%
+10%
3
DEPTH/DRAFT RATIO
4
I
4.2
I Lo
* Relative to deepwater result, Fig. 11 20/20-deg Z-maneuver indices versus water depth
~ ~ i E E P 2 1 k m 3lkm
WATER
ikm /
. ~ D I ~ ' D ~ ~
This is clearly shown in Fig. 14 for the case of water-depth- depths. Figures 17 and 18 show how water depth changes the
to-draft ratio 1.2. The conventional turning maneuver shown effects of coasting on Z-maneuver overshoot, maximum de-
in Path A is diminished when the vessel coasts with propulsion viation and advance.
power cut off, as in Path B. The accelerating turn, Path C, has
a different approach condition, beginning from dead in the
water and building up propeller speed to about 56 rpm from Effect of rudder and rpm control on stopping
the moment the rudder is deflected to 85-deg right. Rudder angle effect--The stopping results reported under
Similar rpm effect results were obtained in medium-depth "Water depth effect" were for the 85-deg right-rudder case.
water, as seen in Fig. 15. The effec b of applying instead ~5-deg left rudder in the deep-
.Coasting versus conventional Z-maneuvers--~-The relative and shallow-water cases can be seen in the combined Fig. 19,
ability to maneuver while "coasting" is seen in Table 5, which with paired left- and right-rudder stopping maneuvers. The
compares the coasting condition with' the conventional Z- tendency Of the astern propeller rotation to move the stern to
maneuvers of Table 4. Figure 16 shows the variations of Z- port is clear!y preponderant in shallow water, whereas rudder
maneuver paths, coasting versus powered, for the three water angle was the controlling factor in deep water.
LU DEEP WATER
0.5
r = Turning Rate, deg/sec ,~ h/T = 1 . 2
I = Ship Length, meters ~z 0:4 ~1 ,/ MEDIUM DEPTH
= Ship Speed, m/sec ~- /' / h/T = 1.5
rI = - -
rl
v :'- 0,3 s,,,,/~ ~ ~ ,._..,._SHALLOW WATER
(Measure Of Path . ~ h/T .=
= i~2
Curvature) ~ /
0.2
i
N o.ii
I I I I I 1 I ~I I J I ; I .I I
35 30 25 20 15 i0 5//I -5 ,-10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35
/i -0.i
-0.2
RtGHT RUDDER
-O .3
-0.4
/ -0.5
Fig. 13 Smoothed spiral test results, showing dimensionless turning rate versus rudder
angle, from 7 knots
i km 2 krn
~ y . _ ~ B. COASTING
.~,~FROt, I 5 K N O T S
A. CONVENTIONAL
FRO;'I" 7 K N O T S
/
'_~_
Fig. 14 Rpm effect on turning circle in shallow water, showing coasting, conventional
and accelerating turns; h~ T = 1.2
i km 1 km 2 km
COASTING TURN
ACCELERATING
TURN
CONVENTIONAL
TURN
2kin
Fig. 15 Rpm effect on turning path in medium water depth, showing coasting, con-
ventional, and accelerating turns; h~ T = 1.5
tn
I \ uo PROPELLED
t,0 LO
I ~ COASTING "Z"
0
15
I \\ z
1500
I \ 4
0:=
tn
I
PELLED "Z"
\\. ~ '~0 ~ COASTING
lO lOOO
g
MJ~XIMUM LATERAL
DEVIATION
#
<
l
<
~ 5 500
Fig. 17 Coasting effect on first yaw angle overshoot of 20/20--6eg Fig. 18 Coasting effect on lateral deviation and advanceof 20/20-deg
Z-maneuver in three water depths Z-maneuver in three water depths
DEEp WATER
85-deg right rudder, Table 8. One run was from an approach
Fig. 1(1 Rudder angle effect on stopping in shallow water and deep speed of 7.8 knots, a comparison run from 10.0 knots. Again
water from 3.8 knots, with 45"rpm astern the water current (0.73 knots in the 7.8-knot approach case)
casts some doubt on the validity of the comparison, bu~ the re-
suits do not seriously contest the assumption of path indepen-
left rudder from 5.0 knots in shallow water. This is compared dence Q{ ship speed. In fact, the tendencies are in the opposite
with another run which is the same except for the approach direction from those of the previous comparison.
