CL Wadha
CL Wadha
CL Wadha
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Complications
No ideal voltage sources exist
Loads are seldom constant
limitations Simple system has no
Transmission system has resistance, inductance, capacitance and flow
redundancy so power system will not work if any component fails
Notation Power
Power: Instantaneous consumption of energy
Power Units
Watts = voltage x current for dc (W)
3
kW 1 x 10 Watt
6
MW 1 x 10 Watt
9
GW 1 x 10 Watt
Installed U.S. generation capacity is about
900 GW ( about 3 kW per person)
Maximum load of Champaign/Urbana about 300 MW
Notation Energy
Energy: Integration of power over time; energy is what people really want from a power system
Energy Units
Joule = 1 Watt-second (J)
6
kWh Kilowatthour (3.6 x 10 J)
Btu 1055 J; 1 MBtu=0.292 MWh
Electric utility: can range from quite small, such as an island, to one covering half the
continent there are four major interconnected ac power systems in North American, each
operating at 60 Hz ac; 50 Hz is used in some other countries.
Airplanes and Spaceships: reduction in weight is primary consideration; frequency is 400 Hz.
Ships and submarines
Automobiles: dc with 12 volts standard
Battery operated portable systems
Over view of
Power system consists of
Functions of :
To maintain the voltage at various buses real and reactive power flow between buses
To design the circuit breakers
To plan the future expansion of existing system
To analyze the system under different fault conditions (three phase fault, L-G, L-L, L-L-G faults)
To study the ability of the system for large disturbance (Sudden application of the large load)
To study the ability of the system for small disturbance
Natural Sources
Coal
Water flow
Uranium & Thorium
Fossil Fuel
Wind
Tidal
Solar
Bio-Gas
Monitoring
Implementation Comparing plans
Planning of plans with result
Corrective
action
Steps:
Planning of power system
Implementation of the plans
Monitoring system
Compare plans with the results
If no undesirable deviation occurs, then directly go to planning of system
If undesirable deviation occurs then take corrective action and then go to planning Of the system
Planning and operation of power system
Planning and operation of power system the following analysis are very important
(a). Load flow analysis
(b). Short circuit analysis
(c). Transient analysis
Electrical power system operate - Steady state mode
Basic calculation required to determine the characteristics of this state is called as Load flow
Power flow studies - To determine the voltage current active and reactive power flows in given power system
A number of operating condition can be analyzed including contingencies. That operating conditions are
(a). Loss of generator
(b).Loss of a transmission line
(c).Loss of transformer (or) Load
(d). Equipment over load (or) unacceptable voltage levels
The result of
the power flow analysis are stating point for the stability analysis and power factor
improvement
DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Load flow study is done during the planning of a new system or the extension of an existing one
Short circuit studies
To the magnitude of the current flowing through out the power system at various time intervals
determine
after fault
Transformers - Transfer Power or energy from one circuit to another circuit with out change in frequency
Transmission Lines - Transfer power from one place another place
Control Equipment: Used for protection purpose
DEPARTMENT OF EEE
1.5 CONCEPT OF REAL AND REACTIVE
POWER Let V be the Instantaneous voltage
Let i be the Instantaneous current
V = Vm sin t
I = im sin (t - )
= Vm sin t * im sin (t - )
= Vmim (cos - cos (2t - )
2
RMS value of voltage |V| = V max
1.414
RMS value of voltage |i| = i max
1.414
P = |V| |i| [cos - cos (2t - )]
=|V| |i| cos - |V| |i| cos (2t - )
= |V| |i| cos - |V| |i| (cos 2t cos + sin 2t sin )
= |V| |i| cos (1 - cos 2t) - |V| |i| sin sin 2t
P = P (1 -cos 2t) - Q sin 2t
Where active or useful or real power P=|V| |i| cos watts
Non - active (or) Reactive power Q = |V| |i| sin VAR
Table 1.1 Phasor Relation with Real and reactive power
I
= 90
C Load P=0 Q<0
(Leads)
Generator models
Generators:
The thevenins equivalent circuit of the generator i.e. The voltage source in series with the
thevenins equivalent impedance. Z = R + jX
.
Fig 1.4 Norton Equaivalent circuit
Transformer model
The model
Fig 1.8 Pi model
Vs A B Vr
C
Is
D
Ir
X = L
Y/2 = C/2
A = 1+ZY/2
B=Z
C=Y(1+ZY/4)
D=1+ZY/4
Is 1/ Zc sinh l
cosh l Ir
Shunt Elements:
The shunt capacitor is connected to bus i. If S is MVAR rating of shunt capacitor. So is base
MVA admittance P.u. Y P.u. = 0+jS/S0
Load representation
Load:
Load is represented by a constant power representation. Both MW (P) & MVAR (Q) -
constant
In general electrical power systems are represented by a one line diagram (or) single line
diagram
A single line diagram of a power system shows the main connections & arrangements of
components in a simplified manner
Pictorial representation of the entire power system from generating end to the consumer
premises is known as single line diagram
Standard symbols
2 Bus
8 Transmission lines
9 Static load
10 Circuit Breaker
12 Disconnect
13 Fuse
14 Capacitor
16 Potential transformer
17 Lighting arrester
One line diagram of a very simple power system
Another generator grounded a reactor is connected a bus and through a transformer to the opposite end of
the transmission line
A load is connected to each bus
to calculate the
It is important to know the location of points where a system is connected to ground
amount of current flowing when an unsymmetrical fault involving ground occur
Equivalent circuit
for various power system components:
(i). Generators
during the fault analysis. This causes a very negligible error since,
The resistance is often omitted
resistances are negligible
Loads are Omitted
Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
Magnetizing currents of transformers are neglected.
Example system
as per the assumptions given above and with reference to the system of figure 2
and Figure, the reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure
Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any given unit to
In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current, voltage, complex
power (VA), impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the phase angle is dimensionless and the
other four quantities can be described by knowing any two of them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary
choice of any two base values will evidently fix the other base values.
Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the complex power rating
in MVA. Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen for complex power (MVA) and line voltage
(KV). The chosen base MVA is the same for all the parts of the system. However, the base voltage is
chosen with reference to a particular section of the system and the other base voltages (with reference
to the other sections of the systems, these sections caused by the presence of the transformers) are
then related to the chosen one by the turns-ratio of the connecting transformer.
If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and Vb, the base voltage in kilo volts, then the base
MVA is, Sb = (VbIb). Then the base values of current & impedance are given by
Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb
= Sb/Vb
Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)
2
= (KVb / MVAb)
Hence the per unit impedance is given by
Zpu = Zohms/Zb
2
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb )
In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA. [1-
phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase MVA].
The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when refereed to either side of the transformer.
Thus the presence of transformer is totally eliminated
Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name plate
ratings, etc.
Demerits:
If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly absurd (such as 5.8 pu,
-18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user. However, this problem can be avoided by
MVA near the high-rated equipment and a convenient base KV in any section
selecting the base
of the system.
PU Impedance / Reactance Diagram
a given power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers,
For
transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the corresponding impedance or
reactance diagram as explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the
properly selected base values of the system, then the diagram is referred as the per
unit impedance or reactance diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the
procedural steps involved:
1. Obtain the one line diagram based on the given data
2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.
Rule of Inspection
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch relation: I
= (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoffs Current Law principle at the
nodal points, we get the relations as under:
At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 V2)
At node 2: I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2 V1)
At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 V2)
i.
These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and they can be
represented in matrix form as:
In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form IBUS = YBUS EBUS
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus voltage
vectors respectively.
By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS of equation (9), it is observed
that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by a simple inspection of the given system
diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal to the
sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node i,
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power systems that
do not have any mutually coupled elements.
Problem #2: Obtain YBUS and ZBUS matrices for the impedance network shown aside by the
rule of inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.
The operating voltage of motors is 12.5 KV. Assuming the base quantities as 50 MVA, 13.8 KV,
draw the per unit reactance diagram. The percentage reactance for generators is 15% and that for
motors is 20%.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P1
Problem #2:
Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the system shown in figure below. Choose a base of 11
KV, 100 MVA in the generator circuit.