speed of 7.0 knots. Unfortunately, the 5-knots approach speed Water current effects--Although path plots 9fall maneuvers
(and slower in the turn) allowed significant path distortion due were "corrected" to a nominal stillwater condition, as described-
to water current set and drift. Also, the measured rudder angi e in Appendix 5, set and drift are a fact of life in slow-speed
in the 7.0-knot trial was 36 deg instead of 35-deg left. Never- maneuvers. Shiphandlers must be skilled in adapting to non-
theless., t h e results show nothing that strongly contests the as- uniform and time-varying currents for the same reason that
sumption that pathgeometry is independent of speed. Turning current corrections cannot be a c c u r a t e l y m a d e even in cob-
indices are summarized in Table 7. trolled experiments such as these. The degree of Water current
The second comparison was made in a deepwater turn with nonuniformity in these trials is discussed in Appendix 5. Here
]- k m
CONTROLLED STOPPING: - ~ - - C . . . ~ - - ~ ~-
CONTROLLED RUDDER AND PROPELLER RPM
-~---~- ~ ~
I 1 km
Fig. 20 Comparison of controlled, simple, and steered stops in deep water. Ap-
proach speed 3.5 knots, and engine speed 45 rpm astern except in controlled stop,
Where it was varied
General
The trial results show clearly that distortions of flow about
a ship's hull in shallow water significantly affect maneuvering
motions. The sketches of Fig. 1 show why the cross-flow
passing under a ship's bottom when maneuvering in deep water
J-1 km
must, in very shallow water, be mainly constrained to pass
Fig. 21 Propeller asymmetry effect on accelerating turn in medium around the ship's sides. In consequence, the combined effects
water depth. Accelerating from zero ship speed with engine rpm of shallow water on side drift and turning in maneuvers greatly
rapidly increased from zero to 56. Rudder 35-deg right, hi t = 1.5 exaggerate the hydrodynamic side forces acting on a ship, and
~/ .
shift the center of pressure aft toward amidships. Meanwhile, in slow-speed maneuvers, was able to turn reliably at slow
the relative effectiveness of the rudder is reduced because its speeds, even with the engine stopped.
center of pressure moves forward [12-16]. Also,the rudder's Taken together, the foregoing trial results emphasize that
effective aspect ratio, due to the presence of the seabottom, is maneuverability is improved when rpm is increased and
increased much less in shallow water than is that of the hull. degraded when rpm is reduced. Knowing this, the prudent
Recall that a ship's hull has a very low aspect ratio in deep shiphandler will look for the slowest safe speed in certain critical
water. maneuvering areas. If then required to speed up,. maneuver-
With this brief physical picture, some trial findings are dis- ability will increase instead of being degraded if. unexpectedly
cussed. required to slow down. "
The coasting Z-maneuver gave further evidence that the trial
Turning, Z-maneuver and spiral test results vessel could maneuver reliably and predictably with engine
Changes in turning circle characteristics and Z-maneuver stopped, even at speeds as low as 1.4 knots. In all cases it ap-
indices with water depth are loosely related to the changes in peared that the ship was still responding to rudder commands
dynamic stability that are indicated by spiral test results. when the maneuver was terminated.
According to theory [12-16] and the present trials, the dy- The trends of response to the coasting 20/20-deg Z-maneuver
namic stability of a ship's hull (that is, with controls fixed) first closely follow those of the conventional 20/20-deg Z-maneuver,
decreases when moving from deep to medium water depths and as shown in Table 4. Both follow the trends expected from the
then iincreases again as wa~er depth becomes very shallow. We spiral tests based on what has been learned about dynamic
therefore look for relationships between dynamic stability 7 and stability in different water depths. The results with engine
maneuvering in terms of turning ability and quickness of re- stopped were actually better than expected, since the water flow
sponse, such as in checking a turn. In general, these appeared about the ship's rudder must have been greatly reduced with
in the present trial results as follows. the propeller dragging.
/
The hull, with controls fixed, as interpreted from spiral test R u d d e r and rpm e f f e c t s on stopping
results, appeared to be marginally dynamically stable in deep
water, slightly unstable in medium depth and stable in shallow In general the strongest observed effect of shallow water on
water. Although dynamic (controls fixed) stability, is not di- stopping was the much greater tendency for the ship's stern to
rectly related to directional stability, it has some relationship swing to pert as it comes to a halt. A possible explanation is that
to Z-maneuver and turning-circle behavior. For example, the the sea bottom tends to restrict the forward-directed "propeller
first yaw angle overshoot in the Z-manetiver increased from 9.5 outflow(when stopping), causing more.flow around the sides
deg in deep water to 11.2 deg in medium depth, and then re- of the vessel, and therefore exaggerating the ustial propeller
duced to 7.8 deg in shallow water. Maximum lateral devia- asymmetry side-force effects.
tions, and advance at maximum lateral deviations also, changed Although subjective, one of the more interesting trials was
consistently with yaw overshoots. This suggests that the min- the controlled stopping maneuver, that is, holding the heading
imum dynamic stability in medium water depth is associated constant throughout. It had been 'assumed that success would
with the maximum Z-maneuver overshoot in the medium water show a clear benefit of the controlled stop over simple stopping
depth. Also, the maximum swept, turning diameter increased with constant astern rpm. Instead, the results showed that from
only modestly in medium depth (14 percent); but greatly in a prudent slow approach speed, as is normally used in ap-
shallow water (63 percent) compared with deep water. proaching a single-point mooring (SPM), the simple stop
Of course, not too much should be read into the relationship developed smaller lateral deviation, and a much shorter
between dynamic stability and maximum turning ability, since headreach. This suggests that the only advantage of the con-
dynamic stability indications from the spiral test refer mainly trolled stop from-a slow approach is that the desired heading
to steady turning motions with ~small rudder angles, while is maintained. However, if the trial maneuver had been de-
maxiraum turning with large rudder angle is highly non- signed to maintain a desired straight trackline instead of
linear. heading, the trackline probably could have been achieved with
On the other hand, Z-maneuver results relate more closely substantially less lateral deviation than that of the simple stop.
to quickness of response as indicated by the spiral test results. The controlled trackline also corresponds more closely to actual
And, in fact, the Z-maneuver results reflect the reversal trend operations in a channel or approaching an SPM. The gradual
of the spiral results much more faithfully than do the changes drift of the ship to the left during the controlled stQp may be
in ma:dmum turning diameters. explained by the following considerations:
(a) With reversed propeller rotation, a side force to port
develops, causing the stern to drift to port. To counter this, left
P r o p e l l e r rpm e f f e c t s on h e a d i n g c o n t r o l
rudder is used.
The accelerating turns made in the mediu m and shallow (b) If the sum of the side forces due to reversed propeller
water depths confirm facts well known to shiphandlers, that is, and left rudder are equal in magnitude, and have" the same
that advance and tactical diametercan be reduced by "kicking center, of pressure, no lateral drift will result.
ahead" with the propeller in a slow-speed turn. The reason is (c) Lateral drift to port did occur, however, even though
that water flow past the rudder is quickly increased, while t h e no heading drift occurred Therefore although the yaw mo-
hull hydrod),namic forces aiding or resisting the turn are ments due to astern rpm and left rudder angle cancelled each
not. other, their side force contributions apparently did. not. A
On the other hand, the coasting turns showed a directionally possible explanation is that the ~enter of pressure of rudder force
predictable decrease in turning ability when the propeller is further aft than the center of pressure due to astern propeller
discharge flow was removed from the rudder. Much of the rpm. The rudder force acting to starboard could then be
rudder was then put in a separated flow region behind the idling smaller than the propeller side force acting to port, and this
propeller. But perhaps of greatest significance is that the sin- would result in a small drift to port, as observed.
gle-screw VLCC, once predicted to be virtually unmanagable
Ship speed and w a t e r c u r r e n t effects
7 With controls fixed. See discussion under "Spiral test" in the The corrected turning circle results from tests at different
section on results. approach speeds show quite similar paths..This verifies that
Maneuvering Trials of 278 000-DWT Tanker 265
Table 11' Comparison of Esso Osaka data with previous shallow- Conclusions
water results
1. The present trials provided a quantity of new informa-
Turning-Circle tion regarding the maneuvering characteristics of a ship in
Tactical Diameter shallow water. Both research- and operational-type maneuvers
SHIP Depth/Draft (ship lengths)
keyed to large tankers were made. In the process it was found
Esso Osaka 1.2 4.9 that the single-screw Esso Osaka, a 278 000-dwt tanker, was
(Present trials) 1.5 3.3
deep 2.8 able to maneuver reliably and predictably in all tested water
Magdala 1.2 ... depths,, even with engine stopped as when simulating maneu-
(Ref. [6]) 1.5 3.5 vers after a propulsion fai!ure.
deep 2.8
Esso Bernicia 1.2 ... 2. Distortions of the flow about the hull of aship in shallow
(Ref. [5]*) 1.6 2.8 Water were found to have an important effect on maneuvering
deep 2.5 motions. For example, trial measuiements indicated that:
Esso Bernicia 1.2 4.2 In.shallow water, turning circle tactical diameters w i l l
(HY-A PMM'model) 1.7 2.2 increase by as much as 75 percent with 20 percent underkeel
deep 3.1
clearance, while drift angle and related speed loss will reduce
Z-Maneuver 1st Yaw relative to turning in deep water. With 50 percent bottom
SHIP Depth/Draft Overshoot (deg) clearance, the changes from deepwater turning are much
Esso Osaka 1.2 7.8 less. The effects on turning circle diameter are significantly
(Present trials) 1.5 11.2 greater than expected, based on previous model predictions
deep 9.5 and full-scale trials.
Esso Bernicia 1.2 ...