Solution:
Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.1 pu, Xm = j 0.2 (100/90) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.243 pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (100/50) (11.5/11)2 = j 0.2185 pu.
Xt3 =Xt4 = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.219 pu.
Xlines = j 20 (100/1102) = j 0.1652 pu.
Problem #3:
A 30 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The generator
supplies 2 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line step down transformer
arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 20 MVA and 10 MVA at 12.8 KV with 20% sub
transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers are rated at 35 MVA, 13.2 KV- -Y with 10 %
leakage reactance. The line reactance is 80 ohms. Draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram
by selecting the generator ratings as base values in the generator circuit.
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P3
Calculation of pu values:
XG = j 0.15 pu.
Xm1 = j 0.2 (30/20) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.516 pu.
Xm2 = j 0.2 (30/10) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.2581 pu.
Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (30/35) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.0784 pu.
Xline = j 80 (30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.
Problem #4:
A 33 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 0.5%. The generator
supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line step-down transformer
arrangement. The motor has rated input of 25 MVA at 6.6 KV with 25% sub transient reactance.
base values in the motor circuit, given the transformer and transmission line data as under:
Step up transformer bank Y, each rated 10 MVA, 13.2/6.6 KV with 7.7 % leakage
reactance and 0.5 % leakage resistance;
Transmission line: 75 KM long with a positive sequence reactance of 0.8 ohm/ KM and a
resistance of 0.2 ohm/ KM; and
Step down transformer bank Y, each rated 8.33
MVA, 110/3.98 KV with 8% leakage reactance and 0.8 % leakage resistance;
Solution:
The one line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P4
pu.
Zt1 = 0.005 + j 0.077 (25/30) (13.2/12.09)2 = 0.005 + j 0.0765 pu. (ref. to LV side)
Zt2 = 0.008 + j 0.08 (25/25) (110/105.316)2 = 0.0087 + j 0.0873 pu. (ref. to HV side)
Zline = 75 (0.2+j 0.8) (25/ 105.3162) = 0.0338 + j 0.1351 pu.
Problems
1. Determine the reactances of the three generators rated as follows on a common base of 200
MVA, 35 KV: Generator 1: 100 MVA, 33 KV, sub transient reactance of 10%; Generator 2: 150
MVA, 32 KV, sub transient reactance of 8% and Generator 3: 110 MVA, 30 KV, sub transient
reactance of 12%.
[Answers: XG1 = j 0.1778, Xg2 = j 0.089, Xg3 = j 0.16 all in per unit]
2. A 100 MVA, 33 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The generator
supplies 3 motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line step down transformer
arrangement. The motors have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20 MVA and 50 MVA, at 30 KV with
20% sub transient reactance each. The 3-phase transformers are rated at 100 MVA, 32
KV- -Y with 8 % leakage reactance. The line has a reactance of 50 ohms. By selecting the
generator ratings as base values in the generator circuit, determine the base values in all the other
parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu values and draw the equivalent per unit
reactance diagram.
[Answers: XG = j 0.15, Xm1 = j 0.551, Xm2 = j 0.826
3. A 80 MVA, 10 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 10%. The generator
supplies a motor through a step-up transformer - transmission line step-down transformer
arrangement. The motor has rated input of 95 MVA, 6.3 KV with 15% sub transient reactance. The
step-up 3-phase transformer is rated at 90 MVA, 11 KV-Y /110 KV-Y with 10% leakage
reactance. The 3-phase step-down transformer consists of three single phase Y-
transformers, each rated at 33.33 MVA, 68/6.6 KV with 10% leakage reactance. The line has a
reactance of 20 ohms. By selecting the 11 KV, 100 MVA as base values in the generator circuit,
determine the base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu
values and draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram.
[Answers
j0.114 and Xline = j 0.17 all in per unit]
4. For the three-phase system shown below, draw an impedance diagram expressing all
impedances in per unit on a common base of 20 MVA, 2600 V on the HV side of the
transformer. Using this impedance diagram, find the HV and LV currents.