(Ref [5]*) 1.6 22 Checking and counterturning ability are reduced as water
deep 17 depth decreases to an intermediate depth (50 percent bottom
Esso Bernicia 1.2 2.5 clearance in the trials) and then, with 20 percent bottom
(HY-A PMM model) 1.7 6 clearance, these qualities increase to better than in the
deep
deepwater case. This is closely related to the apparent re-
* Speed of approach 14.7 knots. versal in maneuvering dynamic stability (with controls fixed),
as is suggested by the. present spiral test results. Again,
previous model and full-scale trials in shallow water failed
there is little speed effect on turning geometry at low Froude to disclose this.
numbers (below 0.10 in these trials). With water current The greatest effect of decreasing water depth on the
present, however, the slow-speed maneuvers suffer much stopping of a single-screw tanker, from slow speed, appears
greater distortion than high-speed maneuvers because of the to be an increase in yaw rotation to the right as it comes to
translation of the current. ' Wind, if strong enough to be im- a halt. In the present trials the heading change increased
portant, would also affect maneuvers at slow speed much more from 18 to 50 to 88 deg in deep, medium and shallow water,
than those at high speed. For a given ship configui'ation and respectively.
draft, the ratio of wind speed to ship speed is important. These Accelerating turns increased in diameter in shallow water,
facts are well understood by shiphandlers as they judge mini- but to a lesser extent than did the conventional turns. On
mum safe maneuvering speeds. For further discussion of the other hand, coasting turns suffered a trend reversal. The
variable water current effects, see Appendix 9. widest coasting turn path was in the medium water depth
and the least was in deep water.
Comparison with previous model and ship data 8. Trials to show the effects of a shiphandler's control of
As indicated in the Introduction, previous model and full- propeller rpm during maneuvers provided useful insights. For.
scale maneuvering trial data in shallow water were not always example:
satisfactory. To illustrate this, Table 11 provides comparative Accelerating turns confirmed that "kicking" ahead the
data from available shallow-water maneuvering trials of other rpm when moving at reduced speed significantly increases
VLCCs: Esso Bernicia [5] and Magdala [6]; and from pre- turning ability.
dictions made of Esso Bernicia maneuvers by Hy-A Laboratory The coasting Z-maneuver demonstrated conclusively that
in Lyngl~y; Denmark (using planar motion mechanism model the subject VLCC could continue maneuvering in response
tests for hydrodynamic coefficients and computer calculations; to rudder actions even with the engine stopped. It also
unpublished). showed that this very large vessel could continue maneu-
The comparisons show that while the model-based predic- vering while coasting down to speeds less than 1.5 knots.
tions of tactical diameters do not differ greatly from the Esso This result should be encouraging to those concerned with
Osaka or other ful!-scale results, the Hy-A Z-maneuver first yaw the maneuvering safety of tankers. The magnitudes of yaw
angle overshoot predictions for Esso Bernicia are much smaller angle overshoots, although different from those with.engine
than the results from the Osaka. Also Bernicia model and ship operating, showed directionally similar tendencies with re,
results do not compare very well, at least for the Z-maneuver spect to effect of water depth.
in medium water depth. As expected, rudder control of the single-screw vessel was
Results of Hy-A model-based computer calculations of eventually lost during stopping maneuvers with constant
Bernicia spiral tests in different water depths predicted no loop astern rpm, although the vessel's final orientation was to some
in any of the depth-to-draft ratios tested: 1.2, 1.7 and 2.0. On extent affected by early rudder action. Although the ship's
the other hand, the Bernicia trials [5] show almost identical heading could be maintained constant during a "controlled"
loops in spiral tests in shallow water (depth/draft = 1.4) and stop by using various engine orders, it was at the expense of
deep water. Although some differences should be expected increased stopping distance and greater lateral drift.
due to somewhat different hull and rudder configurations, these Taken together, the points of Conclusion 3 emphasize that
comparisons support the original contention that insufficient maneuverability is improved when rpm is increased and de-
shallow water maneuvering trial data "existed at the outset of graded when reduced. Knowing this, the prudent shiphandler
this program. will usually look for the slowest safe speed in a critical maneu-
ApPendix 2 I , .
9.10rn
(29.86 Ft.)
Esso Osaka particulars (Fig. 22)
Hull
* I" 9.00m -
Length overall 343.00 m (1125.3 ft) ( 2 9 . 5 3 Ft.)
Length .between ~------'-~ / .SUMMER Fbd WL
/,,// 22.09 m
perpendiculars 325.00 m (1066.3 ft) // ( 7 2 . 5 Ft..)
Breadth molded 53.00 m (173.9 ft)
Depth, molded 28.30 m (92.8 ft) TRIAL WL
21.79 m
Designed load draft, molded 22.05 m (72.3 ft) (71.5Ft.)
Assigned summer freeboard LOA = 3 4 3 . 0 0 rn ( t 1 2 5 . 3 ' F t . )
draft, extreme 22.09 m (72.5 ft) LBP = 3 2 5 . 0 0 rn ( 1 0 6 6 . 3 Ft.)
Full load displacement at "
assigned summer
freeboard draft 328 880 mt (323 740 LT)
Block coefficient, summer
freeboard draft 0.831 (0.831)
Bow bulbous type
Stern transom type
Number of rudders one
Rudder area 119.817 m z (1289.67 ft 2)
The trials were made at a slightly reduced draft, altering Fig. 22 Sketches of Esso Osaka rudder, propeller, hull end profiles,
draft related figures as follows: and body lines
Packard 9825A Desktop Computer as the controller for the scan number allows immediate determination of the number
recording system. The various analog and digital signals were of times each data channel was sampled.
coupled to the controller via the Hewlett-Packard 6940B Installation of all equipment went smoothly with the ex-
Multi-programmer. The multiprogrammer was wired to ception of the Decca interface problem previously mentioned.
collect the required data in addition to controlling the input No ship system malfunctions were noted as a result of the ex-
devices via the "handshake" procedure previously de- ternal test connections. The additional equipment and per-
scribed. sonnel in the wheelhouse did, however, cause the ambient
The permanent recording medium was a flexible disk drive. temperature to become unbearable, This problem was solved
The disk drive is a random-access mass storage device with a prior to start of the trial with the installation of a household-type
capacity of up to 58 560 data points per diskette. With a window air-conditioning unit on each side of the wheelhouse.
sampling rate of once every two seconds, each diskette could The addition of these units created a comfortable working
contain over two hours of data. environment for the wheelhouse personnel, and in all proba-
in order to spot check the validity of all data channels during bility prevented instrumentation breakdowns.
the trials, a sample of the data being recorded was printed every
40 sec on a high-speed thermal printer. This output provided
a quick look at the response of the ship for the various maneu-
vers. By this means any suspect data channels could be quickly Appendix 5
Sl~3tted. At the conclusion of a run additional data could be
printed by accessing a special data output program. Water current measurements, and set and drift
In addition to the previously discussed data channels, time corrections
of day (hours, minutes, seconds), an event marker, and a scan
interval count were also recorded during each run. The event General
marker provides a method of locating precise execution points Water current measurements are difficult to make and to
of the run, such as Start Run, Execute, or End Run. The data describe when variabilities or incoherencies in water motion
~
.00"
pected Currents, using data reported in a NOAA report on the
1800 3 1 JULY 1977
South Texas Outer Continental Shelf. In that report a com- .41"
2000
parison was made between currents measured in the Shell Oil- .29.
2200
Company Buccaneer field and currents measured at the Sea-
2400 .23
dock site. [Both the shallow and medium trial areas were .2'
1 AUGUST 1977
within the Seadock site boundaries, while the Buccaneer plat-
~
200
form was some 80 miles (48 km) distant.[ As reported in ref- 400 .40
by other methods in.Table 12. Fig. 27 Shallow and deep current meter data at Mooring Location M3,
The water current estimates are essentially interpolations Showing variation with time at deep (M3D)and shal!ow (M3S) depths
W A T E R C U R R E N T E S T I M A T E S ; SOURCES AND D A T A
m
~=-u O Q)'~
o z Sippican Meters DTNSRDC Doppler Correction
Run ~ Shallow Deep Circle Data Data Selected
No. ~ < z Vc Direction Vc Direction Vc Direction Vc Direction Vc Direction
4712 TL S 7 0.34 104 0.51 055 0.34 104
4512 TL S 5 0.34 119 0.36 050 0.34 119
4711 TL M 7 0.43 083 0.08 163 0.43 083
4713 TL D 7 0.60 065 0.29 116 0.52 074 0.52 074
3722 TR S 7 0.35 126 0.31 305 0.35 126
3512 TR S '5 0.32 120 0.27 027 0.32 120
3711 TR M 7 0.48 102 0.30 055 0.30 086 0.28 038 0.30 086
3723 TR D 7 0.28 096 0.35 069 0.73 067 0.63 109 0.73 067
3213 TR D 10 0.68 077 0.73 080 0.29 076 0.55 092 0.29 076
7012 ATR S 0 0.50 060. 0.29 113 0.50 060
7011 ATR M 0 0.42 172 0.26 047 0.17 t34
7021 ATL M 0 0.57 054 0.25 133 0.33 O76
5512 CTR S 5 0.34 113 0.38 052 0.79 049 " 0.34 113
5511 CTR M 5 0.43 243 0.17 134
5513 CTR D 5 0.42 075 0.62 086 0.52 246 0.52 082
13712 Z20 S 7 0.48 063 0.19 113 0.20 245 0.48 063
13711 Z20, M 7 0.40 196 0.26 054 0.18 O6O 0.13 156
13713 Z20 D 7 0.61 097 0.66 O66
6512 CZ20 S 5 0.37 ,035 0.18 091 0.27 123 0.37 035 .
6511 CZ20 M 5 0.30 086 0.30 086
6513 CZ20 D 5 0.71 082 0.92 059 0.63 076 0.80 069
0..5O 094
12712 Zl0 S 7 0.52 068 0.18 068 0.32 098. 0.42 068
12711 Z10 M "7 0.37 224 . 0.43 073 0.20 077 0.10 132
12713 Z10 D 7 0.49 112 0.60 071 0.93 070 0.51 089
9512 SL S 3.5 0.35 080 0.54 029 0.42 045
9513 SL D 3.5 0.42 121 0.56 077 0.42 096
8512 SR S 3.5 0.72 051 0.11 097 0.40 057
8511 SR M 3.5 0.53 042 0.21 073 0.36 051
8513 CS S ' 3.5 0.34 077 0.47 102 0.34 077
11512 CS S 3.5 0.27 097 0.42 049 0.27 097
11513 CS D 3.5 0.39 110 1.01 083 0.68 090
10513 - SS . D 3.5 0.54 072 0.54 072
Maneuver code: CS = controlled stop
". T = turn Z20 = 20/20 Z-maneuver SS = steered stop
AT = accelerating turn Z10 = 10/10 Z-maneuver L= left
CT = coasting turn S = stop R= right
' I
274 M a n e u v e r i n g Trials Of 2 7 8 O 0 0 - D W T T a n k e r
" Appendix 6
Example time-history and path plots of Esso Osaka maneuvers
SHALLOW WATER DEPTHTURNINGCIRCLE
N 5
I i I
1Kin 2Kin
I i I I I
Appendix 8 +30 +20 *i0 - i0 - 20 -30
LEFT RUDDER RIGHT RUDDER
. . --__
-- . . .
.... i-:-"J . . . . . . . .
h
N I0 0.] ~ r, /SEC
uJ
N
u.
o
N o
10 ,/
+30 +20 +lO ~1," - 10 - 20 - .30
RIGHT RUDDER
i i i! 3 .-0.1
0 200 400 600 800 lO00
r
TIME IN SECONDS
0.2 ~ .
0.1 stand the effects of water currents that vary in time and space,
such as generally exist in waters restricted in depth and width.
As described in Appendix 5, water current surveys were made
~D,EFTR~OU D O110
~
/S 1
- I0
RIGHT RUDDER
- 20
I
-
f
- 3o
~ before and during the present trials, and these showed both time
and space variability. In normal maneuvering, time variability
is not usually a problem for a shiphandler because of the rela-
-0.i
tively short time required for individual maneuvers. But space
variability can be very difficult to assess even if current di-
agrams are available, as they are for several waterways along
-0.2
U. S. coasts.
Appendix 5 shows that variability of both water current speed
and direction existed with respect to depth in the present trials.
Fig. 31 Spiral test data in the deepwater site (h/T = 4.2), showing How this affected ship maneuvering motions is not fully un-
turning rate, r, versus rudder angle derstood, and further analysis of the present trial results may
be desirable. However, the corrections made in this report
appear adequate for the purpose of showing the effects of main
parameters.
For examples of variability, consider the watercurrent and
Appendix 9 temperature profiles of the medium depth area shown in Fig.
26 for 29 July at 10:40 a.m. At 3-m depth (10 ft) the current
direction was toward 198 deg true and the speed was 0.60 knots.
Water current effects on maneuvering But at a depth about equal to ship's draft of 21.8 m (71.5 ft)
Effects of a uniform water current on ship maneuvers are not current direction was 288 deg ahd the speed was 0.33 knots.
difficult to determine. A more difficult problem is to under- This means that the vessel's speed and direction relative to water
Discussion
David Clarke, 8 Visitor J. Sommet, 9 Visitor
The author is to be congratulated on the overall presentation 1. The program of trials carried out with the Esso Osaka
of this paper, where he has compressed an enormous amount forms part of an intensive and continuous study effort in recent
of valuable information into a relatively small space and still years aimed at characterizing the ability of large ships to per-
managed to keep his treatment of the subject lucid and com- form harbor approach maneuvers. The contribution made by
prehensible. these trials is original in two respects: First, numerous trial runs
The 'enormous number of maneuvers performed and the were effected in particularly shallow water (h/T = 1.2), and
great wealth of data recorded will undoubtedly make this ship second, the trial maneuvers were designed specifically to relate
and these trials into the mathematical modeler's test piece for to harbor maneuvering conditions. The results obtained will
years to come, probably taking over the role of the Compass be beneficial both in improving the reliability of mathematical
Island. Although a great deal of information is made available simulation models in shallow water and in providing seamen
here, the author will agree that the actual time-histories of the with information directly applicable to the handling of their
various system states, yaw rate, sway velocity, rudder angle, and ships.
so on are what the mathematical modeler would require to be 2. In the latter respect We note that.a new factor, of great
able to make the best use of all the trial data. While I realize importance for the shiphandler, was taken into account in these
that space precludes such data being included here, I would ask tests, namely, the propeller bias effect with engine astern. The
if this detailed information may be made available to other stopping tests underlined both the importance of the turning
interested agencies at a later stage, as Well as to those quoted moment thus applied to the ship and the fact that this moment
in the paper, for modeling and system identification purposes. is significantly increased in shallow water. Of course the ship-
That.this full-scale input to mathematical modeling is required' handler must bear in mind that this effect can be attenuated"
is shown in Table 11, where the PMM .model prediction shows or even reversed by the configuration of the seabed (slight slope,
the Esso Bernicia to have its smallest turning circle at a shoal, etc.). - It is common practice to use the propeller bias
depth-draft ratio of 1.7. This is at variance with the three. effect to turn a single-propeller ship on the spot, by successive
full-scale trial results cited in Table i 1. maneuvers of the engine .full ahead (with rudder completely
to starboard) and full astern (about 50 rpm), the ship having
I was particularly impressed with the data acquisition system
practically no headway. It would be interesting to define the
installed on board the ship for these trials. Having performed
many maneuvering trials myself and having progressed, over optimum procedure for such a maneuver, as well as its duration
and the dimensi0nsof the turning area concerned.
the years from a paper-and-pencil system through paper tape
8. Another very important aspect of the tests is that they
and" magnetic tape~and evelatually to a floppy disk system, I
confirm the peculiarity of behavior of a ship over depths of
know only too well from bitter experience the pitfalls of this
around h / T = 1.5. This means that the VLCC pilot must not
type of exercise. Success"can be ensured only by painstaking
be surprised if rudder response differs from that in deep water
detailed planning, and I cannot stress firmly enough how much
for depths of this order. Such depths-are encountered espe-
I appreciate the efforts of the author and his many colleagues
cially in the approaches to shallow-water channels, in areas
in this area.
where the destabilizing effect of waves on the stern can combine
I was reassured, however, to find that the method which I with the shallow-water effect to increase the difficulty of
favor myself for tidal drift correction, and which I used in the maintaining the heading.
analysis of the Esso Bernicia turning circles [5], was found here 4. With regard to low-speed stopping distances, th e trials
to be still the most reliable technique.. While performing did not confirm the tendency which seemed to be revealed by
several of the turning circles on Esso Bernicia in the shallow- th~ Magdala tests, that is, a reduction 9f stopping distances over
water location, we also observed seabed sand or silt being drawn medium depth. With the Esso Osaka, the variation of stopping
to the surface and marking the wake very clearly indeed. distance w!th depth was insignificant, and we can agree on the
The publication of this wealth of detailed data is extremely range of 1.8 to 2.5 ship lengths for a VLCC stopping from 4
timely, since they adequately quantify the maneuvering be- knots. However, the trajectory corresponding to this maneuver
haviori, Of a VLCC. Several regulatory bodies around the world (Figs. 9 and 19) performed with the normal procedure clearly
are considering standards of maneuverability for various ships demonstrates the risks itinvolves close to a pier and justifies a
and they should study these data at great length. They describe final berth approach by the stern rather than by the bow, so that
clearly what a typical VLCC can and cannot do, and may any last-minute deceleration can be effected by a maneuver
prevent unrealistic rulesbeing drafted in the future. It is my withthe engine ahead, enabling the ship's heading to be con-
belief that once the size and geometry of a shiphave been de- trolled. With reference to Fig. 9, could the author indicate the
cided upon, then most of its maneuvering characteristics are duration of th6 maneuvers?
inherent in it. Changing the rudder size and shape thereafter 5..- " I would like to lend my support to Mr. Cranes's sugges-
can alter the situation, but only to a limited degree. tion that verification tests be carried out in the large ship model
s The British Ship Research Association, Tyne and Wear, En-
gland. ' 9Sogreah, Inc., Grenoble, France.
-5
0.03 ~epuzsi,~,~ ~ r~ ~ ~ = 0.z .
~\ ~I~:l.o,.\ b/a = 0.0 \
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-
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t
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-25
-30
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-35 r/L .... -002 , ;,~"
CO Attraction
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ut/L Ut/L
Fig. 34 Force and'moment coefficient for interaction with a circular island Fig. 35 Force and moment coefficient for interaction with an elliptical island perpendicular
to path
Additional references of tankers in shallow water and canals, we may conclud e that
18 Fujino, M., "Experimental Studies in Ship Maneuverability in lateral control may sometimes be achieved at less expense in
Restricted Waters," International Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 15, distance. It is only fair to admit, however, that the mathe-
1968, p. 168, and Vol. 17, 1970, p. 186. matical models for controlled-stopping maneuvers may still be
19 Yeung,R. W., "On the Interactions of Slender Ships in Shallow improved. Full-scale experience such as here conveyed by Mr.
Water," Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 85, Part 1, 1978, pp. Crane is of the utmost value.
143-159.
20 Tan, W. T., "'Unsteady Hydrodynamic Interactions of Ships J. N. Newman, Member-.
in the Proximity of Fixed Objects," M.S. Thesis, Department of Ocean
Engineering, Report 79-4, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass., May 1979. The material which is summarized in this excellent paper has
been awaited eagerly by workers in the field of ship maneu-
Nils H. Norrbin, 1 Visitor vering. The successful execution of these trials is a tribute not
This paper deserves the interest and appreciation of every- only to the author, but to all of the individuals and organizations
body in the profession, and especially of those of us who are which participated.
concerned with scale-model testing and computer predictions Ship maneuvering in shallow water has received a substantial
of ship behavior in confined.waters. For the first time we now amount of theoretical attention during the past decade, sup-
have access to what appears to be reliable and consistent full- ported in large part by several grants from the National Science
scale data. The discusser would certainly welcome an ar- Foundation and promoted by discussions in SNAME Panel H-5.
rangement by which the Esso Osaka trials could be duplicated The review of that work in reference [15] has been supple-
by free-sailing as well as captive tests with a large model in the mented by a more recent survey [21] (below).
new Maritime Dynamics Laboratory (MDL) at SSPA. There is an encouraging degree of agreement between the-
As a matter of interest it may be mentioned that the main oretical predictions and the results in this paper. The increased
dimensions of the Exxon tanker are very close to those of the characteristic time scale of ship maneuvers in shallow water'is
Svealand, for which shallow-water model results were pre- readily predicted by the theoretical model, which, simply
sented at the 1978 Delft Symposium on Aspects of Navigability stated, predicts the characteristic time to increase in shallow
and in the International Shipbuilding Progress Journal. A water in proportion to the length/beam ratio. The increased
comparison of nondimensional turning circle data is given in turning radius in shallow water has been predicted by Hess [22],
Table 13 of this discussion. The blank spaces should be filled and the very steep increase of this theoretical radius in very
in with data from further tests with free-sailing models. shallow water appears to be consistent with the sparse experi-
In particular the Esso Osaka trials do support earlier findings mental data in Fig. 6. On the other hand, the theory is unable
from model tests on the existence of a range of depths of water to account for nonlinear effects and, as a consequence of the
in which the dynamic stability is lowered. The trend toward neutral stability at an intermediate depth, the turning radius
a larger hydrodynamic damping with a reductiQn of underkeel cannot be satisfactorily predicted in this regime.
clearance is still unique. In computer simulation the afore- The "apparent reversal" of dynamic stability noted in the
mentioned phenomen may well be included provided the spiral tests is consistent to some extent with the theory of Hess,
nonlinear variations of forces with depth are properly described. but even more so with the analysis of Fujino [12] based on
This description requires tests with captive models. captive model tests. This represents a modest exception to the
Since the advent of screw propulsion, mariners have made author's claim that this effect has not been observed in prior
use of the stern-to-port effect of a backing right-handed pro- work.
peller. Due to the relatively small diameter and thrust of the The small decrease in headreach also is consistent with the
propeller and the large inertia of a VLCC, that same effect will increased longitudinal added mass which is predicted in shallow
here only appear at low speeds or late in a stopping maneuver. water, but this is a weak effect in view of the dominant role of
The lateral thrust interference will be enhanced, again, by the the ship's own mass.
two-dimensional flow conditions in shallow water, as proved I would welcome some comments from the author regarding
by the Esso Osaka trials. the practical implementation of these results. The increased
The Exxon trials showed that a controlled-heading stop re- turning diameter and response time in shallow water can be
quired significantly increased distance to zero speed, and that factored into simulation, but what can be done beyond this
lateral deviation still became a problem. From recent SSPA level? It is reassuring to find that the Esso Osaka could be
real-time simulations of controlled and tug-assisted stopping maneuvered at speeds as low as 1.5 knots. On the other hand,
the collision in deep water off Tobago last July was the most
10 Swedish Maritime Research Centre (SSPA), GSteborg, Sweden serious reminder of the fallibility in VLCC operations. Our